Economía - Aleph Ciencias Sociales

DOCUMENTO
DE
TRABAJO
NÚMERO 347
DAVID MAYER FOULKES
The Intergenerational Impact of Health on
Economic Growth
DIVISIÓN DE
Economía
CIDE
NÚMERO 347
DAVID MAYER FOULKES
The Intergenerational Impact of Health on
Economic Growth
DICIEMBRE 2005
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Abstract
Nutrítion and health interact with long-term economic growth through an
intergenerational process of human capital accumulation characterízed by
market failures. Early child development ¡s a pivotal link in human capital
formation through which previous generations' economic conditions impact
the long-term education, health and income of the new generations. Market
problems in assigning adequate human capital investments for the young
and poor may lead to poverty traps with slow economic growth and
persistent poverty. Historical studies show health has a large impact on
economic growth. Taking an intergenerational viewpoint on the nature of
this impact solves the probiem of explaining its main channels. Evidence
from several sources for the existence of such a poverty trap in México is
summarized, including the substantial impact of early child nutrítion on the
sequential probability of acquiring schooling, and the existence of a twinpeaked human capital distribution in the Mexican population.
Resumen
La nutrición y la salud interactúan con el crecimiento económico de largo
plazo a través de un proceso intergeneracional de acumulación de capital
humano, el cual se caracteriza por tener fallas de mercado. El desarrollo
infantil temprano es un enlace crucial en la formación de capital humano a
través del cual las condiciones económicas de generaciones anteriores
impactan la educación, la salud y el ingreso de largo plazo de las nuevas
generaciones. Los problemas de mercado en la asignación de inversiones
adecuadas de capital humano para los jóvenes y pobres pueden conducir a
trampas de pobreza con crecimiento económico lento y pobreza persistente.
Al tomar un punto de vista intergeneracional sobre la naturaleza de este
impacto, se resuelve el problema de explicar sus principales canales. Se
encuentra evidencia de diversas fuentes sobre la existencia de una trampa
de pobreza tal en México, incluyendo el impacto sustancial de la nutación
infantil temprana sobre la probabilidad secuencial de adquirir escolarídad, y
la existencia de una distríbución de capital humano de dos picos en la
población mexicana.
The Iniergenerational Impact oí Health on Economic Growth
Introduction
Nutrition and health play a substantive role in economic growth. Long-term
historical studies by Fogel (2002), for example, find that ene third or more of
the economic growth in England during the last two centuries was due to
improvements in nutrition. These have been tied to secular rises in height and
weight and decreases in mortality. Changes have been so large that height,
weight and mortality standards previously considered as normal are nov^
evidence of malnutrition and ill health. Other studies using data covering
more than a century of the history of the present developed countries find
similar results for other health indicators (Arora, 2001). For the case of Latin
America and México, it has been verified that life expectancy has an impact
on income thirty years later. To promote development through understanding
how nutrition and health have a long-term impact on development in the
present-day was the purpose of the World Health Organization's Commission
on Macroeconomics and Health. The same purpose has motivated a series of
studies undertaken by the Pan American Health Organization, in the case of
Latin America and México, and by many other researchers.
This article outlines how the long-term impact of health on economic
growth can be understood in the more general context of the relation
between human development and economic growth.^ Human development is
understood as an intergenerational process of human capital accumulation
that is slowed down by market failures that can be strong enough to result in
poverty traps. In turn, human development has a dynamic interaction with
long-term economic growth, drawing from the economy the resources for
human capital investment, and returning to it a generation later its basic
inputs - labor, skills and knowledge. In this long-term context, it is easy to see
that health, and in particular early child development, plays a crucial role in
human capital investment and therefore in long-term economic growth.
Understanding the mechanisms through which health has an economic
impact has posed an important challenge for microeconomic research.
Traditionally, research attempting to lócate in the microeconomic realm the
economic impact found for health in macroeconomic and long-term historical
studies has focused on productivity. This research addresses such issues as
adult labor productivity, household productivity taking into account the
economic burden of health, and problems in physical capital investment
caused by epidemics such as malaria. However, the impacts found for these
channels have been relatively small compared with those measured
' A full presenution is found in Mayer-Foulkes (2004), a supporting paper for the repott of the Mexican
Commission on Macroeconomics and Health. A previous versión of that paper was written for the Pan American
Health Organization and awarded Gold Medal for Research on Development in the Pro-market Reform and the
Poor category at the Fifth Global Development Network Conference, New Delhi, 2004.
DIVISIÓN DE ECONOMÍA
WM
David Mayer Foulkes
macroeconomically or in the long run. For example, in a recently released
report, the Micronutrient Initiative and UNICEF (2004) find that the impacts of
food deficiencies on mortality, sicknesses, and on early child, mother and
adult cognitive ability are very important, but estímate these problems cause
a negative effect of only 2% on income, through adult productivity.
A different point of view, taken here, addresses the long-term impact of
health by including the intergenerational and life-long dimensions. These
provide the underlying logic behind the large long-term impact of health on
income.
This conceptual framework on human development and economic growth
is supported by showing that an intergenerational low human capital trap
exists in México, involving a large part of the population. The trap is
characterized by the following constituent elements. Education has increasing
returns which are not tapped by a major portion of the population, while the
role of health is two-fold. First, early child health and nutrition are strongly
associated with the probability of obtaining a higher education later in life,
over and beyond parental education, income and wealth. Second, adult health
contributes to adult income. The first of these channels is of a large enough
magnitude that attainable improvements in early child development can play
an important role in overcoming the barriers to investment in higher
education, and therefore in overcoming the human development trap itself.
Figure 1
Human
Development
Human
Capital
Investment
Economic Growth
Intergenerational
Feedback
Production
and
Technological
Change
Pro-Market Reforms in:
Trade, Investment, Legal
and Financial Institutions...
Characterized by
Markei Failures
Intergenerational relation between human development and economic growth. Market failures in human
capital accumulation and pro-markel reforms.
B^
C/D£
The Iniergenerational Impact of Health on Economic Growth
h- Human Development and Economic Growih
Two main characteristics distinguish human development from the rest of the
economic process. First, human development has an intersenerational
character. Second, it involves a process of human capital investment,
characterized by market failures. These failures slow human capital
accumulation and may be strong enough to cause lov/ human capital
accumulation traps. These two basic hypothesis shape a conceptual
framework for understanding the interaction between human development
and economic growth, in which human development is understood as an
intergenerational cycle of investment in nutrition, health and education that
is held back by market failures (Figure 1). When pro-market reforms are
applied in áreas such as trade, investment, and legal and financial institutions
to promote economic growth, the presence of market failures in human
capital accumulation reduce their effect, especially their long-term effects.
Figure 2
Family Wealth:
Income,
Education,
Health
EDUCATION
^\^
Early
Child
Income,
Education,
Health
/^
HEALTH
\
Next
The role of early child development in the intergenerational cycle of human capital formation. Early child
development is strongly affected by family wealth. In tum, it is an important determinan! of young adult
education and health and therefore of life-long income, education and health.
There are many types of barriers to human capital accumulation that may
occur, They tend to correspond to different levéis of income. A first example
is when income levéis are too low to sustain labor productivity. A low
productivity trap due to malnutrition may arise. A second type of barrier
occurs in subsequent stages, when education becomes important, but families
may lack the necessary resources to edúcate their children, Lower discount
rates due to poverty may also be involved, as well as barriers due to the
unequal inheritance of social capital, knowledge or early child development.
These assets may be less available to families with low levéis of education and
DIVISIÓN DE ECONO^AÍA
David Mayer Foulkes
income, and may not be provided by the educational system. These problems
may become even worse in the presence of child labor.
2.- The Role of Early Child Development in ihe Accumulation of
Human Capital
Early child development is the combination of physical, mental and social
development during the first years of life. There are many links between
gestational problems, intra uterine malnutrition, early infections, and afterbirth brain development and adult health problems such as blood pressure,
respiratory functions, schizophrenia, diabetes, short stature, Parkinson's
disease, and so on.
The effects of early child development on health and education during
youth and consequently on life-long income, education and health, are very
important. The socioeconomic status of a child's family of origin impacts her
early development and through this her development through youth and
adulthood. This intergenerational mechanism (Figure 2) is found to lie at the
heart of the correlation between adult health and income. This correlation,
called the 'gradient' of adult health along income, has been studied
extensively in developed countries and is analogous to the correlation of
health and income across countries. The intergenerational origin of the
gradient has only recently been elucidated empirically in prize-winning
studies using the 1958 National Child Development Study, which has foUowed
all children born in Great Britain in the week of March 3, 1958 from birth to
age 42 (Case, Fertig and Paxson, 2003). These authors find, as confirmed in
Mayer-Foulkes (2004) for the case of México, that "controlling for parents
incomes, educations and social status, that children who experience poor
health have significantly lov/er educational attainment, and significantly
poorer health and lower earnings on average as adults".
Early child development programs emphasize the complementary roles
that nutrition, health and education play in human capital formation. Children
participating in them show higher intelligence quotients and improvements in
practical reasoning, eye and hand coordination, hearing and speech, and
reading readiness. Grade repetition and dropout rates are lower, performance
at school is higher, and the probability that a child will progress to higher
levéis of education increases. This is consistent with findings on México on the
impact of stature on school permanence (Mayer-Foulkes, 2004). Early child
development also benefits life-long health. Thus, poor nutrition and health
are real obstacles to the achievement of child quality^. As much as a third of
the world's population does not meet its physical and intellectual potential
^ A conceptualization of the objectives of education echoing the essence of the concept of human capital that has
been used in the World Bank,
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The tntergenerational Impaci of Healíh on Economic Growih
because of vitamin and mineral (VM) deficiencies. This is the case even
though the control of such deficiencies "is an affordable opportunity to
improve the lives of two billion people, and to strengthen the pulse of
economic development" (Micronutrient Initiative and UNICEF, 2004).
These are the types of mechanisms through which childhood health later
affects health and education. Early child development is a critical link in the
intergenerational transmission of wealth. Countries like Canadá and the
United States have recognized its importance and are spending billions of
dollars on early child development programs. Such programs are even more
necessary in countries such as México.
3.- The Human Development Trap in México^
The main human capital asset generating adult income in México is education.
It has increasing returns that show up for upper secondary school in the case
of women, and for higher education in the case of men. These returns are
however inaccessible to most of the population. The role of health is twofold. First, early child health and nutrition are strongly associated with the
probability of obtaining a higher education later in life, over and beyond
parental education, income and wealth. Second, adult health contributes to
adult income. Thus there are also substantial returns to nutritional
investment, which most the population does not take advantage of.
The presence of a human capital accumulation poverty trap in México
conforming to this structure is demonstrated empirically by:
• Increasing returns to education in adult income.
• Substantial and possibly increasing returns to childhood health in the
acquisition of education, as measured by school permanence.
These results have been found consistently in a series of studies. Several
studies on México find increasing returns to education in income (an
additional year of higher education is more profitable than an additional year
of primary or secondary schooling). These high returns to higher education
have been linked with market reforms such as Mexico's entry into GATT, and
the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). A different literature on
the impact of nutrition and health on education also finds consistent results
supporting this link. For example, taller children complete more grades than
shorter children in Nepal and China; and in the Philippines delayed enrolment
in primary school is caused by the effects of nutritional deficiencies in early
childhood on "child readiness" for school and early child nutrition is an
important determinant of academic achievement. In a study on México by
^ This section summarizes the empirical findings in Mayer-Foulkes (2004).
DIVISIÓN DE ECONOMÍA
David Mayer Foulkes
Rubalcava and Teruel (2004), stature is found to significantly influence
mother's cognitive ability. This ability, it is found, has a more significant
impact on the acquisition of children's stature, than mother's stature itself.
Thus, early childhood development, as reflected in stature, is an important
determinant of the intergenerational transmission of cognitive abihty and
health. In other words, early health has an impact on the whole educational
cycle. For the case of México, I find that the probability of deciding to
continué on a further three years of study is considerably higher for better
nourished children. This is true after controlling for the income, wealth,
education, stature and weight of the parents, as well as their área of
residence. The additional probability of going over from a school triennial
cycle to the next, associated with one more centimeter of stature, is higher
than 5% for at least 10% of the population. A rough calculation shows that
such an improvement in stature could be achieved for Mexico's malnourished
population by nutritional programs which would be economically viable just
through their positive effects on educational productivity.
Thus, there is a functional relationship between parental wealth and
children's human capital and future income, and this relationship has a región
of increasing returns. Moreover, there is substantial under-investment in
human capital. Thus, at the very least there exists a prolonged
intergenerational transition, which may be strong enough to constitute a low
human capital accumulation trap. To distinguish between these two
alternatives (a prolonged transition or a trap), it is necessary to detect
whether there are múltiple equilibria subdividing the population into two or
more groups according to their human capital assets. The following evidence
is presented:
• The distribution of education across households according to spouses'
education is multiple-peaked and reflects the existence of two social
groups or classes, one with lower secondary schooling or less, and
another with higher levéis of education (Figures 3 and 4).
• Changes in the distribution of schooling in the lower group occur almost
exclusively in response to the increased availability of public education.
The independent investment of this group does not substantively
contribute to human capital accumulation (Figure 5).
Thus, the population classifies itself through marriage into two groups
identified by their educational status: a low one with completed lower
secondary school or less, and a higher one with 15 or more years of schooling.
This is one of the distinguishing features of a low human capital accumulation
trap, as opposed to a prolonged transition.
The distribution of schooling among adults aged 25 to 30 is surprisingly
stable, except for one very clear pattern of change: a greater proportion of
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The Iniergenerafional Impacf of Health on Economic Growfh
men and women complete secondary and higher education, instead of
rennaining with a lower level of schooling. However, most of these educational
increments have been due to public investment in education. The rises in
schooling of the group with lower education are not the result of their private
investment, consistently with a low human capital accumulation trap. More
than half of the expenditure in public education (58.2%) was received by
students in the higher 30% of society. These educational levéis are thus almost
inaccessible to three fourths of the population, again consistently with the
trap mentioned above. Indeed, it is quite possible that much of the higher
education in México would not take place without public support.
Figure 3
Percent
V] K
¿r'
^
m¿j 1
M
CÁ^^
■2-4
e
12-14"
9-11 .£
8
6-8
o
«
3-5
•
%
0-2 *
Father's Schooling (years)
Mother's
0
Schooling (years)
DO-2
_l
¿15
Father's Schooling (years)
«4-6
D6-8
■8-10
DlO-12
«12-14
Three Dimensional Graph
Two Dimensional Graph
Distribution of Mexican households according to femaie and male spouses' schooling. Households
restricted to two spouses of opposite sex ages 25 to 40 in Encuesta Nacional de Salud (ENSA 2000).
The existence of a poverty trap has strong economic implications. Dismantling
it would libérate the economic energy of three fourths of the Mexican people,
putting their capabilities at the level of those in the highest 25% of the
population. Potentially, this economic impact could be higher than the
demographic bonus, which increases a generation's savings. Instead, the
presence of the trap reduces the possible impact of this bonus, which in any
case is being exported through migration, because the demographic structure
is stabilizing without an emergence from poverty.
DIVISIÓN DE ECONOMÍA
David Mayer Foulkes
Figure 4
1984
1989
1992
1996
1994
2000
1998
Distribution of Mexican households according to female and male spouses' schooling (coloring as in Figure
III). Households restricted to two spouses of opposite sex ages 25 to 30 in the seven Mexican Encuesta
Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto de los Hogares (ENIGH) surveys.
Figure 5
Students in Public and Prívate Schools, by Levcl of
Schooline
Distribution of Public Education Expenditure in 2000
-Primary
- Lower
Secondary
- Upper
Secondary
-Tertiary
III
Q Public 1989 ■Put)lic 2000 G Prívate 1989 D Prívate 2000
IV
V
VI
vil
VIII
IX
Per Cápita Income Dvcll*
Based on 'Estadística Histórica del Sistema Educativo de la Nación',
Ministry of Education
Source: Scott (2003)
Changes in the distribution of schooling in México occur almost exclusively in response to the increased
availability of public education.
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The Iniergeneralional Impacf of Health on Economic Growfh
3. L- Markef Foilures
All children are conceived equally across the population, assuming that the
genetic inhehtance of abilities is distributed equitably among the population,
Nevertheless, malnutrition begins in-uterus, with life-long consequences for
health that include cognitive development. For babies to grow up into
productive adults realizing their full potential, it is necessary that an
investment be made in their nutrition, health, early child development, and
education. According to economic theory, any important and systematic
deviation from optimal investment is due to some kind of failure in the
market system. These failures have important consequences for social
welfare, and justify public intervention to somehov/ bridge the financing for
investment, so long as such intervention is sufficiently efficient.
The presence of increasing returns to education, and of returns to
nutrition and health that much of the population does not access implies that
there is and important and systematic degree of under-investment in health
and education. Thus market failures in human capital investment must be
present. Among such failures may be imperfect or uncaring parenting, credit
constraints, lack of information or foresight on the benefits of early child
development, excessive impatience due to poverty, and unavailability of
necessary public goods in health or education.
3.2.- Inferocfion wíth Pro-Markef Reforms
Several studies on México and Latin America find that returns to higher
education have risen with market reforms due to an increased demand for
skills. The structure of increasing returns to education has been present in
México since at least 1984. Nevertheless an increased investment in higher
education did not occur. A series of studies have argued, for example, that
NAFTA failure to produce the accelerated growth predicted by traditional
growth and trade theories is due to a déficit in human capital, lack of
infrastructure, and poor institutions. The low human capital accumulation
trap, along with institutional failures and a poor provisión of public goods,
have limited the benefits of reform.
4.- ImpUcaiions for Long-Term Development PoUcy
Human development is an essential component of the process of development
and economic growth. This holds to such an extent that it can be argued that
the very aim of development and economic growth is human development
itself (Amartya Sen, 1999). The weight to be given to Human Development as
opposed to Economic Growth has long been a vibrant topic of debate. For
D;V/S/óN DE ECONOMíA
David Mayer Foulkes
example, the 1990 Human Development Report of the UNDP "addresses, as its
main issue, the question of how economic growth translates -or fails to
transíate- into human development". The emphasis on human capital of
recent research on economic growth, and on poverty reduction in the policy
aims of international aid organisms makes it seem as if this debate has
reached a consensus (Aturupane, Glewwe and Isenman, 1994).
These positions and debates miss the point that what matters is the longterm mutual interaction between human development and economic grov/th.
This interaction has seemed too complex to form a coherent basis for policy.
However, recent findings are leading to a very useful and practical
clarification of this relation in the intergenerational nature of human
development. These can be summarized as follows. Human development
results from an intergenerational cycle of investment in nutrition, health and
education. It drav/s its resources from the state of production and
technological change and then returns to these in the next generation their
basic inputs: human labor, skills and knov/ledge (Figure 1). However, the
process of human development is beset by market failures that slow it down
and consequently slow down economic growth, inducing deficient equilibria
and making underdevelopment persistent.
This conceptual framework clarifies the relation between human
development and economic growth. Policies for long-term growth and
development, and for the reduction of poverty and inequality, must
sufficiently emphasize the formation of the coming generations. Moreover,
such policies must embrace a large segment of the population. This is due to
the intersenerational nature of human development and the crucial role of
earty child development, as well as to the difficulties presented in practice by
policies of redistribution to adults. Transferring resources to the children of
poor families since their early age, to secure their nutrition, health and
quality education, will also work as a transfer to adults, making families
happier. It will also form the next generation in such a way as to enjoy the
abilities and training to find solutions to its problems in the future.
ir
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The Intergeneralional Impacf of Health on Economic Growth
Conclusions
Human development is an intergenerational process in which early child
development plays a crucial role, and which can be characterized by poverty
traps, as in the case of México. By preventing the formation of human capital,
these traps have an important impact on long-term economic growth, and
reduce the scope of growth policies in other sectors of the economy. Among
the factors substantially favoring human capital formation are early child
nutrition and health, which have a life-long influence on health, education
and income. The indirect effects that health and nutrition have on adult
income through education are higher than the direct effect of health on adult
productivity. Moreover, early child nutrition and health improve long-life
health and therefore life quality and expectancy. The effects of early
nutrition and health on adult income explain a large portion of the long-term
impact of nutrition and health on economic growth. Nutrition and health, or
human development in its entirety, are insredients of economic growth,
besides constituting their main objective.
The presence of poverty traps is the result of insufficiencies in the market
system, which under-invests in nutrition, health and education. These failures
occur from an early age to genérate persistent intergenerational inequality in
nutrition, health and education. Likewise, they reduce the fruits of market
reforms, which tend to concéntrate on that part of the population already
endowed with human capital.
To understand economic growth, it is necessary not only to account for
the positive forces that sustain it, such as human and physical capital
accumulation and technological change, but also for the negative forces that
hold it back, such as market failures slowing human capital accumulation,
amongst others, that account for the historical and present-day divergence in
global income levéis.
Neither health ñor educational institutions pay enough attention to early
child development. An integral public policy for long-term growth and
development aiming at dismantling poverty traps so as to eradicate poverty
and inequality must sufficiently emphasize the formation of the coming
generations, beginning with early child development. In particular, it must
eradicate child malnutrition, including micronutrient deficiency and obesity.
DIVISIÓN DE ECONOMÍA
David Mayer Foulkes
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Cermeño Rodolfo y Vázquez Sirenia, Technological Backwardness in Agricultura:
Is it Due to Lock of REtD Human Capital and Openness to international Trade?
E-344
Arellano Rogelio, Hernández Trillo Fausto, C/ia//enges of Mexican Fiscal Policy,
E-345
Smith-Ramírez Ricardo y Lichtenberg Eric, Pro^ram Participation Under Meanstestins and Seif-selection Targetins Methods, E-346
DIVISIóN DE ESTUDIOS INTERNACIONALES
González Guadalupe, Minushkin Susan y Shapiro Robert (editores), Mexican
Public Opinión and Foreisn Policy, EI-120
González Guadalupe, Minushkin Susan, Shapiro Robert y Hug Catherine
(editores), Comparing Mexican and American Public Opinión and Foreign
Policy, EI-121
González Guadalupe, Minushkin Susan y Shapiro Robert (editores), Opinión
pública y política exterior en México, EI-122
González Guadalupe, Minushkin Susan, Shapiro Robert y Hug Catherine
(editores). Opinión pública y política exterior en México y Estados
Unidos: un estudio comparado, Ei-123
Meseguer Covadonga, What Role for Learning? The Diffusion of Privatisation in
the OECD and Latin American Countries, El-124
Sotomayor, Arturo, The Unintended Consequences of Peacekeeping
Participation in the Southern Cone of South America, El-125
Odell S. John and Ortiz Mena L.N. Antonio, Getting to "No": Defending Against
Demands in NAFTA Energy Negotiations, El-126
López Farfán Fabiola y Schiavon Jorge A., La política internacional de las
entidades federativas mexicanas, EI-127
Sotomayor, Arturo, Tendencias y patrones de la cooperación internacional para
el desarrollo económico. El-128
Sotomayor, Arturo, La participación en Operaciones de Paz de la ONU y el
control civil de las fuerzas armadas: los casos de Argentina y Uruguay,
El-129
DIVISIóN DE ESTUDIOS JURíDICOS
Pasara Pazos, Luis, Reforma y desafíos de la justicia en Guatemala, EJ-3
Bergman S., Marcelo, Confianza y Estado de Derecho, EJ-4
Bergman S., Marcelo, Compliance with norms: The Case of Tax Compliance in
Latin America, EJ-5
Pasara, Luis, Cómo sentencian los jueces en el D. F. en materia penal, EJ-6
Pasara, Luis, Reformas del sistema de justicia en América Latina: cuenta y
Balance, EJ-7
Posadas, Alejandro, Canadá Trade Law & Policy after NAFTA and the WTO, EJ-8
Hernández, Roberto, Alcances del "juicio oral" frente a la Reforma Integral a
la Justicia Penal propuesta por presidencia, EJ-9
Magaloni, Ana Laura, El impacto en el debate sobre la reforma judicial de los
estudios empíricos del sistema de justicia: el caso del estudio del Banco
Mundial sobre le Juicio Ejecutivo Mercantil, EJ-10
Bergman, Marcelo, Do Audits Enhance Compliance? An Empirical Assessment of
VAT Enforcement, EJ-11
Pazos, María Inés, Sobre la semántica de la derrotabilidad de conceptos
jurídicos, EJ-12
DIVISIóN DE ESTUDIOS POüTICOS
Marván Laborde, Ignacio, ¿Cómo votaron los diputados constituyentes de
1916-1917. EP-170
Schedler Andreas & Sarsfield Rodolfo, Democrats with Adjetives Linking Direct
and Indrect Measures of Democratic Support, EP-171
Langston, Joy, After the End: México's PRl in the Aftermath of the 2000
Presidential Defeat, EP-172
Schedler Andreas, Patterns of Interparty Competition in Electoral Autocracies,
EP-173
Schedler Andreas, Mapping Contingency, EP-174
Langston Joy, The Search for Principáis in the Mexican Lesislature: The PRt's
Federal Deputies, EP-175
Lehoucq Fabrice, Gabriel Negretto, F. Javier Aparicio, Benito Nacif y Allyson
Benton, Political Institutions, PoUcymaking Processes, and Policy Outcomes in
México, EP-176
Langston Joy, Why Hesemonic Parties Rupture, and Why Does it Matter?, EP-177
Murillo, María Victoria y Martínez Gallardo Cecilia, Policymakins Patterns:
Privotization of Latin American Public Utilities, EP-178
Schaffer Frederic and Schedler Andreas, What is Vote Buying? The limits of the
MarketModel, EP-179
DIVISIóN DE HISTORIA
Sauter, Michael J., Clock Wotchers and Stargazers: Berlin's Clock Between
Sciencie, State and the Public Sphere at the Eighteenth Century's End, H-26
Pipitone, Ugo, Desigualdades. (Segundo capítulo de Caos y Globalizaciónj, H-27
Bataillon, Gilíes, Formas y prácticos de la guerra de Nicaragua en el siglo XX,H-2S
Meyer, Jean, Pro domo mea: "La Cristiada" a la distancia, H-29
Meyer, Jean, La iglesia católica en México 1929-1965, H-30
Meyer, Jean, Roma y Moscú 1988-2004, H-31
Pañi, Erika, Saving the Nation through Exclusión: The Alien and Sedition Acts
and México 's Expulsión of Spaniards, H-32
Pipitone, Ugo, El ambiente amenazado (Tercer capítulo de El Temblor...), H-33
Pipitone, Ugo, Aperturas chinas (1889,1919,1978), H-34
Meyer, Jean, El conflicto religioso en Ooxaca, H-35
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