Using Childhood Memories to Gain Insight into Brand Meaning

Transcription

Using Childhood Memories to Gain Insight into Brand Meaning
Author(s): Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour, Michael S. LaTour and George M. Zinkhan
Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 71, No. 2 (Apr., 2007), pp. 45-60
Published by: American Marketing Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30162183 .
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A. Braun-LaTour,
MichaelS. LaTour,& George M. Zinkhan
Kathryn
UsingChildhoodMemoriesto Gain
InsightintoBrandMeaning
Inthisarticle,
theconceptthatpeople'searliestand defining
theauthorsintroduce
productmemoriescan be used
totheirproducts.
The authors
toolto helpmanagersmorefully
understand
consumers'relationships
as a projective
how these memoriessymbolizethe
use a studyon threegenerationsof automobileconsumersto illustrate
The findings
indicate
intobrandmeaning.
and howtheycan be used to gaininsights
consumer-brand
relationship
in
influence
on current
and future
thatpeople'searliestand defining
preferences
experienceshave an important
to theconsumerand
experiencesare symbolic
predictable
waysacross theconsumerlifecycle.These memory
The
whichcomplements
thetoolboxofextantresearchmethods.
a newlensforviewing
brandmeaning,
represent
authorsprovidedetailsaboutthistechniqueformanagerswho are searchingformethodsthatrecognizethat
consumerscoproducebrandmeanings.
are alwaystrying
to findnew waysto ask
onagers
about whattheirbrandmeans to consumers.An
alternative
way of phrasingthis questionis the
focusof thisinvestigation:
Whatcan consumers(and their
the
reveal
about
brand
memories)
meaning?By identifying
of
the
consumer
self
in
relation
to
a
development
given
can uncovera powerful,
emoproductor brand,marketers
tionalmeansof connecting
their
to
brand
(or reconnecting)
consumers.
earliest
memories
and
(EMs)
Probing
defining
memories(DMs) to understand
andrelationship
personality
issues is not new to eitherpsychotherapists
(e.g., Adler
Bruhn
and
Mosak
DiPietro
1985,
1990,
1992;
1931;
2006)
or socialpsychologists
(e.g.,Bruner2003; McAdams1988,
2001; Singer2001; Singerand Salovey1993, 1996). Most
theorists,from Freud to Jung to Piaget to Erikson
and Rochberg-Halton
1981),have recog(Csikzentmihalyi
nizedtheimportance
of childhoodin establishing
relationIn theacademicmarshipsand "imprinting"
preferences.
however,theattention
ketingliterature,
givento thistopic
has beenrelatively
sparse,withonlyone study(thatwe are
aware of) usinga Freudiananalysisof childhoodexperi-
ences to provideinsightsintoa present-day
animalisticart
collection(Holbrook1988).
Withinthe consultingworld,however,G. Clotaire
who studiedunder
Rapaille,theFrench-born
anthropologist
childhooddevelopment
Jean
specialist
Piaget,has successmarketed
the
of
fully
importance probingchildhoodmemories. Rapaille has gaineda reputation
forhis high-profile
studies
that
EMs.
He does notpub(andhigh-priced)
probe
lish his resultsin refereed
and
does
not provide
journals
clientswithdocumented
from
interview
sessions.
analyses
His methodsremainsomewhatof a "secret,"even though
morethanhalfof theFortune100 companieshave sought
hisexpertise
at one timeor another.
Some mayconsiderhis
theoriessomewhatdatedand focusgroupsessionsleading
(Zaltman2003). Nonetheless,Rapaille claims a seriesof
successes(e.g., linkingtheimportance
of childhoodassociationsto "Mom" and thesmellof coffeebrewing).It is
thatProcter& Gambleused,and continuesto use,
reported
such information
in its advertising
campaignforFolger's
(Hitt2000). Rapaille's workwithChryslerresultedin the
firm'sstrategy
to bringback theoriginal"essence"of the
brandwhile incorporating
new technologyto designthe
popularPT Cruiser.
Some academicshavebeen vocal in theiroppositionto
A.Braun-LaTour
isAssistant
Professor
ofHospitality
Kathryn
Marketing, Rapaille,claimingthathis promisesare too grandand his
F. Harrah
William
CollegeofHotelAdministration
(e-mail:
Kathryn. insightstoo simplistic(Sacks 2006). This articleis not
andMichael
S. LaTour
is a professor
andchair, meanttobe a treatise
LaTour@unlv.edu),
eitherin support
oforin opposition
to
ofMarketing,
ofBusiness
Michael.LaTour@
Department
College
(e-mail:
this
article
is
motivated
a
interRather,
Rapaille.
by general
ofNevada,
LasVegas.
M.Zinkhan
isCocaunlv.edu),
University
George
est in understanding
how marketerscan use consumer
ColaCompany
Chair
ofMarketing,
of
Business,
Terry
University
College
memories
as a projective
tooltounderstand
whattheirprodofGeorgia
Themethod
inthis
featured
(e-mail:
gzinkhan@terry.uga.edu).
uct
or
brand
means
to
consumers.
The
article
wasfirst
while
the
first
was
a
author
at
scholar
purposeof thisartideveloped
visiting
theMind
oftheMarket
attheHarvard
Business
andshehas
cle is to reviewthelogic,development,
andmarket
uses for
School,
beenpilot
andrefining
itsincethat
Theauthors
time.
thank
testing
Jerry earlymemoryelicitation
and to demonstrate
howEMs and
Zaltman
for
hisguidance
andtheanonymous
JMreviewers
for
their
helpDMs add insightsinto brand/product
meaningfor three
fulcomments
inshaping
this
article.
of automobileconsumers.
The elicitedmemogenerations
on bothliteraland symboliclevels
Toreadandcontribute
to readerandauthor
onJM,visit ries can be interpreted
dialogue
and
can
marketers
help
developtheirown brandmyths.
http://www,marketingpowercom/jmblog.
Marketers
who recognizethatconsumerscoproducebrand
(c)2007, American MarketingAssociation
ISSN: 0022-2429 (print),1547-7185 (electronic)
45
Journal of Marketing
Vol. 71 (April 2007), 45-60
willfind
thismethod
useful
fortheir
brand
posimeanings
andcommunication
strategies.
tioning
recesses
andMetofourrecollections"
deepest
(Neimeyer
zler1994,p. 130).
Wepropose
thatconsumers'
canproautobiographies
videmarketers
with
stories
that
canbea projective
memory
Background
toolforunderstanding
consumers'
andfeelings
thoughts
isbased
about
a product
orbrand.
Thelogicforthismethod
Methodsand Meanings
is
on
the
ideas:
First,
memory
following
autobiographical
When
to
understand
of
consumer
behavthe
trying
"whys"
of
the
center
and
contains
memories
of
identity
experiences
toolshavebeena popular
choice
ofmarketior,projective
the
the
that
are
foundation
for
(Baddelely
self-concept
an
see
Rook
researchers
extensive
review,
2001).
(for
ing
Bruner
autoNeisser
1988;
2003;
Second,
1981).
although
methods
a
of
intersection
representsignificant
Projective
is
it
also
conmemoryself-centered, indirectly
clinical
socialpsychol- biographical
theory,
psychology,
psychoanalytic
information
about
and
the
tains
brands/products meanings
andcultural
(Rook1988).
ogy,
anthropology
lives(Hebridge
have
added
to
consumers'
1988;Olsen
they
tools
tasks
in
As thenamesuggests,
are
projective
a
of
lifetime
1995).Third,
despite
experiences,
onlya fracor
which
attribute
toothers
whatthey
cannot
participants
so
those
are
remembered
holdmeantion
are
that
retained,
willnotsee in themselves
andLevy
(McGrath,
Sherry,
more
distant
Cohen
the
1985;
1989).Fourth,
ablenor ing(Bruhn
belief
isthat
areneither
1993).Thegeneral
people
Bruhn
and
more
1990,
"earliest";
1992)
(i.e.,
repeated
toprovide
in a self-report (i.e.,
dataaboutthemselves
willing
aremore
andSalovey
1993)experiences
Singer
A common "defining";
because
ofan ego-defensive
reaction.
fashion
andrevealimportant
symbolic
unstruc- likelyto becomemyths
tasks
isthat
arerelatively
feature
ofprojective
they
about
the
toZaltman
product/brand.
According
inthattheparticipant
cannot meanings
tured
andlacktransparency
consumer
memories
arearchetypes,
ofthetest.Themost (2003,p. 213),"Many
determine
thepurpose
immediately
commonas
universal
defined
that
essential,
images
capture
inmarthat
havebeenapplied
well-known
tests
projective
across
a
of
alities
variety
experiences."
ink-blot
testandthethematic
aretheRorschach
keting
that
focus
There
aretwostreams
ofsystematic
research
test(TAT;Rook1988,2001).
apperception
that
as
on
memories
techniques
autobiographical
projective
at Social
SidneyLevy(2003) and his colleagues
which
the
consumer
self.
One
stream,
developing
parallel
to
researchers
Inc.wereamong
thefirst
Research
marketing
inAlfred
individual
Adler's
explores
psychology,
themany
embrace
techniques originates
Among
projective
techniques.
lives
and
the
stories
that
how
EMs
guide
people's
provide
is his
tothisresearch
themostrelevant
Levypioneered,
which
of
These
identities.
become
memories,
part
people's
andmythmaking
workonstorytelling
(Levy1981).Levy
andsyminearly
contain
emotional
arerooted
childhood,
as
stories
canbeanalyzed
howconsumer
(1981)describes
socioculstream
from
The
other
bolic
emerges
meaning.
consuch
stories
to
andhe interprets
explain
projective,
theories.
Thisresearch
narrative
tural
and
explores
practice
choices.
sumption
of
of
DMs
in
the
the
role
particudevelopment
personality,
Rook
techniques
(e.g.,Levy1981;
Although
projective
in
is
situated
The
current
research
adolescence.
larly
during
motivaabout
consumer
contribute
2001)
insights
important
streams.
of
both
these
the
confluence
is now
where
a person
tendtobe static,
tions,
telling
they
future.
orlittle
aboutthepastortheintended
butnothing
EMs
is
needed
that
research
ReedandForehand
(2003)propose
is oneofthefirst
links TheEM method
theprocesses
to understand
techniques
projective
by whichsymbolic
and
theRorschach
anditpredates
and usedbypsychoanalysts,
selfareformed,
a brand
andtheconsumer
between
This
techand
DiPietro
TAT
brand
of
how
Aaker
2006).
(Mosak
many
years
(1997)callsforgreater
by
understanding
who
Alfred
"self niquewaspioneered
As Belk(1990,p. 674)notes,
Adler,
bypsychologist
develop.
personalities
because
hispatients'
EMsas important
but viewed
material
notonlytothepresent
extends
environment,
they
repreinhisorherautointime."
backward
andforward
extends
Thus,a technique senta person's
starting
point
subjective
oftheself(Adler
andrevealthefirst
oftheselfhasgreat
thedynamics
that
cancapture
symbol
promise biography
as to
a blueprint
these
memories
consumer
behavior.
forunderstanding
1931).ToAdler,
provided
forecasted
the
and
also
of
one
becomes
what
sort
the
self
information
about
holds
such
that
Thesystem
person
encounter
be
to
a
of
is calledautobiographical
andidentity
might likely
person
(Conway types experiences
memory
because
it
recalls
isimportant
inlife.TheEMa person
consumers later
andRubin
1993),anditisthegluethat
provides
next-astring
ofassociaand
setsthestageforwhathappens
aboutthepast,present,
witha senseof continuity
tome
of"what
isimportant
theme
linked
is a reconstructive
future.
(Braun1999; tions
bythelarger
process
Memory
been
the
EM
have
now."
to
mind
an
exact
that
never
Schacter
proce1996)
reproduc- right Psychotherapists using
brings
andBruhn
than
80years,
factand dureformore
ispart
that
a recollection
tionofthepastbutrather
(1992,p. 13)posits
our
andsubstantiate
thatmirror
recollections
do,indeed, that"werecallincidents
"Autobiographical
partfiction.
or
and
'overlook'
and
beliefs
ispast(memo- current
that
which
tothepresent
enable
ustobring
'forget'
perceptions
beliefs."
with
that
areinconsistent
thething
itself,
present
image incidents
ria),butnever
onlyitsreconstructed
techas a projective
is thatEMsoperate
Thepremise
of
inthecontext
andalways
terms
inpersonal
(fantasia),
inherent
in
the
are
on
the
errors
that
based
of
self-constructions
ourcontinuously
memory
nique
systems
evolving
isonpatients'
recollections
Thefocus
constructive
Inthiswayitis clearthat
process.
cognition andretrieval
(ingegno).
theageoften.To
incidents
thatoccurbefore
thefurthest ofspecific
oftheself,from
spectrum
spanstheentire
fillinthemissstories
andbackaswellintothe keeptheir
ofourfuture
reaches
coherent,
people
memory
anticipations
ofMarketing,
46 /Journal
April2007
ofthetype
ofthestories
thattheir
cannot
finish. nature
ofrelationship
memories
a person
has,forexample,
ingparts
andlifestyle
a cardealer
andPaulssen
2005).
(Fournier
Theyproject
prefer- with
themselves-personality
ences-into
their
EMs.Therefore,
there
isa mythic
element
Whatmaybe morerelevant
toautobiographical
memtotheEMs,which
enables
them
notonly oryis therelationship
tobeinterpreted
andstorytelling.
between
thebrain
level.Myths
are
at a literal
levelbutalsoat a symbolic
to Damasio(1999,p. 30), "Consciousness
According
of
thatareconsidered
truthful
accounts
I
when
brains
aregiven
thesimple
thepower,
prosenarratives
begins
power
whathappened
intheremote
the must
a story."
children
learn
how
to
add,oftelling
past.Thepeopletelling
Young
has
a lifenarrative
from
Socialcognitive
their
memory
story
maynotbeawareofhowtheir
memory
develop
parents.
beenshaped
ownpersonality,
andso
haveproposed
that
needs,
biases,
bytheir
psychologists
autobiographical
memory
forth.
As a result,
EMsarenottransparent,
similar
tothe emerges
after
theappearance
oflanguage
(Nelson1993).
methods
thatmarketers
use.
Children
totalkabout
ataround
twoyears
traditionally
projective
pastevents
begin
revealmoreaboutthemselves ofage,andtheir
toengage
inmemory
talkabout
Nonetheless,
participants
ability
past
thantheymight
theirmemories
thethird
andfourth
think, events
through
initially
develops
rapidly
during
years.
because
havecometo realizethatthecomplex
partly
theyarenotawareofhowsuchmemories
Psychologists
havebeenshaped
mixtures
ofpersonal
that
arewoven
to
(seeMosakandDiPietro
2006).
knowledge
together
most
usechildhood
memories form
andpersonal
area function
not
Although
psychoanalysts
autobiographies
myths
aspart
oftheir
Bruhn
that
there
has
butalsooftheir
culture.
the
(1990)laments
therapy,
onlyofindividuals
Throughout
beena lackofleadership
andsystematic
in
school
children's
memories
areshaped
follow-through
years,
bythenarrathedevelopment
ofEMsandtheir
thatset- tivestyletheirculture
Theirexperiences
are
usagebeyond
espouses.
The
Neisser
Ulric
ontothemeanings
of thatculture.
andmarkers
(1982)cites grafted
ting. cognitive
psychologist
EMs as a promising
butvirtually
area.The
culture
a person
influences
his
unexplored
"[Tithe
grows
upinstrongly
Adlerian
viewoftheimportance
andusageofEMs has
orherbrain's'wiring,'
or neural
in theearly
pathways,
beenlimited
topsychotherapists,
whousethem
as
oflife.Thestories
wehearstarting
inearly
childhood
primarily
years
an important
toolforunderstanding
frames
ofreference
ormental
models
patients'
present-day become
important
concerns.
future
events, thatlater
influence
theproducts
andbrands
webuy,
Theyhavebeenusedto predict
espesuchas thesuccess/failure
ofa marriage
andvocational ciallyifstories
about
those
brands
resonate
with
deepculandthey
havebeenusedretrospectively
tounder- tural
choices,
inourmemories"
embedded
2003,
(Zaltman
meanings
stand
thedifferences
inchildhood
between
and p. 192).
delinquents
andDiPietro
(Mosak
2006).
nondelinquents
DMs
Narrative
AutobiographicalMemory,
There
areother
inthedevelopment
ofthe
important
points
Development,and ChildhoodAttachment
consumer
selfthatarelikelyto influence
consumption,
Oneofmydiscoveries
wasthatinorder
tocreatethefirst
behavior.
Erikson
toadolescence
asanimpor(1968)points
ofa word-when
whatever
itis,
tant
imprint
of
youlearna word,
which
period identity
development
during questions
thereis alwaysa first
time.
"coffee,"
"love,""'mother,"
suchas "WhoamI?" and"HowdoI fitin?"aretypically
There'sa first
timetolearneverything.
Thefirst
timeyou
raised.Forvisibleproducts,
suchas automobiles,
social
understand
themeaning
ofthisword;youcreyouimprint
influences
be
more
than
familial
or
may
important
personal
atea mental
connection
thatyou'regoingto keepusing
factors
in determining
choice.Historically,
carshave
therestofyourlife.Andtocreate
thismental
connection,
mostother
as a meansofself-awareness
Without
thereis no
emotion,
eclipsed
objects
youneedsomeemotions.
of neurotransmitters
in thebrain,and you
andofknowing
aboutothers
production
(MarshandCollett
1986).
don'tcreatetheconnection.
So actually
wordhasa
every
Carscanmediate
socialrelationships
indirectly,
through
mental
I callthata code,anunconscious
codein
highway.
anddirectly,
thecapacity
to serveas a
symbols,
through
thebrain.(Rapaille2004)
common
focalpoint
ofattention
(Collins
2000).Astheself
It is notclearthatRapaille"discovered"
moreunified
adolescence
childhood becomes
(Erikson
1968),
during
become
buthe hasa validpointwithregard
broader
andoffer
to the socialnetworks
imprinting,
many
opportuniofearlyexposure.
theselfthrough
importance
(1982)andother tiestocommunicate
Bowlby
conspicuous
consumptionactivities.
researchers
As Belk,Bahn,andMayer(1982,p. 10)
seemstobe a
psychological
arguethatthere
"sensitive"
"Thismaysuggest
that
which
mother-child
attachment note,
inferences
period
during
ageandsociability
forms.
"Attachment"
is aninborn
cuesarestrongest
inthebrain
that basedon consumption
adolessystem
during
inwaysthat
evolves
influence
onnostalgia
Researchers
and cence."
andSchindler
motivational,
emotional,
(Holbrook
with
tosignificant
thatadolescence
others
is theperiod
whenconmemory
processes
respect
(Pille- 1991,1996)find
mer1998).Thissystem
motivates
a childtoseekcloseness sumers
learntheir
forculturally
observable
preferences
withhisor herparents
andto communicate
withthem. products
(e.g.,films).
Theseexperiences
withothersbecomeencodedinto
Socialpsychologists
havebegun
toinvestigate
DMsasa
andserveas expectations
thathelpchil- means
touncover
traits
implicit
memory
1988,2001;
(McAdams
personality
drenfindtheir
"secure
base."During
thedevelopmentalSinger
andSalovey
focus
hasnotbeenonthe
1993).Their
in
which
most
EMs
children
seekout ageofmemories
butrather
onmemories
that
share
thecharoccur,
period
actively
attachment
Research
thatthese acteristics
ofaffective
relationships.
vividness,
suggests
intensity,
repetitiveness,
attachment
affect
later andlinkage
toother
memories
andSalovey
patterns
interpersonal
relationships
1993).
(Singer
in life(Harzan
andShaver1987)andeveninfluence
the Themorememories
arerepeated
andshared
withothers,
Childhood
Memories
andBrand
/47
Meaning
and
thereare forreconstructions
the more opportunities
alterations
1932),whichmakesDMs also likelyto
(Bartlett
we expectthat
containmythicelements.For automobiles,
adolescencebecause
most DMs come fromparticipants'
moreinformathatis thetimepeople typicallyremember
tion about theirlives (called the "reminiscencebump";
Schacter1996). Indeed,Belk (2004) findsthatmanyof his
of automobilescame from
fondrecollections
participants'
thisperiod.
As withEMs, DMs can serveas important
symbolic
experiencesthatcan be used as a projectivedevice. For
example,Singerand Salovey(1996) findthatlifegoals and
are revealedthroughDMs. As an example,
motivations
Singer(2001) uses DMs to provideinsightintothemotivationsof a heroinaddict.In general,thesememoriesare
linkedto thepresentemotionalstateof theperson.Moffit
havemorenegaandcolleagues(1994) findthatdepressives
McAdams(1988) findsthat
tiveDMs thannondepressives.
arereflected
suchas powerand intimacy,
traits,
personality
in certaintypesofDMs. As haveEMs, DMs havebeenused
in both
as a focusof intervention
by clinicalpsychologists
In addition,
individual
andcouplespsychotherapy.
theyproforlessonlearningand meanvide important
opportunities
to a person'ssense of purpose
ing makingthatcontribute
andidentity.
ChildhoodMemoryElicitationMethod
As do otherprojectivetechniques(i.e., the TAT; Rook
and counseling
1988), themethodsused in psychotherapy
For
situation.
need to be adaptedfortheconsumer-market
much
EMs
and
DMs
may provide
example, although
insightaboutan individualin a counselingsession,marin whattheproductmeansto theconketersare interested
sumer.Thereare issues regardingwhetherthe childhood
memoriesrevolve aroundbrands,products,or product
mighthaveyearsto probe
types.Whereaspsychotherapists
childhood
and understand
memories,marketers
patients'
needresultsmuchquicker.
of a consumerEM and DM
We beganthedevelopment
on two very different
based
projective technique
the
DM questionnaires
EM
and
the
(see
(1)
approaches:
and(2)
Bruhn1990; SingerandSalovey1993,respectively)
The latter(accordingto
setting.
Rapaille'sfocusgroup-type
in "The Persuaders"miniseries;
interview
a PBS Frontline
see Rapaille 2004) consistsof a four-hour
groupsession
thatis dividedintothreeparts.The firstpartis a typical
to rationalizeand disfocusgroupthatallowsparticipants
fromthis
information
a
brand.
The
about
their
cuss
thoughts
which
a
After
discarded.
break,during
parpartis usually
con"feelgood" abouttheirintellectual
reportedly
ticipants
tribution,
theycome back for a second session and are
emotionalchildhoodfairytales to Rapaille
to
tell
asked
abouttheproduct(accordingto Rapaille,thisis to confuse
them).In thethirdsession,afteranotherbreak,participants
come back to a dimlylit roomin whichtheirchairshave
beenreplacedbypillowsandblankets;theyareaskedto lie
downon thefloorin a fetalpositionandrelax.Some memare askedto either
orycues are provided,and participants
to
writedownordiscusstheirEM oftheproduct.
According
these
that
during
(2006),
report
people regularly
Rapaille
comebackto themthattheyhadforgotsessions,memories
tenforyears.
The questionnaire
methodasks people to writedown
theirEM ("a specifichappeningor eventfromyourchildand a one-time
hood,an eventthatyou actuallyremember,
specificincidentoccurringunderthe age of 10") or DM
thatyouremem("has tobe at leastone yearold,something
berveryclearly,a memoryyou wouldtellsomeoneelse if
you in a profound
you wantedthatpersonto understand
are askedto writedownwhenit
way"). Next,participants
what
occurred,whatwas theclearestpartof thememory,
and whatthought
was thestrongest
feelingin thememory,
or actionis connectedto thatmemory.
ofsurfacing
a singular
Because oftheimportance
reprefortheEM beforetheage often(Bruhn1990) and
sentation
thedifficulty
somepeoplehaverecallingEMs (Mosak and
Pietro2006), we combinedaspectsof bothtechniquesin
Parof thememoryelicitation
ourdevelopment
procedure.
will
be
are
that
told
beforehand
participating
they
ticipants
in a memory
exerciseabouttheirchildhoodandto feelfree
to preparebylookingat picturesor talkingto familymembers beforethe study.At the timeof the study,theyare
blanket.The
directedto sit on theflooron a comfortable
researcherbegins with several yoga warm-upsboth to
in a morerelaxed
"breakthe ice" and to get participants
memories
are morelikely
state.
Autobiographical
physical
to be accessed in a calmer,less active state of mind
(LeDoux 1996). Next, the researcherleads the group
throughsome breathingand visualizationexercisesand
a "memorywalk,"in whichhe or
thentakesthemthrough
she providessome landmarkcues and leads themback in
Thisapproachis basedon thehiertimetotheirchildhoods.
of autobiographical
archicalstructure
memory(Barsalou
involveslandmark
1988). The highestlevel of abstraction
a
thatpinpoint
events(i.e.,nationalandculturalhappenings
momentin timeratherthanspecificyearsor dates). The
other levels-life themes,generic action events, and
in themememotion/sensory
images-were notmentioned
to fillin these
ory walk because we wantedparticipants
stories.
detailswiththeirownmemory
earliestchildWhentheresearcher
getsto participants'
hood,he or she asks themto writedownor drawimages
associatedwiththeirEM of the product/brand.
(McAbee
and McAbee [1979] findthatdrawingEMs is a valid
Then they
methodforhelpingclientsrecall information.)
aretold,"close youreyesandimaginea timewhenyouhad
and thatdefinedthat
an experiencewitha brand/product
what
for
you learnedwhatthat
brand/product you (pause),
this
like
was
through experience(pause); it
brand/product
to you(pause),andyoupora
certain
personality
portrayed
to
certain
a
personality the world in this brand/
trayed
product(pause); bringthatexperienceto mind."Participantsarethenallowedseveralminutesto writedownwords
and images associated with that experience.Afterthe
that
session,theyare givena questionnaire
memory-walk
asks themto writea storyabouteach of thememoriesand
to answera fewquestionsaboutit,suchas, "How old were
you whenthisexperiencetookplace?" "Whatis themost
and"Whatemotiondidyoufeel
vividpartofthememory?"
theevent?"
as youexperienced
2007
ofMarketing,
48/Journal
April
andinpreparation
forourmainstudy,
wecon- Modes ofAnalysis
Before
on
ducted
studies
EMs
and
DMs
the
pilot
using previously Interpreting
theEMsandDMsislikedetective
itisa
work;
described
methods-one
forCoca-Cola(Braun-LaTour,process
ofsearching
formeaning
The
memo1981).
(Levy
andZinkhan
foranautomobile riescanbeexamined
LaTour,
2005)andtheother
ontwolevels-the
more
conliteral,
manufacturer
(Braun-LaTour
2001).In theCoca-Cola tentlevelorthemythic,
level.Thecontent
level
deeper
we found
thatevenforan iconicbrandsuchas
involves
thememory
stories
andquantifying
them
study,
coding
the onvarious
thisstudy
from
Coke-weconducted
with
suchas agewhen
thememory
took
participants
dimensions,
who(literally)
wereserved
Cokeintheir
it was a singular
or a recurring
baby place,whether
DeepSouth
event,
memories
weremore
itinvolved
closefamily
members
oranextended
easilyaccessed whether
bottles-participants'
attheproduct
level.Inthat
weasked
theemotions
withthememories,
associated
(notbrand)
par- socialcircle,
study,
inthememories,
andgeneric
events
featured
inthe
towrite
downtheir
EM andDM before
themain themes
ticipants
stories.
toMosakandDi Pietro
andwe compared
themwiththememories
that memory
(2006),
According
session,
wasa group
ofresearchers
whosought
toquantify
wereelicited
inthemainsession;
weusedquestionnairesthere
oftheEMs,butthisled(intheir
tosupersimilar
tothosethatpsychoanalysts
andsocialpsycholo- aspects
opinion)
ficial
of
the
memories.
This
is
analysis
viewpoint
congruent
DMs
use.
We
found
that
the
did
not
but
we
much,
gists
vary
inhisdifferent
levelsof
found
moresingular
memories
andEMswhenpar- withwhatLevy(1981)observes
many
of
the
narrative
form.
we
forthese
code
Therefore,
analysis
went
therelaxation
andmemory-walk
sesticipants
through
not
to
an
overall
of
the
memoaspects
get
only
impression
sion(though
thegeneral
themes
didnotdiffer).
Thisisconries
but
also
to
in
the
deeper
go
analysis.
sistent
withfindings
intheliterature.
Forexample,
Usher
Tointerpret
thememory
stories
asmyths,
itisnecessary
andNeisser
(1993)wereabletogetpeopletoremember tobeable
to
read
and
the
andsymbols
interpret
metaphors
events
as earlyas agetwowiththeir
targeted
techniques, inthestories,
make
across
individuals
(within
comparisons
whereas
most
EMresearchers
anaverage
report
ageofthree theculture)
their
stories
characregarding
(e.g.,
significant
orfour
when
a questionnaire
andHarack(Kihlstrom
using
andlearnandunderstand
theculture
ters,
actions),
iewicz1982).Foradults,
itis easiertorecover
memories thatevents,
themyth.
howparticipants
produced
Observing
project
from
lateadolescence
than
torecover
memories
from
early themselves
andtheir
carsintotheir
about
feelings
memory
childhood
because
itoperates
with
thesameautobiographi-stories
their
choiceofincidents,
emothrough
language,
calmemory
(Kotre
1995).AsdidRapaille's
system
respon- tional
andlogicis offoremost
interest
tone,
(Levy1981).
dents,manyof ourparticipants
reported
rememberingSuchapproach
is similar
tothehermeneutical
to
approach
from
childhood
not
that
had
aboutfor consumer
things
they
thought
narratives
thestories
1997)inwhich
(Thompson
after
thememory
elicitation
session.
areviewed
asexpressing
years
existential
themes
a perbywhich
In theautomobile
we
whether
is reflected
andas drawing
from
a culstudy, explored
people son'sself-identity
wouldtelllonger
andmoreinvolved
iftheywere tural
stories
codeofshared
historical
andviewpoints.
meanings
witha camera
recorded
thanifthey
weresimply
askedto
In Rapaille's
tointerpreting
stories,
approach
memory
write
downsuchstories
ona questionnaire.
onstructural
Wefound
that hefocuses
ontheverbs
elements,
especially
used(Woll2001),rather
thanthecontent.
Forexample,
totelltheir
stories
to a
peopleweremuchmorewilling
memories
ofautomobiles,
than
camera
towrite
them
down.
Thismethod
alsooffered whenconsidering
participants'
intherelationship
interested
between
theperson
anopportunity
toprobe
thememories
formore
link- heismore
details,
and
the
car
than
one
whether
takes
in
thecity
to
other
and
so
forth.
Note
that
Bruhn
story
place
ages
experiences,
and
in
another
the
This
is
related
to
([1919]
country.
and
others
Mosak
Jung's
and
DiPietro
believe
(1990)
2006)
(e.g.,
view
of
the
as
or
action
1970,
53)
archetype
image:
thatseveralmemories
be
needed
to
life
may
identify
are
of
readiness
for
and
atthe
action,
"Archetypes
systems
so
this
to
ten
minutes
themes,
(five
superficial
questioning
same
time
and
emotions.
are
inherited
with
the
images
They
draw
out
such
connections.
Allers,
perparticipant)
helped
brain
structure-indeed
are
its
they
psychicaspect."
andWhite
EMsto
Katrin,
(1997)compare
tape-recorded
Samuels
that
canbe found
in
(1985)
argues
archetypes
written
EMsandfindsignificantly
morewords
andmore
is
to
find
the
archeexperiences.
Rapaille's
goal
self-references
inthetape-recorded
versions
about everyday
(though
or
"the
code"
for
the
whichis typically
type
product,
thesameamount
ofprojective
Written
EMsmay described
material).
as one word,forexample,
"car= identity."
be lessnuanced
because
or
participants
mayomitfeelings
claims
that
each
hasanenduring
(2004)
Rapaille
product
vivid
details.
and
different
within
thesameculture
agegroups
Thepilotstudies
inthree
resulted
toourini- archetype,
adaptations
shouldnotdiffer
in theirexpression
of thatarchetype.
contrived
session.
welearned
thatwe
First,
tially
memory
ofthememory
stories
is similar
to
Rapaille's
interpretation
would
bestbeabletoaccessmemories
attheproduct
level. whatZaltman
whenlooking
fordeep
(2003)proposes
we recognized
thattherelaxation/memory
walk metaphors.
Second,
arethehomeforlatent
and
Deepmetaphors
wasanimportant
of
the
exercise
and
be
should
component
needs
and
the
source
of
basic
and
emerging
perceptual
retained
because
ofthegreater
ofsingular
memo- behavioral
quantity
The importance
of deep
predispositions.
riesandEMs.Third,
wefound
that
andsuper- metaphors
is reinforced
work
in
videotaping
bycontemporary neuroficialquestioning
of thememories
wouldyieldmore biology
andcognitive
to embodied
linguistics
pertaining
detailed
andvivid
than
accounts
written
stories.
toZaltman
(Zaltman
2003).According
memory
cognition
(2003,p.
Childhood
Memories
andBrand
/49
Meaning
ofcarmodels
tobeof
ferent
andhistorical
references
types
acrossthedifferent
butwewerealso
cohorts,
importance
in similarities
ofexperiences
interested
inthetypes
(and
theirunderlying
discussed.
metaphors/archetypes)
they
thecultural
should
Whereas
believes
that
imprint
Rapaille
notvaryamong
we
believed
that
cultural
the
agegroups,
difinwhich
environment
oursample
grew
upwassovastly
The Study
thissamwould
bedifferences.
Inaddition,
ferent
that
there
Wechose
arethefocus
ofourstudy.
memories
Automobile
ofmemories
howdifferent
ustoexamine
types
pleenables
it
researched
because
has
been
this
heavily
product
category
consumer
life
across
the
affect
decision
making
cycle.
to
anopportunity
andprovides
intheself-concept
literature
seeBelk, Procedure
onthis
research
build
review,
(fora thorough
prior
andMayer
Bahn,
1982).
told
were
recruited
overthetelephone
andwere
United
States Participants
thesouthwestern
Oursample
camefrom
the
threeage
whorepresent
following:
andincluded
60 participants
between
theagesof
orGeneration
cohorts:
20 13ERs,
Xers,
inhearing
aboutyourchildhood
We'reinterested
experibetween
20babyboomers
25and35(10male,10female);
in
We'reasking
enceswithautomobiles.
youtoparticipate
and20particitheagesof40 and55 (12male,8 female);
a memory
journeyexercisewherewe will helpyou
remember
thesilentgeneration
pastexperiences
bygivingyoucuesandproboomers)
(orpre-baby
pantsfrom
In
foryour
guidance. orderto prepare
vidingmemory
market
A professional
8 female).
ages65andover(12male,
childto
about
we'd
like
thinking
your
begin
you
journey,
in this
firm
recruited
thesepeopletoparticipate
research
For
associate
with
cars.
that
hood
and
you
experiences
if
Eachwaspaid$100fortheir
(more
participation
study.
or
a
at
album
consider
instance,
looking
photo
youmight
thenextday).Theinterinterview
a depth
they
completed
Weare
tofamily
members
aboutyourchildhood.
talking
of2002,a year
thespring
viewswereconducted
during
in childhood
memories
interested
memories,
particularly
wasintroduced
thePT Cruiser
after
thatoccurred
toyouearlyinlife(under
(andwasa hugesucofexperiences
age
much
wasreleased
memifyouhavea particularly
(with
cess),theyearFordThunderbird
ten);however,
important
about
oftheFordMustang
andamidrumors
later,youmightstartthinking
orythatoccurred
being
anticipation),
means
to
what
that
memory
you.
and
fear
after
It wasshortly September
reintroduced.
11,
inthislargemetropolitan
wasstillabundant
cityinwhich Notethat
forthemainsesthem
suchinstruction
"primes"
oflife.Retro
cars sionandenablesthemto
beenanimportant
hasalways
part
driving
from
benefit "hypermnesia"
The"crossover"
werehot,andso wasretro
advertising.
that
literature
a finding
in thememory
1996),
(Schacter
werenotyet when
theHummer)
vehicles
(e.g.,theEscalade,
is given
a task,
suchasremembering
a person
people
introduced.
isabletorememschool
theperson
inhisorherhigh
class,
histories
can
consumers'
among
personal
Heterogeneity
oftheconsolidation
overtimebecause
bermoreandmore
different
in
of
their
needs
their
frame
meaning processes
perceptions
researchers
brain.
In addition,
in
the
(e.g.,Zalthas
1997).In hisresearch,
Rapaille
(Thompson
systems
material
"homework"
have
found
that
man
2003)
providing
when
acrosscountries
differences
considered
typically
leads
to
more
session
before
the
engaged
participants.
we
inimprinting.
differences
cultural
However,
considering
The
wereruninseparate
Thethree
groups.
agecohorts
to
ofAmericans.
focuson threegenerations
According
we
described
format
the
same
followed
main
session
previhasitsownperandHowe(1991),eachgeneration
Strauss
to
then
witha relaxation
session,
turning
beginning
auto- ously,
fromwhichit approaches
or viewpoint
sonality
the
on
andthen
walk"backintime,
focusing
is more"other the"memory
thesilent
Forexample,
mobiles.
generation
a
written
received
EMs
and
DMs.
questionnaire
Participants
aremore
idealisthebabyboomers
directed"
andadaptive;
and
answered
stories
their
wrote
in
which
memory
they
andhubris;
andtheGeneration
tic,filledwithoptimism
the
when
"How
were
old
such
as,
experience
you
questions
down
on.Inaddiandlooked
Xerswerethemost
neglected
"What
takeplace?"
didtheexperience
"Where
thatadvo- tookplace?"
a period
tion,eachgeneration
grewup during
"What
is
the
of
the
strongest
memory?"
part
Thesilent
roles.
ofparental
cated
different
generation is theclearest
types
onthis
a
title
had
to
"If
in
the
put
you
memory?"
feeling
were
and
and
be
to
wastold obey
by
overprotected
quiet
did
the
car
role
itbe?""What
would
what
playin
werethemostspoiled,
their
having memory,
babyboomers
parents;
heor
would
what
and"Ifthecarcouldtalk,
andmost thismemory?"
at homeandbeingthemostnurtured
mothers
Theywerealsoaskedto
whoweremore shesayaboutthisexperience?"
Xershadparents
andGeneration
relaxed;
events
wereoccurandcultural
downwhatpersonal
them.Because write
themandunderprotected
toward
distant
took
time
their
the
around
Participants
memory
place.
of
the
so
for
is
ring
involvement
important development
parental
in
which
room
to
another
at
a
time
one
taken
were
they
influence
the
to
this
we
childhood
memories,expected
type
stories
DM
EM
and
their
both
to
relate
asked
were
a
memory
in
difalsogrew
Eachgeneration
elicited.
ofmemories
up
somequestions
asked
them
Theresearcher
models
ofcars, totheresearcher.
withdifferent
cultural
ferent
environment,
suchas
for
them
details
about
their
different
memories,
different
of
landmark
different
prompting
wars,
events,
types
tookplaceto
theexperience
whom
andwith
inwhether
theage
Wewereinterested
where,
andsoforth.
when,
movies,
the
When
narrative.
a richer
ofEMsand helpthem
ordifferent
similar
would
exhibit
cohorts
appropriate,
develop
types
the
affected
thoseexperiences
askedwhether
dif- researcher
andMayer
DMs(e.g.,Belk,Bahn,
1982).Weexpected
oneandthe
areoften
anddeepmetaphors
14),archetypes
ormotifs
the
thatcomefrom
same.As universal
patterns
arethebasicconcollective
unconscious,
archetypal
images
andfairy
tales
tentofreligions,
legends,
mythologies,
2000).
(Hirschman
ofMarketing,
50 /Journal
April2007
ordecision
current
choices
forcarsat
tension
we
andthisledtodifferent
Thus,
participants'
making
differently,
myths.
other
times
intheir
lives.
discuss
them
separately.
of15participants,
5 from
were
Attotal
eachagecohort,
selected
tocomebackthenextdayfora depth
interview EMs
abouttheir
memories.
Thatinterview
lasted
approximatelyTheaverage
theEMsoccurred
wassix.This
ageatwhich
90 minutes.
wereaskedtobring
or
pictures
is
Participants
what
classifies
as
the
(1952)
stage
Piaget
early
preoperathat
their
EMsorDMs.Thisinterview tional
images
represented
andisa time
when
allcomponents
oftheautoperiod
wasstructured
similar
to a Zaltman
elicitation biographical
metaphor
arein place.Research
memory
system
sugin
interview
which
the
(ZMET)
technique
participants' geststhatpeoplehavealready
learned
symbolic
meaning
areusedtoguidetheinterview
(Zaltman andbrand
pictures
memory
status
bythistimeinlife(HiteandHite1995),
In
havebeenusedtohelp andself-brand
2003). general,
pictures/collages
connections
areina stateofdevelopment
interviews
guidepersonal
(e.g.,Belk,Bahn,andMayer (Chaplin
andJohn2005).Acrossgenerations,
theEMs
wereaskedhowthepic- stoodforsimilar
1982).Forexample,
participants
someof themajoraspects
notions;
tures
related
totheir
totelltheir
memory,
memory
story involved
intheEMsincluded
car,excitement,
family
safety
what
cameto mind,whowas
again,
images/emotions
andemotional),
Ofthe
andfun.
comfort,
(physical
bonding,
inthememory,
involved
whatelsewashappening
tothem EMs,80%wereforsingle
allthe
(andalmost
experiences
thetimethememory
tookplace,whythey
during
thought Generation
Xershad singular
EMs and showedthe
remembered
thatparticular
whattheylearned strongest
event,
they
between
thatmemory
andtheir
currelationship
from
thatexperience,
whatthenextmemory
thatcameto
rent
carchoice).
Forexample,
thefollowing
is Generation
mind
forconducting
these
one- XerTom'smemory
was,andsoon.Thereason
ofa singular
thatinfluenced
event
his
on-one
interviews
wastodetermine
theEMsand later
whether
preferences:
DMselicited
thesession
wouldyieldinsights
into
during
WhenI wasaboutfouryearsold,I remember
goingtothe
brand
andproduct
those
meanings
beyond
experiences.
beachin
dad's
truck.The
stoodout
Coding
my
Toyota
day
becauseitwasmybirthday,
andmydadtookoffworkto
metothebeach.I cansmellandtastethesaltwater
bring
breezemixedwiththeexhaust
ofthisoff-road
machine,
andto thisday,I havea fascination
withToyotatrucks.
EversinceI wasbrainwashed
as a childwiththislovefor
I havebeena definite
of this
consumer
Toyotatrucks,
brandname.Mypersonal
consumer
has almost
memory
forced
metoonlywantthistypeofvehicle.
SinceI have
beenableto workanddrive,
I haveownedthreeToyota
trucks.
Intotal,
there
were60EMsand60DMselicited
from
parWe
used
the
of
the
sesticipants.
transcripts videotaped
for
the
sions,notthewritten
stories,
memory
analysis
we checked
to makesurethestories
werethe
(though
ofthedepthinterviews
same).Thetranscripts
provided
additional
material
abouthowtheEM andDM influenced
other
oftheparticipants'
lives.Thesestories
and
aspects
interviews
a framework
forunderstanding
conprovided
memories
fortheanalysis
as well.
sumers
andtheir
with
automobiles. Weusedtherecurring
developing
relationship
contained
similar
themes
and
content
as
the
They
singular
Theinterpretation
ofthememory
stories
wasdiscovery
orilacked
wasdetail.
they
ented
weusedtwocoders EMs.What
(Wells1993).Fortheanalysis,
The
of memories
intogeneral
action
categorization
whoweretrained
inqualitative
datainterpretaextensively
events
resulted
in
the
weekend
famfollowing
experiences:
tion.Weusedanextensive,
structured
toidentify
process
or
with
a
ily
outings
special
outings
parent,
birthday
parties,
thekeythemes
(as perDey1999;Spiggle
1994),orwhat
orother
vacations,
relatives,
visiting
grandparents
thememory
literature
deemas "generic
events" family
might
and
a
on
It
was
"pretend"
driving
parent's
lap.
noteworthy
as
the
basic
action
in
the
suchas
(defined
taking
place
story,
werefamily
oriented
and
theevent
wassin- thatmostoftheseexperiences
going
fishing).
Theyalsocodedwhether
associated
with
of
attachment.
As
we
discussed
in
feelings
or
the
the
gular recurring,participant's
ageduring experithe"Background"
children
seekoutattachsection,
ofthememory,
actively
andwhowasinvolved.
In
ence,theemotion
thistimeoftheir
life.Thus,itis
relationships
thestories
during
wereexamined
forstructural
similari- ment
addition,
not
that
the
of
EM
was
concerned
ties(within
surprising
andbetween
majority
to identify
prigenerations)
myths
with
the
need
for
tobe with
marily
thearchetype
or"code").
attachment-seeking
(andpotentially
toshare
andrelate
Carswere
family
experiences
together.
viewed
as anessential
of
life
and
were
associpart family
Results
atedwith
and
2006).
bringing
joy family
unity
(Rapaille
Thepurpose
IntheEMexperiences,
ofthissection
is toillustrate
thecarplayed
howmanagers
theroleofbringcanusetheEM andDM data.Webegin
members
Thecarwaseither
the ingfamily
stationed
together.
bydescribing
different
of
at
home
or
the
memories
in
involved
members
to
and
from
properties
(e.g.,average
age,type
transporting
ofevents,
thenwe create
homes.
a memory
network their
DMs
included
emotions);
Furthermore,
although
people
is drawn
from
than
ourdepth
closefamily
interviews
but other
thefocus
inalltheEMs
members,
map,which
mainly
alsoincorporates
comments
madeduring
Noexternal
the wasonfamily.
actors
werepresent.
participants
sessions.
Thismapdefines
areasinwhich
TheEMs represented
the
of "emotional
videotaped
feelings
safety,"
EMsandDMscanlendthemostinsight.
Italsoidentifies which
is a safepsychological
bondwithfamily
members.
thetension
orstruggle
within
thisproduct
which Forexample,
her
Marisa,a Generation
Xer,described
category,
is thebasisofmythmaking.
Eachgeneration
dealtwith
the uncle'scaras like"being
ina living
room"
where
itwas
Childhood
Memories
andBrand
/51
Meaning
Another
comfortable
andwhere
shefeltsafeandwarm.
described
thefamily
vanas being"home"
and
respondent
alltheperson's
containing
toysandjunk.
Positive
EMsreflect
what
return
toagain
wishes,
people
Thefollowing
demonandagain.
silent
generation
memory
howeveninthemostdepressing
thecar
strates
situations,
ascomfort
andprovided
a "homelike"
container:
Alan
acted
funeral
andwassurprised
recalled
by
beingathisfather's
inthelimousine,
howcomfortable
hefelt
that
hewas
noting
as comfortable
as beingina largechairinhisownhome.
car
onthesizeofthefamily
Several
remarked
participants
anditscomfort.
Theemotion
involved
inthese
memories
wasa feeling
Thepsychoofsafety,
ofbeingcaredforandcomforted.
Winnicott
Donald
Woods
([1958]1965),best
therapist
known
forhis"transitional
(i.e.,security
object"theory
a feeling
ofbeing
warm
finds
that
EMsthat
blanket),
bring
emoandsnugtapintohowa patient
experiences
security,
itis
tional
andbasicegorelatedness.
extension,
comfort,
By
of
that
EMs
could
the
these
representcomponents
possible
in
Such
an
as
the
transitional
object.
"mothering"
portrayed
the
bondwith
enables
thechildtohavea fantasized
object
for
mother
as shegradually
longer
increasingly
separates
a wayto
theEM represents
Inadulthood,
oftime.
periods
ofbeing
cared
for.
tothat
reconnect
feeling
and
toexploring
theroleoftheparticipants
Inaddition
another
issueis therole
whatthey
important
experienced,
Is it
Is ita passive
observer?
ofthecarinthememories.
doesit
Whatsortof"personality"
central
to theaction?
a central
ofmemories,
thecarplayed
Inboth
reveal?
types
thecar'sroleintheEM
role.As wediscussed
previously,
Thesurvey
asked
ofconnecting
members.
wasthat
family
believed
thecarwould"say"about
whatthey
participants
ifithada chance
their
1974);someof
(Cooper
experience
wanderers"
"Let's
thoseresponses
were,
(baby
go,happy
I provided
with
"I amgladthat
boomer);
everyyour
family
and"Lookhowhappy
I could"(silent
generation);
thing
are"
Xer).
they (Generation
tolistthepersonalalsohadanopportunity
Participants
said
EM
car.
One
their
associated
with
traits
participant
ity
a smile
onitsfront,
oftheChevron
theimage
that
car,with
aresomeoftheadjectives
Thefollowing
cametomind.
chose:"jovial,"
"reliable,"
"comfort,"
"fun,"
"happy,"
they
"calm,"
"staid,""sturdy,"
"motherly,"
"dependable,"
and"strong."
Finally,
partici"trusting,"
"gentle,"
"steady,"
EMcarthey
oftheir
ifany,
wereaskedwhat,
aspects
pants
words
with
liketoseeoncarstoday.
would
They
responded
suchas "reliable,"
"comfort,"
"family
"dependable,"
and"safe."
"solid,"
"strong,"
"roomy,"
"simple,"
friendly,"
lookforwhen
thatconsumers
Notethatthesearetraits
orproducts
brands
The
car"
to
a
"family purchase.
selecting
EM
were
with
their
most
associated
Jeep,Grand
they
Bel
bus,van,Chevy Aire,Cadillac,
Torino,
Volkswagen
andminivan.
station
sedan,
Buick,
wagon,
of"me,"
forstatus.
anddesire
OftheDMs,60%
expression
wereforsingular
combined
experiences.
Many
experiences
ina convertible."
suchas "riding
Neisser
(1981)
together,
dubbed
suchmemories
as "repisodic"
because
they
appear
as constructive
ofrepeated
memories.
amalgrams
episodic
We found
that14 wastheaverage
age whenDMs
in
occurred.
consumers
atthisageasbeing
classifies
Piaget
ofoperations.
theformal
whoreach
theformal
stage
People
and
operation
stageare capableof thinking
logically
memories
included
socializaabstractly.
Defining
people,
andnewcars.Thefollife,schoolfriends,
tion,
learning,
theDMs:
wereassociated
with
lowing
generic
experiences
in
a
how
to
drive,
learning
pride owning car,admiring
ina "cool"car(andenjoying
another
car,driving
person's
of
for
and
beingadmired), going a joyride.Themajority
or
are
related
to
these
directly
purchasing
being
experiences
to
involved
withthecar.Thecarenabled
theconsumer
him-orherself
suchas pride,
define
toothers.
Emotions,
statement:
wereinvolved.
Consider
(a babyboomer)
Mary's
Prix.It had
a new64 Pontiac
Grand
Mydadbought
Ourlast
leather
interior
andawesome
airconditioning....
I felt
like
Italsohadwoodgrain....
cardidnothaveeither.
with
I evengotintoanargument
wearrived.
myfriend,
Linthan
hisparent's
that
itwasmore
saying
prestigious
I waswrong.
butofcourse
colnContinental,
orimpress.
Notethat
to"show
off"
Thecarwasa means
hereor a needfor
is alsoa levelofvulnerability
there
that
hisPorsche
a babyboomer,
related
914
Steve,
approval.
andcool"andthat
was theepitome
of "sophistication
In hisresearch
on male
women
werereallyimpressed.
finds
that
men
often
Belk
enthusiast
drivers, (2004,p.247)
that
willmakethem
sexual
charm
viewcarsas a "magical
of
Thecarwasviewed
as a symbol
towomen."
irresistible
Xer
Generation
successandaccomplishment.
Likewise,
both
hadNisthat
heandhisbestfriend
Mark
remembered
andthatmade
sanZ carsandcalledthemselves
"Z-men,"
asifhehadaccomplished
himfeelspecial,
something.
to be experienced,
carwas something
Thedefining
are
off.Thefollowing
andshown
descriptions
enjoyed,
DM:
their
that
thecarwouldsayabout
whatpeoplenoted
of
"I livedmy15 minutes
"Let'srock"(babyboomer),
ontheride
and"I tookyoufolks
fame"
(silent
generation),
their
described
life"(Generation
ofyour
Xer).Participants
the
car
as
personality
brand-defining having following
traits:
"fast,"
maker,"
"cool,"
"fashionable,"
"image
"sexy,"
"attractive,"
"outgoing,"
"fun-loving,"
"classy,"
"proud,"
Desired
and"smooth."
"almost
uncontrollable,"
"macho,"
car
were
from
the
"luxury,"
"sexy,"
defining
qualities
"cool,"
"fast,"
"convertible,"
"reputa"expensive,"
"speed,"
most
associated
orproducts
Thebrands
and"styling."
tion,"
with
theDMswereStingray,
Thunderbird,
Corvette,
Capri,
andhotrod.
Celica,
MemoryMap
Thenodesonthememory
map(seeFigure1) represent
DMs
and theconnections
fromour interviews,
constructs
menbetween
thenodesshowassociations.
theDMs
centered
onfamilies,
theEMexperiences
Whereas
Onlyconstructs
each
from
oftheparticipants
ofthepartici- tioned
members
ofexternal
theinfluence
showed
byatleasttwo-thirds
the
We
constructed
on
the
of
ideas
the
featured
memories
These
circles.
social
map
primap.
appear
generation
pants'
also
interview
from
thedepth
thecarbeingan
data,butexamples
marily
off,"
"goingfora joy ride,"
"showing
ofMarketing,
52 /Journal
April2007
FIGURE1
MemoryMap
Freedom
Escape
Responsibility
Practical
Fun
Single
self
Home
Slow
car
Sports
Familycar
Family
bonding
Desire
Pride
Old
Physical
safety
Status
Stylish
Quiet
Emotional
safety
Boxy,
roomy
Nostalgia
came fromthe surveys.As such, the map representsa
of ourparticipants.
majority
or tension,in the map
The mostobviousdistinction,
between"familycar,"represented
appearsin thedisconnect
on the
on theleft-hand
side, and "sportscar,"represented
side (i.e., theEM data primarily
relatedto the
right-hand
relatedto thesports
familycar and theDM dataprimarily
car).Thistensionof needinga safevehiclewhiledesiringa
whichis consisfun,sportycar existedforall generations,
tentwithSolomon's(1983) proposition
thatan automobile
withtheindividualsenseof selfor
can be used to identify
the familysense of self. Brown,Kozinets,and Sherry
in reference
(2003) call suchcontradictions
"paradessence,"
to theparadoxicalessenceof a brand.
Levi-Strauss(1977) takes a structuralist
approachto
that
the
and
of
is
a
myth proposes
purpose
myth to provide
a logicalmodelthatis capableof overcoming
a contradicis that(1) all culturestryto accountfor
tion.His argument
in theworldaroundthemand(2) in
contradictions
apparent
almostall languages,mythsfollowsimilarstructural
lines
in dramatizingthese contradictionsinto storyformto
resolvethem.In our interpretation
of thedata,we do not
take such a strongstructuralist
butit is noteperspective,
the
that
contradictions
that
worthy
memorymaprepresents
consumersexperience(e.g., thetensionbetweenotherand
self,the tensionbetweenfamilycar and statuscar). This
findingmaps onto Holt and Thompson's(2004) man-ofactionheromyth,whichis a resolutionof two opposites:
Retro
breadtherebelcool (sportscar) and thesecure-but-boring
winner(familycar).
are successBrandsthatcan resolvethecontradictions
beliefthatthebrand
ful.The brand'smythis theconsumer
offersa way to resolvea problemor situationthatprevisome kindof contradiction
(Holt 2003).
ouslyrepresented
In thecase ofthesuccessful
PT Cruiser,
thecarresolvedthe
contradiction
by beingbothbig and roomy(aspectsof the
and stylfamilycar),thushavingsomeemotionalcomfort,
and attention
ish, distinctive,
getting(whichis associated
withthe sportscar side of the map). As Rapaille (2004)
said:
Whatpeopletoldus is that"we'retiredofthesecarsthat
haveno identity.
I havegoodquality,
goodgas mileage,
a diselse,butwhenI see thecarfrom
goodeverything
I havetowaittillthecargetsclosetoknowwhatit
tance,
Whenyougotoseeyour
is,andI havetoreadthename."
shedoesn'tneedtoreadyournametoknowwho
mother,
connection.
And
youare,yousee?Wewantthisreptilian
so thisnotion
ofidentity,
key,wasveryreptilabsolutely
ianfora car.Chrysler's
other
research
toldthempeople
don'twanttobuycarsanymore,
theywantSUVs [sportetc.
minivans,
vehicles],
utility
Fromthisperspective,
brandswithstrongcontradictions
are viewedas "better."
In otherwords,strongopposition
leads to strongmyth.By extension,brandpositioningis
in its
superiorif it can capture(and resolve)contradiction
brandstory.Companieswithdying(or injured)brandsare
Childhood
Memories
andBrandMeaning
/53
oftencompanieswhosebrandmythshavefallenbehindor
are outof tunewithcontemporary
culture(Holt2003). The
is thatbrandsare comproblemwithmythidentification
plex,andpeopleareevenmorecomplex.In manyinstances,
theremightbe morethanone myththatdescribestheproduct or brand.Accordingto Levi-Strauss(1977), thebinary
is mediatedbya thirdterm,whichtypically
conopposition
stitutes
valuedin theculture.Consumermemory
something
storiesare situatedin a broaderculturalsystemof meanings. Culturalmythsthatmanifestin consumermeanings
are groundedin thecollectiveculturalmemory(Thompson
sharea
1997). Ourdatasuggestthatthoughall generations
thethirdvariable-howit is
binaryoppositionor struggle,
mediatedor resolved-differs
Othamongthegenerations.
in automobileownership
ershavefoundgenderdifferences
difference
in our
(Belk 2004), butthemostoverwhelming
datawas generational.
The GenerationXers
11 Americawas
In oursample,thefearin post-September
still operating,thoughat an implicitlevel (i.e., no one
11 world,
In thispost-September
itdirectly).
acknowledged
theGeneration
Xers werebeginningto startfamilies.The
naturalurgeto reliveor re-createtheirown childhood(as
discussedin othertexts;Levy 1981) is heightened
by the
that
childhood
was
not
that
their
own
good.
reality
really
Theygrewup in theeraduringwhichdivorcewas rampant,
theirself-centered
babyboom parentsoftenignoredthem,
womenwerebreakingaway fromfamiliesto startcareers,
childhoodenvironment,
and so forth.Despitethisdifficult
in oursample,theGeneration
Xersindicatedin theirvideo
thattheirEMs were something
interviews
theycherished.
between
This groupalso showedthestrongest
relationship
car choice.
theirEM andcurrent
membersof this
To make sense of thiscontradiction,
groupcreatedtheirown mythsabout theirchildhood.In
was centralto theexperience.
almostall theEMs, thefather
a larger-than-life
He was frequently
figure.Zoe rememin
her
father's
handand noticown
hand
her
beredputting
remembered
how
dwarfed
she
it
hers;
lookingup at his
ing
amazed
at how large he
and
seven-foot-tall
being
figure
was; she recalledstoppingduringtheirchildhoodvacation,
creekwith
gettingout of thecar,and playingin a running
them
hersiblingsand herfather
reachingdownand lifting
this
out. Later,she notedthatshe may have remembered
experiencebecause of the fantasyof wantingto have a
fatherwho was involvedin herlife (thatwas thelast trip
as a family;he separatedhimselffrom
theytooktogether
car was a redJeep
theirlives afterthatpoint).Her current
Cherokee;shesaidthatshewas drawntoitforitsbox shape
and wonderednowif she was influenced
by theredstation
wagon of her childhoodexperience(it was also square
shaped).
Zack recalledhisEM as beingin thebackofthestation
wagon in the thirdseat (facingbackward)as his father
Abouta halfhour
drovetowardthe vacationdestination.
intothetrip,he vividlyrecalledthecar comingto a halting
he did not
stop.Because he was facingtheotherdirection,
hadslammedon thebrakestomisshitting
see thathisfather
a deerin theroad.He barelycaughta glimpseof thedeer
beforeit ranoffintothesafetyof thewoods.He recalleda
drove,as if any
feelingof safetyin thecar whenhis father
potentialobstaclecouldand wouldbe averted.Thathe was
in thismemory.
facingbackwardhas additionalsymbolism
Later,he said thathe enjoyedthefeelingof isolationin the
thirdseat;facingbackwardmadehimfeelseparatefromhis
femalesiblings:
I wasinthethird
seat,sortofinmyownworld.
Brought
Itwasfun....Sometimes
I'd feelkind
mytoysbackthere.
ofisolated...It wasgreatbecauseI didn'thavetoworry
aboutmysisters
me or myparents
at
bothering
yelling
me....Itwaskindofcool.
As HoltandThompson(2004) note,theheromythdrives male behavior;we foundthatthiswas particularly
the
case with men, cars, and theircurrentfamily.Stuart
recountsthefollowing
experience:
Thefirst
timeI really
orcaredabouta caris when
noticed
I gottogowithmyDadtotestdrivea Trans
Am.MyfamandtheBandit,
andthatis thecar
ilyhadjustseenSmoky
theheroofthemovie,BurtReynolds,
drovetogetaway
fromall thebadguys.It wasthecarto have,andI was
excited.
really
Later,he said thatas a child,he playedwiththeTransAm
toy car in his backyard.He admittedthathe had had a
sportscar at one time,butnow thathe was marriedwitha
child, he had an SUV. The interviewswere conducted
beforethereleaseof theHummerand some of thelarger
SUVs, so at thattime,such a car choice represented
protectingand isolatingoneself(or family)fromthe "bad
becauseit rodehigherthanother
terrorists)
guys"(drivers,
cars on theroad.Lauer (2005) claimsthatconsumersusubuyingSUVs to theirsafetyand space,buthe
allyattribute
thanphysical
findsthatsafetyis viewedas emotionalrather
but
rather
social
andthatspaceis notinterior
cargo
spacethe privilegedabilityto traverseinhospitableterrainto
removeoneselffromsociety.
AnothermemoryfromSamanthaevokesthedarkside
She recalledbeing
of the hero archetype(the destroyer).
drivenby her fatherin his "souped-up"Toyotatruckto
school so she couldbe admiredby theotherkidsbecause
wereknownas
thetruckwas so cool. She and herbrother
the"cool kids"becauseofthetruckandwouldpurposefully
be lateto schoolso thattheycouldbe drivenin thatchariot.
thecar.
Her EM was of herfather
crashingand destroying
taken
of
fear
That memorysymbolized
havingsomething
hero
to
save
the
of
a
and
not
day.
having strong
away
forreachingthis
A brandstorythatmightbe effective
wouldbe one thatevokesthemythicfatherfiggeneration
fatheras a hero,
ure. Such a storymightshowthecurrent
the
bad
from
his
guys and confronting
protecting family
wouldbe viewedas being
evil.The father
and overcoming
empoweredand in control(some of thefeelingsthatwere
butalso
11 in particular
takenawayfromhimon September
andhis
a familyandno longerhadhisfreedom
as he started
car).
sports
The Baby Boomers
thebabyboomerswere
Duringthetimeof theinterviews,
of raisinga
and theresponsibility
becomingemptynesters,
ofMarketing,
54/Journal
April2007
wasnotattheforefront
oftheir
thatshehadnotlefttheparking
They shelethermombelieve
family
experience.
intheir brake
weremostinfluenced
indicated
thatsecret
toherself
formorethanten
on,keeping
bytheDMsthey
andnottaking
videointerviews
andsaidthat
weremore
and years
fortheaccident.
they
pleasant
responsibility
AsSally
offreedom,
torelive
more
than
andnot
cherished
Feelings
anyoftheother
generations.
wanting
youth,
areall associated
"I'mata point
inmylifewhere
I canfocus
backon
withthePeter
Pan
noted,
taking
responsibility
callthe"eternal
I amlooking
would
I lookfora cartoday
notforthe image
archeme,andwhen
(orwhat
Jung
boy/girl
Thebabyboomers'
tothefearofpostofkidsbutforthecute,
that
rep- type").
response
practical
hauling
sportiness
11wastoescapetotheir
more
from
allthose
There
idealistic
adolesresents
freedom
was
September
responsibilities."
brands
thatembrace
alsoa stronger
between
theDMandthecurrent cence.Therefore,
eternally
relationship
remaining
inbody,
andspirit,
aswellasthose
that
inoursample
feature
choice
behavior.
werecon- young
mind,
Many
respondents
associated
with
a sports
menandonewoman
indi- images
car(five
DMs,wouldappeal
babyboomers'
sidering
buying
tothisgeneration.
theFordThunderbird).
catedthat
wereeyeing
Thisis
they
consistent
withBelk's(2004)finding
thatpeopleintheir
middle
toreclaim
lostyouth
andalltheexcitement SilentGeneration
agetry
wasperhaps
associate
with
their
lateteenage
themostintriguing.
As
cars Thesilent
generation
they
years
bybuying
thatarereminiscent
ofthose
in thesensethatthey
desired
whenthey
were children,
theywerewarcasualties
they
andtheir
As children,
whowerefaced
thebabyboomers
werethemost wereoften
overlooked,
parents,
younger.
theDepression,
worked
Theangstthatis evident
in the with
andthere
wasnot
spoiled
bytheir
parents.
longhours,
timefornurturing.
Their
lifeparalleled
Generation
Xersandtheinterest
inre-creating
thedeveloptheir
child- much
oftheautomobile,
from
themass-produced
FordA,to
hood(inmore
inthis ment
notatallapparent
positive
ways)were
the
to
the
1957
tothepresent.
Whatappeared
Their
lifehas
to be moreprevalent
was
Corvair,
Chevy,
generation.
also
an
been
internal
between
the
the
to
need
to
break
from
andthe
control,
struggle
practicality
re-creating
parental
which
their
ascribed
the
and
abundance
to
available
memories
featured
either
that
break
orputting
offresponsiparents
after
World
WarII; forthisgeneration,
thestruggle
featured
convertibles
bility.
Manyofthememories
along them
was
not
between
and
car
the
with
of
freedom
at
one's
hair
down."
family sports (on memory
feelings
"letting
between
andstatus
car.Their
life
Mike'sfirst
involved
his unclewinning
a
map)butrather
practical
memory
the
and
transformation
of
Cadillac
Eldorado
convertible
ina raffle.
to
sophistication,
Accordinghim, paralleled growth,
andsomeaspired
their
lifetimes
thecarcostmorethantherowhouseinwhich
hisuncle theautomobile,
throughout
Others
condemned
that
livedinLittle
He remembered
with toownthebestcaravailable.
type
Italy.
beingimpressed
of
and
the
ofthe
thecarandwishing
hehadoneinhisowngarage
conspicuous
consumption extravagance
today
automobile
as a status
backtotheir
thecarwas wayoutof his pricerange).He
symbol,
harkening
par(though
ents'
more
views
about
the
role
of
cars.Theview
this
a
lot
of
memremarked,
practical
"[G]oing
through exercise,
my
thateventually
wasrevealed
in their
childhood
oriesrevolved
around
convertibles."
Whenaskedwhy,
he
prevailed
memories.
saidthattheyarecarefree,
nota responsibility
and
car,
ForAlan,thisstruggle
wasongoing.
He grewupina
He
[I] wouldliketobuyonetorelive
"yeah,
myyouth."
tenement
in
his
One
of
EMsisofescapwasoneofthemeneyeing
theFordThunderbird.
buildingBrooklyn.
the
and
a rideinhis
who
was
also
the
recalled
his
Jim,
ing day-to-day
squalor misery
bytaking
eyeing Thunderbird,
uncle's
A
Model
and
exhilarated
when
inits
of
with
his
in
uncle
his
1955
being
riding
Oldsmobile,
memorybeing
seat.A wealthier
owned
a
he
which
"themost
beautiful
carI'veeverseen,
... redandwhite
two- rumble
Buick,
neighbor
...
he
and
tonewithlotsofchrome."
Thememory
a time said represented
involved
[and]
"power
prestige,"
theneighbor's
sonsothat
hecouldride
when
drove
farmland
atmore
than100miles befriended
"dippy"
they
through
in
it
on
occasion.
When
he
was
older
and
had
somemoney
hour
to
to
his
aunt's
He
house.
said
that
"the
per
get
experihesaid,
encetaught
meI likefastcars."He laterbought
two tobuya carforhisbusiness,
Oldsmobiles.
His interest
in theThunderbird
wasthatit
I guessI thought,
I neverdo. I
whynotindulge
myself.
hisDM ofhisneighbor's
"matched"
Thundidn'tevencompare
I didn'tshop.I justwanted
to
canary-colored
prices.
derbird
convertible.
Heremembered
Itwasn'tthecarthatI loved.I wanted
itandenjoytoget
getthisthing.
admiring
a Buick.I never
untilnowassociated
thatBuickwith[his
toschoolinit(as opposed
tohisparent's
ingbeingtaken
butnowI wonder.
Allthoseyears,
this
Buick,
neighbor's]
moreconfining
tocars
sedan).He admitted
beingdrawn
was
buried
in
mind
or
in
burned
heart.
thing
my
my
that
area little
that
different,
people
stopandnotice.
Patrecounted
hermemory
ofbeingsixyearsoldand Hebought
theBuick,
andforhim,
itbecame
a metaphor
for
inthebackseat
with
herlittle
ina carseat; hisownpersonality.
brother
"Buick
wasright
forme,quiet
sitting
prestige,
hermomstopped
ata neighbor's
houseandleft
them
alone notshowing
likea Cadillac."
Thisviewofa Buickwasconfora fewminutes.
Shewasalways
fascinated
with
with
what
SocialResearch
Inc.'soriginal
1954study
driving sistent
andtookthatas anopportunity
topractice,
behind found
aboutCadillacs
andBuicks;namely,
Buickswere
sitting
thebigwheel
andmoving
thegears.
What
shedidnotreal- socially
a notch
belowCadillac,
butforthoseontheway
ize wasthatshereleased
theparking
andthecar
brake,
carsforsubreliable,
up,Buickswereconsidered
sturdy
rolled
down
thedriveway
andacross
thestreet
andhit(and stantial
whereas
Cadillacs
wereresented
as snobpeople,
lefta largeholein)thehouseacross
thestreet.
Sherecalls bishorsnooty
themore
(Easton
2001).Currently,
practical
that
wasmoving
soslow,
andsofast,
atthesame sideofAlanwon;heowned
a minivan.
Hesaid,"there
"everyone
goes
time."
Themost
ofthat
wasthat practical
Alanagain."
hewasabletogive
symbolic
aspect
experience
Thus,although
Childhood
Memories
andBrandMeaning
/55
andthus
someofthese
concerns
werenotpivotal
inhislife,
thepractical- interview,
intohisdesire
forstatus
atonetime
carwasa sports
car(Trans
tohislife.Hiscurrent
tookoveragain.
hischildhood
Am),and
during
years
itylearned
offreedom
and
"new" he saidthathe choseitforthefeelings
ofowning
thestatus
Denniswanted
something
whose
wasa female
there
homea
HisEM wasofhisfather
anddifferent.
babyboomer
escape.Likewise,
bringing
EM wasofherfather
herfamily's
station
he
time."Whatan experience,"
newcar forthefirst
wagon
driving
VilvisittoSanta's
roadafter
a family
ofhaving
"theexcitement
a newcar."Hesaidthat downa dark,
recalled,
windy
the
home
Her
hit
car
on
He
father
another
back
then.
a newcarwassomething
(everyone
way
lage.
special
justhaving
hascontinued
tobe a
andthe wasfine).Forthiswoman,
inandexploring
remembered
it,thesmell,
safety
climbing
inhercarchoices,
andshewould
concern
a
foremost
ingeneral.
HisDM wasalsoabout
aweoftheexperience
probaisintosomething;
newcar.Hesaidthat
archetype
mything bly respondwell to the "father-as-hero"
"everyone
Xers.
fortheGeneration
tobenewcars."
Herecalled
family
many
pho- described
justhappens
inthehouseorin
infront
than
ofthecar(rather
tostaken
didnotknow MarketingImplications
front
ofthehouse).He saidthathisfamily
livedin
or
and
owned
stocks
who
bonds, everyone
anyone
formardatacanbeusedtoprovide
Thememory
insights
car
that
differenit
was
the
same
of
the
datainformation
type house;
Forexample,
roughly
theobjective
keters.
memory
theHudson
tiated
Terraplane, described
couldhelpmangers
people.His EM involved
intheEM andDM sections
a lotlikethePTCruiser
looked
which
hethought
("a cute construct
orcorpoadcampaigns
effective
autobiographical
hisearliest
car....Yeah,I'd buyone").Again,
experience ratecommunications
Sujan,and
(e.g., Baumgartner,
current
infiltrated
theeasiest
preference.
events"
Bettman
1992).The"generic
represent
His
sonoftheDepression.
Bobwasa morepractical
lifethemes,
tothepast(Barsalou
entree
1988).Theimages,
cartovisithiscousin,
EM involved
thefamily
get- andlandmark
inthis
discuss
wedidnotfully
taking
events
(which
to
tobandtogether
inthemuddy
road,needing
and
to
tingstuck
could
article) provide
symbols images incorspecific
thecaroverhiscousin's
legs porateintoconsumer
communications.
pushthecar,andpushing
By associating
thiswasa fond
Hesaidthat
memory themselves
(whodidnotgethurt).
childhood
with
memory
experiences,
important
wouldall laughaboutit
a family
andbecame
as
forth
they
theemotions
myth;
canbenefit
brands
brought
through
the consumers
visited.
Hismemory
eachtime
making
of
Proust
the
manner
symbolizes
those
memories
they
relive
(in
tocars,
hesaidthat andhis"petite
With
bestoutofa badsituation.
theEM andtheDM
respect
Within
madeleine").
andthen experiences
oldercarsuntiltheydropped
hisdadbought
the
thatdefine
anddifferences
aresimilarities
a carwasa tool,not generations
older
car.Tohisfather,
another
stratecommunication
andsuggest
bought
segmented
to
ofinterest
atnewcarswasnotanything
a toy:"Looking
andlife
ofsimilarity,
thegeneric
experiences
gies.Interms
tobetheKingofEng- themes
itwould
belikewanting
usbecause
with
Consistent
acrossgenerations.
wereshared
andweknewwe'd
be a king,
land.Weknewwe'dnever
human
of
some
1999)
([1957]
finding,
aspects
Levy's
interms
ofcars nature
never
havea newcar."Bob'spracticality
forstaConsumers
andliferemain
yearn
unchanged.
he
ownsa Dodgevan.Previously,
He currently
continues.
their
children's
ble families,
lives,andfinding
bettering
After happiness.
for$12,000.
hebought
a Mazdavan,which
owned
in thesymbolic
areobserved
Thedifferences
in
it
and
he
tried
to
turn
three
thisin
buya
to thesememories
attached
approximately years,
(we discuss
meaning
he
atthe$24,000
butgawked
newmodel
associevents
andthelandmark
pricetag,which
detail
subsequently)
greater
thesamevan.He said
wastoohighforbasically
claimed
of
which
wouldallowformoretargeting
atedwiththem,
wereintobuying
someofhisfriends
that
cars,such thecollective
showy
ofthedifferent
memories
(Halbgenerations
suchcarswould wachs[1950]1980).
thatbuying
andthinking
as a Mercedes,
thepoint(even
he
never
saw
but
them
somehow,
that
totheEM experiences
wasa mythic
There
change
quality
hecouldafford
informait).
them
notjustfortheliteral
ustoanalyze
enabled
though
is
ofthisgeneration
tomembers
relevant
Thearchetype
remembered
tionbutalsofortheir
Participants
symbolism.
andbuying themselves
thepullbetween
theMidas/miser,
like
would
ofhowthey
interms
being
showy
andthebrands
roots. themselves
their
andremembering
thebestwhile
As
thanhowthey
tobe (rather
practical
being
were).
actually
ofthisgenera- Vailliant
thepsyche
that
wants
toengage
Fora brand
forcater(1977,p. 197)said,"Itisalltoocommon
totheBuick: pillars
Alansaiditbestinhisreference
intheir
tion,
maintain
that
andthen
butterflies
tobecome
perhaps
makes
Maturation
"quiet
prestige."
theyhadbeenlittlebutterflies.
youth
childhood
their
tellabout
liarsofusall."The"lies"people
A GeneralNote on Archetypesand Deep
sometruth
forinterpretation.
makethem
Although
perfect
Metaphors
are
there
with
thememory
associated
wasprobably
stories,
with
associated
elements
also
be
best
described
could
the
three
experipresent-day
many
generations
Although
andcurrent
ences(e.g.,lifestyles;
therewas
concerns,
we recounted,
stories
thearchetypal
preferences;
through
11America).
with
Forexample,
onemaleGeneration
someoverlap.
Xer,who suchas a preoccupation
post-September
ontothe
idealized
selvesareprojected
anexperi- Inthisway,
recalled
hismother,
wastheonlyonetofeature
people's
a gameofstick- past.
heplayed
herinwhich
enceinthecarwith
andSherry
toBrown,
as his
itthere
andholding
Kozinets,
(2003),such
According
inghishandoutthewindow
andit
at
been
hinted
ideal
has
a
EM (andhisother
Thissortofplayful
accelerated.
mother
byscholars,
only
utopian
brand
in
role
an
Peter
Pan
archethe
fitbetter
with
aswell)would
memories
plays important understanding meanings
an
whowant
tocreate
Forbrand
atthetimeofthe andconnections.
didnothavea family
Thisperson
managers
type.
2007
ofMarketing,
56/Journal
April
in their
Hummer
willseeksimilar
selforimage,
toconsumers'
"authentic"
past Xerparents
family's
connecting
andpresent-day
associations
whenthey
As Belk
attributes
a promising
design
experiences
provides
opportunity.
from
willseek
ownfamily
car30years
"Eventhough
ournostalgia
memories buytheir
now;they
(1990,p.670)states,
ownform
thanobjective their
ofemotional
areessentially
un-real
andimaginary
rather
safety.
exists
as
A traditional
is that
thebrand
intheobjects
that
wenevertheandinherent
them,
wayofthinking
inspire
itsownsetofattributes
and"perandpossesses
oftheseobjects."
Authen- anentity
lessinsist
upontheauthenticity
ofthisapproach
is thatit
traits."
Onelimitation
ofbrand
isanimportant
1993). sonality
(Keller
identity
ticity
aspect
formanagers
tofind
these
bedifficult
a waytomake
isthebrand's
that
brand
essence
DNA, might
Kelly(1998)claims
totheconsumer.
In ourresearch,
the traits
Thenarrative
orwhatit stands
forto consumers.
approach
meaningful
ofexamining
is basedontheassumption
thata
butcontinued
to
thebrand
ofthebrand/product
meanings
changed
to
their
brand
brand
takes
on
its
consumers
onestrategy,
a
influence
current
through
meaning
preferences.
Through
the
in themap interactions
withthebrand
For
couldworkto reconcile
theoverall
tension
(orproduct). example,
or
trait
of
a
Buick
to
certain
between
on
self
and
on
the
be
ascribe
the
way viewing
focusing family,
might
focusing
PT
suchas"old,"
In
thesports
carversus
thefamily
tothebrand,
or"stodgy."
car,as thesuccessful
"dull,"
adjectives
would
be
to
Cruiser
sincethetime
these
interviews contrast,
thenarrative
of
the
brand
hasdone.Notethat
way viewing
in
have
with
the
wereconducted,
theCrossfire,
and
Hummer
associate
a
Buick
of
Escalade,
people's
experiencesriding
their
backoftheir
allattempted
toestablish
ownbrand
basedon
onbutterscotch
car,ofsucking
grandparents'
myths
thisconflict.
on
a
of
to
the
soforth.
Analternative
involves
taken
movie
and
theatre,
candy, being
strategy
focusing
and
a
the
or
consumer
then
scholars
have
creating
particular
type
Although
marketing
recognized
generation
brand
the
Peter
of
of
this
has
toward
these
the
nature
the
brand,
hero,
myth
importance experiential
experiences,
using
as guides.
notbeenfully
intohowbrand
modPan,ortheMidas/miser
archetypes
integrated
management
elsaredefined
andSherry
Kozinets,
(cf.Brown,
2003).In
thepast,a brand's
schema
hasbeendefined
as alltheassoGeneral Discussion
tothebrand
inmemory
ciations
connected
(Keller1993),
Thepurpose
ofthisarticle
wastointroduce
EMsandDMs
areassumed
tobestored
which
ina semantic-type
network.
asprojective
that
marketers
couldusetouncover Thisresearch
offers
another
thatis consistent
techniques
perspective
brand
wasguided
in
Ourmethod
withtheliterature
ontherelational
ofbrands
meaning.
byresearchers
aspect
(e.g.,
and
social
well
as
as
Fournier
associbrands
andtheir
psychoanalytic
counseling
psychology,
1998).Inthisapproach,
thewell-established
Theconsumer atedmeanings
G. Clotaire
from
theinteractions
Rapaille.
theyhavein
emerge
stories
both
were
andqual- consumers'
lives.Keytounderstanding
what
means
a brand
memory
analyzed quantitatively
Inthefollowing
in
wediscuss
ourresults
is unlocking
whatconsumers
sections,
remember
abouttheir
itatively.
today
terms
ofpositioning
a brandacrosstheconsumers'
life usageofthebrand
orproduct
inthepast.Fromthisperhow
our
are
related
and
could
add
be
used
to
are"meaning
marketers
andconcycle,
findings
spective,
managers,"
a narrative
dimension
to theconception
of thebrand sumers
ofbrand
arecocreators
essence
Kozinets,
(Brown,
andthestrengths/weaknesses
ofthismemory
elici- andSherry
schema,
andSherry
2003;Brown
2003).
tation
method
with
other
methods.
compared
projective
LifeCycle
MethodologicalConsiderations
Therehasbeena resurgence
of interest
in identifying
Products
canserve
different
a person's research
methods
that"digdeeper"
intotheconsumers'
purposes
throughout
lifetime.
Numerous
eachexuding
different
brands,
measures,
person- unconscious
(e.g., ZMET, physiological
tothese
needs.
Thisfinding response-latency
someprojective
traits,
Nonetheless,
ality
correspond
varying
techniques).
is congruent
withcontemporary
fora longtime(e.g.,TAT,Qhavebeenaround
research,
personality
sug- techniques
a situational
bestrevealed
nar- sort,
Thechildhood
elicitation
method
gesting
Rorschach).
component
through
memory
A major
ratives.
isthat
automobile
manufactur-is bestclassified
as a projective
basedonconimplication
technique
ersshould
beaware
oftherolethat
vehicles
in
haveplayed
sumer
andthememory
elicitation
storytelling,
procedure
consumers'
to
understand
what
in
want
future.
wedescribed
the
hereidentifies
markers
as
past
they
important
memory
Thisinsight
is especially
inindustries
inwhich themakings
ofconsumer
stories.
Notethatthis
important
memory
occursfar in advanceof product approach
is different
from
traditional
research
designplanning
storytelling
introduction.
which
in
asks
about
tales
(i.e.,Levy1981),
general family
The consumer-brand
is dynamic
and
orstories;
from
which
the
entire
interviews,
relationship
life-story
probe
butitisalsocyclical.
Certain
can
lifehistory
andcanlastthree
tofivehours;
from
theTAT,
changing,
keyexperiences
intowhattheconsumer
willdesire
inthe which
orcartoons
that
"askquestions"
to
provide
insights
develops
pictures
future.
Wefound
EMsofcarexperiences
that
wereindica- spurparticipant
the
(Rook1988);andfrom
storytelling
tiveofchoice
ina family
vehicle
inlife.Forexample, ZMET,in whichparticipants'
later
ownimagesdirectthe
intotheselection
ofa
defining
experiences
provided
insight
storytelling.
hadbeenhandled.
issues
Inaddition,
Thememory
elicitation
method
attheindividual
car,after
sports
family
begins
EMsofsafety
andfunctioning
become
anissue(e.g.,from level;peoplerecount
their
EMs andDMs of a product.
discussions
withthesilentgeneration
For Their
recollection
is enhanced
a time
participants).
process
byallowing
children
to andfrom lagbetween
theinitial
contact
andthemainsession,
example,
todaywhoareescorted
during
orwhogoonfamily
school
vacations
with
their
Generation whichtheir"synapses"
begin"warming
up" childhood
Childhood
Memories
andBrandMeaning
/57
to
associations.
Thememory
walkfurther
them
ofthememory
recollections.
encourages
ingtheindividual
integrity
intheir
interview Becauseourfocus
recallearlier
is onEMsandDMs(andtherolethey
lives,andtheshort
points
As
sessionhelpsthemform
a comprehensive
narrative.
narratives
are
lives),theresulting
playedin participants'
a memory
havenoted
other
researchers
method
andmorefocused
from
a
thanmight
be expected
(Lup- shorter
using
ton1994),theseimportant
memories
ortypical-life-story
which
makes
interview,
mayrestat a more depth
analysis
without
such moreefficient.
unconscious
levelandbedifficult
toarticulate
Wefollowed
thememory
elicitation
with
inourCoca-Cola
wefound longer
assistance.
in
interviews
andnotethatthatdatawerecritical
Indeed,
pilotwork,
session
were
dif- forming
that
thememories
elicited
ina focus
theoverall
uses
group
However,
map.
memory
Rapaille
elicita- onlythedatafrom
ferent
from
those
recalled
as a result
ofthememory
session
inhisinterpretation,
thememory
tionprocedure.
Wealsofound
thatwhenfocusgroup
stories
thatthevideotaped
par- andwefound
memory
provide
a
readmemory
stories
elicited
thesymbolic
and
themostusefuldataforinterpreting
byothers
during
ticipants
tothem
much
more mythic
elicitation
related
session,
with
these
memories.
associated
memory
they
qualities
Thisfinding
is
than
itself.
thestories
discussed
EMs
Thepsychotherapist
Franz
Plewa(1935)finds
that
bythegroup
that offer
consonant
with
Halbwachs's
([1950]1980)observation
of
an
individual
than
more
into
any
insights dynamics
fun"
though
remembering
mayappearto be an individual other
Participants
report
"having
psychic
expression.
andthesocialand
no"individual"
exists,
process,
memory
about
on their
and"learning
memory
something
journey
inmany
cultural
influences
result
similarities
(seealsoLup- themselves,"
andit buildsa nonthreatening,
empathetic
ton1994).
with
Wefound
that
thiswasthecaseespecially
relationship.
onframeworksthesilent
other
researchers
havefocused
Although
the
reminiscwho
enjoyed
generation, genuinely
forderiving
from
consumer
stories
(e.g.,Thompson ingprocess.
insights
XersfeltposiWealsofound
thatGeneration
to
focuseson a technique
research
1997),thecurrent
to
like
their
"I
would
tiveabout
begin
bysaying
experience:
of what that
uncover
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setting
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Using Childhood Memories to Gain Insight into Brand Meaning

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