A Guide for the Installation, Establishment, and Maintenance of

A Guide for the Installation,
Establishment, and Maintenance of
Riparian Vegetation on Restoration
Projects in North Carolina
Contents
Introduction
Introduction .............................................................. 1
Why restore riparian vegetation?
Why restore riparian vegetation? ..................... 1
Who should read this? ..................................... 2
Where does this apply? ................................... 2
How should this guide be used? ................... 2
Planning.................................................................... 2
Site history and ecological assessments........... 2
Habitat documentation ................................. 2
Physical characterization ............................... 3
Vegetation inventory ...................................... 4
Vegetation Selection .......................................... 5
Seeding ......................................................... 5
Live stakes.................................................... 6
Trees and shrubs ........................................... 6
Planting design ................................................. 7
Planting ..................................................................... 8
Soil Amelioration ............................................... 8
Salvage vegetation ............................................ 8
Seeds ................................................................ 9
Live stakes ........................................................ 9
Woody vegetation ........................................... 10
Bare root ....................................................... 11
Container ...................................................... 11
Maintenance and Monitoring .................................. 11
Vegetation establishment ............................... 11
Irrigation ....................................................... 12
Decline of riparian areas in North America can be
attributed to a number of factors, most the result
of human activity (Sweeney et al., 2004; Sweeney
and Czapka, 2004; Vitousek et al., 1996). Lack of
vegetation along streams allows pollutants to flow
into surface waters (Lowrance and Sheridan, 2005).
Streambank stabilization is compromised because
there is no root network to bind soil particles together
and prevent erosion. Water quality is further degraded
by loss of shade, woody debris inputs, and leaf litter
deposition; all of which are important to fish and
benthic insect populations (Gregory et al., 1991).
The deforestation of riparian areas reduces wildlife
habitats and travel corridors. Unchecked growth of
invasive and exotic plants prevents establishment
of native riparian vegetation (Society for Ecological
Restoration International Science & Policy Working
Group, 2004).
By restoring native vegetation along streams and
rivers, we begin the process of helping the native
community structure reestablish and eventually
sustain itself over the course of time. Riparian
ecosystems are dynamic; practitioners must develop
different prescriptions for each site. However, by
using the most up-to-date information and tools,
restorationists can set each project on a trajectory
of success.
Herbivory ...................................................... 12
Invasive plants ................................................. 13
Monitoring for success ................................... 13
References .............................................................. 14
Appendix A: Agency Contacts and Additional
Resources for North Carolina ................................ 16
Appendix B: Invasive Riparian Plants and
Resources.............................................................. 17
Appendix C: Native Riparian Vegetation
Species List ........................................................... 18
Appendix D: Temporary Seeding Rates
and Recommendations ......................................... 24
Appendix E: Permanent Seeding Rates
and Recommendations ......................................... 25
Figure 1: Purlear Creek restoration. A newly restored stream channel planted
with native riparian vegetation flowing through Rendezvous Mountain
Educational State Forest in North Carolina.
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Who should read this?
The goal of this document is to provide information,
recommendations, and guidance related to the
rehabilitation and maintenance of riparian vegetation
within stream and riparian restoration projects
throughout North Carolina.
This document aims to provide landowners,
government agencies, and environmental professionals
with technical information, recommendations, and
resources based on the most current science that will
enable them to plan, implement, and maintain riparian
vegetation on restoration projects.
Where does this apply?
The information contained in this guide was
developed primarily from experience with streams
and river restoration in the three physiographic
regions of North Carolina — Mountains, Piedmont,
and Coastal Plain,—though recommendations have
been compiled from numerous sources throughout
the United States and beyond. Practitioners in other
southeastern states may find the information useful in
their areas as well, adjusting for different topographic
and climatic settings. Riparian processes vary not
only from region to region, but from watershed to
watershed. Keep in mind that each restoration site is
different and will require its own unique restoration plan.
How should this guide be used?
Practitioners should use this guide as a tool for riparian
vegetation restoration. Consulting other resources
and experts is highly recommended in any ecological
rehabilitation effort. Appendices in this document offer
additional resources that users may find helpful.
Planning
Natural processes that create functioning riparian
habitats work on broad time scales such as decades
and centuries. Practitioners, however, do not have
the luxury of such time. Professionals must make
timely, well-informed decisions to ensure successful
project implementation. Planning is critical to meet
short-term goals and objectives and achieve longterm ecosystem sustainability. Moving away from
“cookbook” and “carbon-copy” approaches to
restoration (Hilderbrand et al., 2005), practitioners
now design for community resilience using adaptive
management strategies based on science
and experience.
Today’s restorationists must also account for and
incorporate new science into long-term planning.
Climate change, for example, is expected to create
increased frequency and severity of extreme weather
events that will likely result in more severe, frequent
floods and intense droughts (Easterling et al., 2000).
Fortunately, riparian plants have adapted to similar
environmental extremes within the stream setting
and are often resilient to such changes (Naiman
and Decamps, 1997). Practitioners can use this
knowledge to their advantage in the early planning
stages of a project.
In restoring degraded riparian zones, ecological
professionals are rehabilitating ecosystems with
the goal of functional self-sustainability. That means
these natural systems will eventually maintain
themselves without human intervention. To start that
process, we must first assess the restoration site
and its watershed for clues to the history as well as
the current state of naturally occurring vegetation
communities. This will give us a starting point to later
determine appropriate species for the site.
Site history and ecological assessments
Habitat documentation
By understanding the historic and current state of
the riparian habitat, restorationists can estimate
the degree to which the site has changed over
time (Beechie et al., 2010) and begin to structure
the restoration framework. Some restoration sites
may have written accounts of native vegetation and
accompanying habitats that previously inhabited or
currently inhabit the riparian area. Further, sensitive
species and habitats should be identified, particularly
rare and endangered species. A good place to start is
with the local Natural Resource Conservation Service,
North Carolina Cooperative Extension, Farm Service
Agency, Soil and Water District offices, Natural
Heritage Program, and the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Biologists and foresters from the
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission and
the North Carolina Forest Service may also provide
information. Land trusts throughout North Carolina
have a wealth of knowledge of natural areas. Area
landowners can often provide anecdotal land-use
histories that can be of benefit. State and regional
guidebooks on ecosystem types can provide broad
information on the type of ecosystem that you plan
to restore. Appendix A lists agency contacts as well
as additional reference sources for North Carolina.
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Figure 2: Publication examples. Publications such as natural resource
inventories and conservation plans contain useful site-specific ecosystem
information that can help in the restoration planning process.
Examine and describe soils throughout the floodplain.
The right soil conditions are tantamount to survival
of vegetation on restoration sites. Soil moisture,
nutrient availability, aeration and the physical condition
of the soil itself are key factors in the establishment
and growth of bottomland hardwood tree species
(Stanturf et al., 2004) as well as native shrubs, forbs,
and graminoids. The ideal soils for plant establishment
are moist, well-drained soils that have medium
texture and good fertility. Remember, soil composition
and structure can be highly variable from site to site
and even within the same site. County soil-survey
classifications are useful in preparing descriptions.
Physical characterization
Following habitat documentation, practitioners
must next follow up with a field assessment. A
general description of the topography or prominent
topographic features in the floodplain should be
documented. Important features may include ditches,
old crop rows, sloughs and pools, wetlands, knolls, or
steep banks. Note the length and width of the valley;
this information will later be used to calculate the
amount of vegetation needed for the restoration area.
Understanding the hydroperiod of the stream system
is very important, especially for planting purposes.
For example, in Coastal Plain riparian areas where
flooding is seasonal, some flood-tolerant species
such as baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) can survive
in normal overbank flood conditions as well as on
drier hummocks and ridges. Some species such as
cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda) cannot tolerate
prolonged inundation (Stanturf et al., 2004). Look
for groundwater seeps, riparian wetlands, and other
areas where groundwater is near the surface (Correll,
2005) as these sites will have to be planted with
flood-tolerant species.
Figure 4: Examine soils within restoration area. Good soils are key to proper
vegetation establishment on restoration sites. For example, soils that are too
sandy, clayey, wet, or compacted will likely result in poor growth rates and
low survival of planted vegetation.
During this initial assessment, appropriate labs, including
the N.C. Department of Agriculture (NCDA) Agronomic
Division’s soil-testing lab, can perform soil-fertility
tests. This information will help determine the nutrient
needs of vegetation planted at the project site. Contact
your local Extension office for soil testing forms and
collection boxes. Appendix A lists contact information.
Figure 3: East Prong Roaring River riparian wetland. Riparian wetlands
located within the stream corridor should be included in preservation or
restoration planning such as this hillside seep located in Stone Mountain
State Park in North Carolina.
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Also note and flag potential vegetation for transplanting.
Using on-site vegetation that might otherwise be
destroyed by stream channel construction is an excellent
way to save money and to maintain locally adapted
plant ecotypes.
Figure 5: Soil testing. The Agronomic Division of the North Carolina
Department of Agriculture (NCDA) analyzes soil for its nutrient content and
for properties that affect plant growth. Soil collection forms and boxes can
be obtained through local Extension offices or NCDA.
If the project is in an urban setting, document
obvious constraints such as the location of utilities,
structures, and roads. Talk with landowners about
the restoration process; address their concerns
before implementation begins. For example, some
homeowners may have concerns about safety
and wildlife and want fewer shrubby species for
better visibility.
Vegetation inventory
Inventory the plant community in and around
the project site. Note the type, size, and relative
abundance of each species in the project area. If
there are relatively intact or undisturbed natural areas
up or downstream of the project site, record the
native vegetation species in those areas. These sites
may include species you will want to use at your
restoration site. Reference sites can be and are often
utilized in restoration plans. Keep in mind, however,
that the species composition of the reference site is a
single point in time along that ecosystem’s evolution
(Brierley and Fryirs, 2009). Riparian vegetation
recovery processes work over a large time frame,
and successional forces will continually alter the
community over time.
Depending on the overall restoration type, some
vegetation may be left undisturbed. For example,
in stream restoration projects, planners should
keep large trees when and where possible for
bank stability. Also, dead standing trees may be
retained for habitat value. Desirable vegetation
should be surveyed, mapped, and flagged in the
planning process.
Figure 6: Inventory existing vegetation. Vegetation within the project area
should be inventoried to determine species composition; desirable plants
can be flagged for avoidance if possible or used as transplant material later
during the restoration process.
Note invasive and exotic plants that occur within the
project area. Throughout much of North Carolina,
streambanks and floodplains are infested with
invasive and exotic plants that include Japanese
stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum), kudzu (Pueraria
montana var. lobata), English ivy (Hedera helix),
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and multiflora rose
(Rosa multiflora). A more comprehensive list plus
invasive plant resources can be found in Appendix
B. Invasive, exotic vegetation aggressively invades
and establishes itself in riparian soils (Tabacchi et
al., 1998). It can outcompete and greatly diminish
populations of native riparian plants, leading to a
decrease in wildlife habitat and food diversity along
the streambanks. If invasive, exotic plants inhabit the
project area, take measures to control them before
restoring native vegetation.
Figure 7: Documenting invasive and exotic vegetation. Undesirable and
problematic vegetation such as invasive exotic species should be noted
during the vegetation inventory. Control and management will be important
prior to, during, and after the restoration process.
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Record any evidence of herbivory. Deer browse,
beaver activity, vole activity, and excessive waterfowl
populations can potentially destroy planted vegetation
on many restoration sites. Trampling and grazing
by livestock can also be detrimental to restoration
efforts. If the site is in an agricultural setting, note the
type and general number of livestock species that are
to be fenced out of the restoration site.
Vegetation Selection
Vegetation for restoration projects can include
a variety of planting options such as temporary
seeds, permanent seeds, live stakes, bare root
shrubs and trees, container plants, as well as ball
and burlap shrubs and trees. Selecting the right
kinds and amounts of vegetation will depend on
the restoration project goals and will be guided by
information collected during the planning phase.
Traditionally, stream restoration projects have relied
almost solely on woody vegetation species. Studies
have shown that woody vegetation is more effective
than herbaceous vegetation at protecting soils
along streambanks (Wynn and Mostaghimi, 2006;
Wynn et al., 2004). Soil erosion decreases as the
number of larger roots in the soil increases. This is
particularly true in forested riparian areas. However,
recommendations for riparian restoration now include
planting a diverse array of plant types and species.
For example, recent research has suggested that
for bank stabilization efforts, supplementing tree
plantings with grasses may provide additional soil
reinforcement during the early years of tree growth
(Pollen-Bankhead and Simon, 2010).
affecting the suitability of plants for a particular site,
and these factors vary widely across North Carolina.
Even within the riparian area, there may be a need
for different species depending on site conditions
(e.g., dry sandy alluvial floodplains that contain
scattered toe-slope wetlands). Thoughtful planning is
required when selecting species for individual sites
to maximize vegetation establishment. Appendices D
and E list temporary and permanent seed information
including species selection, installation dates, and
other characteristics important for successful plant
establishment in the riparian setting.
Temporary seeding
Temporary seeding is used when construction
activities leave soil exposed. Because most native
species do not germinate and establish as readily as
some introduced species, it is sometimes necessary
to provide a nurse crop to stabilize the soil until the
native crop can become established as the dominant
cover. This is the only case in this guide where
non-native plants are recommended for use. Annual
cereal grains and select millets work best as cover
crops in sensitive riparian environments as they do
not spread or regenerate year to year. Appendix D
lists appropriate species to use for restoration sites in
North Carolina according to physiographic region and
time of year.
This guide recommends using vegetation that is native
to the particular physiographic region in which the
project is located. Local plant ecotypes should be used
wherever possible. Appendix C lists commercially
available tree, shrub, and herbaceous species
recommended for restorations in the Mountains,
Piedmont, and Coastal Plain of North Carolina.
Seeding
Seeding is an important component of many riparian
vegetation restoration efforts. Where soil is disturbed,
a temporary cover crop must be seeded in quickly
following construction activities to help stabilize
soil particles onsite. Native perennial plant seeds
should also be planted to provide stability as woody
vegetation establishes over a longer period. Climate,
soils, topography, and aspect are major factors
Figure 8: Temporary seeding for soil stabilization. Temporary annual seeds
are needed for riparian soil stabilization immediately following construction
activities. Brown top millet as pictured above is a good choice for application
during the hot summer months.
Permanent seeding
Native perennial seed mixes that include a variety
of riparian grasses and forbs are often planted in
conjunction with other vegetation. Used as an early
succession species for soil stabilization, over time
5
these plants will be eclipsed by the shrub and tree
canopy closure. However, for the initial establishment
period of the riparian restoration, they provide
important services like stability and enhanced habitat
along the stream.
The native seed mixture should be selected based
on natural occurrence of each species in the project
site area. Local ecotypes should be used when
possible. A number of cultivars of native warmseason grasses have been developed in North
Carolina and are suitable for a variety of sites. For
example, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is often
used in riparian areas of stream restoration projects.
Research has found that the extensive fine root
network protects the soil on the streambank toe
from scour (Pollen-Bankhead and Simon, 2010) and
induces sediment deposition along the streambanks
(Shields et al., 1995). These native grasses and other
herbaceous plants will produce an extensive root
structure that if properly maintained will assist in
stabilizing soils and reduce erosive forces of rainfall
and overland stormwater flow until the woody plants
become established. Many of these plants also
possess characteristics that allow them not only to
survive, but also to thrive under local conditions.
Appendices C and E list the appropriate species and
application rates to use for restoration sites in
North Carolina.
Figure 9: Perennial native seeding for long term stabilization and habitat
enhancement. Native herbaceous riparian vegetation such as grasses and
forbs seeded along the streambank and floodplain will provide extended site
stabilization as shrub and tree roots become established.
Live stakes
Live stakes and dormant posts are cuttings from
living woody plants that are inserted directly into
the ground, usually along the toe slope of streams.
Planted in the dormant season, the cuttings establish
roots that emerge from the buried stems and quickly
grow throughout the soil column. Live stakes are
commonly used on stream restoration projects due
to low costs, rapid growth, and increased resistance
to drought and erosion as compared to other types
of planted vegetation (Shields et al., 1995). Relatively
few species can be used as live stakes, however.
Willows, including black willow (Salix nigra), Carolina
willow (Salix caroliniana), and silky willow (Salix
sericea); silky dogwood (Cornus amomum); and
elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis) are
predominately used in stream restoration projects
in North Carolina. Cottonwoods (Populus spp.),
buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), beautyberry
(Callicarpa americana), ninebark (Physocarpos
opulifolius), and coral berry (Symphoricarpos
orbiculata) are used to a lesser extent. Willows
are generally very hardy and tend to resprout after
damaging events like beaver cutting and deer browse
(Pezeshki et al., 2005). Silky dogwood (Cornus
amomum), found along low flood-prone benches
of streams, is relatively resistant to destruction by
flooding due to small, highly resilient stems and the
ability to sprout rapidly from flood-damaged stumps
(Hupp, 1983).
Figure 10: Livestakes for streambank stabilization. Some native trees and
shrubs such as black willow (pictured above) can be installed via dormant
stem cuttings along the streambank. These livestakes develop roots that
grow quickly and keep soil particles in place.
Trees and shrubs
In North Carolina, woody vegetation is located along
nearly every streambank in all physiographic regions,
with the exception of brackish tidal streams in coastal
marshes. From small shrubs to tall trees, woody
vegetation roots provide the majority of streambank
stabilization (Wynn and Mostaghimi, 2006;
6
Wynn et al., 2004). Woody debris from shrubs and
tree is an important component of aquatic habitat. It
also provides food and shelter for a variety of
terrestrial organisms.
In restoration projects, two types of woody
vegetation are generally installed: bare root seedlings
and container plants. No matter which type is
selected, it is important to determine the number
of shrubs and trees that will be planted prior to
restoration activities. Depending on the goals of the
project, tree and shrub spacing will vary. Generally, for
stream mitigation projects, trees are planted between
300 to 450 stems per acre. The North Carolina
Forest Service Riparian and Wetland Tree Planting
Pocket Guide (http://ncforestservice.gov/publications/
WQ0206.pdf) provides a useful tree-spacing chart
based on stems per acre that can help practitioners
determine the correct number of stems for their
projects (NCDENR, 2006).
Bare root
One-year-old bare root seedlings are small shrubs
and trees harvested in the dormant season with all
or most of the soil removed from around their roots.
Survival of bare root seedlings is greatest when they
are planted in the dormant season. These plants
should be installed quickly so the roots will not dry
out. Bare root seedlings are relatively inexpensive
compared to other restoration vegetation. They are
frequently used on large-scale restoration projects as
they can be installed more quickly and require less
labor than containerized plants.
Container
Containerized vegetation includes any plants that are
grown and contained in soil medium. They are usually
potted in 1, 3, and 5 gallon containers, though sizes
can vary. Vegetation plugs are plants grown in much
smaller containers (trays or flats). They are typically
between 2 to 3 inches in diameter and 3 to 4 inches
in depth, though sizes can vary. Plugs combine the
low cost and fast installation of bare root seedlings
with the seasonal flexibility and improved survival of
container plants (Buis, 2000). Containerized plants
can be planted year round, though irrigation will likely
be needed if installed during the hotter, drier months.
They are generally more expensive to buy, ship, and
install than bare root seedlings because they are
bulkier to handle, store, and transport. (see Stanturf
et al. 2004). In terms of success, studies have shown
that on certain sites, there is no significant difference
in height and diameter growth of container and bare
root trees after five years of growth (Hall-unpublished
data). However containerized vegetation is utilized
on sites where aesthetics are important, such as city
parks and highly visible sites.
Figure 12: Containerized trees. Containers for trees and shrub can vary
greatly in size and price. Unlike bare root trees, roots of containerized trees
are already established in soil media prior to planting.
Balled and burlap plants are large shrubs and trees
which retain a large rootball that is covered in soil
and wrapped and tied in canvas or burlap to keep
the roots intact. These plants are field grown. Larger
specimens are used where aesthetics is important.
They are expensive, labor intensive, and require
extensive irrigation if planted in warmer months.
These are not routinely used on restoration projects.
Figure 11: Bare root trees and shrubs. Bare root vegetation such as these
trees and shrubs are used often on large restoration sites because they are
less expensive than container materials and can be installed quickly with
dibble bars.
Planting design
The detailed assessments and vegetation selections
should provide sufficient information to develop the
final planting design for your restoration project.
7
Proportions and densities of each species and the
pattern of the plants across the site can be drawn
on plan sheets. Provide clear details of plant lists,
including common and scientific name, type and
quantities of each plant, planting instructions, and
if needed, a map of the site with planting zones
demarcated. Provide a list of acceptable substitute
species if desired species are not commercially
available. Specify special requirements such as
irrigation or installation of tree shelters.
(Stanturf et al., 2004). Disking should be at least
8 inches deep, though 15 inches is preferred. For
soils that have heavy compaction due to construction
traffic, deeper plowing or ripping between 18 to 24
inches is recommended.
Figure 14: Soil amelioration. Compacted soil on the floodplain must be disked
or plowed following stream construction activities. Failure to do so can result
in poor seed germination and low vegetation survival.
Figure 13: Planting plan. Planting plans should include detailed lists of plants,
quantities of each plant, planting instructions, and site map with planting
zones if needed.
Planting
Planting is a major component of stream and riparian
restoration. The overall goal is to establish sufficient
vegetation to stabilize the newly restored stream
channel and floodplain. Using the planting plan and
a combination of planting methods described below,
the restored riparian area will have improved chances
of successful bank stabilization, flood attenuation, and
enhanced habitat.
Soil Amelioration
Restoration activities can result in highly compacted
soils on the site as a result of heavy equipment
repeatedly tracking up and down the stream corridor.
This compaction can greatly impede the plant’s ability
to access nutrients and water as the roots cannot
penetrate the soil.
Soil amelioration following stream channel
construction activities is almost always necessary.
Repairing ruts and correcting compaction are first
steps in preparing the soil for planting riparian
vegetation. If the restoration area is a former
agricultural field, disking at least twice with a heavy
disc harrow is recommended to remove plow pans
If a soil test was not performed during the planning
stages, it should be done now. Though riparian
areas are often fertile due to sediment deposition,
some restoration sites, especially in urban areas,
may be devoid of high-quality soils. Depending on
the soil test results, fertilization may be required
to establish a plant community. Follow fertilization
recommendations from the soil test results. In
some instances, the site may need placement of
appropriate sub-soils and top soils before planting the
site (Correll, 2005). Mechanically salvaging topsoil
may be on option on some restoration sites. The
advantage to this practice is that soil biota along with
native rootstocks and seeds contained within the
reclaimed soil can help a site recover more quickly.
Because seed viability declines with increasing time
and burial depth, stockpiled soil should be spread
as soon as possible over the restoration site (Rivera
et al., 2012). Remember that soil formation is a very
slow process that happens over centuries. Proper
attention to soils is required if the riparian plant
community is to become successfully established.
Salvage vegetation
Small shrubs, trees, and native graminoids such as
rushes and sedges can often be salvaged on the
construction site whereas they would otherwise be
destroyed. These plants can be transplanted directly
onto the streambanks and floodplain. They provide
8
an instant root mass along streambanks that helps
provide stabilization. As a local ecotype, they are also
already adapted to the site and are likely more hardy
than plants of the same species brought in from
elsewhere. Transplanted vegetation can advance the
restoration project’s goal of self-sustainability; this
practice is highly recommended when possible.
floodplain. If soil is compacted in the planting area,
loosen it to a depth of at least 12 inches. Plant
transplants the same depth at which they were
originally growing. Replace soil around the transplants
and tamp it down to eliminate air pockets. Spacing
will depend on availability of material. If transplants
are limited, start in critical areas where erosion is
prone to happen, such as along meander bends or
near in-stream structures.
Seeds
Figure 15: Transplanted vegetation. Salvaging onsite vegetation and
transplanting onto restored stream banks allows for instant root mass to help
stabilize soil.
If heavy construction equipment is involved in the
restoration, transplants can be larger. Potential
transplants may include small trees up to 3 inches in
diameter. Sycamores are an easily salvaged species.
Prune these trees to about 6 feet and scoop the
entire root mass with the bucket of an excavator or
loader. Keep the root balls and surrounding soil intact;
ideally transfer the plant directly into a prepared hole.
Do not rip limbs or bark from the transplants. Use
handsaws or chainsaws to trim limbs that may be in
the way. Native shrubs as elderberry, tag alder (Alnus
serrulata), and spicebush (Lindera benzoin) are also
good transplants. Prune shrubs to 3 or 4 feet and
harvest as previously described.
Apply both temporary and permanent seed at
rates specified on the plans or as recommended in
Appendices D and E of this manual with a cyclone
seeder, prop-type spreader, seed drill, or hydroseeder
on the prepared site. Incorporate the seed into the
seed bed as specified in the plans or by mechanical
methods such as raking. Mulch immediately with
straw or matting. For further guidance on planting
seeds, please refer to the North Carolina Erosion and
Sediment Control Planning and Design Manual (http://
portal.ncdenr.org/web/lr/publications) (NCDENR, 2009).
Figure 16: Hydroseeding on a restoration site. Hydroseeding is a good option
for applying large volumes of both temporary and permanent seeds on
riparian restoration projects. Accessibility constraints will limit use on
some sites.
Live stakes
Whether or not large equipment is used, herbaceous
plants can be salvaged using shovels. Rushes (Juncus
spp.), sedges (Carex spp.) and other native grasses
can be harvested and placed at the toe slope along
the water’s edge to help stabilize the area. This
zone is particularly prone to scour, and fine roots of
graminoid species can protect soil surfaces at the
water’s edge (Pollen-Bankhead and Simon, 2010).
Live stakes are commonly used on stream restoration
projects and usually placed at the toe slope. As
with transplants, it may be possible to harvest
stake material from the site, though many native
plant nurseries now sell live stakes (see previous
description of suitable vegetation). Harvesting and
installation of stakes should take place in the
dormant season.
If salvaged vegetation cannot be installed
immediately, stockpile it in a relatively moist area
or irrigate regularly. This is especially important
during summer restoration activities. Large woody
vegetation should be transplanted on top of the
Generally, live stakes should range from one-half inch
to 2 inches in diameter with an average length of 18
to 36 inches. The stakes should be cut at an angle
on the bottom and flush on the top; the stem should
be clean and free of limbs. Most nursery stock will
9
be pre-cut. The stakes should be kept cool and moist
to keep them alive and dormant. Store the stakes
in a cool area such as a refrigeration unit until they
are ready to be installed. Studies have shown that
soaking black willow posts for seven days prior to
installation enhanced bud flush and overall survival
(Pezeshki et al., 2005). Where practical, soak dormant
stakes no more than one week prior to planting.
Figure 17: Live stakes. Live stakes should be cut during the dormant season
and range from 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter and 18 to 36 inches in length. The
example in this photo is a black willow (Salix nigra), a species commonly
utilized on stream restoration projects in the Southeast.
Install stakes in areas where erosive forces are
greatest, such as along meander bends and behind
in-stream structures. Willow stakes have been
shown to have large mortality rates when installed in
continually inundated floodplains and on high banks
where moisture is insufficient for survival (Pezeshki
and Shields, 2006), so select sites carefully. Stakes
usually are installed 2 to 4 feet apart using triangular
spacing along the streambanks. Different sites may
require slightly different spacing. Making sure that
stem buds are oriented upward, drive stakes into the
ground with a rubber mallet, or make a hole using a
metal bar and slip the stake into it. Tamp each stake
in at a right angle to the slope, keeping one-half to
four-fifths of the stake below the ground surface. At
least two buds (lateral or terminal) should remain
above the ground surface. Pack the soil firmly around
the hole afterward to remove air pockets. If stakes are
damaged during the installation, remove and replace.
Refer to the North Carolina Forest Service Riparian
and Wetland Tree Planting Pocket Guide (http://
ncforestservice.gov/publications/WQ0206.pdf) for
installation illustrations (NCDENR, 2006).
Figure 18: Installation of a live stake. Live stakes should be driven into the
ground with a rubber mallet approximately 2 to 4 feet apart. Split or damaged
stakes should be removed and replaced.
Woody vegetation
As previously described, woody vegetation
establishment is of major importance to streambank
stability. The following will describe brief installation
methods for two types of riparian woody plants. The
North Carolina Forest Service Riparian and Wetland
Tree Planting Pocket Guide (http://ncforestservice.
gov/publications/WQ0206.pdf) provides excellent
descriptions and illustrations of how to properly plant
riparian vegetation (NCDENR, 2006). The publication
also provides a tree spacing chart based on stems per
acre. Depending on the goals of the project, tree and
shrub spacing will vary. Generally, in stream mitigation
projects, trees are planted between 300 to 450 stems
per acre. Some guidelines recommend planting more
individual plants per acre than can possibly survive
to a mature size (Griggs, 2009). The goal is to force
competition among species and individuals that
results in survival of the fittest plants. The result will
be a plant community composed of species that are
well adapted to the existing ecological conditions of
the site.
10
Bare root
Container
Bare root seedlings should be dormant when
planted. In North Carolina, late fall to early spring is
the best time for planting. Early fall planting allows
more time for root establishment. If bare root plants
can’t be installed right away, heel them into moist
soil or sawdust, according to general horticultural
practice. Use wet canvas, burlap, straw, or other
suitable material at all times to prevent drying.
The method selected should be appropriate to the
weather conditions and the length of time the roots
will remain out of the ground. Loosen soil in the
planting area to a depth of at least 5 inches. Make
planting holes with a mattock, dibble, planting bar,
shovel, or other appropriate tool. Some root pruning
may be needed, as some species have more gangly
roots than others. Certain sites, particularly Coastal
Plain floodplains, are seasonally inundated during this
time. If water levels are elevated during the planting
season, prune the roots of seedlings to facilitate
establishment (Stanturf et al., 2004).
Some projects may require container plants. These
come in many different sizes, shapes, and prices.
Check with local nurseries and growers for availability.
Appendix C lists appropriate species for North
Carolina. When installing potted plants, dig a hole that
is twice the diameter of the pot. Remove the plant
from the container and tease roots apart if the plant
is root-bound. Place the plant in the hole, making sure
the root collar is even with the ground surface and
the stem is upright. Back-fill with potting soil or fill
from the hole. Make sure the fill is free of clods and
stones, is loose, and is evenly distributed around the
plant. Tamp firmly around the plant to eliminate air
pockets. Add mulch to retain moisture.
Plant rootstock in a vertical position with the root collar
at or no more than a half-inch below the soil surface.
Make sure the planting trench or hole is deep and wide
enough to permit the roots to spread out and down.
Keep the plant stem upright. Replace soil and tamp
firmly around each transplant to eliminate air pockets.
Figure 20: Root-bound container plants. Remove plant from pot and tease
apart roots. Carefully prune long or extraneous roots prior to planting.
Maintenance
and Monitoring
Vegetation establishment
In using a variety of vegetation types and species,
restorationists aim to jumpstart the riparian recovery
process. This so-called fast-forward approach
(Hilderbrand et al., 2005) skips early stages of natural
succession in order to meet restoration goals. As a
result, maintenance is usually required to ensure that
desired vegetation establishes and sustains itself in
the newly structured riparian community. Experience
has shown that planting vegetation and then “walking
away” rarely works; successful projects typically require
several plantings over time and sustained monitoring to
ensure plant survival (Hilderbrand et al., 2005).
Figure 19: Installation of bare root vegetation. Bare root trees and shrubs
can be installed with a dibble bar as shown above. The planting hole should
be wide and deep enough to allow roots to spread out and down.
Natural succession and regeneration must be
considered in relation to the long-term maintenance
of the restoration vegetation. Unless the site is
11
regularly maintained, early successional plant species
(native and exotic) will germinate and grow along with
planted species. On some large, forested restoration
projects, native pioneer species like black willow and
river birch (Betula nigra) regenerated prolifically (Hupp,
1992) and outgrew planted tree species (Shields et
al., 1995). While unwanted exotic and invasive plants
should be managed, this guide recommends not
disturbing the naturally occurring native vegetation.
More roots hasten soil stabilization, more leaves
provide shade and cover, and naturally regenerated
plants thrive under conditions to which they are adapted.
During the establishment periods, plant mortality can
be caused by a number of factors such as drought,
bank erosion, prolonged flooding, sediment burial,
poor soils, and invasive plant competition (Shields et
al., 1995). Some of the more problematic causes in
North Carolina are discussed here.
Irrigation
Lack of moisture is responsible for restoration
vegetation mortality throughout many projects in
North Carolina (Hall-personal obs.). Some projects
must include supplemental watering of planted
vegetation in the maintenance plans. Irrigation
is typically required through one or two growing
seasons as seeds germinate and roots become
established. The soils and topography must be
suitable for the type of irrigation selected. Water
supply sources should be considered well in advance
of restoration planting. A sufficient quantity and
quality of water is required for successful
irrigation practices.
Three principal types of irrigation systems are used
for restoration and stabilization projects: trickle or drip
systems, spray systems, and mobile systems. Mobile
irrigation systems are generally the least expensive
and most widely used option for watering plants in
riparian restoration projects (Fischenich, 1999). This
option includes removable systems ranging from
large long-range sprinklers used in conjunction with
fire hoses to standard garden hoses and consumergrade sprinklers supplied with low-head effluent
pumps placed in the adjacent stream. The U.S. Army
Corps of Engineer s’ Research and Development
Center Technical Note “Irrigation systems for
establishing riparian vegetation” (Fischenich, 1999)
provides detailed descriptions of these systems and
can be found online at http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/
elpubs/pdf/sr12.pdf.
Herbivory
Herbivory can be a major constraint in establishing
riparian vegetation. Beavers (Castor canadensis),
whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and small
mammals like cotton rats (Sigmondon hispidus),
voles (Phenacomys spp.) and rabbits (Sylvilagus
spp.) can heavily damage or destroy planted
seedlings (Oswalt et al., 2004; Stanturf et al., 2004).
Exclusionary fencing has been shown to help trees
establish in areas of heavy deer browsing (Opperman
and Merenlender, 2000). Options for dealing with
herbivory include fencing, tree shelters, plant cover
reduction, and removal of nuisance animals. Studies
in effectiveness of exclusionary fencing have shown
that woven wire fence at least 8 feet in height has
proven successful but expensive (see Stanturf et al.
2004). Although effective on some sites, flooding
makes electric fencing an impractical deterrent
for herbivory.
Figure 21: Beaver damage alongside a stream. Beavers can damage and
destroy woody vegetation in riparian areas. Where beaver populations are
known to occur in restoration areas, an herbivory management plan will be
needed to ensure protection of trees and shrubs.
Double-wall plastic tree shelters have been shown
to protect seedlings from herbivores. They also can
create a microenvironment within the shelter that
increases moisture and temperature, helping the
seedlings grow (Andrews et al., 2010; Stanturf et al.,
2004). If installed properly, tree shelters can prevent
bark damage from small rodents and deer. However,
taller shelters are needed to prevent excessive deer
browsing. Shelters are easily knocked over by animals
or blown down by winds if not installed correctly.
They also can be swept away during flooding.
Placement of shelters should be limited to areas of
high herbivory. Proper installation is necessary for
maximum protection.
12
Small mammals often clip newly planted seedling
tops and roots as well as girdle stems by stripping all
the bark off the base of the shrub or tree. Damage
and mortality to seedlings can be high in areas
where herbaceous cover is dense. Removing the
vegetative cover will reduce the herbivory problem by
discouraging small mammals from frequenting these
areas (Stanturf et al., 2004).
Some studies and observations have shown that
planting taller trees on restoration sites can overcome
herbivory problems caused by ungulates such as
deer. A study in a riparian area in Tennessee showed
that oak seedlings greater than 4 ½ feet tall were
not affected by whitetail deer browse (Oswalt et al.,
2004). On a floodplain restoration site in western
North Carolina, sycamores (Platanus occidentalis)
more than 5 feet tall at time of installation were not
browsed compared to shorter sycamores installed
on the same project (Hall-personal observation). This
practice, however, will not deter smaller mammals
from damaging bark.
Invasive plants
Nuisance weed species can be difficult to control and
maintain, especially after the restoration site has been
planted. Woody vines have been shown to cause tree
seedling mortality of 60 percent or more even when
herbaceous weeds have been controlled (Stanturf
et al., 2004). Some woody invasive species like
multiflora rose are well adapted to riparian areas and
can withstand inundation (Shields et al., 1995).
Chemical and mechanical means can be used to
control unwanted or competing vegetation on
restoration sites. In North Carolina, herbicides must
be applied by a licensed pesticide applicator. The
North Carolina Division of Agriculture can provide
more information on obtaining a license (see
Appendix A). When applying herbicides in riparian
areas, the appropriate chemical should be carefully
selected. Federal law requires that herbicides
applied in and over open water must be approved
for aquatic use. Riparian areas may have seeps and
floodplain wetlands scattered throughout the site.
Recommendations for specific herbicides are beyond
the scope of this guide. Contact your local Extension
office or see the resources provided in Appendix A for
additional information.
Figure 22: Treating exotic invasive plants. When applying herbicides in
riparian areas, carefully select the appropriate chemical.
Mechanical control can be provided by hand pulling,
mowing, discing, and string trimming. In limited
areas, flame-weeders may be used where fire risk is
low. A new technique uses steam to destroy weeds,
a method that can be more safely applied than
open flames (Merfield et al., 2009). Depending on
the size of the project, these methods can be time
consuming, labor intensive, and expensive.
Monitoring for success
Monitoring of riparian restoration projects is
imperative for success. Monitoring can be both
formal and informal. Informal monitoring is simply
performing site reconnaissance to determine if
there are noticeable problems or immediate needs
onsite (e.g., irrigation, herbivory). Formal monitoring
methods are structured data-collecting protocols.
Numerous restoration monitoring methods exist
today. In North Carolina, some programs and agencies
may require specific protocols for monitoring riparian
vegetation on stream mitigation projects. Although
other regulatory agencies may not require a specific
protocol, restoration must meet a certain criteria at
the end of a specified period. Belted transects and
plots are commonly used methods of determining
vegetation survival, density, and richness. Rapid
assessment protocols are being used more in riparian
restoration projects (Collins et al., 2008; Orzetti et
al., 2010). Ultimately, the goals of the restoration
project will determine monitoring protocol. Although
this guide does not recommend any single type of
protocol, setting realistic, achievable milestones along
a restoration trajectory should be a goal of
all projects.
13
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Sweeney. 2010. “Influence of tree shelters on
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M. Buffington, H. Moir, P. Roni, and M. M.
Pollock. 2010. “Process-Based Principles for
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Brierley, G. and K. Fryirs. 2009. “Don’t Fight the
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Buis, S. 2000. “Writing Woody Plant Specifications
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Collins, J. N., E.D. Stein, M. Sutula, R. Clark, A.E.
Fetscher, L. Grenier, C. Grosso, and A. Wiskind.
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Correll, D. L. 2005. “Principles of planning and
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Easterling, D. R., G. A. Meehl, C. Parmesan, S. A.
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Fischenich, C. 1999. Irrigation systems for
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Gregory, S. V., F. J. Swanson, W. A. McKee, and K. W.
Cummins. 1991. “An ecosystem perspective of
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Hilderbrand, R. H., A. C. Watts, and A. M. Randle.
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Hupp, C. R. 1983. “Vegetation Pattern on Channel
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Hupp, C. R. 1992. “Riparian Vegetation Recovery
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Lowrance, R. and J. M. Sheridan. 2005. “Surface
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Merfield, C. N., J. G. Hampton, and S. D. Wratten.
2009. “A direct-fired steam weeder”. Weed
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Naiman, R. J. and H. Decamps. 1997. “The ecology
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621-658.
NCDENR. 2006. Riparian & Wetland Tree Planting
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Resources.
NCDENR. 2009. Erosion and Sediment Control
Planning and Design Manual. Pages 568.
Opperman, J. J. and A. M. Merenlender. 2000.
“Deer Herbivory as an Ecological Constraint
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Restoration Ecology 8: 41-47.
Orzetti, L. L., R. C. Jones, and R. F. Murphy. 2010.
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Griggs, F. T. 2009. California Riparian Habitat
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Dec09.pdf.
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Oswalt, C. M., W. K. Clatterbuck, S. N. Oswalt, A.
E. Houston, and S. E. Schlarbaum. “Firstyear effects of Microstegium vimineum and
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Douglas Shields. 2005. “Responses of
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“Variation in root density along stream banks”.
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Shields, F. D., A. J. Bowie, and C. M. Cooper. 1995.
“Control of Streambank Erosion Due to Bed
Degradation and Structure”. Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 31:
475-489.
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15
Appendix A:
Agency Contacts and Additional Resources for North Carolina
Websites
• North Carolina State University Stream Restoration Program. http://www.ncsu.edu/srp
• North Carolina Cooperative Extension. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/
• North Carolina Department of Agriculture-Soil Testing. http://www.ncagr.gov/agronomi/uyrst.htm
• North Carolina Division of Water Quality. http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/wq
• North Carolina Division of Water Quality 401 Water Quality Certifications and Permitting.
http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/wq/swp/ws/401
• North Carolina Forest Service. http://www.ncforestservice.gov/
• North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. http://www.ncnhp.org/
• North Carolina Soil and Water. http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/swc/
• North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. http://www.ncwildlife.org/
• United States Army Corps of Engineers Wilmington District Regulatory Permit Program for Wetlands
and Streams. http://www.saw.usace.army.mil/Missions/RegulatoryPermitProgram.aspx
• United States Fish & Wildlife Service Southeast Region. http://www.fws.gov/southeast/maps/nc.html
Publications
• North Carolina Department of Agriculture. Soil Testing. http://www.ncagr.gov/agronomi/pdffiles/stflyer.pdf
• North Carolina Division of Land Resources. North Carolina Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and
Design Manual. http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/lr/publications
• North Carolina Forest Service. Riparian & Wetland Tree Planting Pocket Guide for North Carolina.
http://ncforestservice.gov/publications/WQ0206.pdf
• North Carolina Division of Forest Resources and North Carolina Cooperative Extension.
Going Native- Urban Landscaping for Wildlife with Native Plants. http://www.ncsu.edu/goingnative
• North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Classification of the Natural Communities of North Carolina.
http://www.ncnhp.org/Images/Other%20Publications/class.pdf
• United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. A Field Guide for
the Identification of Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/35292
• United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. A Management Guide
for Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/36915
• United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Silvics of North America:
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
• United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service. Web Soil Survey.
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov
16
Appendix B: Invasive Riparian Plants and Resources
Common North Carolina Riparian Invasive Exotic Plants
• Ailanthus altissimaTree-of-heaven
• Lonicera japonica
Japanese honeysuckle
• Albizia julibrissinMimosa
• Microstegium vimineum
Japanese stiltgrass
• Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Porcelain berry
• Polygonum cuspidatum
Japanese knotweed
• Celastrus orbiculatus
• Pueraria montana var. lobataKudzu
Oriental bittersweet
• Elaeagnus umbellataSilverberry
• Rosa multiflora
Multiflora rose
• Hedera helix
English ivy
• Triadica sebifera
Chinese tallow
• Ligustrum sinense
Chinese privet
• Wisteria sinensis
Chinese wisteria
Invasive Plant Resources and Publications
• Weeds Gone Wild—Plant Conservation Alliance online factsheets and information.
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/index.htm
• North Carolina Department of Transportation Invasive Exotic Plants—North Carolina Department of Transportation online manual. http://www.se-eppc.org/northcarolina/NCDOT_Invasive_Exotic_Plants.pdf
• Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern Forests: A Field Guide for Identification and Control. USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station publication. http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/gtr_srs062.
To request a printed copy, call 828-257-4830, or email pubrequest@fs.fed.us and ask for GTR-SRS-62.
• A Field Guide for the Identification of Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station publication. http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/35292. To request a printed copy,
call 828-257-4830, or email pubrequest@fs.fed.us and ask for GTR-SRS-119.
• A Management Guide for Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station publication. http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/36915. To request a printed copy, call 828-257-4830,
or email pubrequest@fs.fed.us and ask for GTR-SRS-131.
• North Carolina State University Stream Restoration Program. http://www.ncsu.edu/srp
• North Carolina State University Aquatic Weed Management Program.
http://www.weedscience.ncsu.edu/aquaticweeds/default.asp
• North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Weed Regulatory Services.
http://www.ncagr.gov/plantindustry/plant/weed/weedprog.htm
• North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Pesticide Section.
http://www.ncagr.gov/SPCAP/pesticides
• North Carolina Division of Water Resources Aquatic Weed Control Program.
http://www.ncwater.org/Education_and_Technical_Assistance/Aquatic_Weed_Control/
• Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council (SE-EPPC). http://www.se-eppc.org/index.cfm
• United States Department of Agriculture National Invasive Species Information Center.
http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/
• United States Department of Agriculture Plants Database. http://plants.usda.gov/
17
Appendix C: Native Riparian Vegetation Species List
Mountain Riparian Species
TREES
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Acer negundo
box elder
Aesculus sylvatica
painted buckeye
Arisaema triphyllum
jack-in-the-pulpit
Andropogon gerardii*
big bluestem
Acer rubrum
red maple
Alnus serrulata
tag alder
Asclepias incarnata
swamp milkweed
Arundinaria gigantea
river cane
Acer saccharinum
silver maple
Amelanchier arborea
common serviceberry
Bidens frondosa
beggartick
Athyrium filix-femina ssp.
asplenioides
southern lady fern
Betula lenta
cherry birch
Aronia arbutifolia
(Photinia pyrifolia)
red chokeberry
Chelone glabra
turtlehead
Carex crinata
fringed sedge
Betula nigra
river birch
Aronia melanocarpa
(Photinia melanocarpa)
black chokeberry
Eupatorium fistulosum
Joe-pye-weed
Carex intumescens
bladder sedge
Carya cordiformis
bitternut hickory
Asimina triloba
common pawpaw
Eupatorium perfoliatum
boneset
Carex lupulina
hop sedge
Carya ovata
shagbark hickory
Calycanthus floridus
sweet-shrub
Gentiana clausa
meadow bottle gentian
Carex lurida
lurid sedge
Celtis laevigata
sugarberry
Carpinus caroliniana
ironwood
Helenium autumnale
common sneezeweed
Carex scoparia
broom sedge
Diospyros virginiana
persimmon
Cephalanthus occidentalis
buttonbush
Helenium flexuosum
purplehead sneezeweed
Carex stricta
tussock sedge
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
green ash
Cornus alternifolia
alternate leaf dogwood
Helianthus angustifolius
swamp sunflower
Carex vulpinoidea
fox sedge
Halesia caroliniana
silverbell
Cornus amomum
silky dogwood
Impatiens capensis
jewel-weed
Chasmanthium latifolium
river oats
Juglans nigra
lack walnut
Corylus americana
hazel-nut
Lobelia cardinalis
cardinal flower
Chasmanthium laxum
slender woodoats
Nyssa sylvatica
blackgum
Hamamelis virginiana
witch-hazel
Lobelia siphilitica
great blue lobelia
Cyperus strigosus
umbrella sedge
Platanus occidentalis
sycamore
Ilex verticillata
winter berry
Ludwigia alternifolia
bushy seedbox
Elymus hystrix
bottlebrush grass
Populus deltoides
eastern cottonwood
Lindera benzoin
spicebush
Mimulus ringens
monkeyflower
Elymus virginicus
Virginia wild rye
Prunus serotina
black cherry
Lyonia ligustrina
male-berry
Physostegia virginiana
obedient plant
Juncus coriaceus
leathery rush
Salix nigra
black willow
Magnolia tripetala
umbrella tree
Pycnanthemum
tenuifolium
narrowleaf mountainmint
Juncus tenuis
poverty rush
Physocarpus opulifolius
ninebark
Pycnanthemum muticum
bigleaf mountainmint
Juncus effusus
soft rush
Rhododendron maximum
rosebay
Rhexia mariana
Maryland meadowbeauty
Leersia oryzoides
rice cutgrass
Rhododendron
periclymenoides
wild azalea
Rhexia virginica
Virginia meadowbeauty
Onoclea sensibilis
sensitive fern
Rhododendron viscosum
swamp azalea
Rudbeckia laciniata
cutleaf coneflower
Osmunda cinnamomea
cinnamon fern
18
Mountain Riparian Species
TREES
continued
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Rosa palustris
swamp rose
Sparganium americanum
bur-reed
Osmunda regalis
royal fern
Salix sericea
silky willow
Symphyotrichum
novae-angliae
New England aster
Panicum clandestinum
(Dichanthelium
clandestinum)
deertongue
Sambucus nigra ssp.
canadensis
elderberry
Vernonia noveboracensis
ironweed
Panicum rigidulum
redtop panicgrass
Spiraea alba
meadowsweet
Panicum virgatum
switchgrass
Spiraea tomentosa
steeplebush
Polygonum sagittatum
tearthumb
Vaccinium corymbosum
highbush blueberry
Polystichum acrostichoides
Christmas fern
Viburnum nudum var.
cassinoides
Withe-rod
Saccharum giganteum
sugarcane plumegrass
Viburnum nudum var.
nudum
possumhaw
Schizachyrium scoparium*
little bluestem
Viburnum dentatum
southern arrow-wood
Scirpus atrovirens
green bulrush
Xanthorhiza simplicissima
yellow-root
Scirpus cyperinus
woolgrass
Scirpus validus
(Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani)
soft stem bulrush
Sorghastrum nutans*
indiangrass
Thelypteris palustris
marsh fern
Tripsacum dactyloides
eastern gamagrass
*Indicates plants that prefer drier conditions.
19
Piedmont Riparian Species
TREES
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Acer negundo
box elder
Aesculus pavia
red buckeye
Arisaema triphyllum
jack-in-the-pulpit
Andropogon gerardii*
big bluestem
Acer rubrum
red maple
Aesculus sylvatica
painted buckeye
Asclepias incarnata
swamp milkweed
Arundinaria gigantea
river cane
Acer barbatum
southern sugar maple
Alnus serrulata
tag alder
Bidens frondosa
beggartick
Athyrium filix-femina ssp.
asplenioides
southern lady fern
Betula nigra
river birch
Amelanchier arborea
common serviceberry
Chelone glabra
turtlehead
Carex crinata
fringed sedge
Carya cordiformis
bitternut hickory
Amelanchier canadensis
shadbush serviceberry
Eupatorium fistulosum
Joe-pye-weed
Carex intumescens
bladder sedge
Carya ovata
shagbark hickory
Aronia arbutifolia
(Photinia pyrifolia)
red chokeberry
Eupatorium perfoliatum
boneset
Carex lupulina
hop sedge
Celtis laevigata
sugarberry
Asimina triloba
common pawpaw
Helenium autumnale
common sneezeweed
Carex lurida
lurid sedge
Diospyros virginiana
persimmon
Callicarpa americana
beautyberry
Helenium flexuosum
purplehead sneezeweed
Carex scoparia
broom sedge
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
green ash
Calycanthus floridus
sweet-shrub
Helianthus angustifolius
swamp sunflower
Carex stricta
tussock sedge
Halesia caroliniana
silverbell
Carpinus caroliniana
ironwood
Impatiens capensis
jewel-weed
Carex vulpinoidea
fox sedge
Juglans nigra
black walnut
Cephalanthus occidentalis
buttonbush
Lobelia cardinalis
cardinal flower
Chasmanthium latifolium
river oats
Magnolia virginiana
sweetbay
Cornus alternifolia
alternate leaf dogwood
Lobelia elongata
longleaf lobelia
Chasmanthium laxum
slender woodoats
Nyssa sylvatica
blackgum
Cornus amomum
silky dogwood
Ludwigia alternifolia
bushy seedbox
Cyperus strigosus
umbrella sedge
Platanus occidentalis
sycamore
Corylus americana
hazel-nut
Mimulus ringens
monkeyflower
Elymus hystrix
bottlebrush grass
Populus deltoides
eastern cottonwood
Fothergilla gardenii
dwarf witch-alder
Physostegia virginiana
obedient plant
Elymus virginicus
Virginia wild rye
Prunus serotina
black cherry
Hamamelis virginiana
witch-hazel
Polygonum sagittatum
tearthumb
Juncus coriaceus
leathery rush
Quercus lyrata
overcup oak
Hibiscus moscheutos
marsh mallow
Pycnanthemum
tenuifolium
narrowleaf mountainmint
Juncus tenuis
poverty rush
Quercus michauxii
swamp chestnut oak
Ilex decidua
deciduous holly
Pycnanthemum muticum
bigleaf mountainmint
Juncus effusus
soft rush
Quercus nigra
water oak
Ilex verticillata
winter berry
Rhexia mariana
Maryland meadowbeauty
Leersia oryzoides
rice cutgrass
Quercus pagoda
cherrybark oak
Itea virginica
Virginia willow
Rhexia virginica
Virginia meadowbeauty
Onoclea sensibilis
sensitive fern
Quercus phellos
willow oak
Lindera benzoin
spicebush
Rudbeckia laciniata
cutleaf coneflower
Osmunda cinnamomea
cinnamon fern
Quercus shumardii
Shumard oak
Lyonia ligustrina
male-berry
Sparganium americanum
bur-reed
Osmunda regalis
royal fern
20
Piedmont Riparian Species
TREES
Salix nigra
black willow
continued
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Lyonia lucida
fetterbush
Symphyotrichum
novi-belgii
New York aster
Panicum clandestinum
(Dichanthelium
clandestinum)
deertongue
Magnolia tripetala
umbrella tree
Vernonia noveboracensis
ironweed
Panicum rigidulum
redtop panicgrass
Physocarpus opulifolius
ninebark
Panicum virgatum
switchgrass
Rhododendron maximum
rosebay
Polystichum acrostichoides
Christmas fern
Rhododendron
periclymenoides
wild azalea
Saccharum giganteum
sugarcane plumegrass
Rhododendron viscosum
swamp azalea
Schizachyrium scoparium*
little bluestem
Rosa palustris
swamp rose
Scirpus atrovirens
green bulrush
Salix sericea
silky willow
Scirpus cyperinus
woolgrass
Salix caroliniana
Coastal Plain willow
Scirpus validus
(Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani)
soft stem bulrush
Sambucus nigra ssp.
canadensis
elderberry
Sorghastrum nutans*
indiangrass
Spiraea tomentosa
steeplebush
Thelypteris palustris
marsh fern
Staphlea trifolia
bladdernut
Tripsacum dactyloides
eastern gamagrass
Styrax americanus
American snowbell
Vaccinium corymbosum
highbush blueberry
Viburnum dentatum
southern arrowwood
Viburnum nudum
possumhaw
Xanthorhiza simplicissima
yellow-root
*Indicates plants that prefer drier conditions.
21
Coastal Plain Riparian Species
TREES
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Acer negundo
box elder
Aesculus pavia
red buckeye
Arisaema triphyllum
jack-in-the-pulpit
Andropogon gerardii*
big bluestem
Acer rubrum
red maple
Aesculus sylvatica
painted buckeye
Asclepias incarnata
swamp milkweed
Arundinaria gigantea
river cane
Acer barbatum
southern sugar maple
Alnus serrulata
tag alder
Bidens frondosa
beggartick
Athyrium filix-femina ssp.
asplenioides
southern lady fern
Betula nigra
river birch
Amelanchier canadensis
shadbush serviceberry
Chelone glabra
turtlehead
Carex crinata
fringed sedge
Carya aquatica
water hickory
Aronia arbutifolia
(Photinia pyrifolia)
red chokeberry
Eupatorium fistulosum
Joe-pye-weed
Carex intumescens
bladder sedge
Carya cordiformis
bitternut hickory
Asimina triloba
common pawpaw
Eupatorium perfoliatum
boneset
Carex lupulina
hop sedge
Celtis laevigata
sugarberry
Callicarpa americana
beautyberry
Helenium autumnale
common sneezeweed
Carex lurida
lurid sedge
Chamaecyparis thyoides
Atlantic white-cedar
Calycanthus floridus
sweet-shrub
Helenium flexuosum
purplehead sneezeweed
Carex scoparia
broom sedge
Diospyros virginiana
persimmon
Carpinus caroliniana
ironwood
Helianthus angustifolius
swamp sunflower
Carex stricta
tussock sedge
Fraxinus caroliniana
carolina ash
Cephalanthus occidentalis
buttonbush
Impatiens capensis
jewel-weed
Carex vulpinoidea
fox sedge
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
green ash
Clethra alnifolia
sweet pepperbush
Lobelia cardinalis
cardinal flower
Chasmanthium latifolium
river oats
Fraxinus profunda
pumpkin ash
Cornus alternifolia
alternate leaf dogwood
Lobelia elongata
longleaf lobelia
Chasmanthium laxum
slender woodoats
Juglans nigra
black walnut
Cornus amomum
silky dogwood
Ludwigia alternifolia
bushy seedbox
Cyperus strigosus
umbrella sedge
Magnolia virginiana
sweetbay
Corylus americana
hazel-nut
Mimulus ringens
monkeyflower
Elymus virginicus
Virginia wild rye
Nyssa aquatica
water tupelo
Cyrilla racemiflora
titi
Physostegia virginiana
obedient plant
Juncus coriaceus
leathery rush
Nyssa biflora
swamp blackgum
Fothergilla gardenii
dwarf witch-alder
Polygonum sagittatum
tearthumb
Juncus tenuis
poverty rush
Nyssa sylvatica
blackgum
Hamamelis virginiana
witch-hazel
Pycnanthemum
tenuifolium
narrowleaf mountainmint
Juncus effusus
soft rush
Persea borbonia
red bay
Hibiscus moscheutos
marsh mallow
Pycnanthemum muticum
bigleaf mountainmint
Leersia oryzoides
rice cutgrass
Platanus occidentalis
sycamore
Ilex coriacea
gallberry
Rhexia mariana
Maryland meadowbeauty
Onoclea sensibilis
sensitive fern
Populus deltoides
eastern cottonwood
Ilex decidua
deciduous holly
Rhexia virginica
Virginia meadowbeauty
Osmunda cinnamomea
cinnamon fern
Populus heterophylla
swamp cottonwood
Ilex glabra
inkberry
Rudbeckia laciniata
cutleaf coneflower
Osmunda regalis
royal fern
22
Coastal Plain Riparian Species
TREES
continued
SMALL TREES/SHRUBS
HERBACEOUS
GRAMINOIDS AND FERNS
Prunus serotina
black cherry
Ilex verticillata
winter berry
Sparganium americanum
bur-reed
Panicum clandestinum
(Dichanthelium
clandestinum)
deertongue
Quercus lyrata
overcup oak
Itea virginica
Virginia willow
Symphyotrichum
novi-belgii
New York aster
Panicum rigidulum
redtop panicgrass
Quercus michauxii
swamp chestnut oak
Leucothoe axillaris
doghobble
Vernonia noveboracensis
ironweed
Panicum virgatum
switchgrass
Quercus nigra
water oak
Lindera benzoin
spicebush
Polystichum acrostichoides
Christmas fern
Quercus pagoda
cherrybark oak
Lyonia ligustrina
male-berry
Saccharum giganteum
sugarcane plumegrass
Quercus phellos
willow oak
Lyonia lucida
fetterbush
Schizachyrium scoparium*
little bluestem
Quercus shumardii
Shumard oak
Magnolia tripetala
umbrella tree
Scirpus atrovirens
green bulrush
Salix nigra
black willow
Rhododendron
periclymenoides
wild azalea
Scirpus cyperinus
woolgrass
Taxodium distichum
bald cypress
Rhododendron viscosum
swamp azalea
Scirpus validus
(Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani)
soft stem bulrush
Taxodium ascendens
pond cypress
Rosa palustris
swamp rose
Sorghastrum nutans*
indiangrass
Salix sericea
silky willow
Thelypteris palustris
marsh fern
Salix caroliniana
Coastal Plain willow
Tripsacum dactyloides
eastern gamagrass
Sambucus nigra ssp.
canadensis
elderberry
Spiraea tomentosa
steeplebush
Styrax americanus
American snowbell
Vaccinium corymbosum
highbush blueberry
Viburnum nudum
possumhaw
Xanthorhiza simplicissima
yellow-root
Zenobia pulverulenta
honeycup
*Indicates plants that prefer drier conditions.
23
Appendix D:
Temporary Seeding Rates and Recommendations
Temporary Seeding (Cover Crops)
The following table lists appropriate temporary seeds and recommended application rates. Where seasons
transition, it is recommended to combine both heat- and cold-tolerant species to maximize germination rates
and establish cover.
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
RATE
PER ACRE
OPTIMAL PLANTING DATES
Mountains
Piedmont
Coastal Plain
Rye grain
Secale cereale
25 lbs
Nov. 1 - Apr. 30
Aug. 15 - May 15
Aug. 15 - Apr. 15
Wheat
Triticum aestivum
30 lbs
Nov. 1 - Apr. 30
Aug. 15 - May 15
Aug. 15 - Apr. 15
German millet
Setaria italica
10 lbs
May 11 - Sep. 30
May 15 - Aug. 15
Apr. 15 - Aug. 15
Browntop millet
Urochloa ramosa
10 lbs
May 11 - Sep. 30
May 15 - Aug. 15
Apr. 15 - Aug. 15
24
Appendix E:
Permanent Seeding Rates and Recommendations
Permanent Seeding
The following table lists appropriate permanent seeds and recommended application rates. Please refer to Appendix C for a more
comprehensive list of herbaceous species.
Mountains
COMMON
NAME
SCIENTIFIC
NAME
Switchgrass Panicum
virgatum
PCT
OF MIX
OPTIMAL
PLANTING
DATES
SOIL DRAINAGE
SHADE
HEIGHT
AADAPTATION TOLERANCE (FEET)
CULTIVARS
TYPE
Cave-in-Rock well drained
Warm
Season
10-15%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Cultivar
Dependent
Poor
6
Blackwell well-drained
Shelter well-drained
Kanlow poorly-drained
Carthage well-drained
Indiangrass
Sorghastrum
nutans
Rumsey, Osage,
Cheyenne
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Deertongue
Dichanthelium
clandestinum
Tioga
Warm
Season
5-25%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
6
Big
Bluestem
Andropogon
gerardii
Roundtree,
Kaw, Earl
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Little
Bluestem
Schizachyrium
scoparium
Aldous,
Cimarron
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
4
Sweet
Woodreed
Cinna
arundinacea
Warm
Season
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained to
Well-drained
Moderate
5
Rice
Cutgrass
Leersia
oryzoides
Warm
Season
5-25%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
5
Indian
Woodoats
Chasmanthium
latifolium
Cool
Season
1-10%
March 1 - May 15, Well-drained to
July 15 - Aug. 15
Droughty
Moderate
4
Virginia
Wildrye
Elymus
virginicus
Cool
Season
5-25%
March 1 - May 15, Well-drained to
July 15 - Aug. 15
Droughty
Moderate
3
Eastern
Bottlebrush
Grass
Elymus hystrix
Cool
Season
5-10%
March 1 - May 15, Well-drained to
July 15 - Aug. 15
Droughty
Moderate
3
Soft Rush
Juncus effusus
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 15,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
4
Shallow
Sedge
Carex lurida
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 15,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
Fox Sedge
Carex
vulpinoidea
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 15,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
25
Piedmont
COMMON
NAME
SCIENTIFIC
NAME
Switchgrass Panicum
virgatum
PCT
OF MIX
OPTIMAL
PLANTING
DATES
Warm
season
10-15%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Cultivar
Dependent
Poor
6
Alamo poorly-drained
Warm
Season
10-15%
Dec. 1 - May 1
Cultivar
Dependent
Poor
6
CULTIVARS
TYPE
Shelter well-drained
SOIL DRAINAGE
SHADE
HEIGHT
AADAPTATION TOLERANCE (FEET)
Blackwell well-drained
Kanlow poorly-drained
Carthage well-drained
Indiangrass
Sorghastrum
nutans
Rumsey, Osage,
Cheyenne,
Lometa
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Deertongue
Dichanthelium
clandestinum
Tioga
Warm
Season
5-25%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Poorly-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
2
Big
Bluestem
Androogon
gerardii
Roundtree, Kaw,
Earl
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Little
Bluestem
Schizachyrium
scoparium
Cimarron
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
4
Sweet
Woodreed
Cinna
arundinacea
Warm
Season
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Poorly-drained to
Well-drained
Moderate
5
Rice
Cutgrass
Leersia
oryzoides
Warm
Season
5-25%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Poorly-drained
Poor
5
Indian
Woodoats
Chasmanthium
latifolium
Cool
Season
1-10%
Feb. 15 - Apr. 1,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
4
Virginia
Wildrye
Elymus
virginicus
Cool
Season
5-25%
Feb. 15 - Apr. 1,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
3
Eastern
Bottlebrush
Grass
Elymus hystrix
Cool
Season
5-10%
Feb. 15 - Apr. 1,
Aug. 15 - Oct. 15
Well-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
3
Soft Rush
Juncus effusus
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 1,
Sep. 1 - Nov. 1
Poorly-drained
Poor
4
Shallow
Sedge
Carex lurida
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 1,
Sep. 1 - Nov. 1
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
Fox Sedge
Carex
vulpinoidea
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - May 1,
Sep. 1 - Nov. 1
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
26
Coastal Plain
COMMON
NAME
SCIENTIFIC
NAME
Switchgrass Panicum
virgatum
PCT
OF MIX
OPTIMAL
PLANTING
DATES
Warm
Season
10-15%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Cultivar
Dependent
Poor
6
Alamo poorly-drained
Warm
Season
10-15%
Jan. 1- May 1
Cultivar
Dependent
Poor
6
CULTIVARS
TYPE
Shelter well-drained
SOIL DRAINAGE
SHADE
HEIGHT
AADAPTATION TOLERANCE (FEET)
Blackwell well-drained
Kanlow poorly-drained
Carthage well-drained
Indiangrass
Sorghastrum
nutans
Rumsey, Osage,
Cheyenne,
Lometa*
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1,
Jan. 1- May 1
(Lometa)
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Big
Bluestem
Andropogon
gerardii
Earl
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
6
Little
Bluestem
Schizachyrium
scoparium
Common
Warm
Season
10-30%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Poor
4
Sweet
Woodreed
Cinna
arundinacea
Warm
Season
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Poorly-drained to
Well-drained
Moderate
5
Rice
Cutgrass
Leersia
oryzoides
Warm
Season
5-25%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 1
Poorly-drained
Poor
5
Indian
Woodoats
Chasmanthium
latifolium
Cool
Season
1-10%
Feb. 15 - March
20, Sep. 1 - Nov.
1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
4
Virginia
Wildrye
Elymus
virginicus
Cool
Season
5-25%
Feb. 15 - March
20, Sep. 1 - Nov.
1
Well-drained to
Droughty
Moderate
3
Soft Rush
Juncus effusus
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
4
Shallow
Sedge
Carex lurida
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
Fox Sedge
Carex
vulpinoidea
Wetland
1-10%
Dec. 1 - Apr. 15
Poorly-drained
Poor
3
*only Lometa in eastern Coastal Plain (Plant Hardiness Zone 8)
27
Prepared by
Karen Hall, Ph.D. Extension Assistant Professor, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Jean Spooner, Ph.D. Extension Professor, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Douglas Frederick, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources
Published by
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A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national
origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North
Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating.
10/13—VB/DC
14-CALS-3848
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