Suriname

Transcription

Suriname

Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment (ATM)
Prins Hendrikstraat 17, Paramaribo, Suriname
Tel
Fax
: (597) 42 09 60 / 47 48 81
: (597) 47 55 74
Email
Website ATM
: secmilieu@atm.gov.sr
: www.atm.gov.sr
Empowered lives.
Resilient nations.
Suriname
Second National Communication to the
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change February 2013 | Paramaribo, Suriname
Suriname
Second National Communication
to the
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change
February 2013
Paramaribo, Suriname
Empowered lives.
Resilient nations.
Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change
A Publication of the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
Copyright: ©Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment
2013, All rights reserved
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is
authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder, provided that
the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other
commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright
holder.
GEF
“The GEF unites 182 countries in partnership with international institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector to address global
environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
Today the GEF is the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment.
An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects
related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the
ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. Since 1991, GEF has achieved a strong
track record with developing countries and countries with economies in transition,
providing $9.2 billion in grants and leveraging $40 billion in co-financing for over 2,700
projects in over 168 countries. www.thegef.org”
UNDP
Although the utmost care was taken to provide correct information in this
Communication, the Directorate for Environment of the Ministry of Labour, Technological
Development and Environment does not accept any liability for inaccuracies which
might occur in it. Furthermore, the views expressed in this Communication are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Directorate for Environment
of the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
ISBN: 978-99914-7-216-4
Manufactured in Suriname
Design: Suritoons and Kayleigh Sontohartono
Editing: UNDP
Cover photo: © UNDP
IV
UNDP partners with people at all levels of society to help build nations that can
withstand crisis, and drive and sustain the kind of growth that improves the quality
of life for everyone. On the ground in 177 countries and territories, we offer global
perspective and local insight to help empower lives and build resilient nations.www.
undp.org
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarly
represent those of the United Nations, including UNDP, or the UN Member States.
The boundaries and names shown on the maps included in the present publication
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNDP
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Foreword
Global climate change is one of the major environmental and developmental issues
of this century, affecting all of society. Although Suriname is a minor player in terms
of GHG emissions, we are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The
adverse effects of climate change, in particular those affecting our water resources and
agricultural sector, and the growing frequency and intensity of severe weather events
affecting human lives, are evident. It is therefore paramount that the issue of climate
change be integrated into our national and sectorial planning in order to increase our
resilience to its effects.
In 2006, in compliance with the requirements of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, Suriname submitted its First National Communication,
a report whose preparation by Surinamese experts provided important climatechange data. One of the main outcomes of that document was that the general public
became more aware of climate change and its negative effects.
The fine work undertaken for the preparation of our Second National Communication
builds on the groundwork laid in that FNC. For Suriname, the preparation of this SNC
is a vital step towards further implementation of the requirements of the Convention
and our nation’s voluntary efforts to deal with climate change. The preparation of this
document has underscored the existence of data gaps previously outlined in the FNC
and brought new ones to light as well. The Government of Suriname is committed
to use the information, strategies and options supplied herein to move our country
forward on the path of continued and improved prediction of climate-change effects
and the implementation of measures to adapt to them and mitigate them as much
as possible. I wish to acknowledge and thank all those who have participated in the
preparation of this document.
His Excellency Michael Miskin
Minister of Labour, Technological Development and Environment
Suriname Second National Communication to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
February 2013
V
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our appreciation to the United Nations Development
Programme (www.undp.org) and the Global Environment Facility (www.thegef.org) for
their support and financial contributions to the preparation of this report.
We also extend our thanks to all the various ministries, national partners, team leaders,
teams of consultants, the Project Management Team, the National Communication
Support Programme, the final editor and all other individuals who devoted their time
and energy to this effort.
VI
Contents
Forewordv
Acknowledgmentvi
Contentsvii
List of Figures, Tables and Boxesx
Resource Personsxiii
Abbreviations and Acronymsxiv
Glossaryxviii
Executive Summary20
1
NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES23
1.1
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING24
1.2
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY24
1.3
CLIMATE26
1.3.1
Precipitation26
1.3.2
Air Temperature27
1.3.3
Wind27
1.3.4
Air Humidity27
1.3.5
El Niño28
1.4
NATURAL RESOURCES28
1.4.1
Soil and Minerals28
1.4.2
Water Resources28
1.4.3
Ecosystems29
1.5
POPULATION32
1.6
GOVERNMENT34
1.7
ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT34
1.8
OTHER SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS36
1.8.1
Transport37
1.8.2
Waste37
1.8.3
Health37
1.9
POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK38
1.10
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE39
1.11
REFERENCES42
2
NATIONAL GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 200843
2.1
INTRODUCTION44
2.2
METHODOLOGY44
2.3
EMISSION INVENTORY OVERVIEW44
2.4
GHG INVENTORY BY SECTOR45
2.4.1 Emissions from the Energy Sector
45
2.4.2 Emissions from Industrial Processes
48
2.4.3 GHG Emissions from the AFOLU Sector
48
2.4.3.1
GHG emissions from agriculture48
2.4.3.2 Emissions from forestry and other land uses
49
2.4.4
Emissions from Waste54
2.5
GHG EMISSIONS BY GAS54
2.5.1 Emissions of Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )54
2.5.2 Emissions of Methane (CH4 )54
2.5.3
Emissions of Other Gases55
2.6
KEY CATEGORIES55
2.7
UNCERTAINTIES56
2.8CO2 EMISSIONS (REFERENCE APPROACH)56
2.9
INTERNATIONAL BUNKERS57
2.10
EMISSIONS FORECASTS57
2.10.1
Energy57
2.10.2
Manufacturing58
2.10.3 Emissions from Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses
59
2.10.4
Waste62
2.11
REFERENCES62
3
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT AND ADAPTATION STRATEGY64
3.1
INTRODUCTION64
3.2
BASELINE CLIMATE CONDITIONS64
3.3
EXPECTED CLIMATE-CHANGE AND SEA-LEVEL-RISE PROJECTIONS
66
February 2013
VII
3.4
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT68
3.4.1
Water Resources68
3.4.1.1
Rivers68
3.4.1.2
Lakes and wetlands69
3.4.1.3
Groundwater aquifers70
3.4.1.4
Impacts on water resources70
3.4.2
Agriculture71
3.4.2.1
Impacts on agriculture72
3.4.3
Ecology and Geomorphology73
3.4.3.1 Impacts on ecosystems and coastal zones
76
3.4.4
Socio-Economy77
3.4.4.1
Population77
3.4.4.2
Government77
3.4.4.3
Economy78
3.4.4.4
Land-use80
3.4.4.5
Transport81
3.4.4.6
Energy supply82
3.4.4.7
Waste82
3.4.4.8
Impact on the Socio-Economy82
3.4.5
Tourism83
3.4.5.1 Impacts on the tourism sector
85
3.4.6
Human Health85
3.4.6.1 The current health care infrastructure of Suriname
87
3.4.6.2
Monitoring diseases of concern88
3.4.6.3
Impacts on human health88
3.5
ADAPTATION ASSESSMENT89
3.5.1
Description of MCA89
3.5.2 Proposed Adaptation Strategies for Water Resources
90
3.5.3 Proposed Adaptation Strategies Related to Geomorphology
and Ecology90
3.5.4 Proposed Adaptation Strategies for Ecosystems
92
3.5.5 Proposed Adaptation Strategies for Agriculture
92
3.5.6 Proposed Socio-economic Adaptation Strategies
93
3.5.7 Proposed Adaptation Measures for Tourism
94
VIII
3.5.8 Proposed Adaptation Strategies for Human Health
95
3.6
REFERENCES99
4
MITIGATION MEASURES101
4.1
INTRODUCTION102
4.2
METHODOLOGY 102
4.3
STRUCTURE OF GHG EMISSIONS ACCORDING TO GHG INVENTORY
103
4.4
MACRO-ECONOMIC SITUATION OF SURINAME
103
4.5
SCREENING OF MITIGATION OPTIONS106
4.6
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SCENARIOS
108
4.6.1
Energy Sector109
4.6.1.1 Energy resources and technologies
109
4.6.1.2
GHG projections110
4.6.1.3 Key mitigation options for the energy sector
112
4.6.1.4 GHG Projections for the Energy Sector
116
4.6.1.5 Negative Effects of Hydro-energy
116
4.6.2
Non-Energy Sector116
4.6.2.1
GHG Projections117
4.6.2.2
GHG projections for agriculture119
4.6.2.3 Key mitigation options for agriculture
119
4.6.2.4
GHG projections for forestry120
4.6.2.5 Key mitigation options for forestry
121
4.6.2.6 GHG Projections for the Non-energy Sector
122
4.7
RESULTS122
4.8
BARRIERS AND CORRESPONDING POLICIES
123
4.9
REFERENCES125
Contents
5
OTHER INFORMATION
127
5.1
INTRODUCTION128
5.2
STEPS TAKEN TO INTEGRATE CLIMATE CHANGE
128
5.2.1
Background128
5.2.2 National Policy and Institutional Organisation
128
5.2.3
Current Situation129
5.3
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND CAPACITY BUILDING
130
5.4
SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION AND RESEARCH/STUDIES TO ADAPT TO
AND MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE132
5.4.1 Systematic Observation of Climate Change
132
5.4.2 Climate-change research and studies
133
5.5
INFORMATION ON EDUCATION, TRAINING AND PUBLIC AWARENESS
135
5.5.1
Educational Programmes135
5.5.2
University Studies and Courses136
5.5.3
Public Awareness136
5.6
INFORMATION AND NETWORKING136
5.7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS137
5.8
REFERENCES138
6
6.6
PROPOSED PROJECTS FOR FINANCING146
6.6.1 Paragraph 52: Proposed Financing Projects
146
6.6.2 Paragraph 53: Adaptation Measures – Opportunities
and Barriers148
6.7
COUNTRY-SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGY AND CAPACITY-BUILDING NEEDS;
ASSISTANCE RECEIVED148
6.7.1 Paragraph 54: Technology Transfer
148
6.7.2 Paragraph 55: Other Relevant Needs and Areas for Capacity
Building149
6.8
REFERENCES150
Appendix I Ch.2: Emissions 2008 (in Gg CO2 Equivalents)152
Appendix II, Ch.2: 2008 GHG Energy Reference Approach
155
Appendix III, Ch.3: Trends in Annual Rainfall
157
Appendix IV, Ch.4: Energy Sector160
Appendix V, Ch.4: Non-energy Sector162
Appendix VI, List of Interviewed Persons and Organisations
165
GAPS AND CONSTRAINTS140
6.1
INTRODUCTION140
6.2
FINANCIAL, TECHNICAL AND CAPACITY NEEDS;
GAPS AND CONSTRAINTS140
6.2.1 Self-reflection on Progress and Gaps
140
6.2.2 Constraints within the Energy Sector
142
6.2.3 Constraints within the Agriculture Sector
143
6.2.4 Constraints within the Forestry Sector
143
6.3
FROM FNC TO SNC: THE PROCESS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
IMPROVEMENT144
6.4
PARAGRAPH 50: CONTRIBUTIONS FOR SNC ACTIVITIES
145
6.5
PARAGRAPH 51: CONTRIBUTIONS FOR CLIMATE-CHANGE-RELATED
ACTIVITIES145
February 2013
IX
List of Figures, Tables and Boxes
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2.4: 2008 GHG DISTRIBUTION, ENERGY SECTOR, IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS
48
FIGURE 2.5: 2008 DISTRIBUTION OF GHGS, AGRICULTURE
48
2008 LIVESTOCK EMISSIONS IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS
FIGURE 1.1: GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF SURINAME
24
FIGURE 2.6: FIGURE 1.2: GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF SURINAME
25
(ENTERIC FERMENTATION)49
FIGURE 1.3:
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF SURINAME
25
FIGURE 2.7: FIGURE 1.4: AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN SURINAME – DIFFERENCES
2008 EMISSIONS FROM LIVESTOCK IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS
(MANURE MANAGEMENT)49
ACROSS THE COUNTRY26
FIGURE 2.8:
TOTAL FOREST LAND51
FIGURE 1.5: ANNUAL RAINFALL, 1900 TO 2008, FOR PARAMARIBO
FIGURE 2.9: GOLD MINING ACTIVITIES THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY
53
FIGURE 1.6:
AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURE FOR THREE (COASTAL)
FIGURE 2.10: 2008 EMISSIONS BY LAND-USE TYPE (IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS)
54
LOCATIONS27
FIGURE 2.11: 2008 SINK SOURCES IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS54
FIGURE 1.7: FIGURE 2.12: CH4 EMISSIONS BY SOURCE55
(PARAMARIBO)27
FIGURE 2.13: TOP TEN EMITTERS FOR 2008
56
FIGURE 1.8: LAND-USE PERCENTAGES OF SURINAME’S TOTAL LAND AREA
28
FIGURE 2.14: FUTURE EMISSIONS DEVELOPMENT, 2008-2025, ENERGY SECTOR
57
FIGURE 1.9: ECOSYSTEMS OF SURINAME
29
FIGURE 2.15: CH4 EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, 2002-2009
61
FIGURE 1.10: PROTECTED AREAS OF SURINAME
32
FIGURE 2.16:
FORECAST OF CH4 EMISSIONS FROM RICE CULTIVATION
61
FIGURE 1.11: SURINAME’S ETHNIC DIVERSITY
32
FIGURE 2.17: FORECAST OF N2O EMISSIONS61
FIGURE 1.12: POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY PER
FIGURE 3.1: LOCATION OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS
65
ADMINISTRATIVE RESORT33
FIGURE 3.2: HYDROLOGY OF SURINAME
69
FIGURE 1.13: POPULATION OF SURINAME BETWEEN 1981 AND 2010
FIGURE 3.3:
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATES OF SALT INTRUSION AND
FIGURE 1.14: POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS: GENDER AND AGE
26
MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AT CULTUURTUIN STATION
33
INCREASED MEAN WATER LEVEL71
DISTRIBUTION33
FIGURE 3.4: LABOURERS INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURE (2009-2010)
FIGURE 1.15: AGE DISTRIBUTION34
FIGURE 3.5: EXPORT VALUES (MIL. SRD) AND % OF SOME AGRICULTURAL
FIGURE 1.16: GDP AND GDP GROWTH RATE BETWEEN 1990 AND 2010
35
PRODUCTS (2004-2009)72
FIGURE 1.17: NATIONAL INCOME PER CAPITA
35
FIGURE 3.6: OUTLINE OF SURINAME’S MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
74
FIGURE 1.18: RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF DIFFERENT SECTORS TO GDP,
FIGURE 3.7: RELATIVE SHARE OF FORMAL GDP OF EACH SUBSECTOR
80
1990-201036
FIGURE 3.8: AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD MONTHLY CONSUMPTION
80
FIGURE 2.1:
OVERVIEW OF INHABITED AREAS, COASTAL REGION
44
FIGURE 3.9:
LAND-USE IN SURINAME80
FIGURE 2.2: 2008 EMISSIONS BALANCE.(SINKS INCLUDED)
45
FIGURE 3.10: FIGURE 2.3: OVERVIEW 2008 EMISSIONS DISTRIBUTION (IN CO2 EQUIVALENTS;
SINKS NOT EMBEDDED)45
X
72
NUMBER OF REGISTERED MOTOR VEHICLES ON PUBLIC
ROADS, 2004-200981
FIGURE 3.11: TOTAL POPULATION PREDICTIONS FOR 2004, 2014 AND 2024
82
FIGURE 3.12: FUTURE POPULATION PREDICTIONS BY AGE FOR 2004,
FIGURE 4.16: 2014 AND 202482
FIGURE 3.13: POPULATION GROWTH BY AREA FOR 2014, 2019 AND 2014
82
FIGURE 3.14: PEAK ELECTRICITY LOAD IN SURINAME
83
FIGURE 3.15: LEADING CAUSES OF DEATH AS A PERCENTAGE OF ALL DEATHS
COMPILED MITIGATION SCENARIOS VS. COMPILED
BASELINE SCENARIOS123
LIST OF TABLES
IN SURINAME, 2000-2008.85
TABLE 1.1: PROTECTED AREAS OF SURINAME
FIGURE 3.16:
ENDEMIC AREAS OF MALARIA IN SURINAME
TABLE 1.2: AVERAGE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS FOR SURINAME,
FIGURE 3.17: GRAPH SHOWING THE COURSE OF DENGUE IN SURINAME
86
31
2003-200837
FROM 1978-2009.86
TABLE 1.3: FIGURE 3.18: OF UNFCCC REQUIREMENTS IN SURINAME40
DENGUE OCCURRENCES AT TWENTY-NINE MEDICAL
STAKEHOLDERS PARTICIPATING IN THE IMPLEMENTATION
CENTRES IN 200687
TABLE 2.1: 2008 OVERVIEW OF CO2 SINKS44
FIGURE 4.1: GHG EMISSIONS BY ECONOMIC SECTOR
103
TABLE 2.2: 2008 GHG CONTRIBUTIONS FROM ENERGY SUBSECTORS
FIGURE 4.2: POPULATION GROWTH 1995-2028
104
IN Gg CO2 EQUIVALENTS.46
FIGURE 4.3: REAL GDP DEVELOPMENT (%) 2005-2025
104
TABLE 2.3: 2008 CH4 EMISSIONS54
FIGURE 4.4: GDP GROWTH BY SECTOR 2005-2010
105
TABLE 2.4: 2008 N2O EMISSIONS BY SOURCE.55
FIGURE 4.5: CURRENT ACCOUNT BALANCE (USD M) 2005-2009
105
TABLE 2.5: 2008 TOP EMITTERS55
2008 APPARENT CONSUMPTION AND ACTUAL CO2 EMISSIONS
FIGURE 4.6: EMPLOYMENT FORECAST106
TABLE 2.6: FIGURE 4.7: BASELINE FORECAST, ENERGY SECTOR
(REFERENCE APPROACH).56
FIGURE 4.8: CO2 EQ REDUCTION FROM MITIGATION OPTIONS IN THE
TABLE 2.7: 2008 EMISSIONS FROM INTERNATIONAL BUNKERS IN Gg.
57
ELECTRICITY GENERATION SUBSECTOR113
TABLE 2.8: GHG GASES FROM ENERGY SECTOR, 2005-2008
58
FIGURE 4.9: TABLE 2.9:
EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE SECTOR, 1994 AND 2002-2008
59
ELECTRICITY GENERATION114
TABLE 2.10: CH4 EMISSIONS FROM ENTERIC FERMENTATION (Gg)
60
FIGURE 4.10: TABLE 2.11: CH4 EMISSIONS (IN Gg) FROM MANURE MANAGEMENT,
111
BASELINE SCENARIO VS. MITIGATION SCENARIO FOR
BASELINE SCENARIO VS. MITIGATION SCENARIO,
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES & CONSTRUCTION114
1994 AND 2002-2008.60
FIGURE 4.11: BASELINE SCENARIO VS. MITIGATION SCENARIO, TRANSPORT
116
TABLE 3.1:
AVERAGE DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OF SURINAME’S RIVERS
68
FIGURE 4.12: COMPILED BASELINE VS. MITIGATION SCENARIO ENERGY
116
TABLE 3.2:
ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION DATA
77
FIGURE 4.13: BASELINE FORECAST VS. MITIGATION FOR AGRICULTURE
120
TABLE 3.3: BASELINE ECONOMIC DATA
79
FIGURE 4.14: BASELINE FORECAST VS. MITIGATION FOR FORESTRY
120
TABLE 3.4: SHARE OF FORMAL GDP AND FORMAL EMPLOYMENT FOR
FIGURE 4.15: CO2EQ EMISSION PROJECTION FOR BASELINE AND
EACH SUBSECTOR79
MITIGATION SCENARIO, NON-ENERGY SECTOR122
February 2013
XI
TABLE 3.5: LIST OF BOXES
OVERVIEW OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM
IN SURINAME84
TABLE 3.6: COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF VULNERABLE SECTORS,
EXPECTED IMPACTS, AND PROPOSED ADAPTATION OPTIONS
TABLE 4.1: TOP TEN EMITTERS 2008 IN Gg CO2EQ106
BOX 5.1 DESCRIPTION OF REDD+132
96
TABLE 4.2: SCREENING CRITERIA107
TABLE 4.3: SCREENING OF MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR ENERGY
SUPPLY, TRANSPORT AND INDUSTRYSECTOR107
TABLE 4.4: SCREENING OF MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR AGRICULTURE AND
FORESTRY SECTORS108
TABLE 4.5: CO2 EMISSION FROM ALL FUELS FOR THE ENERGY SECTOR
(REFERENCE APPROACH)110
TABLE 4.6: ENERGY SECTOR ACCORDING TO 2006 IPCC GUIDELINES
(SECTORAL APPROACH)110
TABLE 4.7:
EXPECTED HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
112
TABLE 4.8:
EXPECTED BIOMASS PROJECTS
113
TABLE 4.9: OTHER POSSIBLE RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS
113
TABLE 4.10: POSSIBLE TRANSPORT PROJECTS115
TABLE 4.11: EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH AND EXPECTED URBAN
EXPANSION117
TABLE 4.12: POTENTIAL AREAS FOR MANGROVE AFFORESTATION
TABLE 4.13: CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT SECTORS TO OVERALL REDUCTION 122
TABLE 4.14: SUMMARY OF GHG EMISSIONS
123
TABLE 4.15 BARRIERS FOR ENERGY SECTOR
123
TABLE 4.16
BARRIERS FOR AGRICULTURE SECTOR
124
TABLE 4.17
BARRIERS FOR FORESTRY SECTOR
124
TABLE 6.1:
CATEGORISATION OF COMMON NEEDS
142
TABLE 6.2:
OVERVIEW OF MAIN CLIMATE-CHANGE-RELATED ACTIVITIES
145
TABLE 6.3:
TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ACCORDING TO THEME
149
TABLE 6.4:
LIST OF INTERVIEWED ORGANISATIONS AND PERSONS
151
XII
122
BOX 5.2 THE GLOBE PROGRAM136
Resource Persons
Editors
James A. Surges Priscilla Setrowidjojo-Karijodrono
Cheryll-Ann Mans
Nancy del Prado
Project Team
Final Editor
Nancy del Prado
Project Manager
Priscilla Setrowidjojo-Karijodrono
Project Counterpart Directorate for
Environment
Cheryll-Ann Mans
Project Assistant Second National
Communication Project
Chapter National Circumstances
Rutger de Wolf (Environmental Services and Support)
Chapter Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Cornelis BeckerTeam Leader
Ria JharapEnergy Sector
Jimmy NarainEnergy Sector
Maureen Playfair
Land Use and Forestry
Karin SpongIndustry and Waste
Lydia OriAgriculture Sector
Chapter Mitigation Measures
Sheila Bhairo-MarhéTeam Leader
Jimmy NarainEnergy Sector
Robert Tjien FoohAgriculture Sector
Ivan ApapoeEconomy
Chapter Other Information
Ria Jharap
Chapter Gaps and Constraints
Gwendolyn Emanuels-Smith
Helyanthe Mac-Donald
Chapter Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation
Dr Siewnath Naipal
Team Leader
Moekiran Amatali
Water Resources
Robert Tjien FoohAgriculture
Dirk Noordam
Ecology and Geomorphology
Ravic Nijbroek Socio-Economy
Sebastian MeaneySocio-Economy
Health and Co-editor of the VA Chapter
Christiaan Max Huisden
February 2013
XIII
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ABS
General Bureau for Statistics (Stichting Algemeen Bureau
voor de Statistiek)
AdeKUS
Anton de Kom University of Suriname
CDAP
Capacity Development Action Plan
CDM
Clean Development Mechanism
CELOS
Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname (Centrum voor
Agrarisch Onderzoek in Suriname)
CFC
Chlorofluorocarbon
CHM
Clearing-House Mechanism
CI Suriname
Conservation International Suriname (NGO)
CIS
Coastal Information System
CMIS
Caribbean Modelling Initiative
COP
Conference of Parties
CPACC
Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change
BOG
Bureau of Public Health Service (Bureau Openbare
Gezondheidszorg)
CSNR
Central Suriname Nature Reserve
CZM
Coastal Zone Management
BUZA
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken)
DC
District Commissioner (District Commissaris)
CAREC
Caribbean Epidemiology Centre
DM
Dry Matter
CARICOM
Caribbean Community
DNA
Designated National Authority
CARIFORUM
The Caribbean Forum of African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) States
E(S)IA
Environmental (& Social) Impact Assessment
CCAC
Climate-Change Advisory Committee
EBS
Energy Company Suriname (NV Energiebedrijven Suriname)
CCCCC
Caribbean Community Climate-Change Centre
ENSO
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
CCD
Convention to Combat Desertification
EWS Early Warning System
CCDA
Climate Compatible Development Agency
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organisation
CD4CDM
Capacity Development for Clean Development Mechanism
FDI
Foreign Direct Investment
ADRON
Anne van Dijk Rice Institute Nickerie (Anne van Dijk
Rijstonderzoekcentrum Nickerie)
AFOLU
Agriculture Forestry and Other Land Use
ALCOA
Aluminium Company of America
AOSIS
Alliance of Small Island States
ATM
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
Environment (Ministerie van Arbeid, Technologische
Ontwikkeling en Milieu)
BCEF
Biomass Conversion Factor and Expansion Factor
XIV
FFF
Foods Fats and Fertilizers
IGRS
FNC
Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC
IMAC
Inter-Ministerial Advice Commission (Interministriele
Adviescommissie)
GB
Government Gazette (Before independence in 1975)
(Gouvernementsblad)
Institute for Graduate Research and Studies
IPCC
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
GCCA
Global Climate-Change Alliance
IPPU
Industrial Processes and Product Use
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
ITCZ
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
GEF
Global Environment Facility
Gg
Gigagram
KNMI
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (Koningklijk
Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut)
GHG
Greenhouse Gas
LBA
Large-Scale Biosphere Atmosphere
GIS
Geographical Information System
LBB
National Forest Service (Dienst Land’s Bos Beheer)
GLIS
Land Registration and Information System (Grondregistratie
en Land Informatie Systeem)
LDC
Least Developed Country
LEAP
Long Range Energy Alternatives Planning System
GLOBE
Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment
LULUCF
Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry
GoS
Government of Suriname
GPS
Global Positioning System
LVV
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries
(Ministerie van Landbouw, Veeteelt en Visserij)
GWh
Giga watt Hour
MA
Mitigation Assessment
Ha
Hectare
HFLD
High Forest Cover, Low Deforestation
HVGO
Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil
HWP
Harvested Wood Products
IADB
Inter-American Development Bank
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
MAS
Maritime Authority in Suriname (Maritieme Autoriteit van
Suriname)
MCA
Multi-Criteria Analysis
MDG
Millennium Development Goal
MDS
Meteorological Service (Meteorologische Dienst van Suriname)
MSL
Mean Sea Level
MUMA
Multiple-Use Management Area
February 2013
XV
MW
Megawatt
MZ
Medical Mission for the Interior of Suriname
(Medische Zending Suriname)
NCAP I /
NCAP II
Netherlands Climate Assistance Programme, Phase I and II
NCCAP
National Climate-Change Action Plan
NCCR
National Coordination Centre for Emergency (Nationaal
Coördinatie Centrum voor Rampenbeheersing)
NCCSAP
Netherlands Climate-Change Studies Assistance Program
NCSA
National Capacity Self-Assessment
NH
Ministry of Natural Resources (Ministerie van Natuurlijke
hulpbronnen)
NIMOS
National Institute for Environment and Development in
Suriname (Nationaal Instituut voor Milieu en Ontwikkeling
in Suriname)
PRECIS
Providing Regional Climates for Impact Studies (Regional
climate modelling system)
REDD+ Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
RGD
Regional Health Service (Regionale Gezondheidsdienst)
RIL
Reduced Impact Logging
RO
Ministry of Regional Development (Ministerie van
Regionale Ontwikkeling)
RGB
Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and Forest Management
(Ministerie van Ruimtelijke Ordening, Grond- en Bosbeheer)
RPP
Readiness Preparation Proposal
SAP
Structural Adjustment Programme (Structureel
Aanpassingsprogramma)
SB
Government Gazette (After independence in 1975) (Staatsblad)
SBB
Foundation for Forest Management and Production Control
NKAP
National Climate Action Plan (Nationaal Klimaat Actie Plan)
(Stichting voor Bosbeheer en Bostoezicht)
NMR
National Council for the Environment (Nationale Milieu Raad)
SCF
Suriname Conservation Foundation
OAS
Organisation of American States
SER
State of the Environment Report
OP
National Development Plan (Nationaal Ontwikkelingsplan)
SLR Sea-Level Rise
OW
Ministry of Public Works (Ministerie van Openbare Werken)
SMME
Small, Medium or Micro Enterprise
PAHO
Pan-American Health Organisation
SMNR
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources
PINs
Project Idea Notes
SNC
Second National Communication to the UNFCCC
PLOS
Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation
(Ministerie van Planning en Ontwikkelingssamenwerking)
SPS
National Planning Office (Stichting Planbureau Suriname)
SRD
Surinamese Dollar
XVI
SRES
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
SURALCO
Suriname Aluminium Company
SWD
Solid Waste Disposal
SWM
Suriname Water Company (Surinaamsche Waterleiding Maatschappij)
TOE
Ton Oil Equivalent
UNCBD
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
UNCCD
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organisation
UNFCCC
URC
UNEP RISOE Centre
VA
Vulnerability Assessment
VLIR-OI
Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad- Own Initiative
WTO
World Trade Organisation
February 2013
XVII
Glossary
Abatement
The reduction of sources of GHG emissions.
Afforestation
Planting of new forest on lands that historically have not contained
forest.
Baseline
Baseline (or reference) is any datum against which change is
measured. In this report it represents a “future baseline” which is
a projected future set of conditions excluding the driving factor
of interest
Biofuel
A fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible oils
produced by plants.
Biomass
The total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume; recently
dead plant material is often included as dead biomass. The quantity
of biomass is expressed in either terms of dry weight or of energy,
carbon or nitrogen content.
Bunker fuel
Any type of fuel used aboard ships.
CO2 Equivalent
The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the same
amount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases.
Carbon flux
The rate of flow of a carbon per unit area, which has the dimensions
[quantity]/([time]•[area].
Carbon sink
A natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some
carboncontaining chemical compound for an indefinite period. The
process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from
the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration.
XVIII
Climate
variability
Refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as
standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate
on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather
events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within
the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or
anthropogenic external forcing (external variability).
Emissions
The release of GHGs and/or their precursors into the atmosphere
over a specified area and period of time.
Energy efficiency
Ratio of energy output of a conversion process or of a system to its
energy inputs.
Global-warming potential
An index, based upon radiative properties of well-mixed greenhouse
gases, measuring the radiative forcing of a unit mass of a given
well-mixed greenhouse gas in today’s atmosphere integrated
over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. The
GWP represents the combined effect of the differing times these
gases remain in the atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in
absorbing outgoing thermal infrared radiation. The Kyoto Protocol
is based on GWPs from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame.
Greenhouse
gases
Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and
anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths
within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface,
the atmosphere and clouds. This property causes the greenhouse
effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O),
methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in
the earth’s atmosphere.
Hydro energy
Hydropower)
The production of electrical power through the use of the
gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely
used form of renewable energy.
Glossary
Kyoto Protocol
Leakage
Mitigation
Mitigation
assessment
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the Third
Session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in
Kyoto, Japan. It contains legally binding commitments, in addition
to those included in the UNFCCC. Countries included in Annex B
of the Protocol (most countries in the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, and countries with economies
in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic greenhouse
gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride) by
at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to
2012.
The part of emissions reductions in Annex B countries that may be
offset by an increase of the emission in the non-constrained countries
above their baseline levels. This can occur through (i) relocation
of energy-intensive production in non-constrained regions; (ii)
increased consumption of fossil fuels in these regions through decline
in the international price of oil and gas triggered by lower demand
for these energies; and (iii) changes in incomes (thus in energy
demand) because of better terms of trade. Leakage also refers to a
situation in which a carbon sequestration activity (e.g., tree planting)
on one piece of land inadvertently, directly or indirectly, triggers an
activity, which in whole or part, counteracts the carbon effects of
the initial activity.
Anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the
sinks of greenhouse gases.
Peat
Solid fuel formed from the partial decomposition of dead vegetation
under conditions of high humidity and limited air access (initial
stage of coalification).
Reforestation
Planting of forests on lands that have previously contained forests
but that have been converted to some other use.
Renewable
energy
Energy sources sustainable within a short time-frame relative to the
Earth’s natural cycles. These include non-carbon technologies such
as solar energy, hydropower and wind, as well as carbon-neutral
technologies such as biomass.
Sequestration
The process of increasing the carbon content of a carbon reservoir
other than the atmosphere. Biological approaches to sequestration
include direct removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through land-use change, afforestation, reforestation, and practices
that enhance soil carbon in agriculture. Physical approaches include
separation and disposal of carbon dioxide from flue gases or from
processing fossil fuels to produce hydrogen-rich and carbon dioxiderich fractions, as well as long-term underground storage in depleted
oil and gas reservoirs, coal seams, and saline aquifers.
Shifting cultivation
Agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily,
then abandoned. This often involves the clearing of a piece of land,
followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming until the
soil loses fertility. Now inadequate for crop production, the land is
reclaimed by natural vegetation.
Sink
Any process, activity or measure that removes a greenhouse gas,
an aerosol, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosol from the
atmosphere.
Trend
Tendency of certain elemental characteristics of a system to increase
or decrease as one progresses along.
A national-level analysis of the various technologies and practices
that have the capacity to mitigate climate change.
February 2013
XIX
Executive Summary
National Circumstances
National GHG Emissions 2008
Suriname is located on the north-eastern coast of South America, between 2° and
6° north latitude and 54° and 58° west longitude. It is bordered to the east by French
Guiana, to the south by Brazil, to the west by Guyana and to the north by the Atlantic
Ocean. In 2003, Suriname had about 481,000 inhabitants. Population growth is
approximately 1% per year. The total area of Suriname is about 165,000 km2.
As part of Suriname’s Second National Communication (SNC) to the UNFCCC, a
national GHG Inventory with base year 2008 was completed, using IPCC2006 software.
This inventory was conducted for the following sectors: Energy; Industry (IPPU);
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), as well as Waste. Emission data from
international bunkers and marine bunkers were also included. The same 100-year time
horizon as that used for the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth
Assessment Report on Global Warming Potential (IPCC AR4 GWP) was used for the
calculation of CO2 equivalents for Suriname.
The climate in Suriname is of a semi-humid type, influenced by the up and down
movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Hence, two rainy and two
dry seasons are observed annually over the largest part of the country, with a mean
annual air temperature of about 27oC, ranging from 26oC in January to 31oC in October.
Suriname is home to many unique ecosystems. In the coastal plain complex, mangrove
forests are found, and these are important breeding, feeding and nursery grounds for
fish, marine invertebrates, sea turtles and enormous numbers of migratory birds. This
coastal region is considered to be the principal South American wintering ground
for shore birds from boreal and arctic regions. High biological diversity has been
inventoried in the tropical rainforests of Suriname.
Forest covers about 91% or 15 million ha of the total land area of the country, of
which about 2 million ha or 13% has the status of Protected Area (four Multiple-use
Management Areas, one nature park and eleven Nature Reserves). Forests comprise
one of Suriname’s most important natural resources. Other important natural resources
are bauxite, kaolin and hydrocarbons.
The main source of CO2 production is the combustion of fossil fuel (49%), followed
by Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) (31%) and Agriculture (19%).
The growth of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions sharply decreased in 1999 due to the
closure of the country’s aluminium smelter, but emissions have been showing growth
again over the past few years.
20
Carbon dioxide accounts for the greatest percentage of emitted GHGs in Suriname.
Total GHG emissions for the inventory year 2008 were 5,677.94 CO2equivalents (CO2eq).
With 3,788.15 gigagrams of carbon dioxide (Gg CO2), the energy sector is the largest
GHG source, contributing over 66% of total GHG emissions. Though the main source of
methane emissions is the agriculture sector at 653.80 CO2eq, the entire AFOLU sector
nevertheless acts as a sink, with an absorption of -8,243.05 Gg CO2eq. This makes
Suriname a net sink for CO2 (-2,570.91 GgCO2 or -1,883.09 Gg CO2eq). Methane
emissions from waste are negligible. The majority of methane emissions from the
agriculture sector are attributed to rice cultivation and enteric fermentation. Nitrous
oxide emissions equal about 0.03Gg (7.48 Gg CO2eq). Most of these emissions come
from the AFOLU sector.
The Surinamese forest absorbs a significant amount of carbon dioxide, about -1,007
Gg CO2 annually. The regrowth of vegetation on former croplands also provides a sink
of about -7,236 Gg CO2.
Vulnerability Assessment
The vulnerability assessment was conducted with attention primarily to the impacts
of climate change on water resources, agriculture, ecology & geomorphology, socioeconomic factors and health. Critical issues have been emphasised in each section of the
vulnerability assessment. Water resources in Suriname may experience stress as a result
of climate change, since the combined effects evapo-transpiration and prolonged
Executive Summary
dry periods will exert additional pressure on existing water resources in the country.
ministries, provided direction and policy contexts for the mitigation assessment.
Water resources in Suriname are mainly used for agriculture (especially for rice
cultivation), energy generation (hydropower) and consumption (potable water).
Emphasis is placed on urban areas, which are susceptible to flooding as a result of the
cumulative impacts of abundant rainfall, poor drainage, and rising sea and river water
levels. Additional attention is paid to excessive rainfall in the interior, which caused
severe flooding in 2006 and 2008. Emphasis in the agricultural sector is placed on food
security and food safety. The coastal and geomorphology section of the vulnerability
assessment focuses on coastline changes relative to sea-level rise and climate change.
The assessment was conducted on the basis of ad-hoc studies, experience gained in this
area, and the expert judgment of consultants. Emphasis in the human health section
is placed on monitoring occurrences of dengue and malaria. Finally, the focus of the
socio-economic analysis is primarily placed on existing vulnerabilities among certain
groups in society, such as women in the country’s interior and farming communities.
A low-emission development strategy for Suriname must be driven by the fact that a
great part of the population and their economic activities exist at or below sea level.
This creates extreme vulnerability in the event of a natural disaster. The high economic
value of the nation’s forests is at risk due to deforestation rates, mostly the result of gold
mining and infrastructural and agricultural development. A response to the threat of
climate change must correspond to the country’s specific needs and resources.
The climate-change scenario used for the vulnerability assessment in Suriname can be
briefly described as follows:
- temperature rise between 2-3 degrees Celsius;
- rainfall decrease of 10%;
- increase of weather extremes, including wind; and
- a sea-level rise of 1m.
All projections are made for the year 2100.
The projected baseline value for GHG emissions—in which no mitigation activities
take place—shows an increase of 94% by 2025 relative to the year 2008, with per capita
emissions increasing by 38% for the same period. If executed as described in this report,
without hampering national development, mitigation activities will lead to a reduction
of GHG emissions of 38% from this baseline value by 2025 and a decrease of 13% in per
capita emissions for the same period. Yet certain barriers must be overcome, such as a
lack of financing, technological capacity, training and public awareness.
Mitigation Assessment
Other Information
The GHG mitigation assessment for this Communication provides an analysis of various
technologies and practices that have the capacity to reduce GHG emissions in the
sectors of energy, transport, forestry and agriculture.
One of the aims of this SNC is to provide any other information that Suriname, as a
non-Annex I Party, considers relevant to the achievement of the objectives of the
Convention. Suriname’s development policy uses an integrated approach towards
economic, social and environmental sustainability, but it still lacks an integrated
climate-change policy. The country aims to combat the effects of climate change
The mitigation assessment provides projections of GHG emissions for energy and
non-energy sectors for the period 2008 to 2025 and uses historical data in order to
establish the bases for projections. National studies and policy plans on energy, forest
management and agriculture, together with information from key persons within
The majority of the country’s energy needs are met by hydropower and the remainder
by diesel generators. The energy sector is the main source of GHG emissions (59%).
Mitigation strategies therefore consider options such as renewable energy and clean
transportation, and to a lesser extent options in forestry and agriculture. Lack of data
prevented the elaboration of mitigation activities through a REDD+ scheme, but this is
definitely an option to be considered.
February 2013
21
Executive Summary
through its Development Plan (OP 2012-2016), in which a clear need for adaptation
measures on the low-lying coast is articulated, as well as a need for a cross-sectorial
Climate-Compatible Development Strategy.
Technology transfer plays a significant role in several adaptation and mitigation
activities and programmes, including mangrove forest restoration, building climateresilient infrastructure and the use of high-tech solutions for data management and
early warning systems. Mitigation technology centres primarily on energy efficiency,
renewable energy, and emerging low-carbon and energy-generating techniques.
Suriname places a strong emphasis on capacity building and aims to be actively
engaged in climate-change issues. The country’s intention is to generate competence,
improve the effectiveness of institutions that work within the context of climate change
and promote an enabling environment for dealing with the issue. Therefore, capacity
building is embedded in most activities and projects related to climate change.
Recent and future climate changes in Suriname have been and continue to be
explored using a combination of observations and climate-model projections. Most
of these are conducted by the Anton de Kom University of Suriname (AdeKUS), in
collaboration with other universities in the Caribbean region. Because of the country’s
high vulnerability to the effects of climate change, the government of Suriname has
carried out several studies that establish measures to mitigate and facilitate adequate
adaptation. Various institutions have been involved in conducting and implementing
these studies.
Over the past few years, many key governmental and non-governmental stakeholders
have acknowledged the fact that education and awareness campaigns are of the
utmost importance for addressing climate-change issues.
Gaps and Constraints
Suriname’s First National Communication (FNC) of 2005 as well as the UNFCCC National
Capacity Self-Assessment on the issue of climate change (2008) identified several gaps
in meeting the convention’s requirements. A number of these gaps and constraints
remain.
22
A recent step taken by the government is the prioritisation of climate-change, through
the establishment of a taskforce within the Office of the President. Suriname’s previous
and current Development Plans clearly state that, due to the country’s vulnerability,
the focus is more on adaptation.
Thanks to expertise gained in the FNC process, local experts working on the SNC have
been better able to assume tasks and delegate subtasks. Such capacity building on
the individual level needs to be accelerated and merged with institutional capacity
building and an upgrading of the legal framework. Suriname’s human, technical and
financial resources are scarce when compared to the immensity and complexity of the
many aspects involved in dealing with climate change. Currently, the country’s basic
needs in terms of the issue of climate change are those of:
- substantially increasing the pool of climate-change experts and institutionalising
processes of assessment, mitigation and adaptation to climate change;
- creating data and information networks and initiating continuous dialogue among
the public, NGOs and the private sector;
- building capacities in project-development, monitoring and evaluation skills for
climatechange projects, in order to capitalise effectively on available funding;
- increasing awareness in and among the most vulnerable groups in the coastal
zone and the interior;
- researching the most feasible adaptation scenarios, especially considerin
Suriname’s unique challenges with regard to land-tenure and illegal activities on
private- and government-owned property;
- finding financing for the construction of protection mechanisms and other
technologies needed for adaptation to climate change; and
- updating and adopting new legislation and resources for effectively monitoring
compliance to laws and regulations.
Various projects initiated and completed since Suriname’s FNC have clearly established
the need for a climate-change agenda. It is too early to determine the sustainable
impacts of climate-change interventions, projects and programmes. This SNC makes
clear a need for improving interdisciplinary alignment, increasing the number of
experts and institutionalising data collection and research related to climate change.
1. National
Circumstances
Port at the Suriname river | Hedwig – PLU – de la Fuente
February 2013
23
11National
NationalCircumstances
circumstances
1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
1.2 GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY1
The Republic of Suriname is located on the north-eastern coast of the South American
continent between 2° and 6° north latitude and 54° and 58° west longitude (see Figure
1.1). A 370 km-long coastline on the Atlantic Ocean forms the northern border. Suriname
is bordered by the Republic of Guyana to the west, the Federative Republic of Brazil
to the south, and French Guiana to the east. These eastern and western borders are
formed by the Marowijne and Corantijn rivers respectively, and the southern border is
formed by the watershed between the Amazonian basin and the basins of Suriname’s
rivers. The land area of Suriname is about 165,000 km2.
Geologically, over 80% of Suriname consists of the Precambrian Guiana Shield, the
deeply weathered, rainforest-covered hill and mountain lands that stretch east and
south to the Amazon River in Brazil and west to the Orinoco River in Venezuela. Eroded
material from the Guiana Shield was deposited in the subsiding areas to the north. The
oldest outcropping sediments in this coastal area were deposited during three distinct
periods, resulting in three different formations:
- The Zanderij Formation, consisting of medium to coarse sands to sandy clays,
which have been deposited by braided rivers at the foot of the Guiana Shield in
the form of alluvial fans;
- The Coropina Formation, consisting of fine sandy to clayey marine sediments,
which have been deposited north of (and on top of ) the sediments of the Zanderij
Formation. The marine clays were deposited as extensive clay flats and the marine
sands as ridges, which were later severely eroded. The remaining surface deposits
of this formation are found as “islands” surrounded by the sediments of the Mara
Formation; and
- The Mara and Coronie Formations. The Mara Formation consists of marine clays
and peat that were deposited in the eroded areas between the remnants of the
Coropina Formation, and in gullies that had been cut into the former Old Coastal
Plain. The Coronie Formation on the coastal plain is predominantly of marine
origin, but along the main rivers, sediments have been deposited in fluviatile and
estuarine environments. The deposits consist of mudflats of marine clays and
ridges of sands and shells. The finer sediments (clay, silt and fine sand) originate
from the Amazon basin, while coarser sands come from the hinterland2.
Dominican
Republic
Puerto Rico
Trinidad & Tabago
French
The above formations divide Suriname into five main geographic regions which can
be identified from north to south as follows (see Figure 1.2):
- the Near-coastal zone and the Coastline, formed by extensive mud flats and
sandy shell beaches;
-the Young Coastal Plain, ranging in breadth from about 20 km in the east to
about 100 km in the west, with height variations of 0-4 m above mean sea level
(MSL);
Figure 1.1: Geographical setting of Suriname.
24
1
2
This section is largely based on Noordam, 2011.
In Suriname, the term “hinterland” refers to the large, lowly-populated, mostly forested area of the country south of the coastal zone.
1 National Circumstances
-the Old Coastal Plain, formed on remnants of ridges, gullies and mud flats, with
height variations of 4-10 m above MSL;
-the Cover Landscape (also known as the Savannah Belt), consisting of coarse
bleached white sand and yellowish brown sands to clay loams, ranging from 10100 m above MSL; and
-the Interior Uplands, which form the Guiana highland region, with highly
weathered Precambrian formations and heights of more than 100 m above MSL.
Elevation
<0m
0 -1m
1 - 4m
4 - 10m
10 - 50m
50 - 100m
100 - 250m
250 - 500m
500 - 750m
750 - 1000m
> 1000m
Young Coastal Plain
Old Coastal Plain
Cover Landscape
Interior
0
5
100
200km
Figure 1.3: Topographical map of Suriname.
Figure 1.2: Geographic regions of Suriname.
The highest mountain of Suriname has an elevation of about 1,200 meters. The
remainder of the country consists of a monotonous landscape type, with heights of
50-500 meters above MSL. The coastal zone is a low-lying flat area with many swamps,
some of which contain open waters. All local rivers flow in a general south-to-north
direction, ultimately discharging their water into the sea (see Figure 1.3).
The coast of Suriname is part of a coastal system that extends from the mouth of the
Amazon River in Brazil to the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. It is a muddy
coastline, where mud—including fine sands—from the Amazon Basin is deposited. The
coast is subjected to active geomorphological development, determined by a system
of cyclic accretion and erosion. Both are linked to the presence of shoreface-attached
mudflats and mud banks3, which migrate continuously to the west. Essentially, this
migration is the result of deposition of fluid mud on the west side and the simultaneous
erosion of the east side. The mudflats are separated by intermediate troughs.
Generally speaking, accretion occurs at locations sheltered by the mud banks, whereas
coastal retreat occurs between mud banks, when the coast is unprotected from waves.
Along the coast, there are large differences in accretion/erosion rates, with considerable
accretion, for instance, along the Saramacca coast since 1947 (at least) and on-going
retreat around Coronie and North of Paramaribo.
3
Mud banks have been defined as the sub-tidal extension of intertidal mudflats.
February 2013
25
All four major rivers and their near-coastal subsidiaries have estuarine characteristics.
Large volumes of tidal water and strong tidal currents give these river estuaries more
or less funnel shapes and wide mouths. They are characterised by a mix of fresh
and muddy saline water and by relatively large tidal variations. In the river estuaries,
considerable quantities of marine mud are moved upriver with the intruding tide.
Sedimentation of this mud occurs on the riverbed and as flats on the insides of river
bends. The opposite outer bends may be eroded by the undercutting of the riverbank.
Young Coastal Plain
Old Coastal Plain
Cover Landscape
Interior
Very locally, small sand beaches are found along estuaries, especially of the Marowijne
and the Suriname Rivers. The large amount of sand supplied by a large “moving” beach
from east Suriname has recently formed, and is still forming, a recurved spit that bends
from the east into the Suriname River near Braamspunt.
1.3CLIMATE4
1.3.1PRECIPITATION
Suriname has a tropical climate with abundant rainfall (see Figure 1.4), uniform
temperature, and high humidity. Precipitation amounts vary across the country.
On average, Paramaribo receives 2,210 mm of rainfall annually; Coronie and Nieuw
Nickerie (north-western coast) receive 1,561 mm/year and 1,808 mm/year respectively;
Kwamalasamutu (south Suriname) 2,109 mm/year and Stoelmanseiland (central east
Suriname) 2,445 mm/year (see Figures 1.4 and 1.5). Variation in monthly rainfall results
in two wet and two dry seasons for the northern part of Suriname. In the south, only
one wet and one dry season are distinguished (see Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.4: Average annual rainfall in Suriname – differences across the country
4000
3000
2000
1000
4
This section is largely based on Amatali, 2011.
26
Figure 1.5: Annual rainfall, 1900 to 2008, for Paramaribo
A moving average is added (10 years; orange line).
2005
1995
1970
1975
1980
1960
1950
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
0
1.3.2 AIR TEMPERATURE
The average daily temperature in the coastal region is 27.4º Celsius (C), with a daily
variation of 5°C. The difference between day and night temperatures in the coastal
region can differ by an average of 6-7°C. There is relatively little variation in temperature
between the seasons. January is the coldest month (average 26.6ºC) and October is the
warmest (average 28.5ºC) (see Figure 1.6). Annual variation of the average temperature
is 2-3°C (see Figure 1.7). The interior has relatively similar figures, although variation of
daily temperatures can be larger (10-12°C).
28.0
27.5
27.0
26.5
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1965
28.5
1970
26.0
29.0
Figure 1.7: Mean annual temperature at Cultuurtuin station (Paramaribo)
28.0
˚C
28.5
Paramaribo
27.5
Nieuw Nickerie
Zanderij
27.0
26.5
1.3.3WIND
Winds in Suriname generally move in a north-easterly direction, with an average speed
of 1.3 Beaufort. Maximum average wind speeds occur during the dry seasons, with up
to 1.6 Beaufort in February and a second peak in September and October. Wind speeds
are relatively high along the sea shore and decrease as one moves inland. Wind speeds
of 3 to 4 Beaufort generally occur during the day and drop dramatically during the
evening and night, especially in the interior.
26.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 1.6: Average monthly temperature for three (coastal) locations
(Based on data covering at least twenty years.)
Although Suriname lies outside of the hurricane belt, the country’s weather is
occasionally affected by the tails of hurricanes. Local gales (called sibibusi in Surinamese)
occur before storms, generally at the end of the rainy seasons. During such gales,
maximum wind speeds of 20-30 meters per second have been recorded. Such gales
occur over the entire country and may destroy trees and houses. No information is
available on their frequency.
1.3.4 AIR HUMIDITY
Daily air humidity is on average 80-90%in the coastal regions. It is lower in the central
and southern regions of the country, with an average of 75%. In forested areas, air
humidity depends, among other things, on the penetration of sun radiation. Variations
of relative air humidity are between 70-100% in forested areas and between 50-100%
in open areas.
February 2013
27
1.3.5 EL NIÑO
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which occurs once every 2-7 years, also has
an impact on the climate of Suriname. Studies indicate that El Niño events may cause
rainfall below or above normal. In general during El Niño years, when there is excess
rainfall on the west coast of South America, it is dryer in Suriname.
1.4 NATURAL RESOURCES
The country is endowed with many natural resources, including soil, water, forests
and mineral ores. The fertile soil of the young coastal plain, combined with the large
freshwater swamps and rivers in the north are favourable for large-scale agriculture.
However, the largest part of the country (almost 88% of total land area, see Figure 1.8)
consists of tropical forest, and this is unused or only marginally used by local people
for non-timber forest products. Only 8% of the total land area is cultivated, and the
remaining 4% consists of other non-forested, natural areas (savannahs, swamps and
wetlands). The cultivated area is used for forestry (3.7% of total land area); agriculture
(3.2%) and settlements, mining, and the country’s single hydropower lake (1.3%). Given
its low deforestation rate historically (between 0.03 and 0.04% per year), Suriname is
identified as a High Forest Cover, Low Deforestation (HFLD).
wetlands
1.2%
grasslands
(swamps) 2.0%
unmanaged forest
87.7%
savannahs 0.8%
cultivated area
8,3%
wood production forest 3.7%
unmanaged agricultural land 1.0%
agriculture - crops 0.6%
pasture 0.1%
Exploitation of crude oil, sand and shells takes place in the northern part of the young
coastal zone. Although the interior of the country is mineral-rich, containing a number
of important deposits of bauxite, beryl, copper, diamond, gold, platinum, iron ore,
manganese, pegmatite and tin, exploitation of minerals is focused primarily on bauxite
and gold. Historically, extraction of mineral ores occurred principally in the northern
parts of the interior, but over the last decade, mining activities have been moving
farther south.
shifting cultivation - fallow 1,3 %
shifting cultivation - planted 0,2%
settlements 0,3%
mining areas 0,2%
hydropower lake 0,8%
Figure 1.8 Land-use percentages of Suriname’s total land area
(Based on: Playfair, 2011)
1.4.1 SOIL AND MINERALS
The young coastal plain (consisting of marine clays, peat, and sands and shells) is the
28
most fertile zone of Suriname and has been used in the development of large-scale
agricultural activities. The soils of the old coastal plain (generally composed of clay,
sandy-clay or clayey-sand) offer good opportunities for agricultural development,
especially horticulture. The cover landscape consists of non-bleached sands to
clay loams and bleached coarse sand, which have high infiltration and percolation
rates and are less fertile. Agricultural activities here are therefore limited to the
cultivation of some small-scale dry crops. However, this area plays an important role
in the maintenance of drinking water reserves because the greatest amount of rainfall
percolates into the ground here, replenishing freshwater aquifers. These aquifers
are the main source potable water in the coastal areas (mainly near the capital). The
interior is more hilly and mountainous, mainly composed of weathered and eroded
Precambrian rocks, generally with a moderately thick regolith layer. Agriculture in this
area is mainly limited to shifting cultivation practices. Other human activities, such
as selective logging and exploitation of other natural resources easily augment the
degradation of these relatively poor soils.
1.4.2 WATER RESOURCES
Suriname’s main freshwater source is its abundant annual rainfall. Together with the
topography, soil types and land cover, this results in many streams and large wetlands.
Seven main rivers originate in the interior of the country, annually conveying about
4,800 m3 of fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean—approximately 30% of the annual
rainfall. The Marowijne and the Corantijn Rivers contribute 70% of the total discharge.
Of the remaining rainfall, the largest part evaporates, and only a small part percolates
to the aquifers, replenishing groundwater reserves.
The hilly to mountainous interior has a dense network of streams, while the lowlying coastal area has extensive swamps and fewer streams. Some of these swamps
have salt or brackish water. Surface water resources (rivers, creeks and swamps) are
mainly used for irrigation (e.g. for rice and banana cultivation) and for the generation
of hydropower. Groundwater is mainly used for potable purposes. Excessive extraction
in some areas results in increased intrusion of saltwater, however.
wet areas. Similar forests (known as creek forests) are found along creeks and are
enriched by a large number of species from the surrounding high dryland forest.
1.4.3ECOSYSTEMS5
The terrestrial ecosystems of Suriname can be characterised as follows (see Figure 1.9):
- Ecosystems of brackish water are influenced by coastal changes and tidal
action. This type of area (also known as an estuarine zone) consists of mangrove
forests, locally interrupted by salty to brackish lagoons, low succulent salt-plant
cover and brackish herbaceous swamps. Mangrove forests protect the coastline
and riverbanks from erosion and stimulate accretion. They are breeding grounds for
many species of marine fish and shrimp and contain a high degree of biodiversity.
The estuarine zone of Suriname is a wetland of international importance, containing
the feeding and nesting sites for Caribbean coastal birds and feeding grounds for
migratory birds from North America6. Along the coastline, mainly in the eastern
part of the country, are found sand and shell beaches. These beaches are nesting
places of international importance for four species of sea turtles.
- Slightly inland, freshwater swamps or freshwater wetlands dominate the young
coastal plain and part of the old coastal plain. These wetlands play an important
role in supplying freshwater to the estuarine zone, thus contributing to the
maintenance of the brackish condition of these waters. The swampy areas are
inundated throughout most of the year, allowing a eat layer to accumulate on top
of the mineral soil.
- Low swamp forest, also known as swamp wood, includes palm swamp forest.
Low swamp forests cover about 3% of Suriname and, if no forest fires occur, they
become high swamp forests.
- High swamp forests and creek forests are found in the shallow freshwater
swamps of the coastal plain, where strong fluctuations in surface water levels occur.
This ecosystem comprises the climax vegetation in the ecological succession of
5
6
This section is largely based on Teunissen, 2003.
Suriname is party to the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Figure 1.9: Ecosystems of Suriname
February 2013
29
- High marsh forest (seasonal swamp forest) is found on poorly drained soils.
During rainy seasons, the soil may be totally inundated. In dry seasons, the soil
does not desiccate. Species diversity is intermediate, falling between that of high
swamp forests and high dryland forests. Marsh forests are usually abundant in
palms.
- The largest part of Suriname, about 80%, is covered by high dryland forest which
is found from sea level up to elevations of 400-600 m. General characteristics of this
ecosystem are the presence of a high, dense canopy at 25-45 m, with emergent
trees of up to 50-60 m. The diversity of tree species here is enormous (between
100-300 species per hectare). High dryland forest is an important habitat for large
mammals and at least 500 bird species.
- At higher elevations (above 400 m), high dryland forests of the highlands are
found. These forests are frequently covered in clouds, limiting the average number
of sunshine hours. Furthermore, temperatures are lower, and the average humidity
is higher than in high dryland forests of the lowlands. Epiphytes (such as mosses,
ferns, orchids and bromeliads) are abundant both in numbers and species. The
flora and fauna of these montane forests are quite different from those of lowland
forests.
- Most savannah forests (xerophytic forests) are found in savannah areas. This type
of forest commonly grows on excessively drained soils and on permeable soils
resting on impermeable subsoils, hardpans and rock. As a result, there is little water
in the soil during dry seasons. This vegetation type can also be found in hilly or
mountainous areas of the interior, especially where lateritic caps, conglomerates,
dolerite and granite rocks and sandstones are covered with a thin layer of soil. Here
they are known as mountain savannah forests.
- Open savannahs can be considered as remnants of the extensive Pleistocene
climate savannah that once covered nearly all of Suriname. Savannah ecosystems
only survived where they were frequently burned been distinguished in Suriname.
Most are found scattered over the savannah by indigenous peoples. At present,
ten different types of savannahs have belt. In the absence of fire, savannah
vegetation eventually develops into forest.
Forest exploitation is mainly concentrated in high dryland forest, savannah forest and
high marsh forest. Since Suriname’s forests are poor in number of commercial timber
30
species, only selective logging is practiced in the forestry sector. Timber resources are
exploited on the old coastal plain and the northern part of the interior, with an annual
logging yield of approximately 200,000 m3. The total area of forest that is selectively
logged is estimated at 15,000 ha per year.
The diversity of biological species in Suriname is high. The number of species which
have been identified in Suriname thus far are (ESS 2007):
- approximately 5,100 plant species (mosses, ferns and spermatophytes, or seed
producing plants);
- 318 freshwater fish species;
- approximately 360 marine fish species;
- 102 amphibian species (mainly frogs and toads);
- 175 reptile species (lizards, snakes, turtles and caimans);
- 715 bird species, primarily on the coast, in the savannahs and in closed rainforests;
- 192 mammal species in the sea (dolphins and whales), in freshwater (manatees,
otters), and on land (deer, cats, monkeys, bats, etc.).
Suriname has three types of protected area: 1) Multiple-Use Management Areas
(MUMAs), in which economic activities are allowed as long as specific protection
goals are not threatened; 2) Nature Parks, in which light forms of exploitation
(mainly recreation) are allowed; and 3) Nature Reserves, in which specific species
or ecosystems are protected and human activities are limited. MUMAs throughout
almost the entire coastal area of Suriname protect species such as endangered shore
birds and sea turtles. Representative terrestrial and aquatic (freshwater) ecosystems,
and endangered species that live in them are further protected in Nature Reserves and
Nature Parks across the country. With the establishment of the Central Suriname Nature
Reserve, a complete rainforest and freshwater river system with a large population of
species (including endangered species) has been preserved. The protected areas cover
approximately 13% of the land area of Suriname (see Table 1.1 and Figure 1.10).
Table 1.1 Protected Areas of Suriname
Site name
Marine or
terrestrial
Total terrestrial
area (hectares)
Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
27,000
Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
6,000
Central Suriname Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
1,592,000
Copi Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
28,000
Coppename Monding Nature Reserve
Both
12,000
Galibi Nature Reserve
Both
4,000
Terrestrial
100
Peruvia Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
31,000
Sipaliwini Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
100,000
Wane Kreek Nature Reserve
Terrestrial
45,000
Both
36,000
Terrestrial
12,200
Wia-Wia Nature Reserve
Nature Park
Brownsberg Nature Park
Wild pineapple at Arapahu eiland
Multiple-use Management Area (MUMA)
Both
67,900
Noord Coronie Multiple-use Management Area
Both
27,200
Noord Saramacca Multiple-use Management Area
Both
88,400
North Commewijne-Marowijne Multiple-use
Management Area
Both
61,500
Hedwig – PLU – de la Fuente
Bigi Pan Multiple-use Management Area
Total
Sloth in the Suriname river
Hertenrits Nature Reserve
Spyshopping Guyana Dolphines in the Suriname river
Boven-Coesewijne Nature Reserve
2,138,300
February 2013
31
16
PARAMARIBO
13 2
5
14 4 15
7
WageningenTotness 3 Groningen Lelydorp Moeno 6
Onverwacht Paranam
Albina
8
10
Zanderij
Apura
9
1 Brownsweg
FRENCH
GUIANA
Nieuw-Nickerie
GUYANA
11
Whites
0.6%
Nature Park
1 Brownsberg Nature Park
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Gujaba
Dritabiki
Nature Reserve
2 Hertenrits Nature Reserve
3 Peruvia Nature Reserve
4 Coppenamemonding Nature Reserve
5 Wia-Wia Nature Reserve
6 Wane Creek Nature Reserve
7 Galibi Nature Reserve
8 Upper Coesewijne Nature Reserve
9 Brinkckheuvel Nature Reserve
10 Copi Nature Reserve
11 Central Suriname Nature Reserve
12 Sipaliwini Nature Reserve
Mutiple-Use Management Area (MUMA)
13 Bigi Pan Muma
14 North Coronie M|UMA
15 North Saramacca MUMA
16 North Commewijne / Marowijne MUMA
Chinese
1.8%
Mixed
12.5%
Other
7.0%
Amerindians
3.7%
Creoles
17.7%
Maroons
14.7%
Javanese
14.6%
LEGEND
Kwamalasamutu
12
0
50
BRAZIL
100 km
Water
Nature Park
Lowland
Nature Reserve
Mountains
Multiple-Use Management Area
Hindustanis
27.4%
Town
Road
Figure 1.11: Suriname’s ethnic diversity
Figure 1.10: Protected Areas of Suriname
1.5POPULATION
As of 2008, Suriname had a total population of 517,052, according to the Surinamese
General Bureau of Statistics (ABS). The population is largely concentrated in Paramaribo,
the capital of the country. Suriname’s colonial history has played a major role in the
multi-ethnic composition of its population. Until the abolition of slavery in 1863,
Western Europeans imported slaves from the west coast of Africa. Later, labourers
were attracted from India, Indonesia and China to work on plantations. Suriname’s
population consists of the following ethnic groups: Amerindians (the indigenous
people), Maroons (descendants of runaway slaves), Creoles (of African or mixed
descent), Hindustanis (from the Indian sub-continent), Javanese (from Indonesia),
Chinese, Lebanese, Brazilians, descendants of European settlers and mixes among
these ethnic groups (see Figure 1.11).
32
The official language is Dutch. Sranang Tongo, the lingua franca, and English are widely
spoken as well. Most of the ethnic groups also use their own languages. All major
religions such as Christianity, Hinduism and Islam are practiced, along with traditional
religions.
As of 2004, about 67% of Suriname‘s total population was concentrated in the capital
and 20% in the other coastal districts. The remaining 13% was concentrated in small,
mainly tribal communities along rivers of the interior (see Figure 1.12). The overall
population density was 3.0 people per km², which makes Suriname a very lowly
populated country. The most densely populated districts are Paramaribo and Wanica
with a population density of 1,335 and 194 people per km2, respectively.
The rate of population growth for Suriname has varied over time (see Figure 1.13). For
the last twenty years, however, the growth rate has remained fairly constant between
1.0% and 1.5%. Figure 1.14 shows age and gender distribution of the population as
of 2008. There are slightly more men than women below the age of 55, while the age
category above 55 is dominated by women. According to 2008 figures, almost 62% of
the population was between the ages of 15 and 59 years, while 29% was younger than
15 and 9% was 60 or older (see Figure 1.15). Life expectancy for males is 67.7 years and
for females 71.9 years (MDG 2009).
> 1000
100 - 1000
10 -100
1 - 10
<1
30000
Male
Female
25000
20000
15000
10000
Figure 1.12: Population distribution and density per administrative resort
5000
0.02
0.012
450000
0.01
0.008
400000
0.006
Population growth
Population
80+
75 -79
70 -74
65 -69
60 -64
55 -59
50 -54
45 -49
40 -44
35 -39
30 -34
25 -29
20 -24
0.014
15 -19
0-4
0.016
500000
10 -14
0
0.018
5-9
550000
Figure 1.14: Population characteristics: gender and age distribution
0.004
350000
0.002
0
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
300000
Figure 1.13: Population of Suriname between 1981 and 2010
February 2013
33
1.7 ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
60 & older
9.2%
0-14
29.1%
15-59
61.7%
Figure 1.15: Age distribution
1.6GOVERNMENT7
Suriname has a constitutional democracy with a president who is both the chief of
state and the head of the government. The fifty-one members of the national assembly
are elected by popular vote for five years. The president and vice president are elected
by the assembly by a two-thirds constitutional majority. There are ten administrative
districts: Brokopondo, Commewijne, Coronie, Marowijne, Nickerie, Para, Paramaribo,
Saramacca, Sipaliwini and Wanica. Local representation in the political structure is
generally weak, partly because political representatives outside of Paramaribo lack
political power. District council members are elected locally and are required to work
with the District Commissioner (DC) in addressing issues of general concern, although
they have no operating budget. An on-going decentralisation process, begun in 2002,
is supposed to provide an operating budget for DCs and councils, but this has not yet
been implemented.
7
This section is largely based on Nijbroek & Meaney, 2011.
34
Since the establishment of Suriname in 1667 as a Dutch colony, it was exploited mainly
for sugar and coffee production on plantations. The history of Suriname’s economy
is therefore a plantation economy, based on hundreds of plantations established
along the rivers of the coastal area. This plantation-based economy declined in the
19th century and came to its end in the first half of the 20th century. The gold rush
that occurred in the second half of the 19th century was an important new economic
activity, but it soon declined due to disappointing gold finds and high exploitation
costs. Efforts to introduce rubber and wood production in the first decades of the 20th
century did not achieve expected results.
Since World War II, the economy has been largely based on bauxite mining and
processing activities, which are carried out by a joint venture of ALCOA and BHP Billiton.
From the 1960s onwards, exports of bauxite, alumina, and aluminium have accounted
for 70-80% of total export revenues, the bulk of government revenue.
Before achieving independence from the Netherlands in November 1975, the
Surinamese economy was highly centralised and inwardly oriented, with a dominant
and expanding public sector, deriving much of its buoyancy from the foreignowned bauxite mining industry. After independence, the bauxite sector continued to
dominate in terms of its contribution to the economy as a whole. To marshal the
development of this small and undiversified economy, the government received an
enormous grant from the Netherlands at the time of independence.
Due to these two mainstays, the economy grew at average rates exceeding 3% per
year in the first seven years after independence. During the mid-1980s, the economic
situation worsened on account of declining commodity prices on the world market
and the suspension of the aid from the Netherlands in 1983, following political
developments in Suriname. A civil war in the interior that lasted from 1983 to 1987
destroyed much of the economic infrastructure of eastern Suriname, such as roads
and bridges, as well as some rural economic activities, such as palm oil production.
16%
Gross Domestic Product (basic prices)
4000
2000
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
Figure 1.17: National income per capita
(Based on ABS 2010; these figures include the informal sector, are presented in Surinamese Dollars
(SRD; SRD 1 = Sf 1000), and are inflation corrected: 1990=100).
2010
2008
2006
2004
0%
2002
0
2000
4%
1998
2000
1996
8%
1994
6000
1994
12%
4000
1992
8000
1992
Economic Growth
1990
x 1000 SRD
10000
0
Gross Domestic Product (market prices)
6000
12000
1990
8000
14000
SRD
The period from 1992 to1995 was characterised by the implementation of a Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP), designed to revitalise the economy and arrest negative
growth rates of GDP and avert impoverishment of the population. As a result, GDP first
showed a negative growth but then recovered, showing high positive results in the
late nineties. The first ten years of the 21st century have seen stable economic growth.
In the nineties, annual GDP growth rates fluctuated between -7% and +6%, but they
have reached a more stable rate of slightly more than 4% during the past five years
(see Figure 1.16). National income per capita also shows stable growth over the past
ten years (see Figure 1.17).
-2000
-4%
-4000
-8%
Figure 1.16: GDP and GDP growth rate between 1990 and 2010
(Based on ABS 2010; figures include the informal sector and are inflation corrected: 1990 = 100).
February 2013
35
moving it away from over-reliance on the export of raw materials (Nijbroek & Meaney,
2011).
Figure 1.18 shows the relative contribution of the different sectors to GDP, where it can
be seen that tertiary sector contributes most (40%), followed by the informal sector
(20%) and secondary sector (18%). It furthermore shows that very little has changed
in the past twenty years. The contribution of the tertiary sector has increased slightly,
while the government’s contribution has decreased slightly.
1.8 OTHER SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS8
Figure 1.18: Relative contributions of different sectors to GDP, 1990-2010
(Based on ABS, 2010.)
Primary sector: agriculture, hunting, forestry, fishery, mining, quarrying
Secondary sector: manufacturing, electricity, gas and water supply, construction
Tertiary sector: wholesale and retail trade; hotels; restaurants; transport; communication; financial
intermediation; real estate; renting and business activities; other community, social and personal activities
Government: public administration, education (government), health and social work (government).
The economy can be characterised as beyond transitional, with a large tertiary sector
that is not yet developed. With a Gini Coefficient of 0.5467, Suriname has relatively
too much income inequality when compared with the EU (0.36) or the USA (0.46).
Yet compared to Brazil (0.57) or Colombia (0.58), Suriname is doing well (Nijbroek &
Meaney, 2011).
Although the bauxite sector still plays an important role in the economy of Suriname
with regard to foreign exchange earnings and government income, Suriname’s
economy is currently less dependent on mining than is often cited. On the other hand,
the economy is not well-diversified; a large percentage of bank capital is committed
to unproductive sectors (mainly trade). Companies face long bureaucratic procedures;
state-owned or partially state-owned companies operate at a loss; the public sector is
functioning inefficiently and there is little large-scale manufacturing. In recent years,
however, tourism, construction and financial services—as well as the corresponding
personal consumption—have played a role in the diversification of the economy,
36
In 2009, the numbers of employed and unemployed individuals were 126,370 and
12,525 respectively, which works out to an unemployment rate of 9%. In reality, however,
the unemployment rate is much higher. There is a much higher participation in the
economy on the part of men than of women, and total participation ratios are low: only
56% of the working age population claims to be formally employed. Many individuals
work in the informal sector. The number of households in 2004 was 123,463. Male
heads of households number approximately twice female heads of households. Table
1.2 presents some principal socio-economic indicators for Suriname. Generally, these
show a relatively robust development trend since 2003.
8
This section is largely based on Nijbroek & Meaney, 2011.
Table 1.2 Average socio-economic indicators for Suriname, 2003-2008
(Based on Nijbroek & Meaney, 2011)
Indicator
Indicator value
Reference period
Births per thousand
19.68
mean 2003-2008
Deaths per thousand
6.93
mean 2003-2008
Immigration per thousand
4.38
mean 2003-2008
Emigration per thousand
1.05
mean 2003-2008
Absolute numbers in poverty
38,003
2003
Indigent (onvermogenden)
55,516
2008
Underprivileged (minvermogenden)
87,207
117,541
2003
2008
SRD 697
SRD 1424
2003
2009
Unemployment rate
9.8%
mean 2003-2007
Adult literacy
93%
2007
Employment to population ratio
36%
2008
% population cellular subscription
127%
2008
Internet users per 100 population
13
2008
Unemployed 15-24 years of age
22%
(males 15%, females 40%)
2008
Urban employed 15-24years
22%
(males 13%, females 40%)
2008
Poverty line
1.8.1TRANSPORT
Transport is mainly by road in the coastal area and by water in other areas, on the
approximately 1,200 kilometres of rivers. There is also an extensive network of airfields,
and several small airline companies provide small-aircraft service to the interior.
Economic progress during the last decade has led to an increase of ownership of
private cars, resulting in a highly congested road system in Paramaribo during peak
times.
The port system is of tremendous importance for Suriname’s economy. Ports are
located at Nieuw-Nickerie, Paramaribo, and Paranam. Since 1988, freight from Paranam
has been steady, that at Nieuw-Nickerie has declined, and Paramaribo freight handling
has grown significantly. The port of Paramaribo is responsible for only 27% of exports
and 75% of imports by weight. There is also an air-freight industry, but recent data on
this is not available.
1.8.2WASTE
There is a solid waste collection service, but it does not cover all households in urban
areas, and many people resort to burning household waste or disposing of it in open
spaces or rivers. Existing landfills are unlined and pose a serious threat to groundwater
pollution. There is only one operational wastewater treatment plant in Suriname at
the Fernandes Softdrinks bottling plant. Wastewater from households is directed to
septic tanks in people’s backyards. Wastewater from downtown Paramaribo is released
directly into the Suriname River.
1.8.3HEALTH
Approximately one-third of the population is currently receiving free health care
under a government plan. While there is a strong cadre of health professionals,
the supporting network is vulnerable. There is currently one emergency room in
Paramaribo and nationally only one new hospital has been built, in Nieuw-Nickerie,
over recent decades, despite continued population growth.
February 2013
37
1.9 POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Constitution of the Republic of Suriname provides the legal basis for a sustainable
environmental policy in its Article 6g, which states that one of the social objectives of
the state is focused on the establishment and stimulation of conditions required for the
preservation of nature and the safeguarding of ecological balance. Adherence to these
principles has been seen through Suriname’s participation in major environmental
conventions. Some legislation, policy documents and action programmes have been
developed in order to address climate-change issues in general and the UNFCCC
commitments specifically.
The following existing laws provide a basis for the protection of carbon stocks and
regulate land-use planning and sustainable management of natural resources:
- the Nature Preservation Act of 1954 establishes arrangements for the protection
and maintenance of natural monuments;
- the National Planning Act of 1973 provides for national and regional planning on
subjects such as land-use policy;
- the Forest Management Act of 1992 provides a framework for forest management
and sustainable utilisation of forest resources; and
- the Governmental Decree on Nature Protection of 1998 established the Central
Suriname Nature Reserve.
An Environmental Framework Act that will regulate pollution, waste management
and environmental impact among other things, is being prepared. The government’s
development policy is based on an integrated approach to economic, social and
environmental sustainability. A Climate-Change Strategy is also being prepared, as
well as a National Climate Action Plan (NKAP), which will focus on mitigation and
adaptation measures designed to cope with expected climate-change effects. It
stresses the importance of integrated coastal zone management and spatial planning.
Climate change issues are increasingly incorporated into Suriname’s development
policies. In the latest OP, for instance, the following policy measures are mentioned for
the period 2012-2016:
- improvement of environmental governance and control and improvement
of cooperation between organisations and ministries with mandates and
38
responsibilities pertaining to the environment;
- an increased focus on climate-change with regards to international cooperation
and diplomacy;
- an increase in the ability of the coastal region and its current and potential
economic zones—urban areas, agricultural lands, infrastructure—to cope with
climate-change effects, by developing and adopting, for example, the adaptation
measures necessary to protect this region against a potential sea-level rise. This
includes the development of a Climate Compatible Development Strategy, the
protection of aquifers and surface waters, the promotion of the sustainable use of
water resources and ecosystems, the development of a complete dewatering plan
for fertile land, and the construction of sea walls;
- support for research into and assessments of surface-water quality and carbon
sequestration in forests; an investigation into the economic value of forests,
participation in mechanisms for attracting financing from mechanisms such as
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), Payment
for Ecosystem Services (PES) and Public Private Partnership (PPP); and
- an increase in the implementation and use of renewable and alternative energy
sources—such as through the construction of hydropower plants—in order to
respond to the increasing demand for electricity; the improvement of transmission
and distribution facilities in order to reduce energy losses; the promotion of
alternative energy sources and sustainable energy production; and the support of
energy-saving projects.
1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
The Directorate for Environment of the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development
and Environment (ATM) is responsible for the development of an overall environmental
policy, as well as the coordination and monitoring of all activities related to these
policies. This includes the implementation of recommendations from the major
environmental conventions: UNFCCC, UNCBD and UNCCD. This is done in collaboration
with governmental and non-governmental bodies and institutions. The National
Council for the Environment (NMR) supports the government of Suriname’s national
environmental policy and serves as an advisory body for the ATM. The National
Institute for Environment and Development in Suriname (NIMOS) functions as the
technical arm of the ATM. NIMOS is responsible for preparing and realising national
environmental legislation in the broadest sense, as well as coordinating and controlling
the implementation of this legislation. In practice NIMOS is also responsible for the
review and monitoring of Environmental (and Social) Impact Assessments (E(S)IAs) and
the gathering and dissemination of relevant data on land use and land management.
In 2011, the government established the Climate Compatible Development Agency to
attract climate change financing in general and carbon financing in particular.
Several other ministries and semi-governmental organisations function as key agencies
with specific global environmental management mandates relevant to UNFCCC
requirements. These are as follows:
- the Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and Forest Management (ROGB) is
responsible for the formulation of national policy on land-use planning,
sustainable forest use and nature conservation, and has several subdivisions that
are responsible for regulation, implementation, monitoring and control;
- the Ministry of Finance has a National Planning Office (SPS) in charge of preparing
OPs. It has a sub-directorate of Environment and Spatial Planning hat is responsible
for the coordination of physical planning with regards to the environment in
Suriname. It maintains updated data relating to land and soil, natural resources,
existing infrastructure and land allocation. It also maps the structural characteristics
of urban and rural areas and maintains geographical data in order to map the
environment in terms of ecosystems as well as demographic and physical
indicators;
- the Ministry of Natural Resources (NH) controls the exploitation and management
of minerals, water and energy and regulates domestic, public and commercial
energy use;
- the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries (LVV) regulates the
agrarian production sector and the proper use of agricultural lands and waters;
- the Ministry of Public Works (OW) is responsible for planning and implementation
of civil engineering and infrastructural works, water management and drainage,
hydrological and meteorological services, and waste management. The ministry
developed a master plan on drainage for Paramaribo, incorporating climatechange concerns and issues; and
- a National Climate Change Steering Committee was established in 2004,
comprised of representatives from various relevant sectors such as energy,
industry, agriculture and forestry. The Meteorological Services and the Anton
de Kom University of Suriname (AdeKUS) were also represented. Through
this committee, the government of Suriname aimed to coordinate climate
change issues in Suriname effectively, in order to formulate a balanced
climate policy that enjoys broad support. The Committee is responsible for guidance,
monitoring and evaluation of climate-change-related projects and programmes
initiated by the government. Currently, the formal status of the Steering Committee
has expired, but a continuation of it or something like it is intended.
The various ministries (ATM, RGB, NH, LVV, OW) are responsible for nationwide policies
and the promotion of the interests of their respective sectors. At the district level, the
District Commissioner (DC), functioning under the Ministry of Regional Development
(RO), is the main representative. As the focal point of activities within the district, the
DC acts in close cooperation with the elected District Council to coordinate general
management, economic promotion and development of the district. Table 1.2 presents
an overview of stakeholders, describes their relationship to the Convention and shows
how they are carrying out their roles.
February 2013
39
Table 1.3 Stakeholders participating in the implementation of UNFCCC requirements in Suriname9
Stakeholder name
Stakeholder interests, position and official
mandate
Relationship to the implementation of Convention requirements
(Possible) role in the implementation of
Convention requirements
Mandated ministries and institutions with a clearly described responsibility for the implementation of Convention requirements
Ministry of Labour, Technological
Development and Environment (ATM)
Responsible for formulation of environmental
policy and implementation of ratified Convention
requirements
Core stakeholder because of public mandate
Delegation, coordination, management and
monitoring of activities
NIMOS
Awareness, technical assistance to ATM
Core stakeholder because of specific implementing tasks
regarding environmental issues
Regulation of environmental impact studies;
implementation of specific activities
National Council for the Environment
(NMR)
Advisory body to GoS
Public mandate
Advising implementing agencies
Ministries and institutions with clearly described tasks for the national implementation of Convention requirements
9
Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and
Forest Management (ROGB)
Responsible for physical planning, land allocation,
forest use and nature conservation
Core stakeholder in forest policy and spatial planning
Regulating forest use and land allocation
Ministry of Public Works (OW)
Responsible for collection and management of solid
waste, hydrological and meteorological services, and
civil technological and infrastructural works
Important environmental management agency in
public-health-related matters
Providing data, improving public awareness and
supervising the implementation of measures
Ministry of Natural Resources (NH)
Responsible for the use of mineral resources and
water
Public mandate regarding exploitation of energy sources
Regulating generation and distribution of energy
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry
and Fisheries (LVV)
Responsible for agricultural development
Agriculture sector and issues are critical to GHG
emissions and mitigation issues, and vulnerable to
climate-change effects
Providing data; technical advisory and awareness
roles
Ministry of Transport, Communication and
Tourism
Responsible for transport development and
regulation
Public mandate regarding developments in the
transport sector
Regulating emissions of transport sector; public
awareness roles
Planning Office (SPS)
Responsible for establishing development plans
(OPs), district plans; responsible for environmental
project planning and management
Specific tasks (planning)
Coordinating integrated planning; providing related
data
Meteorological Service (MDS)
Responsible for collection, analysis, and distribution
of atmospheric information
Meteorological information central to all aspects of
climate change
Providing data; technical advisory and awareness
roles
Largely based on Van Dijk & De Wolf, 2008.
40
Stakeholder name
Stakeholder interests, position and official
mandate
Relationship to the implementation of
(Possible) role in the implementation of
Maritime Authority in Suriname (MAS)
International marine legislation and monitoring
Specific tasks regarding marine traffic
Providing data
Foundation for Forest Management and Production Control (SBB)
Responsible for sustainable forest management and
production control
National forestry regulator
Protecting and promoting sustainable use of
carbon storage in forests
Ministries, institutions and organisations affected by the implementation of Convention requirements
Ministry of Health
Responsible for management and delivery of health
services
Health policy and management agency
Providing data, promoting public awareness and
participating in technical roles
Energy Company Suriname (EBS)
Sole public distributor of electricity; resulting emissions
due to fossil fuel use
Vital in terms of GHG emissions and mitigation
measures
Providing data; technical roles (implementing
measures)
Suriname Water Company (SWM)
Public supplier of potable water
Water management issues will be impacted by
climate change
Providing data; technical roles (implementing
measures)
National Coordination Centre for Emergency
(NCCR)
Responsible for disaster-response coordination and
management
Information source for climate risk and
vulnerability; implementation role for adaptation
Providing data; promoting public awareness and
participating in project technical advisory roles
General Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
Provider of statistical data, archiving centre
Important in providing data
Providing data
STAATSOLIE
Crude oil producer
Growing potential in fossil fuel products
Providing data
Mining companies (Suralco10 , Iamgold11 etc.)
Large energy users and GHG emitters, and exploiters of
the hydropower plant at Afobaka (Suralco)
Important users of energy and GHG emitters
Providing data; decreasing energy use
Oil import companies (Sol, Texaco etc.)
Importer of aviation fuels and other petroleum
products
Distributor of petroleum products
Providing data
AdeKUS (including its research stations)
Research and education
Knowledge, expertise, equipment for inventories
and (innovative) technological development
Providing data; public awareness and technical
advisory roles
Land Registration and Information System (GLIS)
Responsible for land registration
Important in providing land data
Providing data
10
11
A subsidiary of the United States corporation ALCOA, engaged in exploring and mining bauxite in Suriname.
A Canadian mining and exploration company engaged in gold exploration and mining in Suriname.
February 2013
41
1 National circumstances
1.11REFERENCES
Amatali M.A. 2011. Technical Paper Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation, Sector Water Resources.
“Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the
UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Dijk, S. van & R. de Wolf, 2008. National Capacity Self-Assessment in Relation to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change; Thematic Assessment. Suriname.
ESS, 2007. Nationaal Biodiversiteit Actie Plan (NBAP). voorlopige versie, als resultaat van fase I van de
opdracht tot het opstellen van een NBAP voor Suriname. Suriname. p. 88
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), 2007. Country Environmental Assessment. Suriname.
MDG, 2009. MDG Progress Report Government of Suriname. Suriname.
Nijbroek, R., S. Meaney, 2011. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Current Profile of the Republic of
Suriname, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment for Second National Communication. Suriname.
Noordam, D., 2011. Ecology and Geomorphology, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment for Second
National Communication. Suriname.
Planatlas Suriname, 1988. Vegetation map and geological map. National Planning Office of Suriname;
Organisation of American States; Department of Regional Development.
Playfair, M., 2011. Greenhouse Gas Inventory for Second National Communication, Subsector Forestry.
Suriname.
Teunissen, P.A., 2003. Suriname Forest Sector Environmental Assessment and Policy Design, Annex IV:
Characteristics of the Natural Ecosystems in Suriname. Suriname.
42
2. National Greenhouse
Gas Emissions 2008
Everlasting flame at the refinery | Hedwig – PLU – de la Fuente
February 2013
43
2 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2008
2.1INTRODUCTION
2.2METHODOLOGY
As mentioned in Chapter 1, about 87% of the population of Suriname is concentrated
on the northern coastal plain. Consequently, most economic activities, with the
exception of bauxite and gold mining, are concentrated in this area, especially in and
around Paramaribo. The economic activities here consist primarily of services including
importation, banking, insurance, transport, communications and wholesale and retail
commerce.
The 2006 IPCC guidelines were used to compile Suriname’s emissions estimates for
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). For the Energy sector,
two IPCC-based approaches were used to establish the GHG inventory: the reference
approach and the sector approach. The reference approach combines emissions
data from all sectors, while the sector approach focuses on individual sectors. Data
for the inventory were obtained from governmental sources and private companies
and processed with the IPCC 2006 software. Due to the lack of country-specific
parameters, default IPCC values were used for most of the inventory. When calculating
CO2 equivalents, the guidelines of the fourth IPCC Assessment Report (AR4) were used.
It should also be noted that estimates for activity data were unavoidable for those
sectors or parts of sectors for which data were incomplete or missing. The inventory
was compiled for the following sectors: energy, industry, agriculture forestry and other
land use (AFOLU), and waste. Emissions data from international bunkers and marine
bunkers, reported separately, are given in accordance with IPCC guidelines.
Nickerie
Coronie
Paramaribo
Saramacca
Commewijne
Galibi
er
riv
e river
ewijn
Comm
rie
ke
Nic
Wanica
Moengo
Albina
Suriname river
Para
r
ive
er
am
en
pp
Co
Coppename
river
Apura
Legend
Paved road
Unpaved road
Distinct boundery
Built-on area
River
Brokopondo lake
Total built-on area: 53246,71 ha
Figure 2.1:Overview of inhabited areas, coastal region
The agriculture sector, predominantly active in the north-western part of the country,
produces mainly rice and bananas. Indigenous and Maroon tribes of the hinterlands
practice shifting cultivation, mainly for subsistence. In the north-central part of
Suriname, other agricultural products, such as vegetables and fish, are dominant.
Land-use changes occur more frequently in the coastal area than in the interior of the
country. Forestry and gold mining are the major economic activities in the hinterland
of Suriname and have shown a steady increase in production and occupation of land
over the years. Activities that use energy from fossil-fuel combustion and emissions
from land use and land-use changes are the two most significant sources of CO2
emission.
44
2.3 EMISSION INVENTORY OVERVIEW
Carbon dioxide accounts for the greatest percentage of emitted GHGs in Suriname.
Total GHG emissions for the inventory year 2008 equal 6,365.75 CO2 eq. The Energy
sector, with an emission of 3,788.15 CO2, is the largest GHG source, contributing over
59% of the total GHG emission. Parts of the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land-use
(AFOLU) sector act as a sink, with an absorption of -8,243.05Gg of CO2 eq, making
Suriname a net sink for CO2 (-1,883.09Gg CO2 eq). Table 2.1 presents a breakdown of
emissions and sinks within the AFOLU sector.
Table 2.1 2008 overview of CO2 sinks
Sinks
GgCO2
Emissions
Forestland Remaining Forestland
-1007.071
Grassland
Cropland Remaining Cropland
-7241.770
Other Land
Total sinks
-8248.858
Gg CO2
81.054
1740.200
Figure 2.2 presents the emission balance by sector. Within the industrial processes and
product use (IPPU) sector, GHG emissions are released as a result of alumina production.
In Suriname, mineral industry GHG emissions are counted for this sector rather than for
the industry 2008
sector.Emission balance
(sinks included)
EMISSION/SINKS IN2 GG EQ CO
8000
6000
Figures 2.2 and 2.3 show that the energy sector is the main source of GHG emissions,
with its 59% of total emissions. Emissions from the AFOLU sector are due to the
utilisation of tropical forests for logging, including timber for export. Forest clearing for
shifting cultivation and deforestation for gold mining also contribute to GHG emissions
for this sector. Taking into account that the forest is a sink, the overall contribution of
the AFOLU sector is much smaller than that of the Energy sector.
2.4 GHG INVENTORY BY SECTOR
4000
2000
WASTE
0
AFOLU SINKS
AFOLU EMISSION
-2000
IPPU
-4000
ENERGY
2.4.1 EMISSIONS FROM THE ENERGY SECTOR
In the Energy sector in Suriname, hydropower, hydrocarbons and biomass are utilised
as primary energy sources. The majority of hydro-electric power is generated by the
hydropower plant in the district of Brokopondo.
Maagdenstraat traffic downtown Paramaribo
-6000
-8000
-10000
CATEGORY
Figure 2.2: 2008 emissions balance (sinks included)
0%
40%
1 - Energy
59%
2 - Industrial Processes and
Product Use
3 - Agriculture, Forestry, and
Other Land Use
1%
Figure 2.3: Overview 2008 emissions distribution (in CO2 equivalents; sinks not embedded)
February 2013
45
generation and for the bauxite industry. Some export and international bunkering also
exists.
Since the closure of the aluminium smelter in 1999, most of the energy from this power
plant is delivered to the state-owned energy company, EBS. The energy demands of
the coastal zone are met by hydropower and thermal power stations. The hinterland
has no established continuous energy supply system. Electricity there is provided
through the use of diesel generators.
The various contributors to the 2008 GHG emissions within the Energy sector are shown
in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.4. The Manufacturing, Industry and Construction sector is the
largest contributor. The main contributors within this sector are Non-specified Industry
(1,451.52 Gg CO2) and Mining and Quarrying (209.28 Gg CO2).
Within the Energy sector, road transportation is the main consumer of fossil fuels. Most
of the heavy fuel oil supplied by the local oil company Staatsolie is used for electricity
Table 2.2 2008 GHG contributions from various Energy subsectors in Gg CO2 equivalents
Categories
Emissions (Gg) in CO2 Equivalents
CO2
CH4
N2O
NOx
CO
Total
NMVOCs
SO2
Memo Items (3)
International Bunkers
102.24
0.02
0.06
NE
NE
NE
NE
102.32
1.A.3.a.i - International Aviation (International Bunkers) (1)
102.23
0.02
0.06
NE
NE
NE
NE
102.31
0.01
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
0.01
3788.15
3.36
7.48
3798.99
1.A.1 - Energy Industries
120.54
0.01
0.03
120.94
1.A.1.a.i - Electricity Generation
120.54
0.07
0.00
2912.47
2.83
6.75
1.A.2.c - Chemicals
0.01
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
0.01
1.A.2.e - Food Processing, Beverages and Tobacco
3.01
NE
0.01
NE
NE
NE
NE
3.02
209.28
0.21
0.50
NE
NE
NE
NE
209.99
0.03
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
0.03
1451.52
1.41
3.36
1.A.3.d.i - International water-borne navigation (International bunkers) (1)
1 - Energy
1.A - Fuel Combustion Activities
1.A.2- Manufacturing Industries and Construction
1.A.2.i - Mining (excluding fuels) and Quarrying
1.A.2.k - Construction
1.A.2.m - Non-specified Industry
46
NE
NE
NE
NE
120.94
2922.05
1456.28
Categories
Emissions (Gg) in CO2 Equivalents
CO2
CH4
N2O
NOx
CO
Total
NMVOCs
SO2
622.46
0.01
0.20
116.16
0.02
1.04
NE
NE
NE
NE
117.22
13.93
NE
0.12
NE
NE
NE
NE
14.05
598.49
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
598.49
1.A.3.d.ii - Domestic Water-borne Navigation
0.08
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
0.08
1.A.3.e.ii - Off-road
5.02
0.01
0.08
NE
NE
NE
NE
5.11
132.68
0.40
0.25
1.A.4.b - Residential
37.99
0.08
0.02
NE
NE
NE
NE
38.09
1.A.4.c.i - Stationary
19.12
0.06
0.05
NE
NE
NE
NE
19.23
1.A.4.c.ii - Off-road Vehicles and Other Machinery
10.07
0.03
0.02
NE
NE
NE
NE
10.13
1.A.4.c.iii - Fishing (mobile combustion)
65.50
0.01
0.01
NE
NE
NE
NE
65.88
1.A.3 - Transport
1.A.3.a - Civil Aviation
1.A.3.a.ii - Domestic Aviation
622.67
1.A.3.b - Road Transportation
1.A.3.b.i - Cars
1.A.4 - Other Sectors
133.33
1.A.4.a - Commercial/Institutional
February 2013
47
4%
3%
19%
1.A.2 - Manufacturing
Industries and Construction
1.A.3 - Transport
74%
Figure 2.4: 2008 GHG distribution, Energy sector, in CO2 equivalents
2.4.2 EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
The Surinamese economy is dominated by three industries: bauxite, oil and gold.
These three industries together generated approximately 90% of Suriname’s export
revenues for 2008.There is little production of food and beverages; nearly all consumer
goods—especially electronics—are imported. This is reflected in the GHG inventory for
industry: given that there is very little industrial activity, emissions from this category
are low.
2.4.3 GHG EMISSIONS FROM THE AFOLU SECTOR
As mentioned before, the AFOLU sector forms the only sink of GHGs for the 2008
inventory. With an absorption figure of -8,243.05 Gg CO2, this sector compensates for
all the emissions from other emitters.
2.4.3.1GHG EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE
The majority of agricultural activities take place in the young coastal zone. The main
emission sources in this sector are rice and banana cultivation. Incineration of organic
residues in agricultural fields and the processes of enteric fermentation and manure
management associated with the livestock sector are also major contributors. These
emissions do not include those resulting from energy use in the sector. The agricultural
subsector was responsible for 952.57 Gg CO2 eq. The small increase (10 ha annually)
of the area of shifting cultivation in the interior has very little effect on the GHG
emissions in this subsector. Figure 2.5 offers an overview of the distribution of GHGs
from agriculture.
0%
Manure Management CH4
10%
42%
Direct N2O emissions from soil
Indirect N2O emissions from soil
37%
One ton of asphalt produces 320 kg NMVOC (Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds).
48
Indirect N2O emissions from
livestock
Field burning of Ag. Residues
0%
0%
1%
Figure 2.5: 2008 distribution of GHGs agriculture
12
Rice Cultivation
Field Burning of Ag. Residues
The mineral industry does not produce any emission of significance, and alumina
production is the only producer of process-determined emissions from the metal
industry, with about 53.20 Gg CO2 being emitted yearly.
In 2008, asphalt paving was estimated to be 270.6 tons of asphalt, which is equal to
86,59 kg NMVOC or 86.59 Gg NMVOC12. This number is most likely higher than the
amount actually used, but it is used here in order to reflect the maximum possible
impact from this industrial activity.
Enteric fermentation
10%
Emissions from Rice Cultivation
Emissions from rice cultivation are: methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), and nitrogen (NO). Methane released due to anaerobic decomposition
of organic material in flooded rice fields produces 474.53 Gg CO2 eq. Carbon dioxide,
carbon and nitrogen are released during the processing that takes place as the rice
goes from the wet, harvested paddy to the point at which it is ready for shipment. The
large amount of husk produced during these activities, a total biomass of 76.01 Gg of
dry matter (dm), is burned. During this process, the total carbon released equals 31.5
Gg, with 0.44 Gg nitrogen.
Methane Emission from Animals
2% 1% 2%
0%
46%
48%
8%
8%
5%
78%
3.A.2.a.i - Dairy cows
3.A.2.a.ii - Other cattle
3.A.2.b - Buffalo
3.A.2.c - Sheep
3.A.2.d - Goats
3.A.2.h - Swine
3.A.2.i - Poultry
Figure 2.7: 2008 emissions from livestock in CO2 equivalents (manure management)
The total emission from domestic livestock amounts to 89.33 Gg CO2 eq for cattle.
This includes both dairy and non-dairy cattle and comprises 46% and 48% of total
emissions from enteric fermentation, respectively. The distribution is different for
manure management; the largest contribution comes from dairy cows. This is shown
in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7.
1%
0%
0% 1%
3.A.1.a.i - Dairy Cows
3.A.1.a.ii - Other Cattle
3.A.1.b - Buffalo
3.A.1.c - Sheep
3.A.1.d - Goats
3.A.1.f - Horses
3.A.1.h - Swine
Figure 2.6: 2008 livestock emissions in CO2 equivalents (enteric fermentation)
2.4.3.2EMISSIONS FROM FORESTRY AND OTHER LAND USES
The GHG inventory for the AFOLU sector includes data from Agriculture, Forestry
and Land Use. It also includes a section for aggregate sources and non-CO2 emission
sources on land, and normally one on harvested wood products (HWP). HWP is not
included in this particular inventory however, because no long-term data on wood
production, export and import are available. Priority gases from the AFOLU sector are
CO2 for land use and the non-CO2 trace gas CH4 for the aggregate sources.
Land-use activity data was collected by using the sector approach from the IPCC
guidelines, since spatially-explicit location data were not available for the changes
registered. Suriname’s lack of a national database for land management proves to be
a constraint in terms of data collection. In the absence of a central data mechanism,
land use data must be collected and presented by sector institutions responsible for
monitoring only their specific land use categories.
Effective forest production over the last forty years for the managed forest land category
is calculated to be a total of 500,000 ha. The long-term average annual production of
round wood was 180,000 m3, and the average production per hectare was 12-15 m3
for the period. Re-vegetated sites of mined-out bauxite areas, with trees that have not
yet reached maturity, are also included in the calculations for managed forest land: a
total of 650 ha in 2008.
February 2013
49
Information for the managed cropland category is derived from the statistics of
the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries (LVV). The amount of
permanent cropland in the coastal zone (88,800 ha) was calculated on the basis of the
FAO’s long-term statistics for Suriname. Farming practices carried out in the interior
can be categorised as shifting cultivation. Through remote sensing, the area under
cultivation was estimated at 238,630 ha in 2000. Abandoned palm oil plantations cover
an area of 1,900 ha.
Data for the managed grassland category was obtained from LVV statistics. These
figures show that in 2000, pasture land covered an area of 27,000 ha in the coastal
region and 1,300 ha in the interior. The total land area of grass and herbaceous
savannahs, which are subject to regular burning by the indigenous population, was
estimated to be 124,900 ha through remote sensing.
Suriname’s hydropower lake is its only managed wetland. Through remote sensing,
the open water area of this lake (excluding islands) was estimated at 125,500 ha.
Extraction of peat is thought to occur to a certain extent, but it is scattered and on a
minor scale.
The area in the land-use category of settlements constitutes both villages and other
settlements in the interior and the urban areas of the coastal region.
Mining areas fall under the category other land and were calculated to cover 8,600 ha
in 2000, using remote sensing. Additional information on land use for bauxite mining
in the Mungo area was made available by the Suralco company.
Land-use changes for the period 2000-2008 consisted of: 1) the removal of mesophytic
forest for the purpose of gold mining (3,100 ha per year) or shifting cultivation (10 ha
per year), 2) reforestation of mined-out bauxite areas (50 ha per year), and 3) changes
in carbon content of grasslands when converted back into unproductive agricultural
land (an average of 1,100 ha per year).
Although there were some very small and dispersed increases in both the urban
settlements and villages in the interior for the period 2000-2008, these were not
50
clearly detectable on the satellite images used for the inventory (Landsat and Google
Earth). Therefore, changes in the land-use categories settlements and wetlands were
negligible for this inventory period.
In the category forest land remaining forest land, biomass calculations in the wood
production area are conducted for losses in biomass as a result of: 1) timber production
(with a total quantity of 197,000 m3 of roundwood in 2008); 2) fuel wood removal (450
m3 in 2008); and 3) disturbances of forests. In addition to the commercial extraction
of fuel wood in the production forest, some subsistence collection also exists under
category forestland converted to cropland (in the shifting cultivation areas). However,
no information on the amount collected is available. There is no evidence of loss of
carbon through wood and fuel wood removals in the conversion of bauxite mines to
Suralco plantations.
Losses from disturbances by fire, insects, diseases or other disturbances are only
calculated if these are of anthropogenic origin. There is no evidence of significant
disturbances in the category forest land for the inventory period.
Total biomass losses were calculated for Suriname’s natural forests using the higher
range of IPCC default values for biomass conversion and expansion—values for humid
tropical natural forest with a growing stock level of more than 200 m3/ha (BCEF = 1.1).
To calculate carbon content, a higher wood density than the IPCC default value of 0.6
ton/m3) was used as an average for the commercial wood species in Suriname. The
value used was 0.65 ton/m3.
A biomass increase in the category forest land remaining forest land occurs in the
timber production area (calculated to cover approximately 612,800 ha in 2008), in
which new trees will grow after harvesting, as well as in the re-vegetated, minedout bauxite areas of the Suralco company. In 2008, such areas covered 650 ha. To
estimate this aboveground biomass growth increment, the CELOS figure (1 ton annual
increment/ha) of de Graaf is used. This is due to the country-specific situation of low
harvest volumes per hectare and a consequent low rate of re-growth. (IPCC-defined
forest areas of Suriname are shown in Figure 2.8.)
The default IPCC value for belowground carbon stock change in the category forest
land remaining forest land is zero. Annual increase of biomass in plantation forests
is calculated using the annual carbon increase figure of twenty tons dry matter per
hectare, the IPCC default for plantations.
For the category cropland remaining cropland, calculations of changes in aboveground
biomass in cropland are only made for perennial woody crops. The aboveground
woody biomass is estimated at 50 tons/ha13 for each single crop type. For the shifting
cultivation areas, the IPCC default factor for South America Humid tropical (low) agrosilvicultural systems of 70.5 tons/ha is used.
The assumption is made that dead wood and litter stocks are absent or at equilibrium,
so estimates were made of their carbon stock changes. With regard to the
below-ground biomass in the Tier 1 method, the default assumption is that this is not
changing for perennial trees in agricultural systems.
Carbon fluxes in the land-use category cropland depend on crop type, management
practices, and soil and climate variables. Loss of biomass through harvesting of
products occurs for crop types such as fruit trees and coconuts. No information is
available on the quantities harvested in shifting cultivation. An estimate is made that 5
tons C/ha/year could be extracted from the fields. With a carbon fraction of dry matter
for aboveground biomass of 0.47 ton C (ton dm) and an average annual harvest of
approximately 10 tons dm per hectare, the biomass carbon loss due to harvest for
coconut and fruit tree plantations is also calculated to be 5 tons C/ha/year. There is no
harvesting from oil palm and abandoned areas. Biomass carbon loss due to gathering
or disturbance in each of the crop types is set at zero. The net annual growth rate in each
of the crop types is estimatedat 10 tons C/ha/year. For mature palm-oil plantations, the
net annual growth rate is estimated to be zero.
To estimate fluxes in soil carbon stocks, IPCC default values for stock change factors
of crop types are used, due to the absence of pertinent data in the country. The
time dependence of the stock change factors is the IPCC default of twenty years. In
addition to productive cropland, an area estimated to be 47,500 ha consists of lands
not currently in production and reverting to fallow vegetation. The net annual growth
rate is estimated at1 ton C/ha14.
Figure 2.8: Total forest land
Total Area Forest Land 2008: 14981530 ha
13
14
IPCC default factor for cropping systems containing perennial species in tropical wet climates.
IPCC default value for tropical shrub land
February 2013
51
In GHG inventories in which a Tier 1 method is used, it is assumed that upon conversion
to cropland, all carbon contained in the biomass which is killed will be emitted
directly to the atmosphere and none added to the dead wood and litter pools. It is
furthermore assumed that the entire carbon quantity in the dead wood and litter pool
are lost during the year of the transition. However, this is not really true in the case of
deforestation for shifting cultivation, nor to a certain extent for mining. Nevertheless,
there are no national data available that would allow using a higher tier.
Grassland
For grassland remaining grassland carbon fluxes are the result of changes in
management practices of carbon stocks. In Suriname, no significant changes in the
type or intensity of management of grassland have occurred during the inventory
period. Therefore, the Tier 1 method is used, which assumes that there are no changes
in the biomass content.
For the current inventory period, cropland converted to grassland is the category
applied to unproductive polder land that is replaced by grassland (almost solely
herbaceous vegetation). An average of 60 ha of polder land per year were converted
to grassland with herbaceous vegetation during the inventory year.
Other Land-Use Categories
Inventory of the land-use category wetlands was restricted to the managed wetlands.
The most important land type under this land-use category in Suriname is the
hydropower lake, referred to as Brokondo Lake. No methodologies are provided in the
IPCC guidelines for the flooded land remaining flooded land category, and therefore
no further calculations were made for emissions from this land type.
Peat land, a secondary potential source of carbon fluxes, exists in Suriname under the
geomorphologic land unit called “the Mara landscape” in the coastal zone. The total
area of the peat land is estimated at approximately 450,000 ha.
52
Extraction of peat however, is rare and this land type is therefore not taken into
consideration in this inventory.
The land types in the category settlements in Suriname, both urban and rural, are
considered to be established on mineral soils. Both the urban and the rural settlements
contain in some parts a substantial amount of vegetation with woody and herbaceous
components. However, no data is available on the extent of or the changes which occur
in the vegetation in this land use category. The Tier 1 method is therefore used, which
assumes that the growth and losses of the biomass are in balance. It is furthermore
assumed that the dead wood and litter stocks are at equilibrium and that soil C stocks
do not change.
With regard to the land use category other land, the emissions for this inventory are
calculated from the conversion of forest land to other land, the latter being only mining
areas for this inventory period. It is assumed that forest vegetation is removed entirely
and that no biomass remains on the land after conversion.
In December 2010, Suralco reported that approximately 2,418 ha of land has been
disturbed for bauxite mining in the Mungo area. Of this land, about 1,150 ha has revegetated.
For the inventory year, forest land converted for gold mining is estimated to cover a
total area of 27,900 ha. Figure 2.9 shows areas where gold exploitation occurs.
To calculate the annual change in carbon biomass for Surinamese tropical forest lands
converted to mining, the carbon content before conversion is set at 300 tons dm per
ha with a dry matter carbon fraction of 0.5 ton C per ton dm. Since the total amount of
biomass is removed and no re-growth takes place, the annual loss of biomass carbon
is assumed to be 300 tons dm per ha and the re-growth rate zero.
Non-CO2 Emissions
Non-CO2 emissions are usually associated with the burning of biomass. In the cropland
category, this is represented by the burning of agricultural residues, but regular
burning only occurs in rice cultivation. (Although sometimes, small-scale farmers with
permanent cropping systems of certain—usually mixed—crop types also burn as part
of their land preparation.) The total rice cultivation area in which burning occurs is
estimated to be 43,700 ha for the inventory year. In the area of shifting cultivation,
burning is calculated to have occurred on 16,000 ha for the inventory year. For crop
types such as legumes, vegetables and other annual crops, it is assumed that not
more than 10% of productive land is burned. In the land-use category grassland, the
native savannah is burned on a regular basis in order to maintain a certain vegetational
species mix, and it is estimated that 2% of the area was burned for this type of activity
in the inventory year. No burning occurs in managed forest land (production forest
and Suralco rehabilitated areas) or in the land category other land. In the land category
settlements, it is expected that some burning of biomass has occurred but no data on
the extent of this practice and the volumes involved are available. The IPCC default
values for fuel biomass consumption, as well as the combustion factor and emission
factor are used to calculate emissions here.
Results
Total annual CO2 removals are calculated at 5,409.83 Gg. The major categories for
carbon fluxes identified are:
1.
Forest land Remaining Forest land (1,007.07 Gg CO2);
2.
Cropland Remaining Cropland (7,241.77 Gg CO2) as the two main sinks; and
3.
Forest Land converted to Other Land (in Suriname, this means mining areas) is
the main emitter at-1,740.2 Gg CO2.
Figure 2.9: Gold mining activities throughout the country
Emissions from biomass burning are calculated at 3.56 Gg CH4, a major component of
this being the burning of biomass on cropland on which forest is converted to shifting
cultivation use. The gases N2O, NOx, CO en NMVOCs are not applicable to this GHG
inventory subcomponent.
February 2013
53
Figure 2.10 and Figure 2.11 show the distribution of the 2008 emissions and sink
sources by land-use type. Rice cultivation areas produce the highest emissions of CO2
equivalents, and grasslands remaining grasslands comprise the largest sink.
4%
4%
0%
12%
3.B.1.a - Forest land Remaining
Forest land
0%
10%
3.B.1.b.v - Other Land
converted to Forest Land
3.B.2.a - Cropland Remaining
Cropland
14%
3.C.1.b - Biomass burning in
croplands
3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from
managed soils (3)
60%
3.C.6 - Indirect N2O Emissions
from manure management
3.C.7 - Rice cultivations
Figure 2.10: 2008 emissions by land-use type (in CO2 equivalents)
-8%
-7%
3.B.2.b.i - Forest Land
converted to Cropland
3.B.3.a - Grassland
Remaining Grassland
2.4.4 EMISSIONS FROM WASTE
There is no established waste-management in Suriname. Household waste collection
is limited to Paramaribo and some of the other more highly populated areas in the
coastal zone. Methane is the main emission from this sector and is produced when
solid household waste and waste from small industries undergoes anaerobic bacterial
decomposition of the organic matter in open landfills and dumps. Using default
values for populated areas, methane (CH4) emission is estimated at less than one Gg.
Throughout the rest of the country, including the hinterland, where populations are
extremely low, methane emission from solid waste is negligible. To date, wastewater
management and/or treatment is not practiced in Suriname, making it impossible to
determine possible emissions.
2.5 GHG EMISSIONS BY GAS
2.5.1 EMISSIONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
Suriname’s total carbon dioxide emissions in 2008 were 3,783.21 Gg. Known
contributors to this number are the energy sector, through combustion of fossil fuels
(about 2,442 Gg, using the reference approach); the application of urea and lime in the
agriculture and other land use sectors (about 8.59 Gg); and emissions from industrial
processes (about 53 Gg).
2.5.2 EMISSIONS OF METHANE (CH4)
Methane emissions come primarily from the agriculture sector. CH4 emissions for 2008
have been calculated to be 26.15 Gg. Table 2.3 and Figure 2.12 show that most of
these emissions come from aggregate sources and non-CO2 emissions on land. Rice
cultivation is the largest contributor within this group, at 18.98 Gg. Emissions from
waste are negligible.
Table 2.3 2008 CH4 emissions
3.B.3.b.ii - Cropland
converted to Grassland
-85%
Figure 2.11: 2008 sink sources in CO2 equivalents
54
2008 CH4 Emissions by (sub)sector
Gg
Energy (total)
0.13
Livestock
3.57
Aggregate sources and non-CO2 emission sources on land
22.58
2.6 KEY CATEGORIES
1%
13%
The top ten emitters are compiled in Table 2.5 and Figure 2.13. The Manufacturing
Industries and Construction subsector leads this list with 2,922.05 Gg CO2 eq. Although
almost half of the emitters in this list are within the AFOLU sector, there are other
notable players here. AFOLU as a whole is a net sink, but the second largest emitter in
the country is the Other Land subsector, followed by the Transport sector. Within the
sector Manufacturing Industries and Construction, the most important emitter is Nonspecified Industries, followed by Non-Metallic Minerals and Mining and Quarrying.
Other sectors produce negligible emissions.
1 - Energy
3.A - Livestock
Table 2.5 2008 Top ten emitters
Top emitters 2008
86%
3.C - Aggregate sources
and non- CO2 emissions
sources on land (2)
Figure 2.12: CH4 emissions by source
2.5.3 EMISSIONS OF OTHER GASES
Although other emissions are potentially powerful in terms of global warming, they
occur in relatively small quantities in Suriname. This can be seen in Table 2.4. The
country’s N2O emissions come mostly from manure management.
Table 2.4 2008 N2O emissions by source
Categories
N2O emissions in Gg
Electricity Generation
0.005
Non-Metallic Minerals
0.010
Mining (excluding fuels) and Quarrying
0.002
Non-specified Industry
0.011
Fishing (mobile combustion)
0.001
Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils
0.063
TOTAL CO2 eq
1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries and Construction
2922.05
3.B.6 - Other Land
1740.2
1.A.3 - Transport
622.20
3.C.7 - Rice cultivations
474.53
133.33
120.94
3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
93.94
3.B.3 - Grassland
81.05
3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation
71.89
2.A.4 - Other Process Uses of Carbonates
53.20
February 2013
55
3500.00
1.A.2 Manufacturing Industries and
Construction
3.B.6 Other Land
3000.00
2500.00
2000.00
1.A.3 Transport
3.C.7 Rice cultivations
1000.00
500.00
0.00
For estimating CO2 emissions, the IPCC default values for the carbon emission factor
and combustion efficiency were used. Table 2.6 provides an overview of the fuel types
normally used in Suriname, as well as their apparent consumptions (in terajoules) and
resulting CO2 emissions for 2008. The calculated number of total emissions using the
Reference Approach is 3,249.91 Gg CO2.
1.A.4 Other Sectors
1.A.1 Energy Industries
1500.00
2.8CO2 EMISSIONS (REFERENCE APPROACH)
Table 2.6 2008 apparent consumption and actual CO2 emissions (reference approach)15
Apparent Consumption
3.C.1 Emissions from biomass
burning
3.B.3 Grassland
TJ
3.A.1 Enteric Fermentation
Crude Oil
2.A.4 Other Process Uses of
Carbonates
Motor Gasoline
Actual CO2 Emissions
Gg CO2
0.000
0.00
72.200
340.30
0.574
1.76
Figure 2.13: Top ten emitters for 2008
Aviation Gasoline
2.7UNCERTAINTIES
Jet Gasoline
36.630
113.64
An uncertainty analysis for 2008 was completed for the most significant gases (CO2,
CH4 and N2O) for emissions in that year from the Energy sector. The year used as the
base year for this analysis is 2005. Generally the activity data uncertainties are within
a 5-12% range. The emission factor uncertainties are also in this range, which makes
the combined uncertainties between 7% and 17%. The highest uncertainty values are
found in Manufacturing Industries for both CO2 and CH4 emissions from the use of
liquid fuels.
Jet Kerosene
0.842
0.88
Gas/Diesel Oil
127.000
521.89
Residual Fuel Oil
710.320
2177.16
14.000
40.72
Naphtha
4.460
12.21
Lubricants
9.600
35.34
Uncertainty introduced into the trend for total national emissions prove to be very low
(less than 0.01%). Only in the Manufacturing Industries subsector is it higher: about 9%.
Liquefied Petroleum Gases
Total
15
56
In this list, crude oil produced by Staatsolie is embedded within Residual Fuel Oil, per IPCC guidelines.
3249.91
In 2008, domestic emissions from energy sources amounted to 3,788.15 Gg CO2.
The emissions from international bunkers16 were 101.23 Gg CO2. There is a negative
difference of about 548 Gg between these numbers and those of the sector approach.
The uncertainties of the different datasets explain this difference. The uncertainties are
in line with those from previous years.
It should be mentioned here that, despite the relatively stable emissions determined
when using the reference approach, energy use has increased over recent years. A
shift can be seen in which fewer emissions come from electricity production and more
come from other areas. In particular, the Manufacturing Industries and Construction
subsector has shown strong growth during this period, as can be seen in Table 2.8.
2.9 INTERNATIONAL BUNKERS
Figure 2.14 shows that in the future, the demand for energy for this subsector will
increase, rising to as much as 823 MW by 2025. This trend is described in the Mitigation
chapter. However, less than 9% of this energy will come from fossil fuel combustion.
It is expected that only in the subsectors of Manufacturing Industries and Electricity
Generation will important increases of GHG emission occur.
According to IPCC guidelines, emissions from international bunkers are excluded from
total emissions. CO2 emissions from international bunkers total 101.23 Gg, coming
from aviation and maritime fuel combustion, producing 101.22 Gg and 0.007 Gg of
CO2 respectively (see Table 1.1).
Table 2.7 2008 Emissions from international bunkers, in Gg.
Category
International Aviation (International Bunkers)
International Maritime Navigation
(International bunkers)
6000
CO2
CH4
N2O
101.22
0.015
0.062
0.007
0.000
0.000
5000
CO2 emission “Electricity
Generation
4000
CO2 emission “Manuf.
Industries
& Constr.”
3000
2.10 EMISSIONS FORECASTS
2.10.1ENERGY
Although the demand for energy has increased over recent years, reliable data have
fuel combustion activities displaying very inconsistent behaviour for the past four
years. CO2 emissions in particular show a strong increase from 2005 to 2006, and
nearly the same increase (about 450 Gg CO2 eq) can be observed from 2007 to 2008.
These changes reflect the variation in climatological conditions in the country. Years
with abundant precipitation allow increased production of hydropower and lower the
amount of hydrocarbon fuels burned.
CO2-emission “Transport”
2000
CO2-emission “Others”
1000
0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
Total baseline scenario
CO2-emission “Energy
sector”
Figure 2.14: Future emissions development, 2008-2025, Energy sector
16
Under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), international bunker fuels are not included in national emission totals, but are to be
reported separately based upon location of fuel sale.
February 2013
57
Table 2.8: GHG gases from the Energy sector for the period 2005 - 2008
2005
IPCC 2006 Categories
Reference approach
Fuel Combustion Activities
Electricity generation
Manufacturing Industries and Construction
CO2
2006
CH4
N2O
3003.00
2356.06
CO2
2007
CH4
N2O
2853.00
0.08
0.01
182.00
2795.14
CO2
2008
CH4
N2O
3019.00
0.08
0.01
504.00
2679.78
CO2
CH4
N2O
3018.52
0.08
0.01
453.00
3783.21
0.08
0.01
120.54
1576.99
0.06
0.01
1655.62
0.06
0.01
1637.61
0.06
0.01
2912.47
0.06
0.01
Chemicals
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.00
Food Processing, Beverages and Tobacco
2.38
0.00
0.00
2.60
0.00
0.00
2.54
0.00
0.00
3.01
0.00
0.00
137.71
0.01
0.00
185.39
0.01
0.00
177.72
0.01
0.00
209.28
0.01
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.00
1436.86
0.06
0.01
1467.61
0.06
0.01
1457.32
0.06
0.01
1451.52
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.00
Mining (excluding fuels) and Quarrying
Construction
Transportation
446.00
Other Sectors
151.08
Residential
Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing
Stationary
Off-road Vehicles and Other Machinery
Fishing (mobile combustion)
504.00
0.02
0.00
131.52
38.00
0.01
0.00
37.00
136.17
617.52
0.01
0.00
39.00
132.68
37.99
113.08
0.02
0.00
94.52
0.01
0.00
97.17
0.01
0.00
94.69
0.01
0.00
18.74
0.00
0.00
19.00
0.00
0.00
18.36
0.00
0.00
19.12
0.00
0.00
8.20
0.00
0.00
8.36
0.00
0.00
7.95
0.00
0.00
10.07
0.00
0.00
86.14
0.01
0.00
67.15
0.01
0.00
70.86
0.01
0.00
65.50
0.01
0.00
2.10.2MANUFACTURING
Within the Industry subsector, emissions are heavily dominated by the Bayer process
at Suralco; in which limestone (lime) is used for the production of Alumina. Products
that contain fluorinated gases (air-conditioners, refrigerators and aerosols) also
undoubtedly play a role. It has not been possible to quantify their effects accurately,
however.
58
453.00
Changes in the bauxite industry are not expected in the near future. Due to a
specifically defined quality of bauxite, Suralco has a maximum capacity of 2.2 million
tons of Alumina per year, and this was nearly reached in 2007 and 2008. Neither the use
of white spirits nor fluorinated gases is expected to increase significantly in the near
future. On the contrary, heavy fluorinated gases will be slowly phased out because
of stricter worldwide regulations. There are some NMVOC emissions associated with
asphalt production, as well as the use of products that contain white spirits.
Rough calculations indicate that NMVOC emissions from asphalt may increase
significantly in the near future, however, since Suriname has begun some ambitious road
projects.
2.10.3 EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND OTHER LAND USES
The forecast of non-CO2 emissions was made in accordance with IPCC guidelines,
resulting in emission figures for CH4 and N2O, shown in Table 2.9.
Total livestock CH4 emissions in 2008 were 2.9 Gg. Dairy cows remain one the largest
contributors of CH4 emissions from enteric emission, accounting for 46.3% of emissions
in 2008, 73.5% in 1994, 71.0% in 2002, and 78.7% in 2003. Emissions of CH4 from other
cattle accounted for 48.1% in 2008, 26.0% in 1994, 25.2% in 2002 and 19.4% in 2003. The
CH4 emissions from swine, cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo showed little variability from
1994 to 2008.From 1990 to 2008, total emissions from enteric fermentation decreased
by 53.6%. Methane emissions generally decreased from 2002 to 2008, despite a very
slight increase from 2006 to 2008. This is shown in Table 2.10. This decreasing trend
is due mainly to decreasing populations of both beef and dairy cattle as a result of
excessive slaughtering of female dairy cows and cattle over the years.
Table 2.9: Emissions from Agriculture for the periods 1994, 2002-2008
Gas Source
CH4 (Total)
1994
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
33.52
2521
31.83
20.96
22.84
22.57
21.65
26.15
28.93
Enteric Fermentation
6.19
6.27
6.17
2.54
2.23
2.57
2.6
2.87
3.66
Manure Management
2.07
2.23
2.24
0.62
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.69
0.93
24.29
16.22
22.8
17.21
19.81
19.23
18.3
18.98
23.69
0.71
0.48
0.62
0.58
0.54
0.53
0.5
0.52
0.65
1.9
1.99
1.73
1.95
1.95
1.96
2
1.51
2.03
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.08
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.01
0
0
Indirect N2O Emissions from Manure
1.85
1.91
1.64
1.85
1.87
1.89
1.91
1.43
1.93
Field Burning of Agricultural Residues
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
60000
40050
52425
49020
45563
44232
42087
43654
54492
24.29
16.22
22.8
17.21
19.81
19.23
18.3
18.98
23.7
49000
49350
48350
50790
50790
50790
50790
50790
50790
Rice Cultivation
Field Burning of Agricultural Residues
N2O (Total)
Manure Management
Direct N20 Emissions from Soils
Indirect N2O Emissions from Soils
Harvested Rice
CH4 Rice
Available Area
February 2013
59
Table 2.10:CH4 Emissions from Enteric Fermentation (Gg)
Livestock Type
1994
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Dairy cows
4.46
4.46
4.46
1.18
1.04
1.18
1.19
1.33
Cattle
1.58
1.58
1.58
1.22
1.08
1.23
1.23
1.38
Buffalo
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.03
Sheep
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.06
Goats
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Horses
0.01
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Mules & Asses
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Swine
0.00
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.04
0.04
0.04
Total
6.19
6.27
6.17
2.54
2.23
2.57
2.60
2.87
Estimates of CH4 emissions from manure in 2008 were 0.71 Gg, 66.6% lower than in
1994. Again, this is a result of decreasing dairy cow and cattle populations due to
slaughtering. Emissions decreased by an average of 76.9% annually over the period
1994-2008.
In 2008, total N2O emission has been calculated at 2.13 Gg. This includes both direct
and indirect N2O emissions from manure management. N2O emissions have remained
fairly steady since 1994. Small changes in N2O emissions from individual animal groups
exhibit the same trends as in the animal group population, with the net effect that
N2O emissions showed a 16.4% increase from 1994 to 2008 and a 25.7% decrease from
2007 through 2008. This is reflected in table 2.11.
Table 2.11: CH4 Emissions (in Gg) from manure management for the periods 1994 and 2002-2008.
Totals may not sum due to independent rounding17.
Livestock Type
1994
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
CH4
2.07
2.23
2.24
0.62
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.69
Dairy cows
2.03
2.03
2.03
0.54
0.14
0.16
0.16
0.61
Cattle
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
Buffalo
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Sheep
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Goats
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Horses
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Mules & Asses
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Swine
0.01
0.17
0.16
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.05
Gas/Animal Type
Rice cultivation is an important source of CH4 emissions for Suriname. In 2008, emissions
from rice cultivation were 8.65 Gg. During the years 1994 and 2008, there was an overall
annual decrease of 32.5%. Emission levels decreased by 61.5% and 64.4% 2007 and
2008 respectively due to the fact that considerably less rice was planted.
17
60
Includes CH4 emissions reductions due to anaerobic digestion.
140000
120
15
Manure Management
Rice Cultivation
120000
100
10
Field burning of Agricultural
Residues
100000
5
0
Harvested area (Ha)
Emissions (Gg)
20
80
80000
60
60000
40
40000
Emission (Gg)
activities. Suriname needs to develop the capacity to establish emissions factors on a
local basis, so that uncertainties in the future may be reduced.
25
20
20000
0
0
Figure 2.15: CH4 emissions from Agriculture, 2002-2009
In terms of mitigation efforts, it would be recommendable to aim for 1994 GHG
emissions in agriculture. This is in light of the fact that agriculture in Suriname has
the ability to adapt based on its resources, technologies, available information,
management and infrastructure, and therefore is able to efficiently engage in rice
production (73,000 tons are harvested annually on a planted area of 60,000 ha).
It is a very realistic projection that all livestock types will increase by 10% annually. It
is estimated that by 2015, CH4 projections based on livestock types (cattle and dairy),
and a harvested rice area of about 60,000 ha, will reach about 50.76 Gg. If government
plans are taken into account, areas used for growing rice will increase to 150,000,000
ha, which would make the emission from rice production increase up to 122.45 Gg CH4
(see Figure 2.16).
The national inventory was calculated using rough estimates and applying indirect
default emission factors, due to the lack of adequate data from GHG-generating
Harvested Rice
Source
CH4 Rice
Avail Area
Figure 2.16: Forecast of CH4 emissions from rice cultivation
The expected increase of harvested rice means that N2O emissions from biomass
burning will increase. N2O may double by the year 2015, to about 50 Gg, as shown in
Figure 2.17.
Biomass Burning (Gg)
Non-CO2 emissions generated in agriculture in 2008 are relatively minor and have
decreased considerably when compared to emissions from agriculture in 1994. For
example, in 1994, CH4 emissions from rice cultivation and enteric fermentation in
livestock and manure and accounted for 32.39 Gg, but only 12.87 Gg in 2008.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
19
94 200 200 20 2
2
3 04 005 200 20 2
6 07 00 200 20
8
9 1
CH4
N20
NOx
CO
1
20
12 201 20
14 201
3
5
Figure 2.17: Forecast of N2O emissions
February 2013
61
2.10.4 WASTE
There is no established waste management system in Suriname. Therefore, emissions
from waste should be calculated from default values and population numbers. Due
to the low population (less than 0.5 million) and the low birth-rate in Suriname,
calculations based on population figures cannot produce an emission number. There
are also no signs that a waste management system will be established any time in the
near future. Until this happens, it will not be possible to produce emissions figures for
the waste sector.
2.11REFERENCES
ABS, 2008. Statistical Yearbook, 2007.
ABS, 2005. Statistical Yearbook 2004.
Comvalius, L.B., 2001. Surinamese Timber Species: Characteristics and Utilization:
Recent Information with Brief Descriptions of The Main Timber Species of Suriname. Celos.
Donselaar van, J., 1965. The Vegetation of Suriname, an Ecological and Phyto-Geographic Study of
Northern Surinam Savannahs, Van Eedenfond, Amsterdam.
IPCC, 2003. Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry. In: Penman J., et al
(eds.) IPCC/OECD/IEA/IGES, Hayama, Japan. 94 pp.
IPCC, 2000. Good Practices Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National GHG Inventories, Chapter
4-Agriculture. 513 pp. NGGIP Publications. http://www.unfccc.int/files/meetings/unfccc_calendar/
application/vnd.ms-powerpoint/ipcc_good_practice_guidance.ppt (Accessed May 30, 2012).
IPCC, 1997. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, NGGIP Publications,
Vol.1-3. 140 pp. http://www.unfcccint/ghg_data/online>help/frequently_asked_questions/items/38626.
php (Accessed May 29, 2012).
Japing, H.W., 1957. Onderzoek naar de belangrijkst mechanische en fysische eigenschappen van 41
Surinaamse houtsoorten, Koninklijk Instituut van de Tropen.
a
Jharap R., 2012. SNC TP02 Emissions from Industry and Manufacturing Sector, Ministry of Labour,
Technological Development and Environment (ATM). 16 pp. Unpublished manuscript. Suriname.
Kema Report, 2008. Suriname Power Sector Assessment and Alternatives for its Modernisation. (ATN/
SF-9038-SU).
Lindeman J. C., 1953. The Vegetation of Suriname; The Vegetation Of The Coastal Region of Suriname,
Van Eedenfond, Amsterdam.
LVV, 2010. 5 jarenverslag 2005-2010 Ministerie van Landbouw, Veeteelt en Visserij, Paramaribo.
IPCC, 1996. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, vol. 1: Reporting
Instructions.
Ministry of Agriculture, 2010. Annual Report 2009, Ministry of Agriculture, Paramaribo, Suriname.
IPCC, 1996. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, vol. 2: Workbook.
Ministry of Agriculture, 2011. Policy Paper 2010-2015. Paramaribo, Suriname. 97 pp. Suriname.
IPCC, 1996. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Reference manual,
vol. 3.
Ministry of Agriculture, 2011. Statistical Department, Agricultural Statistics from 1994-2009. 20 pp.
Suriname.
IPCC Report, 2007. IPCC WG1-AR4, 2007. Substances and their Greenhouse Warming Potential (GWP).
Narain J., 2012. SNC TP01 emissions from Energy sector.
IPCC, 2006. Emissions from Livestock and Management. 2006 IPCC Guidelines from National Gas
Inventories: Volume 4: Chapter 10. 87 pp. www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs1.html (Accessed May 3,
2012).
NIMOS, 2005. First National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. Suriname.
IPCC, 2006. N2O Emissions from Managed Soils, and CO2 Emissions from Lime and Urea applications.
2006 IPCC Guidelines from National Gas Inventories: Volume 4: Chapter 11.54 http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.
or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Accessed May 29, 2012)
IPCC, 2006. CH4 Emissions from Rice Agriculture. Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management
in National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. 38 pp. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/4_7_CH4_
Rice_Agriculture.pdf (Accessed May 30, 2012).
IPCC, 2006. Guidelines for National Greenhouse Inventories., Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and
other Land Use, Chapter 5: Cropland. 54 pp. http://www.forestcarbonportal.com/resource/2006-ipccguidelines-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories (Accessed May 27, 2012).
62
Ori L., 2012. SNC TP03 Emissions from Agriculture Sector, Ministry of Labour Technology and Environment.
42 pp. Unpublished manuscript. Suriname.
Playfair M., 2012. SNC TP04 emissions from Forestry and Other Land Use subsector.
Poels, R.L.H., 1987. Soils, Water and Nutrients in a Forest Ecosystem in Suriname, Agricultural University
Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Spong K., 2012. SNC TP05 emissions from IPPU and Waste subsectors.
Tractebel, 2002. Technical Assistance to the Formulation of a Master Energy Plan Study, Government of
Republic of Suriname and Energie Bedrijven Suriname.129 pp.
3 Vulnerability Assessment And Adaptation Strategy
3. Vulnerability Assessment
And Adaptation Strategy
New Beach between Braamspunt and Matapica | Hedwig – PLU – de la Fuente
February 2013
63
3.1INTRODUCTION
To date, several national assessments of climate-change vulnerability have been
conducted in Suriname. The Netherlands Climate Assistance Program (NCAP1) began
in 1996. This programme focused specifically on vulnerability assessment of the
coastal zone with regard to sea-level rise. NCAP1 findings were subsequently used
to write Suriname’s First National Communication to the UNFCCC in 2005. A second
phase of the programme (NCAP2), which was focused on the urban areas Paramaribo
and Wanica, was completed in 2008.
The FNC chapter on vulnerability and adaptation focused on the following areas:
- coastal erosion and land loss;
- vulnerability of water resources;
- freshwater zone ecosystems,
- vulnerability of the agriculture sector;
- socio-economic Vulnerability; and
- vulnerability to human health.
This SNC concentrates on the same areas. That of coastal erosion and land loss is adressed
in the remaining section on water resources, agriculture, ecology and geomorphology.
Final evaluation of the adaptation measures has been ranked through a multi-criteria
analysis (MCA) tool.
The MCA comprises a set of indices used to evaluate the identified adaptation measures
and to rank them. Ranking has been done considering all sectors together as well as
sector by sector.
Critical issues are emphasised in each section of the vulnerability assessment. Water
resources in Suriname are mainly used for agriculture (rice cultivation in particular)
energy generation in the form of hydro-electricity and consumption (potable water).
Emphasis is placed on urban areas, which are susceptible to flooding as a result of the
combination of factors of abundant rainfall, poor drainage, and rising sea and river
levels. Additional attention is paid to excessive rainfall in the interior, which caused
severe flooding in 2006 and 2008. For the agriculture sector, emphasis is placed on
food security and food safety. Possibilities to increase the production and export of
64
agricultural goods are evaluated as potential adaptation measures. The coastal and
geomorphology section focuses on changes of the coastline with respect to sealevel rise and climate change. In the sector of human health, emphasis is placed on
monitoring occurrences of dengue and malaria. The socio-economic analysis focuses
primarily on existing vulnerabilities among certain groups in society, such as farming
communities and women in the interior. The assessment was conducted using ad-hoc
studies, experiences gained in this field, and the expert judgment of consultants.
3.2 BASELINE CLIMATE CONDITIONS
Suriname, in the north-eastern part of South America just north of the Amazon
delta, between 2-6 degrees north latitude and 54-58 degrees west longitude, has a
climate characterised as tropical wet and hot. The climate is generally controlled by
the biannual passage of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The first passage
occurs during the period from December to February (known as the short wet season),
and the second during the period from May to mid-August (the long wet season).
The periods between these are the short dry season (February to the end of April)
and the long dry season (mid-August to early December). According to the Köppen
classification, Suriname has three climate types: monsoon climate, tropical rainforest
climate and humid and dry climate.
Another major condition that determines the country’s climate is that of its surface
conditions. Characteristics such as an abundance of rivers and swamps and the presence
of a well-developed vegetation cover produce large amounts of water vapour. Along
with local convection and orographic lifting along the hills and mountainous regions,
these contribute to the relatively high precipitation in the country18. For decades,
general climatic conditions have remained nearly the same throughout the year19.
Urritia R.O., 2008. Assessment of 21st Century Climate-Change Projections in Tropical South America and the Tropical Andes, Master’s Thesis.
Amatali M.A., 2011a. Technical Paper Present Profile, Sector Water Resources. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s
Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
18
19
The variation of annual temperature is only 2-3 degrees Celsius, and there is
insignificant change in rainfall as well, excluding unusually dry or wet years. This leads
to the conclusion that the climate of Suriname is relatively stable. An example of an
exceptionally wet year was 2006, when large amounts of rainfall caused significant
areas along rivers upstream to be inundated. However, it has been noted that this type
of event seems to reoccur every 25-75 years20.
Nieuw Nickerie
Coronie
Cultuurtuin
Zanderij
The current climate is best described as in the following sub-sections.
Stoelmanseiland
A.Temperature
In the coastal zone of Suriname, temperature observations over the past forty-seven
years (at the Cultuurtuin meteorological station) have shown an average increase
of approximately 0.016 degrees per year. In the hinterland, no significant trends in
temperature change have been observed (at the Zanderij meteorological station). It
should be noted, however, that temperature observations in the coastal zone as well as
in the interior may be affected by local conditions. In the coastal zone, such conditions
would increase due to urbanisation. In the interior, the type of land cover (savannah or
forest, for example) would be a factor.
= Meteorological Station
Kwamalasamoetoe
B.Precipitation
One of the principal parameters of climatology is rainfall. For Suriname, this is essential,
since rainfall is the basis for the distribution of the four seasons.
Data on precipitation comes from six meteorological stations, namely Cultuurtuin
(Paramaribo), Zanderij, Coronie, Nieuw Nickerie, Stoelmanseiland and Kwamalasamutu
(See Figure 3.1). Due to incomplete data, rainfall trend analyses could not be performed
for all datasets. Trend analyses for stations located in the young coastal zone show
no significant negative trend over approximately the past 100 years (see Appendix
III, figures 3c, 3e, 3g). At the same stations, however, trends are found to be slightly
positive for the period 1971-2008 (see Appendix III, Figures 3b, 3d, 3f ). At present, there
is no clear explanation for such a rainfall trend.
20
Figure 3.1 Location of meteorological stations
Source: Amatali, 2011a; Technical Paper Present Profile, Sector Water Resources
Rainfall trends at stations located in the hinterland are shown in Appendix III, Figures 3i
through 3n. Compared to stations in the coastal zone, hinterland stations show a slight
decrease in rainfall over the period 1971-2008, except for Kwamalasamutu station,
which shows an increase.
Brinke, W. and Botterweg, J., (2006). “Overstromingen Suriname 2006 Oorzaken, herhalingskansen en preventiemaatregelen”.
February 2013
65
Based on the available data, it can be stated that the highest amount of rainfall (about
3,000 mm/yr.) is observed in the centre, and the lowest amount in the north-western
part of the country (less than 1,750 mm). In Paramaribo and Wanica, rainfall varies
widely, from 1,400mm/yr. in the north to 2,100 mm/yr. in the south. To the south of
this zone (except for the central part of the country) yearly rainfall varies on average
from 2,000 to 2,350 mm/yr.
C.Wind
Winds are generally light, with annual averages of about 1.3-1.6 on the scale of Beaufort
(or 1-5 m/s). The daily wind-speed variation is higher, up to 3-4 Beaufort (3-8 m/s). High
winds in Suriname correspond with the occurrence of local gales, called sibibusi in
Surinamese, reaching speeds of up to 20-30 m/s near the end of the rainy seasons.
D.
Extreme weather conditions
Extreme weather conditions often occur related to El Niño and La Niña events. A
connection has been postulated between extremely dry conditions in Suriname and
strong El Niño events, as well as between extremely wet conditions in the country with
strong La Niña events. Extreme weather conditions are also observed during sibibusi
events, when wind speeds of up to 30m/s occur (over 100 km/hour; 67 mph; 58 knots).
Such winds can cause significant damage in urban areas. To date, it is unclear how
global climatic circulations affect extreme weather patterns in Suriname. Moreover,
according to predictions, the Walker current is weakening21 and may drop by 1% in
force by the year 2100. This will impact the hydrological cycle and hence rainfall and
other climatologic conditions.
A clear description of the current climate is unavailable due to a lack of data and poor
observation networks. Events such as sibibusis and strong variations in rainfall have
not been consistently observed, and therefore no analyses have been produced.
21
Urritia R.O., 2008.
66
3.3 EXPECTED CLIMATE-CHANGE AND SEA-LEVEL-RISE
PROJECTIONS
Climate-Change Scenarios
For the FNC’s Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment, the following assumptions
were made:
- sea-level rise of 1m;
- temperature increase (unknown value); and
- possible changes in wind speeds.
IPCC has developed a set of scenarios to describe how future conditions may develop,
based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving forces
and key relationships22. The projected sea-level rise in Suriname has been calculated
according to the A2 and B2 IPCC scenarios. Elements from both of these scenarios have
been used, since one specific scenario is difficult to apply to the national circumstances
of Suriname. The adapted IPCC scenario includes country-specific data for expected
rise of the average temperature and sea-level and possible changes in total rainfall.
Other data, such as occurrences of extreme events and variations in the amounts of
seasonal rain, including periods between dry and wet seasons, are also considered in
the adapted scenarios.
According to these scenarios, economic growth will vary from low to intermediate.
Suriname has a number of natural resources that could be utilised to contribute
to intermediate economic growth. However, if these natural resources were to
be depleted, a drop in economic growth would be expected. Scenarios A2 and B2
show technological change as fragmented and relatively slow-paced, undoubtedly
depending on the level of education in the country. Suriname is currently investing
in the improvement of education at various levels, so that more Surinamese people
can receive a quality education, have better access to higher education and thereby
become more involved in the various sectors of the country’s economy.
22
UNFCCC, 2010. Handbook on Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Consultative Group of Experts (CGE) on National Communications from Parties not
Included in ANNEX I to the Convention. UNDP, 3,1-16.
Taking into consideration the intermediate economic growth within these scenarios,
the Surinamese population is expected to undergo some growth as well. Current
demographic diversity will be largely maintained, and this will remain reflected in the
social, cultural, and political structure of Suriname. Simultaneous cultural integration
will continue to take place. Suriname’s membership to both the Caribbean Common
Market (CARICOM) and the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) demonstrates
the country’s continuing efforts to maintain and be open to the process of regional
integration.
These efforts are in line with the adapted scenarios, according to which the ambient
temperature is expected to rise approximately 2-3 degrees Celsius by 2100. Changes in
severity and frequency of extreme weather events could therefore have great impacts
on many sectors in Suriname.
Projections resulting from these scenarios also reveal that the sea level is expected
to rise by 20–51 cm by 2100. The main factors contributing to this rise are expansion
of sea water and melting/sliding of land-based ice sheets and glaciers. Yet there are
many uncertainties regarding carbon cycle feedbacks, ice-flow processes, the amount
of heat uptake by the oceans and recently observed ice-discharge rates. Since such
factors are insufficiently understood, their contributions to sea-level rise are oftentimes
neglected23. Researchers such as Rahmstorf, Horton, Rohling, Koppen, Pfeffer, and Sidall
24,25,26,27,28
have shown that when certain of these uncertainties are taken into account,
a higher maximum sea-level rise results.
23
Nicholls, R.J. et al, 2007. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group
II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry et al Eds., pp. 315-356. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Siddall et al, 2009. “Constraints on Future Sea-Level Rise from Past Sea-Level Change,” Nature Geosciences Nature Geoscience 2, 571 – 575. Published online:
26 July 2009 February 2010 |doi:10.1038/ngeo587. Accessed Apr. 16, 2010 at: http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v2/n8/abs/ngeo587.html
24
These range from the IPCC projection of 59 cm to Rahmstorf’s projection of 190 cm.
An average of sea-level projections from these five studies exceeds 100 cm. Further
analyses of these studies reveal that the lowest value of the maximum projected sealevel rise is +80 cm25. The highest value among the researchers, +180 cm, was that of
Vermeer & Rahmstorf29. According to Simpson et al30, these high projection values are
based on complex, on-going processes and the vulnerability of the Greenland and
West Antarctic ice sheets. Depletion there could result in a continuation of sea-level
rise, regardless of predicted changes in global temperatures. According to the same
studies, sea-level rise in the Caribbean could be more pronounced than in some other
regions.
A 1 m sea level rise projection has been adopted for Suriname. This is based on:
- analysis of five major projections of sea-level rise;
- exclusion of the IPCC projection (AR4) sea level rise project is because new
evidence is available that results in higher predictions than those found there;
and
- a lack of reliable data on sea-level rise in Suriname
In addition, local factors such as storm surge and subsidence should also be considered
as important contributors to sea-level rise in Suriname.
In conclusion, the expected climate-change scenario used for the vulnerability
assessment in Suriname can be described as follows (all projections are made for 2100):
- temperature rise between 2-3 degrees Celsius;
- increased frequency of extreme weather events, including high winds; and
- 1 m rise in sea level.
25
Pfeffer et al, 2008. Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea-Level Rise. Science, 5 September 2008, Vol. 321 no. 5894, pp. 1340-1343
DOI: 10.1126/science.1159099. Accessed Apr. 16, 2012 at: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5894/1340.abstract
Rohling et al, 2007. “Rates of Sea-Level Rise During the Last Interglacial,” Nature Geoscience,” 1, 38-42 (2008). Published online: 16 December 2007 | DOI:10.1038/
ngeo.2007.28. Accessed at: http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v1/n1/full/ngeo.2007.28.html
26
29
27
Vermeer M and Rahmstorf S., 2009. Global Sea Level Linked to Global Temperature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(51), 21527–21532.
Kopp et al, Dec., 2009. Probabilistic Assessment of Sea Level During the Last Interglacial Stage. Nature, Vol. 462, pp. 863-867, doi:10.1038/nature08686.
Simpson, M.C. et al, 2010.Quantification and Magnitude of Losses and Damages Resulting from the Impacts of Climate Change: Modelling the Transformational Impacts and Costs of Sea-Level Rise in the Caribbean (Summary Document), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Barbados, West Indies.
30
28
Horton et al, 2008. Sea-Level Rise Projections for Current Generation CGCMs Based on the Semi-Empirical Method. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 35,
L02715, doi:10.1029/2007GL032486. Accessed at: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2008/2007GL032486.shtml
February 2013
67
3.4 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
A vulnerability assessment has been conducted with respect to the impacts of climate
change on water resources, agriculture, ecology & geomorphology, socio-economy
and health.
3.4.1 WATER RESOURCES
Rainfall is the only source of water in Suriname. The many rivers originating in the
hinterland, groundwater aquifers and swamps found in the coastal area are all fed by
rainfall, with annual averages varying from 1,750 mm/yr. in the north to about 3,000
mm/yr. in the centre of the country.
3.4.1.1RIVERS
With the exception of the Suriname River, the seven main rivers and their numerous
tributaries discharge excessive rainfall from the mainland directly into the Atlantic
Ocean (see Table 3.1). The discharge of the Suriname River is regulated by the Afobaka
hydropower dam.
Table 3.1 Average discharge characteristics of Suriname’s rivers
No.
Main river
1
Marowijne
2
Commewijne
3
Area of the
basin in km2
Discharge in
m3/s
Specific discharge
(l/s/km2)
68,700
1,780
25.9
6,600
120
18.2
Suriname
16,500
426
25.8
4
Saramacca
9,000
225
25.0
5
Coppename
21,700
500
23.0
6
Nickerie
10,100
178
17.6
7
Corantijn
67,600
1,570
23.2
68
Variations in freshwater discharge are encountered due to variations in rainfall and
the resulting decrease in availability of freshwater. During the rainy seasons, fresh
water is abundant, while during the dry seasons, it may become temporarily limited.
Freshwater reserves may experience further pressure when drought coincides with a
strong El Niño. During a strong La Niña, abundant rainfall is expected. If accompanied
by other conditions, such as high soil moisture content, limited water storage capacity
and relatively steady rainfall, inundation may result.
Changes in rainfall in the upper basins of the Surinamese rivers are followed by
saltwater intrusion in their lower courses, since these lower river courses are controlled
by the hydrological influence of the Atlantic Ocean. A decrease of the upstream flow
promotes saltwater intrusion, while an increase in river discharge pushes the salt limit
back to near the estuarine zone of the river. Figure 3.2 illustrates the approximate
location of the current saltwater wedge.
In the north-western part of Suriname, where wetland rice is cultivated, large volumes
of fresh water per unit of time and area are required. This fresh water is obtained from
local water resources such as freshwater swamps and rivers found in these areas. In the
case of pronounced penetration of the salt wedge in the rivers due to low freshwater
discharge and low water levels in the neighbouring swamps, pumps must be utilised
to provide additional irrigation water. These pumps are located approximately 66 km
upstream in the rivers.
3.4.1.2LAKES AND WETLANDS
Numerous wetlands and swamps are found in the coastal zone. The total area covered
by these wetlands and swamps (excluding the manmade lake) is approximately 12,000
km2 one-third of which is permanently inundated and the remaining area seasonally
inundated during rainy seasons.
A man-made hydropower lake named Brokopondo Lake, formed in the early 1960s,
covers an area of about 1,600 km2. Originally, the main objective of the Lake was to
generate electricity for the aluminium smelter at Paranam. Since the closure of this
smelter in 1996, a significant part of the hydroelectricity produced by waters of the
lake is transported to Paramaribo. However, alternating water levels in the lake due
to varying rainfall has resulted in inconsistent hydropower output. During periods of
excessive rainfall, generated power may exceed 120 MW, but in periods of drought,
electricity generated at the same power plant may drop to 80 MW. Rainfall variation
is therefore having an immediate impact on the country’s economy. After being used
for hydropower generation, fresh water from Brokopondo Lake is discharged via the
Suriname River into the sea.
Figure 3.2 Hydrology of Suriname
Significant freshwater input for the swamps and rivers bordering the Zanderij formation
and the higher old coastal plain in the south, particularly during the dry seasons, comes
from groundwater inflow. In the districts of Nickerie and Coronie, water-retaining
dams have been constructed to protect agricultural land from flooding during the wet
seasons.
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3.4.1.3GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS
The retained water is also used for irrigation for rice cultivation in the same area during
the dry seasons, as well as for conserving mangrove wetlands on the coast. There are
four major freshwater swamps. From east to west, these are named Surnau Swamp,
Coesewijne Swamp, Coronie Swamp and Nani Swamp. Nani Swamp is used intensively
for agricultural purposes. High water-levels in the swamps from intensive rainfall in
conjunction with water-retaining dams of poor construction and maintenance have
often resulted in dam breaches and inundation of adjacent agricultural lands and
urban areas.
Potable water is extracted from groundwater resources found in the coastal area
at depths varying from tens to hundreds of meters. The Zanderij aquifer is the only
outcropping aquifer and the only aquifer receiving modern replenishment. Intensive
use of deeper aquifers has resulted in an annual water level decrease of about 0.5 m. One
present-day problem is an increase in salinity of these freshwater aquifers, particularly
in the northern part of the country. This is an indication of groundwater depletion.
Increase in population and urbanisation will further exacerbate this condition. At
present, 93.5% of the population in Paramaribo has access to potable water, while this
percentage is lower (75%) for the Wanica District, the second most populated area of
Suriname. Water supply in the hinterland is poor. During dry seasons, inhabitants of
the interior mainly use surface water from the rivers, and during wet seasons, they use
rainwater directly for consumption.
3.4.1.4IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES
UNDP
Bigi Pan Wetland
Water resources in Suriname may experience stress as a result of climate change
through the combined effects of reduced annual rainfall, increased evapo-transpiration,
and prolonged dry periods. Reduced rainfall and the resulting reduced discharge
will lead to saltwater intrusion in the rivers, creeks and streams that flow directly into
the Atlantic Ocean. An example of the relationship between sea level and saltwater
intrusion for the Suriname River can be seen in Figure 3.3. A linear projection of this
relationship with respect to a one-meter sea-level rise causes a displacement of the
saltwater wedge by approximately twenty kilometres upstream This depends on local
conditions, such as the tidal effect of the Atlantic Ocean on the water system and the
freshwater discharge from upstream. It is certain that under such conditions, water
resources of all rivers and significant parts of the wetlands in the coastal zone will
decline rapidly. Without proper adaptation measures, saltwater intrusion will have a
significant impact and even jeopardise the agricultural sector, while other sectors will
be strongly affected as well.
High water sea levels will also promote changes in river morphology, estuarine zones,
and the lower courses of the rivers. River processes such as riverbank erosion and
70
deposition, changes to the navigable channel, and the movement of bars and mud
banks in the lower courses near the river mouths may cause to develop an array of risks
to the environment, as well as to present and future infrastructure along these rivers.
The wetlands may become highly susceptible to drought and consequently to natural
Increase
Saltagricultural
Intrusion lands
Suriname
River (km)
fires during prolonged dry
periods,in
while
will experience
increased
threats from inundation due to dam failure and/or intensified wet seasons.
Increase Salt
Intrusion (Km)
Increase in Salt Intrusion Suriname River (km)
10
8
6
higher water levels and hyper-salinisation in the case of stagnant water. In addition,
industries are increasingly using freshwater resources for production purposes (water
bottling, beverages, mining and agriculture) which add to the pressure on these
resources. Negative impacts on water resources in the hinterland could stem from two
causes: increased economic activity (logging, gold-mining) and increased variations in
temperature and rainfall.
3.4.2AGRICULTURE
Agricultural activities are found in both the young and old coastal areas and consist
of the following: crop production (rice, vegetables, and bananas); animal production
(beef cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and pigs); fisheries (including aquaculture); and
cultivation of fruits, flowers and ornamental plants. This last subsector (flowers and
ornamentals) is rather new and shows promising growth potential.
4
The Agriculture subsector is key to the economy of the country, not only because of
its contribution to the GDP, but also because of the high number of people employed
in it. An overview of the percentage of labourers working in agriculture can be seen in
Figure 3.4.
2
0
-2
-4
-6
y = 0.255x - 2.833
-8
-10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Increase Mean Water level Nw.Amsterdam (cm)
Approximately half of the labourers involved in the agriculture are engaged in animal
production and fisheries; the other half are mainly active in crop production. Locally
produced animal products do not fully meet national demands. Other agricultural
products are used locally and exported. An overview of the average export values (in
%) for the period 2004-2009 is presented in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.3 Relationship between rates of salt intrusion and increased mean water level
Source: Amatali, 2011b; Technical Paper Future Profile. Sector Water Resources
Saltwater intrusion into aquifers will also increase with continued extraction from
groundwater sources and pollution. If the sea level continues to rise, replenishment
rates into the Zanderij aquifer may decrease.
It should be noted that depletion of freshwater resources will further impact natural and
manmade systems. Seawater penetration in the coastal area will trigger a number of
changes, such as the decline of water quality, the dislocation of freshwater fish species,
February 2013
71
-
1%
9%
25%
Rice
10%
26%
29%
Bananas
Vegetables
25%
32%
Bananas
Vegetables, Roots, Tubers
Fisheries
Fruit excl. Bananas
Rice
Processed vegetables, fruit
Flowers
Animal Production
17%
Others
24%
Fish and fish products
Shrimp
0% 0%
0% 2%
Figure 3.4 Labourers involved in agriculture
(2009-2010)
Source: Tjien Fooh, 2011a; Vulnerability and Adaptation of the agriculture sector in Suriname – Current
profile
Figure 3.5 Export values (mil. SRD) and % of some
agricultural products (2004-2009)
Source: Tjien Fooh, 2011a; Vulnerability and Adaptation of the agriculture sector in Suriname – Current
profile
Significant decreases in the export values of shrimp have been observed during recent
years. Over the past few decades, production in almost all subsectors has declined. The
bananas subsector is one of the few exceptions. This subsector has shown moderate
growth, due primarily to extensive recent investments, particularly in the irrigation and
transport infrastructures.
Decrease of agricultural production is due to two main factors: 1) socio-economic
aspects (including lagging infrastructural maintenance, population growth, shift of
production fields to newer locations, lack of new investment and lack of innovation)
and 2) climatic variations (varying rainfall intensities over time and space, and high
winds).
The main threats to agricultural production are:
-
reduction of agricultural land. A shift of the old production areas to new locations is
required in view of current socio-economic development, since former production
areas have now been designated to housing;
- lack of appropriate irrigation and drainage facilities, which increases the
vulnerability of this sector;
72
rising prices of agricultural commodities; although enough land and fresh water
are available, Suriname is still largely dependent on imported agricultural products.
This dependence increases the country’s vulnerability in terms of food security;
- questionable food security and food supply in the hinterland. For indigenous
and Maroon villages in particular, this depends largely on climatic conditions.
According to Amatali31, strong variations in rainfall are expected in the future, and
since agricultural practices in this area are climate-based, these variations may
adversely affect livelihoods. It should be noted that irrigation infrastructure in the
hinterland is lacking, in contrast to the coastal zone, where it exists. Therefore, early
or late season-starts have an immediate impact on these communities.
3.4.2.1IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE
As mentioned in Section 3.3, projections pertaining to agriculture are not optimistic
in light of expected climate-change and sea-level rise scenarios. Although Suriname
has enough land and freshwater, future agricultural development will be negatively
affected by climate change and sea-level rise. According to Nijbroek (2011b), a projected
mid-term population growth of about 44% by 2024 will exert permanent pressure
on agricultural production. Urbanisation may also contribute to the weakening of the
agricultural sector because people migrating from rural areas and the interior to urban
areas will no longer produce their own staple crops and have to depend on purchased
products. A significant number of threats may affect crops that are heavily dependent
on the availability of fresh water.
Agricultural subsectors that may be affected include:
A. Rice production Rice is the main staple food in Suriname and shows growth
potential, if factors such as available fertile land, global population growth and
favourable world market prices are taken into account. This subsector would, however,
be significantly threatened by seawater intrusion, strong and unpredictable variations
in rainfall patterns or the combined effects of these two32. Rice production may also be
31
Amatali M.A. 2011b. Technical Paper Future Profile. Sector Water Resources. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s
Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
32
Tjien Fooh R. 2011b. Vulnerability and Adaptation of the Agriculture Sector in Suriname – Future Profile, Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for
the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
hampered by frequent occurrences of crop diseases and pest infestations in the
coming years. Inland flooding and sea-level rise, may become more evident and
seriously hamper food security. In addition, investments into maintenance of machines
and equipment, infrastructure and facilities are currently sorely needed in the rice
subsector.
B. Bananas This subsector will also experience stress, since it is located on the young
coastal plain. Recent important investments and the introduction of new technologies
in irrigation and drainage systems have improved this subsector’s resilience, however.
The future of the banana sector is strongly dependent on world market prizes and the
capacity of the banana company to compete under challenging circumstances.
C. Vegetable Crops By 2025, about 25% of vegetable production is expected to be
undertaken in protective farming techniques such as greenhouses and hydroponic
systems. These modern systems can only be effective if accompanied by large-scale
investments, some of which would have to be dedicated to capacity-building and
awareness campaigns. Changing climatic and hydrological conditions add to the need
for such investment. Using existing farming systems, farmers who produce in areas
susceptible to flooding and salinisation may no longer be able to produce their crops
and have to move to other, lower-risk areas or to adapt their livelihoods to the changed
conditions. Under such circumstances, the number of farmers involved in vegetable
production could decline, making produce more expensive.
necessary imports.
F. Fisheries/Aquaculture This subsector is in decline, a situation expected to worsen
in the near future. Intensive research is required to understand whether this decline is
due to trawlers having a negative impact on the breeding grounds of fish and shrimp
near the coast, or whether climate-related processes and forces or some other factors
are involved. Under conditions of climate change, productivity in this subsector will
depend on sustainable fisheries management and on the recovery of the estuarine
zone, among other things. In general its vulnerability level is determined by uncertain
future climatic conditions and large investments made on the part of competitors.
3.4.3 ECOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
As indicated in Chapter 1, large parts of Suriname’s geomorphology are part of the
Guiana Shield. This shield is a sizable area that stretches from north of the Amazonian
lowlands in south-east Columbia through Venezuela, Guyana and northern Brazil
to the Atlantic coast of Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. The Guiana Shield
formation is billions of years old, deeply weathered, and covered by rainforest.
Topographically, this shield is hilly to mountainous, and this type of terrain makes up
the geomorphology of Suriname’s hinterland. In the north at the foot of this shield,
an area with terrestrial sediments has been formed. Further northward to the coastal
lowlands, marine sediments are found that stretch to the Atlantic Ocean. This creates
four major geographical zones in Suriname, with their corresponding ecosystems (see
Figure 3.6).
D. Fruit This subsector has the potential to grow rapidly in the coming years. Necessary
conditions exist for growing perennial fruit, or raising exotic fruit species rich in antioxidants, such as acai (Euterpe oleraceae), which is more resilient to extreme weather
patterns. It is therefore expected that the low number of specialised farmers in this
subsector will grow if the necessary incentives are provided.
E. Livestock This subsector is under pressure due to several factors: competition from
imported meat and meat products, agronomical constraints (rainfall, soil fertility and
texture, temperature) and scarcity of good breeding stocks. Without strong support for
adaptation to new production conditions, stagnation or decline in livestock production
will remain of great concern, and local production markets will be further harmed by
February 2013
73
Legend
1. Precambrian Guiana Shield area,
popularly also known as the interior,
the interior uplands, or the hill and
mountain land
2. Cover landscape; also known as
Zanderij or the Savannah Belt (late
Tertiary)
3. The old coastal plain:
a. Old ridges and sea-clay flats
(Pleistocene)
b. Old swamps (Early Holocene)
4. Young coastal plain (late Holocene)
Figure 3.6 Outline of Suriname’s major physiographic regions
Source: Noordam, 2011; Ecology and Geomorphology
The Precambrian Guiana Shield area, also known as the interior upland, has regular
elevations of up to 750 m and occasionally higher, the highest being 1,230 m. The
rivers and creeks in the interior upland are, in general, characterised by the presence of
rapids, except for those parts of river basins in which the valleys are filled with alluvium.
In the lowland zone (up to 500 m elevation) the dominant type of vegetation cover
is high dryland forest, also known as “tropical mesophytic forest” or “tropical lowland
forest.” In zones with adverse soil conditions, savannah vegetation types can be found.
These comprise high and low xerophytic forest patches among the tropical mesophytic
and other types of forests in this area. At elevations above 500 m above mean sea level
(MSL), mountain forests are found. Species composition here differs from that of the
surrounding lowlands. Tafelberg Mountain, at approximately 1,000 m above MSL, has
different ecosystems, being an isolated plateau with very steep, often cliff-like slopes,
very poor sandy soils and exposed sandstone. Along the rivers and creeks, seasonally
flooded forests occur, in which marsh and swamp species may be found near dryland
species.
The Cover landscape, occurring at the foot of the Precambrian Guiana Shield and
74
also known as Zanderij or the Savannah Belt, is a gently rolling plateau landscape
sloping to the north with elevations that are predominantly between 10-50 m. On
well-drained sandy to loamy soils that cover approximately 60% of this landscape, high
dryland forest is found, while high and low xerophytic forests and savannahs occur
where there are bleached, sandy soils. Species composition differs from the forests in
the interior uplands, and many forests in the Cover landscape are subject to selective
logging.
The Old Coastal Plain is a discontinuous belt of erosion remnants of a former
continuous coastal plain. It is intersected by gullies and swamps filled with younger
sediments, from during the early Holocene. The landscape is undulating, with elevations
in the lower parts of 4-7 m and 5-11 m in the higher parts. Poor drainage of this zone
has led to the formation of extensive swamps or depressions between the ridges, as
well as marsh flats, with swamp water levels increasing 2 meters in depth. In the deeper
swamps (3-6 m) extensive peat formations have formed, with thicknesses of several
meters. Swamps with such thick and often floating peat layers have open ombrogenous
herbaceous swamp vegetation. These include the southern Nani Swamp, the central
Coronie Swamp, and the swamp upstream of Buku Creek in the Cottica drainage
basin. These swamps are poor in species and often covered with low herbaceous
vegetation, dominated by a single species. On periodically flooded areas, high marsh
forest dominates, and high dryland forest is found on the old ridges.
The most northern land, known as the estuarine zone, covers an area of about 2,000
km2 and encompasses mangrove forests, lagoons and brackish herbaceous swamps as
well as a strip with freshwater swamps directly south of it.
This estuarine zone is very dynamic, with its ever moving mud banks and beaches and
the associated erosion and accretion. When mudflats are silted up due to the presence
of mobile mud banks to elevations above the mean high water level, often a monospecific Black Mangrove or “Parwa” (Avicennia germinans) develops as an uninterrupted
belt along the coast. This is uprooted during periods of erosion, subsequently
partially thrown up on shore and partially transported westwards by the sea, where
it drifts ashore elsewhere along the coast. Other reasons for the Parwa forests to die
are the drowning of the respiratory roots and changes in the salt content caused in
general by on-going “natural changes.” This often finally results in the formation of
lagoons. Following the consecutive naturally-induced processes of rainfall and changes
in salinity and vegetation, these lagoons may be finally transformed into fresh water
herbaceous swamps, where peat formation might begin.
The presence of saline to brackish clay soils and waters, ranging from (hyper) saline to
(nearly) fresh, are essential conditions for preserving life in the estuarine zone. A “red
line” is often marked on maps to delineate these zones, which coincide approximately
with the line of the ocean watershed in the south. Along the brackish and muddy
lower courses of the Surinamese rivers, intertidal flats are covered with red mangrove
forests (Rhizophora sp.), characterised by their high prop roots.
Finally, the Young Coastal Plain, is characterised by flat and low-lying formations
of heavy marine clays usually overlain by a peat layer, with elevations around 1 (±
0.5) meter above MSL and therefore very sensitive to inundation during rainy seasons,
especially when there are poor drainage conditions. The clay flats are locally interspersed
by ridges that strike roughly from east to west, and form usually narrow bodies, often
comprised of sand and occasionally mixed with shells. These ridges may be found at
elevations of 1-3 m above the surrounding clay flats and may occur individually or in
bundles varying in width between 10 and 400 m.
Another feature of this coastal plain is the Polder landscape, comprised of old plantation
areas and—in the Young Coastal Plain—recently established polders. Water levels in
these areas are controlled by dikes, canals, ditches, sluices and pumps, but the areas
are often inundated during heavy rainfall.
The eastern part of the Surinamese coast line, occupying about 10% of the total
Surinamese coast, is covered by beaches that provide suitable conditions for sea
turtles to nest. The beaches of eastern Suriname are of international importance, not
only as a nesting site for green and leatherback turtles, but also as the only place in the
Atlantic where historical olive Ridley turtles nest in massive numbers. These beaches,
prominent around Galibi and Commewijne, are subject to erosion, and they “move”
in a western direction under the influence of the Guyana current and the prevailing
north-east trade winds. An exception is formed by the most eastern beaches which
are more or less in a steady state, as erosion is compensated by deposition of sand
originating from the rivers east of this location (mainly those of French Guiana). When
mudflats are formed in front of these beaches, they become a stable feature in the
landscape, the so-called “ridges.”
Threats to the above described ecosystems, in particular those of the Young Coastal
Plain, currently exist, and consist of:
- grass and peat fires;
- land reclamation and clearing;
- civil engineering works (construction of large canals, dams and roads); and
- poaching and collecting of wild life.
Grass and peat fires. Grassfires are annual events that normally only occur in
herbaceous swamps. The grassfire normally destroys only the vegetation, not the
peat layer. Peat fires, on the other hand, destroy high and low swamp forests and
temporarily create open water areas that are soon covered with newly established
floating or rooting herbaceous vegetation. During such events, peat layers that take
many years to establish are significantly damaged. The last documented peat fire is
dated 1963 to 196433.Small-scale vegetation fires in the swamps are reported annually,
however, in particular during the long dry season. To date, all documented grass and
peat fires have been related to human activities.
Land reclamation and clearing. Since the 17th century, about 2,000 km2 of land on
the Young Coastal Plain has been turned into plantations and polders. Most of these
areas were originally wetlands. In the cover landscape and interior uplands, land is
used for shifting cultivation. The total area of this is unknown, but currently, it is not
expanding significantly. In these same areas, land is currently being requested for
large-scale oil palm and sugarcane cultivation and for cattle grazing. Large tracts of
forest will be cleared for these land-use activities. In the coastal zones, new areas have
been designated for agricultural purposes.
Noordam D., 2011. Ecology and Geomorphology. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
33
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75
Civil Engineering works (construction of large canals, dams and roads). Such
works are observed at several locations in the coastal areas. Large civil engineering
works are inevitable during economic development, and where they occur there are
considerable hydrological changes and changes in biodiversity that reach across large
areas. Examples from the past are the east-west Burnside-Wageningen road, a waterretaining and drainage diversion dam south of the Nickerie rice area, the Corantijn
Canal, and the water-retaining dam south of the Coronie rice polders.
Poaching and collecting of wild life. These seem to be common practices in
Suriname, and some animal species have become locally rare or even extinct. Illegal
collection of sea-turtle eggs on beaches in eastern Suriname is already affecting
turtle populations. Further development of the network of polders, dams and roads
will improve access to previously inaccessible areas, leading to an increase in such
illegal activities. In the interior uplands, the construction of new roads provides access
for people to hunt, fish, log, collect, and conduct shifting cultivation in previously
inaccessible areas, affecting ecosystems over vast tracts. See Table 1.1 and Figure 1.9
for ecosystems in Suriname
3.4.3.1IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS AND COASTAL ZONES
Ecosystems have always responded to climate change, but on different scales and at
different rates of change, depending on climatic circumstances. These responses may
include shifts in the timing of biological events, in populations and reproductive biology,
and in the species found in geographical zones. This may include the extinction of
certain species. Data at the species level are lacking for Suriname. Therefore, emphasis
will be placed on climate-change impacts at a broader ecosystem level.
With respect to projections of climate change in the future, a number of changes are
expected to happen in the estuarine zone. Although sea-level rise is the main driver
of these changes, this single force is not expected to create large problems for the
existing healthy mangrove-mud coasts. The on-going alternation of accretion and
erosion along these coasts will be maintained, with possible increases in the erosion
and deposition rate. Under these circumstances, it is expected that the ecosystems
involved will not change dramatically, although some shifts will occur, especially
where hard manmade structures are found34. Depending on the strength of these
structures, the coastline will be fixed, but there is a high cost involved in this. Lack of
maintenance to a dam may, for example, lead to its deterioration and eventually to a
breach, possibly resulting in tremendous losses. Other structures such as clay dams
will only enhance erosion rather than deposition. At these locations and at those free
of natural and manmade structures, seawater penetration will occur in the estuarine
zone, with negative effects for wildlife, forcing certain animals to either move to higher
ground or adapt to the new conditions.
Along the lower courses of the rivers, the riverine mangroves are not expected to be
affected by increasing sea level, but they may extend some kilometres further upstream
with the movement of the salt wedge. Adjacent to the coastal mangrove forest a
brackish zone may develop where, depending on the mangrove-mudbank interaction
and climatic conditions (such as decreased rainfall and increased evapo-transpiration),
hyper-saline conditions may develop. Under such conditions, the number of species
could be drastically reduced.
Changes in the numbers of turtles nesting on beaches in eastern Suriname are linked
with geomorphologic changes that are dependent on the rate of the sea-level rise
and sediment balance. A negative balance may erode beaches, thereby negatively
affecting the number of nesting turtles. On the other hand, a positive balance could
increase the number of nesting turtles in this part of Suriname.
The freshwater zone. This zone, if not interfered with by human development, will
suffer the least from future climate change, except in the case in which a dramatic
rise of swamp water occurs. In the case of rising swamp water, freshwater zones often
become covered by intense vegetative growth and peat cover. This negatively affects
flows from the zone and causes water levels to increase at the same rate as the rise of
sea level and of the river. Increased swamp-water levels have impacts on the vegetation
of the low swamp forests and promote carbon sequestration through conservation of
peat. It is estimated that on every 1.1 million hectares of swamp, approximately 5.5x108
ton of carbon will be fixed.
34
Noordam D., 2011. Ecology and Geomorphology. Technical document: “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
76
However, varying climatic conditions, such as prolonged dry periods, reduced rainfall,
and increased evapo-transpiration, will increase the susceptibility of these areas to
swamp fires. Future large-scale peat fires would be dramatic in terms of CO2 release.
A dramatic rise in swamp-water levels might also damage the adjoining swamp
woods and swamp forests, which would subsequently be replaced by other types of
vegetation. The bordering high dryland forests would be replaced by the seasonally
flooding marsh forests.
All land beyond the young coastal zone is for the most part covered with high
dryland forests. Due to their relatively high soil moisture content, these areas are
less sensitive to extensive degradation. Degradation only occurs when these fireresistant native forests are converted into fire prone vegetation through repeated
forest damage from drought, logging and/or fire. Such extensive forest degradation
has not regularly occurred in Suriname, with the exception of a few, generally very
small sites. Future climatic conditions combined with large-scale developments, such
as road construction through forests, shifting cultivation, logging, and other possible
socio-economic developments could increase the sensitivity of the forest to further
degradation, but a general die-off is not expected. For certain areas, in particular
southwest Suriname, such developments could lead to the “ecological tipping point.”
Therefore it is worthwhile to evaluate the risks of forest die-off for Surinamese forests.
3.4.4SOCIO-ECONOMY
3.4.4.1POPULATION
The total population of Suriname in 2009 was 524,143, with a gender ratio of 101.96,
indicating that there is a marginally larger total number of males than of females.
The working-age population (15-59) is 61.7% of the total, while the young (0-14) and
elderly (60+) make up 28.8% and 9.3% respectively. The growth rate is 1.3%.
The Surinamese population is ethnically diverse, and according to the 2004 census, its
composition is: 27.4% Hindustani, 17.7% Creole, 14.7% Maroon, 14.6% Javanese, 12.5%
Mixed, 3.7% Amerindian, 1.8% Chinese and 0.6% White. See Table 1.2 for information
on the average socio-economic indicators over the period 2003-2008 for Suriname.
Table 3.2 shows that only 56% of the working-age population claims to be formally
employed and that male participation in the economy is higher than that for females.
Table 3.2 Economic participation data
Source: Nijbroek, 2011a; Assessment of the Socio-Economic Current Profile of the Republic of Suriname
Working-age population Economically active
(15-60) (2004 census)
(incl. jobseekers) (2004
census)
Participation ratios
Men
Women
Total
Men
Paramaribo/
Wanica
105,634
107,005
212,639
74,551
47,869
122,420
70.6
44.7
57.6
Suriname
154,836
154,179
309,015
109,627
63,485
173,112
70.8
41.2
56.0
Men
Women
Total
Women Total
Free health care service in Suriname is enjoyed by approximately 34% of all households.
These include households with an annual income less than the government-calculated
poverty line. The majority of households are headed by men, whose numbers
approximately double those of female heads of households. The only exception to
these data is in maroon communities, where all households are effectively female
headed.
The official number of employed individuals in 2009 was 126,370, and unemployed
individuals numbered 12,525. This works out to an unemployment rate of 9%. It
is thought, however, that many people work in the informal sector, and this is not
reflected in these numbers.
3.4.4.2GOVERNMENT
Suriname has a constitutional democracy with a president who is both the chief of
state and the head of the government. The fifty-one members of Parliament, the
National Assembly, are elected by popular vote for five years. The president and vicepresident are elected by the assembly by a two-thirds constitutional majority, or by a
common majority of votes in the United People’s Assembly. The vice-president of the
republic also chairs the Council of Ministers, which consists of seventeen ministers
representing an equal number of ministries. Ministers are appointed by the president.
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A State Advisory Council consisting of fourteen members advises the president on
policies. Justice is exercised by an independent Court of Justice, to which the members
are appointed for life by the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, the
State Advisory Council, and the National Order of Private Attorneys.
There are ten administrative districts in Suriname: Brokopondo, Commewijne, Coronie,
Marowijne, Nickerie, Para, Paramaribo, Saramacca, Sipaliwini and Wanica.
Political control of the entire country is carried out centrally from Paramaribo. Of the
seventeen existing ministries, those with duties most pertinent to vulnerability and
adaptation to climate change are:
- the Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and Forest Management (RGB);
- the Ministry of Natural Resources (NH);
- the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries (LVV);
- the Ministry of Public Works (OW);
- the Ministry of Regional Development (RO);
- a one-time Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation (PLOS) no longer
exists; currently, its former tasks are partially carried out by the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs (BUZA); and
- the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment (ATM), which
is responsible for representing Suriname at international meetings and creating
strategic alliances with countries that face climate-change risks similar to those of
Suriname.
Local representation is generally weak, partly because political representatives outside
of Paramaribo lack political power. District Council members are elected locally and
are required to work with the District Commissioner (DC) in addressing issues of local
concern. While the posts of Council members and that of the DC are paid, they have
a limited operating budget. An on-going decentralisation process begun in 2002 is
aimed at providing an operating budget for the DC and council, which is to be used
primarily for local infrastructural projects, but this has not yet been fully implemented.
Groups exposed to environmental risks tend to request assistance from the leadership of
affiliated political parties, but this is only effective if the group is politically homogeneous.
Vulnerable groups can also request assistance from someone in government with a
78
high public profile, usually a minister, the speaker of the house, or even the president.
This is usually done through the media, which is not the most effective form of
participation in decision making. Local Council members are therefore marginalised,
people have little political representation, and adaptation measures tend to be
increasingly autonomous at the household or community level. Participation in
planned national adaptation to climate change will continue to be minimal if local
governance is not changed.
3.4.4.3ECONOMY
For many reasons, Suriname’s economy is not well-diversified. It once depended
heavily on mining, but this is no longer the case. When compared to other sectors,
the mining industry is no longer a large employer. The economy of the country can be
characterised as beyond transitional, with a large, as yet undeveloped, tertiary sector.
There is a relatively high level of income inequality compared to the EU (0.36) or USA
(0.46), with a Gini Coefficient of 0.5467 (0 = total equality, 1 = inequality). This coefficient
is much closer to those of Brazil (0.57) or Colombia (0.58). Nevertheless, Suriname has
some distinct economic advantages, including: an effective tax income stream from
personal income, imports and consumption, which annually covers about 80% of
budget expenses; a small but professional banking and insurance sector; and energy
independence due to oil production and export as well as hydropower. Income from
exports of oil, bauxite, gold and agricultural products (such as rice and bananas) and
fisheries, as well as ample land and freshwater reserves for expansion, also contribute
to these economic advantages.
What prevents Suriname from fully benefiting from these advantages is the lack of
trained workers and financial capital. Government planning is done in five-year cycles,
and given its importance, the development of the private sector needs an integrated
strategy. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is needed in order to develop long-term
strategic projects, since Suriname does not have sufficient internal capital resources
(for the banking system and government) to support investment. Sufficient in-country
capacities do not exist to allow Suriname to obtain necessary financing, and there
is a resistance to using the services of outside consultants. Furthermore, Parliament
does not have the capacity to pass an investment law that would provide oversight to
executives in the implementation of FDI deals. Inferior skills in English, as well as
regionally important Spanish and Portuguese, compound the problems of acquiring
needed investment. For the moment however, despite poor economic governance
and the global recession of 2007-2009, the Surinamese economy continues to expand.
Table 3.3 provides some baseline economic data.
3.4 and Figure 3.7 show the relative share of formal GDP of each subsector and formal
employment in it.
Table 3.4 Share of formal GDP and formal employment for each subsector
Subsector
Table 3.3 Baseline economic data
Sectors
Percentage (%)
% GDP
Number of formal jobs
Trade, Restaurants & Hotels
19.71
16,260
Financial Institutions & Commercial Services
17.40
3,151
GDP growth - mean 2000 to 2009
4.52
Industry & Manufacturing
11.70
7,173
Per capita income growth (SRD) - % change 2000 to 2009
716
Transport, Storage and Communication
11.38
2,152
Export growth (SRD) - % change 2004 to 2008
215
Mining
7.82
3,040
Import growth (SRD) - % change 2004 to 2008
176
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
7.48
11,552
Monetary reserves (USD) - % change 2004 to 2008
353
Utilities (Gas, Water, Electricity)
6.10
1,798
Construction
5.98
9,826
15.1
Government and the Public Sector
5.74
26,637
10.52
Education (Public School Teachers)
4.49
13,427
Social and Community Services
1.62
3,956
Health
0.57
Unknown
99.99
98,972
Monetary reserves import coverage (months) - % change 2004 to 2008
Debit interest rate – mean 2004 to 2008
Average annual inflation – mean 2004 to 2008
Foreign debt (USD) - % change 2004 to 2008
Total debt % GDP, 2000, 2010 (Q3)
63
-17
73.9%, 23.4%
Total
Commerce; the hospitality industry; agriculture, forestry and fisheries; and construction
are important subsectors in terms of livelihoods. These provide a total of 37,638 formal
jobs, of which 11,552 (31%) are in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries subsector,
a far greater share of the formal employment market than the same subsector’s
relative share of GDP (7%). The agriculture, forestry and fisheries subsector is very
likely to be affected by climate change, and it is very important to note that, given its
estimated 20% share of the informal sector, it is of key importance in terms of socioeconomic vulnerability. Also, considering the problems the subsector already faces, its
prominence is evidence of the strong coping capability of Surinamese society. Table
February 2013
79
2%
6%
Trade, Restaurants & Hotels
1%
Financial Institutions & Commercial
Services
Industry & Manufacturing
4%
20%
Transport, Storage & Communication
6%
Mining
6%
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
17%
7%
Utilities (Gas, Water, Electricity)
Construction
8%
Government and the Public Sector
11%
12%
Education
Social and Community Services
Health
Beverages (38%), Housing and Utilities (15%), Transportation (13%), and Miscellaneous
Goods and Services (10%). These four groups account for 76% of the household
budget. Currently, monthly incomes remain fairly constant, while expenses continually
rise, a situation that negatively affects the adaptive capacity of the people.
3.4.4.4LAND-USE
The total area of Suriname is 16,327,000 ha, of which 61,000 ha (less than 0.5% of the
total land area) is in production (see Figure 3.9). The largest portion of productive
land is found in the fertile young coastal zone. Data on spatial distribution and land
ownership is lacking. In the interior upland, Maroon and indigenous communities
engage in shifting cultivation on an estimated land area of 247,000 ha, based on a
fifteen-year rotational cycle of 16,500 ha. Agriculture in this part of the country is
mainly for subsistence and agricultural products are cultivated and processed mainly
by female heads of the household after the forest has been cleared by males.
Figure 3.7 Relative share of formal GDP of each subsector
Afobaka hydroelectric dam
1%
Figure 3.8 shows average disposable income as a percentage of household budgets in
four important regions.
17%
Food and Non-Alcoholic Beverages
1%
10%
Alcoholic Beverages/Tobacco
Clothing and Footwear
4%
4%
38%
Housing and Utilities
Health Care
Transportation
1%
0%
0%
10%
Shifting agriculture
Production area
Pasture
Household Furnishings
13%
Land availability for timber
concessions
71%
Central Suriname Nature
Reserve
Communication
3%
Recreation, Culture and Education
5%
3%
15%
4%
Food away from Home (Restaurants and Hotels)
Miscellaneaous Goods and Services
Figure 3.8 Average household monthly consumption expenditures as a percentage for Paramaribo, Wanica,
Nickerie, Coronie, Saramacca and Commewijne.
The four largest average household expenditures are: Food and non-Alcoholic
80
Remaining area
Figure 3.9 Land-use in Suriname
Source: Nijbroek, 2011a; Assessment of the Socio-Economic Current Profile of the Republic Suriname
Figure 3.9 also shows that more than 90% of the land area in Suriname is green and
largely covered by forests. Given this fact and taking into account its historically
low deforestation rate, Suriname is identified as a HFLD (High Forest Cover, Low
Deforestation) country. A number of factors jeopardise the country’s ability to retain
this classification, however. One is the lack of land-use planning. Necessary legislation
on the issue has indeed been discussed, but it has never been implemented. This
deficiency is certain to exacerbate the negative effects of climate change in terms of
changing rainfall patterns and sea-level rise, especially in the coastal area. An Integrated
Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan was completed in 2010 specifically for this part
of the country, but its implementation has not yet begun.
3.4.4.5TRANSPORT
Towing a boat over rapids in the Palumeu Rivier towards the Grensgebergte from the village Palumeu
Suriname has three international ports: Paramaribo, Paranam (of the Suralco company)
and Nickerie. The first two are situated along the Suriname River. The Nickerie River
port is located in the western part of the country, where rice and banana production is
concentrated. The largest port, however, is Paramaribo with import-export ratios of 75%
and 27%. In terms of freight transport, the port in Paramaribo has grown significantly,
while the one at Nickerie it has declined and that at Paranam has remained steady
since 1988.
Figure 3.10 Number of registered motor vehicles on public roads, 2004-2009
February 2013
81
Photo courtesy of Conservation International Suriname
In the coastal area, transport is mainly by road. Figure 3.10 shows that the number
of passenger cars is increasing rapidly. In the interior, transport takes place by road,
water and air. Here there is an extensive network of rivers and airfields, but a poorly
developed road system, and the majority of people use river transport. During the last
decade, economic growth has meant improvements in national transport in general,
but not in the hinterland.
3.4.4.6ENERGY SUPPLY
800
700
Thousands
600
500
2004
400
2014
300
2024
200
100
0
LOW
Thousands
The government-owned N.V. Energie Bedrijven Suriname (EBS) is the only legal
supplier of energy in Suriname, and it operates primarily in the coastal zone and part
of the interior. Electricity is produced by the Afobaka hydropower plant and diesel
generators. About 79% of the population has access to electricity supplied by EBS. In
the hinterland, electricity provision is poor for reasons of difficult accessibility, poor fuel
supply, and high transportation costs. The total number of people affected by these
poor conditions is approximately 30,000, or about 15% of the population. Demand
for electricity is growing at about 5.3% per year. Peak demand is projected to rise
from 130MW/ 795 GWh in 2007 to 354MW/2160 GWh in 2023. For the next fifteen
years, the expected level of investment in new generation and network capacity is
estimated to be in the order of USD 1 billion. Efforts made to bridge the gap include
the implementation of renewable energy sources such as hydropower and solar, wind
energy and bio-energy.
MEDIUM
HIGH
Figure 3.12 Future population predictions by
age for 2004, 2014 and 2024
Source: Nijbroek, 2011b
children (0-14)
working age (15-64)
2014
3.4.4.8IMPACT ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY
CONSTANT
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
3.4.4.7WASTE
2019
pension (65+)
2024
Figure 3.13 Population growth by area for
2014, 2019 and 2014 (source: ABS)35.
500
450
400
350
Thousands
Solid and liquid waste production grows as the economy grows. Since collection of
solid waste does not cover all households in urban areas, many people choose to burn
it or dispose of it in open spaces or rivers. Wastewater from Paramaribo and other urban
areas is released directly into the rivers, while other household wastewater is directed
to septic tanks in people’s backyards. This situation poses risks to human health and
the environment.
Figure 3.11 Total Population predictions for
2004, 2014 and 2024
Source: Nijbroek, 2011b; Assessment of the
Socio-Economic Future Profile of the Republic
of Suriname
300
2014
250
200
2019
150
2024
100
50
0
In determining the future profile of the socio-economy, two key factors are expected
to play a significant role: demographic predictions and energy demand. In Figures
3.11, 3.12 and 3.13, demographic trends are shown for three points in a period ending
in 2024. Population projections for this period vary from a low of 559,324 to a high of
711,399, an increase of 13% or 44% respectively over the population reported in the
2004 census (492,829).
Interior
Rural
Urban
Population predictions indicate that the growing population will exert an increasing
demand on resources. This population growth will largely take place in the urban
areas, since populations remain relatively stable. The growth of the number of school
35
In light of these projections, land-use planning will play an important role in mitigating climate-change vulnerability, especially when we take into account
the possible impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise, more frequent extreme events including heavy rains and drought, and the currently unsustainable practice of building on low-lying, clayey land surrounding existing urban areas.
82
Energy demand at the domestic level is expected to grow by roughly 5%, which has been
the long-term historical mean. Such an increase in demand will require investments
of approximately $1 billion over the period 2008 to 2023. The peak demand will have
grown from 130 MW in 2007 to 354 MW by 2023 and will have to be supported by
sizeable investment36. Figure 3.14 shows an overall forecast of peak electrical energy
load in Suriname. In light of this, the following facts are worth mentioning:
- an energy availability of 12 MW by the year 2012 is needed just for the expansion
of the refinery Staatsolie Oil Company is planning to build;
- another 30 MW is required for a number of new gold mining activities foreseen for
the coming years in the Nassau Gebergte mountain area;
600
500
400
MW
children by 12% and of the working-age population by 19% by 2014 will create a
demand for new jobs in teaching, construction, health care and other areas36. Also,
the number of elderly receiving pensions will grow, exerting further pressure on
the national budget. Unexpected and unsustainable growth may occur among
immigrants from Brazil, China and, more recently, from the Netherlands as well. It
should be noted that since all urban centres in Suriname are located on the low-lying
coastal zone, unsustainable growth without proper planning and management of
available resources will rapidly exhaust or deplete these resources, thus increasing the
vulnerability of the area to extreme climatic events and other conditions.
300
200
100
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Others
30
30
Refinery
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Iamgold
13.
14
17
19
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
Suralco
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
14
14
15
16
17
18
20
21
22
24
25
27
29
30
32
34
37
Districts
EPAR
130 139 148 157 167 178 189 201 214 228 243 259 275 293 312 332 354
Figure 3.14 Overall forecast, peak electricity load in Suriname (MW). Forecast by EBS for the baseline.
3.4.5TOURISM
Suriname was one of the first countries in the Americas to develop eco-tourism. This
was in the early 1970s, when the country became famous for its bird-watching tourism
(Inter-American Development Bank 2005). Its contribution to the global tourism
industry has been marginal up to now, however (Texel 2005).
In the past decade, tourism has become more important for Suriname, earning foreign
exchange and providing labour opportunities (ABS, Milieu statistieken). The total
number of visitors to Suriname increased from 138,043 in 2004 to 150,695 in 2009 (ABS,
Milieu Statistieken). The World Travel and Tourism Council provided some key facts on
the tourism industry in Suriname. These are shown in Table 3.5.
36
Nijbroek R., S. Meaney 2011b. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Future Profile of the Republic of Suriname. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
Suriname.
February 2013
83
Table 3.5 Overview of the contribution of travel and tourism in Suriname
Source: Travel and Tourism, Economic Impact Suriname 2012, www.wttc.org
Travel &Tourism
2011
2012
2012-2022
2022 and
onward
Direct contribution
SRD 207.6m
- 2.1% of GDP
+ 3.2% of GDP
SRD 277.3m
Total contribution
SRD 514.7m
- 0.9% of GDP
+ 3.4% of GDP
SRD 711.3m
SRD 3,000
+ 1.6% of GDP
0% of GDP
+ 1.4% of total
employment
Visitor exports generated
SRD 247.9m
- 3.8% of GDP
+ 2.4% of GDP
SRD 302.8m
Investment
SRD104.2m
+ 3.9% of GDP
+ 4.1% of GDP
SRD 16 1.1m
Employment
Suriname is endowed with an abundance of rainforest, freshwater and a tremendous
diversity of cultures living in the hinterland, all of which offer opportunities for naturebased tourism. Tourism promoted in Suriname is entirely dependent on the integrity
of the environment of the country. On the other hand, tourism could have a negative
effect on the environment, both in the crowded coastal zone and in the interior, where
the indigenous and Maroon communities live along the upper flows of rivers. Access to
the rainforest of the hinterland is provided mainly by these rivers. Tourism could cause
an increase in waste, emissions from transport, and water and energy consumption
(ABS, 2010).
Another important attraction for tourism in Suriname is the large number of nature
reserves, multi-use-management areas (MUMAs), and the one Nature Park. These
provide great opportunities for bird watchers and observers of various other species,
such as turtles, dolphins, and other wildlife. Suriname’s biodiversity, then, is supportive of
tourism through rainforest treks, wildlife and bird watching, adventure tours on
rivers which would provide the opportunities to see endangered river dolphins, and
community-based tourism in Amerindian and Maroon villages.
Due to its low-lying coast, coastal communities and its open, vulnerable economy,
Suriname is considered a Small Island Developing State (SIDS). In a 2009 paper, the
World Trade Organisation (WTO)37 summarises the effect of climate variability on
tourism destinations as follows:
- climate defines the length and quality of tourism seasons (e.g. winter sports) in
different regions. Some tourism destinations are climate dependent, since climate
is the principal resource upon which the tourism industry is based (e.g. many
tropical small island developing states);
- climate directly affects various facets of tourism operations (e.g. water supply and
quality, heating-cooling costs, snowmaking requirements, irrigation needs, pest
management, evacuations and temporary closures) that affect profitability;
- moreover, a wide range of environmental resources that are critical attractions for
tourism in many destinations are sensitive to climate variability, such as wildlife
and biodiversity, water levels and quality among others;
- climate also influences environmental conditions that can deter tourists, including
infectious diseases, wildfires, algal blooms, insect or waterborne pests (e.g. jellyfish),
and extreme events such as hurricanes, floods or heat waves;
- climate is also a crucial determinant for tourists in their decision-making plans.
Seasonal climate fluctuations at tourist destinations and at major outbound
markets are key drivers of tourism demand at global and regional scales. Weather
is an intrinsic component of the travel experience and also influences tourist
spending and holiday satisfaction.
The tourism and travel sectors are characterised by considerable diversity and
therefore extensive differences exist in the nature of climate sensitivities and
adaptive capacities of tourism and travel operators and destinations. According
to the WTO paper, “The implications of climate change for any tourism business
or destination will also partially depend on the impacts on its competitors, with
a negative impact in one part of the tourism system constituting an opportunity
elsewhere. Assessments by different groups of international experts have consistently
identified developing nations in the Caribbean, Small Island Developing States (SIDS),
Southeast Asia and Africa as the most at-risk tourism destinations. The main arguments
supporting this outlook are the high exposure level of the multiple climate-change
impacts on the key tourism products, the distance to major markets (long-haul
37
84
WTO, 2009. From Davos to Copenhagen and Beyond: Advancing Tourism’s Response to Climate Change, p. 5.
travel greater than five hours) and consequent exposure to increasingly stringent
emissions policies on aviation, lower overall adaptive capacity, limited domestic
markets and a high economic dependency on international tourism and travel.” 38
3.4.5.1IMPACTS ON THE TOURISM SECTOR
The tourism sector in Suriname is only a small contributor to GDP, yet it is one of a few
sectors that have achieved continuous growth over the past decade39. The tourism
sector is also an important source of revenue for Maroon and Amerindian communities
who host visitors in their villages and sell crafts. However, these groups also have
some characteristics that make them vulnerable to climate change, such as their high
dependence on raw natural resources for survival and their high vulnerability to the
effects of prolonged drought and flooding. Any increase in the level of eco-tourism in
Suriname will mean more vulnerability to climate change.
Projected changes in temperature and precipitation involve corresponding changes
to vegetated areas, including displacement and/or loss of habitats and other adverse
changes to plant and animal species. Forest and bush fires, augmented by reduced
moisture levels, will have profound negative impacts on Suriname’s biodiversity, rural
communities and hence eco-tourism. Flooding and prolonged drought will also negatively affect the hinterland, its inhabitants, and the means of transport necessary to
bring tourists in and out of the area.
the most likely changes in climate characteristics and the effects of these changes
on socio-economic sectors. According to these findings, adverse climate-change
impacts are being experienced by all sectors, particularly housing, agriculture and
transportation. Additionally, international climate policy combined with rising energy
prices threatens the tourism industry, since international travel is likely to become
increasingly expensive.
3.4.6 HUMAN HEALTH
The primary cause of death in Suriname is by non-communicable diseases, with
roughly 29% of all deaths having cardiovascular causes. Malignancies and external
causes each account for 11% of deaths, and diabetes mellitus for 5%.40 Figure 3.15
shows the ten leading causes of death in Suriname.
1 Cardiovascular diseases
28.7
2 External causes
11.1
3 Cancers
10.7
4 Conditions originating in perinatal period
8.3
5 Diabetes Mellitus
5.3
6 HIV/AIDS
4.9
7 Gastro -intestinal diseases
3.5
8 Acute respiratory diseases
2.6
9 Diseases of the urinary tract
A one-meter sea-level rise by the year 2100 will change existing ecosystems, almost
surely in negative fashion, primarily in the coastal zone, and result in degradation of
nature reserves, wildlife habitats and the overall biodiversity. Tourism activities in the
coastal area, which mainly consist of bird, dolphin and turtle watching, will be severely
affected.
2.2
10 Chronic liver diseases, including cirrhosis
1.5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
% total deaths
Figure 3.15 Leading causes of death as a percentage of all deaths in Suriname, 2000-2008.
Source: Huisden, 2011a; Report on the “Current Health Profile,” Suriname 2011
At the regional level, the CARIBSAVE Climate-Change Risk Atlas (CCRA) explored recent
and future climate-change scenarios using a number of combined observations and
climate-model projections. Despite the limitations that currently exist with regards
to climate modelling, information from this Atlas provides very helpful indications of
38
39
Ibid.
CARIBSAVE Partnership, March, 2012. Climate-Change Risk Profile for Suriname.
40
Huisden M., 2011a. Report on the “Current Health Profile, Technical document: “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
February 2013
85
2500
2000
aantal gevallen
Communicable diseases in Suriname are characterised by respiratory infections and a
few vector-borne diseases. Regarding the latter, all four types of the dengue virus have
been confirmed on the coastal plains. Occurrences of malaria are currently negligible in
the coastal areas and well under control in the interior; there are a few areas, however,
where malaria has been endemic in the past (see Figure 3.16).
1500
1000
500
ATLANTIC OCEAN
WEST SURINAME
19
78
19
79
19
80
19
81
19
82
19
83
19
84
19
85
19
86
19
87
19
88
19
89
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
0
BROKOPONDO
UPPER SARAMACCA
UPPER SURINAME
RIVER
EAST SURINAME
MAROWIJNE/LAWA
EAST SURINAME
TAPANAHONY
EAST SURINAME TAPANAHONY
Figure 3.16 Endemic areas of malaria in Suriname
Source: Huisden, 2011a
86
Figure 3.17 Graph showing the course of dengue in Suriname from 1978-2009.
Figure 3.17 reveals an increase in the number of dengue cases since 1980. As mentioned
in Section 3.4.1, Water Resources, the effects of climate change include increased
variation in rainfall factors, such as increased rainfall overall, an increase in the amount
of rain that falls during a single rain and the length of time between rainfall events.
The number of dengue casualties drops during the unusually dry or unusually wet
periods that often coincide with a strong El Niño (unusually dry periods in Suriname)
or a strong La Niña (unusually wet periods in Suriname). An analysis of the ENSO and
dengue occurrences in Suriname reveals:
- an increase of dengue occurrences with alternating ENSO events, except for the
strong events, since climatic conditions are unfavourable for dengue mosquitos to
develop;
- strong El Niño associates with extreme temperatures and less rainfall and hence
drought (fewer mosquitos), while La Niña, associate with frequent and abundant
rainfall, means more flowing water over large areas (fewer mosquitos).
Further monitoring and investigation is required to better understand this possible
correlation.
Figure 3.18 is another example of how rainfall relates with dengue occurrences in
Suriname. During the first quarter of the year, when rainfall is not consistent and the
length of the duration between the rainfalls allows water to stand for days in pools,
depressions, open pits and waste, such as cups, tires and bottles, etc., dengue occurrence
increases. With more consistent rainfall, as seen in the wet months, water starts flowing
and dengue occurrence decreases. The time frame of February to April, characterised
by alternating rainfall, promotes conditions for Dengue to develop.
75
69
60
3.4.6.1THE CURRENT HEALTH CARE INFRASTRUCTURE OF SURINAME
42
32
22
January February
with observed HIV/AIDS co-infection. HIV/AIDS affects the immune system, which
makes patients more susceptible to infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. As a result
of certain environmental changes, infectious microorganisms may thrive, leading to
an increase in the number of cases of diseases that they cause. Conditions affecting
the respiratory system in particular may be more prevalent under certain climatic
conditions. In general, acute and chronic diarrhoea, malnutrition, respiratory illness,
dermatological ailments and eye conditions are of particular concern in Suriname.
March
April
May
June
Figure 3.18 Dengue occurrences at twenty-nine medical centres in 2006
Malaria occurrences also seem to be affected by strong alternations in weather and
climatic patterns, but in a different way from dengue. As is true for dengue, during
periods of abundant rainfall, creek, river and swamp waters often flow, lowering the
number of malaria occurrences by disrupting the completion of the life cycle of the
malaria vector, the Anopheles darlingi mosquito. But malaria is different from dengue
in that dry conditions cause an increase rather than a decrease in the number of
malaria cases, since the resulting standing water in creeks, swamps and rivers provides
ideal conditions for the malaria vector to develop.
With respect to Lymphatic Filariasis, Suriname has reached a stage at which it can be
certified for the successful elimination of this disease. Eligibility for such certification
is based on its low occurrence rate of less than one case per 100,000 people. On the
other hand, there is an increase in the number of tuberculosis cases in combination
The Ministry of Health is the ultimate responsible institution for the health care system
in Suriname. It has three core institutions: the Ministry of Health’s Central Office, the
Inspectorate (Office of Health Inspection) and the Bureau of Public Health. Due to the
uneven distribution of the population, health care services are more readily available in
the coastal area. These services are operated by the Regional Health Services (RGD) and
the Bureau of Public Health (BOG). The BOG is the most important institution having
to do with health promotion in Suriname. It plays an important role in public health
policy design and offers a great variety of services including the Central Laboratory
Services, the Division of Epidemiology and the Environmental Inspection Agency.
The RGD is comprised of forty-three general clinical centres, including eight large ones
spread out across the coastal area of Suriname and handling eight divisions or districts.
The medical staff at the forty-three clinical centres is comprised of a total of sixty-three
medical doctors and 200 nurse practitioners, including twelve midwives, twenty-four
diabetes nurses, ten HIV counsellors, nineteen laboratory technicians, two pharmacists,
thirty-nine pharmacist’s assistants and eleven ambulances.
In the less densely populated areas of the hinterland, medical services are offered
through Stichting Medische Zending (Primary Health Care), or MZ. MZ was formed
as an initiative of several religious organisations in Suriname and consists of fifty-six
public health centres that operate in various areas of the interior of the country. This
operating area has been divided into six general regions and nine specific areas, each
with its own health centre. All health centres are staffed by trained health assistants,
technicians and clinical aids responsible for the daily availability of health care services.
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This staff is supervised and guided by regional clinical supervisors and regional
managers who are general practitioners. These services include consultations,
diagnoses, vaccinations and health education.
According to the same source, dermatological infections were increased by 1,500 from
2005 to 2006. At the time of this flood an increase in the number of cases of dengue
fever was also observed, but this has not been further studied.
Suriname has seven relatively large hospitals. All but two are located in Paramaribo. The
remaining two are located in Albina, in the east and Nieuw Nickerie in the west. A total
of 1,500 beds are available (three beds per every 1,000 inhabitants).The occupancy rate
is about 85% and the average stay is eight days41.
Since 2001, a steady decline in malaria cases treated has been observed at St. Vincentius
Ziekenhuis, one of the largest hospitals in Paramaribo. However, after the floods of
2006, the number of cases, which had been moderate, doubled in 2008 and 2009. One
possible explanation for this is that more pools of standing water in the hinterland
enabled mosquito breeding, leading to the higher number of malaria causalities.
3.4.6.2MONITORING DISEASES OF CONCERN
As a result of natural disasters that occurred in 2006 and 2008, causing populated areas
in the interior to flood for several weeks at a time, a disease-monitoring system was
introduced by MZ and the BOG. This system includes a hospital surveillance system, a
telecommunications surveillance system and reporting services. All data are processed
and reported to the division of Epidemiology, the Director of the BOG, the Ministry of
Health, PAHO and CAREC. The division of Epidemiology publishes these data in a yearly
report and disseminates this publication to relevant data-collecting organisations.
The system also keeps records of malaria cases and several key medical conditions for
two age groups: from birth to age five and five years and older. Medical conditions for
which records are kept include fever and respiratory symptoms caused by upper or
lower airway infections, various types of diarrhoea and gastro enteritis.
This system was put into operation in areas affected by flooding in 2006. Data from
this area showed an increase in airway infections among the indigenous populations.
These observations were consistent with a report of the Ministry of Health (20052007). In addition, there was an increase in the number of cases of diarrhoea among
all inhabitants of these areas.
According to RGD data, the total number of patients with airway infections was 25,266
in 2006 and 25,685 in 2007, an increase of approximately 3,000 cases over 2005.
41
Huisden M., 2011a.
88
Transmission of infectious disease agents is affected by environmental and climatic
factors. Disease vectors that spend their life cycle outside the human body and
pathogens that are carried by insects are responsive to ambient weather conditions.
Such vectors often display seasonal patterns in which the roles of precipitation and
temperature are significant.
3.4.6.3IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
Human health in Suriname is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, such as
increased temperature, alternating rainfalls leading to excessive stagnant water, floods,
droughts, and rising seawater levels that cause flooding and intrusion of saltwater
further inland. These effects, occurring either separately or in combinations, have
impacts on:
- population concentrations located in the low coastal area;
- population concentrations located in isolated and remote areas in the hinterlands;
- low-income members of the population, many of whom lack insurance; and
- members of the population who are in poor health, infants, and the elderly.
Temperature and Health
Rising temperatures will affect health in various ways, including:
- an increase in numbers of existing microorganisms including pathogens, disease
vectors and diseases that will potentially thrive and cause a significant threat;
- development of new pathogens as a result of conditions more hospitable to
mutant species, which could significantly challenge the country’s disease-control
ability; and
- an increase in mortalities due to high temperatures, particularly during heat
waves, especially among the elderly and those with specific cardiovascular,
cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases.
Precipitation and Health
Changes in precipitation may have the following impacts on Human Health:
- increases in cases of vector-borne diseases, such as malaria in the interior and
dengue in the coastal area;
- increases in cases of upper (nasal area and throat) and lower (respiratory tract and
lungs) respiratory illnesses; and
- increases in incidents of diarrhoea and in the likelihood of cholera outbreaks.
Besides giving rise to vector diseases such as malaria, standing water can also increase
the risk of contamination of drinking water reservoirs, which would lead to a rapid
increase of outbreaks of disease. Flooding may also increase the mobilisation of
toxic chemicals and dangerous heavy metals and pesticides from manmade storage
or stable environmental pools. When excessive water enters such places it causes
disturbances and possible leaching. This could potentially contaminate agricultural
land, aqua-cultural installations, and fishing areas and drinking water reservoirs.
Contrarily, periods with less rainfall can help control diseases transmitted by mosquitos
and other insects, such as malaria, filaria, dengue, leishmaniasis and yellow fever.
However, extended drought decreases aquifer replenishment and thereby takes its toll
on fresh water supplies, causing scarcity of clean drinking water. Swamps and wetlands
may also be affected by droughts, which may consequently reduce the availability of
freshwater fish, an important source of protein in the diet of many Surinamese people.
An increased risk of forest and other natural fires may affect air quality, causing
occasional but severe respiratory illness in nearby populations. A combination of these
factors could also lead to an increase in the occurrence of gastrointestinal diseases,
diarrhoea and skin disorders.
Sea-level Rise and Health
Some projections foresee a rise in sea-level of one meter along the coast of Suriname
by the year 2100. This would have a significant impact on the health infrastructure of
Suriname, since most of its inhabitants live on the low coastal plains. In some rivers,
specifically the ones without sufficiently buffering rapids, sea-level rise will cause the
tidal limit to move farther upstream by the year 2100. Saltwater intrusion, linked to this
change of the tidal limit, will have a negative impact on existing and potential new
agricultural grounds and food production areas found along the river banks. The supply
of freshwater fish could also diminish due to changed water quality. Degradation of
water quality in the lower courses of rivers and creeks will also have negative impacts
on crop and animal production which could lead to increased malnutrition and
decreased immunity from disease, resulting in an overall decline in health.
3.5 ADAPTATION ASSESSMENT
3.5.1 DESCRIPTION OF MCA
Adaptation responses in this SNC are presented first in integrated fashion for all sectors
and the country in general, and secondly by sector. The following methodology has
been applied for the formulation of the adaptation measures:
- at the sectorial level, the experts assigned for this study have identified adaptation
measures based on their expertise and expert judgment;
- at the national level, adaptation measures are identified using Multi-CriteriaAnalysis (MCA). This was accomplished during a two-day workshop attended by
the entire group of experts.
The multiple criteria that were assessed during the MCA were based on various impacts
on different sectors and regions. The list of impacts included forty-four potential issues,
which were grouped into three categories: sea level rise, extreme weather conditions
and temperature rise. These impacts were given a score from -5 to 5 (where negative
numbers indicate positive effects) for urban, rural and natural areas and under three
sectors: economy, health and ecology.
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The sectors were weighted to indicate their relative importance, with that of economy
receiving the highest weight factor, followed by health and lastly ecology. The last step
of the process was to select the most critical issues that had come from the MCA and
rank them for the purpose of determining appropriate adaptation strategies.
The six most important issues for Suriname are:
1.
Breaching of dams and dikes / damage to the water defence infrastructure
2.
Increase in frequency of flooding
3.
Decrease of fresh water availability
4.
Decrease of the drainage potential of urban areas
5.
Decrease of productive land
6.
Increase of sibibusis (heavy rain events with bursts of strong, localised,
rotating wind)
3.5.2 PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR WATER RESOURCES
Water resources in the coastal area as well as in the hinterland are ranked as vulnerable to
highly vulnerable. To mitigate this vulnerability, appropriate adaptation strategies have
been identified which, depending on site-specific characteristics and implementation
needs and urgencies, may need to be further modified.
General adaptation strategies for water resources include:
- drafting of necessary legislation for the protection of water resources and the
promotion of their sustainable use;
- drafting of necessary legislation on water quality standards and wastewater
discharge;
- establishment of necessary institutional organisation for the enhancement of
water management, among other issues (water boards; water authority);
- establishment of physical infrastructure such as wastewater treatment plants;
- undertaking of in-depth studies, including water-balance and aquifer
replenishment studies, and the establishment of a needed observation network and
monitoring system; and
- implementation of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management plan.
Specific adaptation strategies for water resources include:
90
-
increasing the efficiency of drinking water supply mechanisms and water use. For
rural areas, increasing the efficiency of irrigation practices through improvements
to infrastructure, capacity building and awareness raising;
- decreasing demand and increasing the supply of fresh water through technological
improvements;
- encouraging the use of alternative freshwater resources, including rainwater and
surface water;
- conducting monitoring activities and in-depth studies in order to enhance water
management and sustainable use of water resources;
- upgrading infrastructures for water supply, irrigation, drainage and flood
protection;
- transferral of fresh water from the southern region of the country, where it is more
available.
3.5.3 PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES RELATED TO GEOMORPHOLOGY
AND ECOLOGY
With respect to Suriname’s geomorphology and ecological issues, these tend to fall into
the category of low vulnerability, except for locations at which the coastline is exposed
to the violence of the sea. At those locations, immediate adaptation responses are
necessary.
The Coastal Zone
Adaptation responses for the coastal zone are divided into two groups: general
strategies and specific measures.
- implementation of legal, administrative and organisational structures for effective
land-use planning and management and spatial planning; and
- inclusion of environmental impact assessments when developing long-term projects.
Specific measures for the coastline are as follows:
- Suriname must establish mechanisms and necessary regulations for the proper
management and control of its existing MUMAs, particularly for the mangrove
forests. Well-managed MUMAs must be of sufficient resilience to protect the coast
in the long term. Exceptions are parts of Nickerie, Coronie, and the Paramaribo
-Wanica coastline;
-
-
-
dikes and dams along the coast must be properly maintained and regularly and
frequently inspected;
engineering measures must be established to increase sedimentation rates along
severely encroached coastal stretches in order to support mangrove growth; and
policy and regulatory measures must be created for the prohibition of activities
such as sand and shell mining and issuance of land rights in the estuarine zones.
Germinated mangrove plants
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Young mangroves in front of the coast of Coronie
Specific measures for estuaries are as follows:
- inhabited estuaries, such as Paramaribo, Wanica, Nickerie and Coronie, must be
fully protected;
- existing river defences must be reinforced and new ones established;
- studies and research activities on the dynamics of the rivers must be promoted;
and
- additional human developments along vulnerable sections of estuaries and rivers
must be prohibited or discouraged.
3.5.4 PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR ECOSYSTEMS
The following adaptation strategies have been identified for the coastal plain:
- development of a full coastal plain strategy that includes protection of all
mangroves, implementation of existing and proposed MUMAs, the cessation of
issuance of permits for building and other developments, the preservation of
unused and abandoned lands on the plain, the provision of incentives for the
protection of remaining mangrove forests and the implementation of a monitoring
system for ecological resources;
- incorporation of forest-fire measures into the national disaster plan; and
- implementation of conservation strategies designed to protect marine turtles in
the face of climate change.
3.5.5 PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR AGRICULTURE
The agriculture sector is ranked as vulnerable to highly vulnerable to the effects of
climate change. The vulnerability assessment has identified appropriate adaptation
strategies and measures and divided them into two groups: general strategies and
specific measures.
The proposed general adaptation strategy for agriculture is the development and
implementation of appropriate research programmes and capacity-building activities
focused on animal husbandry (raising water buffalo), crops (the introduction of new,
resistant varieties, including salt-tolerant and upland rice; integrated pest management)
and fisheries (improving competitiveness).
Specific measures for the agriculture subsectors are:
Rice
- construction of dikes in low-lying areas;
- establishment of necessary infrastructure for improved rice irrigation;
- creation of agro-ecological research programmes focused on integrated pest
management and disease control;
- establishment of an insurance fund to compensate farmers whose crop production
suffers damage from erratic weather events; and
- research on crop rotation to investigate alternatives for rotating in droughtresistant crops during periods of water constraint such as the long dry season.
92
Bananas
- planting of arboreal hedgerows to protect crops from strong winds;
Fruits and vegetables
- implementation of alternative growing systems such as greenhouses and
hydroponic gardens in order to cope with changing climatic conditions;
- improvement of drainage systems to guarantee efficient production and quality
products; and
- implementation of crop diversification to guarantee food security under changing
climate conditions.
Livestock (poultry, dairy production, sheep, goats and pigs)
- rehabilitation of abandoned farms in order to guarantee food security (for example,
moving cattle from vulnerable coastal areas to higher ground);
- establishment of measures that prevent further decline in the numbers of
productive animals (for example, regulating the slaughter of female animals and
the import of beef cattle for a certain period; and
- introduction/improvement of climate-control systems on livestock farms.
Aquaculture and fisheries
- creation of measures to improve sustainable aquaculture and fisheries
management;
- protection of fish breeding waters (salt pans, mangrove vegetation, coastal
wetlands); and
- establishment of funding that provides incentives for fishermen to engage in
aquaculture.
3.5.6 PROPOSED SOCIO-ECONOMIC ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
Suriname’s socio-economic sector is ranked as vulnerable to highly vulnerable to the
effects of climate change. The vulnerability assessment has identified appropriate
adaptation strategies and measures designed to decrease this vulnerability. These have
been divided into three categories: infrastructure/settlements, transport and energy 42.
Infrastructure/settlements
A general strategy for Surinamese infrastructure and settlements, particularly in the
coastal zone, is to improve their resilience to sea-level rise. The following specific
measures have been identified for this purpose:
- establishment of a minimum set of conditions under which vulnerability of key
assets to flooding from sea-level rise will be decreased(for example, means of
protecting mangrove forests and the prohibition of coastal sand and shell ridge
removal);
- implementation of land-use planning in the coastal zone, such as through the
creation of a single land-use authority that considers vulnerability, land availability
and location, and the suitability of land to industrial, agricultural or human
settlement purposes;
- establishment of flexible and appropriate land tenure systems that allow for longterm decision making on the part of land owners, tenants or other users;
- implementation of spatial planning and zoning by a central authority in order to
promote appropriate urban growth;
- development of feasible insurance schemes that provide protection for both
businesses and personal property and encourage adherence to minimum
standards and building codes (for example, excluding a structure from coverage if
it is not climate proofed); and
- establishment of building codes that incorporate new appropriate and affordable
technologies to improve the resilience of the physical infrastructure to climate
change and to promote climate-change mitigation through improved energy
efficiency.
With respect to the interior, a community-based adaptation strategy is recommended,
which includes the following elements:
- enhancement of the adaptive capacity of communities in the interior to extreme
climatic conditions by fostering the incorporation of climate-change considerations
into tribal and community decision making;
- implementation of research projects on the topics of community and tribal landtenure systems and how the adoption of formal land rights would affect the
adaptive capacity of these communities; and
- incorporation of interior community gender issues and political decision-making
practices into adaptation measures in order to avoid the phenomenon of elite
capture.
Transport in the coastal zone
Specific adaptation measures for the transport sector in the coastal zone:
- relocation and resulting adjustments to the overall coordination of the main
transport infrastructure, currently located in the vulnerable coastal zone; redesign
transport systems as necessary to accommodate climate-change projections;
- construction of appropriate and hydrologically sensitive transport routes in the
coastal zone; transport routes are currently built along sand dunes and shell ridges
in the coastal area, possibly hampering hydrological processes essential for the
preservation of natural ecosystems such as mangrove swamps; and
- research into natural ecosystems as well as proper maintenance of and possible
modifications to the transport infrastructure that relies on the natural protection
these ecosystems provide from extreme weather events.
42
Nijbroek R., Meaney, S., 2011c. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Vulnerability and Adaptation for the Republic of Suriname. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development
and Environment. Suriname.
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93
Transport in the interior
The following adaptation measures are recommended for the transport sector in the
interior:
- incorporation of interior transport elements into decision-making processes on
national transport planning, in light of possible impacts from climate change; to
date, the interior has not been considered when making decisions that involve
transport;
- adaptation of boat transport in the interior, so that it can better accommodate the
prolonged dry periods that are likely to occur as a result of climate change; current
boat transport in the interior needs to be modified to accommodate lower water
levels;
- research into the means and possibilities for supplementary maintenance and
improvement of the navigational channels of the most-used rivers; and
- promotion and solicitation of investments in research into alternative and
improved transport solutions for the interior.
Energy in the coastal zone
Adaptation measures recommended for the energy sector in the coastal zone are:
- removal of all subsidies for the energy sector;
- promotion and awareness raising on the issue of energy conservation on the part
of domestic users; and
- fostering of greater energy efficiency through improved technologies and building
designs.
Energy in the interior
Adaptation measures for the energy sector in the interior are:
- incorporation of the energy concerns of the interior directly into national energy
policy, rather than considering them a side issue; provision of electricity can provide
security during food shortages and allow for important storage of perishable
agricultural goods;
- application of appropriate technologies that take advantage of local natural
resources for providing sustainable energy solutions; and
- implementation of renewable energy projects, such as the construction of miniand micro-hydropower stations and solar energy accommodations where feasible.
94
3.5.7 PROPOSED ADAPTATION MEASURES FOR TOURISM
The previously-mentioned WTO43 paper states, “the impacts of climate change on
the tourism sector will steadily intensify,” and this is particularly true under higher
emission scenarios. Besides posing a risk to ecosystems, global climate change will
make geographical and seasonal redistribution of tourism assets necessary. The
most vulnerable regions are found in developing countries, where there is poor
adaptive capacity and many challenges for the survival of tourist destinations and
host communities. Moreover, climate-change impacts on the tourism sector could
influence other economic sectors, such as agriculture and local private-sector networks
that supply tourism services. Conversely, the tourism sector must be aware of climatechange adaptation in other economic sectors that might have an impact on tourism.
According to the same paper, there will undoubtedly be costs associated with climatechange adaptation. Given that, globally, the capacity of the tourism sector to adapt to
climate change is relatively high, such costs that affect countries and organisations
with fewer resources, such as LDCs, SIDS or local tourism SMMEs, ideally should not
have to be absorbed solely by those countries or organisations, but rather spread out
in order to reduce the vulnerability of the tourism sector overall.
Adaptation measures for the tourism sector in Suriname are:
- improvement of tourism-related infrastructure, such as roads and other transport
elements;
- creation of a roadside drainage system to deter water pooling and stagnation;
strengthening of riverbanks, especially in areas where a road runs immediately
parallel to the river, or where communities have built near the bank;
- conservation, protection and monitoring of ecotourism;
- improvement of the adaptive capacity of communities in the interior, especially those Maroon and Amerindian communities heavily dependent on tourism;
- incorporation of climate-change considerations into tribal and community
decision making;
- capacity building and awareness raising on the issue of conservation of biodiversity;
- establishment of a response system during floods; and
43
WTO, 2009.
- creation of appropriate insurance schemes to cover losses and damages from
flooding.
3.5.8 PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR HUMAN HEALTH
Steady increases in ambient temperature, rising sea-levels, and erratic precipitation
are expected to affect human health in Suriname both directly and indirectly. Overall,
climate-change impacts are expected to be a threat to the general health of the
Surinamese people. Overall, human health in Suriname is ranked as being highly
vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In order to minimise this vulnerability, the
following adaptation measures have been recommended:
Research into
- management of weather-driven pests;
- use of weather-resistant crop varieties;
- effective means of relocation of agricultural production activities to less weathervulnerable areas;
- tracking of international research on newly emerging pathogens relevant to
Suriname’s future. A group of local biomedical researchers should regularly advise
the Ministry of Health on preventative and other public health measures such as
new vaccination protocols, new antibiotics and health related precautions.
Public Health Policy
- establishment of insurance coverage for extreme weather conditions;
- establishment of a disaster relief fund;
- designation of institution(s) responsible for testing water quality after a natural
disaster; possibilities include a governmental agency, a disaster relief organisation,
or water supply companies.
- expansion and better equipment of the existing NCCR infrastructure;
- construction of freshwater and drinking water storage mechanisms for use in
times of drought; possibilities include artificial controlled ground reservoirs, water
towers, or bottled water reserves in strategic locations throughout the country;
- construction of an emergency network of agricultural irrigation pipes and pumps
connected to reliable water sources, such as nearby larger fresh water rivers or
controlled reservoirs;
- fortification of the nation’s current medical support staff as well as its medical
infrastructure;
- establishment of medical centres near potential risk zones and hospitals in areas
that are not vulnerable to climate-change impacts.
Public Health Education
- a public-awareness campaign on the dangers of prolonged, unprotected exposure
to increasingly harmful sunlight; encouragement of the Surinamese people to
wear protective clothing and sunglasses, keep to the shade, and use sun-block
lotions.
Disaster Response
- development of printed materials or other means of imparting clear instructions
to disaster victims on how to handle potentially contaminated water sources in
order to prevent illness;
- provision of psychological guidance and physical relief measures to victims; and
- improvement of preparation for awareness-raising activities regarding operating
procedures for an emergency response plan that is activated before a natural
disaster strikes Suriname.
Table 3.6 presents an overview of the proposed adaptation measures for all sectors
mentioned above.
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Table 3.6 Comprehensive overview of vulnerable sectors, expected impacts, and proposed adaptation44 ,45 ,46, 47,48
Vulnerable sector
Expected impacts
Proposed adaptation measures
Water Resources
Decrease of fresh water availability in aquifers
and surface bodies of water.
-
-
-
-
-
Increase the capacity of existing water resources through technological improvements and institutional strengthening
Encourage the use of alternative fresh water resources such as the utilisation of rainwater and surface water when possible
Increase efficient water use through water management and recycling
Increase public awareness on the need for water conservation
Transfer freshwater from the southern region of the country where it is available
Saltwater intrusion in rivers and aquifers
-
-
-
Improve management, monitoring and research
Establish appropriate structures to prevent saltwater intrusion in rivers
Enhance replenishment capacity of aquifers
Increased frequency of flooding and drought
-
-
-
-
-
Upgrade, modernise and expand existing climatologic observation networks
Establish new water boards, improve existing ones, set up a water authority
Update existing draft of water law, approval by Parliament and implementation by the government
Improve inter-institutional collaboration of authorities concerned with water resources
Improve capacities for utilising present and future water resources
Pollution of surface water resources
-
-
Improve wastewater and drainage infrastructure
Protect available water resources against pollution through the establishment, implementation and enforcement of rules and
regulations
Coastal retreat
-
-
-
Incorporate engineering measures to increase the sedimentation rates along severely encroached coastal stretches
Conservation, protection and expansion of mangrove forests
Enhance monitoring of the coastline
Damages to coastal infrastructure
-
-
Stop the issuance of land in the estuarine zone
Use of sea protection and mudbank nourishment techniques
The development of hyper-saline conditions in
areas along the coast
-
-
Research, monitoring and mapping of species vulnerable to climate-change impacts
Provide incentives to protect existing mangrove forests
Decrease in turtle-nesting sites
-
Implement conservation strategies to protect marine turtles
Alteration in vegetation due to dramatic rise in
swamp-water levels
-
-
Implement existing and proposed MUMAs
Implement a monitoring system
Increased sensitivity of forests due to drought,
logging and/or fire
-
-
Improve management of forest resources
Incorporate measures into the national disaster plan with regard to forest fires
Coastal Zone
Ecosystems
44
Amatali M.A., 2011c. Technical Paper Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation, Sector Water Resources. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for
the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.Suriname.
45
Huisden M., 2011b.
46
Noordam D., 2011.
Nijbroek R., Meaney S., 2011c. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Vulnerability and adaptation for the Republic Suriname. Technical document, “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
Environment. Suriname.
47
48
96
Tjien Fooh R., 2011b.
Vulnerable sector
Expected impacts
Agriculture
Reduced productivity
-
-
-
-
Develop and implement appropriate research programmes and capacity-building sessions
Technological improvements in cultivation methods
Implement cultivation methods that prevent soil loss, such as the “no till” method
Re-cultivate abandoned agricultural land
Damage to crops due to possible strong winds,
extreme rainfall, severe drought and/or sea-level
rise
-
-
-
-
Establish an insurance fund to cover damages and losses to crops from weather events
Establish and/or maintain efficient irrigation and drainage systems
Plant hedgerow trees to protect crops from strong winds
Establish early warning systems
Changes in crop growing seasons
-
-
-
Change farming systems, construct greenhouses and/or hydroponic systems
Increase existing uses of alternative crop varieties
Introduce other new, more resilient crop varieties
Salinisation of fertile land due to sea-level rise
-
Construct dikes in low-lying areas
Reduced livestock productivity
-
-
-
-
Introduce/improve climate control-systems in livestock farming
Adapt pasture lands to changing climatic conditions
Establish funding to promote aquaculture
Protect fish breeding waters
Increased pressure on natural resources
-
-
Implement spatial planning and zoning by a central authority to encourage appropriate urban growth
Increase incorporation of factors concerning communities in the interior into national decision-making processes
Damage to structures such as houses, water
defence structures, etc.
-
-
Modify building regulations to accommodate changing climatic conditions
Develop feasible insurance schemes that provide protection to both business and personal property and encourage adherence to minimum standards and building codes
-
-
-
Relocate and adjust elements of the transport structure
Build hydrologically sensitive transport routes and protection of natural coastal structures that protect these routes from
climate events
Incorporate transport concerns in the interior into national transport planning procedures
-
-
-
-
Implement renewable energy projects
Encourage energy efficiency
Improve energy-conscious building technologies and designs
Incorporate the energy concerns of the interior into national energy planning
Socio-Economy
Increased energy demand
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Vulnerable sector
Expected impacts
Tourism
Reduced revenue due to decreased tourist arrivals
-
-
Conserve, protect and monitor ecotourism
Improve tourism-related infrastructure, such as roads
Dependence of Maroon and Amerindian communities on tourism
-
-
Improve the adaptive capacity of the communities in the interior to climate change
Incorporate climate-change considerations into tribal and community decision making
Degradation and/or loss of biodiversity
-
Capacity building and awareness raising regarding conservation of biodiversity
Loss and damage due to extreme flooding
-
-
-
Reinforce riverbanks
Establish early-warning and response systems
Establish appropriate insurance schemes
Increased incidence of parasitic and infectious
diseases
-
-
-
-
Research on newly emerging pathogens
Improve training of health experts
Improve and adapt health care systems to climate-change risks
Improve health-orientated public education
Human Health
98
Increased mortality under extremely high tem- -
peratures
-
Promote awareness of the dangers of prolonged exposure to the sun
Ensure water availability to all groups and sectors
Increased risk of damage from extreme weather -
events
-
-
Establish an early flood warning and monitoring system
Improve urban planning
Establish insurance coverage for damages from extreme weather events
Possible increase of vector diseases such as malar- -
ia in the interior and dengue in the coastal zone
-
Establish medical centres near potential risk zones and hospitals in less vulnerable areas
Increase awareness on preventative measures
Increase of diarrhoea and risk of cholera outbreaks from contaminated water
Create one or more institutions responsible for testing water quality, especially after natural disasters
Construct fresh water storage mechanisms for use in times of shortages
-
-
3.6REFERENCES
Amatali M.A., 2011a. Technical Paper Present Profile, Sector Water Resources. Technical document
Amatali M.A., 2011b. Technical Paper Future Profile. Sector Water Resources. Technical document
Amatali M.A., 2011c. Technical Paper Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation, Sector Water Resources.
Technical document “ Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
Suriname.
Brinke, W. and Botterweg, J. 2006. “Overstromingen Suriname 2006. Oorzaken, herhalingskansen en
preventiemaatregelen”.
Carter, T.R., R.N. Jones, X. Lu, S. Bhadwal, C. Conde, L.O. Mearns, B.C. O’Neill, M.D.A. Rounsevell
and M.B. Zurek, 2007. New Assessment Methods and the Characterisation of Future Conditions.
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P.
Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 133-171.
Accessed at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter2.pdf
Hokstam M.A., 2011. Suriname signals seriousness with Climate Change Agency. Accessed at: http://
www.devsur.com/suriname-signals-seriousness-with-climate-change-agency/2011/08/11/
Horton et al, 2008. Sea-Level Rise Projections for Current Generation CGCMs Based on the Semi-Empirical
Method. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 35, L02715, doi:10.1029/2007GL032486. Accessed at:
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2008/2007GL032486.shtml
Huisden M. 2011a. Report on the “Current Health Profile, “Technical document “ Project-Enabling
Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of
Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Huisden M., 2011b. Report on the “Future Health Profile, “Technical document “Project-Enabling
Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of
Kopp et al, Dec., 2009. Probabilistic Assessment of Sea Level During the Last Interglacial Stage. Nature,
vol. 462, pp. 863-867, doi:10.1038/nature08686.
Nicholls, R.J., et al, 2007. Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and
C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 315-356.
Nijbroek R., S. Meaney, 2011a. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Current Profile of the Republic
Suriname. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second
National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
Nijbroek R., S. Meaney, 2011b. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Future Profile of the Republic of
Suriname. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second
National Communication to the UNFCCC”. Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
Nijbroek R., S. Meaney, 2011c. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Vulnerability and adaptation for
the Republic Suriname. Technical document, “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s
Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
NOAA. National Weather Service, National Centres for Environmental Prediction, Climate
Prediction Centre, 2011. La Niña Episodes (1950-present). Changes to the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI).
Accessed at: http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml
Noordam D., 2011. Ecology and Geomorphology. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities
for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour,
Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Pfeffer et al, 2008. Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea-Level Rise.
Science Vol. 321, no. 5894, pp. 1340-1343 DOI: 10.1126/science.1159099. Accessed at: http://www.
sciencemag.org/content/321/5894/1340.abstract
Rohling et al, 2007. “Rates of Sea-Level Rise During the Last Interglacial,” Nature Geoscience,”1, 38-42
(2008) Published online: 16 December 2007 | doi:10.1038/ngeo.2007.28. Accessed at: http://www.nature.
com/ngeo/journal/v1/n1/full/ngeo.2007.28.html
Siddall et al, 2009. “Constraints on Future Sea-Level Rise from Past Sea-Level Change,” Nature geoscience
2, 571 – 575. Published online: 26 July 2009 February 2010 |doi:10.1038/ngeo587. Accessed Apr. 16, 2010
at: http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v2/n8/abs/ngeo587.html
Stabroek Editor, 2012. Over 158,000 tourists to Suriname in 2011. Accessed at: http://www.
stabroeknews.com/2012/news/breaking-news/01/03/over-158000-tourists-to-suriname-in-2011/
Tjien Fooh R., 2011a. Vulnerability and Adaptation of the Agriculture Sector in Suriname – Current
Profile. Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
Communication to the UNFCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
Suriname.
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Tjien Fooh R., 2011b. Vulnerability and Adaptation of the Agriculture sector in Suriname – Future profile.
Technical document “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
UNFCCC, 2010. Handbook on Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Consultative Group of Experts
(CGE) on National Communications from parties not included in Annex I to the Convention. UNDP, 3, 1-16.
Urritia R.O., 2008. Assessment of 21st-century climate-change projections in tropical South America
and the tropical Andes, Master’s Thesis.
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4 Mitigation Measures
4. Mitigation Measures
Brokopondo Stuwmeer | Harvey Lisse
February 2013
101
4.1INTRODUCTION
Suriname has signed and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). By doing so, Suriname acknowledges its role in the worldwide
effort to prepare for the effects of climate change and mitigate GHG emissions, while
striving for sustainable development.
As a developing country, Suriname has no emission reduction obligations under
the UNFCCC, but can contribute to mitigation on a voluntary basis. In the past, the
government has implemented several activities to mitigate GHG emissions, such as
provision of compact fluorescent lamps to households for free (this was a once-only
initiative); improvement of the electricity distribution network, resulting in decreased
leakages of electricity; and installation of solar panels in Kwamalasemutu, a remote
village in the southernmost part of Suriname. The Ministry of Labour, Technological
Development and Environment (ATM) has signed an agreement with the United
Nations Environmental Programme/RISOE Centre for capacity building regarding
formulation and implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects.
A Designated National Authority was established, but to date no CDM projects have
been approved in Suriname.
The UNFCCC urges developing countries to consider climate change on their road to
national development. An important commitment under the UNFCCC is conducting
a GHG mitigation assessment, which is an analysis of the country’s programmes and
measures geared toward the reduction of CO2 emissions.
This chapter presents the GHG mitigation assessment of Suriname. It provides the
results of the evaluation of mitigation options in the energy sector and non-energy
sector. The mitigation assessment covers a forecast of GHG emissions for the period
2008 to 2025 and examines abatement potentials for that period.
The assessment was conducted by analysing how Suriname’s energy and nonenergy sectors might evolve between now and 2025 under two different scenarios:
a baseline scenario that assumes the continuation of historical trends, policies and
a corresponding rise in GHG emissions, and a mitigation scenario that evaluates the
results of mitigation options.
102
The scenarios are constructed carefully, since considerable economic and social
change is to be expected over the next decade when we take into account the planned
activities of the government of Suriname. Some of the plans of the government can
be considered mitigation options. The government’s strategies and projects, whether
already approved and adopted or not, resulting in a reduction of GHG emissions, are
considered as part of the mitigation scenario.
This material should not be read as an exclusive endorsement of this particular
way of doing things. While it shows that a decrease of GHG emissions is possible in
conjunction with economic development, such a decrease might equally be achieved
in other ways, some of which may well be socially, economically and technologically
preferable to those identified here.
Whatever route is chosen, one point is absolutely clear: it will not happen spontaneously.
It will require brave political leadership on a grand scale and a major mobilisation of
effort.
4.2METHODOLOGY
The mitigation assessment was conducted by a team of specialists, who considered
the areas of energy, agricultural, forestry and the economy. The year 2008 was chosen
as the base year for the mitigation assessment, since required data was available from
the GHG inventory carried out for that year. The required data for the projection of the
activities that produce GHG emissions were collected from sources that were identified
in a literature review phase. Data sources include ministries, mining companies such
as Staatsolie, Suralco and IAMGOLD; the General Bureau of Statistics (ABS); and several
other institutions and key persons.
Mitigation options were selected for key categories based on results of the GHG
Inventory. These options were screened using six screening criteria and scoring points.
From this, nine mitigation options emerged for further scenario analysis.
The calculation of GHG emissions for the base year 2008 and the forecast for the
following years up to 2025 were based on 1996 IPCC guidelines. The mitigation scenarios
were compiled and developed as a low-emission route for Suriname’s development.
4.3 STRUCTURE OF GHG EMISSIONS ACCORDING TO GHG
INVENTORY
Figure 4.1 shows the breakdown of Suriname’s total emissions by economic sector in
from theinGHG
Gg CO2 eq derived from numbers
Emissions
Gg Inventory.
CO2eq
6000
4000
2000
3799
53
0
-2000
Energy
IPPU
-4000
-6000
0
AFOLU
Waste
-1877
Total
-5729
-8000
Figure 4.1: GHG emissions by economic sector
Source: Becker et al, 2012
The uncertainty analysis for 2008 data places values within the 7-17% range.
Domestic emissions from energy sources in 2008 were 3,799 Gg CO2 eq. International
bunker fuels were not included in the national emission totals, as stipulated by IPCC
guidelines (Becker et al., 2012).
According to the calculated data of the 2008 GHG Inventory, the energy sector is
the major GHG emitter in Suriname: the sector’s emissions amount to approximately
60% of all GHG emissions in the country. The major emitter within this sector is
Manufacturing Industries and Construction, with 2,922 Gg CO2 eq, or 77% of total
GHG emissions within the Energy sector. The second most important emission source
within the energy sector is transport, with about 623 Gg CO2eq or 16% of total GHG
emissions within the energy sector. Emissions from electricity generation comprise
approximately 3% of total GHG emissions.
4.4 MACRO-ECONOMIC SITUATION OF SURINAME
A lack of reliable, detailed data makes it difficult to perform the kind of analysis
needed to project long-term economic growth and energy demand. Trends based on
historical data provide limited information about Suriname’s future, since the country’s
economy is at the verge of a dramatic change. The current government envisions
national development based on an approach that is different from those considered
and attempted in the past.
The general development of the economy from 2011 to 2015 (and perhaps onwards)
will be based on a new industrial system focused on resource-saving technologies.
The government foresees booming small and medium businesses in the sectors of
forestry, agriculture and tourism. The related growing energy demand will be provided
by conventional energy generation but also increasing use of renewable resources
which were not considered as feasible alternatives for electricity generation in the past.
These renewable resources include wood waste, rice husk and bagasse. Options for
increased hydropower generation are being worked out as well, such as the expansion
of the capacity of the Afobaka dam and the construction of a second hydropower
facility in the eastern part of the country, at Grankriki49.
Projections in socio-demographic status, GDP growth, and export—the main indicators
of the development of Suriname for the period 2011 to 2025—have been estimated in
order to calculate scenarios, and are presented below.
Population growth is a central factor in estimating future GHG emissions, since it
eventually leads to increased energy and food demand from various sectors, as well
as increased production and an increase in kilometres travelled. Suriname’s population
grew steady at an average rate of 1.2% yearly from 2005 to 2009. The long-term
projection is of a 7% growth average per interval of four years until 2028 (ABS, 2010).
This translates to a cumulative increase from a population of 492,829 in 2004 to one
of approximately 760,877 in 2028, the equivalent of 54% growth. Figure 4.2 shows
the population projection. increase from a population of 492,829 in 2004 to one of
More information on the development strategy of the government of Suriname can be found in the Development Plan 2012-2016. This Plan, however, was
not available at the time of this report.
49
February 2013
103
Real GDP Growth (market price)%
approximately 760,877 in 2028, the equivalent of 54% growth. Figure 4.2 shows the
population projection.
6.0%
800,000
14%
4.0%
12%
3.0%
10%
2.0%
8%
1.0%
6%
0.0%
0%
2004
2008
2012
Total Population
2016
2020
2024
2028
Population growth %
Figure 4.2: Population growth 1995-2028
Source: General Bureau of Statistics, Suriname, 2010. Population projection 2004-2024, volume 2
Development of GDP at market prices in real terms formally and informally from
2005-2010 can be classified as positive. The average growth rate of the economy on
an annual basis was 4.2% over this period. The expectation is that the economy of
Suriname will grow steadily by an average of 4.4% from 2011 to 2025.
Figure 4.3 shows the course of real growth of GDP for the period 2005-2025.
Contributions to GDP as of 2010 are as follows: primary sector 16%, secondary sector
28%, tertiary sector 38% and the informal sector 18%.
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2%
2008
200,000
2007
4%
2006
400,000
2005
600,000
5.0%
Figure 4.3: Real GDP development (%) 2005-2025
Source: Stichting Planbureau - Suriname Year Plan 2011, March 2011
Some of the main tendencies of the future GDP structure of Suriname are:
- that increases of shares in GDP are expected in the primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors. It is expected that the informal sector will shrink during the period 20112025;
- the expectation that the primary sector will grow significantly during the period
2015-2025. Suriname wants to become a major player in agriculture, mainly
providing the CARICOM market with products. Also, mining will be developed
significantly in future years. There are plans to develop the energy sector faster in
the near future. As a result of this economic development, the demand for energy
will grow; therefore Suriname needs to invest in this sector; and
- Suriname’s intention to develop the tertiary sector in the future; financial services,
communications and tourism are the main areas to be developed.
Figure 4.4 provides an overview of the contribution of the sectors to the GDP and the
development of these sectors during the period 2005-2010.
104
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
2005
2006
2007
2008
BBP mp (1990) formal and informal
Primaire sector (agriculture and mining)
2009
2010
Secondaire sector
(industry, energy,construction)
Tertiare sector (services)
Figure 4.4: GDP growth (%) by sector 2005-2010
Total exports and imports showed an upward trend, and statistics show that since
2004, the trade balance is positive on a transaction basis. The increase in exports and
the trade surplus is attributable to the mining industry (mainly gold, alumina and oil).
Imports on a cash basis increased by 57% in 2009 compared to 2005 and decreased
by about 11% compared to 2008. Exports rose 76% in 2009 compared to 2005 and
decreased by 16.5% compared to 2008.
In 2005, the current account balance showed a deficit of about USD 242 million. The
following years, however, showed a positive balance. The current account balance was
about a positive USD 182 million in 2006. In Figure 4.5, the development of the current
account balance is shown.
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
2005
2006
Export
2007
Import
2008
2009
balance
Figure 4.5: Current account balance (USD M) 2005-2009
One of the key features of the economy of Suriname is the very large share that mining
(oil, gold, and bauxite) assumes in the overall economy.
In 2008, the greatest share of employment, apart from the government and the hotel
& catering industry, was from the agriculture and the forestry sector (12%). The mining
sector share of employment in 2008 was about 3%.
Formal employment in the private sector showed very moderate average growth of
about 1.2% for the period 2005-2009. The construction sector grew the fastest of all
sectors, with approximately 4% average growth over this period. Remaining sectors
hovered around an average of 1% growth. The 2004 census of the General Bureau of
Statistics (ABS) shows that about 42% of workers are in the informal sector.
Based on projected economic growth, it is assumed that employment will increase by
32% by 2025, from 93,255 employees in 2005 to 123,202 in 2025 (see Figure 4.6).
February 2013
105
140000
3.00%
120000
2.50%
100000
2.00%
80000
1.50%
60000
1.00%
40000
Employment #
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
0.00%
2007
0
2006
0.50%
2005
20000
Growth in %
Figure 4.6: Employment forecast
Source: Stichting Planbureau- Suriname Year Plan 2011, March 2011
The government’s intention is to double employment in the agriculture and mining
sectors. Both the government and the private sector plan to develop the service sector
(financial services, tourism, information and communication technology).
The results obtained from the analysis in terms of GDP growth and structure, and
employment and population growth, serve to evaluate final energy-demand
projections. According to this approach, energy demand depends on economic
activities and social needs. Energy demand will be influenced by socio-economic
development patterns (economic growth, lifestyle, general behaviour of society),
technological influences on all sectors of the economy, and increases in the price of
energy.
4.5 SCREENING OF MITIGATION OPTIONS
For targeted mitigation, it is most important to recognise the highest emitters
within the main categories. Table 4.1 shows the top ten emitters for the year 2008, in
descending order, according to the GHG inventory.
106
Table 4.1: Top ten emitters, 2008 in Gg CO2 eq
Source: Becker et al, 2012
Sector subcategories and codes used
by IPCC
Specific category
Emissions
AFOLU-3B6b Forest Land
Forest land converted to Other Land
1,740
Energy-1A2m Manufacturing Industries
& Construction
1,456
Energy-1A2f Manufacturing Industries
& Construction
Non-Metallic Minerals
1,253
Energy-1A3b Transport
Cars
599
AFOLU-3C7 Rice Cultivation
Rice Cultivation
475
Energy-1A2i Manufacturing Industries
& Construction
Mining (excluding fuels) and
Quarrying
210
Energy-1A1a Energy Industries
Electricity Generation
121
AFOLU-3C1 Emissions from Biomass Burning
Biomass Burning on Croplands
94
AFOLU-3B3a Grassland
Grassland Remaining Grassland
77
AFOLU-3A1
72
It is within these sector subcategories that mitigation actions will have the most impact
in terms of reducing GHG emissions.
The Mitigation Team considered a total of twenty-nine GHG mitigation options in the
following sectors:
- Energy Supply
-Transport
-Industry
-Agriculture
-Forestry
Some of these GHG mitigation options were formulated in collaboration with national
stakeholders during the kick off workshop for this SNC. The options do not comprise
a comprehensive list, but are considered to be the most promising options, given the
circumstances in Suriname. The mitigation options considered were related to national
development policies, environmental policy goals and other national circumstances,
such as population density and availability of natural resources.
A qualitative screening was performed, which enabled a rough assessment of GHG
mitigation options before performing a more detailed mitigation scenario analysis.
The Mitigation Team then established screening criteria and assigned scores to the
options according to the importance of these criteria. The total scores of the screening
criteria are listed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Screening criteria
considerations refers to institutional capacities needed for data collection, monitoring,
and enforcement.
The mitigation options were rated (low/medium/high) against each of the criteria. The
Team decided to use the following scoring system:
- Low = 1x total score of the criterion
- Medium = 2x total score of the criterion
- High
= 3x total score of the criterion
Once options per sector were rated in this way, those with the highest scores were
selected for a more in-depth analysis during the mitigation assessment. The result was
a list of nine mitigation options. Table 4.3 shows the results of mitigation options with
the highest scores for the Energy Supply, Transport and Industry sector.
Table 4.3: Screening of mitigation options for the Energy Supply, Transport and Industry sector
No.
Screening criteria
Total score
1
Potential for significant reduction of GHGs
14
2
Consistency with national development goals (incl. environmental goals)
14
3
Data availability
11
4
Feasibility (technical, social, economic)
13
5
Direct and indirect economic impact (on GDP, employment, trade)
9
6
Institutional considerations
6
The two criteria Potential for significant reduction of GHGs and Consistency with
national development goals were both given the highest score. The criterion Data
availability refers to accessibility of specific data and appropriateness for Surinamese
conditions. The criterion Feasibility includes cost-effectiveness (capital and operating
costs, opportunity costs and incremental costs) and replicability (the measure’s
acceptability given various geographical, socio-economic, cultural, legal and regulatory
factors). The criterion Direct and indirect economic impact includes macro-economic
considerations, such as implications for long-term development, foreign exchange
and trade, and other economic benefits or drawbacks. The criterion Institutional
Criteria
Solar
power
Hydro
power
Wind
power
Biomass
dPollution
device
Potential for significant reduction
of GHGs
H
H
H
H
H
Consistency with national
development goals
H
H
H
H
H
Data availability
H
H
M
H
H
Feasibility
Technical
Economical
H
M
H
M
H
M
H
M
H
M
Direct & indirect economic impact
H
H
H
H
M
Institutional considerations
M
M
M
M
L
221
207
210
221
231
Total score
The preliminary estimate of GHG mitigation potential was based on reduced fuel use
for electricity generation. Development of the more traditional methods of the energy
sector, namely the expansion of hydropower capacity (large and small scale) and the
February 2013
107
use of solar and wind power, score highly. For the transport sector, new technologies
score high.
natural defences of the coastline against sea-level rise. Table 4.4 shows the results for
the screening of mitigation options for the sectors of agriculture and forestry.
All options score high for the criterion Consistency with national development goals.
With respect to the criterion Direct and indirect economic impact, we see that the
options considered will not affect the employment of the population. In terms of
Feasibility, installation of dPollution devices scores high.
Table 4.4: Screening of mitigation options for agriculture and forestry sectors
In terms of level of support within the country, hydropower comes out as the most
attractive option because it is already one of the most common and established
methods, both technologically and economically, for generating energy in Suriname.
The options of nuclear power, efficient electricity generation and distribution, hybrid
vehicles, improved public transport, and combined heat and power were also
considered. These options scored relatively high for most of the criteria but, except for
the nuclear power option, the lack of data made calculations extremely difficult. These
mitigation options were therefore not considered further. They could nevertheless
be considered in future mitigation analyses. Despite indications of large deposits of
uranium in Suriname, further analysis of the nuclear power option was excluded, due
to concerns about its safety and the ability to dispose of and store nuclear waste safely.
Criteria
Improved
rice-cultivation
techniques
Re-use ofabandoned
agricultural land for
energy crops
Using
wood waste
as biofuel
Mangrove
reforestation
Potential for significant
reduction of GHGs
H
H
H
M
Consistency with national development goals
H
H
M
H
Data availability
H
H
H
H
Feasibility
Technical
Economical
M
M
H
L
H
M
M
L
Direct and indirect economic impact
L
H
M
H
Institutional
considerations
M
L
M
L
190
214
198
200
Total score
As for agriculture, given the fact that rice cultivation is a large contributor to GHG
emissions in Suriname, it was clear that mitigation in this subsector would make more
of a difference than reclaiming unused agricultural lands. Both options scored high
for Consistency with national development goals. Other options for agriculture, such
as improved nitrogen fertiliser application techniques, agro-forestry pilots and zero
tillage pilots were considered but did not score high.
4.6 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SCENARIOS
For the forestry sector, the options of using wood waste as biofuel and restoring
mangrove forests had the highest scores. They scored medium to high for Consistency
with national development goals and Direct and indirect economic impact, since they
do not contribute directly to an economic sector. But using wood waste as biofuel
for electricity generation will lead to less electricity production from the burning of
hydrocarbons, and mangrove restoration will have positive effects on fisheries and the
The baseline scenario represents a future in which there are no policies or programmes
designed to encourage or require actions that reduce GHG emissions or enhance
carbon sinks. The baseline scenario examines how Suriname’s energy system might
evolve if policies continue largely unchanged. The projections are extrapolated to
2025 using standard assumptions about population and economic growth and shifts
in economic structure.
108
This section provides a technical description of the baseline and mitigation scenarios for
Suriname, starting with a description of the primary data and assumptions underlying
the GHG projections in the energy and non-energy sectors.
The baseline for Suriname is based upon historical energy statistics published by
ABS, which have been extrapolated into the future by using a variety of information
sources: historical trends, reports such as the KEMA report (KEMA, 2008) and expert
judgment. Information from these sources has been further augmented and adjusted
to include projections for GHG emissions from non-energy GHG sources and sinks
(forestry, LULUCF and agriculture).
The mitigation scenario examines the mitigation potentials of the most important
future sources of GHGs and sinks. In this mitigation scenario, a conservative approach
was taken. It examines only technical options that are already commercially available,
while taking into account the availability of natural resources and existing scientific
and technical studies.
Potentially major options such as hydrogen fuel cells and nuclear energy, which appear
to be many decades away from the Surinamese reality, were excluded, while options
such as solar and wind energy are included, but only in the later years of the scenario.
It is necessary to state that a mitigation scenario is not a fixed roadmap but rather a
guide that evolves as time goes on. Undoubtedly, there will be changes to policies and
advances in technology by 2025.
Ideally, the cost of any mitigation option should be considered, but estimating costs
in the future is very difficult; there are many uncertainties, including fossil fuel prices
and the costs of technologies, rendering calculations of costs highly unreliable. Such
estimates would only yield a skewed image and are therefore not elaborated upon
here.
4.6.1 ENERGY SECTOR
4.6.1.1ENERGY RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
remaining demand is met by combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
Hydropower. Suriname has the potential for approximately 4,000 MW of hydropower
(Plan Atlas Suriname, 1988). Considering the limited accessibility to the interior and
the possibility for construction of dams, this potential can be realistically scaled down
to 2,500 MW (Adama, 1983).Even this smaller estimate of hydropower potential could
abundantly meet the electricity demands in the country.
Solar Energy. Studies (for example, Facet 1980)estimate that approximately 1,800
kWh/m2 of solar energy reach the Surinamese surface per year. This corresponds
to approximately 7.3 x 10 GWh spread evenly over the country’s surface. However,
methods of transforming solar energy to electricity—solar-panels, heliostats and
photo-voltaic cells—are still very expensive. Another solar option is that of solar water
heaters, which seem to perform very well, especially in cold countries.
Biomass. As is true for solar energy, Suriname theoretically possesses a large potential
source of energy in biomass, since more than 80% of the country is covered by forest.
In 1980, the amount of biomass that was directly available for energy generation
equalled 98,635 Ton Oil Equivalents (TOE). Such biomass amounts in Suriname consist
primarily of waste products from, among other things, agricultural plants and lumber
mills (Marienburg, Victoria, SML, Bruynzeel, etc.). Producing biofuel from certain crops
is tried and true technology, and Suriname has abundant fertile soil in which such
crops could be grown.
Crude Oil. The state-owned enterprise N.V. Staatsolie Maatschappij began producing
crude oil in 1980 at Tambaredjo in the district Saramacca. The Tambaredjo oil field
covers a surface area of 35 km2 and is estimated to contain 216 million barrels of crude
oil, with a recovery factor of 30%. Currently the production of crude oil is at 16,000
barrels per day. There are strong indications that there are much larger oil reserves
offshore (containing more than ten times the amount in the Tambaredjo field).
This section gives a brief overview of Suriname’s actual and potential energy resources.
It is a country richly endowed with raw materials and natural resources. Current energy
demand in the country is met primarily by hydropower (approximately 53%); the
February 2013
109
Peat. Peat is the only solid fossil fuel in Suriname (Adama, 1983). Studies show that
the peat present in the Corantijn area is estimated to contain 1.5 million m3 (equal to
350,000 TOE).
Uranium. Findings of radiometric, magnetic and electromagnetic measurements
done in the Tafelberg area in 1960 and 1966 by “Canadian Aero Mineral” (a Canadian
Mining Consultancy), in collaboration with the governmental department “Dienst
Bodem- en Luchtkartering”50 and the Canadian engineering company “N. Tribe &
Associates Ltd,” indicated that there is a high probability that this area possesses a large
amount of uranium, an element commonly used for the generation of nuclear power.
Since these activities, no subsequent surveys or exploration have been undertaken.
Table 4.5: CO2 emission from all fuels for the Energy sector (reference approach)
(Becker et al, 2012)
Year
2003
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Emission Gg CO2eq
2,442
3,003
2,853
3,019
3,250
3,327
Suriname’s Energy sector pertains only to category 1A of the 2006 IPCC guidelines. The
subsectors which play an important role are shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Energy sector according to 2006 IPCC guidelines (sectorial approach)
1A
Fuel Combustion Activities
Wind energy. The wind energy potential in Suriname comes from the trade-winds that
blow throughout the year with average velocities of approximately 5 m/s. However,
there are locations such as Galibi and Coronie, where wind velocities can reach up to
10 to 15 m/s (Facet, 1980).
1A1 Energy Industries: Electricity and Heat production – Electricity Generation
1A2
-
-
-
Manufacturing Industries and Construction:
Nonferrous metals (gold sector)
Non-metallic mineral (bauxite sector, alumina production)
Construction and others
4.6.1.2 GHG PROJECTIONS
1A3
-
-
-
-
Transport:
Civil aviation
Road transport
Water transport
Off-road transport
As mentioned earlier, the most significant contributor to GHG emissions in Suriname is
the Energy sector. The main focus in the mitigation analysis is therefore on this sector.
The Energy sector is very broad, since it meets the energy demands of all economic
activities in the country—mining, agriculture, transport, industry, fisheries, household
uses, etc.
The projected increase of economic activities in Suriname is expected to be
accompanied by a higher demand for energy. Assuming that this increased energy
demand will most likely be met by hydrocarbon fuels (given the current state of affairs),
the Energy sector’s contribution to the country’s overall GHG emissions will also grow
at an increased rate. Data from the 2011 GHG inventory show that the country’s GHG
emissions have already increased by 36% in 2009 compared to 2003 (see Table 4.5).
50
A land and aerial-mapping service.
110
1A4 Other sectors:
-Residential
-Stationary
- Off-road vehicles and other machinery
- Fishing (mobile combustion)
Applied growth figures for the Energy sector are based on the combination of the
following assumptions:
- forecast calculations of Suriname’s GDP until 2025: the economy of Suriname will
grow by an average of 4.4%/year between 2012 and 2025 (Apapoe, 2012);
- average annual growth of 4.4% for the subsectors (including the informal gold
sector) between 2008 and 2025 (Apapoe, 2012);
- development in the transport sector parallels annual economic (GDP) growth of
4.4% based on the continued use of hydrocarbon fuels;
The baseline forecast for the energy sector is shown in Figure 4.7. Calculations
were made by using growth figures as input in an excel template derived from the
LEAP-model. The results show the projected GHG emissions for each subsector. The
calculated figures for baseline emissions from the Energy sector are given in Appendix
A. According to the 2008 GHG inventory, the sum of the calculated emissions from the
energy sector totals 3,799 Gg CO2eq.
The baseline forecast shows an increase of GHG emissions from 3,799 Gg CO2 eq in
2008 to 8,470 Gg CO2 eq in 2025, an increase of 223%.
CO2emission “Electricity
Generation
7000
6000
Gg CO2 eq
- the energy-demand projection is based on governmental expectations. The
Ministry of Natural Resources has calculated that electricity demand will reach up
to 710 MW by 2020;
- limited additional renewable energy contribution to the energy mix. This
assumption is based on the history of renewable energy in Suriname; this
contribution has remained constant at around 53% of the total energy mix.
- limited energy conservation and energy efficiency activities. This is also based
on the prevailing historical trend in Suriname. The reasons for a lack of energyefficiency programmes promoted by the government are unknown;
- the bauxite industry will remain the largest contributor to GHG emissions, since
it is expected that the government will not require Suralco to take measures to
reduce GHG emissions. Suralco itself has been mandated by Alcoa to reduce the
GHG emissions of their combustion processes by 20% by 2020 compared to their
2005 baseline. Each Alcoa plant is to make its own local plan to reach this global
Alcoa goal. However, detailed plans on how Suralco expects to meet this goal
and apply mitigation options to reduce GHG emissions could not be obtained.
Therefore, input from Suralco has not been considered in the formulation of the
baseline and mitigation scenarios;
- considering typical delays in their mining activities, it is unlikely that the Suralco
plant will reach its maximum production level before 2015. It is expected that
the Suralco alumina plant will gradually increase its production again from 3,750
tons/day in 2010 to its rated production capacity of 6,200 tons/day in 2015. This
development is based on an average production growth of 490 tons/day annually
(8% of the rated capacity). During the period 2015 to 2025, the growth is projected
to be 4.4% annually.
5000
CO2emission “Manuf.
Industries
& Constr.”
4000
CO2emission “Transport”
3000
CO2emission “Others”
2000
1000
0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
YEAR
sector”
Figure 4.7: Baseline forecast, energy sector
For the electricity generation subsector, the final electricity demand projection for the
baseline scenario shows a linear growth. As the demand for electricity increases, so
does electricity generation. The results show that by 2025, electricity demand will be
twelve times greater compared to 2008. The government’s 2012-2016 Development
Plan calculates electricity demand at 710 MW by the year 2020 (Ministry of Natural
Resources, personal communication, 2011). Extrapolating this figure to 2025, it is
estimated that the demand for electricity may reach 862 MW. The 80 MW of energy
generated by hydropower is excluded from the baseline scenario.
Emissions from the electricity generation subsector will increase from 121 Gg CO2 eq in
2008 to 1,478 CO2 eq in 2025. Significant growth is expected in fossil fuel power plants.
Gradual efficiency improvements are assumed for fossil fuel generation. However,
no major shifts in feedstock fuels are assumed and no major new technologies are
considered.
February 2013
111
For the same period, emissions from the subsector Manufacturing Industries and
Construction will increase from 2,922 Gg CO2 eq to 5,420 Gg CO2 eq, a growth of
approximately 85%.
The Transport subsector is one of the major emitters of GHGs in Suriname, responsible
for 20% of total GHG emissions from the Energy sector in 2008. All forms of transport
in the country burn fossil fuels. The only public transport systems are bus and boat.
Increases in road traffic and distances travelled are expected to accelerate the use of
fossil fuel in the sector, thereby contributing to an overall increase in GHG emissions.
The baseline forecast indicates that if historical trends continue, transportation
emissions will grow from 623 Gg CO2 eq in 2008 to 1,295 Gg CO2 eq in 2025, a growth
of 208%.
Emissions from the subsector Other Sectors will increase from 133 Gg CO2 eq in 2008
to 277 Gg CO2 eq in 2025 a 108% rise.
4.6.1.3KEY MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR THE ENERGY SECTOR
Electricity generation
Suriname is endowed with several energy resources through whose use the country’s
energy demands could be adequately met. Interest in the area of renewable energy
has increased considerably in the past few years due to climate-change concerns.
Possible projects in the area of renewable energy are considered as part of the
mitigation scenario; indeed, it relies heavily on water, wind, solar and biomass sources
of electricity generation.
Given the lack of requirements for developing wind and solar energy, only a small
fraction of the estimated economic potential for these two types of energy is likely to
be developed over the next decade (Adama, 1983).
For hydropower, the mitigation scenario is based on the 2020 energy plan of the
Ministry of Natural Resources and consists of the projects listed in Table 4.7.
112
Table 4.7: Expected hydropower projects
Hydropower projects
Year expected to be
operational
Capacity
Grankriki hydropower plant51
2015/ 2016
15 MW
Tapa-Jai hydropower plant52
2018/ 2019
302 MW
2020
116 MW
2012/ 2014/ 2016/ 2020
1.2 MW
Additional capacity at Afobaka dam
Micro hydropower plants53
The West Suriname Hydro Project is not considered for the baseline scenario. Howev
er, if obstacles associated with this project (lack of financing, technical knowledge and
training) could be overcome, the total electricity demand of the country would be
more than 100% met.
A very important factor with regards to GHG emissions when considering the
hydropower option is the deforestation of significant areas for the construction of
water reservoirs, roads and transmission lines. The initial effect of this deforestation is
an increase of GHG emissions caused by deterioration of carbon sinks. This increase
in emissions is reflected in Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9 as the two peaks for the periods
2013-2014 and 2017-2018. The biomass mitigation scenario is shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.9 presents some other renewable energy possibilities.
51
The Grankriki project is located approximately180 km southeast of Paramaribo in the forest. The Grankriki River flows into the Marowijne River, the border
river with French Guyana. This will be a small scale hydropower project (15 MW).
52
The Tapa-Jai project is designed to divert water from Jai-kreek, a tributary of the Tapanahony River, through Marowijne-kreek, into the van Blommenstein
Hydro-lake, enabling the generation of 305 MW and an additional 116 MW at the Afobaka hydro-plant.
Small hydro-electric plants are those like that in Granolo sula. This is a pilot project with a 300-KW potential, now under construction. The university is
currently doing research on micro-sized water turbines, to see how these might be utilised in the country’s interior to generate electricity for small river villages.
53
Table 4.8: Expected biomass projects
Year expected to
be operational
Capacity
Power plant (electricity generation) based on the gasification of
rice husk
2016
60 MW
Additional plant capacity for rice husk based on positive
developments in the rice industries
2025
25 MW
3500
3000
2012
2000
YEAR
-1000
-1500
Figure 4.8: CO2 eq reduction from mitigation options in the Electricity Generation subsector
However, there are still high expectations for the utilisation of
solar collectors and solar-cells (photo-voltaic conversion) for
electricity generation.
Wind energy:
Wind energy for electricity generation could be supplied
successfully in locations with relatively high wind velocities.
Large scale application remains a possibility for the distant future.
A conservative prediction is that wind generators capable of producing approximately 1 MW will be installed and operational by
2016 and by 2025 this will have increased to approximately 3 MW.
Total CO2-emission (Gg)
0
-500
Solar energy:
Although this energy source has a high potential for reducing
GHG emissions, its use as a substitute for hydrocarbon fuels is not
yet feasible.
A conservative prediction is that solar energy installations capable of producing roughly 2 MW will be installed and operational
by 2018.By 2025 the operational capacity is projected to be 5 MW.
500
2025
Capacity
CO2-emission due to bio
mass fuel plant(s) (Gg)
2020
Year expected to
be operational
1000
2015
27 MW
CO2-emission due to
Hydroprojects (Gg)
1500
2012
2025
Table 4.9: Other possible renewable-energy projects
Other renewable energy projects
2500
12.5 MW
2008
Wood has a caloric value of approximately 15 MJ/kg
(equivalent to 4.3 kWh). Combustion installations that use wood
as fuel have a conversion efficiency of 30 %, which means that
currently, approximately 4.5 MJ/kg of energy output (equivalent
to 1.29 kWh) can be produced by such combustion installations.
Therefore, wood waste produced in Suriname has the potential
to replace 110,000 MWh from other sources by 2012 and 240,000
MWh by 2025.
Gg CO2 eq
Biomass projects
These combined mitigation scenarios resulted in an overall mitigation scenario for
the subsector of electricity generation, which is shown in Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9.
Since the contributions of solar and wind energy are considered to be negligible, these
two options are not included in the final results of the mitigation assessment. These
mitigation scenarios reflect a combination of a gradual transition away from fossil-fuel
power plants, radical improvements in energy efficiency, and a dramatic shift toward
various types of renewable energy.
2025
5 MW
2025
3 MW
February 2013
113
Figure 4.9 shows the baseline scenario versus the compiled mitigation scenario for the
electricity generation subsector. The calculated results in Gg CO2 eq are presented in
Appendix IV.
4500
4000
The mitigation option that could be applied to the informal gold mining sector is the
use of biofuel in machinery, thereby eliminating the need for hydrocarbon fuel, which
currently consists primarily of diesel. The results of implementing this measure will not
be evident until Staatsolie’s biofuel plant becomes operational in 2015. Once this plant
is in place, it is projected that there will be an annual GHG emission reduction of 7-8%
from 2015 to 2025 (see Figure 4.10).
6000
3000
CO2-em. baseline
scenario “Electr. Gen.”
(Gg)
2500
2000
Total CO2-em. Mitigation
scenario vs baseline
scenario “Elect. Gen.” Gg)
1500
1000
500
0
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
YEAR
5000
Gg CO2eq
Gg CO 2 eq
3500
Total CO2-emission
Manuf. Ind. & Constr.
mitigation scenario (Gg)
4000
Total CO2-emission
Manuf. Ind. & Constr.
Baseline scenario (Gg)
3000
2000
CO2 emission reduction
by use of bio-fuels (excl.
bauxite ind.)
1000
0
Figure 4.9: Baseline scenario vs. mitigation scenario for Electricity Generation
Manufacturing Industries and Construction
Although the bauxite industry is the largest contributor to the country’s overall
GHG emissions, no detailed plans have been made or are known of regarding the
application of mitigation options in this industry. There are no national regulations
requiring Suralco to reduce GHG emissions from their combustion processes, nor is it
likely that Suralco will attempt to reduce GHG emissions on their own, considering the
large investments involved. Therefore no mitigation option has been formulated for
this industry. The mitigation scenario for the Manufacturing Industry and Construction
subsector therefore focuses solely on the application of measures in other sectors,
such as the informal gold mining sector, the second-largest emitter.
114
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
YEAR
Figure 4.10: Baseline scenario vs. mitigation scenario, Manufacturing Industries & Construction
Transport Subsector
The mitigation scenario for the Transport subsector is focused on passenger
transport, the sector’s largest emitter. A key factor in beginning a transition towards
a sustainable transport system with lower GHG emissions is the implementation of
short-term measures that enable the use of renewable energy in road transport (IEARETD RETRANS, 2010). For the short and medium term, use of biofuels and dPollution
devices are considered to be the most feasible means of achieving intermediate GHG
reductions. A shift from automobiles to public and non-motorised transportation will
possibly be implemented after 2025. Table 4.10 lists possible mitigation projects for
the Transport subsector.
Table 4.10: Possible transport projects
Projects in transport subsector
Use of biofuels
Staatsolie is preparing an ethanol production plant, with a capacity of 100
million litres/year.
Since this energy resource looks very promising, it is thought that by the end
of 2025, an additional biofuel plant will be built with a capacity of 50 million
litres/year.
Application of dPollution devices in internal combustion engines
Estimates are that fuel consumption of engines can be reduced by 12% with
this device. Assuming that time is needed for awareness of this device to
spread in Suriname, the most optimistic expectation is that results will become noticeable by 2015.
Year expected to be
operational
2014/2015
2025
2015
Based on the information in Table 4.10, it is estimated that over the period 2015 to
2025, use of biofuels will come to replace 30% of the fuels consumed in the Transport
subsector (diesel and gasoline).
Devices referred to as dPollution devices are already considered to be the next
generation of fuel-saver and pollution reducer with respect to internal combustion
engines. The working principle of this device is that an electric current, applied at a
certain frequency and wavelength, breaks longer chains of hydrocarbon molecules
into shorter chains—lighter and more volatile molecules—which burn more readily
and completely in the combustion chamber. This enables the engine to consume less
fuel (dPollution International, Inc.). Estimates are of reductions in fuel consumption
of 12%. A conservative estimate for Suriname is that this option could result in a 5%
annual reduction of the total GHG emission by 2025.
Sugarcane plantation
February 2013
115
Photo courtesy of Staatsolie
The mitigation scenario shown in Figure 4.11 is a combination of the scenarios
mentioned above for the Transport subsector, for GHG emissions over the period
2008-2025.
1400
1200
CO2-emission reduction
mitigation scenario
"Transport" (Gg)
Total CO2-emission
Mitigation scenario
"Transport" (Gg)
CO2-emission baseline
scenario "Transport" (Gg)
Gg CO2eq
1000
800
600
400
200
CO2-emission reduction
by dPollution (Gg)
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
0
YEAR
Figure 4.11: Baseline scenario vs. mitigation scenario, Transport
4.6.1.4GHG PROJECTIONS FOR THE ENERGY SECTOR
The baseline scenario and mitigation scenario for the Energy sector are compared in
Figure 4.12.
9000
8000
31% reduction
Gg CO2eq
7000
6000
Total mitigation scenario
sector” (Gg)
5000
4000
sector” (Gg)
3000
2000
1000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
0
Figure 4.12: Compiled baseline vs. mitigation scenario Energy
116
YEAR
Based on this comparison, the following conclusions can be drawn:
If no mitigation measures are taken and the energy demand continues to be met by the
use of hydrocarbon fuels, GHG emissions will more than double over the period 20082025, increasing from 3,799 Gg CO2eq in 2008 to 8,470 Gg CO2eq in 2025. By applying
the aforementioned mitigation scenarios and implementing their mitigation options,
total GHG emissions are calculated to reach 5,870 Gg CO2eq in 2025, a reduction of
31%.
4.6.1.5NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF HYDRO-ENERGY
The use of hydropower instead of fossil fuels has obvious positive effects. Yet there is
a serious disadvantage to this energy source in Suriname. In general, the potential to
generate hydro-electric power is dependent on the height of the fall of water and the
flow velocities of the rivers. Although flow velocities in Suriname are high, the height
differences in its rivers are relatively small. For this reason, deforestation of fairly large
areas would have to take place in order to construct water reservoirs for hydro-electric
plants. In addition, roads and transmission lines would have to be constructed, resulting
in more deforestation.
It has been calculated that the establishment of the TapaJai hydro-power plant(s) will
result in the total deforestation of an area larger than 247 km2 (235 km2 of inundated
area and 12 km2 of roads). This deforestation will ultimately lead to the release of CO2
and potentially even CH4, which was previously stored in biomass, into the atmosphere.
It would be ideal to use the downed wood from this deforestation for the generation
of electricity in a combustion installation, instead of just letting it decompose. But
since Suriname has plans for building combustion installations, it is assumed that this
biomass will be transformed to CO2 at once during the years in which the deforestation
takes place. Consequently, during the periods 2013-2014 and 2017-2018, an increase
of CO2 emissions is projected in the mitigation scenario.
4.6.2 NON-ENERGY SECTOR
The AFOLU sector in Suriname is currently a sink for CO2 emissions (it actively
sequesters CO2). The net removal (sequestration) of emissions from the atmosphere by
AFOLU is primarily through the growth of trees, sequestration of carbon in wetlands,
and forest, agricultural and grassland soils.
More than 80% of Suriname’s territory is covered by forests and other virtually
undisturbed natural areas, such as swamps and savannahs). Since the year 1650,
Suriname’s deforestation rate has been limited to 3% of original forest lands, an
average of less than 0.1% per year. Deforestation has been due to logging, the creation
of relatively small agricultural lands, the clearing of bauxite, gold, granite and sand
mining and quarrying areas, the creation or rehabilitation of roads, and for housing
primarily in the coastal region. The GHG inventory concluded that the major removal
of forest in the time period 2000-2008 was for gold and bauxite mining, and that
carbon sequestration was induced by reforestation of mined out bauxite areas and
changes in the carbon content of grassland which was reverted into unproductive
agricultural land.
-
-
- a haul road from Paranam to Nassau (110 km long, 50 m wide), slated to be built
in 2012 or 2013; and
- a road from Nickerie (Southdrain) to Apura, mainly along an existing path (60 km long, approx. 20 m wide); it is unclear when this road will be built;
very little deforestation is expected from the upgrading of roads (e.g. the roads
from Paramaribo to Albina and from Brownsweg to Pokigron), although these
might result in increased deforestation as a side-effect, due to improved access to
new agricultural and mining sites;
expansion of urban areas will correspond with population growth. It is assumed
that this expansion will result in additional deforestation to replace agricultural
land that is converted to urban areas. These figures are presented in Table 4.11;
Table 4.11: Expected population growth and expected urban expansion
Source: Based in part on General Bureau of Statistics, Suriname – Population projection, October 2010
The agriculture and forestry sectors are significant sources of the highly potent GHG
methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). In Suriname, agriculture is the most important
source of GHG emissions in the Non-energy sector.
Population
4.6.2.1GHG PROJECTIONS
Population
The projections for scenarios rely on historical agricultural and forestry activities, as well
as planned land-use changes induced by activities such as infrastructure construction
and agriculture.
The applied growth figures for the Non-energy sector are based on a combination of
the following assumptions:
- an average annual growth of 4.4% for the subsectors from 2008 to 2025, according
to foreseen socio-economic development;
- several rates are derived from the GHG inventory, such as the deforestation rate
from informal gold mining and the re-growth rates in sustainable, managed
forests;
- several new roads are projected in the interior, for which forests will be cut. The
main new roads are:
Urban area (ha)
Urban area (ha)
Population
Urban area (ha)
-
-
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
517,052
524,143
542,022
559,902
577,781
588,816
57,200
57,984
59,962
61,940
63,918
65,139
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
599,851
610,885
621,920
633,158
644,395
655,633
66,360
67,581
68,801
70,044
71,288
72,531
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
666,870
678,214
689,559
700,903
712,247
723,591
73,774
75,029
76,284
77,539
78,794
80,049
at least 2,000 ha of agricultural land (mainly grassland) will be transformed into
housing projects;
the total land area used for sugarcane production under a Staatsolie project will be
about 12,500 ha. Part of the land allocated for the project (5,000 ha) was previously
used for rice production. The remaining area (7,500 ha), which was previously
uncultivated, mainly consists of grass swamps and marsh forests. According to
plans, the establishment of this sugarcane plantation will begin in 2014;
February 2013
117
- Suriname Green Energy54 plans to establish a large-scale sugarcane plantation
(30,000-35,000 ha) between the Corantijn river and the Multi-Purpose Corantijn
Channel. Ethanol will be produced primarily for the foreign market as a biofuel;
- China Zhong Heng Tai Investment Suriname55 plans to re-cultivate the abandoned
Patamacca palm-oil plantation, currently overgrown with secondary vegetation.
An area of 2,000 ha will most likely be re-cultivated. No primary or old secondary
forest will be cut. It is expected that this area will be cleared in 2011 and that the
first palms will be planted in 2013. In the future, this area might be expanded to
the south, into an area with primary forest;
- the company Foods Fats and Fertilisers (FFF)56 plans the re-cultivation of
abandoned palm-oil plantations at Phedra, Victoria and other former plantation
sites, including old pine plantations. They have requested an area of 40,000 ha, but
will likely obtain a total net area of slightly more than 35,000 ha. The abandoned
palm-oil plantations are currently overgrown with secondary vegetation. The other
areas are mainly a mixed forest type consisting of plantation trees and secondary
forest. It is likely that FFF will start its activities in 2012;
- the cultivation of palm oil will also result in carbon fixation in palm oil trees, which
is estimated at an accumulated 75 tCO2eq/ha after the first 15 years;
- the government of Suriname intends to increase rice cultivation by up to 150,000
ha by 2020. This means that land currently in use for rice production (about
27,000 ha in 2010 producing two crops a year) will be tripled within ten years. It is
expected that cultivation will expand into the Nani swamp (an area of 30,000 ha,
currently mainly swamp forest), and other forested areas and/or polder land not in
production;
- the area currently used for banana production is not expected to increase;
- the current area in the interior which is being used for small-scale agriculture
(mainly shifting cultivation) is estimated at a total of 150,000 ha and will remain
more or less the same, although there is a slight tendency from shifting cultivation
towards permanent agriculture;
- the national beef, sheep and goat livestock industry is expected to expand within
five to ten years. At least 10,000 ha of forest in the interior will be used for the
establishment of grassland for this purpose;
Suriname Green Energy is a newly established private company in Suriname.
55
China Zhong Heng Tai Investment Suriname is a Chinese investor.
56
Foods Fats and Fertilizers is a palm-oil company from India.
54
118
- Suralco is planning bauxite mining activities at Nassau that may result in the
deforestation of an approximate total of 750 ha, to be cleared in 2013 and in 2014;
- the deforestation rate caused by informal gold mining is estimated at 2,621 ha per
year (current historic rate of 3,100 ha/yr. minus historic deforestation of IAMGOLD)
(Playfair, 2011). This rate will most likely remain the same, as the price for gold is
expected to remain high;
- IAMGOLD intends to clear an additional 813 ha over the period 2011-2015;
-Surgold57 is planning a new gold mine in the Merian area, which will likely result in
the deforestation of approximately 1,500 ha, starting in 2012/2013;
- Staatsolie is currently exploring onshore and offshore sites along many parts of the
coast. It is not yet clear where and when exploitation sites will be established and
how much forest will be cut and/or swamps will be drained;
- the Foundation for Forest Management and Production Control (SBB) will
continue to promote sustainable forest practices and improvement of policies and
regulations for sustainable forest management. Sustainability of the forestry sector
will indeed increase, and GHG emissions will decrease because damage to the
remaining forest will decrease. Although there is no information as to how much
this decrease will be, it is expected to be relatively small;
- the turnover percentage in sawmills will increase by 1% per year, starting with 30%
in 2009 and eventually reaching a turnover of 46% in 2025;
- logging remains at a rate of 12 m3/ha and a harvested forest will recover in forty
years, at 1 m3/ha/yr.;
- the effect of forest and swamp protection on carbon emissions will be zero due to
leakage;
- reforestation plantations accumulate 34 tCO2eq/ha/yr. (IPCC default value);58
- a young plantation of mangrove forest will accumulate approximately 7 tCO2eq/
ha/yr. (based on figures of Crooks et al, 2011)59.
- it is expected that the area of abandoned agricultural lands will be 0 ha by 2020,
since these areas are likely to be re-used for agricultural purposes or for urban
expansion; total forest re-growth on abandoned (agricultural) lands will be zero in
2025;
57
Surgold is a joint venture between Newmont and ALCOA (both from the USA) engaged in gold exploration and mining in Suriname.
58
IPCC default value for tropical broadleaf plantations in South America: 20 (5-35) t dry biomass / ha.
IPCC default value for similar plantations is not available. Since mangrove forest differs greatly from default values of other tropical forests, we have used
figures from Crooks et al, 2011.
59
-
ROGB and SBB plan to increase timber production in keeping with the sector’s
goals. While current production per year is approximately 200,000 m3, SBB projects
that this will increase to 500,000 m3 by 2019. If this timber is cut in a sustainable
way, GHG emissions for this area will increase during the first years, due to
decomposition of remnants of cut trees (crowns and roots), but it will decrease in
later years because of an increase in growth of trees in and around gaps created
by forest exploitation. The average net carbon uptake over a period of twenty-five
years will be somewhat similar to that of an undisturbed forest. ROGB will improve
the management and governance of protected areas in the coming years, but this
will not result in a change of the deforestation rate. Protecting forest and swamps
might reduce emissions from a specific area, but will likely result in leakage within
the country, meaning that activities will move from these areas to others that are
not protected;
- mangrove afforestation along the coast near the Weg naar zee area is included in
the baseline; other significant afforestation projects are not yet planned;
- with respect to the cultivation of herbaceous swamps, it is assumed that 75
tCO2eq/ha will be released; and
- no specific policies are foreseen to be developed that protect natural areas with
high carbon stocks.
4.6.2.2GHG PROJECTIONS FOR AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is one of the most important sectors of the Surinamese economy,
accounting for 6.8% of GDP in 2009. Agriculture provides significant opportunities for
growth, investment and jobs. It provides food for the nation and produces feed for
livestock and bio-energy.
Rice cultivation was the most important source of methane emission and accounted
for 26% of total GHG emissions within the AFOLU sector in 2008. Most emissions from
agriculture are released from fertilised fields, which emit N2O. Livestock farming, which
emits CH4 associated with enteric fermentation and manure, also contributes to these
emissions.
Land used for rice production in 2009 was about 54,000 ha. The government intends
to increase this area to 150,000 ha.by 2028 through a phased expansion beginning
in 2015.The baseline scenario, shown in Figure 4.13, indicates that if historical trends
continue and activities take place as planned, emissions from agriculture will increase
from 953 Gg CO2 eq in 2008 to 3,788 Gg CO2 eq in 2025, an increase of 400%.
4.6.2.3KEY MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR AGRICULTURE
One of the most important mitigation options in agriculture is the introduction of
farming systems and farming techniques for rice production with a GHG-reducing
effect. Research on rice cultivation has shown that emissions mainly occur during
months when the ground is fully waterlogged (FAO, 2010). Studies show that regular
drainage may be the most efficient method to minimise emissions (Sass et al., 1992;
Yagi et al., 1996). The proposed mitigation option consists of a single draining of rice
fields during the planting cycle. Scientists have found that this can lead to a 50%
reduction of methane emission. Taking the costs of the supply of irrigation water and
logistics into account this is preferable to frequent draining. At least two years will be
needed before the implementation of this technique can begin, in about 2014.
Staatsolie’s Wageningen Sugarcane Project is designed to use sugarcane cultivation
for ethanol processing and production. The total area used for sugarcane cultivation
will be approximately 12,500 ha, of which roughly 5,000 ha was previously used for rice
cultivation but is currently fallow. The remaining 7,500 ha is uncultivated and mainly
consists of herbaceous swamps (80%) with some marsh forests (20%). Some, perhaps
all, of the forests will be cleared and the swamps drained. Drainage is expected to lead
to some decomposition of peat, although it is yet unclear as to what extent.
Carbon emissions caused by forest clearings associated with these projects are also
calculated into the mitigation scenario. The scenario also includes a calculation for the
part of the sugarcane plantation that will be established on abandoned agricultural
land. The total avoided emissions (carbon sequestration) of 1 ha of sugarcane used
for ethanol production are 13,830 kg CO2 eq. The total sequestration over 5,000 ha
sugarcane is 69.15 Mt CO2.
February 2013
119
Figure 4.13 shows the baseline forecast versus total mitigation forecast for Agriculture.
(The calculated emissions for Agriculture appear in Appendix V.) During the period
2012-2015, deforestation for sugarcane cultivation results in an initial increase of GHG
emissions.
Other mitigation options, such as the increasing use of zero- or low-till practices, which
sequester carbon in agricultural soils, are not included. Although the effects of such
practices could be significant, there is uncertainty concerning the permanence of
carbon sequestered in soil through these practices.
Figure 4.14 shows a projection of the baseline scenario against the mitigation scenario
in the forestry subsector. (The calculations for the baseline and mitigation are provided
in Appendix V.) If emissions are negative, more carbon is sequestered than emitted.
Since little information is available on the carbon content of the various Surinamese
forest types, the IPCC default value for tropical rainforest in South America is used in
the calculations.
This has mature forests containing 517 tCO2 eq/ha (IPCC, 2006)60. For secondary forest,
the value used is two-thirds of the IPCC default value: 345 tCO2 eq/ha.
4000
10,000
3500
8,000
2500
6,000
2000
Baseline
1500
Gg CO2eq
Total mitigation
1000
500
Forest sector baseline
scenario
2,000
Forest sector mitigation
scenario
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
0
-2,000
YEAR
Figure 4.13: Baseline forecast vs. mitigation for Agriculture
4.6.2.4GHG PROJECTIONS FOR FORESTRY
With respect to the Forestry subsector, the primary planned and expected activities that
result in carbon emissions can be divided roughly into four categories: deforestation
for construction of infrastructure, increased forest exploitation, wood processing, and
forest and swamp protection. The primary planned and expected activities that result
in carbon sequestration can roughly be divided into three categories: reforestation
of mined out areas, afforestation of mangroves, and natural forest re-growth in
abandoned agricultural areas.
120
4,000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
Gg CO2eq
3000
-4,000
Figure 4.14: Total baseline vs. mitigation for Forestry
The calculated emissions for the Forestry subsector in 2008 differ from the GHG inventory.
The inventory’s calculations are based on land use. For mitigation, GHG emissions related
to logging and deteriorating wood waste are calculated on top of the numbers of the
GHG inventory. This calculation has GHG emissions for 2008 resulting in 832 Gg CO2 eq.
60
The IPCC default value for tropical rain forest in South America: 0.30 (0.12-0.40) Gg dry biomass/ha; 47% of biomass is carbon and 1 C = 3.67 CO2 eq.
The baseline projection shows that emissions in the Forestry subsector will decrease
from 832 Gg CO2 eq in 2008 to -1,433 Gg CO2 eq (net sequestration) in 2025. However,
large agricultural projects and a corresponding increased rate of deforestation may
result in periodical high carbon emissions. Reforestation efforts with the aim of carbon
sequestration will contribute very little to a decrease in net carbon emissions before
2025.
4.6.2.5KEY MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR FORESTRY
REDD+ opportunities
Over the past few years, the government has investigated the possibilities and
opportunities involved in participating in a REDD+ scheme. REDD+ focuses on
retaining sequestered carbon in forests, and might create promising opportunities for
Suriname as a HFLD country. This being the case, the government has started several
projects and activities to calculate national carbon stocks. These include developing
a forest-cover map and distinguishing among different types of vegetation. Based on
this map, so-called carbon plots are created, in which the total amount of carbon is
measured, and these measurements will be used to formulate an amount of national
carbon stock. These results will provide the opportunity to calculate and designate
locations at which the highest carbon stocks are found. The government will be able
to use these results as a spatial planning tool, which will help in development plans for
areas with a relatively low carbon stock and the avoidance of developing areas with a
high carbon stock.
Specific mitigation options can then be developed to move human activities out
of high carbon-stock areas to low carbon-stock areas. Other mitigation options can
be formulated to promote new development projects in low carbon-stock areas,
and protect areas with high carbon stocks. Adequate spatial planning will be the
crucial factor through which these mitigation options avoid large emissions from
deforestation. Such a strategy is still in the measuring and calculation phase, and there
are as yet no plans for spatial planning within a REDD+ scheme. This mitigation option
is therefore not considered in the calculations here.
Mitigation measures considered for the Non-energy sector related to forestry are use
of wood waste as biofuel and additional afforestation of mangroves. Use of wood
waste as biofuel has already been incorporated into calculations for the Energy sector.
As for afforestation of mangroves, coastal ecosystems such as mangrove forests, tidal
marshes and sea grasses remove carbon from the atmosphere and ocean, storing
it in other benefits for climate-change adaptation: they provide ecosystem services
for local livelihoods, serve as touristic attractions, protect the coast from storms,
prevent shoreline erosion, regulate coastal water quality and provide habitats for
many important fish species and other fauna61. International studies have shown that
additional afforestation of mangrove forests may contribute to the sequestration of 1.5
to 2.5 tons C/ha/yr. (which is 5.5 to 9.2 tCO2 eq/ha/yr.)62. For calculations for Suriname, an
average of 2.0 tons C/ha/yr. is used, although this figure is very rough and to be further
investigated for local conditions. There is no information available on potential sites for
additional mangrove afforestation, and success factors have not yet been thoroughly
investigated. Mangrove afforestation mentioned here should be considered as a pilot
serving to investigate the possibilities. Some rough estimates for potential areas are
given, however.
Table 4.12 presents a rough estimate of potential areas for mangrove afforestation along
the coast. Although a large extent of the coastal area consists of mud, only growing
mud banks create favourable conditions for mangrove afforestation. Assuming that
mangrove afforestation can be done on an average of up to 300 m out into the water,
a total area of approximately 4,050 ha might be afforested. It is recommended that
afforestation take place with rows curving in a north-westerly direction into the sea.
This will support natural growth on the sheltered side.
Overall, approximately 75,000 tons C (275.25 Gg CO2 eq) will be sequestered by 2025 if
a total of 4,050 ha are planted during the period 2012 to 2019 at a rate of approximately
200 ha per year.
61
62
Crooks et al, 2011.
Crooks et al, 2011; Gong and Ong, 1990.
February 2013
121
4.7RESULTS
Table 4.12: Potential areas for mangrove afforestation
Total length
In %
along the coast
Suitable for mangrove
afforestation?
Dikes, harbours, river-mouths
~ 40 km
~ 10 %
No / hardly
Ridges, sand / shelf beaches
~ 65 km
~ 20 %
No
Mud banks
~ 270 km
~ 70 %
Depends on the presence of growing
mud banks: approximately 50%
Total
~ 375 km
100 %
Baseline in
2008
in Gg CO2eq
Baseline forecast
in 2025 in Gg
CO2eq
3,799
8,470
5,870
2,600
Agriculture subsector
953
3,788
2,616
1,172
Forestry subsector
832
-1,433
-1,708
275
5,584
10,825
6,778
4,047
Energy sector
The baseline scenario and mitigation scenario for the Non-energy sector are compared
in Figure 4.15. Based on this comparison, the following conclusions can be made:
If no mitigation measures are taken and activities in the Agriculture and Forestry
subsectors continue as planned, GHG emissions will increase from 1,785 Gg CO2 eq to
2,355 Gg CO2 eq in the period 2008-2025, due primarily to large agricultural projects.
Implementation of the mitigation options discussed here will result in a decrease of
GHG emissions, which will reach only 908 Gg CO2 eq by 2025.
12000
10000
Gg CO2eq
Table 4.13: Contribution of different sectors to overall reduction
Approximately 35 % = 135 km
4.6.2.6GHG PROJECTIONS FOR THE NON-ENERGY SECTOR
Total baseline
Non energy
sector
Total mitigation
Non energy
sector
8000
6000
4000
2000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
0
61%
reduction
YEAR
Figure 4.15: CO2 eq emission projection for baseline and mitigation scenario, Non-energy sector
122
The comparison of emission levels for the baseline and mitigation scenarios shows
that potentials for CO2 reduction differ considerably among different subsectors.
Table 4.13 shows the contribution of different sectors and subsectors to this overall
reduction, with the largest decreases coming from the Energy sector.
Total
Mitigation
Net mitigation
forecast in 2025 result in Gg
in Gg CO2eq
CO2eq
As can be seen, by the year 2025 according to the baseline scenario, total expected
emissions reach 10,825 Gg CO2 eq, whereas potential mitigation measures will reduce
this by 4,047 Gg CO2 eq, resulting in a mitigation forecast of 6,778 Gg CO2 eq.
According to the baseline scenario, an increase of 94% in GHG emission is expected
over the period 2008 to 2025. Implementation of the proposed mitigation measures
will result in an increase of only approximately 21% in GHG emissions for the same
period.
Table 4.14 summarises expected emissions until the year 2025. We see that without
any mitigation action, emissions per capita are expected to grow by 38% over the
period 2008-2025. With mitigation, there is an expected per capita reduction of 13%
for the same period.
Table 4.14: Summary of GHG emissions
Business as
Business as
Business as
Business as
Business as
Mitigation
usual scenario usual scenario usual scenario usual scenario usual scenario scenario
2008
2010
2015
2020
2025
2025
Total emission
CO2 eq (Gg)
5,584
6,625
9,146
14,179
10,825
6,778
517
542
611
667
724
724
10.80
12.22
14.97
21.26
14.95
9.36
Population
(x 1000)
Emissions per
capita
IPCC, a barrier is any obstacle that hinders an objective but that can be overcome
through policy changes, programmes or other means.
Table 4.15 Barriers for Energy sector
Barriers for Energy sector Description of barriers
Solutions
Lack of adequate financial
support
GoS demonstrates priorities by
setting targets for renewable energy
use in electricity production and
negotiates for these targets.
Make use of local knowledge base
(or experts) during negotiations. If
local knowledge base is lacking, hire
foreign consultants.
Banks and development
agencies do not offer soft
credit or support programmes
aimed specifically at energy
technologies.
Figure 4.16 shows that implementing all proposed mitigation options would result in a
very large decrease (38%) in overall GHG emissions by 2025 compared to the baseline
value. The periods 2012-2015 and 2017-2018, in which emissions in the mitigation
scenarios are higher than those of the baseline, correspond to the deforestation involved
with hydropower generation and biofuel projects. This would cause deterioration of
carbon sinks and result in a temporary increase of GHG emissions.
20000
Total baseline
18000
16000
Total mitigation
14000
12000
Gg CO2 eq
International investors often
require borrowing nations
to fulfil certain requirements
before being eligible for large
loans.
10000
38% reduction
8000
Legal and regulatory framework
Uncertainty with regard to tariffs for renewable energy.
6000
4000
2000
EBS is the nation’s only electricity provider. Mitigation
depends on the willingness
of EBS to accept other players
in the energy market. Energy
supply is subsidised, without
incentives for increasing efficiency or evaluation of energy
costs.
Pass or change legislation to support
the use of renewable energy sources.
GoS stimulates introduction of
biofuel into the energy mix of
Suriname by creating economic
incentive measures for the sale
of renewable energy to EBS and
by creating related feed-in tariff
and licensing arrangements for
renewable energy generation.
Renewable energy projects
often fail because of poor
maintenance.
Proper training programmes for maintenance workers as well as operators
conducted during the commissioning phase of the project, and yearly
refreshment trainings. Training costs
and maintenance costs should be
calculated in yearly budget.
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
0
YEAR
Figure 4.16: Compiled mitigation scenarios vs. compiled baseline scenarios
4.8 BARRIERS AND CORRESPONDING POLICIES
This section describes possible barriers to the mitigation measures described in sections 4.6 and 4.7 and proposes some means for dealing with these barriers. Per the
Poor maintenance and
operations.
At the national level:
Ministry of Natural Resources and
Energy (NH) encourages production
of electricity from renewable energy
sources, especially solar, wind, and
biomass, for following reasons:
- Reduction of fossil-fuel imports
- Reduction of air pollution
- Promotion of modern technologies
February 2013
123
Table 4.16 Barriers for Agriculture subsector
Solutions
Solutions
Slow adaptation rate.
It often takes time people to
accustom themselves to a
new system. The adaptation
problem often occurs during
the implementation phase of
the new technology.
Adequate support through (governmental) regulations and awareness
campaigns.
Lack of awareness and reluctance of farmers to adopt the
proposed measures.
Farmers are often hesitant to
adopt new measures, especially if they are not aware of
the possible disastrous effects
of climate change on their
crops.
An awareness programme focused
on the rice farmers. This programme
must be coordinated by ATM in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture.
Lack of data and capacity to
develop sustainable renewable energy projects.
The lack of data on various
aspects of renewable energy
sources and lack of technical
knowledge regarding the application of new systems often results in the slow implementation of these systems.
Encourage training of new professionals in this field through enrolment in technical and university
education that focuses on the use of
new technologies and research into
innovative alternatives.
Limited availability of knowhow for the implementation
of mitigation measures.
National research institutions
lack access to information, and
are not aware of technologies
that suit local conditions.
The National Rice Research Institution in collaboration with the AdeKUS
University of Suriname launches a
pilot project focused on the effects
of water drainage on crop development, rice yield and GHG emissions.
Lack of capacity to implement
the research activities.
There is not enough capacity available to engage in
substantial research on GHG
emissions and other climate-change factors.
Capacity building (train the trainers
programmes) on agriculture and
climate-change issues (mitigation,
adaptation) are conducted through
AdeKUS.
Complexity of planning and
implementation of public
transportation projects, which
require substantial land and
financial resources.
Impose a differential tax on vehicles
based on a qualification of vehicle
pollution.
Give preference to tenders for service
vehicles in government agencies to
fuel-efficient environment-friendly
vehicles.
Grant economic incentives for promoting alternative fuels.
Lacking or poor environmental regulations for industrial
companies with regard to
their waste streams
124
Since environmental regulations on waste reduction and
elimination are either lacking
or weak, industrial companies
are not required to reduce
their waste streams (e.g. CO2
emission)
Establish a group of experts
(lawyers, environment specialists and
energy experts) to formulate these
regulations for ratification by the
government.
Table 4.17 Barriers for Forestry subsector
Solutions
Lack of funding and technical
capacities.
Lack of funding and technical
capacities limit generation of
information required for planning and implementation of
forestry mitigation projects.
Capacity building for monitoring carbon stocks has only
recently been addressed.
Since local capacity is limited, attract
foreign expertise and support regional cooperation and evaluation of
forestry mitigation options.
Limited and irregular availability of wood chips at single
sawmills/wood processing
companies.
Smaller sawmills and wood
factories cannot provide continuous availability of large
amounts of wood chips,
limiting the feasibility of
generating electricity from
wood waste.
Logistical and infrastructural arrangements to support collection of wood
waste; electricity generation through
burning of wood waste concentrated at a limited number of electricity
generating units.
Solutions
Solutions
Fire risks (safety).
Sawmills and wood processing factories with a high risk
of fire. Extra attention should
be given to safety when
placing a combustion installation at such a location.
Safety policies should be in place to
prevent unsafe situations.
Unclear land tenure or use
rights for newly available land.
Reluctance of timber companies to re-use their wood
waste.
Wood waste is rarely seen as
a resource for other products,
and thus treated as waste and
burned or dumped in openair piles or burned. Awareness-raising on the benefits
of using wood waste as fuel is
needed.
Introduction of financial rewards
for using wood waste for electricity
generation, together with the introduction of financial penalties for
burning wood waste in the open
air. Such a penalty system will generate financial resources that can be
used for the reward system and to
promote and encourage the introduction of combustion installations,
or even provide subsidies to import
and/or install such installations.
Land-use rights should be clearly
defined and controlled. Who is permitted to use the resources from the
new mangrove forests and to what
extent is cutting trees permitted?
Who will be responsible for control
and how will control take place?
Also, financial incentives should be
created for increasing forest area, reducing deforestation and maintaining and managing forests.
Lack of financial resources for
mangrove afforestation.
Obstructed inflow of fresh water for mangrove afforestation.
Mangrove forests have a great
economic value for local
fishermen, since they provide
coastal protection and are
important fishing waters. It
is however unlikely that local
fishermen will be willing or
even able to invest in planting
mangrove forests for future
financial benefits. Additional
external financial resources
must be found.
Attract external financial sources.
For example, explore the potential
for a wetland NAMA, encompassing
management of all relevant national
wetland types.
Funding for readiness activities and
implementation of NAMAs for coastal ecosystem management could
be accessed through multilateral
and bilateral initiatives that provide
fast-start financing. Attract financing
from the Green Climate Fund.
Mangrove forests need fresh
water to survive and expand.
Diversion channels and/or outlets in
dikes should be constructed to improve the circulation of fresh water
along the coast. For other locations,
great attention should be given to
the possibilities for improved inflow
of fresh water.
Local fishermen might only
be interested in planting mangrove trees when land tenure
or use rights for the newly
available land are clearly defined, allowing them to profit
from their investments.
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Stichting Plan bureau Suriname, 1983. Suriname op weg naar een nationale energievoorziening.
Stichting Planbureau Suriname, 1988. Suriname Planatlas Yagi, K., Tsuruta, K.K,; Minami, K., 1996.
Automated Monitoring of Methane Emission from a Rice Paddy Field: The Effect of Water Management.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles 10: 255-267.
Tjien Fooh, R. 2012. Mitigation – Agriculture Sector. Second National Communication to the UNFCCC.
Final draft report, May 2012. Suriname.
UNFCCC, 1995. GHG Mitigation Assessment Guidebook (US Country Studies Program). Accessed at:
http://unfccc.int/resource/cd_roms/na1/mitigation/Resource_materials/Greenhouse_Gas_Mitigation_
Assessment_Guidebook_1995/chap01.pdf
UNFCCC, 2006. Consultative Group of Experts on National Communications from Parties not included
in Annex I to the Convention (CGE), 2006. Training Handbook on Mitigation Assessment for NonAnnex I Parties, 2006. Accessed at: http://unfccc.int/resource/cd_roms/na1/mitigation/Handbook/
MitigationHandbook_11May2006.pdf
Van der Hout, P., 2007. Interim Strategic Action Plan for the Forest Sector in Suriname 2008-2012. Fourth
and Final Draft for Discussion. SBB, Suriname.
5. Other Information
5 Other Information
Anton de Kom University main entrance | Hedwig – PLU – de la Fuente
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5.1INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides other information considered relevant to the achievement of
Convention objectives and implementation of recommendations. Within the context
of addressing climate change at the national level in Suriname, this report includes
information on activities that have been and currently are being implemented in the
country concerning the following63:
- steps taken to integrate climate change into relevant social, economic and
environmental policies;
- activities related to technology transfer;
- climate-change research and systematic observations;
- research into adapting to and mitigating climate change;
- information on education, training and public awareness;
- information on capacity building at the national, regional and local levels; and
- efforts to promote information sharing and networking.
Information regarding these topics has been obtained through desk research and
interviews. In this chapter, only projects and programmes of principal importance
related to the above topics are discussed.
5.2 STEPS TAKEN TO INTEGRATE CLIMATE CHANGE
5.2.1BACKGROUND
According to the vulnerability analyses conducted for both National Communications,
climate change will have serious impacts mainly on the coastal zone of Suriname and
the sectors present and active there. These impacts will affect coastal areas in which
most agricultural activities and over ninety per cent of the population are concentrated,
compromising the livelihoods of communities in this area and the food security of the
entire country. Flooding due to climate change may also occur in the interior of the
country.
63
UNFCCC, 2003. REPORTING ON CLIMATE CHANGE: User Manual for the Guidelines on National Communications From Non-Annex I Parties.
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Chapter 2 of this document, “National Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2008,” concludes that
Suriname is a net-sink country. As a Non-Annex I country, Suriname has no immediate
requirements with regards to reducing to GHG emissions. Therefore, climate-changerelated plans and actions in Suriname are focused primarily on adaptation and less so
on emissions reduction, since climate change and sea-level rise will initially negatively
affect wildlife habitats, agriculture, fisheries and vital socio-economic conditions such
as human health64.
5.2.2 NATIONAL POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL ORGANISATION
During the preparation of Suriname’s FNC, the environmental management structure
consisted of the following three entities:
- the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment (ATM),
responsible for the integration of environmental policy in the national development
policy;
- the National Council for the Environment (NMR, a government advisory body. Their
responsibility was to advise government officials on the preparation of reports and
the monitoring of environmental policy; and
- the National Institute for Environment and Development in Suriname (NIMOS), the
technical working arm of ATM.
At the end of 2004, a Climate-Change Steering Committee was appointed by the
ATM Minister to oversee and give advice on issues regarding climate change in
general and more specifically on the execution of project-related activities, with a
balanced representation from the key government ministries, academic institutions
and private-sector representatives. The Government Declaration for the period
2006-2011 emphasised that responsible management of environmental problems
requires an efficient and effective approach. In this declaration, the government of
Suriname (GoS) defined the overall goal of the national environmental policy as:
protection, conservation, improvement and rehabilitation of environmental quality.
During the period 2006-2011, the GoS has undertaken several initiatives and engaged
in plans and programmes to assess and respond toclimate-change adaptation
challenges. The main plans and programmes are discussed in the following sections.
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UNFCCC, August 22, 2008. Suriname National Capacity Self-Assessment-Thematic Assessment. Suriname.
5 Other Information
While progress has been made, particularly in biodiversity conservation, the GoS faces
challenges in the planning and management of sustainable natural resources and the
implementation of recommendations from international conventions and treaties65.
5.2.3 CURRENT SITUATION
After the elections in 2010, the structure of bodies involved with environmental issues
changed. The Climate-Change Steering Committee has been disbanded, but the ATM
still has the lead responsibility for the preparation and coordination of Environmental
policy in Suriname, with NIMOS as its technical working arm. The main tasks of the
ministry are the formulation of policies and legislative proposals and the coordination
and monitoring of both national environmental policy and international agreements.
ATM is thus responsible for the coordination of the activities of other ministries
regarding the use of natural resources, biodiversity conservation, health, and regional
development66.
Although the government’s development policy is based on an integrated approach
towards economic, social and environmental sustainability, an integrated climatechange policy is still missing. There are no laws that specifically address climate-change
issues and commitments to the UNFCCC. The institutional environmental framework is
currently unable to address implementation problems in an efficient way or to reduce
climate-change risk. For example, there are no laws or regulations that support the
protection of mangrove forests outside of established protected areas or to establish
protected forests; there is no zoning of coastal areas and there are few restrictions in
place on coastal development. Also, restrictions on resource use, such as dredging of
sand/shell ridges, are very limited and not well-enforced.
Other challenges in addressing climate-change issues are a lack of staff and knowledge
within specialised ministries67 and frequent political changes, which result in caseby-case decisions without inter-institutional articulation. Existing institutions and
agencies need to be strengthened and cooperation among them needs to be intensiUNDP, 2008-2011. Country Programme Document for the Republic of Suriname.
The Caribsave Partnership, 2012.Climate Change Risk Profile for Suriname.
67
Such as the Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and Forest Management Agriculture (with its foundation for Forest Management and Production Control
Agency (SBB), the Ministry of Natural Resources (ROGB, NH), the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries (LVV) and the ministry of Labour,
Technological Development and Environment (ATM).
fied and improved68.
Despite the above mentioned constraints within the institutional framework and
the lack of policies concerning climate change, Suriname aims to combat the effects
of climate change through its Development Plan (OP 2012-2016). In the OP, a clear
need for adaptation measures along Suriname’s low-lying coast is articulated, as well
as a need for a cross-sectorial Climate Compatible Development Strategy. The OP
also identifies the need to prioritise integrated management of the coastal zone. A
Climate Change Strategy , as well as a National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP)
are being prepared. Both focus on the expected impacts and vulnerabilities resulting
from climate change. The NCCAP stresses the importance of integrated coastal-zone
management and spatial planning.
The OP states that the GoS has the intention to reorient policy away from the traditional
towards a development-oriented and economic policy with greater focus on issues
such as poverty reduction, food security and safety; the protection of emerging
businesses and industries; and the effects of climate change.
As such, the development policy aims to achieve cooperation agreements with funding
organisations and investors for the implementation of projects and programmes and
identify educational, training and transfer of knowledge needs in order to be able to
ensure appropriate levels of expertise and technology.
Within the next five years, the GoS will focus its policy on increasing its capacities
for carrying out operational activities through training and education related
to the environment and development. Priority will also be given to conducting
environmentally pertinent research and studies. Activities related to research activities
and education and training are described in sections 4 and 5 of this chapter. In 2011,
the government established the Climate Compatible Development Agency to attract
climate change financing in general and carbon financing in particular.
65
66
68
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment, 2009. National Capacity Self-Assessment Report(NCSA). Suriname.
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At present, an Environmental Framework Act is being prepared. Among other
things, this Act will address regulation of pollution and waste management, require
companies to perform an environmental impact assessment and promote the use of
clean technologies. Legislation on reducing exhaust emissions is already in place. The
Environmental Framework Act has been prepared since 2001 but has still not been
approved. It is not possible to give a reliable time frame for its final approval, since it is
the subject of on-going political decision-making.
5.3 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND CAPACITY BUILDING
Technology transfer and capacity building play an important role in attempts to
mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts. The Inter-governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) defines technology transfer as:
“….a broad set of processes covering the flows of know-how, experience and equipment
for mitigating and adapting to climate change amongst different stakeholders such
as governments, private sector entities, financial institutions, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and research/education institutions…
… the broad and inclusive term “transfer” encompasses diffusion of technologies and
technology cooperation across and within countries. It covers technology transfer
processes between developed countries, developing countries, and countries with
economies in transition. It comprises the process of learning to understand, utilise and
replicate the technology, including the capacity to choose and adapt to local conditions
and integrate it with indigenous technologies69.”
Developing countries like Suriname can better address the global climate-change
challenge with the transfer of technology, including know-how, goods and services,
equipment and organisational and managerial procedures. Access to innovative
technologies is mostly possible through foreign financial mechanisms such as grants or
funds for technical feasibility studies or measuring equipment. The outcome of studies
and measurements can demonstrate the benefits of investing in environmentally
sound technologies.
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IPCC 2000. Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer.
130
The private sector—in Suriname, mining companies are an important component
of it—can play an important role in direct technology transfer, since ownership of
environmentally sound technologies generally lies within the private sector, rather
than within governmental or multilateral organisations.
Transfer of technology takes place with regard to the exploitation of the renewable
resources and the upgrading of the existing energy infrastructure, including that of
energy generation. Technology transfer plays a significant role in adaptation projects
such as mangrove reforestation, building climate-resilient infrastructure and the use
of innovative solutions for data management and early warning systems. In Suriname,
technology transfer has been incorporated into several adaptation and mitigation
projects and programmes, which tend to be focused on energy efficiency, renewable
energy, and emerging low-carbon and energy-generating technologies.
In the forestry sector the Reduced-Impact Logging (RIL) system is responsible for a
decrease in emissions from timber exploitation. Reduced-Impact Logging techniques
also lessen damage to trees in the residual stand and the amount of land disturbed by
machinery. The economic and ecological benefits of logged forests are greater where
RIL techniques are used.
In 2011, a GEF-based climate-change project called The Development of Renewable
Energy, Energy Efficiency and Electrification of Suriname was proposed and is
currently being implemented70. The main objective of this project is to promote the
use and development of Renewable Energy and Energy-efficient systems in Suriname.
This project will demonstrate the use of hydropower and solar technologies as an
option for the electrification of the hinterland. It will also assist with reducing energy
consumption and demonstrate energy-efficient practices in Suriname mainly through
the use of energy-efficient lighting and solar water heaters.
As the IPCC definition of technology transfer states, Suriname can play an active role
in climate-change issues when it has the capacity to understand, utilise and replicate
70
International Development Bank, 2012. Project Description: The Development of Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Electrification of Suriname. Accessed at: http://www.iadb.org/en/projects/project-description-title,1303.html?id=SU-G1001
5 Other Information
technology. Capacity building is therefore very important for successful technology
transfer. Capacity building generates competence, improves the effectiveness of the
institutions that work within the context of climate change and promotes an enabling
environment for implementing climate-change projects as well as other kinds. After
submitting its FNC to the UNFCCC, Suriname made efforts in building the capacities
necessary for addressing climate-change issues in both the public and the private
sector. Some of the more important of these capacity-building projects are described
briefly here.
In 2006, a Summer Research School71 was held as part of a larger EU-Star project. This
was a joint effort of research groups from Europe, Suriname and Japan to establish
a shared atmospheric observatory in Paramaribo. Some of the key topics discussed
during this capacity-building session were dynamic processes of the tropical
atmosphere, the atmospheric chemistry of the tropics and satellite observations of the
chemical composition of the tropical atmosphere. This summer school was intended
for advanced students interested in environmental science or related fields, as well
as researchers involved in tropical atmospheric research. A number of government
officials also attended the session.
Suriname focuses on increasing its knowledge of how to cope with threatening
situations along the coast. The “VLIR-OI Capacity Building Project” focuses on capacity
building at the Anton de Kom University of Suriname (AdeKUS) for conducting research
and teaching in engineering on technological and other aspects of coastal zone
management. Following disastrous flooding in 2006 and 2008, a project was executed by
the National Coordination Centre For Disaster Management (NCCR) to install five waterlevel measurement devices in the Tapanahony River basin as part of the establishment
of an Early Flood Warning System in Suriname72. One of the objectives of this project is
to enhance the capacity of the communities to understand and respond appropriately
to climatic event warnings. All of the water-level reading devices are installed in the
Verver, G.H.I. et al, 2005. Project Description: STAR – An EU Program for Support of Tropical Atmospheric Research. Geophysical Research Abstracts, vol. 7,
08537. Accessed at: http://meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/08537/EGU05-J-08537.pdf
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UNDP, 2009. Description of Early Flood Warning System available at: http://undpsuriname.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=7%3Aundp-tables&id=47%3Aearly-flood-warning-system&Itemid=19
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Upper Suriname and Tapanahony area. Daily readings of water levels of these areas are
gathered by AdeKUS and NCCR and are available to the public at the Meteorological
Services website. Staff from NCCR, AdeKUS and other institutions are trained in the use
of this system and interpretation of the data.
In 2008 the project “Capacity Development for Clean Development Mechanism”
(CD4CDM) was implemented in Suriname. It is an initiative funded by the Netherlands
Government and implemented by UNEP RISOE CENTRE (URC) in Denmark. The
collaboration of ATM and UNEP RISOE contributed to awareness raising and
capacity building with regards to Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM). Various
workshops, capacity-building sessions and information events for ministries, institutes,
organisations and the private sector were organised, and information brochures, an
investor’s guide, a CDM portfolio and a CDM website were developed. The Designated
National Authority (DNA) was also established within the ATM. In order to evaluate
the submitted Project Idea Notes (PINs), the DNA was assisted by a CDM Commission
consisting of representatives of key ministries. After a change in government, this
commission was disbanded.
Currently the ATM is carrying out a project called “Capacity building in and
Mainstreaming of Sustainable Land Management in Suriname” in order to achieve
sustainable land management. An important part of this project is to provide a
Geographic Information System and land-use training to ministries and other
organisations that are involved in land management in Suriname. The aim of the
project is to provide these key stakeholders with some insight into methods for proper
storage and efficient management of data.
Since Suriname can be categorised as a HFLD country, the REDD+ mechanism is likely
to create promising opportunities for the country’s forests. REDD+ focuses on retaining
sequestered carbon in forests. The GoS has begun several projects and activities
to enhance awareness and capacity building on this topic. Although Suriname has
not finalised its Readiness Preparation Proposal for REDD+, it is actively involved in
the programme and advocates the notions of compensation for conserving forests,
increasing carbon stock and applying sustainable forest management strategies.
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REDD+
The Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) initiative
is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives to reduce the emissions of
greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation, with “co-benefits” such as
biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. REDD+ supports activities that enable
CO2 reductions caused by deforestation and forest degradation. It also aims to strengthen and expand the role of forests as carbon pools by conservation of forests, the sustainable management of forests and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
Box 5.1 Description of REDD+
Other activities that the Ministry of ATM conducts are yearly environmental days. On
these theme-based days (World Environment Day, International Day for Biodiversity,
etc.), awareness activities are carried out. Every year since 2009, the ATM, in
collaboration with the UNDP, has organised a walk in which a particular environmental
theme is promoted. The NIMOS and other NGOs also organise activities in the style of
environmental days.
The UNFCCC encourages Non-Annex I parties to submit their priority technology needs
assessments for mitigation and adaptation. Although Suriname has not yet conducted
this assessment, it would be highly advisable to do so, since such an assessment
would provide decision-makers with vital information on necessary technologies for
mitigating GHG emissions.
5.4 SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION AND RESEARCH/STUDIES
TO ADAPT TO AND MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE
Recent and future changes in climate in Suriname have been explored using a
combination of observations and climate model projections, mostly conducted by
AdeKUS. This information can provide Suriname with some very useful indications as
to what we might expect regionally in terms of climate behaviour, in relation to a
generally warmer global climate.
5.4.1 SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The Meteorological Service of Suriname (MDS) is part of the Ministry of Public Works
and the leading governmental authority in providing the nation with climate-based
data derived from systematic, accurate monitoring and data collection and analysis.
The Service maintains and manages all meteorological data for the country and is
responsible for all weather forecasts and meteorological data for Suriname.
The MDS keeps records on temperature and rainfall going back to the year 1900.
Currently, the service has a network of about sixty posts, down from 180 posts of the
early 1980s. At present, observations are made at twenty-one stations, five synoptic
stations, eleven climate stations and two automatic stations (NIMOS, 2005). The
observed data are published and key climate data are sent to World Meteorological
Organisation Centres as part of the global network. Data are also exchanged with the
Regional Organisation for South America, of which Suriname is a member.
Currently, MDS cooperates on a modest scale with institutes such as Suriname’s own
AdeKUS, The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI Netherlands), and the
University of Bremen, the Alfred Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven, and the University of
Heidelberg, all in Germany.
Most of the meteorological stations do not have records going back further than
thirty years. This data gap is due in part to the civil war (1986-1992), which caused
the closure of all stations in the hinterland for that entire period. Climate data from
suitable stations are used to make climate projections on temperature and rainfall. This
information is used to conduct vulnerability assessments in areas such as Agriculture,
the Coastal Zone, Fisheries, Health and Water Resources, as well as to design adaptation
strategies73.
Most MDS instrumentation is obsolete and in urgent need of calibration or replacement.
At present, most of the staff consists of government representatives who are
approaching retirement age. Therefore there will soon be a need to recruit new staff.
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The Caribsave Partnership, 2012.
5 Other Information
The greatest obstacle to improvement in the MDS is a lack of funds, but also, other
more urgent political priorities lower that of systematic climatic observation. Thus, the
maintenance and monitoring of MDS systematic observing systems have suffered.
Although the requirement to provide meteorological services and data has been
accepted in certain international conventions and ratified by Suriname, such service
is as yet not being delivered on the national level. The enactment of the Law on
Meteorological Service is therefore necessary. This Law has been prepared for nearly
ten years, but has not yet been enacted.
An expansion of the MDS organisation and its physical points of operation and
must take place, given global climate-change developments and the changing
environmental factors in Suriname. The result of such an expansion would be better
monitoring and guidance in terms of climate and weather events. Sectors such as
agriculture and aviation, which depend on weather data would be better provided
with much-need qualitative and quantitative data.
In March of 2011, Suriname participated in the Caribbean Regional test of a tsunami
early warning system, demonstrating the country’s awareness of the high vulnerability
of its coastal zone. The test highlighted the need to prepare and to improve
communication, evacuation plans and the role of the private sector in the event of
such an emergency74.
5.4.2 CLIMATE-CHANGE RESEARCH AND STUDIES
Suriname has considerable cause for concern, as the threats posed to the development
prospects of the country by a changing climate are severe (IPCC, 2007). The entire
Caribbean region is currently dealing with climatic variability and extreme events, and
is projected to be confronted with considerable impacts associated with a changing
climate. In the past years several research activities have been conducted, most of
them in collaboration with universities from the Caribbean. The knowledge gained
from these research activities can assist decision makers in the public and private
sectors in understanding the predicted changes in climate and their physical and
socioeconomic effects in the Caribbean region.
Currently Suriname is participating in a research project called Climate Modelling, and
Impact and Economic Modelling Implementation Plan (2011-2021)75. This Caribbean
Climate Modelling Initiative is being conducted with the participation of several
universities and institutions from the Caribbean. Some expected main outputs and
benefits of this project are: increased technical, human and physical capacity; increased
resilience to climate change; strengthened basis for adaptation and mitigation support
and sustainable socio-economic development.
As part of the Caribbean Climate Modelling Initiative, a modelling project called “Future
Change of the Climate in Suriname” is currently being conducted by the Department
of Infrastructure at AdeKUS. The project is derived from the PRECIS regional climate
modelling system (phase 2). The main objective of this project is to model climate
change in Suriname using PRECIS76 for the period 1979-1983 and 1961-2100 under the
SRES A1, A2, B1 and B2 conditions.
In 2009, AdeKUS began a project called “Management of Water Resources in NorthWest Suriname under Climate-Change Conditions (2009-2011/2013)” in collaboration
with Waternet-Nederlands. This project aims to develop water resources management
strategies for sufficient drinking water supply in urban and rural areas and irrigation
water supply in the agricultural areas in the Nickerie district by 2050. All necessary data
have been collected and the next step is to analyse and prepare modelling strategies.
In January 2010, AdeKUS, in collaboration with the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
(Belgium) started a mangrove planting project designed to help protect the coast of
Suriname. The project is called “Enhancing Resilience of the Coastline through Removing
Stress, Rehabilitation and Mangrove Planting.” Its main objective is to protect and
strengthen the coastline through the planting of mangrove plants, initially on the bare
mud bank/mudflat found in the Coronie district at Moy. A later phase will see planting
in the Wanica district at Weg naar Zee. This project will demonstrate the technical
feasibility of afforestation of the mud banks/mudflats with the species Avicennia
germinans L. The University of Suriname is responsible for the execution of the project.
It is still underway, and so far progress can be considered positive.
Caribbean Regional Research Diagnostic, 2012. Information available from the Caribbean Climate Development Network at: http://cdkn.org/wp-content/
uploads/2010/12/Caribbean-Research-Diagnostic-FINAL.pdf
Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies: a regional climate modelling system.
75
Information about the Caribbean Regional Tsunami exercise can be found at a variety of websites such as that of UNESCO at: http://www.unesco.org/new/
en/media-services/single-view/news/caribbean_test_highlights_need_to_improve_tsunami_warning_system/
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Since 2010, a project called “Support for Improving Disaster Risk Management for
Climate-Resilient Development” has been underway through the NCCR. The aim is
to design development strategies that are more resilient to climate-related disasters,
especially floods; more specifically to reduce the loss of life and lessen socio-economic
losses from climate-related events in Suriname77.
Suriname is highly vulnerable to climate- induced sea-level rise, due to its extensive
low-lying coast, where the vast majority of the population lives. The GoS has therefore
undertaken studies focusing on the promotion of sustainable livelihoods in the coastal
zone and carried out several studies containing measures to mitigate climate change,
as well as measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to it. Various institutions have
been involved in conducting and implementing these studies.
One such study, in 1996, was the programme Netherlands Climate Assistance
Programme (NCAP). Phase I was implemented is Suriname, with the assistance of the
Dutch ministry of foreign affairs. The objective of Phase I (NCAP I) of the programme
was to determine and map the vulnerability of Groot-Paramaribo. The 2nd phase
(NCAP II) began in 2005 and was based on the results of NCAP I and Suriname’s FNC.
The aim of this phase was to develop methods and capacities for improving resilience
to the effects of climate change. It also focused on raising climate-change awareness,
increasing the involvement of policymakers, scientists and the general public in
climate-change-related activities and the developing legislation and regulation. The
main outcome of the project is a set of detailed recommendations and suggestions
that can be integrated into a climate-change strategy and action plan for Paramaribo
and Wanica78.
Suriname’s FNC has identified the low-lying coastal zone as a priority area within
which a number of sectors are at risk from sea-level rise. These are: water resources,
ecosystems ecosystems and geomorphology, agriculture, socio-economic elements
and human health79. Many of the adaptation and mitigation measures recommended
in the FNC relate to the vulnerability this coastal zone. The impact of rising global sea
Inter-American Development Bank, 2010. Information about the project can be found at: http://www.iadb.org/mobile/projects/project.cfm?id=SU-T1054&lang=en
Information about the programme can be found at: http://www.nlcap.net/fileadmin/NCAP/Countries/Suriname/NCAP_workplan_Suriname_summary.01.300106.pdf
79
Republic of Suriname First National Communication to the UNFCCC, 2005.
levels is a growing element of uncertainty in coastal zone management. Rising sea
levels will significantly impact all human populations and economic activities on the
coastal plain80.
In addition, a draft National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP, 2008) was developed
in order to create a framework for better guidance, coordination and implementation
of adaptation and mitigation measures. Its aim is also to establish synergies between
other environment-related development programmes. The NCCAP considerations
concern coastal areas and river banks, water resources, health, agriculture, energy,
education and awareness, capacity development, scientific research and financing of
adaptation and mitigation measures.
Suriname’s FNC lists several adaptation and mitigation measures for various sectors.
However, due to insufficiencies, both qualitative and quantitative, in the knowledge
base, the country cannot fully act on these recommendations. In order to identify
its needs, Suriname conducted a National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA) in 2009.
Among other things, the NCSA has served to increase people’s awareness of climate
change and the issue’s links to other on-going sectorial programmes. The NCSA Report
was guided by three conventions, the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD), the
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD).The NCSA report highlights the need for the rehabilitation,
conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources. In addition,
a Capacity Development Action Plan (CDAP) was formulated but has not yet been
implemented.
The Case Study on the Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Housing on
Indigenous Communities in Suriname was conducted in 2009 by the UNDP. Its aim
was to increase awareness of the impacts of the 2006 floods on men and women
in selected indigenous communities and, more specifically, to assess how agriculture
and housing were affected81.
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IADB, 2007. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan, Plan of Operations.
UNDP, 2009. Case Study on the Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Housing on Indigenous Communities in Suriname. Available at: http://www.
bb.undp.org/uploads/file/pdfs/crisis/GTTF%20documents/SURINAME%20CASE%20STUDY.pdf
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5 Other Information
In order to maintain the environmental and ecological integrity of its coastal zone, the
GoS has decided to integrate the results of all previous work into the Integrated Coastal
Zone Management Plan (ICZM). This Plan will help the GoS move ahead to achieve
sustainable development of the coastal zone in a coordinated way. The ICZM consists
of a coordinated approach to manage on-going and planned economic activities for
the coastal zone, and promotes sustainable use and conservation of natural resources.
In 2011, the ATM, in collaboration with the UNDP, conducted consultation sessions
for the formulation of an Ecosystem Based Adaptation Project. This project has been
budgeted for USD8 million and has been submitted to the Special Climate-Change
Fund of the GEF. The overall goal of the project is to enhance Suriname’s capacity to
mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change. It will attempt to incorporate
ecosystem-based adaptation approaches into the country’s climate-change risk
management strategies, with a specific focus on reducing the impacts of coastal
flooding, erosion and saltwater intrusion on the sustainable development and wellbeing of Suriname’s population.
5.5 INFORMATION ON EDUCATION, TRAINING AND PUBLIC
AWARENESS
The vast majority of the population living and working in the coastal zone of
Suriname is not fully aware of the possible effects of climate change, including sealevel rise. This was confirmed by a survey that was conducted in 2003 to determine
the environmental awareness of school-aged children (Van der Kooye, 2003). One
of the outcomes of this survey was that youngsters between the age of 16 and 30
were unaware of international environmental treaties and had no idea of the national
institutions involved in environmental management. The survey can be seen as a first
step that needs to be elaborated upon via further study on efficient and effective
awareness raising.
companies, have developed successful awareness campaigns for maintaining a clean
environment and conducted activities associated with waste collection. Unfortunately,
there is no system in place to record and monitor the outcome of these activities. One
reason for this is the cost and time involved in sustaining campaigns.
5.5.1 EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES
The most promising group to start with in terms of awareness and education on
environmental issues are young people between the age of 6 and 18. If imparted to
these children, information on climate change and its risks will quickly be transferred
to adults. In this way, basic knowledge about threats and proper response can help
improve community-level resilience.
One means of education is that the Ministry of Education and ATM/NIMOS develop
curricula including educational demonstration projects that include the dissemination
of environmental information. Youngsters learn to work collectively on an environmental
awareness projects for school. Such initiatives, have already been undertaken at various
primary schools in Paramaribo and the districts. Issues that can be considered for such
school projects are awareness of waste management, biodiversity, climate change, and
pesticides. To successfully develop such an initiative, it is recommended that training
courses be provided for teachers and schools be encouraged with a yearly award for
the best project.
In 2010, the GLOBE Program was reactivated in Suriname through the Ministry of
Education. The GLOBE Program is an international hands-on, primary and secondary
school-based science and education programme with 111 member countries.
Suriname joined in 1997, but had not been active since 1999. Box 5.2 below explains
more about the GLOBE Program.
After submission of Suriname’s FNC to the UNFCCC, several public awareness and
capacity-building activities related to climate change have been conducted in Suriname.
In recent years many government organisations NGO’s and other institutions have
become involved in education and public awareness on issues regarding climate
change. For instance several environmental NGOs, in collaboration with large
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GLOBE Program
Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) is a hands-on
international environmental science and education program. GLOBE links students,
teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about our
environment through student data collection and observation.
The goals of GLOBE are:
1. to improve student achievement across the curriculum with a focus on student
research in environmental and Earth system science;
2. to enhance awareness and support activities of individuals throughout the
world for the benefit of the environment;
3. to contribute to scientific understanding of Earth as a system; and
4. to connect and inspire the next generation of global scientists.
Students from the ages of approximately five through eighteen years in schools
throughout the world conduct a continuing programme of scientifically meaningful
environmental measurements
Box 5.2 The GLOBE Program
5.5.2 UNIVERSITY STUDIES AND COURSES
The understanding and management of the impacts of climate change in Suriname
require academically trained scientists and engineers, and advanced research capacity.
AdeKUS, in collaboration with the Flemish universities of Flanders (Belgium), has
developed a two-year Master of Science programme in Sustainable Management
of Natural Resources (SMNR). This programme has helped strengthen the research
capacity (standards of research, knowledge, skills, equipment) at AdeKUS in the areas
of sustainable land and water management, renewable energy resources, mineral
resources, biodiversity, sustainable forestry, sustainable agriculture and natural
products82.
provide them with interdisciplinary understanding.
5.5.3 PUBLIC AWARENESS
After completing the FNC, the National Institute for Environment and Development in
Suriname (NIMOS) implemented an awareness plan for three months. The objective
of the “Climate Change Awareness Programme” was to increase the public awareness
(especially schools and the media)on global climate change and its impact on
Suriname. A media campaign was set up for implementing the programme, and the
campaign concluded with a climate change exhibition.
To promote awareness on climate change, several conferences have been organised.
In 2007 a Water conference was held in Paramaribo with the aim of sharing information
on the “Water and the Future Development of Suriname.” In 2009 a National Conference
on Climate was held in Paramaribo. The objective of this conference was to increase the
awareness of citizens on climate-change issues. Presentations covered topics such as
climate modelling, coastal zone management, REDD and vulnerability and adaptation
assessments of the coastal zone with respect to agriculture, health, water resources,
socio-economics, ecology and geomorphology.
5.6 INFORMATION AND NETWORKING
Suriname participates in several international climate-change initiatives and in
organisations whose aim is to enhance knowledge on climate change and to take
action on issues related to it.
Suriname participates in the Peace Corps Energy and Climate Partnership of the
Americas (ECPA) initiative, with the aim of increasing the awareness and knowledge of
municipalities, schools and communities of the issue of climate change and supporting
community-led projects, including adaptation projects. The Peace Corps Suriname’s
ECPA initiative focuses on energy, poverty and climate-change efforts83.
Within the SMNR, three courses regarding climate change are provided. These courses
are “Water resources management,” “Climatology and Hydrology,” and “Geohydrology
and modelling.” Aside from educating students in these areas, the course aims to
The U.S. State Department supports this programme, and it is run jointly by Peace
Corps volunteers and the Anton de Kom University of Suriname.
R. Nurmohamed, et al, 2008.Course Description: “Master Education and Research Program on Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in Suriname,”
AdeKUS.
83
82
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More information on ECPA can be found at: http://www.ecpamericas.org/initiatives/default.aspx?id=25
5 Other Information
Suriname is a member of the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC),
and for a period of three years beginning in 2012 serves on the organisation’s Board of
Directors. In April 2012, Suriname signed an agreement with the CCCCC to participate
in the Global Climate-Change Alliance (GCCA) Caribbean Support Project. With a
duration of forty-two months, this project aims at strengthening capacities within the
CARIFORUM countries through the implementation of pilot projects, capacity-building
seminars and workshops. The project activities can be divided into six technical
components, namely: capacity building in the use of climate models, improving
climate monitoring and data collection, assistance in the implementation of a pilot
Risk Assessment project, assisting in the implementation of a pilot adaptation project
and building of regional and national capacities in the areas of carbon financing and
project Management.
In May 2012, Suriname signed a Memory of Understanding (MOU) with Austria for
cooperation in the field of sustainable forest management, renewable energy and
environmental sciences focused mainly on waste, water and climate change. The
objective of this MOU is to establish a framework for cooperation with regards to the
establishment of the SURINAME-AUSTRIA Rural Development and Climate Change
Partnership (RUDECCP).
5.7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Suriname is vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change, due in particular to
its low-lying coastal zone. The GHG inventories completed for the country’s FNC and
SNC show that its contributions to GHG emissions are relatively low, primarily because
of the small size of the industry sector. Yet sea-level rise may inundate large parts of the
coastal zone, which would be a major catastrophe for the country. Suriname’s highest
concern, therefore, is the vulnerability of this zone.
In this context, Suriname has put in place several measures and strategies to deal
with the adverse effects of extreme climatic events. Both the country’s Development
Plan and its cross-sectorial Climate Compatible Development Strategy express a clear
need for adaptation measures for the coastal zone. Yet, although the government’s
development policy is based on an integrated approach towards economic, social and
environmental sustainability, an integrated climate-change policy is still missing, and
there is also a lack of cooperation among the various stakeholders.
In order to mitigate and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change, this report
recommends the following:
- Approve the Environmental Framework Act;
- incorporate climate-change adaptation measures into long-term planning and
development programmes;
- improve the institutional framework by establishing a coordinating body;
- raise critical consciousness of the government and other key stakeholders with
regards to climate change and vulnerability through awareness- and capacitybuilding campaigns;
- invest government time and resources in establishing a strategic awareness
programme in order to avoid disjointed, ad-hoc awareness campaigns;
- conduct a technology-needs assessment, that will among other things provide
information on the technology the country needs to mitigate GHG emissions and
move forward with climate-change adaptation measures;
- allocate more government funds for research and development of appropriate
climate-change technology; and
- improve the overall organisation of the MDS and upgrade its equipment.
As required by the UNFCCC, Suriname must take climate-change considerations into
account to the extent feasible, incorporating them into the country’s relevant social,
economic and environmental policies and actions, and implementing appropriate
methods, projects and/or measures for mitigating the effects of and adapting to
climate change.
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5 Other Information
5.8REFERENCES
Caribbean Regional Research Diagnostic, 2012. Information available from the Caribbean
Climate Development Network at: http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/CaribbeanResearch-Diagnostic-FINAL.pdf
IPCC 2000. Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer.
Inter-American Development Bank, 2010. Information about the project can be found at:
http://www.iadb.org/mobile/projects/project.cfm?id=SU-T1054&lang=en
International Development Bank, 2012. Project Description: The Development of
Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Electrification of Suriname. Accessed at: http://www.
iadb.org/en/projects/project-description-title,1303.html?id=SU-G1001
IADB, 2007. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan, Plan of Operations.
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment, 2009. National
Capacity Self-Assessment Report (NCSA). Suriname.
Nurmohamed, R. et al, 2008. Course Description: “Master Education and Research Program
on Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in Suriname,” AdeKUS.
Republic of Suriname First National Communication to the UNFCCC, 2005.
The Caribsave Partnership, 2012. Climate Change Risk Profile for Suriname.
UNDP, 2008-2011. Country Programme Document for the Republic of Suriname.
UNDP, 2008-2011. Country Programme Document for the Republic of Suriname.
UNDP, 2009. Description of Early Flood Warning System available at: http://undpsuriname.
org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=7%3Aundp-tables&id=47%3Aearlyflood-warning-system&Itemid=19
UNDP, 2009. Case Study on the Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Housing on
Indigenous Communities in Suriname. Available at: http://www.bb.undp.org/uploads/file/
pdfs/crisis/GTTF%20documents/SURINAME%20CASE%20STUDY.pdf
UNFCCC, 2003. REPORTING ON CLIMATE CHANGE: User Manual for the Guidelines on National
Communications From Non-Annex I Parties.
UNFCCC, August 22, 2008. Suriname National Capacity Self-Assessment-Thematic
Assessment. Suriname.
Verver, G.H.I. et al, 2005. Project Description: STAR – An EU Program for Support of Tropical
Atmospheric Research. Geophysical Research Abstracts, vol. 7, 08537. Accessed at: http://
meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/08537/EGU05-J-08537.pdf
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6. Gaps And Constraints
6 Gaps And Constraints
Presentation of certificates for the Long range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP) Public Relations Department, Ministry of ATM
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6.1INTRODUCTION
Suriname faced a number of challenges during the preparation of its FNC. Some of
these challenges have been dealt with, while others remain. The inability to resolve
these challenges may be because NCs are considered a project-based activity rather
than an on-going process. A number of recommendations from the FNC have been
integrated into the country’s Development Plans. However, implementation of them
needs to be more aggressive. Implementation of such measures depends on political
will and availability of funding from donor agencies.
The launch of this SNC project was delayed. Although the project document was
signed in July 2009, the project manager was not contracted until May 2010, and
the consultants did not actually begin working until after the inception workshop
in November 2010. Indeed, most of the work of the GHG consultants did not get
underway until the outset of 2011. Due to government administrative procedures,
there have also been delays in contracting and obtaining official signatures during the
first phase of the SNC project. Training of government staff and the Project Manager in
UNDP procedures has contributed to the improvement of the administrative process.
Most current delays stem from late submissions and approvals of necessary reports.
Some hurdles remain, but it should be recognised that NC preparation is an on-going
process in which financial, institutional and capacity challenges, as well as other
problems, may arise.
6.2 FINANCIAL, TECHNICAL AND CAPACITY NEEDS; GAPS
AND CONSTRAINTS
6.2.1 SELF-REFLECTION ON PROGRESS AND GAPS
Since the submission of Suriname’s FNC in 2005, some progress has been made in
addressing the gaps and constraints related to financing, technology and capacities.
Improvements have been made at the policy level, in the upgrading of the legislative
and institutional framework, in the analysis of scientific data and in the areas of
education, capacity building and awareness. A concise overview of the progress made
between the FNC and the SNC appears as an introduction to the needs listed later in
this chapter.
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Policy Framework
The FNC was the first effort of the Republic of Suriname to report on climate change to
the UNFCCC. Specific policies on climate change were drafted after the FNC, and in the
Development Plan 2012-2016, climate change has received higher priority. A special
agency, the Climate Compatible Development Agency (CCDA), was established in
2011 under the Office of the President with specific climate-change tasks, including
developing carbon credit to diversify the economy, generating income from natural
capital, increasing economic resilience to climate change and participating in the
green economy. The CCDA functions as Suriname’s national focal point before the
UNFCCC.
Institutional Framework
In 1998, the National Institute for Environment and Development (NIMOS) was
established with the statutory responsibilities of:
- preparing and implementing national environmental legislation in the broadest
sense;
- preparing and implementing regulations on environmental protection; and
- coordinating and monitoring compliance.
At that time, NIMOS operated as the executive agency of the National Environmental
Board. The FNC was finalised by NIMOS in cooperation with two climate-change
experts. Currently, NIMOS is incorporated within the structure of the ATM.
The ATM itself was established in 2002 (S.B. No. 2002.16) and was ascribed the
following responsibilities related to the management and conservation of the natural
environment:
a.
to coordinate the preparation of environmental policies and monitor their im
plementation, in cooperation with the relevant ministries, organisations and
institutions in the private sector;
b.
to promote—in cooperation with other relevant ministries, organisations and
institutions—the establishment of national environmental legislation;
c.
to develop cooperation mechanisms and networks (partnerships) for the
completion of national and international environmental tasks in an efficient
and effective manner;
d.
to identify, prepare and implement educational, training and other programmes
to strengthen environmental institutions and organisations;
e.
to promote the implementation of conventions on the environment that the
Surinamese government has signed and ratified, adapting them to local circumstances;
f.
to collaborate with other ministries, organisations and institutions in the con
trol of businesses and other entities with regards to the use of environmental
ly sensitive materials and technologies, in order to maintain compliance with
environmental legislation;
g.
to involve the community at large in activities aimed at effectively countering
pollution;
h.
to encourage the use of environmentally friendly technologies; and
i.
to promote and maintain contacts with relevant national and international
organisations.
In 2011, a new body within the Office of the President, the Climate Compatible
Development Agency (CCDA), joined other entities dealing with the environment and
climate change. The coordinating tasks of the CCDA sometimes overlap the climaterelated efforts of ATM and NIMOS, and this can sometimes create tension between these
entities. During the interviews and the reviewing of the draft version of this document,
a need was expressed for more clarity with regards to the roles, responsibilities and
mandates of NIMOS, ATM and the CCDA, in order to prevent any counterproductive
duplication. A clear division of tasks and responsibilities at the macro, medium and
micro levels among these bodies is desirable, but it would have to be preceded by an
in-depth institutional assessment.
Legislative Framework
A law creating a framework for dealing with environmental issues has been drafted
and revised several times, and it is currently awaiting enactment. An environmental law
will facilitate the collection of certain data (such as amounts of waste produced) from
institutions and corporations. Current statistics laws were not designed to provide a
mandate for requiring technical climate-change data from the private or other sectors.
Institutionalising the monitoring of climate change requires an inter-institutional
approach. Although most technical institutions operate on a sector-specific level,
collaboration between them has been improved, especially regarding REDD+ efforts.
Existing legislation for the sectors that are influenced by climate change has not been
significantly changed since the FNC. This legislation includes the Nature Protection Act
(GB 1954 no. 20, amended by SB 1992 no. 80), the Fish Protection Law (GB 1961 no. 44),
the Law on Forest Management (SB 1992 no. 80), the Bigi Pan MUMA Ministerial Order
(1987 no. 4423/0880), the Noord Coronie MUMA Ministerial Order (SB. 2002 no. 87), the
Noord Saramacca MUMA Ministerial Order (SB. 2002 no. 88), the Noord Commewijne/
Marowijne MUMA Ministerial Order (SB. 2002 no. 94), and the Ministerial Order on
Guidelines for Land Allocation in Estuarine Management Areas (SB. 2005 no. 16).
Scientific Analysis
The most notable gap mentioned in the FNC is the availability of data and scientific
analysis on topics such as topography, erosion, sedimentation rates, biodiversity,
forestry, energy use, meteorology and the socio-economy of groups, especially
those in rural areas. The data-gathering process was hampered by the absence of
technology and/or manpower to operate remote public-sector measuring stations.
In most cases, the scientific technology for observation was not available. The FNC’s
scientific analysis of the specific sectors—human health, energy and transportation,
forestry, agriculture—was limited because topic-specific studies were not available.
Although there has been no significant improvement in the availability of data since
the FNC, this SNC does indeed provide a higher level of analysis of the impacts of
climate change on the human populations and on the selection of mitigation options.
It also provides a deeper overall analysis of characteristics of the interior of Suriname.
This improvement is the result of capacity building on the part of scientists since the
FNC. The majority of the lead experts and some of the sub-consultants involved in this
SNC were also involved in the FNC. Processes of collecting, analysing and presenting
data have been executed with greater rigour for the SNC as a result of the
experience gained during the FNC process. For this SNC however, consultants were
either not able to obtain GHG inventory data in the format required (with the use
of standard forms), the data were not accurate when cross-referenced among
different institutions, or data were simply not available for requested time periods.
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Both the FNC and the SNC mention little about current and projected patterns of
human adaptation to climate change. Such an analysis requires a higher level of detail
of socio-economic data which was not readily available at the time of the preparation
of this SNC.
and awareness campaigns were undertaken using the local media. Smaller campaigns
were held by local and international NGOs. Limited funds prevent a larger campaign
across the country, one that might reach communities in the interior of Suriname,
where special attention is required due to differences in language and world-views.
Education, Training and Awareness
A lack of education and training on the topic of climate change was evident from
the FNC. During and shortly after the launch of the FNC process, some awareness
and education activities were undertaken. A documentary film was developed and
disseminated, while at the same time a climate-change information kit and hand-outs
were distributed to schools. For the purpose of reaching larger audiences, the media
were also instructed on how to communicate on climate-change developments.
On a generic level, basic needs can be categorised as they are in Table 6.1.
In 2009, the ATM conducted a national capacity self-assessment on climate change
which concluded that there is a need for improving research, technical, management
and social/cultural skills across institutions in civil society and government. During the
preparation of this SNC, training sessions were conducted on the Long-range Energy
Alternatives Planning System (LEAP). Participants in these sessions came from the
public sector, foundations, businesses and as individual consultants.
Currently, due to the inclusion of the issue of climate change at the undergraduate level
of studies in Environmental Science at the Anton de Kom University, as well as graduatelevel studies in Urban Planning and Sustainable Natural Resource Management at
the Institute for Graduate Research and Studies (IGRS), students and educators are
becoming more sensitive to topics related to climate change. In addition, occasional
training sessions for lecturers, researchers and students are being held at AdeKUS. Two
doctoral-level experts in climate change hydrology and waste management have
been added to the nationwide body of experts, which previously consisted of two
people, since the drafting of the FNC. Yet the pool of experts is obviously still too small
to create multi-disciplinary teams who are able to dedicate their time to long-term
research efforts.
Raising the awareness of the general public was addressed as a priority need in the
FNC. Between the FNC and this SNC, the lead on this issue was taken by the ATM
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Table 6.1 Categorisation of common needs
Resources
Need
Human
Climate experts with in-depth knowledge on climate change
Technical
Modern, reliable technology to assess and monitor components of climate change
Financial
Financing for capacity-building activities and scientific observation and data collection
technology across the country
Other
Awareness within the public, private and NGO sectors of the urgent need for GHG data
and other climate-change indicators;
A stronger inter-sectorial approach and synergies among subsectors vulnerable to
climate change (e.g. through research groups)
Remaining sector-related gaps and constraints are discussed in the following sections.
The choice of sectors treated here is based on those that were discussed in the GHG
inventory, mitigation and adaptation chapters.
6.2.2 CONSTRAINTS WITHIN THE ENERGY SECTOR
The main issue with regard to the GHG assessment was data availability, and this was
true for the Energy sector. Some delay in data collection was experienced due to a lack
of readily available information necessary for the GHG inventory. Those who work in
organisations that would be likely sources of the data needed do not recognise the
necessity of generating, gathering or submitting data; it is not considered part of their
core business. In addition, people, primarily in the private sector, need to be convinced
that the data will not be used for purposes other than the GHG inventory. The ATM
therefore provided SNC consultants who were soliciting data with letters of support to
show to the people working in organisations that are data sources.
In general, emissions of each greenhouse gas are calculated by multiplying fuel
consumption by the corresponding emission factor. The type of data to be collected
would thus only be concerned with fuel consumption in the source category. The
tier method, as described in the 2006 IPCC guidelines, was applied. The focus, when
questioning the sources, was therefore primarily on their quantities of fuel consumption.
During the data-gathering phase, it was noticed that the majority of the respondents
have poor filing systems and did not feel the need to look for the solicited data, due
to their lack of awareness of the importance of such information. This caused delays.
Moreover, the data received were not always complete. Not all the fuel types used
were mentioned, for example, and this also led to delays. Another problem was the
inconsistency in the data provided; which came out when cross-checking the data
against those from other sources. For example, figures from the Bureau of Statistics
and the Central Bank differ on the importation of fuel. Another example of data
inconsistency is the amount of fuel used to produce gold. Two sources were consulted
on this, and they gave two different numbers. Another problem is that data were not
available for the requested time period.
The first constraint in terms of adaptation within the energy sector is the lack of data on
the new and proposed mega-projects for power generation, such as the Nassau largescale gold mining project. This prevents experts from making an accurate projection
on energy use involved, and subsequently to come up with a comprehensive plan
for adaptation. A potential barrier is the lack of available, new, energy-efficient
technologies that will contribute to the reduction of energy consumption. These
technologies should be user-friendly and will potentially reduce total energy costs
for the country. Another barrier is the granting of land tenure and rights to the tribal
communities, who currently use more than 40% of the country’s land area. Only by
securing these rights can the energy sector proceed with plans of expansion to the
hinterland, and area long inhabited by nature-dependent communities.
6.2.3 CONSTRAINTS WITHIN THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR
The national GHG inventory with regards to Agriculture was calculated using some
rough estimates on fertilizer data, with a lack of activity data and an absence of
country specific emission factors. Therefore, Suriname needs to develop the capacity
to institutionalise the gathering of data in order to realistically calculate GHG emissions,
so that estimating may be avoided in the future. The Statistics Department of the
Ministry of Agriculture should include the Tier 1 and Tier 2 methods of data collection
in its annual statistics report. This will improve the reliability of the activity data, and
thus the precision of emissions calculations.
Barriers with respect to adaptation in the agriculture sector tend to focus on problems
associated with changing production systems, such as choosing new breeds/varieties
of crops, introducing climate protective structures, using alternative kinds of energy
and using environmentally friendly, biological pesticides. Introducing such ideas is
particularly difficult in a sector based on traditional knowledge transfer. The transition
process to new production systems should be accompanied by extensive research
by academia and sufficient funds to provide incentives and promote real behavioural
change.
6.2.4 CONSTRAINTS WITHIN THE FORESTRY SECTOR
A major constraint in data gathering is that Suriname lacks a national data base for land
management. Land-use data is collected and presented by the various institutions
responsible for monitoring specific land-use categories.
The 2006 IPCC software for data entry and calculation of GHG emissions was used rather
than other available options, due to the lack of available parameters. One problem was
the difficulty encountered in entering data for the category Wetland. Even though
the emissions of wetlands are not counted in the inventory, data for this category is
required in order to total up the land area of Suriname. It is also necessary to include
the land area of wetlands in the Land Matrix. In the category Grassland the team opted
to use the Tier 1 method, but the software programme seems to be programmed for
higher tiers. Thus, data handling of the final results became problematic.
In terms of adaptation in Forestry, the process was hampered by the lack of detail in the
data available for land-use analysis and projections. Research results on potential dieoff of the forest in the interior are unavailable. To evaluate the risk of climate change
on these forests, human resources accompanied by the appropriate technology is
needed to gather data in nearly inaccessible forest areas.
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By so doing, the necessary information could be obtained for forest modelling, in
addition to satellite imaginary and radar analysis. An important note is that data should
be available over longer periods of time for analysis and monitoring purposes, in order
to establish proactive policies that are based on solid data.
6.3 FROM FNC TO SNC: THE PROCESS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
IMPROVEMENT
The SNC preparation process began at the end of 2010. Start-up was somewhat slow,
with some delays experienced by the project manager in the recruitment and selection
of the SNC team. The project was guided by the ATM in their capacity as the point
of contact with the UNFCCC. The Ministry hired a project manager to guide a total
of fifteen local consultants in their efforts to create the GHG inventory (five people),
the mitigation assessment (five people), the vulnerability assessment for adaptation
(seven people), and other issues (three people). As can be seen, some consultants
worked on more than one part of the SNC.
Each of these three studies was guided by a team leader, two of whom had also
participated in the FNC process. The decision was made to rely on expertise available
within the country. The output of the national consultants was peer reviewed by an
international expert. The selected sub-consultants all had their expertise within their
field and obtained more specific climate-change-related skills during the process.
The VA and GHG team leaders work full-time in the area of climate change. All other
consultants have another field of expertise, and these overlap with the theme of climate
change. As a result, valuable tools and techniques gained during the SNC process may
be lost if these consultants are not involved in other climate-change related activities
in Suriname. It is important for the process of monitoring climate change to have an
established core group that works continuously on the mitigation and adaptation
aspects of climate change in the country. Knowledge about climate change, which is
dynamic, can then be updated and integrated regularly into the process. Such a core
group is especially important for the scientific decision-making process, especially the
choice of methods, such as the creation of scenarios, and assumptions in the studies.
This needs to be aligned with the direction given in national policy documents.
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Although each team of consultants was assigned the preparation of a specific
segment of the SNC, communication and information sharing was required between
teams. Results from the GHG inventory, for example, were needed for the mitigation
assessment. Hence, difficulties experienced by the GHG team in data gathering from
the stakeholders also resulted in a delay for the Mitigation Analysis team. Several data
revisions and subsequent re-analyses of mitigation options were carried out to ensure
accuracy and consistency throughout the report. An improvement would be to have
the majority of the consultants work on both the inventory and mitigation analysis
teams. In this way, problems could be communicated across teams, improving the
synergy between consultants in their quest for finding solutions.
Another improvement for the consultants would be to have a process in which they are
able to provide technical information based on a vision for climate change produced by
the government. Because there are overlapping areas of interest among the different
studies, the process would benefit from better coordination between team members.
In this way, the outcome would be the result of discussion that includes input from a
multidisciplinary expert team.
As stated previously data collection for preparation of this SNC was difficult. As Suriname
upgrades its climate-change related activities and pertinent communication among
entities within the country, it is imperative to institutionalise the related processes. This
includes having full-time personnel who are engaged in data collection, operating
under a mandate to request data from institutions and corporations. Such a mandate
can be only temporarily and partially obtained through the statistics law (Law on
Statistics; SB 2002 no. 97). The environmental framework law that would be more
helpful remains tied up in the legislative process. The SNC process would benefit from
requesting data on a yearly basis, in order to avoid having a data gap of several years
at the time preparation of the country’s next NC begins. Organisations need to be
sensitised to the need of making data available, not only for the purpose of national
reports, but also as valuable input for the formulation and implementation of national
policies on sustainable development and the environment.
Reflecting on the process of compiling this SNC, the recommendations for improvement
are:
- a long-term vision on climate change from the government, as it relates to scientific
decision-making;
- finalisation of the GHG inventory, or at least having it in an advanced stage of
development, by the time mitigation activities for the NC begin. This will minimise
re-workings of the various chapter of the report;
- better synergies between the teams associated with the GHG inventory, the
mitigation assessment and the vulnerability assessment;
- establishment of clear structures to enable multidisciplinary decision-making,
including the rules of decision-making, the authority of consultants, and the
handling of potential conflict situations;
- full utilisation of scarce human resources by allocating experts to climate-changerelated activities for the long term, beyond NC preparation, in all sector-specific
areas;
- creation of legal and technical infrastructures for effective and efficient collection,
assessment, monitoring and evaluation of climate-change-related indicators
between reports; and
- creation of research groups with dedicated budgets for thematic and specific indepth analyses of climate-change-related data.
6.4 PARAGRAPH 50: CONTRIBUTIONS FOR SNC ACTIVITIES
The funds received through UNDP/GEF facility (USD 405,000) were used to prepare
the SNC. The ATM contributed by allocating personnel and materials for coordinating
and facilitating activities. No additional resources were received from multilateral
institutions or Annex II parties that were earmarked as contributions for the preparation
the SNC.
6.5 PARAGRAPH 51: CONTRIBUTIONS FOR
CLIMATE-CHANGE-RELATED ACTIVITIES
For activities related to climate change between the publication of the FNC and this
SNC, various initiatives were funded. An overview of the main climate-change-related
activities that were funded during those years is listed in table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Overview of main climate-change-related activities
Donor – period
Short Project Description
UNDP – 2006-2008
Various studies on the impact of the 2006 en 2008 flooding and establishment
of an early flood warning system for the Upper Suriname and Tapanahony Rivers. Promoting of resilience and sustaining livelihood of disaster-affected communities: action plan, hazard mapping and early recovery strategic framework.
UNDP/GEF – 2009
National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA). Aimed at identifying priority issues
for action within the thematic areas of biodiversity, climate change and desertification/land degradation. Find synergies across the thematic areas and catalyse
targeted and coordinated actions and requests for external assistance. Finally,
link country actions to protect the global environment to the broader national
environmental management and sustainable development framework.
IDB 2010
Support for Improving Integrated Disaster Risk Management for Climate-resilient Development.
GEF/UNDP 2011
Coastal Protected Area Management project to promote the conservation of
biodiversity along Suriname’s western coast
Dutch Government
Dutch Climate Change Assistance Program 2, Promotion of Sustainable livelihood in the coastal zone of Suriname with emphasis on greater Paramaribo and
the immediate region.
GEF-2008 -2012
(LDC/SIDS Portfolio)
Capacity Building in and Mainstreaming of Sustainable Land Management in
Suriname
CD4CDM project
2008-2009
Capacity Building for Clean Development Mechanism
ACP/EUForestry
Research Network
2010-2012 (first
phase)
Climate change and local communities: Impact of climate change on the
practices and livelihoods of local people. Analysis of adaptive capacity of local
peoples’ livelihoods in Suriname and Guyana.
IDB 2008/2009
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZM) and legislation
Projects funded and executed between the FNC and this SNC established part of
the necessary basis for making Suriname more aware of and ready to combat the
challenges that come with climate change. It is in many ways too early to clearly define
the impact of many of these projects.
February 2013
145
Lead consultants for the SNC, project managers and key resource persons within
funding organisations all agreed, however, on the very great challenges facing
Suriname considering the country’s limited technical, financial and human resources.
On an individual level, the local pool of senior experts was strengthened and somewhat
empowered. This pool of experts is not nearly large enough to cover effectively all
aspects of coping with climate change.
On the institutional and systemic levels, the most basic and urgent needs are:
- creation of data and information networks and the initiation of continuous
dialogue among the public sector, NGOs and the private sector;
- capacity building in the areas of project-development, monitoring and evaluation
skills, in order to draw effectively on available funding for climate-change-related
areas and subsectors;
- raising of awareness within and among the most vulnerable groups in the coastal
zones and in the interior;
- research on the most viable adaptation scenarios, given the unique challenges
Suriname faces with regard to land-tenure and illegal activities on private and
government-owned property;
- financing for construction of protective mechanisms and other technologies
needed for adaptation to climate change; and
- updating and adoption of legislation and the availability of resources to effectively
monitor compliance to laws and regulations.
6.6 PROPOSED PROJECTS FOR FINANCING
6.6.1 PARAGRAPH 52: PROPOSED FINANCING PROJECTS
The following climate-change-related projects were recently proposed for financing.
REDD+ Readiness Preparation Proposal
The Climate Compatible Development Agency (CCDA) will be finalising the REDD+
Readiness Preparation Proposal under the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility of
the World Bank in the first quarter of 2013. In this project, the focus will be on the
participation of stakeholders, in particular the involvement of indigenous and Maroon
communities that are dependent on the forest for their livelihoods. There is also interest
to submit project proposals to the UNFCCC adaptation fund.
146
The UNDP Small Grants Program (SGP)
The UNDP has initiated a small grants programme designed for communities to obtain
funds for adaptation to protect or restore the environment while creating sustainable
livelihoods. SGP finances projects on biodiversity, persistent organic pollutants,
climate, international waters and land. This environmental project will be active from
2011-2016 and is primarily funded by the Australian Government as a way to support
small island developing states in the Caribbean region. The project invites requests
from community-based organisations on adaptation, especially energy supply and
biodiversity protection, with a maximum of USD50,000 with an equal contribution
from the community itself or from a third party. One out of two projected pilot projects
is now being prepared for wetland and mangrove forest protection in Johanna
Margaretha in the district of Commewijne.
Fishing and tourism are livelihood strategies that need to be incorporated into the
adaptation process. The major constraint is the limited support from technical
institutions in the preparation phase and the lack of capacity of communities to write
up project proposals. To avoid insufficient use of funds, as was experienced with the
implementation of the development programme in Suriname, the UNDP will also
provide opportunities to strengthen capacities via training in project proposal-writing,
in collaboration with World Wildlife Fund.
Ecosystem-based Adaptation Project (EBA) ATM/UNDP
The ATM and the UNDP have compiled a project on ecosystem-based adaptation to
submit to the Special Climate-Change Fund. The objective of the project is to incorporate
ecosystem-based adaptation approaches into the country’s climate-change risk
management system, with a specific focus on reducing the impacts of coastal flooding,
erosion and saltwater intrusion on the sustainable development and well-being of
Suriname’s population. The strategy of the project to achieve this objective is to build
on baseline investments in coastal protection through additional investment in the
restoration and protection of ecosystems whose services enhance the resilience of the
coastal zone to climate-change impacts, through the regulation of water flows and
the prevention of floods, erosion and saltwater intrusion. In doing so, the project will
introduce the EBA as a new component in the country’s approach to climate-change
adaptation, thereby strengthening recognition of the importance of natural ecosystems
for climate-change risk management, as well as maintenance of socio-economic
benefits and conservation of biodiversity. The project will develop and implement
field-based activities to preserve and enhance ecosystem services provided by
mangrove forests and wetlands, including building on and up-scaling the results
of an existing Pilot Mangrove Afforestation Project. The project also will undertake
activities to implement landscape level planning in selected areas of the coastal
zone; to mainstream EBA approaches into national development policies, laws, and
institutional functions; and to strengthen the capacities and knowledge required for
effective and participatory EBA approaches.
framework for cooperation with regard to the establishment of the Suriname-Austrian
rural Development and Climate-Change Partnership (RUDECCP). The framework
for cooperation will be based on various projects of the RUDECCP, upon which an
understanding will be reached between Suriname and Austria. The areas of cooperation
mentioned in the MOU are the elaboration of:
- sustainable forest management;
- renewable energy and low-carbon strategies; and
- environmental technologies with regard to waste and waste water treatments as
well as incineration.
The project will be executed in the coastal ecosystems of Weg naar Zee, Coronie and
Commewijne by active afforestation initiatives, regulation of water resources and
vulnerability assessments of communities. The project is planned to be implemented
in 2012-2018, with a budget of USD 5 million.
Worth mentioning is that cooperation has already started with the establishment of a
forest inventory process for Suriname.
The output of the project will provide a baseline for designing a strategic risk
management system. Begun in 2011, the project is expected to be completed in 2013,
and is an integral part of the IADB’s country strategy for Suriname. No specific projects
on climate change are expected for the future, since the IADB defines climate change
as a cross-cutting issue to be included in all environmental projects.
CDM
In 2008, the Capacity Development for Clean Development Mechanism (CD4CDM)
project was implemented with the assistance of UNEP RISOE, with the aim of building
capacities within Suriname with regards to the CDM. A permanent CDM commission,
consisting of the ATM and NIMOS is responsible for evaluating project proposals in light
of national policies and sustainable development criteria for CDM, while NIMOS guides
the project initiators in assessing feasibility and environmental and social impacts.
Until now, three project identification notes (PINs) have been approved by the CDM
Commission. These are: 1) electricity generation through gasification of rice husk, 2)
ethanol production from sugar cane as a substitution for fossil fuel for the transport
sector, and 3) combined heat-power generation from bagasse. The major constraint in
advancing the CDM initiative is the lack of awareness about it and the lack of capacities
for writing the project proposal. The project proposal requires a significant financial
investment for assessing technical feasibility. Lack of interest by the private sector may
also be due to the heretofore small scale of projects in Suriname, which in the end may
yield a profit too small to be worthwhile on the global carbon credit market.
Suriname-Austrian Rural Development and Climate-Change Partnership
(RUDECCP)
A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was established between the governments
of Suriname and Austria in May 2012. The main objective of the MOU is to establish a
Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA) Caribbean Support Project The CCCCC project
aims to deepen dialogue, cooperation and enhance support on climate change
between the European and poor developing countries, in particular LDCs and SIDs.
To improve climate monitoring and data retrieval in Suriname, the placement and
Support for improving integrated disaster risk management for climate
resilient development
The Inter-American Development Bank initiated a project by this name with the
National Coordination Centre for Disaster Management (NCCR). This project aims to
provide technical cooperation in the efforts of:
- assessing the presence of risk indicators for disaster preparedness;
- designing an early flood warning system in areas in the interior of Suriname; and
- incorporating local governance into disaster risk management.
February 2013
147
installation of eight hydrology stations and six meteorological stations is planned for
2012. A second activity aims to enhance the predictive powers of regional climate
models and the region’s ability to design and implement cost-effective adaptation
activities. This includes climate modelling and risk analysis, and the results will be
incorporated into the National Climate Action Plan(NKAP). Other planned activities are:
- training of national experts from AdeKUS in the application of regional climate
models;
- assistance in the collection and management of climate data;
- assistance in conducting sector-specific vulnerability studies that are expected to
provide information for the national Climate Action Plan; and
- assistance for a national risk analysis on climate change.
It is expected that the project will contribute to an increased capacity for modelling
climate-change phenomena for Suriname, especially sea-level rise. In addition, the
project will contribute to assessment of vulnerability of sectors, and the establishment
of a national early warning system. It also envisions results in better coordination and
management of data related to climate change.
6.6.2 PARAGRAPH 53: ADAPTATION MEASURES – OPPORTUNITIES AND
BARRIERS
Improved coordination between government organisations, NGOs and the private
sector are necessary to adapt successfully to climate change. In particular, the
government should take the lead in designing cross-sectorial systems to ensure climate
observation, ecosystem management, water management and risk and disaster
management. The GoS should also start a process of integrated land-use planning.
The continuation of efforts in designation of protected areas, the management of
land allocation and the proper management of MUMAs and mangrove-rich areas are
important measures for safeguarding the coast.
Other measures that are needed for successful adaptation are: awareness raising
on efficient use of freshwater resources, initiation of incentives for renewable
energy programmes, changing standards in the transport and construction sector,
establishment of an insurance fund to compensate for disasters and strengthen disaster
risk management, and improvement of the medical infrastructure for monitoring
148
disease outbreaks. Such activities will not be successful without a nationwide
awareness and education process.
With support of the UNDP and the Suriname Conservation Foundation (SCF), AdeKUS
has initiated the planting of mangroves to protect the coast of the district of Coronie
against erosion. The pilot project focuses on researching mangrove planting and
growing methodologies, as part of the larger scale observation of the coastline
erosion process. The project has the potential to expand to a multi-disciplinary
model for managing coastal erosion and natural adaptation against sea-level rise. The
project would benefit from additional expertise on aspects of agriculture, biodiversity
and climate observation. The project has high importance. It is a quick, inexpensive
adaptation measure for coastal protection, and it has the potential to be replicated in
the Guyana Shield region. A follow-up project is proposed with the Ecosystem Based
Adaptation project discussed earlier.
Another important adaptation project to undertake is the assessing of alternative
crops and breeds for the agricultural sector. Given the projected salt intrusion into
rice cultivation areas and the high sensitivity of bananas and livestock to global
warming, it is essential to begin researching and selecting new crops and breeds that
are less susceptible to climate change. Introducing new crops and breeds can only be
successful in the presence of a fully equipped agricultural extension service consisting
of sufficient human resources and infrastructure. From such a service, research results
are then transferred to farmers, so that changes can be initiated at the field level.
6.7
COUNTRY-SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGY AND
CAPACITY-BUILDING NEEDS; ASSISTANCE RECEIVED
6.7.1 PARAGRAPH 54: TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
The Suriname National Capacity Self-Assessment provides an overview of the needs
for capacity building and technology for a system of climate-change monitoring and
management. The current overview of needs is based on this SNC, including the three
technical studies (GHG inventory, MA and VA), and meetings with the consultants.
A more in-depth assessment should be conducted in the future (see Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 Technology needs according to theme
Theme
Country-specific technology needs
Constraint
Coastal zone
management
-
Equipment for sea-level-rise measurement
Analysis of sea currents and streams
Construction of sea protection and mud
bank nourishment techniques
Establishment of a system for water and
sediment monitoring at sea
Instrumentation and skilled manpower not available. Funds unavailable for construction of sea protection
Establishment of a network of remote
meteorology stations in Suriname (total
180)
Climate-change modelling
Funds for the purchase and installation of technology not available.
Scarce human resources to maintain a large network of stations
Development of new building codes for
houses and roads
Construction of dykes and other protection structures
Limited technical expertise available. Funds for the construction of
dykes limited
Limited instrumentation and
skilled manpower available Funds
for construction unavailable
-
Establishment of a system for water-level
and sediment monitoring in rivers
Improve wastewater and drainage structure
Construction of artificial reservoirs
Agricultural
production
-
Introduction of new production systems
Limited technical expertise available and finances for the purchase
of new systems and transfer of
technology limited
Renewable
energy
- Introduction of renewable energy
sources as opposed to fossil fuels in
households and industry
Limited technical expertise available. Funds for the purchase and
installation of technology limited
Forest
management
-
Funds for cross-country inventories and baseline studies limited
Limited technical expertise and
demonstration activities available
-
-
-
Climate
observation
-
-
Urban
infrastructure
-
-
Water
management
-
-
-
-
Technology for obtaining species data for
ecosystem management
Technology for modelling and prioritising areas of importance
Technology transfer for sustainable practices in forest management, including
carbon stocks and Payment for Ecosystems
An important aspect to consider is that Suriname can only cope with climate change
when there is an installed countrywide system of monitoring and management.
Because more than 80% of the country consists of virtually inaccessible forest, it is
mandatory to work side by side with the communities who make the forest their home.
This means that they should be trained in conducting assessments and obtaining
data for research and monitoring. Forest communities can also play a vital role in the
maintenance of equipment. Several organisations have experience in involving local
communities in research, especially AdeKUS, the MDS and conservation NGO’s such
as WWF, Conservation International, Tropenbos and the Amazon Conservation Team.
6.7.2 PARAGRAPH 55: OTHER RELEVANT NEEDS AND AREAS FOR CAPACITY
BUILDING
Data-collection and Analysis. The General Bureau For Statistics (ABS) has collected and
published biennial environmental statistical information since 2002; this activity is now
funded by Conservation International. The main needs experienced by ABS are:
- solid data, without them, estimates must be used (UNDP, OLADE);
- full time people employed for environmental statistics within ABS; and
- an amendment to current law that would require parties to submit data. An
amendment to the Statistics law was requested by the General Bureau of Statistics
(ABS) more than two years ago. This request still has to be processed by legislative
authorities.
The latest environmental publication from ABS is from 2010 and includes data on
climate (rainfall, relative humidity, and wind velocities), biodiversity, energy, waste
and demographics. The bureau initiated the establishment of an inter-disciplinary
steering committee to accelerate the process of creating a permanent “data collection
mind-set.” A representative of ABS participates in a UN workgroup on environmental
statistics. This enables Suriname to actively participate in policy-making and be up to
date with the latest developments within this area.
The needs with regard to data collection are in the allocation of resources for:
- creating a specialised environmental statistics unit within ABS;
- prioritising an update on the legal framework that enables the unit to demand
specific data from various sectors;
February 2013
149
-
-
developing standards for data formats;
increasing awareness within the private sector of the need to comply and submit
required info.
Research Needs and Curriculum Addition, Environmental Sciences, AdeKUS
The Environmental Sciences department of the Faculty of Technology of the university
acknowledges the need to identify areas critically vulnerable to climate change.
Through the establishment of baseline studies and the continuous monitoring of
critical measurements, changes can be effectively determined. A linkage with the
university is possible through research on the following areas, among others:
1.
research-driven education, for example bio-organic chemistry;
2.
reconstructive techniques;
3.
measurement of the increase or decrease in vulnerability or extreme changes
due to human interference or climate change;
4.
the monitoring of microorganisms that thrive in rising temperatures and
damp conditions;
5.
identification of disease-causing pathogens that will increase due to climate
change;
6.
early warning systems;
7.
quantification, sorting and determination of scales of ecosystem services
(ecological economic assessment); and
8.
determination of missing links in time periods.
Curriculum additions to the faculty of Environmental Services that would be highly
welcomed are courses in the fields of marine biology and marine environment.
150
6.8REFERENCES
Law on Statistics 2002 SB 2002 no. 97. Suriname.
McGann J. 2011. Work Plan support to the Global Climate-Change Alliance (GCCA Caribbean Project July
2011-December 2012.)
Apapoe I, 2012. Final report on Mitigation and Socio-economic Development. Technical Document
UNFCCC,” Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment.
Naipal, S., 2012. Report on Vulnerability and Adaptation. Ministry of Labour, Technological Development
Amatali, M.A, 2012. Technical Paper Present Profile-Water Resources. Ministry of Labour, Technological
Development and Environment. Suriname.
AusAID/GEF/SGP/UNDP,2012. Community-based Adaptation Project, Country Programme Strategy,
Suriname 2011-2016.
Bhairo S, et al, 2008. Report on the National Capacity Self-Assessment in Relation to the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCBD). Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and
Bhairo S, et al, 2009. Rapid Assessment of Existing Financial Mechanisms for Sustainable Forest
Management in Suriname.
Development Plan Suriname 2012 -2016.
Narain J., 2012. Final Draft Report Mitigation Assessment – Energy Sector. Ministry of Labour,
Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Nijbroek, R., Meaney, S., 2011. Assessment of the Socio-Economic Profile of the Republic of Suriname.
Ministry Of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Noordam, D. 2011. “Project-Enabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National
Communication to the UNFCCC, – Ecology and Geomorphology.” Ministry of Labour, Technological
Orie L., 2012. Final Report on the GHG Inventory – Agriculture. Ministry of Labour, Technological
De Wolf R, et al, 2009. National Capacity Self-Assessment. Capacity Development Action Plan.
Playfair M. 2012. Final Report on the GHG Inventory – Forestry. Ministry of Labour, Technological
Development and Environment. Suriname
De Wolf R, 2012. Final Draft Report Mitigation Assessment-Forest Sector. Technical Document “ProjectEnabling Activities for the Preparation of Suriname’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC,”
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Tjien Fooh R., 2012. Final Draft Report Mitigation Agriculture. Ministry of Labour, Technological
First National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, 2005. Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment. Suriname.
Tjien Fooh, R. 2012. Vulnerability and Adaptation of the Agriculture Sector in Suriname. Ministry of
Foundation for Energy and Sustainable development of Suriname, 2011. Start
to the reporting of energy indicators for sustainable development of Suriname. vol. 6.
United Nations Development Framework. Suriname 2012-2016.
Huisden, M. 2012. Future Health Profile and Adaptations. Ministry of Labour, Technological Development
IADB, 2010. Support for the Sustainable Development of the Interior (SSDI). Land Use, Tenure and Rights
of Indigenous and Maroon Communities in the Interior of Suriname. Amazon Conservation Team.
UNFCCC, 2002. Reporting on Climate Change: User Manual for the Guidelines on National
Communications from Non-Annex 1 Parties.
Van Kijck, 2012. Work Plan for the Climate Compatible Development Agency in Suriname. Aiden
environment/World Wildlife Fund.
IADB Country Strategy with Suriname 2011-2015
Jharap R. 2012. Report on the GHG Inventory for the Energy Sector. Ministry of Labour, Technological
Kuijk van M. 2012. Work Plan for the Climate Compatible Development Agency in Suriname.
Commissioned by WWF, project number 2278.
February 2013
151
Appendix I
APPENDIX I CH. 2: EMISSIONS 2008 (IN Gg CO2 EQUIVALENTS)
Emissions CO2 equivalent
(Gg)
Categories
CO2
(Gg)
CH4
N2O
Total
30.66 6365.75
Categories
TOTAL
5677.94
657.16
1 - Energy
3788.15
3.36
7.48
3798.99
3788.15
3.36
7.48
3798.99
120.54
0.12
0.28
120.94
120.54
0.12
0.28
120.94
2912.47
2.83
6.75
2922.05
1.A.2.c - Chemicals
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
1.A.2.e - Food Processing, Beverages and Tobacco
3.01
NE
0.01
3.02
1248.63
1.21
2.88
1252.72
209.28
0.21
0.50
209.99
0.03
NE
NE
0.03
1451.52
1.41
3.36
1456.28
622.46
0.01
0.20
622.67
13.93
NE
0.12
14.05
2.A.4.d - Other (please specify) (3)
13.93
NE
0.12
14.05
3 - Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use
598.49
NE
NE
598.49
598.49
NE
NE
598.49
598.49
NE
NE
598.49
5.02
NE
NE
5.02
1.A - Fuel Combustion Activities
1.A.1.a - Main Activity Electricity and Heat Production
1.A.1.a.i - Electricity Generation
1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries and Construction
1.A.2.f - Non-Metallic Minerals
1.A.2.i - Mining (excluding fuels) and Quarrying
1.A.2.k - Construction
1.A.2.m - Non-specified Industry
1.A.3 - Transport
1.A.3.a - Civil Aviation
1.A.3.a.ii - Domestic Aviation
1.A.3.b - Road Transport
1.A.3.b.i - Cars
1.A.3.b.i.2 - Passenger cars without 3-way catalysts
1.A.3.d - Water Transport
152
TOTAL
CO2
CH4
N2O
Total
5677.94
657.16
30.66
6365.75
5.02
NE
NE
5.02
5.02
0.01
0.08
5.10
5.02
0.01
0.08
5.10
132.68
0.40
0.25
133.33
1.A.4.b - Residential
37.99
0.08
0.02
38.09
1.A.4.c - Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing/Fish Farms
94.69
0.32
0.23
95.24
1.A.4.c.i - Stationary
19.12
0.06
0.05
19.23
1.A.4.c.ii - Off-road Vehicles and Other Machinery
10.07
0.03
0.02
10.13
1.A.4.c.iii - Fishing (mobile combustion)
65.50
0.22
0.16
65.88
53.20
NE
NE
53.20
53.20
NE
NE
53.20
53.20
NE
NE
53.20
53.20
NE
NE
53.20
1836.59
653.80
23.18
2513.57
NE
89.33
NE
89.33
NE
71.89
NE
71.89
NE
67.91
NE
67.91
NE
33.34
NE
33.34
1.A.3.d.ii - Domestic Water Transport
1.A.3.e - Other Transport
1.A.3.e.ii - Off-road
2 - Industrial Processes and Product Use
2.A - Mineral Industry
2.A.4 - Other Process Uses of Carbonates
3.A - Livestock
3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation
3.A.1.a - Cattle
3.A.1.a.i - Dairy Cows
Appendix I
(Gg)
Categories
TOTAL
CO2
CH4
N2O
(Gg)
Total
Categories
TOTAL
5677.94
657.16
30.66
6365.75
NE
34.57
NE
34.57
3.A.1.b - Buffalo
NE
0.81
NE
0.81
3.A.1.c - Sheep
NE
1.38
NE
1.38
3.A.1.d - Goats
NE
0.70
NE
0.70
3.B.3.a - Grassland Remaining Grassland
3.A.1.f - Horses
NE
0.07
NE
0.07
3.B.3.b - Land Converted to Grassland
3.A.1.h - Swine
NE
1.02
NE
1.02
NE
17.43
NE
17.43
NE
15.94
NE
15.94
3.B.6.a - Other Land Remaining Other Land
3.A.2.a.i - Dairy cows
NE
15.20
NE
15.20
3.B.6.b - Land Converted to Other Land
3.A.2.a.ii - Other cattle
NE
0.74
NE
0.74
3.A.2.b - Buffalo
NE
0.03
NE
0.03
3.A.2.c - Sheep
NE
0.06
NE
0.06
3.A.2.d - Goats
NE
0.04
NE
0.04
3.A.2.e - Camels
NE
NE
NE
NE
3.A.2.f - Horses
NE
0.01
NE
0.01
3.A.2.h - Swine
NE
1.36
NE
1.36
1827.05
NE
NE
1827.05
5.79
NE
NE
5.79
3.A.1.a.ii - Other Cattle
3.A.2 - Manure Management (1)
3.A.2.a - Cattle
3.B - Land
3.B.2 - Cropland
CO2
CH4
N2O
Total
5677.94
657.16
30.66
6365.75
5.79
NE
NE
5.79
5.79
NE
NE
5.79
81.05
NE
NE
81.05
77.39
NE
NE
77.39
3.66
NE
NE
3.66
3.66
NE
NE
3.66
1740.20
NE
NE
1740.20
NE
NE
NE
NE
1740.20
NE
NE
1740.20
1740.20
NE
NE
1740.20
9.54
564.47
23.18
597.19
NE
89.94
4.01
93.94
3.C.1.b - Biomass Burning on Croplands
NE
89.07
4.01
93.08
3.C.1.c - Biomass Burning on Grasslands
NE
0.87
NE
0.87
3.C.2 - Liming
0.95
NE
NE
0.95
3.C.3 - Urea Application
8.59
NE
NE
8.59
3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from Managed Soils (3)
NE
NE
18.66
18.66
3.C.5 - Indirect N2O Emissions from Managed Soils
NE
NE
0.51
0.51
3.B.2.b - Land Converted to Cropland
3.B.2.b.i - Forest Land Converted to Cropland
3.B.3 - Grassland
3.B.3.b.ii - Cropland Converted to Grassland
3.B.6 - Other Land
3.B.6.b.i - Forest Land Converted to Other Land
3.C - Aggregate Sources and Non-CO2 Emissions
Sources on Land (2)
3.C.1 - Emissions from Biomass Burning
February 2013
153
Appendix I
APPENDIX I CH. 2: EMISSIONS 2008 (IN Gg CO2 EQUIVALENTS)
Emissions CO2 equivalent (Gg)
Categories
TOTAL
CH4
CO2
N2O
Total
5677.94
657.16
30.66
6365.75
3.C.7 - Rice Cultivation
NE
474.53
NE
474.53
3.D - Other
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
CO2
CH4
N2O
Memo Items (3)
NE
NE
NE
NE
International Bunkers
NE
NE
NE
NE
101.22
NE
NE
101.22
0.01
NE
NE
0.01
NE
NE
NE
NE
Information Items
NE
NE
NE
NE
CO2 from Biomass Combustion for Energy Production
NE
NE
NE
NE
-1004.03
NE
NE
-1004.03
-3.04
NE
NE
-3.04
3.B.2.a - Cropland Remaining Cropland
-7241.77
NE
NE
-7241.77
TOTAL
-8248.84
NE
NE
-8248.84
Emissions
(Gg)
Categories
1.A.3.a.i - International Aviation (International Bunkers) (1)
1.A.3.d.i - International Water Transport (International Bunkers) (1)
1.A.5.c - Multilateral Operations (1)(2)
3.B.1.a - Forest Land Remaining Forest Land
3.B.1.b.v - Other Land Converted to Forest Land
154
Appendix II
APPENDIX II, CH. 2: 2008 GHG ENERGY REFERENCE APPROACH
Fuel Types
Unit
Production
Imports Exports
International
Bunkers
Stock
Change
Apparent
Consumption
Conversion
Factor
Apparent
Consumption
Carbon
Content
Total
Carbon
Excluded
Carbon
Net
Carbon
Emisions
Gg C
Gg C
TJ/Unit
TJ
t C/TJ
tC
Gg C
Fraction
of Carbon
Oixidised
Actual CO2
emissions
Actual CO2
emissions
Gg C
Gg 002
Crude Oil
Gg
0.00
42.30
0.00
20.00
0.00
0.00
0.99
0.00
0.00
Orimulsion
Gg
0.00
27.50
0.00
20.00
0.00
0.00
0.99
0.00
0.00
Natural Gas Liquids
Gg
0.00
44.20
0.00
0.00
0.00
Motor Gasoline
Gg
113.94
113.94
44.30
5047.54
18.90
95.40
95.40
0.99
94.44
346.30
Aviation Gasoline
Gg
0.57
0.57
44.30
25.43
19.10
0.49
0.49
0.99
0.48
1.76
Jet Gasoline
Gg
37.00
37.00
44.30
1639.10
19.10
31.31
31.31
0.99
30.99
113.64
Jet Kerosene
Gg
0.28
0.28
44.10
12.48
19.50
0.24
0.24
0.99
0.24
0.88
Other Kerosene
Gg
0.00
43.80
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Shale Oil
Gg
0.00
38.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Gas/Diesel Oil
Gg
165.52
165.52
43.00
7117.36
20.20
143.77
Residual Fuel Oil
Gg
703.59
703.59
40.40
28425.04
21.10
599.77
Liquefied Petroleum
Gases
Gg
13.79
13.79
47.30
652.27
17.20
11.22
Ethane
Gg
0.00
46.40
0.00
Naphtha
Gg
3.78
44.50
168.21
Bitumen
Gg
0.00
40.20
0.00
Lubricants
Gg
12.11
40.20
486.82
3.78
12.11
0.00
20.00
20.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
143.77
0.99
142.33
521.89
599.77
0.99
593.77
2177.16
0.00
11.22
0.99
11.11
40.72
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.36
0.00
3.36
3.33
12.21
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.74
0.00
9.74
9.64
35.34
0.99
0.99
February 2013
155
Appendix II
Fuel Types
Unit
Production
Imports
Exports
International
Bunkers
Stock
Change
Apparent
Consumption
Conversion
Factor
Apparent
Consumption
Carbon
Content
Total
Carbon
Excluded
Carbon
Net
Carbon
Emisions
tC
Gg C
Gg C
Gg C
Gg C
Gg 002
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
TJ/Unit
TJ
t C/TJ
Fraction
of Carbon
Oixidised
Actual CO2
emissions
Actual CO2
emissions
Petroleum Coke
Gg
0.00
32.50
0.00
0.00
Refinery Feedstocks
Gg
0.00
43.00
0.00
0.00
Refinery Gas
Gg
0.00
49.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Paraffin Waxes
Gg
0.00
40.20
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
White Spirit and SBP
Gg
0.00
40.20
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Other Petroleum
Products
Gg
0.00
40.20
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
156
Appendix III
APPENDIX III, CH. 3:TRENDS IN ANNUAL RAINFALL
Figure 3a. Trend Annual Rainfall Cultuurtuin
Figure 3b. Trend Annual Rainfall Cultuurtuin
Source: Amatali, 2011a; Technical Paper Present Profile. Sector Water Resources
Figure 3c. Trend Annual Rainfall Nw. Nickerie
Figure 3d. Trend Annual Rainfall Nw. Nickerie
February 2013
157
APPENDIX III, CH. 3:TRENDS IN ANNUAL RAINFALL
Figure 3e. Trend Annual Rainfall Coronie
Figure 3g. Trend Annual Rainfall Stoelmanseiland
Figure 3f. Trend Annual Rainfall Coronie
Figure 3h. Trend Annual Rainfall Stoelmanseiland
158
Appendix III
Figure 3i. Trend Annual Rainfall Zanderij
Figure 3k. Trend Annual Rainfall Kwamalasumtu
Figure 3j. Trend Annual Rainfall Zanderij
Figure 3l. Trend Annual Rainfall Kwamalasamutu
February 2013
159
Appendix IV
APPENDIX IV, CH.4: ENERGY SECTOR
Table 2: Contributions of solar and wind energy to the CO2 emission reduction
Table 1: Total baseline forecast for CO2 emission for Energy Sector
Year
Electricity
Generation
(Gg CO2 eq)
Manuf.
Industries
& Constr.
(Gg CO2
eq)
Transport
(Gg CO2 eq)
Others
(Gg CO2
eq)
Total
baseline
scenario
‘Energy
sector’ (Gg
CO2 eq)
Mitigation
Option
CO2
reduction
2008
CO2
reduction
2015
CO2
reduction
2018
CO2
reduction
2020
CO2
reduction
2025
Wind power:
windmills
replacing diesel
generators in
coastal villages
0 Gg
- 1.7 Gg
- 1.7 Gg
- 1.7 Gg
- 5.1 Gg
Solar power:
application of
solar panels and
solar collectors
replacing diesel
generators
in hinterland
villages
0 Gg
Table 3: Mitigation scenario vs. baseline scenario for
Electricity Generation subsector
Year
Baseline
scenario
(Gg CO2
eq)
Mitigation
scenario
(Gg CO2 eq)
Total Mitigation scenario
vs. Baseline
scenario
(Gg CO2 eq)
2008
121
0
121
2009
200
0
200
2010
280
0
280
2011
360
0
360
2012
440
-85
355
2013
519
3085
3604
2014
599
3071
3670
2008
121
2922
623
133
3799
2009
200
2647
650
139
3636
2010
280
2630
679
145
3734
2011
360
2758
709
151
3978
2012
440
2941
740
158
4279
2013
519
3127
773
165
4584
2014
599
3316
807
172
4894
2015
679
-272
407
2015
679
3524
842
180
5225
2016
759
-285
474
2016
759
3679
879
188
5505
2017
834
3073
3907
2017
834
3841
918
196
5789
2018
919
953
1872
2018
919
4010
958
205
6092
2019
999
-792
207
2019
999
4186
1000
214
6399
2020
1079
-1003
76
2020
1079
4370
1044
223
6716
2021
1159
-1016
143
2021
1159
4563
1090
233
7045
2022
1238
-1028
210
2022
1238
4763
1138
243
7382
2023
1318
-1040
278
2023
1318
4973
1188
254
7733
2024
1398
-1052
346
2024
1398
5191
1241
265
8095
2025
1478
-1107
371
2025
1478
5420
1295
277
8470
160
- 1.2 Gg
- 3.4 Gg
- 3.4 Gg
- 8.5 Gg
Appendix IV
Table 4: Baseline scenario vs. mitigation scenario,
Manufacturing Industries & Construction subsector
Year
Baseline
scenario
(Gg CO2 eq )
Reduction
from
mitigation
options
(Gg CO2 eq)
Table 5: Baseline scenario vs. Mitigation scenario,
Transport subsector
Total
Mitigation
scenario
(Gg CO2 eq)
Year
Baseline
scenario
Transport
(Gg CO2 eq)
Mitigation
scenario
Transport
(Gg CO2 eq)
Table 6: Total mitigation scenario, Energy sector
Total Mitigation scenario
Transport
(Gg CO2 eq)
Year
Electricity
Generation
(Gg CO2 eq)
Manuf.
Industries
& Constr.
(Gg CO2 eq)
Transport
Others
(Gg CO2 (Gg CO2 eq)
eq)
Total Mitigation
scenario, Energy sector
(Gg CO2 eq)
2008
2922
0
2922
2008
623
0
623
2008
121
2922
623
133
3799
2009
2647
0
2647
2009
650
0
650
2009
200
2647
650
139
3636
2010
2630
0
2630
2010
679
0
679
2010
280
2630
679
145
3734
2011
2758
0
2758
2011
709
0
709
2011
360
2758
709
151
3978
2012
2941
0
2941
2012
740
0
740
2012
440
2941
740
158
4279
2013
3127
0
3127
2013
773
0
773
2013
3604
3127
773
165
7669
2014
3316
0
3316
2014
807
0
807
2014
3670
3316
807
172
7965
2015
3524
0
3524
2015
842
292
550
2015
407
3524
550
180
4661
2016
3679
709
2970
2016
879
305
574
2016
474
2970
574
188
4206
2017
3841
740
3101
2017
918
318
600
2017
3907
3101
600
196
7804
2018
4010
773
3237
2018
958
332
626
2018
1872
3237
626
205
5940
2019
4186
806
3380
2019
1000
347
653
2019
207
3380
653
214
4454
2020
4370
842
3528
2020
1044
362
682
2020
76
3528
682
223
4509
2021
4563
879
3684
2021
1090
378
712
2021
143
3684
712
233
4772
2022
4763
918
3845
2022
1138
395
743
2022
210
3845
743
243
5041
2023
4973
958
4015
2023
1188
412
776
2023
278
4015
776
254
5323
2024
5191
1000
4191
2024
1241
430
811
2024
346
4191
811
265
5613
2025
5420
1044
4376
2025
1295
449
846
2025
371
4376
846
277
5870
February 2013
161
Appendix V
APPENDIX V, CH.4: NON-ENERGY SECTOR
Table 1: Baseline and Mitigation forecast for CO2 emission,Agriculture
Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Rice Area/yr. (ha) GHG emission
50790
50790
50790
50790
50790
50790
50790
57246
64746
Dairy cattle #
19614
21444
23944
26444
28944
31444
33944
36444
38944
Other cattle #
29421
32166
33166
34166
35166
36166
37166
38166
39166
CH4 (rice) (Gg)
19.0
23.7
23.7
23.7
29.5
35.3
41.1
46.9
52.7
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.1
4.3
4.5
Field burning (Gg)
.6
.6
.6
.6
.6
.6
.6
.6
.7
Manure management (Gg)
.7
.7
.7
.7
.7
.7
.8
.8
.8
23
28
28.2
34.4
34.4
40.4
46.6
52.6
58.7
Total emission agriculture in CO2 eq
952.57
1171.9
1180.6
1189.4
1457.1
1345.5
1547.9
1754.8
1952.8
Total GHG emission with rice project (G g CO2 eq)
952.57
1171.9
1180.6
1189.4
1457.1
1345.5
1116.4
1260.4
1399.5
Emission sugarcane, state oil company
0
0
0
0
0
-13.8
-27.7
-41.5
-55.3
Emission deforestation for sugarcane project
0
0
0
0
1015
1181
1181
1015
0
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
72246
79746
87246
94746
102246
109746
117246
124746
132246
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Enteric fermentation (Gg)
Total emission CH4 agriculture (Gg)
Year
Rice Area/yr. (ha)
Year
GHG emission
162
Appendix V
Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Dairy cattle #
41444
43944
46444
48944
51444
53944
56444
58944
61444
Other cattle #
40166
41166
42166
43166
44166
45166
46166
47166
48166
58.6
64.4
70.2
76.0
81.8
87.6
93.4
99.2
105.0
2.8
3
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.7
3.8
4.0
4.1
Field burning
.8
.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Manure management
.9
.9
.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
65
71.1
77.2
83.4
89.5
95.7
101.8
108
114.1
Total emission agriculture (Gg CO2 eq)
2162.9
2365.4
2572.2
2770.3
2977.1
3179.5
3382
3584.4
3787.5
Total GHG emission agriculture with rice project (Gg
CO2 eq )
1547.6
1750.1
1835.2
1972.3
2118.1
2257.5
2401.5
2542.9
2685
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
-69.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
CH4 rice (Gg)
Enteric fermentation
Total emission CH4 agriculture (Gg)
Emission sugarcane state oil company (Gg)
Emission deforestation for sugarcane project (Gg)
Table 2: Expected growth of mangrove forests and carbon sequestration
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
Total area planted (ha)
0
50
150
350
550
750
950
1,150
1,350
1,350
1,350
1,350
1,350
1,350
1,350
Total area natural growth
0
0
100
300
700
1,100
1,500
1,900
2,300
2,700
2,700
2,700
2,700
2,700
2,700
Gg CO2 eq sequestered per year
0
0
2
5
9
14
18
22
27
30
30
30
30
30
30
Gg CO2 eq sequestered (cumulative)
0
0
2
7
16
30
48
70
97
127
156
186
216
246
275
February 2013
163
Appendix V
Table 3: Expected wood and wood waste production and reduction potential
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
Total production (m3)
244,250
276,219
308,188
340,157
372,125
404,094
436,063
468,031
500,000
531,969
563,937
595,906
627,875
659,843
Available waste (ton)
85,097
94,798
104,167
113,204
121,908
130,280
138,319
146,026
153,400
160,442
167,151
173,528
179,572
185,284
109,775
122,290
134,376
146,033
157,262
168,061
178,432
188,373
197,886
206,970
215,625
223,851
231,648
239,016
2
5
7
10
13
15
18
21
24
27
30
34
37
40
83
94
106
117
128
139
149
159
169
179
189
198
206
215
GHG reduction potential (MWh)
Avoided CH4 emissions (Gg CO2 eq)
GHG reduction potential (Gg CO2 eq)84
Table 4: Summary of forest sector Baseline and Mitigation scenarios (emissions in Gg CO2 eq)
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
Baseline scenario
832
1,182
1,710
1,833
7,096
7,757
6,366
2,166
6,426
5,196
5,007
4,796
4,693
-161
-470
-763
-1,119
-1,433
Forest mitigation
options85
0
0
0
0
-83
-96
-113
-133
-158
-186
-219
-256
-296
-335
-375
-413
-452
-490
Deforestation
because of other
sector mitigation
options
0
0
0
0
3,726
7,518
7,518
3,787
3,787
1,394
3,125
1,741
10
10
10
10
10
10
832
1,182
1,710
1,833
10,739
15,178
13,772
5,820
10,056
6,404
7,913
6,281
4,406
-487
-834
-1,166
-1,561
-1,913
Total mitigation
scenario:
84
The sum of GHG reduction potential and avoided CH4 emissions. The calculation for energy replacement is based on an EF grid,
Paramaribo of 0.000733 Gg CO2 eq/MWh.
85
Forest mitigation options are use of wood waste as biofuel and additional afforestation of mangrove forests. For the report, the use of wood waste is
incorporated as biofuel in the section on the Energy sector.
164
Appendix VI
APPENDIX VI, List of Interviewed Persons and
Organisations
(Interviews were conducted either in person, by telephone or by e-mail.)
Organisation
Interview
ABS
Mr A. Talea
AdeKUS University
Ms S. Carilho / Mr M. Huisden / Mr S. Naipal
Mr R. Nurmohamed
ATM
Ms H. Uiterloo / Mrs P. Setrowidjojo
Ms Ch. Mans / Ms M. Riedewald / Ms N. Plet
Ms V. Sabajo
CCDA
Mr J. Goedschalk
IADB
Mr S. Hofwijks
Lead Consultants UNFCC,SNC Project
Mrs Sh. Bhairo / Mr C. Becker / Mr S. Naipal
Ministry of Finance
Mrs S. Jaggan
NIMOS
Mrs F. Hausil
UNDP
Mr B. Drakenstein / Ms T. Lieuw
February 2013
165

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