pdf - Massachusetts Marine Educators

Spring 2014
www.massmarineeducators.org
Vol. 42, No. 4
Evolution of Earliest Marine Animals – The Fossil Record in the Boston Area
Richard H. Bailey
Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences
Northeastern University
r.bailey@neu.edu
One of most vexing problems confronted by Charles Darwin in 1859 was the sudden appearance of
fossils of advanced organisms in Cambrian sedimentary strata, rocks we know today to be about 542 to 490
million years old. These complex marine fossils seemed to come from nowhere, and we recognize this
sudden appearance in contemporary paleobiology and biology as the Cambrian Explosion. In fact Darwin
considered this sudden appearance of animals, “Darwin’s Dilemma” to represent a major flaw in his
argument for the origin of life from a common ancestor; in Chapter 9 of the Origin of Species he stated,
“The case at present must remain inexplicable; and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the
views here entertained.” In fact, Darwin’s knowledge of the fossil record was highly incomplete even as he
was writing his famous book, geological and paleontological discoveries in the United States were underway
that would eventually provide part of the solution to his dilemma.
Sedimentary rocks at a small number of
Inside This Issue
localities in eastern Massachusetts provide clues to
Fossil Record of Boston Area
Page 1
the earliest evolutionary history of metazoans or
MME Officers
Page 2
multicellular animals. No single fossil locality in
Massachusetts is more famous than the sea cliffs at MME Calendar
Page 2
East Point, Nahant, the site of Northeastern
When Cephalopods Ruled the Seas
Page 3
University’s Marine Science Center and Henry Cabot
President's Message
Page 4
Lodge Park. In 1850, Louis Agassiz, the famous
Reflecting on Fossil Use
Page 5
zoologist and geologist at Harvard University, was
Page 6
the first to note numerous small enigmatic fossils in From the Editor’s Desk
the thin limestone beds within Early Cambrian strata HSMSS ­ North Info
Page 12
at East Point. Since that early work a number of
HSMSS ­ South Info
Page 13
geologists and paleontologists have restudied the
WHOI Conference
Page 14
rocks and fossils at Nahant and helped to put them
Classroom Activity
Page 17
into our modern context of plate tectonics and the
Page 21
evolutionary history of life on Earth, (see Bailey and Art Contest
Ross, 1993, and Ross and Bailey, 2001 for a review Marine Science in the News
of this history with detailed geologic maps and
Message in a Bottle
Page 22
references).
(Bailey ­ cont page 7) If you have difficulty in accessing this journal, contact
the editor at dimmick@esteacher.org
Next Issue of F&J will be posted on the
website June 18
Page 1
Massachusetts Marine Educators
c/o Erin Hobbs
Newburyport High School
241 High Street
Newburyport, MA 01950
www.massmarineeducators.org
Officers:
President
President­Elect
Past­President
Treasurer
Assistant Treasurer
Secretary
Executive Director
Editor­in­Chief
Managing Editor
Erin Hobbs
Sandi Ryack­Bell
William Andrake
Gail Brookings
Linda McIntosh
Mary Kay Taylor
Bob Rocha
Howard Dimmick
dimmick@esteacher.org
Doug Corwine
Newburyport High School
MITS
Swampscott Middle School
Educational Consultant
Dexter­Southfield Schools
Maritime Gloucester
New Bedford Whaling Museum
Science Education Consultants
MME Webmaster
Board of Directors:
Lydia Breen
Margaret Brumsted
Lee Anne Campbell
Howard Dimmick
Joseph LaPointe
Jesse Mechling
Carole McCauley
Dr. Joel Rubin
Nicole Scola
Carolyn Sheild
Kathryn Shroyer
Dr. Amy Siuda
Anne I. Smrcina
Dr. David Welty
Kathy Zagzebski
Retired
Dartmouth High School
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Retired
Center for Coastal Studies
Northeastern University Marine Science Center
Stoughton Public Schools
New England Aquarium
Clarke Middle School, Lexington
MIT Sea Grant
SEA Education Association
Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary
Fairhaven High School
National Marine Life Center
Directors Emeriti:
Alfred Benbenek
Elizabeth Edwards­Cabana
Katherine Callahan
Peg Collins
Jack Crowley
George Duane
Marge Inness
Frank Taylor
Barbara Waters
Retired
Retired
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Educational Consultant
Calendar 2014
Thursday, March 20, 2014 – TWO High School Science Symposiums
UMASS Dartmouth and Endicott College, Beverly, MA
Information elsewhere in this Journal
April 3­6, 2014 – National Science Teachers Association
National Conference, Boston, Contact: http://www.nsta.org/conferences/national.aspx
Saturday, April 12, 2014 ­ 38th Annual Conference and Meeting
Redfield Auditorium, Woods Hole, MA. Contact: Carolyn Sheild, csheild@rcn.com
Wednesday, May 14, 2014 – MME Board Meeting
Stellwagen Bank NMS Hq. Contact: Anne Smrcina anne.smrcina@noaa.gov
MME Board Meetings are open to all members – Let the contact know if you will attend
Page 2
THE ORDOVICIAN: When Cephalopods Ruled The Seas
Tamra A. Schiappa, Ph.D.
Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA 16057
tamra.schiappa@sru.edu
Imagine a world that thrived in the oceans without fish, a world hidden beneath the surface of the
sea where invertebrates rule. This is the Ordovician Period (488 – 443 million years ago (mya)). The
Ordovician period is part of the Early Paleozoic era that spans from the Cambrian period to the start of the
Devonian period (542 – 419 mya) (Cohen, Finney and Gibbard, 2013). For most of the Early Paleozoic
there was no life on the relatively small continents, climates fluctuated, and invertebrates dominated. Sea
level fluctuated as the climate changed resulting in shallow seas that covered most continents. The seas
were sanctuaries for invertebrates providing them with the perfect environments to diversify and evolve
complex ecological relationships. As time passed, diversity increased and organisms developed traits such
as hard calcium carbonate shells to protect against predation. The Ordovician was an evolutionary heyday
for invertebrates.
During the Ordovician, climates warmed and sea level rose producing the highest high stand of
paleoocean waters the Earth would ever experience. The sea that covered most of North America was
called the Tippecanoe (Figure 1). Sediments that accumulated in this basin preserved a unique marine
ecosystem, different from the familiar system of today. One of the best localities to collect fossils from this
time period are from the various Cincinnatian formations that crop out in the tri­state region of southwest
Ohio, southeastern Indiana, and northern Kentucky. Upon investigating these rocks, one can get a feel for
the world without fish and the diversity of invertebrates that inhabited the Tippecanoe Sea. At the base of the
food chain are algae and plankton that supported a variety of filter feeders, scavengers, and grazers. Large
predators roamed the shallow waters, swimming between the reefs, in search for easy prey. The fiercest
hunters were the straight shelled nautiloids, externally shelled cephalopods, that were the apex predators of
their food chain (Figure 2). Today, cephalopods have lost their reign as the alpha predators, and instead
include familiar elements such as the chambered Nautilus, and the octopus and squid. In the Paleozoic,
cephalopods were identified by either having a straight or coiled chambered shell, while during the
Ordovician the straight shelled orthocones (cephalopods) dominated the nektonic realm. These formidable
predators were considered giants, having an average shell length of about 0.5 meter reaching greater than
3.5 meters. Imagine how cumbersome it was swimming with such a long shell. However, based on size
alone and not much competition these predators ruled the Ordovician seas.
Marine environmental conditions were perfect during the Ordovician, and life in the oceans branched
out and filled every niche. Some of the most abundant and diverse fossils found in the Ordovician rocks are
brachiopods. Today, it is common to find them blanketing slabs of limestones with their various shell shapes
(Figure 3). These organisms had two shells composed of calcium carbonate, which is similar to a bivalve’s
morphology; however, the brachiopod animal’s body plan and function is most closely related to a bryozoan.
Reef systems flourished in the expansive Tippecanoe Sea. Dominating these systems were the reef
builders of the Paleozoic that included bryozoans, the colonial tabulate corals, and the solitary rugose coral.
Bryozoans were much different during the Paleozoic than they are today. They serve as the dominant reef
builders, constructing intricate and massive calcium carbonate structures. Colonies of bryozoans produced
large mounds of branching structures that stabilized the substrate, providing a habitat for other invertebrate
species (Figure 4). In today’s oceans, bryozoans build very small colonies and are minor elements in the
marine realm. In some areas, they appear to be a nuisance hiding on algae and encrusting on bivalves. The
cnidarians in the Ordovician are represented by the two extinct groups: the colonial mound building tabulate
and the solitary or horn­shaped rugose corals. The corals along with the diverse and abundant bryozoans,
which built these remarkable reef structures, provided an oasis for other invertebrates to thrive in the
shallow inland seas. These included a variety of marine arthropods such as trilobites that were the
scavengers and grazers. The stalked echinoderms (commonly known as crinoids) were sessile filter feeders
surviving on the abundant plankton. Bivalves were not very abundant in the Paleozoic, but lived in the
benthic realm as burrowers when present. Grazing on the reefs were the gastropods that were only living in
the marine environments at this time. Conodonts were very small vertebrates that had a complex jaw
apparatus. These organisms scavenged on the seafloor feeding on the debris from cephalopod attacks
(Schiappa ­ cont page 15)
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President’s Message Winter 2014
We are swiftly approaching an exciting time of year for MME. In the spring
MME hosts two High School Marine Science Symposium (HSMSS), sponsors a
student Marine Art Contest and hosts our annual meeting and conference in Woods
Hole. These events expose a variety of educators and students to current research,
possible career choices, hobbies, etc. I personally walk away from every event with
a lesson idea or in some cases a big project. Just last year at the North Shore
HSMSS, I sat in on an aquaculture discussion with Dr. Joe Buttner from Salem
State University. A year later I am setting up my own aquaponics system in my high
school. I personally believe exposure to new ideas can be very powerful for both educators and learners
and I recommend joining us.
On March 20th we will be hosting the two High School Marine Science Symposiums. The South
Shore HSMSS will be held again at UMass Dartmouth. MME has had such a wonderful partnership with
UMass over 31 years. They have continuously supported our mission to inspire learners of all ages through
the lens of Marine Science. This partnership has fostered the South Shore HSMSS’s repeated success and
motivated MME to offer a second HSMSS. MME wanted to broaden our reach last year by hosting a new
HSMSS north of Boston with the help of Endicott College. The turnout and positive feedback reinforced the
need for events like this. Therefore, MME will host the Second North Shore HSMSS at Endicott College.
When one event ends you can count on another MME opportunity like the Marine Art Contest. MME
has been partnering with Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS) to provide students with an
opportunity to display their artistic talents. Last year we received over 700 entries from around the world.
The artwork is breath taking and is now a traveling art exhibit within Massachusetts. Venues include the JFK
Library and the New Bedford Ocean Explorium just to name a couple. So mark your calendars, contest
entries are due May 2nd.
Very much like my students, I also need inspiration, and there is no better way than listening to a
research scientist from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. On April 12 MME will be hosting its 38th
WHOI conference and annual meeting. The conference is chaired Carolyn Shields, and it's going to be a
great event titled, “Why Marine Microbes Matter.” Living in and around Massachusetts, we are very fortunate
to have such a valuable resource so close. You never know, you might find yourself taking “selfies” with the
old Alvin sphere, touring a research vessel or just enjoying the company of great individuals who love the
ocean.
Did I mention this organization is 100% voluntary? Without fail I am amazed every year by MME’s
accomplishments. This truly is an organization that cares about students and educators. I am looking
forward to seeing everyone this spring.
Let's continue to inspire each other to do great things.
Erin Hobbs
President, MME
Page 4
Reflecting on the Use of Fossils from the Paleozoic Seas in My Classroom
Follow up to “The Ordovician: When Cephalopods Ruled the Seas."
Bill Andrake, Swampscott Middle School
Perhaps it's because fossils reveal the remains of life forms that do not exist today or that fossils are
mysterious and lead to more questions than they answer. Or maybe they stir the imagination about an Earth
whose past is unfamiliar and alien; Whatever the reason, kids love fossils. Paleontology can get students
engaged as it reminds them that the Earth is older than we could imagine and that it has changed and will
continue to change with or without our presence.
As marine educators seek ways to bring the ocean into the classroom, marine paleontology should
have an important place: life on land and in freshwater are relatively recent developments. Life began in the
sea.
I’ve been fortunate to have my sister Dr. Tamra Schiappa, author of the Ordovician article in this
issue, guide my education in the area of Paleontology (in particular marine paleontology). She has facilitated
integrating paleontology into my curriculum with her expertise and visits to my classroom. From this
experience, I've found that exploring fossils from the Paleozoic seas with my students has served to
enhance their science education in the following ways.
The fossils of extinct marine organisms have provided a springboard into learning more about their
present­day ancestors and has promoted the use of live marine invertebrates in the classroom. For example,
watching live sea anemones or bryozoa can help bring life to the fossils of extinct reef building bryozoa or
rugose corals.
Students become better at science as they learn how to analyze the information in a rock and reveal
its story. They understand that much of this “story” written in the rock record is inferred because only the
hard parts of preexisting life have been preserved. All that we know about the ancient world is based on their
preserved remains such as shells and exoskeletons and we must fill in the gaps using the features of
present­day creatures to understand how these ancient organisms lived. Curiosity is fostered in the
classroom as students see that there is so much we don’t know about the ancient Earth and that there are
more questions than answers.
Learning about the organisms through their fossilized remains brings importance to the principle of
diversification and meaning to evolution. Paleontology allows students to see that the life forms on present­
day Earth are the result of trial and error. It helps them realize that adaptations that worked for millions of
years in stable conditions could not survive environmental changes, therefore, opening the door for new
organisms to evolve and succeed.
Finally, I hope that working with fossils forces us to examine the fact that we live on a changing
planet, bringing relevance and a better understanding to topics of concern such as climate change, ocean
acidification, and extinction.
The following materials summarize some of the signature organisms of the Paleozoic Ocean whose
fossilized remains are used in my classroom.
Bryozoans “Moss Animals”
Lacy Crust Bryozoan, Membranipora
membranaceaPhoto Source: J. Pederson, MIT Sea
Grant College Program
http://massbay.mit.edu/exoticspecies/
exoticmaps/descriptions_intro.html
Bryozoans were the reef builders in the Paleozoic Seas. These
were tiny colonial animals. Each tiny animal or “zooid” was
encased in an exoskeleton made from calcium carbonate. The
zooids had a specialized feeding structure called a lophophore,
which is a tentacle­like, feathery structure that surrounds the
mouth collecting tiny particles in the water for food.
Modern day species of bryozoa can be found growing on docks
and other surfaces in Massachusetts waters. Many are invasive
such as the “Lacy Crust” (see below) or considered fouling
organisms but this group of animals does not have the status that
they once achieved in ancient seas. The “reef building” bryozoa
were wiped out at the end of the Paleozoic Era with that niche
becoming occupied by the modern scleractina reef building corals
of today.
(Andrake ­ cont page 17)
Page 5
From the Editors Desk
As we move toward the end of a very long winter season, MME is busy
working on our spring programs. You will find in this issue information on the
programs for the two High School Marine Science Symposium programs and our
38th Conference and Annual Meting at Woods Hole. This completes the MME
program for the spring season, but it is not the end of MME work however. The
annual Art Contest sponsored by MME, Stellwagen Bank National Marine
Sanctuary, the New England Aquarium, The Center for coastal Studies and the Whale and Dolphin
Conservation group ends on May 2, 2014.
We’re happy to announce that in the coming weeks MME will be unveiling a newly updated website.
The site will be at the same location on the Internet, but will be the first major update of the site since it was
set up over 10 years ago. Several members of the MME board have been working with Kathryn Shroyer in
this most exciting update. Watch your copy of MME News for the official announcement of this change.
This year we have an additional event taking place in Boston, the annual NSTA National Conference
will return to Boston April 3­6. This is the largest annual conference for science educators in the United
States and features hundreds of workshops and presentations for science teachers of any discipline. The
annual exhibit of science texts, lab equipment and teaching materials features nearly 200 booths presenting
the latest in materials for the science teacher.
The Massachusetts Association of Science Teachers is looking for local teachers and retirees to help
as hosts and volunteers to help with the smooth operation of this program. Contact Betsey Clifford at
betsey.clifford@gmail.com if you can give a few hours to helping our science teacher visitors enjoy their
conference.
One of the feature speakers at the program this year is James Balog. This name might not be
familiar to all of you but is you have seen the internationally acclaimed film Chasing Ice you have seen his
work. He has been interpreting the natural environment as a photographer for three decades. He will share
the latest image sequences from the Extreme Ice Survey. Balog's images are the smoking gun of climate
change and are the result of years of studying glacial retreats in several parts of the world over a decade of
years at Arctic locations in Alaska, Canada and Greenland have documented. The rapid retreat of the
planet’s glaciers is documented with cameras left to document movement of the glaciers in these locations;
He will also discuss a new educational initiative to support middle school science teachers and curriculum.
His talk in the Boston Convention Center will occur on Saturday April 5 from 9:30 to 10:30 in Room 210C. If
you are at the conference, this is a session to put on your calendar.
Howard Dimmick
Editor
NSTA is returning to Boston, April 3–6, 2014
Joyce Croce, Conference Chairperson
The 2014 Boston National Committee continues its work in preparation for the conference, Leading a
Science Revolution. Committee members and NSTA staff are working on the final program that will be sent
to print next month. A preview is available at www.nsta.org/boston.
We are excited that Dr. Mayim Bialik will be our featured speaker! Mayim received her B.S. degree in
neuroscience and Hebrew and Jewish studies and later her Ph.D. in neuroscience from UCLA. Her
dissertation was an investigation of Prader­Willi syndrome. But you may know Mayim as Amy Farrah Fowler
in the hit comedy The Big Bang Theory.
PLEASE HELP! There is a need for volunteers! For any volunteer who works at least one full day
during the conference, NSTA will pay 50% of the registration fee. For two or more days of such work, NSTA
pays the full registration fee. You can also volunteer an hour or two during your conference visit. To volunteer
your time, visit http://bit.ly/1hxw7l8 and complete the survey that will allow us to know when you are
available. Pad Adams, Volunteer Manager, will confirm your volunteer date and time in March.
Advance registration deadline has passed, but you may register on site at the conference.
If you have any ideas, suggestions, questions, or concerns, please feel free to contact me at
joycecroce@verizon.net.
Page 6
(Bailey ­ cont from page 1)
Rocks exposed in the East Point cliffs are primarily Cambrian mudstones and limestones about 530
to 525 million years old mapped as the Weymouth Formation. The Weymouth Formation was named for
very similar strata on the southern side of Boston Bay containing limestones with fossils equivalent to those
in Nahant. Mudstones and limestones comprising the sedimentary sequence were deposited in shallow to
moderately deep water at the time when marine animals with shells were just beginning their adaptation and
expansion. Limestone beds at Nahant contain tiny, millimeter­sized calcareous tubular, conical, spiral, and
cap shaped shells recognized in every continent as the Small Shelly Fauna. The SSF is restricted to
limestone strata at Nahant although this is not the case at other localities. The SSF represents the leading
edge of the Cambrian Explosion, the time after the extinction of the Ediacaran Fauna of the Late
Proterozoic, but before the evolution of trilobites and the famous complex metazoans of the Chengjiang and
Burgess Shale faunas of the later Early and Middle Cambrian.
Cambrian strata at East Point, Nahant looking south to Boston skyline. Dark basalt sill intruded into Cambrian limestone sequence.
Sea cliffs looking north to Cape Ann with mudstone strata and thin light colored layers of limestone.
The SSF at East Point contains about ten species including several species of hyoliths. Hyoliths are
conical calcareous shells, probably originally comprised of aragonite. At Nahant the intrusion of igneous
dikes and sills has heated and slightly metamorphosed limestone strata so that the details of hyolith shell
microstructure are obscured by recrystallization of their now calcitic shells. Hyoliths represent an extinct
group with an uncertain taxonomic affinity, but on balance they most resemble an extinct clade of mollusks.
Their conical shell is closed by a calcareous cap shaped operculum and excellently preserved specimens
have two curved rod­shaped spines extending from beneath the operculum on the ventral side of the cone.
(Bailey ­ cont page 8)
Page 7
(Bailey ­ cont from page 7)
The design of the shell strongly suggests that hyoliths were benthic deposit or suspension feeding
organisms. Most of the shells of the different species of hyoliths in Nahant strata are disarticulated and
mixed with other SSF species in thin layers. Often the cones are stuck one within another and they are
weakly aligned to paleocurrent flow indicating that currents or wave activity was present but was minimal. At
least two SSF species are broad to tall ribbed cones that may represent monoplacophorans or gastropods.
Very tiny 1 to 2 mm spirally coiled shells of Aldanella attleborensis may represent one of the earliest
gastropod species. Trilobites, the most abundant and diagnostic group of Cambrian organisms, are not
present in East Point strata because they had not evolved in the very early part of the Cambrian known as
the Tommotian or Stage 2. Trilobites do occur in the younger part of the Weymouth Formation, and the
Middle Cambrian Braintree Formation is well known for its large and spectacular trilobites, especially
Paradoxides (Acadoparadoxides) harlani. Curiously, the tiny fossils known as the small shelly fauna are not
commonly found in rocks throughout most of North America; however, they are present in strata from
Europe, Siberia, Australia, and parts of China. The Cambrian rocks of Nahant and those from a few other
localities from Newfoundland to North Carolina comprised part of an isolated continent or island landmass
termed Avalonia. This exotic terrane, as it is known in mountain building terminology, was brought to the
main ancient continent of North America by sea floor spreading and welded to North America about 400
million years ago during a major mountain building event. So, when you are standing on East Point you are
really standing on geological history that came from the other side of the world.
Two species of hyoliths (small calcium
carbonate shells) from Nahant limestone.
Image is microscopic view (diameter of large
fossil is about 3mm).
Image of conical and tubular fossils (mostly
hyoliths) from early monograph by A.W. Grabau,
1900.
(Bailey ­ cont page 9)
Page 8
(Bailey ­ cont from page 8)
Paradoxides (Acadoparadoxodes) harlani
from the Middle Cambrian Braintree
Formation (A. W. Grabau, 1900)
Students from COSA (College Ocean Science Academy) studying the geology and paleontology of the cliffs at East Point.
COSA is a summer marine science, biology, and ecology program run by the
Northeastern University Marine Science Center for high school students.
Another critically important development in the history of life is recorded as trace fossils in the
mudstone beds at East Point. Exposed bedding surfaces, representing several square meters of ocean
floor, are covered with sinuous disruptions of the typically very thinly bedded dark mudstone. These
disrupted regions were caused by infaunal burrowing organisms that excavated one to two cm diameter
burrows up to 30 cm long. These organisms dug a tubular burrow with a vertical or sub­vertical shaft about 5
to 10 cm deep that then curved to a horizontal tunnel parallel to the sea floor. The number of burrows and
the intensity of burrowing was so great that in some areas the mudstone has a mottled appearance. This
trace fossil, known as Teichichnus, has a range from the Cambrian to the Recent, although the trace fossil
maker is probably not the same organism. The nature of the Cambrian organism that produced the burrows
at Nahant is unknown, although from the size of the burrows it had to have been at least a centimeter or
more in diameter. It is possible that a worm­like creature or an arthropod could produce such a trace fossil
but there are no organisms known from the SSF strata that are likely candidates. The burrows are filled with
laminated fine sand and silt that was introduced from the sediment water interface. Living organisms that
(Bailey ­ cont page 10)
Page 9
(Bailey ­ cont from page 9)
produce such burrows are typically deposit feeders mining the organic material from the sediment or
consuming small organisms or particulate organic material introduced from above. These sorts of burrows
are never found in older Precambrian sedimentary rocks, in fact such rocks are typically extremely thinly
laminated or bedded indicating that burrowing organisms did not exist. The sudden appearance of such
trace fossils marks the base of the Cambrian and the beginning of the Cambrian Substratum Revolution.
This CSR occurred because large metazoans with a coelom or body cavity and/or appendages evolved the
capability of maneuvering within and displacing sediment during feeding or escape from predators. This is
also a spectacular case of ecologic engineering in that the extensive burrow networks permitted ventilation
and oxidation of the shallow sea floor sediments thus opening even more ecological opportunity.
Ancient Teichichnus burrows in Cambrian mudstone from Nahant (black lenscap is about 5 cm in diameter).
Detailed map of mudstone bedding surface of Cambrian seafloor at East Point showing abundant Teichichnus burrows.
Paleobiologists are working diligently to explain why animals suddenly evolved at such a late date in
Earth history. Our current explanation for the Cambrian Explosion involves changes in the environmental
conditions in the oceans, especially increases in the levels of oxygen required by animals for respiration and
(Bailey ­ cont page 11)
Page 10
(Bailey ­ cont from page 10)
for complex biochemical pathways. The complex designs and expansion of morphological disparity in the
Cambrian would certainly require genomes with developmental flexibility. A third critical component of the
Cambrian Explosion would be ecological opportunity resulting from changes in resources and the nature of
substrata on the sea floor; evolution will fill functional roles or niches as they are opened. Feedback loops
driven by newly evolved organisms and their ecological engineering life activities would contribute to the
formation of even greater opportunity for adaptation and evolution. The Cambrian Explosion seems to have
resulted from a unique concurrence of biological potentiality with environmental suitability and ecological
opportunity.
References
Bailey, R. H., and Ross, M. E., 1993, Geology of East Point, Nahant, Massachusetts, in Cheney, J. T.,
and Hepburn, J. C., Field Trip Guidebook for the Northeastern United States, Boston Meeting of
Geological Society of America: Contribution No. 67, Department of Geology and Geography, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, Chapter Y1­Y24.
Grabau, A., W., 1900, Paleontology of Cambrian terranes of Boston Basin; Proceedings of the Boston
Society of Natural History Occasional Papers, v. 4, p. 601­694.
Ross, M. E., and Bailey, R.H., 2001, Igneous and sedimentary petrology of East Point, Nahant,
Massachusetts, in West, D. P., Jr., and Bailey, R.H., 2001, eds., Guidebook for Geological Field Trips in
New England, 2001 Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America, Boston, Massachusetts, p.
O­1 ­ O­29.
About the Author
Dick Bailey is a Professor of Geology in the Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences at
Northeastern University. He has degree in geology from Old Dominion University and an M.S. and Ph.D.
in paleontology from the University of North Carolina. His research involves paleobiology and sedimentary
geology of the Avalon Terrane of southeastern New England, study of evolution and paleoecology of
Neogene mollusca and coral thickets from the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and reefs and carbonates from the
Bahamas. In addition, he gains insight to paleobiological processes by study of living mollusks and other
marine organisms by SCUBA diving and analysis of modern marine communities.
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(Schiappa ­ cont from page 3)
and dead carcasses. Through investigations of these well preserved faunas scientists have produced an
accurate description of life in the oceans before fish.
Earth scientists can accurately reconstruct environmental conditions that existed in the past using
data from rocks, minerals, and fossils. As an invertebrate paleontologist, I use the fossil record to unravel
the mysteries of the paleooceans. My fossil research has taken me to interesting places around the world,
but most of my career has been spent studying marine fossils collected from areas in northeastern Nevada.
My specific expertise in paleontology lies in the study of externally shelled cephalopods called ammonoids,
belonging to the Order Ammonoidea of the Class Cephalopoda. Ammonoids existed in the paleooceans
during the Late Paleozoic as small scavengers and predators. Our knowledge gained by understanding the
evolutionary history of ammonoids has provided scientists with a much clearer understanding of the Late
Paleozoic marine evolutionary history.
Paleontology is the bridge that connects the ancient oceans to the modern day seas. Understanding
the Paleozoic comes from unique marine fossil assemblages that offer glimpses into changing climates, the
evolution of oceans, and the history of life. Through careful analysis of these assemblages, geologists and
paleontologists have pieced together a fascinating history. Understanding earth’s history will allow us to
make more informed decisions about the future with regard to the effects of climate change on the oceans.
As the oceans continue to change, it is imperative that we as earth observers develop a solid perspective
and understanding of how they evolved in order to help protect them. Teachers can use the rock record to
offer a glimpse into earth’s past highlighting the treasures of the sea. Students can learn about how life in
the oceans evolved and reflect on how it may change in the future. The fossil record can also be used to
highlight several of the essential principles of ocean literacy including: Ocean Literacy Essential Principle
#2, how the ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth, and Ocean Literacy Essential Principle
#7, how the oceans have supported a great diversity of life and ecosystems (NOAA, 2013). The
opportunities to study both the modern and paleooceans are endless. As we dive deeper into the past, we
will continue to answer the many questions that remain and help develop a clearer understanding of the
ocean and it’s future.
References
Cohen, K.M, Finney, S, and Gibbard, P.L., 2013, International Chronostratigraphic Chart, International
Commission on Stratigraphy,
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2013­01.pdf
Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts of Ocean Sciences for Learners of All
Ages, NOAA, 2013, 13 pgs.
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/literacy/ocean_literacy.pdf
Figure 1. Paleogeographic map of North America and the Tippecanoe Sea during the Middle Ordovician. modified from Blakey
http://www2.nau.edu/rcb7/namO470.jpg
(Schiappa ­ cont page 16)
Page 15
(Schiappa ­ cont from page 15)
Figure 2. Image depicting the paleoenvironment and life in the Ordovician seas.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ordovician/ordovicsea.gif
Figure 3. Ordovician brachiopods preserved in limestones from the Cincinnatian region of the United States.
Photo credit Tamra Schiappa.
Figure 4. Fossils of Ordovician bryozoans from the Cincinnatian region documenting the variation from mound builders (left) to
branching (right). Photo credit Tamra Schiappa
About the Author, Tamra Schiappa
Dr. Schiappa is an Associate Professor at Slippery Rock University of
Pennsylvania. She received her B.A. from State University of New York at
Plattsburgh, M.S. from Boise State University and Ph.D. from the University of
Idaho. Her current research interests are in Early Permian Ammonoid and Conodont
Paleontology. She is the sister of MME past President William Andrake.
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Classroom Activity
Modeling and Casting “Fossil” Shells
Dr. Joel Rubin, Stoughton Public Schools
Evolution and Biodiversity
1. Recognize that fossils provide
us with information about living
things that inhabited the earth
years ago.
2. Look at a variety of fossils or
3. Make a fossil print of plant
pictures of fossils, including
leaves using clay or putty. (T/E
plants, fish, and extinct species.
1.1, 1.2)
Guess what living organisms they
might be related to.
Massachusetts Science Standards
From: Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework, Massachusetts Department of Elementary
and Secondary Education, October, 2006
The activity described here involves making a mold of a shell in play dough and casting it in plaster.
This well­known and ever­popular activity is often referred to as “making a fossil.” In actuality, true fossilized
organisms are more often the result of a body’s gradual replacement by dissolved minerals leaching through
the sediments that buried the original organism. Fossil casts are also found but usually these represent
footprints or other tracks, even sometimes the burrows of ancient creatures. These caveats aside, copying a
shell in another material, plaster, gives students a good idea of fossils being the mineralized remains of
organisms whose actual bodies are no longer present.
Safety Concerns
Tables should be covered, avoid breathing plaster dust, use eye protection. Consider wearing non­
latex disposable gloves. Do not allow plaster to be poured into sinks it is likely to clog the plumbing.
Hardened plaster is easily removed from flexible plastic mixing containers and can be disposed of in the
trash.
Materials:
1. Objects to be cast (small shells are nice, other objects are also possible).
2. Expendable plastic containers for mixing plaster (quart­sized food service containers work well,
depending how large the class).
3. Disposable 3oz paper cups, 1 per “fossil” (this assumes the objects being cast are smaller in length
than the cup’s diameter leaving at least a ¼” margin all around. Other containers are also possible (for
example, rinsed, emptied milk cartons from school lunches) The idea is to right­size the container to
minimize the amount of play dough expended for each mold.
4. Trays may be helpful to minimize spills when moving “fossils” to a safe place for overnight drying.
5. Play dough (purchased premade or DIY as follows: flour, salt (used liberally to deter vermin), mixed
with just enough water to form a stiff dough. A dash of vegetable oil is a highly recommended addition to
the dough, helping prevent objects from sticking in it. Leftover dough can be sealed in a bag and
refrigerated or frozen. Food coloring is always an option.
6. Plaster. Once students’ molds are complete, the teacher should prepare plaster of Paris following
mixing directions on the package. The usual practice is to add the powdered plaster to a desired amount
of water until the solution reaches a smooth consistency resembling very heavy cream. It is VERY
important to avoid forming bubbles, as can happen by stirring too wildly. It is possible to add food color,
powdered pigments or even liquid poster paint if coloring is desired. Dried (or drying) plaster objects are
easily painted. Note that, unless coated with a sealant, they will absorb a good deal of any liquid in the
paint.
(Activity ­ cont page 18)
Page 17
(Activity ­ cont from page 17)
Procedure:
1. Students should press play dough firmly into cups leaving a flat area at least ¾” below the rim into which
plaster may be poured without spilling.
2. Students press shells or other objects into the dough in the cups, taking care to leave enough of their
object out of the dough so that item can be removed without damaging the impression. This is where a
little oil in the dough mixture may help. It is also possible to coat objects with oil or petroleum jelly before
pressing them into the dough but this is less preferable as clean up and safety issues (the risk of a
slippery floor) are multiplied.
3. Students remove their shells or other objects from the mold with as little disturbance to the mold as
possible (they should be cautioned verbally on this point).
4. Teacher or aide comes around with the liquid plaster and pours it to within ¼” of cup rims. Management
suggestion: have all cups together on a tray so pouring can be completed as quickly and efficiently as
possible – before the plaster sets.
5. If you like, a drinking straw or other cylindrical item can be pressed into the clay and the plaster poured
around it too – when removed from the plaster cast, this results in a hole for hanging “fossils” from a
sting or pins for display. Plaster is weak so don’t put this hole­maker too close to the edge ­­ it could
easily break out.
6. Set the plaster casts to dry overnight after which they can be colored if desired.
photo credit: Briana Locke
Students will enjoy talking about and displaying their casts. It is nice to engage students in this
activity in association with classroom examination of real or replica fossils; a video, reading, or other
presentation on ancient life, geology, and evolution; a museum field trip or outreach program; or, a visit from
a local fossil collector or scientist (paleontologist).
Page 18
(Andrake ­ cont from page 5)
The Rugosa or “Horn Corals”
Unlike the modern reef building corals of today, these corals were solitary. This is an extinct group of
animals that were common in shallow seas from the Ordovician to the end of the Permian Period.
Illustration from Kentucky Geological Survey.
University of Kentucky:
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/rugosecorals.htm
Tides are slowing the Earth’s rotation speed,
tacking on about 0.002 seconds every 100 years.
(about 1minute every 3 million years).
In studies, a record of daily and yearly growth in
rugose corals revealed evidence that millions of
years ago there were significantly more days in a
year. This provides evidence that the Earth’s
rotation speed was faster during that period and
has since slowed.
Brachiopods
The Brachiopods were among the most abundant marine species during the Paleozoic Era. Many of
the dominant species during the Paleozoic went extinct during the Permian Period mass extinction. This
event opened the door for the Bivalves (Mollusks) to occupy their niche. Not all brachiopod went extinct
during this time and there are several species found in deep polar marine waters as well as in upwelling
zones along the western U.S.
When examining fossils of Brachiopods they are often confused with bivalve mollusks as they both
have two shells, however the Brachiopods and Bivalves are very different and unrelated taxa. A comparison
of these two groups serves as a good example of convergent evolution, the independent development of
similar adaptations to similar environmental conditions.
Comparison of Bivalves vs. Brachipods. Illustration from Kentucky Geological Survey.
University of Kentucky: http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/brachs.htm
(Andrake ­ cont page 18)
Page 19
(Andrake ­ cont from page 17)
The Cephalopods
In a world without fish the externally shelled cephalopods were the only nektonic creatures
(swimmers) during the Ordovician. With tentacles appearing to grow out of their head, this group of mollusks
known as the Cephalopods or “head­foot” includes squid, octopus, and cuttlefish.
The top predators in the ocean at that time were “Orthoceras” a straight shelled cephalopod that
could reach lengths of 14 feet long!
Images from Kentucky Geological Survey. http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/cephalopods.htm
Fossilized cast of an orthocone shell of a
cephalopod
The Trilobites
Images from Kentucky Geological Survey.
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/trilobites.htm
Trilobites are probably among the more familiar invertebrates of the Paleozoic and were the most
common, and important motile benthic species in shallow seas from 550 million to 250 million yrs. ago. The
last of the trilobite species went extinct at the end of the Permian Period with the Permian mass extinction.
Trilobites (“three lobed” see image above) were a very diverse and complex group of arthropods with
a very complicated eye structure. The appearance of arthropods (bugs) on this planet started with the
Trilobites who set the stage for the evolution of a phylum whose success and diversity is unmatched in the
animal kingdom today.
(Andrake ­ cont page 19)
Page 20
(Andrake ­ cont from page 18)
Trilobites were key players in the benthic ecosystems of the ancient seas occupying all
roles as consumers from predator to scavenger which can be inferred from looking at the fossils of these
animals, in particular their cephalon or head region.
Resources for Paleontology in the Paleozoic Seas
­ Cincinnatian Fossils From the Ordovician Period: A guide to the Ordovician Fossils of Southeast
Indiana Collected by Jeff Bryant http://members.wolfram.com/jeffb/Fossils/
­ Fossils in the architecture of Washinton, DC: a guide to Washington’s accidental museum of
paleontology http://dcfossils.org/
­ Fossil Facts and Finds. http://www.fossils­facts­and­finds.com/
­ Kentucky Geological Survey. University of Kentucky: http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils
­ PBS. NOVA. A Brief History of Life by Lexi Kro: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/brief­history­
life.html
­ University of California Museum of Paleontology: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/
2013 Marine Art Contest
There were 726 entries this year from more than 60 schools and a number of home­schooled students, representing 10
states (although the majority came from Massachusetts). Artwork was judged on creativity, technique and accuracy of
artwork in complying with the contest theme of "Amazing Ocean Creatures of Stellwagen Bank National Marine
Sanctuary. Winning artwork and several of the honorable mentions have been framed and are now part of a traveling
exhibit that will tour public venues starting in September and continuing throughout the 2013­2014 school year. Go to
http://stellwagen.noaa.gov/pgallery/contest2013.html to view last year's gallery.
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Marine Science in the News
Message Bottled in an e­mail
A long­lost legacy of ocean research resurfaces
By Lonny Lippsett http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/lonny­lippsett
Reprinted from Oceanus Magazine
Every once in a while, a curious email floating through cyberspace will land unexpectedly in your
inbox, like a message in a bottle. Such an email arrived this week. This one actually contained a message in
a bottle—one that had floated through the Atlantic and back in time to the year before I was born. Here’s the
email that begins the tale:
­­­­­­­­ Original Message ­­­­­­­­
Subject: RE: Drift Bottle
Date: Mon, 3 Feb 2014 10:23:49 ­0400
From: Joyce, Warren
To: <po@whoi.edu>
Hello,
I am a biologist working for Department of Fisheries in Nova Scotia Canada. While
working on Grey seals on Sable Island, this January I found an old drift bottle (clear
with a black stopper) from Woods Hole. It seems to be quite old and has a paper and a
postcard inside it.
The paper begins with "Break This Bottle" in bold type and the number of the botter is
No. 21588 with a reward of $0.50!
I recovered it on the south beach of Sable Island on Jan. 20/14 at 43 degrees 55.781
minutes North and 59 degrees 52.521 minutes West. The bottle had been sand blasted
over 3/4 of its surface. Since the sand dunes of Sable island are constantly changing,
things come out of the dunes all the time so I have no idea how long the bottle may
have been onshore.
After a quick net search, this maybe a bottle sent by the late Dean Bumpus. Anyway, I
wanted to report it if anyone is still interested in the data. It's a nice keepsake too!
Please email me if you have any further questions. Don't worry about the $0.50!
☺
Warren N. Joyce.
(Bottle ­ cont page 23)
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(Bottle ­ cont from page 22)
His quick Internet detective work was spot­on: The bottle could indeed be traced back to Dean
Bumpus one of the first year­round employees of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Affectionately
known as Bump, his 40­year career at WHOI began in 1937. From 1939 to 1941, aboard the WHOI
research vessel Atlantis, Bump helped conduct what many consider the first comprehensive surveys of the
marine life of Georges Bank; biologists still find them valuable today.
During World War II Bump, Allyn Vine (after whom the submersible Alvin
is named), and other WHOI scientists worked closely with the U.S. submarine
fleet to instruct submariners on how to use the bathythermograph, an
instrument designed by WHOI researchers that measured temperature and
density gradients in the ocean. Using bathythermograths, submariners could
avoid acoustic detection by enemy surface vessels. That's Bump (right) leading
a class to train Navy submariners. The WHOI group was commended by the
U.S. Navy for the many lives it helped to save. But Bump is perhaps best
known for orchestrating a program from 1956 to 1972 to track surface and
bottom currents in the western North Atlantic. Back then, not much was known
about the ocean's currents, and research methods to learn more about them
hadn’t advanced much since the 19th century. It wasn’t until the 1970s that
sophisticated current meters, subsurface moorings, acoustic listening systems, surface drifters tracked via
radio signals and satellites, and other technology began to come online to help reveal the hidden fluid
dynamics within the vast ocean.
Bump used information from surface drift bottles and yellow seabed drifters shaped like mushrooms.
More than 300,000 drift bottles with return­to­sender notes were released by ships and planes along the
U.S. East Coast at various “Point A's.” About 10 percent were returned, providing Point B's. Bump also
deployed more than 75,000 seabed drifters, with a 19 percent return rate.
In September 1959, Bump issued a memo that conveyed a great deal about the frugal, enterprising,
collaborative, and lively characteristics of oceanographers of the era: "All hands are respectfully requested
(until further notice) to bring their dead soldiers to the lab and deposit them in the box just inside the gate.
Whiskey, rum, beer, wine or champagne bottles will be used to make drift bottles. Any clean bottles — 8 oz
to one quart in size will be gratefully received. Bottoms Up!" According to Bumpus’ 2002 obituary, “Although
very simple devices, both the surface and seabed drifters contributed significant information on the surface
and bottom circulation along the continental shelf of eastern North America, sometimes to the dismay of
others with much more sophisticated technology.”
Bump sometimes attracted media attention and some interesting volunteers to his efforts,” the
obituary continued. “A drifter that Vice President Hubert Humphrey dropped from WHOI's research vessel
Atlantis II in July 1967 in the vicinity of Jeffrey's Ledge off Gloucester was found four years later by a local
fisherman, just 20 miles away.” WHOI archivist Dave Sherman tracked down the bottle that Joyce found on
Sable Island: No. 21588. It was one of 12 released from the research vessel Albatross III on April 26, 1956,
at 8:30 p.m. at 42°18'6"N, 65°30'6"W, not far off Nova Scotia. Three bottles from this batch were recovered
(Bottle ­ cont page 24)
Page 23
(Bottle ­ cont from page 23)
later the same year—two in Nova Scotia and one in Eastham on Cape Cod. Given its sandblasted
appearance, perhaps No. 21588 came ashore on Sable Island also in 1956, some 300 miles away from its
release point, and remained buried and buffeted by dunes until now. Sable Island is a crescent­shaped
sandbar about 25 miles long and less than a mile wide about 185 miles southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Joyce wrote in a subsequent email. Besides bottles, the island also seems to catch bigger things, such as
ships.
"The island is also famous for more than 350 shipwrecks since the late 1500s,” Joyce said. “Its
location in the middle of shipping routes and fishing grounds has made it a major hazard to seagoing
vessels." Sable Island also makes an ideal hangout for grey seals. Almost every year since 2005, Joyce has
assisted on a research project on their population dynamics, going to the island for a month in January
when the seals mate and give birth.
"We had been conducting a census of tagged seals on the island and while looking for marked
animals, I stopped in a little sand gully by a small pond just in from the beach,” Joyce wrote. “I looked down
at some garbage that had collected in this little gully and there were about 4­5 bottles sitting there.” The still­
plugged one with the note saying “BREAK THIS BOTTLE” caught his eye and launched the search that led
to Bumpus. Meanwhile, I did some Internet detective work of my own to find Joyce’s address. I just sent him
a JFK half­dollar (even if postage costs to Canada now exceed that!). WHOI must keep its word, and that’s
a bargain price for a good story. Besides, what goes around should come around.
To get an MME membership application, please go to
http://www.massmarineeducators.org/membership.php
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