WildLanka Edition 1

Transcription

WildLanka Edition 1

Journal of the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2006-1: 113-118
SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND ECONOMIC POTENTIALS OF
DOMESTICATION OF ELEPHANT AS A MEAN OF ELEPHANT
CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA
A.M.S.T. ATHAUDA*
Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management
Faculty of Agriculture,University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
Loss of elephant habitats appears to be the main reason that leads to human
elephant conflicts in most parts of the Dry Zone in Sri Lanka. Capturing and domestication
of wild elephants is identified as one of the means of elephant conservation which promote
the coexistence between humans and elephants that existed for generations. However, with
the recent structural changes in the society and the economy such as mechanization and
increased wage rates, captive elephant conservation may not be attractive as it was before.
With this background, this study aimed at identifying the social as well as economic
problems, and suggesting possible remedies that help to promote domestication of elephants.
The study was based on collecting the data from a survey and discussions with key
informants. The survey was comprised of a mail survey based on structured questionnaire
and face-to-face interviews. The study found that since elephants are reared in Wet Zone,
feed availability is not a major problem. However, most of the elephant owners have to make
payments for the feeds. Indigenous, western or both veterinary practices are used for captive
elephants. Generally, a single mahout is used to control an elephant and most of the mahouts
live below the poverty line. Most of the elephants in homegarden are reared for prestige,
while temples and devalas keep elephants for ceremonies. Hotels and orphanages rear
elephants with the intention of attracting tourists. When compared costs and revenues,
orphanages and hotels enjoy with marvelous profits. Thus hotels that receive profit can rear
captive elephants, where there is a demand for elephant safaris, rides, etc. In addition to
that, tamed captive elephants can be used to establish an elephant park, which is a win-win
solution for both owners and people who take pleasure from elephant related activities.
INTRODUCTION
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) represents one of the most
seriously endangered species of large mam in the world. It is one of the few
terrestrial megaherbivores extant in the world. In Sri Lanka elephants are declared
as a protected species in 1937, under the enactment of the Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance.
During past five decades, the Sri Lankan population declined drastically
mainly due to loss of habitats caused by deforestation and forest fragmentation.
Domestication of elephants for various purposes including logging and cultural
purposes has bear a practice in Sri Lanka and other African countries. Capturing
and domestication of those wild elephants can be considered as a one of the
measure of elephant conservation. The number of purposes with regard to rearing
of captive elephants are gain income, social prestige, use in ceremonies for
promote tourism activities. In practice, mostly captive elephants are kept for one
more of alternative purposes. Presently, there are about 15,000 elephants in
captivity in the world (Sukumar, 1986) while 214 captive elephants in Sri Lanka
(Santiapillai, 199
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Mahouts are the people who handle the elephants. In early times mahouts
are available from generation to generation and they are well-trained people.
However, now adays people reluctant to work as mahouts.
Present status of captive elephant conservation in Sri Lanka
At present, four types of captive elephant conservation methods are formed
in Sri Lanka. They are individual people keep in their home gardens, temples and
devalas keep in their garden, hotels keep captive elephants for tourism and keep
captive elephants in the orphanages.
Jainudeen and Jayasinghe (1970) stated that the more wealthy and
aristocratic families were living in those areas and they keep elephants for
prestige.
The studies on captive elephants clearly indicate that captive elephant
population is declining rapidly. There were 736 captive elephants in
1946(Santiapillai & De Silva), while in year 1955 there were 670 (Dereniyagala,
1955), According to the DWLC reports there were 344 domesticated elephants
and this was declined to 214 by 1997(Jayewardene, 1997). The elephants in
captivity decline over the time due to a number of reasons. Most of the captive
elephants are too old thus their lifetime declines rapidly, absence of practicing
breeding programmes among captive elephants, government banned to capture
elephants from the wild and lack of veterinary practices and lack of availability of
well-trained mahouts are rare of there.
Most of the captive elephants feed kitul, jack and coconut. Elephants need
ample amount of feed per day. Dry matter need of the elephant is 0.5% of the
body weight and daily ration should be according to the age groups
(Krishnamurthy, 1992). Therefore, finding of this amount of feeds is much more
difficult. Because growth rate of those trees are lower than the feed requirement
rate of the captive elephants.
However compared to the world captive elephant population, Sri Lanka’s
captive elephant population is fairly low. Large numbers of captive elephant
population are found in Myanmar, Thailand, India and Lao. Fifty percent of world
captive elephant population lives in those countries. In Myanmar, captive
elephants are used for many works such as, timber extraction (logging),
transportation (as baggage elephants in hilly forests), religious ceremonies and
processions, capturing wild elephants, state functions and ceremonies, tourism and
agricultural activities in difficult areas. India possesses 20 percent of captive
elephant population of Asia and they are used of the cultural activities in India and
provide lot of care for them.
Problem justification
As discussed earlier, deprivation of habitats for elephants appear to be the
main problem of elephants. Given the limited forest coverage of 22% of total land
area in Sri Lanka, it has been identified domestication of wild elephants as one of
the solution of mitigating human elephant conflict in Sri Lanka by a number of
experts.
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Though the practice of capturing and rearing has been done in Sri Lanka,
for generations, given the limited land reserves and substitution by mechanical
equipments, this option has to be justifiable economically. Of new areas of captive
elephants, though tourism appears to be somewhat attractive, its economic
potential has not been investigated. Therefore, in order to recommend elephant
domestication on measures of conservation, it is of paramount importance to
investigate the economics and the social aspects of the various means of captive
elephant conservation
Against this background the objective of this study are to get an insight on
present socio economic condition of captive elephant conservation so as to
identify the problems of the elephant owners and then information would be
helpful to develop meaningful recommendation to promote domestication as a
mean of elephant conservation in Sri Lanka.
METHODOLOGY
The study is manly based on data collected through primary survey. The
data were collected using a structured questionnaire which includes general
information, information on feeding, veterinary practices, bathing facilities,
mahouts, income and specific information based on different type of captive
elephant conservation methods. Face-to-face interviews and mail surveys were
used to collect the data based on snowball sampling.
The target population of the study was composed of people who own
elephants. Basnayake Nilames or chief incumbent of temples, chief of devalas,
hotel owners who rear elephants and the officer-in-charge of the Pinnawala
Elephant Orphanage. The sample consisted, nineteen elephant owners, eight
Buddhist priest or Basnayake Nilames, two hotel owners and the officer- incharge of the Orphanage at Pinnawala. The data analysis includes computation of
the descriptive and cross tabulation. Statistical software Minitab was used for the
analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The situation presents the current status of rearing of elephants such as
sources of feed, feed type, feed availability, feed cost, veterinary practices, and
mahouts, bathing facilities, cost and revenue.
Source of receiving elephants
DWC does not allow capturing elephants from the wild. As a result,
remaining captive elephant number increase or renew only through breeding
programmes. However, breeding programmes are not generally practice in
domestic elephants. The survey finds that the most of the elephants (54.44%)
reared in homegarden are reared by generations (Figure 1). In temples and
devalas, most of the elephants were purchased from outside. This is in additions to
the donation by Presidents and Priministers that is account for 25% of the
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domestic elephants. In temple of tooth relic, this was about 100%. The elephants
in Pinnawala are directly captured by the DWC. However this was done by early
stages and most of that elephants were captured due to bad health conditions and
some were translocated from war areas. According to the different studies there
are more number of male elephants in the wild and capturing of males will not be
a big problem. In addition to that orphanage increase captive elephant number
through breeding programmes since they have huge potential of spending ability
and veterinary practices. As a result captive elephant number in orphanage
increases with time. Though private owners show a high demand for tamed
elephants and prefer adults, as those are directly profitable it is very difficult to do
it more pragmatically. Capturing of elephants from the wild is a very huge task
and need much cost and man power to do it. Well trained people are needed to
that activity. After capturing translocation have to practice and it is very difficult
task. The most common method for catching elephants is tranquillizing and
translocation them by truck. As a result direct capturing cannot be practiced by
individual people and temple and devala, who need elephants.
Percentage based on type of conservation
60
50
Reared by generation
Percentage
40
Out side purchase
Direcly captured
30
Puchased from an
auction
Other
20
10
0
Home garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Type of conservation
Figure 1. Source of receiving elephant
Types and sources of feed
Feed type
Dung studies indicate that elephants eat around 140 different species,
approximately 120kg per day. They prefer grasses, thorny and seasonal plants
which have less chemical defenses. Among those feeds most common types of
feeds are Kitul, coconut and jack. Captive elephants in homegarden are mainly fed
on Kitul (32.73%), coconut (27.27%) and jack (25.45%) (Figure 2) Due to the
weakness of some captive elephant, owners give sustenance feed for them.
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Eventhough feed cost is high, owners provide those feeds, because of keeping
elephants for social prestige. This special feed ration include mixture of feeds,
eight breads, federal, cytoxine, protinex, soya flour(1kg), glucose, mung
flour(500g), rice flour(1kg), four samaposa packets, sesame, rulan and
Nestomalt. This feed ration give daily with the purpose of improving health
conditions of the weak elephants. Consequently, elephants in hotels require much
more feed compared with others.
Orphanage also had a special feed ration, which include kitul leaves, kitul
trunk, jack leaves, coconut leaves and mixture of other leaves which increase
taste. These are bought from outside contractors. There are five baby elephants
also in the orphanage. These baby elephants were fed in milk, in addition to
leaves. Each baby elephant receive a packet of Lactogen per milk time and there
were five milk times per day.
45
40
Percentage
35
Kitul
30
25
Coconut
20
Jack
15
other
10
5
0
Home garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Figure 2. Feed types
Feed availability
According to the results of the survey, feed availability is high among
areas where captive elephants are reared. Most of these areas belong to wet zone,
thus vegetation is available throughout the year. However, some of people who
rear captive elephants in homegarden indicated difficulty in finding feeds while
others experienced that it is extremely difficult to find the feeds (Figure 3).
Though temples and devalas possess high amount of land area, they do not keep
elephants in those lands, because of lack of water availability and feeds.
Orphanage normally has enough amounts of feeds, as they purchase them
suppliers from outside. Since orphanage is a government institution, their budget
is covered through government fund allocation and in addition to that they earn
huge income which could be able to spend buy feeds from out side suppliers.
118
120
Very high
Percentage
100
High
80
Difficult
60
Extremly difficult
40
20
0
Home
garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Figure 3. Feed availability
Source of finding of feeds
Elephant owners find the feeds for elephants either from freely or with
some payment. All types of elephant owners buy feeds for their elephants (Figure
4). Since orphanage possesses seventy captive elephants, they cannot find such
amount of feeds with freely, also they have enough amounts of funds to allocate
feeds and as a result they totally depend on outside feed suppliers. Most of the
people rear elephants in homegarden and temple and devala, owned large land
areas. Thus they can find some amount of feeds with freely. Some elephants that
are in hotels are reared by generation, hence they possess large land areas, and
thereby they obtain part of elephant feeds with freely. However all types of
elephant owners buy large proportion of feeds from outside suppliers and spend
huge cost on feed.
Pecentage based on type of conservation
120
Percentage
100
80
Free
60
Paym ent
40
20
0
Hom e
garden
Tem ple
Hotel
Figure 4. Source of finding of feeds
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Orphanage
Feed cost
Pinnawala orphanage incurs a very high feed cost per elephant relative to
other conservation strategies, which is around Rs.3,64,285 (Figure 5). Temples
and devalas also spend high cost for feeds of elephants, because they possess
paddy fields and other income sources. As a result, they spend much on feeds.
Since hotels concern about profit, they spend less amount of money on feeds.
However, the elephant feed costs of hotel is Rs.300-500 /elephant/day and around
4-5 people take care for the food supply. Most food comes from the coconut
plantations nearby.
Feed cost
142642
364285
214735
Home garden
Temple & devala
Hotel
Orphanage
179666.5
Figure 5. Feed cost
Veterinary practices
Type of veterinary practices
Both western as well as indigenous veterinary practices are used.
However, use of indigenous veterinary practices diminishing due to number of
reasons such as, lack of
Finding of indigenous veterinary doctors are difficulties of finding of these
medicines,
Western veterinary practices are popular among elephant owners.
Recovery rate is high with veterinary practices and western veterinary practices
are highly available throughout captive elephant conservation areas.
People, who rear elephants in home gardens and temples and devalas,
mainly use both veterinary practices due to low cost while orphanage totally
depends on western veterinary practices (Figure 6). There are two veterinary
doctors attached to Pinnawala elephant orphanage and they give special vaccines
to the elephants. In addition to that keep litters in very clean. Regular check ups
are practiced by the veterinary doctors in orphanage.
120
P ercen tag e b ased o n typ e o f co n servatio n
120
Percentage
100
80
60
40
W e stern
20
Ind e ge ne o us
0
H om e garden
T em ple &
devala
H otel
O rphanage
B oth
T yp e o f con servatio n
Figure 6. Type of veterinary practices
People, who rear elephants in home gardens and temples and devalas,
mainly use both veterinary practices due to low cost while orphanage totally
depends on western veterinary practices (Figure 6). There are two veterinary
doctors attached to Pinnawala elephant orphanage and they give special vaccines
to the elephants. In addition to that keep litters in very clean. Regular check ups
are practiced by the veterinary doctors in orphanage.
Veterinary cost
Highest veterinary cost is spent in homegardens, because there are two
elephants that are weak and old thus owners spend high cost to improve their
health status (Figure 7). Orphanage also spends much cost on veterinary practices.
Elephants in orphanage receive vermicides in every four-month and when they
sick, doctors give penadols and one dosage include twelve penadols. People rear
elephants in home garden for social prestige are wealthier people. Therefore, they
spend much cost on veterinary practices. Hotels do not much concern on
veterinary practices, because of their main purpose is to obtain income.
Since elephants are large animals, providing of veterinary practices are
cost effective, because owners have to give large dosage to recover elephants.
Elephants are aggressive therefore providing veterinary practices incorporate with
danger; as a result, owners have to spend much on the doctor’s fee.
Veterinary cost
20000
28052
Hom e garden
Tem ple & devala
Hotel
Orphanage
13333.5
17562.5
Figure 7. Veterinary cost
Bathing facilities
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Elephants mainly bathe in rivers. Since elephants are large animals, they
need large water bodies for bath (Figure 8). Most of the captive elephant rearing
areas belong to wet zone in Sri Lanka. As a result, water is available throughout
year in those water sources. Difficulties in finding water sources are not a main
problem among captive elephant owners. Rivers, lakes streams are found in those
areas, such as Mahaweli River, Maha oya, etc. However finding of good quality
water is difficult during rainy season is a problem among owners because of
mixing of mud with water.
120
Percentage
100
River
80
Stream
60
Lake
40
Other
20
0
Home garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Figure 8. Bathing facilities
Mahouts
The role of mahouts is crucial in captive elephant conservation. In most
cases, owners hire one or two mahouts to handle the elephants in captivity. Since
the elephants are so aggressive during musth period two mahouts are used to
handle them. Captivity elephants need to be chained; however this will make them
aggressive towards mahouts. Home garden and temple and devala use two
mahouts to control an elephant, while hotels and orphanage use only one mahout.
Hotels and orphanage mainly concern about their profit. For that reason keeping
two mahouts per elephant is an additional cost for them. As a result, they keep
only one mahout to handle their elephants. However, some mahouts are coming
from generation; therefore they possess enough skills to handle more than one
elephants. In the orphanage, a mahout controls several captive elephants. Number
of mahout per elephant, is an important issue to provide better care and attention
for elephants.
Wages of mahouts are important issue due to a number of reasons Low
wages leads to low level of living of mahout population and it leads to less care to
elephants by mahouts. On the other hand, high mahout wage rate will alter the
profits of keeping elephants. The study revealed that mahouts serve in hotels and
the orphanage, receive Rs.3500- 6000 wage per month (Figure 9). When elephants
participate to processions, owners receive income and most of the time this
income goes to the mahouts. Most of the mahouts in hotels receive around
Rs.6000.00 per month. However, it was found that some temples and devalas do
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not provide desired wage for mahouts, because these mahouts are coming from
generations and temples and devalas give lands for those mahouts on behalf of
wage. Instead they are asked to find work and earn money. Elephant owners give
high wage rate to mahouts otherwise opportunity cost of being mahout is high.
Wage rate is a sensitive factor, because most of the mahouts receive low income,
which is not enough to cover cost of living. Consequently, they live below the
poverty line. In addition to that social level of being mahout is low, so the
perception management is needed to improve the social status of mahouts. This
can be done by giving them a uniform and a higher salary or simply by changing
the name of the job.
120
Percentage
100
<3000
3000-3500
3500-6000
>6000
80
60
40
20
0
Home
garden
Temple &
Hotel
Orphanage
devala
Figure 9. Mahout wages
Purpose of rearing captive elephants
Mixed use strategies, allowing for one or more purposes will yield positive
impact of domestication of elephants. So that most of the elephants rear in home
garden (43%) for social prestige and they keep elephants as symbol of their
wealth (Figure 10). In addition to that, some elephant owners (21.62%) keep
elephants for logging and tourism activities. Most of devalas and temples rear
elephants to use in pageants. Number of elephants in procession is declining with
time. As a result attractiveness of that procession’s get reduces and most of the
temples and devalas want to rear more number of elephants. The new trend of
captive elephant rearing is, use these elephants for tourism activities. Setting up
eco-tourism projects could be a source of income for farmers during the dry
season. Hotels and orphanage earn more revenue directly and indirectly due to
rear elephants. The elephants in orphanage are going to train for procession like
cultural activities and they are very concerned about the well being of our animals
and that is the reason why they will not sell elephants to the private owners.
Tourism profits were not the main goal to start the safaris. The general idea was to
safe the domestic elephants that had been used in the logging industry. In fact
most elephant owners did not have enough money to take good care for their
elephants.
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80
70
Percentage
60
Tourism
50
Prestige
40
Ceremonies
30
Income
20
Other
10
0
Home garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Figure 10. Purpose of rearing captive elephants
Revenue and costs
The economic justification for rearing captive elephants can be found by
considering revenue and costs. In Orphanage and hotels revenue exceeds the costs
thus hotels and Pinnawala elephant orphanage enjoy profits by rearing captive
elephants (Figure 11). Orphanage possesses seventy captive elephants and it is the
only place in the world where people can see such a large herd of captive
elephants. As a result most of foreigners as well as local people visit the
Pinnawala elephant orphanage to get an experience from this rare occasion and
most of them prefer to see feeding on baby elephants and bathing of elephants. In
orphanage huge amount of income comes from the entrance fee. The price of
ticket of adult foreigner is Rs.500, child is Rs.250, local adult is Rs.50 and from
local child is Rs.25. In order to bring video cameras they pay Rs.500-1500.
During season, about 500 foreigners and about 500 local people visit this place
daily. In addition to that earnings10% of the total annual income of the Maximus
shop goes to Pinnawala. Medical costs, feeding and other management, without
the salaries, is between Rs.50 and 75 thousand a day. Hotels organize some
elephant related activities such as elephant rides, safaris, processions, mock war,
etc and they pay Rs.400 from foreign and Rs.50 from local person. In addition to
elephant related activities they practice some other income related activities which
gain profit for the hotel. Temples and devalas received least income due to keep
elephants. Most of the temples and devalas and some of people who rear elephants
did not use elephants to earn profit. Because those people keep elephants for
prestige and temples and devalas keep elephants to participate ceremonies. In
addition to that, people participate their elephants to participate ceremonies,
however do not obtain income from those activities. Also some people possess
vehicles to transport their elephants. As a result, maintaining cost of elephants is
high.
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The temple of the tooth relic used to have 100 elephants. However they are
becoming old (60% is older than 50). As a result temples need more elephants.
Specially, during July to September most of temples in Sri Lanka held processions
and elephants are used to decorate them. As a result during that period temples
suffer lack of elephants.
In Sri Lanka, company started called ‘Maximus’ produce recyclable paper
using elephant dung. One elephant produce around 80kg dung a day and with
10kg dung can produce 120 sheets of rough paper equal to 720 A4 size sheets.
Thereby it gives economic values to elephants dung and creates more awareness
for elephant protection. In future they expect to collect elephant dung form areas
where people suffer from human elephant conflict. This will create positive
intention on elephant conservation among the people suffered human elephant
conflict. The annual turnover of the Maximus is around US$ 250,000 and it will
contribute to national income of the Sri Lanka.
A captured elephants costs now around 2 million rupees and a tusker
between 4 and 5 million. There is a huge demand for captured elephants and are
very difficult to get, because the owners do not want to sell their elephants and it
is not allowed by DWLC to capture more elephants from the wild. In 1985 the
Captive Elephants Owners Association (CEOA) was founded and there has been a
demonstration against the governmental policies to get more elephants to the
private owners. The CEOA wanted the possibility for the owners to buy elephants
from the Pinnawela elephant orphanage, captured from the wild, or otherwise
imported elephants.
Revenue and Cost
600000
500000
Rupees
400000
Average cost
300000
Average revenue
200000
100000
0
Home
garden
Temple &
devala
Hotel
Orphanage
Type of captive elephant conservation
Figure 11. Revenue and costs
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Importance in captive elephant conservation in Sri Lanka
Table 1. Significance of captive elephants in Sri Lanka
Keeping

Economics
Religion
Urban
Education
Ecology
Total
system
Owners
Mahouts
Social
tourism
forestry
Temple
2
1
3
0
1
0
7
Homegarden
3
1
3
2
1
2
12
Hotel
3
1
1
3
1
1
10
Orphanage
3
2
0
3
3
0
11
0=not significant 1=low 2= moderate 3= relatively high
A highest total mark is given for elephants keep in homegarden and it is
followed by the elephant’s keep in Pinnawala elephant orphanage (Table 1).
Elephants in home garden are mostly used for religious activities and also
for logging, elephant safaris and rides like income generating activities. As a
result, owner receives somewhat high income from the elephants. Most of the
elephants in Pinnawala elephant orphanage frequently use for educational and
research activities, income generating activities like tourism. In addition to that
the elephant dung in orphanage is used as fertilizer for the coconut palms, banana
and rubber trees. The orphanage possible attractions could be elephant watching,
and specially on feeding of baby elephants and everyone wants to feed them. For
entertainment, elephant watching works already very well. Elephants in hotels
create lot of money for the owners; however they pay less for mahouts. Mainly
these elephants are used for tourism activities and rarely use for educational and
research activities. Temples and devalas use these elephants mainly for religious
activities and rarely use for educational, tourism like activities. Temples and
devalas do not use these elephants to generate income.
Problems associated with captive elephant rearing
Both elephant owners and mahouts face a number of problems, when
keeping and handling elephants. When handle some elephants, there are some
incidences that some the mahouts and indigenous veterinary doctors were killed
when elephant becomes musth. During this time elephants damage to the
properties of other people and owners have to bear financial compensation for
damages. As a result of reduction of forest coverage, finding of feeds for
elephants were much more difficult. Since elephant is a large mammal, should
give large dosage of medicines compared with other animals which is much
expensive for elephant owners they need large water bodies to bath. Therefore,
finding of bathing place during drought period and rainy period is a much more
difficult. Indigenous veterinary practices are shared by all among captive
elephants, nevertheless finding of veterinary practices become difficult among
elephant owners. Some mahouts who handle elephants in temple and devala do
not receive wage from the owners consequently mahouts attempt to get more
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works from the elephants. Some people give liqueur to mahouts and endeavor to
get more work from elephants, which exceed their carrying capacity. This will
result early death among captive elephants. Some mahouts put less care on
elephants and mistreat the elephants that lead to early deaths among captive
elephants. With the popularization machinery, the number of work available per
elephant declined with time and owners receive lower income and keeping an
elephant become much more difficult. Although Pinnawala elephant orphanage is
a better place for elephants, number of mahouts in this place is very low and
elephants do not receive required degree of care and attention from the mahouts.
DWC wants to register every elephant owner for Rs.500; however owners will get
nothing in return. For killing an elephants have to pay Rs.5000 and most of the
time murders are set free without charge. As a result, elephant owners do not
register in DWC.
CONCLUSION
This study aimed at investigating the economic and social aspects of
captive elephant rearing as measures of conservations of elephants in Sri Lanka.
The following conclusions can be generated according to the results of the study.
Rearing of elephants in homegarden and temple and devala,
face a number of problems such as finding of feeds, finding of mahouts, high
maintenance cost, difficulties in finding of water during drought and difficulties in
finding good quality water during rain and mahouts are less care and mistreat the
elephants, etc. Nevertheless, they prefer to rear one more elephants with the
intention of social prestige and to use for ceremonies.
As stated in results and discussion, still there are ample amounts of feeds
available throughout the captive elephant conservation areas. The average income
of mahout range between Rs. 3000.00 – 7000.00 which is not adequate. Hotels
and orphanage enjoying profit. The annual profit of the orphanage is about 5
million, while hotels gain Rs. 80,000.00 annually from an elephant. Orphanage
spends Rs.3, 64,285.00 annually for feeds of an elephant and spends highest feed
cost per elephant. People who rear elephants in homegarden spend remarkably
highest cost on veterinary practices of an elephant (Rs.28, 052)
As indicated in problem justification, captive elephant conservation
methods should be economically sound However with the mechanization, the
elephant gets less draft work thus captive elephants become wild elephants.
Consequently, since hotels enjoying with profit, can recommend rearing elephants
in hotels, which has high demand for elephant safaris, rides, etc.
The captive elephants in orphanage are not tamed. As a result, people
unable to move closer to elephants. Therefore, tamed captive elephants can be
used establish an elephant park, which is economically sound. A park could create
awareness of both tourists and local community, creating income possibilies for
community, mitigating human elephant conflicts in the short term and contribute
to the conservation. Establishing an elephant park is win win situation for both
elephant owners and people who take pleasure from elephant related activities.
127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr.
L.H.P.Gunaratne, Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics and
Business Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, for his
valuable advises, encouraging guidance and persistent throughout this study.
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Gokula, V. and Vardharajan, M. (1996). Status of temple elephant management in Tamil Nadu,
Southern India.Gajah15:37-40.
Jayewardene, J. (1998). Captive elephants in Sri Lanka: status, distribution and numbers. Nature
4:13-18.
Kurt, F. and Maze, K.U. 2003.Guidlines for the management of captive Asian elephants and the
possible role of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Gajah22:30-41.
Lair,R.C. (1997). The care and management of the Asian elephant in domesticity. Rome: FAO,
1997. Thailand.
Williams, A.C. and Jahnsingh, A.J.T. 1996. Elephant capture in Meghalaya, Northeast India- the
past and the future. Gajah17:1-5.
The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka[on line]. Thailand:
Jayantha Jayawrdena, 2001[cited 16 December 2004]. Available from internet
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AD031E/ado31eov.htm
128
ECONOMIC POTENTIAL OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY TO CONSERVE THE
ENDANGERED ELEPHANTS IN SRI LANKA
K.A.D.K.S.D. BANDARA* and L.H.P. GUNARATNE
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya
ABSTRACT
The Sri Lankan elephant population shows a marked reduction during last five
decades, mainly due to destruction of elephant habitats by development projects and illegal
encroachments. With the limitations of the lands available for elephants and escalating
human-elephant conflicts, domestication of the elephants appear to one of the viable way of
conserving elephants. However, with the low demand for draft, domestication of elephants
should be targeted on more economically attractive options such as tourism.
With this background, the economic potential of utilization of elephants in tourism
industry is investigated in this study. The degree of interest on elephant related activities by
the tourists, and the status of involvement of tourist hotels and guest houses in those
activities are also evaluated. The potential of generating revenue via the integration of the
elephants to the sector was also considered.
The necessary information for the study was collected through two surveys carried
out simultaneously during the period of January to February 2005. One survey was carried
out targeting the tourists that come to see the elephants, based on a structured questionnaire
prepared in English, French and Japanese. The random intercept sampling method was
used. Meantime, a mailed survey was executed focusing the tourist hotels and guest houses.
Tourist hotels, guest houses within 40-km boundary of parks, protected areas and orphanage
were selected to the sample.
The descriptive statistical analysis revealed that, about 8% of the sampled tourists
have selected the Sri Lanka as their tours destination mainly to see the elephants while
around 20% tourists arrive to Sri Lanka with an intention of watching elephants. The study
revealed that more than 80% tourists like to experience the elephant rides whereas more
than 60% tourists prefer experience on the elephant safaris. The average willingness to pay
for these activities are 20 US$ and 28 US$ respectively.
The survey carried out with the managers shows that more than 70 % of hotels and
accommodations that are located vicinity of the parks have involved in any kind of elephant
related activities as keeping elephants for tourism, promotion of elephant related activities
and facilitating elephant watching.
Study found that there is a substantial potential in exploit elephants in tourism
industry, which will generate more income to the elephant owners thus domestication can be
used as one of the means of conservation of endangered elephants in Sri Lanka.
129
INTRODUCTION
The Elephas maximus maximus in Sri Lanka is the type specimen of
Linnaeus (Crusz, 1986). Shotake et al. (1986) showed that it is genetically quite
distinct from the Indian sub species Elephas maximus ibengalensis. The elephants
have been influencing Sri Lankan socio-cultural environment since the ancient
time. There is an enormous cultural and religious significance of elephant to the
both Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka.
Status of elephants in Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan elephant population has undergone a marked reduction
from the mid nineteen century (Santiapillai and Jackson, 1990; De Silva, 1998).
Fragmentation and loss of habitats are the factors contributing to this decline and
this lead to human elephant conflict (Desai, 1998). Also this situation largely
results from the ad-hoc development projects carried out during the last five
decades (Weerakoon, 1999) and is exacerbated by the lack of coordination
between different government departments and wildlife authorities. Moreover
poor integration of economic aspects and lack of attention to public preferences
for elephant conservation compound the problem.
The elephant has been protected in Sri Lanka since 12th century A.D.
(Wicramasinghe, 1928). Nevertheless, large numbers were captured to be used as
war elephants or for export to other countries. The systematic slaughter of
elephants in general and of tuskers in particular began with the arrival of the
colonial powers and the introduction of firearms. The situation was exploited to
such an extent that a government ordinance in 1891 banned the “wanton
destruction” of elephants (Olivier, 1978). The animal was given full legal
protection in 1937. But today only about six percent of the males have tusks in Sri
Lanka, in contrast to southern India, where 90% of the bulls are tuskers (Sukumar,
1986). If this trend exists the Sri Lankan elephant population will extinct from
earth for ever within one or two decades.
Conservation efforts
At present, there is a growing concern over conservation of Sri Lankan
elephant by various government organizations and non-government organizations.
Some of these measures adopted are: establishment of new national parks and
protected areas, establishment of elephant corridors, habitat enrichment,
translocation of elephants and elephant drives, electric fencing and promoting exsitu conservation.
The decline of the Sri Lankan elephant population has been largely results
of lacking socio-economic and political considerations. Therefore it is important
that its management and conservation should take in to account, the social and
economic value of its existence.
According to Santiapillai. (1997) and Dublin,(1997) the key to finding out
a long term solution to the human elephant conflict in Sri Lanka is two fold. To
130
encourage the adoption land-use strategies (such as selective timber extraction,
controlled livestock grazing) that are compatible with elephant conservation, and
where elephants and humans do overlap, that people derive tangible benefits from
their presence (such as eco-tourism). This study has focused towards the assessing
of potential economic benefits that can be taken via tourism industry to conserve
the endangered elephant in Sri Lanka. Moreover, whether conservation is capable
with the incorporation of elephants to the tourism industry.
Tourism
Tourism is one of the world largest and fast growing industries. According
to the recent statistics tourism provide 10% of the world’s income and employs
one tenth of the world work force. It contributes 6% of the global GNP and 13%
of consumptive expenditure. In Sri Lanka, tourism has become a very important
factor in foreign exchange earning. Gross earnings from the tourist industry
increased by 39 percent in 2003, from US dollars 248 million in 2002 to US
dollars 324 million in 2003. (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2003).Tourism has been
significant in the case of many aspects, a very tangible element which can use for
conservational activities. Tourism play a key role in economic and social benefits
like attracting foreign currency, more funds for the conservation, improve world
understanding .etc. Huge number of tourists arrives per year to Sri Lanka. Table 1
show the number of tourists arrived in last two years.
Table 1. Tourists arrival by region
Tourism industry involves various stakeholders in addition to the tourists
such as accommodation establishments and restaurants owners, travel agents, tour
operators. Table 2 shows the income distribution among various stakeholders.
Table 2. Revenue from the tourism- 1993 to 2002 (In Rs. Million) Source: CTB publication,
2003
Source of Revenue
Hotels & Restaurants
Travel Agencies
Shops
1995
79.5
28.0
10.8
1996
59.6
26.4
9.3
1997
116.0
39.1
12.1
131
1998
143.6
58.8
14.4
1999
164.5
67.3
16.5
2000
162.7
61.7
15.1
2001
128.4
52.6
13.9
2002
149.7
64.5
14.8
Embarkation Tax
Cultural Triangle
Botanical Gardens
Zoological Gardens
National Parks
Museums
TOTAL
201.6
168.7
25.2
11.4
38.5
1.2
564.9
151.1
121.2
16.8
14.4
27.8
0.6
427.2
183.1
186.0
21.8
15.1
34.5
0.7
608.4
190.5
225.0
26.7
18.9
41.2
0.1
719.8
218.2
300.5
32.6
23.1
56.0
0.9
879.6
200.2
276.0
29.4
29.2
60.2
0.5
835.0
269.3
222.0
21.2
22.3
54.4
0.6
784.7
393.2
242.8
26.3
30.2
58.0
0.8
977.8
This study is mainly focused towards assessing the potential contribution
of accommodation establishments (tourist hotels and guest houses) and restaurants
in addition to the tourists. The hotels and travel agencies earn large portion of
revenue as shown in table 3.
Table 3. Foreign exchange earnings form tourism -2001 & 2002 (In Rs mill)
Source
2001 *
2002 **
Banks
Travel Agencies
Shops
Hotels
Others
TOTAL
6,718.1
4,026.0
4,379.4
2,614.4
1,125.4
18,863.3
8,523.3
5,146.5
5,615.2
3,386.4
1,530.6
24,202.0
* Revised
** Provisional
Tourism as a mean of elephant conservation
The Sri Lankan elephant population is being declined in a crucial rate.
Therefore, conserving of this unique sub species of Asian elephant is of
paramount importance in substantiation of economical, social and cultural benefits
due to its existence in the long term.
Domestication of elephants especially to the tourism industry is considered as a one of the
solution to conserve elephants, which again promote the long term coexistence of human and
elephants.
Per year about 500,000 of tourists arrive to Sri Lanka and many of tourists
visit wildlife parks to observe the elephants in the wild. Also the captive elephants
in tourist hotels used for tourists attractions as elephant rides thus generating huge
amount of money. The accommodation establishments situated near the park
generate revenue via supplying foods, lodging and other facilities to the tourists
who come visit the parks.
In this sense, tourism can perform a major role in conserving elephants.
Though tourism has that much significance for elephant’s conservation, its
potential should be examined economically. Therefore, investigation of economic
potential of tourism industry to conserve the endangered elephants is very
important as a prior task.
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the economic potential of
tourism industry for using in elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. The willing to
pay for various elephant related experiences by tourists and those factors
influencing their willingness to pay is also found. In addition, the ways and means
by which tourist hotel owners contribute to conserve the elephants is also
investigated.
132
METHODOLOGY
Both primary data and secondary data were used in this study. Primary
data was collected during the period of January 2005 to March 2005. Adopted
methodologies for the process of data collection were mainly questionnaire
surveys, literature review and informal discussions with key informants. Relevant
articles in journals and magazines as well as the research publications were
reviewed to obtain additional information.
Data collection
Two parallel surveys were conducted incorporating the tourists and managers/owners of
tourist hotels, guest houses and accommodations.
The field survey of tourists
The relevant data to the study were collected by interviewing the tourists
using a structured questionnaire. The interviewing of tourists was done so as to
represent a group of tourists by several individuals of that group. The
questionnaire was comprised of three sections. They were arranged to get the
personal information, general information of visit to Sri Lanka and their responses
on experienced elephant related activities with preferences. The questionnaire was
prepared in English and translated into French and Japanese in order to collect
data from the non-English speaking tourists. Total of 120 questionnaires were
used for the survey and 70 of them were in English. The number of French and
Japanese were 30 and 20 respectively. Pre testing was carried out prior to
commence of the field survey.
The target population was the tourists who visit the nature sites. Therefore a sample of
tourists was interviewed using the questionnaires at Uda Walawa, Wasgamuwa, Minneriya,
Bundala, Yala and Pinnawala where major portion of tourists come to see the elephants.
Mail survey of managers of the hotels, guest houses and accommodations
In this part of the study, it is assumed that the tourists who are interested in
elephants arrive the areas closer to the wildlife parks and the orphanage.
Therefore, initially the parks and protected areas where the elephants are present
were found. Then the area within a boundary of 40 km around the parks and
protected areas were chosen was for the study.
The hotels, guest houses and accommodations were selected using the list
of “Accommodation Guide” published by the Ceylon Tourist Board which was
updated in November-December, 2004. The relevant data to the study from
managers of the relevant establishments was collected using a structured
questionnaire. The questionnaires were mailed with the cover letters to the
managers of the hotels, guest houses and accommodations and follow up
telephone calls were given, increase the response rate. Meantime, some of the
establishment were visited and directly interviewed the managers.
The questionnaire was prepared in English which was comprised of three
sections, section 1 was prepared to get the general information of the
133
establishments. The section 2 was included to get the elephant related activities,
which they have involved. The section 3 was used to the information about their
involvement to conserve endangered elephants.
The necessary secondary information was collected from the publications
of several institutions and their web sites such as Ceylon Tourist Board, Sri Lanka
Hotel Corporation, Institute of Policy Studies and Central Bank. Some
information as list of tourist hotels, guest houses and accommodations, number of
tourists arrived in past few years, revenue earn by the tourism industry in relation
to each year national income, amount of revenue earn by each stakeholder in the
tourism sector were collected from these sources.
Analytical framework
Most of the data were collected through the survey of tourists and
managers of accommodation establishments, which can use to assess the interest
on elephants as well as elephant related activities. Therefore both descriptive data
analysis and regression analysis were employed.
Assuming a linear relationship between willingness to pay for the elephant
related activities and other independent variables, the regression model was fitted
to estimate the relationship between selected attributes and the willingness to pay
amount.
Conceptual model
WTP= ƒ (NAT, AGE, DAYS, INC, EDU, SEX, EXP, ACT, INV)
WTP=Willingness to pay for the elephant related activities (Rs)
Variable
DAYS=Days stay in Sri
Lanka
AGE=Age (Years)
EDU=Educational level
INV=Whether experienced
such type of activities
NAT=Nationality
SEX=Sex
EXP=Expected daily
Expenditure in Sri
Lanka
INC=Annual income
ACT=Number of elephant
related activities like to
experience
Hypothesis
Expected relationship is the tourists who stay longer period
experienced such activities and willing to pay more.
Young people are more interested on elephants and elephants related
activities. Therefore they like to pay more.
Educated people are expected to be more towards enjoying the
elephants related activities which are nature based activities.
Experience tourists expected to be spend more on that activities.
Developed nations have already deteriorated their nature and
biodiversity when achieve the development. Therefore they like to
pay more for these activities. Per capita income of each country used
as an indicator of level of development
Males are more prefer that activities.
High expending people expected to be having high willingness to
pay.
Higher income visitor are expected to be spend more money.
More interested tourists on like to experience more number of
activities.
134
Visitor characteristics
Based on the sample survey, it was found that the average age of the
tourists who came to see the elephants is 56 years with the range of 21 to 77 years.
The average number of days stayed in Sri Lanka is 15 days, with a maximum of
30 days and a minimum of 6 days. The respondents’ average annual income of the
sampled tourists is 36,954 US $. The random intercept survey is comprised of 16
different nations. Their distribution is given in the table 4.
Table 4. Nationality distribution of the sample
Number of
Tourists
Nationality
%
British
36
36 %
Irish
4
4%
Australian
2
2%
Finland
1
1%
Danish
1
1%
Italian
1
1%
Canadian
2
2%
Dutch
4
4%
Swiss
3
3%
American
7
7%
German
8
8%
New Zealand
4
4%
Poland
4
4%
Franchise
9
9%
Swedish
5
5%
Japanese
7
7%
Chinese
2
2%
n = 100
135
Status of education
Most of the tourists come to see the elephants are mid-career professionals
who hold a degree and more than 75 % belong to those categories. More than 18%
of visitors have completed secondary education. Almost all the respondent has at
least primary education. It was noted that the tourists who have some kind of
understanding and interest about environment visit these areas to see elephants.
Education Level Distribution :
Tourists Sample
No formal education
No primary edu.
0%
0%
No formal edu.
1%
6%
18%
48%
27%
Followed primary
education
Completed primary
education
Followed secondary
education
Completed secondary
education
Followed graduate
studies
A graduate degree
Figure 1. Status of education in tourist’s sample
Reason for selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination
The question 1 of section B in the questionnaire of tourists was directed to
get the most important reason when selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination.
Table 5 shows the details of the tourist’s responses.
Table 5. Most important reason for selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination
Visiting friends and/or relatives
See the Sri Lankan elephants
Business/Convention
Sun and beaches
Archaeological sites
Cultural/Native history
Nature history
Sight seeing
10%
19%
10%
16%
3%
6%
7%
28%
100%
136
n = 87
According to the responses, a major portion of tourists (28 %) indicated
sight seeing as the most important reason when selecting Sri Lanka as a travel
destination. In addition to that seeing elephants in Sri Lanka has a quite
significant. Because 19 % of tourists have chosen Sri Lanka as a travel destination
due to presence of elephants.
Degree of Influence, presence of elephants in Sri Lanka to choose as a travel destination
Figure 2 shows the degree of importance of Sri Lankan elephants to the
tourists when selecting Sri Lanka as their travel destination.
Influence of Sri Lankan Elephants to Choose Sri
Lanka as a Traval Destination
Not important
21%
Main reason
8%
Main reason
Important
Important
46%
Somewhat
important
25%
Somew hat important
Not important
Figure 2. Degree of influence elephants to choose Sri Lanka as travel
This shows that main reason of 8 % of sample tourists is seeing the Sri
Lankan elephants in journey to Sri Lanka, according to their responses. They
might be the researchers or eco-tourists.
Tourist’s involvement of nature related activities
Table 6. Involvement of nature related activities by the tourists
Activity
Number %
Jungle excursion
Visiting cultural sites
Bird watching
Wildlife
Botany
Fishing
Visiting indigenous communities
Others
44
64
29
45
31
4
7
6
48.4
70.3
31.9
49.5
34.1
4.4
7.7
6.6
n=91
As shown in the table 6 most of the tourists arrive to Sri Lanka had
opportunity to visit the cultural sites (70 %) also around 50 % of tourists involve
in wildlife related activities as elephant safaris, deer safari etc.
137
Experiences of elephant related activities: tourists
According to the responses of tourists, more than 80 % have an interest on
experiencing the elephant rides. Also more than 60 % tourists like to experience
the elephant safaris. The portion of tourists who have interest on elephant
circuses, races etc are very low. In addition to this some of the tourists like to
participate activities such as visit orphanage, looking at bathing of elephants, visit
the temples which keeping elephants, hiking in the natural habitat of elephants.
This portion of tourist is 11 %. The categorized responses are shown in table 7.
Table 7. Experiences of elephant related activities by tourists & their willingness to pay for them
Percentage of
tourists like to
experiences
Average
willingness to pay
in Rs
Elephant
ride
Elephant
safaris
Elephant
circuses
Cultural events
which use
elephants
82%
66%
4%
7%
5%
11 %
1942
2831
1341
1241
1921
1297
(20 US $)
(28 US $)
(13 US $)
(12 US $)
(19 US $)
Elephant
races
Others
Willingness to pay for the elephant related activities: tourists
Survey respondents were asked to mention their willingness to pay (WTP)
for the each elephants related activities they would like to experience. According
to the responses of tourists, indicate in the table 7, average willingness to pay for
the elephant ride is 20 US $ with minimum of 8 US $ and maximum of 51 US $.
Also the amount willingness to pay for the elephants safaris is 28 US $ with
minimum of 6 US $ and maximum of 50 US $.
Willingness to pay amount reflects the tourist’s valuation of the each
elephant related activity. The amount of willingness to pay can be utilized to get
an idea about the degree of significance each activity and potential of getting
benefits economically through the tourism industry via the incorporation of
elephant related activities to the schedules of tourist packages.
Involvement of elephants related activities by tourist’s hotel, guest houses and
accommodations.
Nature related activities: tourist hotels, guest houses and accommodations
According to the responses of managers of the tourist hotels, guest houses
and accommodations the percentage of establishments that has involved in each
activity is indicated in the table 8.
Table 8. Nature related activities Practice by the tourist hotels,
Guest houses & accommodations
138
Nature related activity
% of hotels & guest houses
Jungle excursions
40 %
Visiting cultural sites
65 %
Bird watching
60 %
Wildlife
70 %
Visiting botanical gardens
15 %
Fishing
15 %
Visiting indigenous communities
5%
Others
10 %
n=32
As shown in that table 70 % of the ventures in the sample have involved in
wildlife related activities. Among the establishments that has engaged in wild life
related activities for earning revenue, a high number of the tourists hotel, guest
houses and accommodations have involve in elephant related activities. (Figure 3)
Wildlife Related Activities:
Tourist hotels & Guesthouses
% of Hotels & Guesthouses Involved
80
71 %
65 %
70
60
47 %
50
40
30
20
29 %
29 %
12 %
10
0
Others
Deer safarisBird watching
Touractivities
to game sanctuaries
Elephant related
Tours to national zoological garden
Figure 3. Wildlife Related Activities Involve by the Tourist Hotels & Guest houses for the
Tourism
Elephant related activities of the tourist hotels, guest houses and accommodations
The involvement of these establishments on elephant’s related activities can be
categorized in to 3 types as shown in the table 9.
Table 9. Elephant related activities involved by hotels & guest houses
139
a) Keeping Elephants for Tourism Activities
(Exhibitions, circuses, riding, carry tourists …etc.)
b) Promote Elephant Related Activities for Tourism
(Safaris, tours, seeing perahara… etc)
c) Facilitate Elephant Watching
(Situated near parks, orphanages… etc)
21 %
79 %
36 %
According to that more than 75 % of enterprises have involve in
promoting elephant related activities as safaris, arrange tours to orphanage and
protected areas…etc. Only 21 % hotels and guest houses keep elephants for
tourism activities.
Also more than 35 % of accommodation establishments situated near the
wildlife parks and orphanage, which facilitate watching the elephants. That kind
of enterprises earns revenue by supplying accommodations and foods for the
tourists. The hotels and accommodations keeping elephants have involved in
various activities. Those activities can be categorized as in the table 10.
Table 10. Various uses of elephant that are taken by the hotels & guesthouses, which are
keeping the captive elephants
% of Hotels & Guest
houses
40%
60%
0%
40%
Activity of Elephants use
As an exhibit for tourists
Use for elephant rides
Use for elephant circuses
Use for cultural activities
Give for cultural activities in other
40%
places
20%
Use to get some works done
Conservation activities: tourist hotels and guesthouses
According to the responses of the managers, most of the tourist hotels and
accommodations have involved in elephant conservation activities. That activities
and the level of involvement are summarized in the table 11. This indicates that
there is a potential to get participated the organizations that has not engaged in
that kind of activities so far.
Table 11. Participation in conservation activities of elephants by
Hotels & guest houses
Conservation activity
Contribute to trust fund
support for conservation
Aid for the orphanage
Help for conservation
campaigns
Others
% of Hotels &
Guest houses
67%
13%
23%
22%
140
Estimates of the regression model
The factors influencing the expenditure by tourists for various elephant
related activities were identified. The estimates of the multiple regression models
are given in Table12.
WTP= NAT +AGE + DAYS + INC + EDU + SEX + EXP + INV
Table 12. Estimates of the OLS regression model
Variable
Constant
Nationality
Age
No. of days stay
Annual income
Education
Sex
Expected expenditure
Number of activities like to
experience
Experienced with similar activities
Coefficient
Std. Error
13981
- 0.16
- 85.2
0.003
- 0.005
0.61
0.06
0.25
17833
39.45
0.224
0.141
1356
3883
3309
- 0.008
9164
- 0.12
5317
2
Adjusted R = 0.52
The model was free from perfect mulicollinearity with reasonably
satisfactory fit (adjusted R2). Among the considered variables, nationality, days
spend in the Sri Lanka, whether the tourists have experienced such activities and
level of education were significant at 5 % level. National income was used as a
proxy for the variable, nationality so that contrary to the expectation, tourist with
high income countries are less interested in spending money on elephant reacted
activities. However, tourists who had plans to stay more were found to be more
enthusiastic in spending on similar activities. Also it was found that young are
more willing to pay for these activities.
141
CONCLUSION
The study aimed at getting an insight into the make use of elephants for
tourism and identifying the future potential of this so as to promote tourism as an
alternative mean of elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. The study was carried out
with tourists who visit the national parks and the owners/managers of guest
houses/hotels located closer to these sites. This study found that there is a
substantial potential of incorporating elephants into the tourism industry, which
will foster the coexistence of human and elephants as in the past.
This study revealed that there is a huge demand for the elephant related
activities more than identified so far, such as elephant rides and safaris. The
present rates charged for elephant related activities are much less than their
willingness to pay for those activities. According to the findings, an average
willingness to pay for the safaris and rides are approximately 20 and 28 US $,
respectively. This shows the potential revenue that can earn through these
activities.
It may cost 20,000-25,000 rupees per month to maintain a captive
elephant. Given the substantial cost of maintaining a captive elephant and less
demand for draft work, there is a need to find better alternatives; the study
indicates that much more amount of revenue can be generated per month when the
elephants are used for the tourism activities under well managed situation.
The recent studies carried out by the Institute of Policy Studies has
identified that the revenue from the protected areas could be increased
significantly if the Ceylon Tourist Board (CTB), Department of Wildlife
Conservation and the Forest Department assist the private sector to promote
“value added” activities around protected areas. This would include hotels and
tourist attractions such as elephant safaris. The findings of this study corroborate
this fact by identifying the potentials in a scientific manner.
The nature tourist market is a particularly attractive niche market as there
is some evidence that nature tourist have higher incomes than the average tourist,
stay longer and spend more on locally produced products and services (Vidanage,
1995). With the problems of the tourist industry due to the war, nature tourism
represents a niche marketing, which can command a premium. Many private tour
operators feel that nature tourism has considerable growth potential. Promotion of
nature tourism would also accord with the three main objectives of the tourism
Master Plan prepared by the Ceylon Tourist Board (CTB) of moving away from
low budget mass beach tourism by selecting activities that upgrade existing
attractions and product, diversify the product mix and its capacity and develop
new circuits and product packages inland, including new tourist areas.
The elephant related activities are in the category of existing tourists
attractions. Therefore, the value of them in the sense nature related activities can
be identified from this study and it is important to take an active role to promote
elephant related activities with a good product mix to attract among the tourist
who are the potential customers of them. This requires the Ceylon Tourist Board
taking an active role in promoting elephant related activities.
On the other hand, with the limited carrying capacity of the protected areas
and growth of the rural populations, the human elephant conflict will escalate in
the future, so that there is a growing need to find feasible solutions. Therefore, use
of elephants in the tourism industry by capturing and taming of young elephants
can be considered as one of the counteractive measure. Then a mechanism could
142
bedeveloped to transfer a part of the revenue generated from such activities to
compensate the farmers to mitigate human elephant conflict, as a mean of
conservation.
REFERENCES
Central bank of Sri Lanka. 2003. Annual report. Colombo. Central Bank.
Daniel, J.C., 1993. The Asian elephant: future prospects. Gajah11:02-15.
De Silva, M., 1998.Status and conservation of the elephant and the alleviation of man-elephant
conflict in Sri Lanka.Gajah 19:01-25.
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Lanka. Gujah. 12:1-13.
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Colombo. Institute of Policy Studies.
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Vidanage, S.P.1995. Potentials and factors affecting ecotourism in Sri Lanka., Practicum
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Wicramasinghe, W.M.D.T.2002. Promotion of ecotourism in Upper Hantana mountain range.,
Kandy., Practicum report.(M.Sc.).PGIA. U
143
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF VEGETATION IN THE
IFS -POPHAM ARBORETUM, DAMBULLA
M.A.A.B. DILHAN*, T.D. WEERASINGHE and J. AMARASINGHE
IFS - Popham Arboretum, Dambulla
ABSTRACT
The Dambulla Arboretum is a unique place, where a wasteland has been converted
into a sanctuary of tropical trees by using a simple silvicultural method. The Arboretum
consists of 3.6 ha arboretum along with a 10.8 ha woodland. The goal of the present survey
was to document the abundance of dry zone key plant species and to update the checklist of
plants in terms of seasons.
The abundance of plant species, which were naturally regenerated, was enumerated
in six 20 m × 20 m experimental plots. The girth at breast height (gbh) of individuals over 10
cm was measured within main plots, while individuals below 10 cm gbh were counted in 20
m ×10 m sub plots within the main plots. Five random plots 2 m × 2 m quadrates were used
to measure the cover value of ground vegetation. In addition, annuals and biannual during
the wet and dry season and undocumented perennials were encountered in an ad hoc
manner addition to the experimental plots.
A total of 101 plant species belonging to 91 genera and 42 families were identified.
Among the taxa identified 45 had medicinal value, 14 timber value and 7 both timber and
medicinal value. There were 45 tree spp., 27 shrub spp., 18 herbaceous spp. and 11 climber
spp. Of them five were endemic viz., Diospyros oppositifolia, Diplodiscus verrucosus,
Canarium zeylanicum, Cassine balae and Micromelum minutum. The leading dominant
species and families based on important value index (IVI) were Syzygium cumini and
Myrtaceae (IVI = 29 & 32), Grewia damine and Tiliaceae (IVI = 23 & 28) and Memecylon
umbellatum and Rubiaceae (IVI = 16 & 25) respectively.
In the ordination diagram, the plots in the arboretum and woodland are clearly
separated by four distinguishable clusters and were assigned into plant communities. The
species associated with cluster A were mainly trees viz., Diplodiscus verrucosus, Diospyros
ferrea, Lepisanthes tetraphylla and Sapindus emarginata along with a shrub. While Cluster C
resulted in five tree species. The survey has shown that the arboretum provides refugee to
many valuable timber trees, including endemic and endangered plant species.
INTRODUCTION
The dry zone forests of Sri Lanka have experienced a boost in large-scale
depletion of forest land by slash and burn agriculture, illegal felling, fire,
irrigation schemes and agricultural expansion resulting from a growing population
(Samarasinghe, 1995). As a remedy reforestation and conservation have been
carried out by the Forest Department on degraded lands of the dry zone. Mr. F. H.
Popham introduced a sustainable silvicultural method namely the Popham method
(Popham, 1993), which facilitates the natural regeneration of indigenous species.
This leads to succession towards woodlands dominated by small trees and bushes
managing the growth of creepers and thorny shrubs.
The IFS - Popham Arboretum in Dambulla is a typical example of natural
regenerated forest. It has also contributed to rich biodiversity comprising 192
plant species (Cramer, 1993), 72 birds and 35 butterflies (Arboretum Newsletter,
1996). Research into the regeneration dynamics of silvicultural assisted scrub
vegetation (Samarasinghe, 1995) in relation to different burning histories and
regeneration strategies of selected forest species (Weerawardane, 1999) has been
carried out during the past decade. The goals of this study are to document plant
144
diversity of silviculturally treated vegetation in the IFS-Popham Arboretum and to
update the checklist of plant species documented by Cramer (1993).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The IFS - Popham Arboretum is located close to Dambulla, 2.9 km away
from it on the Kandalama Dambulla road (Figure 1). The total extent of the IFS Popham arboretum, is 14.4 ha comprising 3.6 ha in the arboretum and 10.8 ha of
woodland (70 51’ 34" N and 800 40’ 28" E).
AR1
AR3
AR2
WL1
WL2
WL3
Figure 1. Location of the IFS - Popham Arboretum. Colored circles indicate the sampling
Plots. Plots in the arboretum = AR; and woodland = WL.
The permanent plot method was used for sampling in this study. Six plots,
each 20 m × 20 m were demarcated within the woodland and arboretum. Three
plots each from the woodland and arboretum were selected and each plot was
divided into 20 m × 10 m sub plots to facilitate sampling. Individuals over 10 cm
girth at breast height (1.3 m above the ground) in the main plots (20 m × 20 m)
were enumerated and were marked with numbered aluminum tags. Sub plots of
size 20 m × 10 m were demarcated within the main plot to enumerate individuals
145
below 10 cm gbh and above 1 m in height. Individuals less than 1 m in height
were enumerated by 2 m × 2 m quadrate sampling.
A number of characteristics of the vegetation, viz., density and gbh of all
woody species were recorded. The Importance Value Indices (IVI) of all the
species were calculated using relative basal area and relative density for
individuals over 1 m in height. Relative cover value was used for individuals less
than 1 m in height.
The flora of the arboretum documented by Cramer (1993) was revised by
collecting plants in an ad hoc manner representing all vegetation types and
microhabitats during the dry and wet season as shown in appendix 1.
Herbarium specimens were prepared from the plant material collected in
the field. Each individual sampled was identified as to its species as far as
possible with help from the National Herbarium, Peradeniya, use of the Hand
Book to the Flora of Ceylon by Dassanayake and Fosberg (1990-1991),
Dassanayake et al. (1994-1995) and Dassanayake and Clayton (1996-2000).
An ordination of the vegetation gradients in the dataset that could be
compared against their spatial distribution on the ground was carried out using
multivariate analysis (Detrended Correspondence Analysis) with the help of
PCORD4 software.
RESULTS
STRUCTURE OF VEGETATION
The density, over 1 m height and basal area greater than 10 cm gbh, of
trees and shrubs in the arboretum are shown in Table 1.
The total density of individuals was 2208/ha and the basal area was 93.2
m2/ha. However, the density and basal area of twenty leading tree and shrub
species were 1795/ha and 74.8 m2/ha respectively.
The highest density of trees was recorded in Grewia damine and followed
by Diospyros ferrea, Pterospermum suberifolium and Chloroxylon swietenia etc.
The highest contribution of basal area was recorded of Syzygium cumini followed
by G. Damine and Mitragyna parvifolia etc. Memecylon umbellatum showed the
highest density and basal area and Phyllanthus polyphyllus and Allophylus
serratus followed respectively.
146
Table 1. List of first ten leading tree and shrub species represented in the vegetation size
class above 10 cm gbh with their basal areas, density and IVI values.
Species
IVI Value
BA m2/ha
Tree species
Syzygium cumini
Grewia damine
Chloroxylon swietenia
Mitragyna parvifolia
Pterospermum suberifolium
Diospyros ferrea
Bauhinia racemosa
Diplodiscus verrucosus
Lepisanthes tetraphylla
Pleurostylia opposita
Total
29
23
14
11
9
8
7
6
5
5
24.90 ± 4.36
13.11 ± 0.23
8.30 ± 0.34
9.14 ± 3.31
3.44 ± 0.17
2.20 ± 0.09
4.05 ± 0.31
2.20 ± 0.13
1.41 ± 0.05
0.70 ± 0.05
69.45 ± 2.65
46 ± 0.51
192 ± 0.20
113 ± 0.81
25 ± 0.03
117 ± 1.28
129 ± 0.42
50 ± 0.23
88 ± 0.71
83 ± 0.62
92 ± 1.85
935 ± 41.35
Shrub species
Memecylon umbellatum
Phyllanthus polyphyllus
Allophylus serratus
Flueggea leucopyrus
Eugenia bracteata
Ochna obtusata
Dichrostachys cinerea
Catunaregam spinosa
Flacourtia indica
Capparis brevispina
Total
16
8
6
5
3
2
1
1
1
1
1.51 ± 0.01
0.89 ± 0.03
0.88 ± 0.03
0.76 ± 0.01
0.34 ± 0.02
0.03 ± 0.00
0.45 ± 0.05
0.25 ± 0.05
0.18 ± 0.02
0.09 ± 0.03
5.38 ± 1.62
321 ± 3.0
163 ± 2.62
108 ± 1.22
96 ± 0.73
54 ± 0.60
54 ± 1.82
17 ± 0.06
17 ± 0.12
13 ± 0.07
17 ± 0.58
860 ± 26.32
Total individuals above 1m height
Total twenty dominant species
Den/ha
93.2
74.8
2208
1795
Girth class distribution in relation to percentage individuals are given in
Figure 2. The girth size class 10- 20 showed the highest number of species along
with the highest species richness. Species richness of first and third gbh size class
is more or less similar, while the proportion of individuals is quite high in the gbh
size class 20-30.
(34)
50
40
30
(8)
(17)
(9)
(11)
> 50
10
40 - 50
(18)
20
30 - 40
20 - 30
10 - 20
0
0 - 10
% individuals in different girth classes
60
147
Girth size class distribution (cm)
Figure 2. Girth class distribution of individuals greater than 10 cm gbh (trees and shrubs) in the
Popham Arboretum in Dambulla. The number of species that were present in each size class is
given in parentheses.
FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF VEGETATION
A total of 101 species belonging to 91 genera and 42 families were
identified. Among the taxa identified 45 had medicinal value, 14 timber value and
7 both timber and medicinal value. There were 45 tree spp., 27 shrub spp., 18
herbaceous spp. and 11 climber spp. comprising 5 endemics (Diospyros
oppositifolia, Diplodiscus verrucosus, Canarium zeylanicum, Cassine balae and
Micromelum minutum) were recorded.
Species and family dominance
On the basis of IVI values, the leading dominant in the vegetation size
class >10 cm gbh were S. cumini, G. damine and M. umbellatum etc (Figure 3).
The contribution of basal area and density of those species showed alternative
variation. Compared to basal area density of constitute species showed more or
less similar among the leading species.
35
% Relative Basal
Percent IVI Value
30
% Relative Density
25
20
15
10
5
V. altissima
I. pavetta
P. opposita
F. leucopyrus
L. tetraphylla
A. serratus
D. verrucosus
B. racemosa
D. ferrea
P. polyphyllus
P. suberifolium
M. parvifolia
C. swietenia
M. umbellatum
G. damine
S. cumini
0
Plant species
Figure 3. Variation in IVI values of the first ten leading species in Popham Arboretum in
Dambulla.
The most dominant family based on IVI value was Myrtaceae followed by
Tiliaceae and Rubiaceae. However the two leading families constitute only two
species, while Rutaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae contribute
higher species richness (Figure 4).
% Relative Basal area
30
(2)
% Relative Density
(2)
(5)
20
(7)
(6)
(1)
(6)
(3)
10
(4)
(1)
Sterculiaceae
Ebenaceae
Sapindaceae
Fabaceae
148
Melastomataceae
Euphorbiaceae
Rutaceae
Rubiaceae
Tiliaceae
0
Myrtaceae
Percent IVI Value
40
Family
Figure 4. Variation in IVI values of the first ten leading families in Popham Arboretum in
Dambulla. Number of species in a given family is given in parenthesis.
POPULATION SIZE
Considering the population size classes, species richness was high in the
vegetation size class over 10 cm gbh (Figure 5). The population between 2 -10
recorded the highest number of species for both vegetation size classes.
Vegetation > 10 cm gbh
20
15
10
5
Vegetation < 10 cm gbh
No. of species in each size classes
25
41 - 50
31 - 40
21 - 30
11 - 20
2 - 10
1 only
0
Figure 5. Number of species in each of the population size classes in the vegetation of the
Population size classes
Popham Arboretum in Dambulla.
TRENDS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Figure 6 gives the species association in terms of their occurrence in the
arboretum and woodland. Cluster A and B associated with nine species including
one species of borderline negative (Meum), while cluster C and D associated with
eleven species including one species of borderline positive (Phpo). In the
TWINSPAN diagram WL3 and WL1 formed a single distinguishable cluster,
while AR1, AR2 and AR3 formed a single distinguishable cluster along with
WL1 cluster. Therefore, species very common to both arboretum and woodland
occur at the WL1 plot.
149
A R2
A R1
Chsw
E = 0.20
Cluster C
Cluster D
Bema
Stnu
Ixpa
Axis 2
E = 0.18
Plop
WL2
Cadi
Sycu
Alse
Dive
Cluster A
Bara
Dife
A R3
Eubr
Ocob
Ptsu
Meum
Lete
Borderline
negative
Saem
Phpo
WD3
E = 0.19
Grda
Borderline
positive
Cluster B
Flle
WL1
Axis 1
Figure 6. The ordination diagram based on species abundance in terms of plots. Species are denoted by four
letters (two letters from generic name of particular species and two letters from species name) and
plots are denoted by two letters and numerical number referring to arboretum (AR) and woodland
(WL). Four clusters identified by TWINSPAN were subjectively marked in the ordination diagram,
where cluster A and B denoted the positive branch of the cluster, while cluster C and D denoted the
negative branch of the cluster. Letter E indicates the Eigen value of each cluster.
Cluster A was composed of four typical dry zone tree species such as D.
verrucosus, D. Ferrea, L. tetraphylla and S. emarginata with typical shrub viz.,
A. serratus. All species associated in cluster C (Plots of AR1 and AR2) were trees
such as C. swietenia, P. opposita, S. nux-vomica, Bauhinia racemosa and Ixora
pavetta. Cluster D were associated with mostly shrub species such as P.
Polyphyllus, Ochna obtusata, Benkara malabarica and Eugenia bracteata and
trees such as P. suberifolium and Canthium dicoccum var. umbellatum.
150
DISCUSSION
Perera (1998) carried out a vegetation survey at Sigiriya sanctuary and
recorded over 5,000 individuals of trees and 5,000 individuals of shrubs per
hectare. This was quite a high density compared to density of trees and shrubs at
the arboretum. This is because of the contribution of immature seedlings and
sapling in the Sigiriya sanctuary. Furthermore, size class distribution of
individuals at Sigiriya sanctuary showed very few large trees and the majority has
smaller diameters. But in the Dambulla arboretum, the predominance of mature
trees indicates that the forest in Dambulla arboretum is higher in its regeneration
state.
Samarasinghe 1995 showed that Chloroxylon swietenia was
the most dominant tree based on its relative density (RD =3.4 in year1993)
followed by Grewia damine (RD = 0.1), Diospyros ferrea (RD = 0.1) and
Pterospermum suberifolium (RD = 0.5). The present survey found that these are
the leading tree species however; their dominance within the survey was altered.
On the other hand, Samarasinghe recorded Phyllanthus polyphyllus was the
leading dominant, whereas it was the second dominant species in the present
survey.
Relatively high stem densities, particularly stems in the smaller girth size
classes is due to a dominance of species of typically small size i.e. Diospyros
ferrea, Memecylon umbellatum and Ixora pavetta and coppicing of shrubs.
Cramer in 1993 documented 192 plant species of which 88 species were
trees composed of rare, endemic and endangered species. The vegetation in the
arboretum, when compared with primary forests in the dry zone has climax
species in the canopy layer.
Reverse J shaped curve observed in the vegetation of the arboretum
indicates that these are in the late regenerating phase of secondary vegetation. The
vegetation of the arboretum was regenerated via silvicultural management since
1963 and therefore it harbors mature trees, while the vegetation of the woodlands
declared for conservation since 1989 by the Institute of Fundamental Studies has
both mature and immature trees.
Bauhinia racemosa, G. damine and P. suberifolium that play an important
role in the damana forest, adapted to withstand fire can be seen here. On the other
hand, M. hexandra, C. swietenia, Drypetes sepiaria and Diospyros ebenum are
climax forest species in the dry zone. The occurrence of fire tolerant species as
well as climax forest species indicates that the forest is in a late succession stage
of regeneration.
The IVI values of C. swietenia are fairly good. This tree species was
considered as the key species in monsoon forests, which in the past, was classified
as M. hexandara - D. sepiaria - C. swietenia association based on their abundance
in the forest. However, the present survey recorded that these species in the
arboretum still provide refuge for remarkably rare species such as Diospyros
ebenum, Diospyros malabarica and Diospyros oppositifolia.
Of the shrub species M. umbellatum recorded the highest
importance value. Fernando (1996) has suggested that the very high relative
importance value of these species in forests of Maduru Oya national park indicate
that there has been minimal disturbance. This is further confirmed because the
arboretum was initiated in the year 1963 and disturbance has not taken place since
and therefore an abundance of this species is obvious and to be expected.
151
The three most dominant families by number of species in
the arboretum and woodland were Rutaceae, Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Plants
in these families are adapted to grow under dry and stressful environmental
conditions. Some members of the Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae have thorns, latex,
cladodes and/or relatively small leaves to conserve water and escape herbivory.
Some members of Fabaceae can fix Nitrogen and therefore, they can perform well
in the dry zone forests. The present results further confirm Samarasinghe’s
findings of diverse families viz., Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and Rutaceae.
The ordination diagram clearly shows that the plots of the arboretum and
woodland are divided into two because of different regeneration stages. The
species inhabitants in the arboretum are mainly trees and shrubs typically found in
the primary dry zone forests. Cluster A resulted in basically dominant species in
the woodland. On the other hand, Cluster C dominated by valuable timber such as
Chloroxylon swietenia and Pleurostylia opposita and mainly inhabits the
arboretum.
CONCLUSIONS
The study proves the importance of the arboretum with regard to its fairly
rich flowering plants including endemics, valuable timber trees and plentiful
medicinal plants. Furthermore, arboretum provides refuge for typical dry zone key
plant species through natural regeneration from the soil seed bank. Application of
Popham method is recommended for degraded land to convert the land into
productive ecosystems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors extend their thanks and appreciation to Mr. Sam Popham,
Creator of this Arboretum, Mr. Nigel Billimoria - Senior Manager, Ruk
Rakaganno - A National NGO and current manager of the Arboretum, and the
Institute of Fundamental Studies for permission to carry out research. And last but
not least we wish to thank the field assistants K.G. Sumane Banda, U.G.
Rathnasiri, K.G. Palis and M.G. Jamis.
152
REFERENCES
Anon. (1996). Newsletter. Dambulla arboretum and woodland. In: J. Samarasinghe, (ed.) Issues 2,
IFS Popham arboretum.
Cramer, L.H. (1993). A forest arboretum in the dry zone. Institute of Fundamental Studies, 241.
Dassanayake, M. D. and Fosberg, F.R. (1990-1991). A Reversed Hand Book to the Flora of
Ceylon. Amerind Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. 1-6.
Dassanayake, M. D., Fosberg, F. R. and Clayton, W.D. (1994-1995). A Reversed Hand Book to
the Flora of Ceylon. Amerind Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. 8-9.
Dassanayake, M. D. and Clayton, W. D. (1996-2000). A Reversed Hand book to the Flora of
Ceylon. Amerind Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. 10-12.
Fernando, H.S.K.F. (1996). A comparative study on the ecology of woody vegetation of forest
types in the Maduru Oya National Park. M.Phil. thesis, University of Peradeniya, Sri
Lanka.
Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1982). Medicinal plants (indigenous and exotic) used in Sri Lanka (I
edition). The National Science Council, Sri Lanka. 1-4.
st
Perera, G.A.D. (1998). Vegetation and the regeneration of moist deciduous forests at Sigiriya, Sri
Lanka. Photo. 5 (1): 9-16.
Popham, F.H. (1993). Dambulla. A Sanctuary of tropical trees. Sam Popham foundation, UK, 72
p.
Samarasinghe, J. (1995). Regeneration dynamics of silviculturally assisted dry zone scrub
vegetation at Dambulla arboretum. In: H.S. Amarasekera and S.G. Banyard (Editors),
Proceedings of the Annual Forestry Symposium, Dept. of Forestry and Environment
Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 291-299.
Senaratna, L. K. (2001). A check list of the flowering plants of Sri Lanka. National Science
Foundation, Sri Lanka. 451 p.
Weerawardane, N.D.R. (1999). Natural regeneration of some dry zone forest species assisted by
silvicultural management in dry zone woodland at Dambulla. The Sri Lanka forester.
23 (3&4): 7-17.
153
Appendix 1
Species list of the vegetation in the IFS Popham Arboretum
(T = Tree, S = Shrub, H = Herb, C= Climber).
Species/Family
Acanthaceae
Andrographis paniculata*
Justicia procumbens
Amaranthaceae
Aerva lanata*
Amaryllidaceae
Crinum sp:*
Apocynaceae
Aganosma cymosa*
Carissa spinarum
Ichnocarpus frutescens
Araceae
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius*
Arecaceae
Borassus flabellifer*
Asclepiadaceae
Wattakaka volubilis*
Asteraceae
Elephantopus scaber
Eupatorium odoratum
Boraginaceae
Carmona retusa
Cordia dichotoma
Ehretia laevis
Burseraceae
Canarium zeylanicum*
Capparaceae
Capparis brevispina
Celastraceae
Cassine balae*
Pleurostylia opposita
Clusaceae
Garcinia morella*
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea littoralis*
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea alata*
Dracaenaceae
Sansevieria zelanica*
Ebenaceae
Diospyros ebenum
Diospyros ferrea
Diospyros malabarica
Diospyros oppositifolia
Diospyros ovalifolia*
Euphorbiaceae
Bridelia retusa
Croton officinalis*
Dimorphocalyx glabellus
Code
Local Name
Medicine-M/ Life form
Timber-T
Anpa
Jupr
Heen-bin-kohomba M
Mayani
H
H
Aela
Pol pala
H
M
Crin
H
Agcy
Casp
Icfr
Heen-Karamba
Kiri-wel
Ampa
Kidaran
H
Bofl
Tal
T
Wavo
Anguna
Elsc
Euod
Et-adi
Podisinghomaran
H
S
Care
Codi
Ehle
Heen-tambala
Lolu
Walangasal
S
T
T
Caze
Dik-kekuna
Cabr
Wellangiriya
M
S
Caba
Plop
Neraloo
Panakka
M
T
T
T
Gamo
Gokatu
T
Ipli
Tel-kola
C
Dial
Hingurala
C
Saze
Niyanda
H
Dieb
Dife
Dima
Diop
Diov
Kaluwara
Kalu habarala
Timbiri
Kalu-mediriya
Kunumella
Brre
Crof
Digl
Katakala
Weli wenna
154
M
M
M
H
S
H
C
T
T
M
T
M/T
T
T
T
T
T
T
S
S
Drypetes sepiaria
Euphorbia antiquorum*
Euphorbia heterophylla*
Flueggea leucopyrus
Givotia moluccana*
Margaritaria indicus
Phyllanthus amarus
Phyllanthus polyphyllus
Fabaceae
Bauhinia racemosa
Cassia fistula
Cassia roxburghii
Derris benthamii
Dichrostachys cinerea
Mimosa pudica
Tamarindus indica
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtia indica
Lamiaceae
Ocimum americanum*
Lauraceae
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia
Litsea glutinosa
Linaceae
Hugonia mystax*
Loganaceae
Strychnos potatorum*
Strychnos nux-vomica
Melastomataceae
Memecylon umbellatum
Osbeckia sp.
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica
Chukrasia tabularis
Moraceae
Streblus asper
Myrtaceae
Eugenia bracteata
Syzygium cumini
Ochnaceae
Ochna obtusata
Oleaceae
Chionantus zeylanica*
Jasminum angustifolium
Periplocaceae
Hemidesmus indicus
Poaceae
Setaria sp.
Rhamnaceae
Scutia myrtina*
Ziziphus oenoplia
Rhizophoraceae
Cassipourea ceylanica*
Rubiaceae
Benkara malabarica
Canthium coromandelicum
Canthium dicoccum var. umbellatum
Catunaregam spinosa
Ixora pavetta
Mitragyna parvifolia
Drse
Euan
Euhe
Flle
Gimo
Main
Pham
Phpo
Wira
Daluk
M
Heen-katu-pila
M
Karawu
Pita-wakka
Kuratiya
M
Bara
Cafi
Caro
Disc
Dici
Mipu
Tain
Maila
Ehela
Ratu-wa
Kala-wel
Andara
Nidi-kumba
Siyambala
Flin
Uguressa
S
Ocam
Heen-tala
H
Alss
Ligl
Wewarani
Bomee
T
M
T
T
Humy
Bu-getiya
M
C
Stop
Stnu
Ingini
Goda kaduru
M
M
T
T
Meum
Osbe
Kora-kaha
Bowitiya
M
T
S
Azin
Chta
Kohomba
Hulan-hik
M/T
M/T
T
T
Stas
Geta-netul
Eubr
Sycu
Daeduwa
Madan
Ocob
Galkera
Chze
Jaan
Geratiya
Wal-pichcha
M
H
C
Hein
Heen-iramusu
M
H
M
M/T
M
M
M/T
T
T
H
S
H
T
H
S
T
T
T
C
S
H
T
T
M/T
T
T
S
Seta
H
Scmy
Zioe
Heen-eraminiya
Cace
Pana
Bema
Caco
Cadi
Cats
Ixpa
Mipa
Getakula
Kara
Bokutu
Kukurman
Goda ratmal
Helamba
155
M
S
S
S
M
M
M
M
M/T
S
S
T
S
T
T
Morinda umbellata*
Oldenlandia corymbosa*
Tarenna asiatica
Rutaceae
Acronychia pedunculata
Atalantia ceylanica
Chloroxylon swietenia
Clausena indica*
Glycosmis mauritiana
Limonia acidissima
Micromelum minutum
Pleiospermium alatum
Toddalia asiatica
Sapindaceae
Allophylus serratus
Cardiospermum halicacabum*
Lepisanthes tetraphylla
Sapindus emarginata
Sapotaceae
Manilkara hexandra
Sterculiaceae
Helicteres isora*
Pterospermum suberifolium
Tiliaceae
Diplodiscus verrucosus
Grewia damine
Microcos paniculata*
Verbenaceae
Gmelina asiatica
Lantana camara
Vitex altissima
Vitaceae
Cissus quadrangularis*
Cissus vitiginea
Moum Maha-kiri-wel
Olco
Wal-patpadagam
Taas
Tarana
M
Acpe
Atce
Chsw
Clin
Glma
Liac
Mimi
Plal
Toas
Ankenda
Yakinaran
Buruta
Migon-karapincha
Bol-pana
Divul
Wal-karapincha
Tumpat-kurundu
Kudu-miris
Alse
Caha
Lete
Saem
Kobbe
Penala-wel
Dambu
Penela
M
M
S
C
T
T
Mahe
Palu
T
T
Heis
Ptsu
liniya
Welan
S
T
Dive
Grda
Mipa
Dik-wenna
Daminiya
Keliya
T
T
S
Gmas
Laca
Vial
Demata
Ciqu
Civi
Hiressa
Wal-niviti
Milla
M
M
T
C
H
T
M
M
M
M
T
S
T
S
S
T
S
T
C
M
M
T
S
S
T
M
C
C
*Plants, which are not documented in Cramer’s checklist in the arboretum. Endemic species are in
bold.
Source: Jayaweera (1982), Cramer (1963) and Senaratna (2001).
156
HABITAT QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OF THE WESTERN
CEYLON SLENDER LORIS, Loris tardigradus IN THE KOTTAWA
ARBORETUM
S. N. GAMAGE1*, D. WEERAKOON2 and A. GUNWARDENA1
1
Department of Animal Science, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya.
2
Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo-03.
ABSTRACT
The red slender loris, Loris tardigradus is one of the three primate species endemic to
Sri Lanka. Currently there are two recognized subspecies of the red slender loris, L. t.
tardigradus and L. t. nycticeboides. Of these L. t. tardigradus (Western Ceylon slender loris)
inhabits rainforests in the southwestern region of the island while L. t. nycticeboides (Ceylon
mountain slender loris) is restricted to the montan zone. Kottawa Arboretum harbors one of
the few remaining L. t. tardigradus populations in the country. This study was conducted to
determine the population density, habitat selection criteria and to assess the habitat
availability of L. t. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum. Using the line transect method, 34
sightings were made over a period of 21 months. Based on these observations the density of
Western Ceylon slender loris in the Kottawa Arboretum and habitat selection criteria were
ascertained. The calculated density of L. t. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum is 41animals/ km2. The average height of trees preferred by L. t. tardigradus is 13.97 m ± 6.02.
Most of the time lorises were observed at a height range of 3.5-15 m above the ground level.
Average height from the ground level where L. t. tardigradus were observed to occupy the
tree was 8.64 m ± 5.00. Of the 50 tree species recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum, L. t.
tardigradus was found to utilize only 16 species.
KEY WORDS: Density, habitat availability, habitat selection, L. t. tardigradus, low
land rain forest
INTRODUCTION
Sri Lanka, with a total land area of 65,610 km2 is a tropical island situated
in the Indian Ocean. The southwestern region of Sri Lanka, encompassing
approximately 20,000 km2, is the only aseasonal ever wet region in the whole of
South Asia (Ashton & Gunatilleke, 1987; Gunatilleke et al., 2005). This region is
referred to as the wet zone of Sri Lanka and receives up to 3000 mm of rainfall
annually. Wet-zone of Sri Lanka along with the Western Ghats of India is
designated as one of the world’s 11 biodiversity “hyperhot” hotspots, in demand
of extensive conservation investment (Myers et al., 2000; Brookes et al., 2002).
However, agro ecosystems and human settlement cover most of the land area in
the wet-zone of Sri Lanka (Pemadasa, 1996; Ashton et al., 1997; Gamage, 2005).
A burgeoning human population, demand for subsistence land, and a high
proportion of endangered and endemic species within Sri Lanka’s wet zone have
resulted in its being declared a critically endangered eco-region (Mill, 1995;
Nekaris et al., 2005).
The slender loris (Loris) is a small nocturnal prosimian primate endemic to
Sri Lanka and South India. The forests of Sri Lanka are home to two species of
slender loris (Loris tardigradus and L. lydekkerianus), with four currently
recognized subspecies, L. t. tardigradus, L. t. nycticeboides, L. l. nordicus, and L.
157
l. grandis (Osman Hill, 1953; Groves, 2001; Nekaris & Jayewardene, 2003). The
red slender loris, Loris tardigradus is endemic to Sri Lanka (Groves, 2001;
Nekaris & Jayewardene, 2003; Nekaris et al., 2005). The conservation status of
this species (L. tardigradus) has since been elevated to the endangered category
(IUCN, 2004). According to Nekaris & Jayewardene, (2003) the Western Ceylon
slender loris, L. t. tardigradus only inhabits rainforest in the southwestern region
of the island while the other sub species L. t. nycticeboides is restricted to the
montane region above 2000 m. Preliminary abundance estimates of L. t.
tardigradus showed that these lorises are patchily distributed, even within a single
forest reserve (Nekaris & Jayewardene, 2003; Nekaris et al., 2005).
The Kottawa Arboretum is a part of Kottawa-Kombala forest reserve and
is classified as a lowland rainforest (Pemadasa, 1996; Ashton et al., 1997).
Kottawa Arboretum harbors one of the few remaining Western Ceylon slender
loris L. t. tardigradus populations in the country. Very few studies have focused
on the ecology of L. t. tardigradus except one study that has been done in
Masmullah proposed forest reserve (Nekaris et al., 2005; Pers. Com. Bernede).
Thus, the overall aim of this study is to determine the density, habitat selection
criteria and habitat availability for L. t. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum.
Study site
Kottawa Arboretum is a part of Kottawa-Kombala forest reserve, which is
situated in the southern region of Sri Lanka and belongs to Yakkalamulla
Divisional Secretariat Division of Galle District (6°05’ N and 80°18’ E). The
extent of the Arboretum is approximately 20ha and it is classified as a lowland
rainforest (Pemadasa, 1996). Remnants of Dipterocarpus forest occur in the
Arboretum site. Secondary forest occurs where the original forest cover has been
removed due to logging. Some of the logged areas are replanted with pinus trees
(Pinus caribaea), by the Forest Department (Gamage, 2005).
The study taxon
L. t. tardigradus is the smallest of the slender lorises, weighing 85-172g
(Nekaris et al., 2005). On the basis of museum specimens, Groves (2001) recently
distinguished it from other slender lorises. It occurs only in the southwestern
region of Sri Lanka (Nekaris, 2003; Nekaris & Jayewardene, 2003; Nekaris et al.,
2005).
158
Population density
This study was carried out from August 2003 to April 2005, using the
fixed line transect method. Five line transects, each 200 m long separated by 50 m
was marked in the study site. These transect’s were repeated 19 times during the
sampling period. Along the transect the distance to the animal was visually
observed and the angle between the animal and transect was measured using a
compass. Density was calculated using the following equation. D = f ∑ ni / 2L
(Sutherland, 1996), where D is density, L is length of the transect; ni is numbers of
animals recorded in the recognized zones, and f = a1 + 1/ dt where a1 = 2 (∑ cos gi
/ dt ∑ ni) and dt is distance beyond which data were truncated; gi = π ni di / dt; and
di = zi sin øi, where zi is distance of the ith animal when first observed, øi is angle
to ith animal when first observed, di is perpendicular distance from transect line to
ith animal.
Observation of loris habitat use
Focal animal instantaneous point sampling method was used to obtain
behavior data (Charles-Dominique & Bearder, 1979; Nekaris et al., 2005).
Headlamps fitted with red filters were used to minimize disturbance to the animal.
Data regarding habitat use was recorded upon first spotting an animal. The type of
data collected included substrate size, substrate angle, height from the ground
level, tree height, and tree type (Nekaris, 2001; Nekaris et al., 2005).
Vegetation sampling
The plot-less sampling technique (Sutherland, 1996) was used to ascertain
the density of tree species of the study sites. 30 sampling points were chosen
randomly in the study site. At each point two sticks were placed perpendicular to
each other to demarcate four quadrates. In each quadrate the nearest tree (girth
>10cm) from the point and the nearest neighbor of the tree (girth > 10cm) in the
same direction was identified. Then identity of the plant species, distance from the
point to the tree, distance between plant and its nearest neighbor, circumference at
breast height and the estimated tree height was recorded. Furthermore, the
percentage arboreal continuity of each tree was measured using the following
scale 0-1.5, 1.5-3.5, 3.5-5.0, 5.0-10.0, 10-15 & 15 < meters (Nekaris et al., 2005;
Gamage, 2005). In addition microhabitat characteristics of each of the following
strata 0-1.5, 1.5-3.5, 3.5-5.0, 5.0-10.0, 10-15 & 15< meters (nature, size,
orientation and the presence or absence of vines and epiphytes within the strata)
was recorded. In each quadrate percentage of saplings on the ground was
determined using the Braun-Blanquet scale (Sutherland, 1996).
Floral density was calculated using the T-square method (Sutherland,
1996). The equation used was D = m2 / (2.828 ∑ xi ∑ zi), where D is tree density
(trees/ha), m is number of sampling points, xi is distance from the sampling point
(m), and zi is distant to the nearest neighbor (m). A test of random distribution
was determined using the equation, ‘t’ = {∑ [xi2 / (xi2 + zi2 / 2)] – m / 2} (12/m),
where a value greater than 1.96 indicates a non-random distribution (Sutherland,
159
1996). Basal area was calculated using the equation, Ba = (2 x CBH/ 4) x D,
where Ba is the basal area, CBH is circumference at breast height, and D is tree
density (Sutherland, 1996).
RESULTS
Population density
During the observation period a total of 36 sightings (data points) of L. t.
tardigradus were recoded however two sighting (data points) were omitted for
calculations due to difficult to identify the tree. The unit density of L. t.
tardigradus at the Kottawa Arboretum was found to be 41-animals/ km2.
Therefore the estimated population size of L. t. tardigradus in the Kottawa
Arboretum (extent 20 ha) is approximately 8 animals.
Floral composition of the study area
The 240 trees surveyed during the vegetation study represented 50 species
that belongs to 25 families. Of these 37 species (74%) are endemic to Sri Lanka
while the remaining 13 (26%) can be defined as native species (Table 1). The
most abundant tree species recorded was Acronychia pedunculata (n = 27;
11.3%). Other relatively common species included Lijndenia capitellata (n = 21;
8.8%), Agrostistachys coriacea (n = 11; 4.5%), and Mangifera zeylanica (n = 10;
4.2%). All other tree species were encountered less than 10 times during the
survey period. The calculated tree density of all trees in the sample was 1917
trees/ha. The calculated‘t’ value for the test of random distribution was +21.48.
The average height of trees in the sample was 8.19 m ± 6.55, with a minimum of
2.5m and a maximum of 40m. The average CBH was 34.38 cm ± 52.64; with a
minimum of 10 cm and a maximum of 305 cm. The tallest tree (40 m) recorded
from the study site was Dipterocarpus hispidus with a CBH of 305 cm. The most
common tree species, Acronychia pedunculata, had an average height of 4.96 m ±
0.84, and a CBH of 17.48 cm ± 4.03. The average basal area of the trees was 94.0
± 220.4 m2/ha. Density of ground cover between nearest neighbor trees was
determined 120 times using the Braun-Blanquet scale. The average density was
2.1 ± 1.8 %.
Table 1. Tree species (>10 cm CBH) recorded using the plot-less sampling technique in the
Kottawa Arboretum. (Abbreviations: En = endemic, Na = native).
160
Family
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Annonaceae
Arecaceae
Burseraceae
Celastraceae
Celastraceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Dilleniaceae
Dilleniaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Icacinaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Melastomataceae
Melastomataceae
Moraceae
Myrataceae
Myrataceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Ochnaceae
Oleaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophoraceae
Rubiaceae
Rutaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Symplocaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Verbenaceae
Species name
Campnosperma zeylanicum
Mangifera zeylanica
Semecarpus nigro-viridis
Semecarpus subpeitata
Semecarpus walkeri
Xylopia chamionii
Caryota urens
Canarium zeylanicum
Bhesa ceylanica
Kokkoona zeylanica
Calophyllum bracteatum
Calophyllum moonii
Calophyllum thwaitesii
Garcinia quaesita
Mesua thwaitesii
Dillenia retusa
Schumacheria alnifolia
Dipterocarpus glandulosus
Dipterocarpus hispidus
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus
Shorea affinis
Stemonoporus canalicuculatus
Vateria copallifera
Agrostistachys coriacea
Bridelia moonii
Chaetocarpus castanocarpus
Homalium zeylanicum
Hydnocarpus octandra
Stemonurus apicalis
Cryptocarya wightiana
Lisea gardneri
Lijndenia capitellata
Memecylon capitellatum
Artocarpus nobilis
Syzygium makul
Syzygium neesianum
Horsfieldia irya
Horsfieldia iryaghedhi
Myristica dactyloides
Ochna lanceolata
Chionanthus zeylanica
Anisophyllea cinnamomoides
Carallia brachiata
Timonius flavescens
Acronychia pedunculata
Palaquium grande
Palaquium petiolare
Symplocos coronata
Gyrinops walla
Vitex altissima
161
Common
Count
name
Aridda
8
Atamba
10
Gatabadulla
6
Kabarabadulla
7
Badulla
6
Dathketiya
1
%
Status
3.33
4.17
2.50
2.92
2.50
0.42
En
En
En
En
En
En
Kithul
Kekuna
Pelan
Kokum
Walukeena
Dombakeena
Batukeen
Goraka
Diyana
Godapara
Kakiriwara
Dorana
Buhora
Hora
Beraliya
Mandora
Hal
Beru
Pathkela
Hedawaka
Liyan
Waldeul
Uruhonda
Gulmora
Thalan
Pinibaru
Velikaha
Badidel
Aluboo
Panukera
Eriya
Ruk
Malaboda
Bokera
Gerieta
Velipenna
Dawata
Angana
Ankenda
Kiripedda
Kirihambiliya
Uguduhal
Walla
Milla
0.42
1.25
1.67
0.83
1.25
0.83
3.33
2.08
2.08
2.92
3.33
0.83
1.25
2.92
1.67
1.25
0.83
4.58
2.50
2.08
0.83
0.42
1.67
0.42
0.42
8.75
1.25
0.83
1.25
0.83
3.75
2.93
1.25
0.83
0.42
0.83
1.67
0.42
11.25
0.83
0.83
0.83
2.08
1.67
Na
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
En
Na
Na
En
En
Na
En
En
En
En
En
En
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
En
Na
En
Na
En
En
En
Na
Na
1
3
4
2
3
2
8
5
5
7
8
2
3
7
4
3
2
11
6
5
2
1
4
1
1
21
3
2
3
2
9
7
3
2
1
2
4
1
27
2
2
2
5
4
A total of 28 climbers were identified. They are, Dalbergia lattifolia
(Fabaceae) (n=6; 21.4%), Salacia reticulata (Hippocrateaceae) (n=4; 14.3%),
Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) (n=4; 14.3%), Dalbergia pseudo-sisoo (Fabaceae)
(n=3; 10.7%), Tetracera sarmentosa (Dilleniaceae) (n=3; 10.7%), Coscinium
penistratum (Menispermaceae) (n=3; 10.7%), Gyrinops walla (Thymelaeaceae)
(n=3; 10.7%),
Smilax zelanica (Smilacaceae) (n=1; 3.6%) and Entada
phaseoloides (Fabaceae) (n=1; 3.6%).
Usage of trees by L. t. tardigradus
Of the 50 tree species recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum, L. t.
tardigradus was found to utilize only 16 species (Figure 1). Among the trees
species preferred most are Dillenia retusa, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus,
Horsfieldia iryaghedhi and Mesua thwaitesii. Of the four most abundant tree
species, Acronychia pedunculata, Lijndenia capitellata, Agrostistachys coriacea
and Mangifera zeylanica only two species (Lijndenia capitellata, and Mangifera
zeylanica) were used by L. t. tardigradus and even then these trees were used
sparsely. A detailed description of the trees on which L. t. tardigradus was seen is
given in table 2.
Characteristics of substrate used by L. t. tardigradus
The average height of the trees used by L. t. tardigradus was 13.97 m ±
6.02 (range 3-28 m). Average height from the ground level where L. t.
tardigradus were observed to occupy the tree was 8.64 m ± 5.00 (range 1-22 m).
Most of the time (n = 27; 79%) lorises were seen to occupy a position in the range
of 3.5-15 m above the ground level (Figure 2). Only on 2 occasions were loris
seen at a height greater than 20 m from the ground level.
20
18
16
14
%
12
10
8
6
4
2
% Usage by lorises
% Availability
Figure 1. Tree availability at Kottawa Arboretum and frequency of utilization by L. t. tardigradus
(n = 34).
162
H al
D om bak eena
Batuk eena
Kok um
D athk etiy a
Aridda
M illa
Pinibaru
Liy an
Pelen
Etam ba
Bedidel
D iy anaa
R uc k
H edaw ak e
G odapara
0
Table 2. Frequency and percentage at which slender lorises were encountered on different plant
species (n = 34).
Species
Dillenia retusa
Chaetocarpus castanocarpus
Mesua thwaitesii
Horsfieldia iryaghedhi
Artocarpus nobelis
Vitex altissima
Homalium zeylanicum
Lijndenia capitellata
Mangifera zeylanica
Bhesa ceylanica
Campnosperma zeylanicum
Xylopia chamionii
Kokkoona zeylanica
Calophyllum thwaitesii
Calophyllum moonii
Vateria copallifera
Common
name
Frequency
of usage
Godapara
Hedawake
Diyanaa
Ruck
Bedidel
Milla
Liyan
Pinibaru
Etamba
Pelen
Aridda
Dathketiya
Kokum
Batukeena
Dombakeena
Hal
6
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Average height
Tree
Occupied
13.8 ±3.5
14.0 ±4.9
14.3 ±4.0
11.3 ±3.1
20.5 ±6.4
13.5 ±2.1
12.0 ±2.8
3.0 ±0.0
17.0 ±11.3
9.0 ±1.4
15
7
26
17
28
16
9.0 ±2.8
8.2 ±3.3
8.0 ±2.0
6.0 ±1.0
14.0 ±8.5
9.5 ±2.1
6.5 ±0.7
1.5 ±0.7
9.0 ±7.1
4.5 ±0.7
15
3
18
12
22
14
The available substrate was grouped into four categories according to the
diameter as twigs (≤ 1 cm), small branches (2 – 5 cm), medium sized branches (6
– 10 cm) and large branches (≥ 10 cm). L. t. tardigradus showed a higher
preference for branches or twigs (n = 27; 76 %) followed by vines (n = 6; 15 %).
L. t. tardigradus were seen rarely on tree trunks (Figure 3).
The available substrate was grouped into three categories according to the
orientation as vertical, horizontal and oblique. L. t. tardigradus showed a higher
preference to oblique and horizontally oriented substrates compared to vertical
oriented substrates (Figure 4).
45.0
40.0
Percentage
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0-1.5
1.5-3.5
3.5-5
5-10
10-15
Height classes (m)
Figure 2. Vertical distribution of L. t. tardigradus
163
>15
50
60
40
50
40
%
30
%
30
20
20
10
10
0
Vertical
0
< 1cm
2-5
6 - 10
Horizontal
Oblique
Substrate orientation
> 10 cm
Available at the study site
Size category
Availability at the s tudy s ite
Loris utilisation
Loris utilisation
Figure 4. Orientation of the available substrate and usage by L.
t. tardigradus
Figure 3. Substrate size availability and usage by L. t.
tardigradus
Habitat structure
The vertical axis of the Kottawa Arboretum was divided into six height
classes and the tree availability, substrate continuity, substrate availability and the
nature of the available substrate within each of these height classes was
investigated to ascertain the habitat availability of L. t. tardigradus within the
Kottawa Arboretum.
Tree availability: Percentage of trees that reach the maximum height of each of
the six height classes was determined to asses the density of the available
substrate. All the trees studied were taller than 1m. After 1m the number of trees
reaching the maximum height of the height class decreased gradually. A
significant reduction occurs after 3.5m (figure 5).
% Tree availabilty
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.15m
1m
3.5m
7m
10m
15m
Heigt Class (m)
Figure 5. Percent tree availability at different height classes in the Kottawa
Arboretum
Substrate Continuity: Substrate continuity was present in all of the height classes.
The height classes 3.5-5m (23%) and 5-10m (22%) had the highest percentage of
substrate continuity (Figure 6).
164
Deleted: aroboretum
Substrate contiuity
25
20
15
10
5
0
0-1.5m
1.5-3.5m
3.5-5m
5-10m
10-15m
15m<
Height Class
Figure 6. Percent substrate continuity at different height classes in the Kottawa
Arboretum
Habitat quality and availability: The habitat quality of Kottawa Arboretum was
analyzed based on the habitat selection criteria (type of substrate, orientation and
the girth) observed in this study for L. t. tardigradus. The habitat quality for
lorises was found to be highest between 3.5 m – 10 m height range (Figures 7, 8
and 9). However, the habitat quality between 10m to 15 m was also found to be
suitable for lorises.
% Substrate type
100
80
60
Branch
Trunk
Vine
40
20
0
0.15m 1.5m
3.5m
5m
10m
15m
Height Class
Figure 7. Percentage availability of different substrate types at the different heights of the vertical
axis at Kottawa Arboretum.
165
Deleted: aroboretum
100
90
% Orientation
80
70
60
50
40
Vertical
30
Horizontal
20
Oblique
10
0
0.15m
1.5m
3.5m
5m
10m
15m
Height Class
Figure 8. Percentage orientation of substrate types in the different heights of the vertical axis at
Kottawa Arboretum.
100
90
% Substrate size
80
70
60
< 1cm
50
< 5 cm
40
30
< 10 cm
> 10 cm
20
10
0
0.15m
1.5m
3.5m
5m
10m
15m
Height Class
Figure 9. Available substrate size at different heights of the vertical axis at Kottawa Arboretum.
166
DISCUSSION
Population density of L. t. tardigradus recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum
during this study (41-animals/ km2) is three times greater than the population
density recorded at Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve (13 animals/ km2) by
Nekaris & Jayewardene (2004) who notes that it is the highest population density
of L. t. tardigradus recorded in Sri Lanka. This indicates that the habitat quality of
Kottawa Arboretum is much better than Masmulla Proposed Forest Reserve even
though it is smaller in size. Therefore, a detailed investigation of the habitat
selection criteria of lorises was conducted. Based on these observations habitat
quality and availability in the Kottawa Arboretum for lorises was evaluated.
The floral sampling results show that the Kottawa Arboretum has high
species diversity. Climbers, which provide good substrate for lorises (Nekaris et
al., 2005) were associated with more than 10% of the trees sampled in the study
site. However, increased number of climbers indicates that the forest had been
subjected disturbance (Ashton et al., 2001). Furthermore, the basal area values
recorded are lower than the values expected from a primary forest which once
again indicates that the area has been subjected to selective logging (Bhuyan et
al., 2003). However, compared to Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve, Kottawa
Arboretum appears to be less disturbed due to two reasons. First, the basal area
value is higher than the values recorded for Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve
(Nekaris et al., 2005). Second, no introduced plant species were recorded in the
tree sample (n=240) of Kottawa Arboretum.
Based on the tree usage by L. t. tardigradus it can be concluded that they
show a higher preference towards trees such as Chaetocarpus castanocarpus and
Dillenia retusa, which generally grow in disturbed forests. Analysis of habitat
preferences of L. t. tardigradus showed a higher preference for small branches
and twigs that are obliquely or horizontally oriented.
Nekaris (2001) and Demes et al., (1990), argues that continuity of arboreal
substrate is important for slender loris locomotion. An analysis of the three
dimensional structure of the Kottawa Arboretum in terms of continuity of habitat
and habitat characters such as type, orientation and girth of the available substrate
indicates that the highest habitat quality and availability is in the height range
3.5m to 15m. This is consistent with the field observations where the highest
number of loris sightings were made at this height range with the average height
from the ground level where L. t. tardigradus were observed to occupy was 8.64
m ± 5.00.
A few potential predators were also observed at the study site such as
golden palm cat (Paradoxurus zeylonensis), rusty spotted cat (Prionailurus
rubiginosus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), brown fish owl (Ketupa
zeylonensis), forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) and Indian python (Python
molurus).Even though the size of the estimated population of western Ceylon
slender Loris, L. t. tardigradus at Kottawa Arboretum is small, the high density
observed indicates that the habitat quality is very high. Thus Kottawa Arboretum
can be considered as an important site for the conservation of western Ceylon
slender Loris, L. t. tardigradus. However, at present Kottawa Arboretum exists as
a small isolated forest patch as the Galle-Udugama road separates it from closest
large forest track, the Kombala Kottawa forest reserve. Thus long term
conservation of this population may require linking of Kottawa Arboretum with
the Kombala Kottawa forest reserve through a suitable land use type.
167
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge K.A.I. Nekaris for providing the necessary
literature and equipment for the survey as well as her helpful advice and guidance
throughout this study, Lilia Bernede for providing valuable literature and
comments, Wasantha Liyanage for invaluable assistance provided in the field,
Department of Forest Conservation for granting permission to conduct the study,
National Science Foundation Grant Number NSF/RSP/UOR/A/02/2001 for
providing the necessary financial support.
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Ashton, P.M.S. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1987). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I.
Historical plant geography. Journal of Biogeography. 14: 249-285.
Ashton, P.M.S., Gunatilleke, N., Zoysa, M.D.De, Dassanayake, N., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. &
Wijesundera, S. (1997). A field Guide to the Common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. W.H.T.
Publications Ltd, Colombo.
Ashton, P.M.S., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Singhakumara, B.M.P. & Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. (2001).
Restoration pathways for rain forest in southwest Sri Lanka: review of concepts and models.
Forest Ecology and Management 154: 409-430.
Bhuyan, P., Khan, M.L. & Tripathi, R.S. (2003). Tree diversity and population structure in
undisturbed and human-impacted stands of tropical wet evergreen forest in Arunachal
pradesh, Eastern Himalyas, India. Biodiversity and Conservation. 12: 1753-1773.
Brookes, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Fonseca, G.A.B.Da, Rylands, A.B.,
Konstant, W.R., Flick, P., Pilgrim, J., Oldfield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C. (2002).
Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation Biology. 16: 909-923.
Charles-Dominique, P. & Bearder, S.K. (1979). Field studies of lorisid behavior: Methodological
aspects, in Doyle et al. (eds), The Study of Prosimian Behavior. Academic Press, New York.
5629-5667.
Demes, B., Jungers, W.L. & Nieschalk, U. (1990). Size and speed related aspects of quadrupedal
walking in lorises: a comparison of gait characteristics and locomotor stresses in Loris
tardigradus and Nycticebus coucang, in Jouffroy et al. (eds), Gravity, Posture and
Locomotion in Primates II. Sedicesimo Publishers, Florence.175-197.
Groves, P.C. (2001) Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.
Gamage, S.N. (2005). A comparative study on Biodiversity of selected manmade and Natural
habitats in low country wet zone of Sri Lanka. MPhil thesis. Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Ruhuna. Kamburupitiya Sri Lanka.
Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Gunatilleke, C.V.S. & Dilhan, M.A.A.B. (2005). Plant biogeography and
conservation of the southwestern hill forests of Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology,
Supplement No. 12: 9-22
IUCN, (2004). Redlist. Available at: < URL: http://www.redlist.org
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Fonseca, G.A.B.Da & Kent, J. (2000).
Biodiversity hot spots for Conservation Priorities. Nature. 403: 853-858.
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Nekaris, K.A.I. (2001). Activity budget and positional behavior of Mysore slender loris (Loris
tardigradus lydekkeriaus): implications for “slow climbing” locomotion. Folia Primatologica
72: 228-241.
Nekaris, K.A.I. (2003). Observations on mating, birthing and parental care in three subspecies of
slender loris in the wild (Loris tardigradus and Loris lydekkerianus) Folia Primatologica. 72:
228-241.
Nekaris, K.A.I. & Jayewardene, J. (2003). Pilot study and conservation status of the slender loris
(Loris tardigradus and Loris lydekkerianus) in Sri Lanka. Primate Conservation. 19: 83-90.
Nekaris, K.A.I. & Jayawardena, J. (2004). Survey of Slender loris (Primates, Lorisidae Grey,
1821: Loris tardigradus Linnaeus, 1758 and Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908) in Sri Lanka.
Journal of Zoology. 262: 327-338.
Nekaris, K.A.I., Liyanage, W.K.D.D. & Gamage, S.N. (2005). Influence of forest structure and
composition on population density of the red slender loris Loris tardigradus tardigradus in
Masmullah proposed forest reserve, Sri Lanka. Mammalia 69(2): 201-210.
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169
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS OF WILD JUVENILE ASIAN ELEPHANTS (Elephas maximus)
IN THE UDAWALAWA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA
D. JAYANTHA1 *, P.N. DAYAWANSA1, U.K.G.K. PADMALAL2, W.D.
RATNASOORIYA1 and J.A. WEERASIGHE3
1
2
Department of Zoology, University of Colombo
Department of Zoology, The Open University of Sri Lanka
3
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo 7
ABSTRACT
Social relationships of juvenile elephants (3-6 years old) in the Udawalawa National
Park were studied. Focal animal sampling was employed to quantify behaviour of 450
individuals. Nearest neighbour (NN) and nearest neighbour distance (NND) were recorded to
analyse social relationships. Adult females and juveniles were the NN of the study group
during 50.67% and 37.55% of the total observed time respectively. The mean NND was 1.62m
(SD±2.8) while it was less than 5m in 98% of the time. 33% of the time the study group was
touching (NND<1m) the NN. There was a significant difference between NND categories
(p<0.05). Being the NN, 80% of the infants stayed at a touching distance and was cared or allomothered by the juveniles under discussion. Time allocated for different behaviour pattern by
the study group varied with the NN. When the study animals were accompanied by age-mates,
they spent 17% of time for social playing and another 3% for non-play social contacts. It was
only 1% for each behaviour pattern when the adult females were in close proximity. Maximum
social contacts were observed between study animals and infants. The findings suggest that
juvenile elephants more frequently associate adult females and near–age mates while they
show social relationships in a varying degree with different associates. High play and social
contacts of juveniles provide a great opportunity to develop skills and social confidence well
needed for the survival in future.
KEY WORDS: Social Relationships, Juvenile Elephants, Udawalawa National Park, Sri
Lanka
INTRODUCTION
Mammals that live long have a lengthy childhood and adolescence. It is
perceptible extended childhood is necessary for learning and development of the
growing animal. The fact is observed in the elephant society, which is one of the
most advanced mammalian social organizations (Sukumar, 2003). Young elephants
spend long years in physical and behavioral development and diverse behaviours
exhibited by adult elephants reflect their long history of social interactions and
learning (Sukumar, 2003).
Social interactions or social relationships among elephants are maintained
by communication, behaviour and proximity (Sukumar, 2003). Nearest neighbour
(NN) of an individual and distance to the nearest neighbour (DNN) are some of the
parameters of proximity (Garai, 1997). Elephants show particular relationships with
group members; for an example, juvenile African elephants under eight years old in
the Amboseli national park, Kenya were within 5m distance from their mothers
80% of the observed time (Lee, 1986). In spite of biological need of suckling in
young calve, juvenile interactions with their associates provide an opportunity for
learning and thereby cognitive and motor skills of the individual is improved
(Sukumar, 1994).
170
Different behaviours expressed by social animals also contribute for the long
run learning process. Playing is one such behaviour pattern restricted to higher form
of life and frequently observed in juvenile age. It is a training programme for the
strength and skills that younger will require in adult life (Morris, 1990). Sukumar
(1994) states that playing helps to accelerate the development of brain and nervous
system.
Many of other interactions describe social relationships of elephants.
Juvenile as well as adult animals communicate by entwining trunks and inserting
trunk tip to each others mouths when they are under stress. A calf would show the
same behaviours to learn about feeding from its mother. Continual contacts between
mother and calf reassure the psychological well being of the growing animal
Sukumar (2003 & 1994). Such interactions among elephants invariably increase the
social bonding which will help in better survival.
In this context, it is important to study the way juvenile Asian elephants
establish relationships with its group members. This will help to understand the
social skillfulness and confidence of a particular juvenile compared to age mates
which will then explain the social health of the animal.
A study was conducted in the Udawalawa national park, Sri Lanka with the
objective of describing social relationships of juvenile elephants
METHODOLOGY
Study area
The Udawalawa national park (UNP) is in the intermediate zone of the
Southern Sri Lanka (N 060 24’-060 35’ E 0800 45’- 0810 00’) and currently it has 30,
821 ha of scrublands, grasslands and dry-mixed evergreen forests as dominating
vegetations (Department of Wildlife Conservation, 2005). Extensive areas of
Panicum maximum dominated savanna type grasslands (Jayantha et al, 2005) have
been resulted from shifting cultivation practiced before declaration in 1972. Along
with seasonal grasslands adjoining the Udawalawa reservoir, elephants of UNP
heavily utilize savanna grasslands. The authors believe that UNP harbors a healthy
breeding population of elephants exceeding 500 individuals (Jayantha &
Dayawansa, 2006).
Study group
Juvenile animals of estimated age 3-6 years old were observed in the study.
This age group is partially parallel to ‘young juveniles’ as explained by Santiapillai
in 2004. Based on Sukumar, (1994) the elephant population in the UNP was
categorized into eight different groups in the field level. (Figure 1)
1. INF: Infants – animals of shoulder height up to the level of ventral abdomen of
an average adult female; approximately day 1-1 ½ years old.
2. JVI: Juveniles (Class I) - shoulder height varying between ventral abdomen and
neck level of the adult female; approximately 1 ½ -3 years old.
3. JVII: Juveniles (Class II) - shoulder height varying between neck and eye level
of the adult female; approximately 3-6 years old.
4. JVIII : Juveniles (Class III) - shoulder height varying between eye and dorsal
canthus of ear opening of the adult female; approximately 6-10 years old.
(Juvenile males would be slightly taller than juvenile females of the same age)
171
5. SAF : Sub adult females - shoulder height varying between dorsal canthus of ear
opening and shoulder level of the adult female; approximately 10-12 years old.
6. SAM: Sub adult males - shoulder height is just below or as the same that of the
adult female; approximately 10-15 years old.
7. AF: Adult females – grown females pregnant, lactating or weaned; appearance of
mammae (whether suckled or not) is considered when needed in deciding this.
8. AM: Adult males – grown males of shoulder height more than that of an average
adult female; approximate age more than 15-20 years.
Figure 1. Relative height of young female elephants in relation to full grown female.
(Sukumar, 1994)
Study protocol
Selected animal group was observed in UNP from April 2004 to March
2005. Focal animal sampling and continuous recording (Martin & Bateson, 1993)
were conducted every other week to quantify behaviour of the juveniles
encountered at 450 different occasions. Total sampling time was 4500 minutes.
Hides and distant observation (using 8x40 binoculars) were employed to minimize
Hawthorn effect (Jayantha & Dayawansa, 2006). Nearest neighbour (NN) of the
focal animal and distance to the nearest neighbour (DNN) was recorded together
with different behaviours expressed. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the
findings.
172
RESULTS
1.
Nearest Neighbour Frequency
Juveniles of age 3-6 years old were observed almost half of the time
(50.67%) with adult females, possibly their mothers. They spent 37.55% of the time
collectively with juveniles showing no affiliation towards a particular age or size
group. Sub adult females and sub adult males were the NNs of the focal group
nearly at the same frequencies, 4.22% and 4.00% respectively. Infants were seen
near to the study group 3.11% of the total occasions and it was the adult males that
made least NN frequency (0.44%) (Figure 2).
0.44%
3.11%
10.44%
INF
JV I
JV II
14.22%
JV III
50.67%
SAF
SAM
AF
12.89%
AM
4.22%
4.00%
Figure 2. NN frequencies of different categories as a proportion of the total encounters.
2. Nearest Neighbour Distance
Mean NND was 1.62m (SD±2.8, range 0-40m). Mean NND for different
NN categories varied significantly (ANOVA, one-way, p<0.05). A clear pattern of
mean NND was evident when young animals (0-10 years old) considered as the NN
collectively; with increasing age (and body size) NND increased (Figure 3).
Out of total encounters, at 98% times the NN was within 5m away from the
focal animals and during 33% of the encounters they were touching the NN
(NND<1m). Out of their total associations with the study group, infants stayed in
close proximity (NND<1m) 80% of the time. It is <2% of the observations that
study group stayed between 5-10m away from the NN and stayed very rarely at a
distance >10m (Figure 4).
3.5
Mean NND (m)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
INF
JV I
JV II
173
JV III
SAF
SAM
AF
NN category
Figure 3. Mean NND of different NN categories
AM
% frequency of NN distance
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
>10m
6-10m
1-5m
<1m
INF
JV I
JV II
JV III
SAF
SAM
AF
AM
NN category
Figure 4. Percentage frequency of NND in relation to NN categories
3. Social behaviours in relation to the Nearest Neighbour
The juveniles under discussion expressed different behaviour patterns; only
three patterns were directly related to current context i.e. social play, non-play
social contacts and agonistic interactions. Since only four occasions were recorded
(hit by adult females twice, hit a sub adult female and a Class II juvenile) for the
total of 450 encounters, agonistic behaviour pattern is not considered here.
Several elements were described under social play and non-play social
contacts (Annexure 1).Time allocated for each pattern calculated as a proportion of
the total time the focal animals spent in association of different NN categories
(Figure 5).
Propotion of time spent
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
PLAY
SOCIAL
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
INF
JVI
JVII
JVIII
SAF
SAM
AF
AM
NN category
Figure 5. Proportion of time spent in relation to NN category
174
Social play is generally high when the study group had juveniles as the NN;
the time spent was maximum with the age mates (17%). Non-play social contacts
were high between infants and the study animals. Focal animals shared the same
lesser amount of time for social play and non-play social contacts when the NNs
were sub adult females, sub adult males and adult females. They had no social
contacts with adult males.
DISCUSSION
Young juveniles of elephants spend more time with the adult females,
particularly with their mothers (Kurt, 2002; Lee, 1986; McKay, 1973 & Sukumar,
2003). The fact is further emphasized by the current study. The association must
have more relationships in social context other than the mere biological need of
suckling as only six encounters were there on suckling focal animals during the
study period. Apart from that, they had substantial associations with near-age
juveniles (1-10 years old) next to the adult females proportionately. This can be
clarified by ‘peer socialization’, during which much of the juvenile contacts made
with members of the group other than the mother (Sukumar, 2003 & Moss, 1998). It
was observed during the study that juveniles of 1-10 years old forming social
groups within the cow-calf units. Infants were also recorded to accompany the study
group parallel to Lee’s (1983) and Moss’s (1998) observations of how juvenile
females accompany younger siblings. The term allo-mothering (Santiapillai, 2004)
would describe this association when the juveniles take care of its younger.
Gunawardene et al reported in 2004 that nursing infants stay with their mothers
100% of the time; it is worthwhile to note the possible overlapping of age & size
categories of the two studies.
The focal animals stayed in close proximity with their nearest neighbours.
However, the mean nearest neighbour distance for different age & size categories
varied showing a particular trend among growing animals. From infant to sub adult
age or size, the distance increased gradually. This observation indirectly explains
how young elephants move away from their nearest neighbours with increasing age
and explore its environment (Sukumar, 2003 & Gunawardene et al, 2004).
According to Garai (1997), close proximity of juvenile elephants is a sign of less
social confidence to spend a solitary or independent time.
Out of the social relationships of a juvenile, playing is an important aspect
of learning. Playing in general is acrobatic (primates), exploratory (felids) or social
((Morris, 1990). Social play in juvenile elephants allows them to recognize kin and
formation of social bonds useful in future (Sukumar, 2003). Juveniles of 3-6 years
old spent most of their play time with near-age animals. The same observations
have been made on Amboseli elephants (Lee, 1986). With infants, they allocated
more time for non-play social contacts which supports the association of allomothering. Focal animals had less social interactions with sub adults and adult
females compared to young animals.
175
CONCLUSIONS
Close proximity of juvenile elephants of 3-6 years old with the adult females
and near- age juveniles coincides with social interactions. Majority of the time they
stayed within 5m distance from their nearest neighbours showing a less social
confidence to do so. Social play and non-play social contacts were the behaviour
patterns of interest regarding social relationships. The first pattern was frequent
among near-age juveniles and the second was predominantly between infants and
the juveniles under discussion. Young animals form juvenile groups of near-age
members and young juveniles sometime play allo-mothering role for infants. Play
and other social interactions experience by juvenile elephants would help in
acquiring social skills expressed in later life.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the Department of Wildlife
Conservation, especially to the staff, Udawalawa national park. The Born Free
Foundation, UK is acknowledged for the financial support.
REFERENCE
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. (2005). Management Plan- Udawalawa National
Park.
Garai M.E.(1997). The development of social behaviour in translocated juvenile African elephants,
Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pretoria.
Gunawardene, M.D., Jayasinghe, L.K.A., Janaka, H.K., Weerakoon, D.K., Wickramanayake, E.
and Fernando, P. (2004). Social Organization of Elephants in Southern Sri Lanka. In
Jayawardene, J. (Ed.). Endangered elephants; past, present & future. Biodiversity &
Elephant Conservation Trust. 66 p.
Jayantha, D. & Dayawansa, P.N. (Eds.) (2006). Airavana. Serial Publication of the of the project
ELEMONI-SL; Juvenile elephant monitoring project, Udawalawa National Park.
University of Colombo & Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. 1(1): 5.
Jayantha, D., Dayawansa, P.N., Padmalal, U.K.G.K, Ratnasooriya, W.D. (2005). Behaviour of
Juvenile Asian Elephants in Panicum maximum Dominated Grasslands in the Udawalawa
National Park. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium. 53
p.
Kurt F. (2002). Physical and social development in captive-born and orphaned Asian elephants of
the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage (Sri Lanka). In Proceedings of Workshop on Captive
Elephant Management. Trichur, India.
Lee, P.C. (1986). Early social development among African elephant calves. National Geographic
Research. 2: 388-41.
Martin P. & Bateson P. (1993). Measuring Behaviour: An introductory guide. 2nd Ed. Cambridge
University Press.
McKay G.M. (1973). Behaviour and Ecology of the Asiatic Elephants in Southeastern Ceylon.
Smithsonian Contribution to Zoology. 125: 69.
Morris, D. (1990). Animal Watching. Arrow Books Limited. 230 p.
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Moss, C. (1988). Elephant Memories; Thirteen years in the life of an elephant family. The University
of Chicago Press. Pp 145-174.
Santiapillai, C (Ed.). (2004). Gajah; Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group. 23:16.
Sukumar, R. (2003). The living Elephant; Evolutionary ecology, behaviour and conservation.
Oxford University Press. Pp 125-190.
Sukumar, R. (1994). Elephant Days and Nights; Ten years with the Indian Elephant. Oxford
University Press. 86-109.
Survey Department of Sri Lanka. (2002). 1:50,000 topographical map of Sri Lanka. Sheets 76, 81
and 82.
.
177
ADOPTION OF A WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PLAN BY CROP AND
LIVESTOCK FARMS IN CANADA: WHAT FARMER AND FARM
CHARACTERISTICS MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
J.M.U.K. JAYASINGHE 1* and A. WEERSINK 2
1
Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation Mgt.
Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka.
2
Department of Food, Agricultural & Resource Economics,
University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1.
ABSTRACT
Management Survey (2001) conducted by Statistics Canada and Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada. The target population consists of 21,000 active farms in Canada with
sales greater than $10,000. The farms responded to the survey (Nt = 16,053 with 76.4%
response rate) were classified into three major categories: (1) “crop farms” (Nc = 5,425), (2)
“livestock farms” (Nl = 2,250) and (3) “mixed farms” (Nm = 8,378) with both crops and
livestock. The results indicate that rate of This paper examines the impact of various farmer
and farm characteristics on the adoption of a Wildlife Conservation Plan (WCP) – “a formal
written document prepared by an expert that describes the measures to be taken by an
agricultural operation to conserve natural land and wildlife habitants adjacent to it” - by
crop and livestock farms in Canada. Those characteristics considered in the analysis include:
human capital (age, sex), financial (profits, non-farm income, farm assets), farm structure
(size, ownership), and social (degree of urbanization, population density).
It uses data collected in the Farm Environmental adoption of WCP is comparatively
less (13.9%) as compared to others, including manure, fertilizer, pesticide, water, and
grazing management plans. The results from a Logit Regression analyses suggest that age,
profitability, farm size, and degree of urbanization affect significantly on this behaviour in
all farm types, however with varied size and signs. It highlights the importance of taking into
account of voluntarily private-action of the farming community to formulate publicregulation aiming an environmentally friendly and conservative agriculture farm setting.
KEY WORDS: Crop and livestock farms, Environmental management systems
(EMS),
Wildlife conservation plan(WC)
178
INTRODUCTION
Other than short and long-term financial performance of the firm, the
management of which may be provoked by moral concerns for quality of the
environment where the firm is located. Consequently, the management might
decide to adopt various Environmental Management Systems (EMS) – an
environmental-friendly production practice that documents a firm’s activities that
affect environmental performance – as a guide to reducing its ecological impact.
There is no exception to this with respect to the firms operate in agriculture sector
in Canada. The Farm Environmental Management Survey (FEMS) conducted by
the Statistics Canada in 2001 in collaboration with the Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada identified a number of such EMS adopted by farms operate in this sector,
including nutrient management plans (NMP), fertilizer management plans (FMP),
pesticide management plans (PMP), water management plans (WMP), wildlife
conservation plans (WCP), grazing management plans (GMP), and nutrient
management plans (NMP) etc. The basic activities carried out by the management
of farms that implemented these EMS are summarized in Table 1.
A firm’s decision to invest its scarce resources (that possess higher
opportunity costs) on the adoption of a particular EMS may be a result of, from
one hand, the direct and/or indirect private or social benefits that it can “obtain by
adoption” and/or will be “forgone by non-adoption”. The direct and/or indirect
private or social costs that are “incurred by adoption” and/or can be “skipped by
not-adoption” may also have a significant impact on this behaviour, on the other.
Table 1. Definitions for various environmental management systems (EMS)
Type
Definition
MMP
Explains the types of liquid, solid/semi-solid manure storage systems use (e.g. unlined
lagoon, open tank, sealed, covered tank etc.), frequency of storage and use of manure;
specific treatments use (e.g. aeration, additives, separation, drying etc.), and odor control
systems etc.
FMP
Explains the measures use to apply fertilizer (e.g. broadcasting, banded, post-plant top/side
dressing etc.); mix of legume and chemical fertilizer to be used in each season, and their
frequencies etc.
PMP
Explains certain information with respect to different application strategies of herbicides,
insecticides, and fungicides; sprayer calibration techniques, and alternative methods other
than chemical pesticides to control weeds, insects ad diseases etc.
WMP
Explains the sources and total volume of water to be used on a per acre basis; methods use
to irrigate the land (e.g. sprinkler, drip, surface flooding etc), and ways and means of
domestic water testing etc.
WCP
Explains any measures taken to conserve natural land and wildlife habitants that are
adjacent to the agricultural operation (e.g. livestock fencing, cultivation of perennial
forage, trees, bushes etc).
GMP
Explains any measures taken to conserve natural wetlands including rotational grazing for
livestock and practices such as “carry-over” and “re-seeding”.
NMP
Explains the methods of testing nutrient content of the farm’s liquid or solid/semi-solid
manure before applying it to the land; consideration of nutrient carry-overs; distance to
water ways, and timing of applications etc.
179
Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
One of the direct and private benefits to the firm by adopting an EMS may
be, for example, higher revenue earned through increased market share or price
premiums. Another private benefit may be, although rather indirect, that an EMS
provides a credible signal to its existing and potential customers that it is an
“environmentally-friendly” firm.
As reported by Henriques and Sadorsky (1996), many Canadian firms
adopt environmentally friendly quality management systems to improve its public
image and reputation with the community. In terms of costs, a firm may concern
about conserving the factors of production used in its day-to-day operations (i.e.
reduction of direct costs) and/or reducing the waste generated in such activities by
adoption of a particular EMS. Costs could be further reduced as an EMS by
means of lower interest rates charged by financial institutions; lower premiums
charged by insurance companies, and lower liability risks (e.g. compensation,
legal fees) by minimizing the risk of involvement with the judiciary to solve the
cases related to the environmental quantity (Khanna and Anton, 2002).
According to Wall and Weersink (2001), an EMS is used in many developed
countries as evidence of due diligence which is often the only acceptable defense
in a legal challenge stemming from an environmental accident. Eventually, a
firm’s motivation for adopting EMSs, individually or collectively, without
investing such resources on other competitive ends will be determined by the size
of the margin between these benefits and costs to the adopter (JayasingheMudalige and Weersink, 2004), which may be highly subjective to the
characteristics of the firm and the entrepreneur (Buchanan, 1969).
There are a number of studies that examined empirically the motives for
adoption of certain agri-environmental practices by various types of agricultural
operations in developed countries. Many of these studies have been focused on
the factors affecting the adoption of such practices that generate direct and or
indirect “private” benefits to the farmer (see, for example use of specific vaccines
by cattle producers by Bhattacharyya et al., 1997; various types of fertilizers and
pesticides by Smith and Smithers, 1992).
In consequently, there exists a gap in the environmental economics
literature, with respect to the studies that examined the impact of various human
and socio-economic characteristics associated with farmers and of farms on the
adoption of individual Best Management Practices (BMP) and/or certain EMS
that possess “public goods characteristics”, for example a well-formulated and
comprehensive plan that explains the actions the farm can undertake to protect the
wildlife in and around the farmland (exceptions, include adoption of modern soil
conservation techniques by Rahm and Huffman, 1984, and integrated pest
management techniques by D’Souza et al., 1993). To the best knowledge of
authors, this phenomenon was not examined empirically to date with respect to
the farms operate in the agriculture sector in Canada.
The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of various farmer and
farm characteristics on the adoption of a wildlife conservation plan (WCP) by
crop and livestock farms in Canada. Further, it contrasts and compares whether
that behaviour of farmers is associated with their desire to adopt any other plans,
including those primarily generate “private benefits” (e.g. fertilizer and pesticide
management plans) and “social benefits” (e.g. manure and water management
plans).
180
METHODS
Theoretical framework
A rational farmer will invest on adoption of an EMS if it helps her,
directly or indirectly, to maximize the profits of the farm. Alongside, the farmer
may also decide to adopt certain other EMS (e.g. WCP) in her farm and/or area
adjacent to the farmland that generates greater social benefits than the private
benefits. In light of this, for the farms that involved with production of crop and
livestock in Canada we can hypothesize that “the motivation for the management
of the farm to invest its scare resources on a WCP that generates greater social
benefit (in compared to the private benefits) will depend on the human-capital
(e.g. age, sex), financial (e.g. profits, non-farm income), operational and structural
(e.g. size, ownership), and social (e.g. distance, population pressure)
characteristics of the farmer and the farm”. The following theoretical model was
specified to test this hypothesis:
WCPi = α0 + Σβij Xij + εi
Where, WCPi describes whether the farm in question has adopted a WCP or not (i
= 1, 2, …n). Xij is a vector of j explanatory variables included in the model. The
terms βij denote regression coefficients corresponding to the explanatory variables
(j = 1, 2, …l). Further, α0 and εi denote the intercept and random error terms,
respectively.
Data collection and analysis
The secondary data included in the FEMS, which was a voluntary national
survey focusing on the level of adoption of environmental management systems
(EMS) and best management practices (BMP) by livestock and crop operations in
all Provinces across Canada and on numerous other issues were used to estimate
the coefficients of variables included in the model (Table 2).
Table 2 . Variables used in the model
181
Variable
Description (expected sign)
Human capital characteristics
AGE
SEX
TMA
Age of the farm household head in years (+)
Gender of the farm household head (Male = 1; Female = 0)
Time allocation of the farm household head for farming (Full-time = 1; Part-time
with off-farm work = 0)
Financial characteristics
PFT
INC
AST
Overall profitability of the farm - calculated by taking the ratio of: total gross farm
receipts of the operation in 2000 / total farm business operating expenses of the
farm in 2000 (+)
Income earned by the head of the farm household through non-farming operations,
such as retail business and factory work (Non-farm income = 1; No non-farm
income = 0)
Total fixed assets of the farm – calculated by taking the total present market value
of land, buildings, and farm machinery in thousands of Canadian dollars (+)
Operational and structural characteristics
Organizational arrangement #
OSP
Sole proprietorship = 1; Other arrangements (i.e. for partnerships / corporation) = 0
OFC
Family corporation = 1; otherwise = 0
ONF
Non-family cooperation = 1; otherwise = 0
Land ownership pattern
OWN
Ratio of own land to the total land area of the farm (+)
LLG
Ratio of land leased from the government to the total land area of the farm
FSZ
Area of the farm in hectares (+)
Social and regional characteristics
DIS
PPD
The distance in kilometers “as a crow flies” from the farm operation to the nearest
Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) (+)
The population density of the Census Sub-Division where the farming operation is
located measured as the number of people per square km (-)##
Notes:
#
A farm without any formal agreement with any partner was assumed to be the base
scenario.
##
The tendency to have a WCP decreases with increasing population density since there is
low chance to have wildlife habitats in urbanized areas.
All active farms with sales greater than C$10,000 as included in the
“Agriculture Division’s Farm Register in Canada” (n = 21,000) were considered
to be the target population for this particular survey. The response to survey was
significantly high with 16,053 questionnaire were returned with 76.4 percent
response rate 1. The data from the 2001 Census of Agriculture in Canada were also
tied to the FEMS database to obtain more accurate, up to date and comprehensive
data.
For the purpose this analysis, farms that responded to the questionnaire
were categorized into three major categories: (1) “crop farms” (NC=5,425), (2)
“livestock farms” (NL=2,250), and (3) “mixed farms” (NM=8,378), which
possesses both crop and livestock in the farm in various proportions. Considering
the dichotomous nature of the dependent variable, a Logit Regression analysis
was used to estimate the coefficients of variables explained in Table 2, for
example: adoption of a WCP = 1; non-adoption of a WCP = 0.
1
The responses rate was high because two prominent government institutions in Canada, which
have close connections with the country’s farming sector – the Statistics Canada, and the
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, backed it.
182
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics
There were 8764 farms out of 16053 that responded to the survey (i.e. 55
percent) did not adopt any EMS. Another 11.7 and 8.6 percent of individual farms
adopt a single and two EMSs, respectively. As shown in Figure 1, only 13.9
percent of farms possess a WCP, and which is only second to the percentage of
farms that adopt a NMP.
Type of
Plan
No
Livestock
Crop
Mixed
N = 2,250
N = 5,425
N = 8,378
%
Ran
No
%
k
WCP
215
9.
4
6
65
12
3
.0
Ra
N
%
nk
o
5
13
1
65
6.
Ra
nk
6
3
MMP
309
13
2
.7
25
4.
5
7
6
21
2
87
6.
1
1
NMP
7
0.
7
3
80
14
4
.8
4
12
1
63
5.
7
1
FMP
66
2.
5
9
14
27
93
.5
1
21
2
63
5.
2
8
PMP
55
2.
6
4
14
27
78
.2
2
17
2
62
1.
5
0
WMP
261
11
3
.6
98
18
8
.2
3
18
2
38
1.
4
9
GMP
320
14
1
.2
15
2.
5
9
7
20
2
81
4.
8
183
3
PERCENTAGE
25
23.2
19.2
20
17.1
15.9
15
12.9
20.5
13.9
10
5
0
NMP
WCP
GMP
MMP
WMP
PMP
FMP
Figure 1. Percentage of farms that possesses a WCP in the total sample
The number and percentage of crop, livestock and mixed farms that adopt
the seven types of EMSs are reported in Table 3.
Table 3. Adoption of various types of EMS by farms in Canada:
Source: FEMS database – Statistics Canada
It shows that there were only 9.6, 12.0, and 16.3 percent of these farms
respectively adopt a WCP. As a whole, mixed farms have the highest adoption
rates in general across the seven EMSs considered while livestock farms have the
lowest. The percentages of livestock farms with a FMP, PMP and NMP are lower
than the WCP (i.e. 2.9, 2.4 and 0.3). We may suggest that the activities included
in these EMS (see, Table 1) are “not important” to maximize the profit of a
livestock farm, and consequently, the cost of adoption of which in these farms
cannot be not justified. Although such activities included in a GMP are considered
to be “very important” for livestock farms, a large difference with respect to the
adoption rates of GMP and the WCP (i.e. 14.2 - 9.6) cannot be observed. In the
context of crop farms, the percentages of MMP (4.7%) and GMP (2.0%) were less
than the WCP (12.0%). In fact, like in the previous case, the adoption of MMP
and GMP, individually or collectively, may not play a significant role in crop
farms.
To verify whether there is any overlap with respect to farmers’
understanding and interpretation of the specified tasks in each EMS and in turn to
adopt it together with others, the correlations between each of the six different
EMS considered in this analysis with the farms having a WCP across all farms
responded to the survey were examined (Figure 2). The correlation coefficient
exceeds 0.5 only in WMP indicating that farmers with “more or less same
characteristics” are likely to adopt both wildlife conservation and water
management plans. This indicates that a farmer who has desire to conserve
wildlife in the area also takes action to preserve natural resources such as water.
184
Correlation Coeffcient
0.6
0.556
0.492
0.5
0.427
0.430
0.377
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.153
0.1
0
NMP
MMP
FMP
PMP
WMP
GMP
Figure 2. Correlation coefficient of WCP with other EMS:
Estimates of coefficients
The results from the Logit analysis that produce logged odds (logits) of
parameters are reported in Table 4 for three models representing the farm types.
All the models were significant at a level of 0.01. Further, the relatively higher
Pseudo R-square values (0.7310, 0.7156 and 0.7240 for livestock, crop, and
mixed farms, respectively) suggest that the models performed well.
There are three variables developed to explain the effect of age of the
farmer (AGE), overall profitability of the farm (PFT), and size of the farm (FSZ)
were significant at the 1 percent probability level in all three models, and possess
the expected sign. This indicates that as the farmer gets matured (i.e. age increases
by one-year) and earns higher profits (i.e. the ratio calculated in this respect
increases by one unit), and the size of the farm gets larger (i.e. increases by a onehectare) the logged odds (logits) of adoption of a WCP would be increased or
decreased by the value of respective coefficients included Table 4, for example
0.892, 0.0675 and 0.0877 for crop, livestock and mixed farms, respectively for
AGE (see, Borooach, 2002 and Pampel, 2000 for interpretation of results from
Logit Regressions).
185
Table 4. Estimates of coefficients for livestock, crop, and mixed farms:
Variables
Estimates
LIVESTOCK
(N = 2250)
CROP
(N = 5425)
MIXED
(N= 8378)
0.0892***
(0.0083)
-0.0147
(0.0292)
0.0974*
(0.0422)
0.0675 ***
(0.0042)
-0.0396
(0.0211)
0.0635
(0.0475)
0.0877 ***
(0.0072)
-0.0233
(0.0192)
0.0887
(0.0496)
PFT
0.1264 ***
(0.0399)
INC
-0.2180 *
(0.0732)
AST
0.0497 **
(0.0201)
Operational & Structural Characteristics
0.1206 ***
(0.0469)
-0.2221 *
(0.0543)
0.0549 *
(0.0204)
0.1254 ***
(0.0479)
-0.2197 *
(0.0524)
0.0459 *
(0.0209)
OSP
0.0027 *
(0.0013)
-0.0365
(0.0182)
-0.0022
(0.0741)
0.0588 **
(0.0281)
-0.0745
(0.0998)
0.0344 ***
(0.0089)
0.0024 **
(0.0014)
-0.0378
(0.0203)
-0.0031
(0.0731)
0.0479 **
(0.0171)
-0.0621
(0.0741)
0.0445***
(0.0058)
0.0142 *
(0.0087)
-0.0069 **
(0.0032)
0.8475 ***
(0.0366)
0.0139 **
(0.0078)
-0.00612 **
(0.0023)
0.5673 ***
(0.0374)
Human Capital Characteristics
AGE
SEX
TMA
Financial Characteristics
0.0036 **
(0.0011)
OFC
-0.0344
(0.0191)
ONF
-0.0033
(0.0723)
OWN
0.0489 ***
(0.0155)
LLG
-0.1024
(0.0970)
FSZ
0.0576 ***
(0.0017)
Social & Regional Characteristics
DIS
PPD
Constant
0.0129 **
(0.0079)
-0.0076 ***
(0.0024)
0.9960 ***
(0.0372)
R–square
0.7310
0.7156
Note: ***, **, and * denotes the 1, 5, and 10 percent significant levels, respectively.
The probability of adopting a WCP in all types of farms increases as the
income of the farmer (INC) and the sustainability of the farm measured in terms
of use of capital assets (AST) increases by a unit. Therefore, all the variables used
to characterize the financial situation of farms characteristics, including the PFT,
INC and AST had a significant impact on this behaviour. The results also suggest
that farmers who “own” the most of their land were likely to adopt a WCP along
with other EMS indicating their long-term commitment to their land as opposed to
short-term interests.
186
0.7240
Both DIS and PPD were significant at various levels in all three samples.
Majority of these also possessed the expected sign. As expected, farmers who
remote to a major urban center (DIS) were likely to adopt a WCP suggesting that
wildlife is a factor that affect farming in these areas. Similarly, adoption decreases
with the population density of the region in which the farm is located (PPD)
increases.
CONCLUSIONS
The outcome of the analysis suggests that a number of factors show a
significant impact on farm’s decision to adopt a wildlife conservation plan to
protect the flora and fauna in and around the farming environment. In abstract, the
young and rich farmers with sufficiently large farms and assets tend to adopt a
WCP. Although the percentage of adopting so is low in the farming population,
those farms with a WCP is not significantly difference from the farms with other
plans that generate higher private benefits, for example fertilizer and pesticide
management plans.
The results provide some useful insights into the formulation of effective
public policy aiming environmental protection, in general, and conservation of
wildlife, in particular. The conversion of natural wildlife habitats into profitable
agribusiness ventures through the development of crop and livestock farms creates
much profit to the farming community. However, such an action has a number of
consequences, for example ever-increasing human-wildlife conflicts for limited
resources such as water and place to live (similar to human-elephant conflicts in
Sri Lanka), loss of biodiversity, and air and water pollution etc. to both farming
and non-farming communities.
In the wake of this understanding, a number of Municipalities in certain
Provinces in Canada, for example in Alberta and Quebec, have made it mandatory
to adopt some of these plans, for example NMP and MMP, in the farm. However,
adoption of a WCP is not compulsory in any of the 10 Provinces in Canada. This
highlights the fact that those farmers with a WCP in place possess positive
incentives to behave environmentally friendly “voluntarily”. The respective
governments should take into account of this factor to avoid, or at least to
minimize, such bad effects arising from commercial farming systems to the
environment. For example, depend on its needs, a particular Municipality can
make it a policy to have a WCP in place and can promote farmers to adopt other
plans such as FMP and PMP together with a WCP and/or a WMP. These way,
whilst deriving “private benefits” through the implementation of former, farmers
can be motivated to “pay some sort of compensation” to the society for utilization
of the public goods such as wildlife habitats by implementing the later. At the
same time, these institutions can have an appropriate program to capture those
farmers who do not possess a any of these plans into the system in order to
prevent that “voluntary” action of a farmer not become a barrier to be competitive
in the marketplace.
187
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Mr. Mike Trant and Mr.
Martin Beaulieu, Agriculture Division of the Statistics Canada for given
permission to assess to the FEMS database and their continuous support during
April to July 2004 to collect necessary information for this analysis.
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381-395.
Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U. K., and A. Weersink (2004) “Factors Affecting the Adoption of
Environmental Management Systems by Crop and Livestock Farms in Canada”, Sri
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Market-based Pressures”. Land Economics 78(4): 539-558.
Pampel, F. C. (2000). Logistic Regression: A Primer. Series: Quantitative Applications in the
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Rahm, M. R. and W. E. Huffman. (1984). The Adoption of Reduced Tillage: The Role of Human
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Wall, E. and
188
A SURVEY OF AMPHIBIANS IN THE NILGALA FOREST RESERVE
AND ITS VICINITY
D.M.S.S. KARUNARATHNA 1, U.T.I. ABEYWARDENA 1,
M.D.C. ASELA 1 and D.G.R. SIRIMANNA 1, L.D.C.B.
KEKULANDALA2
1
The Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka, National Zoological Gardens,
Dehiwala, Sri Lanka
2
IUCN – The World Conservation Union, No: 53, Horton Place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the findings of a preliminary study on Amphibian diversity in
Nilgala Forest Reserve, in the Monaragala District, which is situated in the intermediate
zone of Sri Lanka. Our aim was primarily to study the Amphibian species diversity and
various threats they face in this remote, unstudied area. We were able to record 19 species of
amphibians, which is about 18% of the total Sri Lankan Amphibians described to date. We
were also able to record several species for the first time in Nilgala Forest Reserve. There
were 6 (31%) endemic species and 5 (26%) nationally threatened species among them. Hence
Nilgala Forest Reserve supports a high Amphibian diversity. However, this important forest
is threatened by harmful human activities such as man made fire, illegal logging, chena
cultivation and road kills.
INTRODUCTION
Sri Lanka and Western Ghats of India is a biodiversity hotspot, rich in
herpetofaunal assemblages (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2002).
Favorable environmental factors such as high rainfall and humidity, high density
of undergrowth found in this region support a rich diversity of herpetofauna.
Based on published sources, a total of 184 species of reptiles (Bahir &
Maduwage, 2005; Bahir & Silva, 2005; Batuwita & Bahir, 2005; Das & De Silva,
2005; De Silva, 1996; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 1998;
Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001a; Manamendra-Arachchi &
Pethiyagoda, 2001b) and 103 species of amphibians (De Silva, 1996; Dutta &
Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005;
Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005) have been recorded from the
island to date.
The poikilothermic nature of herpetofauna restricts their distribution to
areas with high rainfall such as lowland wet zone forest areas and montane forest
areas (Giri & Chaturvedi, 2001). According to published literature wet zone
forests harbors more than 60% of the indigenous herpetofauna of Sri Lanka.
Furthermore, high percentage of endemism can be seen in the southwest lowland
forests where almost 90% of the endemic vertebrates are concentrated
(Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Senanayake et al., 1977; Wijesinghe & Dayawansa,
2002). However, herpetofaunal diversity in the dry and intermediate zone forest
areas has not been studied well (De Silva et al., 2004). Reptiles and amphibians
play a vital role in the functioning of an ecosystem. Their diet of insects and small
animals contributes to control of pests in human habitats, including crops and
homes (Knopf, 1998). Frogs are among the most misunderstood group of
vertebrates. Hence many people treat them with almost the same revulsion as
snake, despite their being ecologically important as pest controllers
189
(Manamendra-Arachchi, 2000). Certain herpetofauna species can be considered as
indicator species of environmental change.
Nilgala forest reserve (NFR) is one of the largest and important forest
areas in Monaragala District. However, the amphibian fauna of NFR is poorly
studied. There are several preliminary amphibian surveys carried out in NFR (De
Silva et al., 2004; Hettige et al., 2000). The present survey attempted to document
the amphibian fauna of NFR through extensive field surveys made in 2004 and
2005. One of the biggest drawbacks for conserving amphibian fauna of the
country is the lack of knowledge of their distribution and ecology, since only a
fraction of the Amphibian species present in different areas of the country is
hitherto known to science. Hence, it is essential to gather information on the
diversity of amphibian fauna in different areas of the country, as a first step
towards conservation. This paper would contribute to enhance the current
knowledge of amphibian diversity within the Nilgala Forest Reserve.
Study area
Nilgala forest reserve (NFR) is a unique forest ecosystem covering 12,432
hectares in the Bibile divisional secretariat division. According to the Gunatilleke
& Gunatilleke (1990) the major vegetation type is lowland tropical dry mixed
evergreen forest (Figure 13). Commonly found trees are Aralu (Terminalia
chebula), Bulu (Terminalia bellirica), Nelli (Phyllanthus emblica). NFR is
located between 7° 08` – 7° 14` Northern latitudes and 81° 16` – 81° 20` Eastern
longitudes, approximately 11 km southeast from Bibile town. The altitudinal
range varies from 200 m to 700 m above sea level within the boundaries of the
NFR (De Silva et al., 2004). The general climatic conditions in the Nilgala area is
described as moderately cool, which turns humid during the northeast monsoon
season. The average annual rainfall is around 1750 mm, with most of the rainfall
occurring from December to March, with occasional rains in some months. The
weather gradually becomes very dry from August to December and highest
temperatures are recorded in August. The mean annual temperature in the NFR is
28°C with maximum of 32°C and minimum of 24°C. NFR is also important as a
major watershed for Gala Oya and Panmedilla Oya throughout the year. There are
several peaks within the NFR and “Yakun Hela” the highest peak (700 m).
Methodology
The present study was carried out during the period of 2004 to 2005. A
total of 56 days (10 hrs/ day) were spent for fieldwork during the two years
covering the wet and dry seasons. General area surveys were carried out in
different habitat types within the NFR. Surveys were conducted both day and
night and flashlights were used at night. All habitats such as water bodies, under
the rocks, logs and decaying vegetation, and arboreal amphibians in trees and
bushes up to 5 m, were thoroughly searched for the presence of specimens. All
collected species were examined carefully and noted down before released back to
the same habitats. The diagnostic keys given by Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi
(1996) and Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (2005) were used for species
identification. Furthermore basic environmental parameters were collected at
locations, where specimens were collected.
190
Eleven habitat types were identified and sampled during the survey and a
brief description of these habitats is given in (Table. 01).
Table 1. Description of habitats in NFR.
Habitat Type
01
Chena
02
Home Garden
03
Paddy field
04
Riverine forest
05
Road Side
06
Rock-outcrop
07
08
Savannah forest
Shrub / Bush area
9
Small Pond
10
11
Stream
Tank
Description of Habitat
Trees belong to family Rutaceae is dominant and grows up to 5 m,
scattered bushes present, main cultivation is maize, banana and finger
millet. Leaf litter is very low.
Mixed cropping with woody plants like a Mangifera indika,
Chloroxylon swietenia, Schleichera oleosa, Tamarindus indika, trees
grows up to 15 m, shade is about 50%, and Leaf litter content is high
and wet.
Paddy fields are moderate in extent (about 1 acre), wallowing sites are
frequent along the fields, field bunds are narrow.
Shade 80% with large tall trees growing up to 20 m, Mangifera
ceylanica, Maduca longifolia, Terminalia chebula Diospyros ebenum
and Diospyros malabarica are the dominant species, thick wet leaf
litter layer available, Shady Forest, decaying logs are common.
Generally consist of small bushes growing up to 2 m. Species such as
Maduca longifolia, Terminalia bellirica and Mangifera zeylanica can
also be found in several areas.
Large rock boulders and grassy areas with seasonally moist cascade
habitats. Shade 20% with tall trees.
Only Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellirica and Phyllanthus
emblica Forest.
1m to 2m Tall and randomly distribute with open soil.
Seasonally flooded, mud pond, gem pits, Agricultural wells, drinking
wells, mud pits, clay pits
Perennial flowing water bodies, 1m to 10m wide, visibility high, and
turbidity low.
Open water bodies, covered by macrophytes (25 %)
Figure 1. Paddy fields in near NFR.
191
Figure 2. Rockout crops (Yakun Hela) in NFR.
Figure 3. Savannah forest in NFR.
During the survey, 19 species of amphibians (Annex 01) belonging to four
families were recorded from NFR. This includes 13 genera. There were 6 endemic
and 5 nationally threatened species among them (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2000). Ranid
frogs (dominated by Fejervarya limnocharis, Philautus regius, Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis, Euphlyctis hexodactyla) were the most abundant amphibian group
in NFR according to the present survey (Figure 04), while Caecilians were the
least abundant. When considering the primary mode of living there were nine
terrestrial, four arboreal, four aquatic and 2 fussorial species. Several species were
recorded for the first time in NFR and it is one of the significant findings of the
present survey. They are Philautus regius and Philautus fergusonianus.
Furthermore three unidentified species were also recorded during the survey,
which probably include new species belonging to genus Nannophrys.
192
Ichth
5%
Ranid
58%
Bufon
11%
Micro
26%
Figure 4.Species composition of Amphibians families in NFR.
When considering the proportional representation of species, the highest
abundance was shown by Fejervarya limnocharis (13.44 %) and Philautus regius
(10.67 %). The high abundance of Fejervarya limnocharis is possibly related to
abundance of aquatic and semi aquatic habitats (Small ponds, streams and paddy
fields) within the study area. Hence this species is one of the most common
species (Table 02) encountered in the NFR. Philautus regius is also a common
species associated with shrub vegetation. The shrub vegetation is very high in the
NFR and provides the habitat for this species. It is interesting to note that this
species was recorded for the first time in NFR and it is considered as rare in the
dry and intermediate zones.
Table 2. Species richness of amphibians in NFR.
Scientific
Name
Bufo atukoralei
Bufo melanostictus
Kaloula taprobanica
Microhyla ornata
Microhyla rubra
Ramanella variegata
Uperodon systoma
Hoplobatrachus crassus
Fejervarya limnocharis
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
Euphlyctis hexodactyla
Rana gracilis
Sphaerotheca breviceps
Sphaerotheca rolendae
Philautus fergusonianus
Philautus regius
Polypedates cruciger
Polypedates maculatus
Ichthyophis glutinosus
Total Number of
Individuals
3
17
8
11
13
3
16
19
34
24
24
4
7
9
3
27
12
18
1
193
Proportional
Representation
1.19
6.72
3.16
4.35
5.14
1.19
6.32
7.51
13.44
9.49
9.49
1.58
2.77
3.56
1.19
10.67
4.74
7.11
0.40
Figure 5. Rana gracilis Sri Lanka Wood frog.
Figure 6. Kaloula taprobanica Common Bull Frog.
Figure 7. Unidentified Nannophrys species in NFR.
194
Figure 8. Sphaerotheca rolendae Marbled Sand Frog.
Figure 9. Philautus fergusonianus Ferguson’s shrub frog.
When considering the proportional representation of species in each
habitat type (Figure 10), the highest species richness occurred in home gardens
(21.05 %) followed by Roadside habitats (19.74 %) and Riverine forests (13.16
%), while Rock outcrop habitats showed the lowest species richness (1.32 %). The
high species richness in the home gardens might be due to several reasons. The
high amount of leaf litter and shade and also the availability abundant of food
items such as insects attracted to electric light would have been the reasons for
high species richness in home gardens. Furthermore the sampling time allocated
to home gardens was significantly higher than the time allocated to other habitats.
This would have lead to the record of more species from home gardens than other
habitat types. Nevertheless, these home gardens with large number trees, high
shade and high amount of leaf litter, in the vicinity of NFR is vital refuge for
amphibian fauna. It appears that a higher species richness of amphibians occur in
disturbed habitats such as home gardens, chena and roadside shrub, and this may
be due to the ‘edge effect’ phenomenon.
The species richness is also high along the road side (On Bibila – Ampara
main road). This may also due to the increased sampling effort in this particular
habitat type. The lowest species richness (1.32%) was shown by Rock Outcrop
habitats. These rocky outcrops is exposed to the sun hence the high temperature is
not suitable for amphibians (Pough et al., 2004).
195
Proportional Representation of species
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
na
a
he
e
C
ar
ut
st
ko
re
oc
fo
R
ah
nn
st
va
re
Sa
fo
e
in
er
iv
R
ld
fi e
y
dd
h
us
Pa
/B
b
ru
Sh
e
id
S
d
oa
R
am
re
St
G
nk
d
Ta
on
lP
al
n
de
ar
e
om
Sm
H
Habitat Types
Figure 10. Species richness of Amphibians in various habitat types in NFR.
Threats
During the survey period several threats to the amphibian fauna in the
NFR was observed and recorded. These include forest fires, logging, and
extensive use of chemicals for agriculture, forest clearing for chena cultivation
and road kills.
People living around the NFR frequently make fire to clear the
underbrush, prepare the ground for the next cultivation cycle and to hunt animals.
These fires are very frequent in the months of August and September. This
activity destroys the habitats of amphibians. Illegal logging activities take place
around and within the NFR and this seriously affect the quality of the forests and
in turn its inhabitants.
The local communities are involved in paddy and chena cultivation in the
vicinity of the NFR. These people use chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
weedecides. This extensive use of chemical is a threat to the many animals
including amphibians.
Another significant threat to the amphibian fauna of the area is road kills.
Bibila – Ampara main road is cutting across the NFR and many animals subjected
to road kills. The team has observed and recorded that amphibian mortality is
particularly high on this road especially after a rain. The team has carried out a
separate survey to document the impacts road kills.
196
Figure 11. Forest fire inside the NFR.
Figure 12. Road kill (Microhyla ornata on Bibile – Ampara Main Road within NFR)
197
Figure 13. Map of the Nilgala Forest Reserve and Roads.
CONCLUSION
This preliminary investigation of the amphibian fauna of the Nilgala
Forest Reserve and its vicinity clearly shows that NFR is an important location in
terms of amphibian diversity.
It also evident that NFR act as an important refuge for threatened
amphibians, in the intermediate zone belonging to the Uva province.
The NFR and its surrounding habitats have not been studied well and it is
evident from the fact that 6 species were new sight recordings for NFR. Therefore
detailed studies have to be carried out to document the amphibians in this site.
There are several human activities that have a negative impact to the
amphibian fauna as well as to other faunal and floral groups such as fire, logging,
gem mining and road kills. Therefore suitable mitigatory action has to be initiated
to conserve Nilgala Forest Reserve and its surrounding habitats.
198
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr. Channa Bambaradeniya (IUCN – The
World Conservation Union) for reviewing the manuscript. We would also like to
thank Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe (IUCN – The World Conservation Union) and
Mr. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi (WHT) for sending valuable literature. Our
heartfelt Thanks goes to the following persons for their intimate support; Mr.
Naalin Perera, Mr. Dilup Chandranimal, Mr. Sarath Ekanayake, Mr. Sampath
Gunatilleke, Mr. Roshan Rodrigo, Mr. Prasanna Samarawickrama, Mr. Sandun
Perera, Mr. Suranjan Fernando and Mr. Nalinda Peiris, Mr. Vimukthi
Weerathunga, Mr. Pradeep Samarawickrama (IUCN – The World Conservation
Union). Finally, we thank Mr. Chamila Soysa, Mr. Toshan Peiris, Mr. Panduka
Silva, Mr. Asanka Udayakumara, Mr. Anushka Kumarasinghe, Mr. Dimuthu
Wickramasinghe, Mr. Thasun Amarasinghe and Mr. Devaka Jayamanna (YZA –
Young Zoologists’ Association) for his kind help during the field visit and other
activities in Nilgala Forest Reserve.
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200
REPORT ON THE STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF JUVENILE
ELEPHANTS RELEASED FROM THE ELEPHANT TRANSIT HOME TO
THE UDA WALAWE NATIONAL PARK
M.R. MOHAMED*
Udawalawa National Park, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
The behavior of several elephant calves released from the Elephant Transit Home
was observed. Of the nine elephants that were released from the transit home, seven were
observed to have joined wild herds, but two have not been found. These two, a male and
female are believed to be missing or dead. Although the other seven elephants have joined
wild herds, behavioral observations suggest that they have not been completely assimilated
into the wild host herds. The observations also suggest that the human-elephant interactions
and feeding regime while at the transit home may be influencing the behavior of the calves
after they are released.
INTRODUCTION
It has been estimated that only about 2500-3000 wild elephants now
remain in Sri Lanka, down from a population estimated at over 20,000 at the
beginning of the 19th century (McKay 1973). Habitat loss to the rapidly expanding
human population, large development projects, and other human activities such as
the ongoing conflict have threatened the existence of this large herbivorous
mammal needing about 100-150kg of food and 100-125 liters of water per day.
With the shortage of food in their jungle habitats, the elephants have started to
raid crops, home gardens, and even granaries and houses to fulfill their dietary
needs. The result has been a severe escalation of the human-elephant conflict,
with loss of elephant and human lives—although careful and thoughtful land-use
planning can eliminate the bulk of these conflicts which are actually the result of
ad hoc development plans. Elephant are commonly shot and killed by farmers
retaliating against crop raids, and as is usual in conflicts, the juveniles suffer;
elephant calves, orphaned by the death of their mothers, are being rescued by the
wildlife officials with increased frequency.
The Department of Wildlife Conservation therefore, established a facility
called the Elephant Transit Home in 1995. Located near the Uda Walawe National
Park, the Elephant Transit Home keeps the rescued orphaned baby elephants in a
near wild situation until properly structured (age, sex) social groups are formed by
these animals. When ready, these calves are then released into the wild, with the
hope that they will join wild herds.
The Elephant Transit Home is in the western part of the Uda Walawe
reservoir. The facility consists of grassland, scrub/grassland mosaic and
abandoned chena lands in different serial stages of succession, and the land runs
down to the water. The baby elephants are kept in a roofed enclosure for the night
and during the cooler times of the day are released to roam freely in the open
areas of the reservoir bed.
201
When new calves are brought into the transit home, they are examined and
treated (if necessary) by a veterinarian. The animals are fed regularly with a milk
formula that has been developed at the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage where over
50 orphaned baby elephants have been brought in and looked after from the
1970s. Over 12 baby elephants have been born at Pinnawela.
As envisaged the young animals, brought together through adversity, bond
together in small units spending most of their time in play. Play (fighting,
wrestling, pushing etc.) is an essential ingredient for bonding. This sort of
bonding is essential if these animals are to have a sense of security once they are
released to the wild.
Since its inception 83 elephant calves have been brought to the Elephant
Transit Home. Thirty-nine died subsequently due to serious illnesses and
disabilities. Some have been gifted to temples, others to public institutions and to
the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage managed by the Zoological Gardens. The
objective of the transit home was achieved, when nine calves were released into
the wild; a batch of four in March 1998, and another batch of five elephants in
June 2000. Three elephants from each batch were radio collared, with the
objective of monitoring their behavior and whether and how they become
assimilated into wild herds.
The objective of this was to study the behavior of the juvenile elephants
released and the relationships that they formed with the wild herds that they
joined. The study also tried to determine the social organization, habitat use and
movement patterns of the juveniles released.
Background
Two batches of elephants that were released to the natural habitat in Uda
Walawe National Park (UWNP) in 1998 and 2000 were considered in this study.
The details at the time of release are given in Table 1.
Figure 1
202
Table 1. Batch 1, Released on March 21, 1998 (three males and one female)
Name
M/F
Age
Height
Collared
Freq. Code
Gamini
M(tusker)
4.5 yrs
5' 1"
Yes
12
Panduka
M
5 yrs
4' 6""
Yes
14
Anusha
F
4.5 yrs
4' 10"
Yes
16
Anuradha
M
N/A
N/A
No
-
Batch 2, Released July 1, 2000 (one male and four females)
Name
M/F
Age
Height
Collared
Freq. Code
Sandamali
F
5 yrs
5'
Yes
9
Komali
F
5 yrs
4' 6"
Yes
5
Isuru
M
5.5 yrs
4' 11"
Yes
8
Mattali
F
N/A
N/A
No
-
Emelyn
F
N/A
N/A
No
-
The tusker Gamini (FC12) from the first batch and the female Komali
(FC5) from the second batch were not considered in this study due to the
malfunctioning of their radio collars. The other collared elephants (FC14, FC16,
FC9, and FC8) were tracked and their behavior studied in June & July 2001, as
the first period of this study. The observations made during this first period are
presented here.
Fauna and flora of the Uda Walawe national park
The Uda Walawe National Park is situated in southern Sri Lanka and falls
partially within the intermediate dry zone. (Figure 1)
203
A large number of species inhabit the park; among them the large
mammals take a prominent place. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the
most important animal in the park, which has an estimated permanent population
of between 350 to 400 elephants (Jayewardene 1994.) Hulankapolla,
Goonawiddagala and Tibiriyamankada are the favorite habitat that these
populations frequent during the dry season.
Some of the other prominent mammals include the spotted deer (Cervus
axis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), leopard (Panthera pardus), black-naped hare
(Lepus nigricollis), grey langur (Presbytis senex), toque monkeys, wild pigs (Sus
scrofa), and water buffalo. The park also supports a large and important bird
fauna, among which are the Malabar pied hornbill, the Ceylon gray hornbill,
peacocks, jungle fowl, red faced malkoha, to name but a few. The reserve has a
wide range of vegetation types ranging from scrub jungle to open grassland
(Guinea B grass) with some scattered and small dense pockets of jungle. The
habitat is ideally suited for elephants.
Figure 2. Protected areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation
METHODS
204
Radio telemetry was used to track elephant movements in order to
determine the ranging patterns, habitat use, social organization and post-dispersal
activities of the juvenile elephants. The study tracked the four animals, which
were radio collared at the time of release. Namely, Panduka (FC14, male), Anusha
(FC16, female), Sadamalee (FC09, female) and Isuru (FC08, male).
All animals were located and observed for five days each week and their
ranging pattern and positions including positions in relation to the nucleus herd
and other animals were recorded. The positions were overlaid on a base map
giving land use, topographical features, protected areas and infrastructure (roads,
settlements etc).
Unfortunately, the initial—and most important stage of the
reintroduction—was not closely monitored. By the time this study got underway,
the elephants had already joined wild herds, and the radio-collars were either
becoming too tight or the batteries on the collars were close to becoming nonfunctional. Thus, the collars had to be removed soon after this monitoring began.
History of the elephants released
The nine juveniles released in two batches in March 1998 and June 2000
respectively as mentioned previously consisted of four males including a tusker
and five females. Of these, three males (including the tusker) and three females
have radio collars (Table 1).
•
Gamini (FC12):
Gamini was a tusker, about four and half years old and 5’1” tall at the time
of release. The tusks were about 10 inches long. He was solitary since the release,
and according to the observations made by the DWLC field officers he had not
joined a herd and roams in a relatively large area.
In October 1998 Gamini was found by a fisherman, stuck in mud in the
area where the Walawe River joins the reservoir. After being informed, the wild
life officers rescued the tusker. There are reports that this elephant has been
sighted in the Diyavinna area, which is beyond the NE boundary of the park.
There have been no signs of this tusker over the last 12 months and no
radio signal from the collar has been detected. It is doubtful whether the animal is
now alive.
•
Panduka (FC14):
Panduka, another male was released in March 1998 and was 5 years old
and 4’6” tall. After few days of his release Panduka was found with a herd of
about 27 elephants. It was observed that Panduka is being treated as a juvenile of
that herd. This herd travels in thick, tall shrub areas and Guinea B grass areas.
The collar was removed on the 15/07/2001 in Hulankapolla area as it was
tightening round the neck of the elephant with the growth of the animal. If left
longer it would have choked the animal.
205
•
Anusha (FC16):
Anusha, a four and half years old and 4’10” tall female, was released in
March 1998. After few days of release she also joined a herd of about 7-9
elephants living in Mau Ara area. This herd has a few mature male elephants. This
herd normally lives in areas with shrub and areas with tall trees.
Her collar was removed on the 18/07/2001 in Mau Ara area as it was
tightening round the neck with the growth of the animal.
•
Sandamali (FC09) and Isuru (FC08):
Sandamali, a female, and Isuru, a male were released in July 2000.
Sandamali was about 5 years old and 5’ tall while Isuru was about 5.5 years old
and 4’11” tall. They joined to two separate herds. Sandamali joined to a herd of
about 22 elephants and Isuru joined to a herd of about 26 elephants.
The two herds live close to each other merge frequently to form a greater herd.
•
Komali (FC05):
Komali, a female, was released in July 2000 and was about 5 years old and
4’6” tall. Few days after release the radio signals from the collar stopped and she
could not be located. Since then there has been no sign of her in the park. She is
also believed to be dead.
•
Anuradha, Manel, and Emalin
Anuradha, a male, and the two other females were not radio-collared when
released. It was observed that they have joined the two herds, which Sandamali
(FC09) and Isuru (FC08) have joined.
Ranging patterns
Observations of the radio-collared animals are given in the following
tables.
Table 2 - FC08 Isuru
Table 3 - FC09 Sadamali
Table 4 - FC14 Panduka
Table 5 - FC16 Anusha
A map of the home ranges of the four elephants mentioned above
elephants during the two-month period June/July 2001, is given in Figure 2.
206
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
207
208
DISCUSSION
Observations during, June/July 2001
Of the nine juveniles released so far, apart from the male Gamini (tusker,
radio collar code 12) and the female Komali (radio collar code 05,) the rest have
been observed to have successfully assimilated into herds living in and around the
Uda Walawe National Park.
It is possible that Gamini (41/2 years at release in 1998,) though a juvenile,
may have faced antagonism from other juvenile/sub-adult males within herds due
to the fact that it was a tusker, as evidenced by the fact that it was never spotted
within the vicinity of a herd. In the early period, when it was spotted, it was
always solitary. This antagonism may have encouraged it to move to areas outside
the park where there are fewer elephant. In fact there are unverified reports that it
has been spotted in places like Iththagala, Diyawinna, Panahaduwa, and
Madunagala etc., all outside the Park. These records need to be followed up. The
fact that Gamini was originally from Wayamba, an area with a different ecology,
and that it lived in the somewhat controlled environment of the transit home may
have too been contributory factors affecting its post release behavior. With there
being no rigorous monitoring plan along with the release in 1998, the information
available about its early years is scant, and unfortunate.
Panduka (5 years at release in 1998,) Sandamali (5 years at release in
2000,) Isuru (51/2 years at release in 2000) and Anusha (41/2 years at release in
1998) each joined separate herds within a few days of release. It is observed that
these four prefer to associate with the adults in the respective herds and stay with
the nucleus of the herd, rather than move with their peer-age group animals. This
is possibly due to their association with man previously. It appears that they are
more agitated and fearful of the presence of humans than their wild counterparts.
Their food intake pattern too appears to be somewhat different to peer age
juveniles within the same herd. On average they show a greater lethargy than the
juveniles that were in the herd do. These preliminary observations need to be
studied in detail in a subsequent part of the project, since it is likely that the
feeding patterns and methods during their time in the transit home may affect the
way they forage under natural conditions.
Anuradha (released 1998,) Mattali (released 2000) and Emelyn (released
2000) have joined the same herds as Isuru and Sandamali and prefer to associate
the animals released with them. They show the same behavior patterns as the
released animals mentioned previously.
While it is clear that the wild herds easily assimilate the released juveniles,
it is necessary to ascertain the reasons for their somewhat abnormal behavior. If
this is due to the management and care pattern within the transit home needs to be
investigated. Equally important is to have in place a rigorous long-term post
release observation plan to get more complete information on the progress made
by the released animals.
209
Panduka, Sandamali and Isuru are within herds with home ranges falling
within the boundaries of Gonaviddagala, Thibiriyamankada and Hulankapolla,
where the vegetation is mostly grassland composed of guinea B grass. There
appears to be a uniform locomotion pattern. Future observations will show
whether seasonal variations in home ranges do take place. Anusha is within a herd
living around the Mau Ara tank where there is a mix of medium forest cover and
shrub forest. The home range is significantly smaller than that of the other herds.
While it is very important to have a long-term comprehensive monitoring
process, the preliminary data over the two months indicate that the released
animals and their herds have sufficient food and water within the confines of their
respective home ranges measured over the study period.
Observations during august to November 2001
The relationship between the juveniles in the wild herd and the juveniles
released in the park were observed in greater detail. The wild animals were seen to
cohabit more closely and be active and playful in comparison to the newly
introduced juveniles which in general tended to be more on their own with a
noticeable lack of interaction with the former. The newly introduced juveniles
were also seen hovering closer to the mature females in the herds, compared to the
wild ones.
The mature females always take care of the juveniles. They help the
juveniles to stand up when fallen, pull them back closer to the herd when they
wander away and when in danger alert them and surround them. However, it was
noticed that the mature females are a lot more indifferent to the introduced
juveniles. In times of danger, the introduced juveniles were seen to be attempting
to get closer to the herd nucleus, on their own, rather than at the prodding of the
mature ones. Sometimes on such occasions, the wild juveniles were seen to be
aggressive towards the introduced ones by fighting and chasing them off.
However, “Sandamali” (FC9, female 6.5years old) was seen to be striking back
when attacked as such. Though the adults normally do not interfere during such
fights, they will intervene only if the situation gets out of hand.
During this period the drought ended and the park received the early rains
from the northeast monsoon. The grasses began to grow and the water holes
started filling up. The availability of food increased. As a result, the home ranges
compared to the previous period of observation were shrinking. On rainy days, the
herds tend to stay on higher ground, avoiding the waterlogged areas. No
significant changes in feeding or behavior patterns were observed compared to the
last period, except the fact that during heavy rain, the introduced juveniles sought
shelter under trees and stopped feeding, unlike the wild animals which kept to
their normal grazing pattern.
During the previous period of observation, “Sandamali” (FC09, female),
“Isuru” (FC08, male), “Manel” & “Emalin” were in two separate herds. But
during the current period they were observed to be grouping together and
hovering near the respective herds but not within them. They did not get to the
nucleus of the respective herds.
210
On 8th and 9th October, the four juveniles were seen entirely separated
from the respective herds and traveling together. They were observed
continuously during the daytime (10 hours) on both these days and were never
seen to get near or join the respective herds. They were lead by “Sandamali”
(FC9, female 6.5years old) and were confined to an area of about 80 Ha. On 10th
October the group was observed to have rejoined their respective herds. It is
possible that during this time the male “Isuru” (FC08, 7 years old) may have been
trying to separate from the herd. Normally only the males leave the herd when
they reach maturity, whereas it appears that in this instance it seemed as if the
females too were trying to follow the male. This maybe due to their bonding
during their period in the transit home. This behavior must be studied further. The
question also arises whether the male juvenile was mature enough to leave the
herd.
In conclusion, these observations show the importance of studying the pre
and post dispersal behavior of both indigenous and introduced juveniles more
methodically and thoroughly.
Recommendations
This release of juvenile elephants represents a pioneer effort to reintroduce
large mammals into the wild. Unfortunately, however, the study was not
monitored from its inception, and an excellent chance for the Department of
Wildlife Conservation to contribute to a global knowledge on conservation and
management has gone a begging. It is strongly suggested that any further
activities of the Elephant Transit Home be done in collaboration with credible
scientists so that the animals, DWLC, and the scientific world can benefit. In this
context, the following recommendations are made.

Monitor the behavior of the released elephant calves from the very beginning.
Animals should be observed throughout most of the day and all behavior
patterns should be recorded in detail. Fulltime researchers with DWLC
counterparts should be assigned for this purpose.

Several animals should be radio-collared so that they can be located and
identified. Animals without collars should be outfitted with false collars
(fastened with coir rope so that the collars will drop off after about a year).
This will allow these animals to be identified without ambiguity.

Juvenile males should be radio-collared and monitored until, and for sometime
after, they leave the host herd. Virtually nothing is known about the dispersal
of juvenile males, after they leave the herds — how far they go, where they go
to, etc. This information is of vital importance for managing targeted elephant
populations in a world where not each and every elephant and elephant
population can be conserved; a situation that the DWLC and all Sri Lankans
will have to accept, given the intense conflict and competition for land
between people and elephants.
211
REFERENCE
McKay, G.M. (1973) The ecology and behavior of the Ceylon elephant in south-eastern Ceylon,
Smithsonian Contribution to Zoology No. 125
212
EXPERIENCE OF RESTRAINING ELEPHANTS IN MUSTH
P. NIGAM and P.K. MALIK
Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun – 248 001,
Uttaranchal
ABSTRACT
Musth has implications for maintenance in captive populations as management of
these animals is quite cumbersome and involves considerable risk. The present study
highlights successful restraint of elephants in musth on three different occasions employing
sedative/analgesics. Effective levels of standing sedation could be achieved using xylazine
hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride at a dose rate of 0.13 mg/kg and 0.04 mg/kg body
weight respectively for immediate restraint. The subsequent actions following sedation till
complete recovery from musth events are documented.
KEY WORDS: Elephant, Musth management, Xylazine hydrochloride, Ketamine
ydrochloride, Yohimbine hydrochloride.
INTRODUCTION
Adult male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) during sexually active
period exhibit a phase of altered behaviour known as musth. This is discernable
through two physical attributes-secretions from temporal glands and dribbling of
urine. There are several other subtle changes in behavior resulting in rise of
aggression (Kahl and Armstrong, 2002), restlessness and reduced feeding
activities (Poole 1987). Physiologically elevated serum androgen levels have also
been reported (Hall-Martin, 1987; Rasmussen and Schulte, 1998).
Elephants in musth in captivity are well known for aggression and nonresponding to the commands of their keepers. Early detection of musth through
physical signs/ altered behavior is essential for keeping such elephants restrained
during the period. Non detection of musth symptom and keeper’s negligence often
risks the public safety and leads to loss of life and property. We have come across
three such cases of musth incidences wherein it was essential to restrain the
animal for the public safety. We used chemical immobilization technique for
restraining such animals and subsequent management of musth in post-restraint
period. The present paper deals with drug choices, their efficacy and management
experiences for handling such elephants in three different stages of musth at three
different sites.
213
METERIALS AND METHODS
Case 1: A captive Makhna (Tusk less bull elephant) 29 yrs of age at Jaldapara
Wildlife sanctuary was reported to be in musth and had run into the forest. The
elephant was not responsive to Mahout’s command and was aggressive. The
animal had dried discharge marks around the temporal. It was decided to
chemically restrain and tether the elephant. A total dose of 250 mg of Xylazine
hydrochloride and 150 mg of Ketamine hydrochloride were used to sedate the
elephant. The elephant achieved standing sedation and could be easily handled.
The limbs were tied and the elephant was tethered on to a tree. The elephant was
revived using 50 mg yohimbine hydrochloride given intravenously. The elephants
were monitored till full recovery from the drug effect. Micturation and initiation
of feeding were indicative of its recovery and self care. The ration provided to the
elephant was restricted and the elephant was allowed abundant intake of water and
was kept cool by frequent spraying of water. The elephant regained his normal
temperament within a week.
Case 2: A captive makhana elephant around 40 years of age was brought to
Haridwar from Meerut to participate in an annual festival. The elephant was
having slight temporal discharge since last two months that was gradually
diminishing. The elephant had never shown any signs of musth except for
temporal discharge throughout his life. It was reported that the elephant was
exhibiting prolonged periods of penile erection along with stereotypic movements
of head and whip like trunk movements and behavioral alteration since a week.
Two days prior to veterinary intervention the elephant was aggressive and had
charged Mahout. The elephant turned violent and chased and bashed mahout and
also broke adjacent structures. The elephant was successfully restrained using 400
mg of Xylazine hydrochloride and 100 mg of ketamine hydrochloride. The
elephant ran for about 100 meters and came to a halt. Reduced ear, tail and trunk
movements along with relaxation of penis and snoring were indicative of desired
level of sedation. The elephant was chained and rehabilitated similar to the
previous case. The elephant regained normal temperament within 10 days. The
situation could thus be mitigated.
Case 3: A 32 year old captive makhana elephant was reported to be in musth and
had become threat to life and property. The elephant had been temporarily kept in
a compound along with a cow elephant within the heart of Saharanpur city. The
animal was exhibiting slight temporal discharge since a week, frequent penile
erection, dribbling of urine, stereotypic movements of head three days prior to
veterinary intervention. The elephant had also tried mounting the cow elephant on
three different occasions since morning however failed to establish sexual
congress. The animal was also not responsive to Mahout’s commands and had
charged mahout a day prior to the veterinary intervention. The elephant was
chemically restrained using 600 mg of Xylazine hydrochloride and 150 mg of
ketamine hydrochloride and secured to a tree. The above mentioned rehabilitation
procedures were followed and the elephant regained normal temperament within
15 days.
214
In all the three cases the drugs were remotely injected using Dist-inject aluminum
dart with 63 mm long collared needle and employing Dist Inject model 60 N
projectors. Yohimbine hydrochloride and Atipamezole hydrochloride was used as
an antidote for xylazine. This technique of chemical immobilization was not used
as treatment for musth in elephant but was used as one of the methods of
mitigating the problem by securing the animal so that it does not become a threat
to life and property. The details of induction time, sedation time and recovery are
tabulated below.
215
Table 1. Drug dosages used in managing elephants in musth on different occasions
Sr
No.
1
2
3
Location/
Estimated
weight/
Age
Jaldapara/
Makhana
3000 kgs/
29 yrs
Jwalapur/
Makhana
3000
40 yrs
Month/Year
State of Musth
Xylazine
HCl (mg)
Ketamine
HCl (mg)
Induction
time
Sedation
time
Antidote
Recovery
time
December
2002
Almost dried up temporal
discharge, animal
not
responsive to commands and
showing some degree of
aggression
(Post
musth
period)
Diminishing
temporal
discharge,
exhibiting
prolonged periods of penile
erection
along
with
stereotypic movements of
head, ear and whip like trunk
movements,
behavioral
alteration
(End of mid musth)
Slight temporal discharge,
frequent penile erection,
dribbling
of
urine,
stereotypic movements of
head and non responsive to
Mahout’s commands. (Mid
musth period)
250
15
17 min
50 min
Yohimbine
50 mg
3 min
(0.08
mg/kg)
(0.05
mg/kg)
400
100
7 min
27 min
Yohimbine
40 mg
8 min
(0.13
mg/kg)
(0.03
mg/kg)
600
150
8 min
40 min
Atipamezole 2 min
30mg
(0.17
mg/kg)
(0.04
mg/kg)
July 2004
Saharanpur/ November
Makhana
2004
3500
32 yrs
Induction time: Time of darting to time animal showed first signs of sedation
Sedation time: Time when animal showed first time of sedation to giving of the antidote
Recovery time: Time when animal injected antidote till it regained consciousness
The phenomenon of Musth has been recognized for centuries as a natural
behavior among healthy adult male elephants between 15-60 yrs of age. The
duration and severity of musth varies between individuals and may last from few
days to several months. It is characterized by episodes of aggressive behavior and
heightened sexual activity; however bulls can breed in and out of musth. In all the
three cases presented, the elephants were makhanas between age group of 30-40
yrs and in the later stages of musth ranging from mid musth to post musth period.
This period seems to be a critical period which needs to be handled with care. All
the three elephants exhibited varied signs indicative of musth. (Table 1)
Managing musth in elephants has been one of the most important
challenges in captivity. Elephants in musth have been successfully immobilized
employing narcotics like etorphine (M-99) or Immobilon (Jainudeen, 1970,
Jainudeen et al, 1971, Cheeran et al. 2002, Sabapara and Raval, 1993, Sarma and
Dutta, 1996). On three occasions, Thakuria and Barthakur (1994) controlled a
captive African elephant coming into musth using diazepam and lorazepam.
Xylazine HCl, due to its high therapeutic index, smooth induction and
smooth recovery, ability to induce trunk immobilization and excellent analgesic
and sedative properties has become a useful drug in elephant practice (Bongso,
1980, Schmidt 1983, Fowler, 1986, Nayar et. al. 1992, Pathak, 1991, Sarma and
Pathak, 2001, Nayar et al 2002). The drug has been generally used only as a
supportive drug to prolong the period of tranquilization following recovery from
initial immobilization employing etorphine hydrochloride (Sabapara and Raval,
(loc. cit.), Sarma and Dutta, (loc. cit.)).
Xylazine has almost similar action as etorphine except for a delayed
induction time which has relevance in difficult terrain, dense habitat and personal
safety. The drug has been found to be suitable in immobilizing musth elephant as
the elephant retain the standing posture enabling satisfactory chaining operation.
Dutta and Pathak (1997) successfully used Xylazine for immobilizing elephant in
musth using a total dose of 700 mg for a 3 ton elephant. Cheeran (1994)
commented using Xylazine alone in controlling captive rogues employing 100120 mg/ton of the drug. Sarma and Dutta (loc. cit.) successfully used 500 mg
Xylazine alone on three different occasions for immobilizing elephants in musth.
Xylazine alone has been reported to have depressant effect on cardiac and
respiratory function (Pathak, (loc. cit.), Sarma and Pathak (loc. cit)). Ketamine
does not have any depressant effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory system
but produces muscular tremor and stiffness of the skeletal muscle. Combination of
Xylazine and Ketamine minimizes the undesirable effects of both the drugs and
has been shown to produce a balanced anesthesia. However, Cheeran et al 2002,
Cheeran et. al. 2003 reported photosensitization in Asian elephant sedated with
Ketamine-Xylazine and did not observe as much synergism as has been observed
in carnivores.
Sarma and Pathak (loc. cit.) in their study also inferred that ketamine could
mildly mitigate the hypotension brought about by Xylazine, while potentiating its
sedative action, hence recommended their use as a combination in elephants.
Pathak (loc. cit.) tried 100-150 Xylazine and 50-100 gm ketamine intravascularly
to laterally recumbent elephant in 53 clinical cases and reported that the
combination could produce quick, safe and dependable analgesia, anesthesia and
muscular relaxation when given intravenously in different surgical conditions
affecting elephants. They have also reported recovery without excitement and
untoward effect. Similar findings were reported by Nayar et. al.1992.
In all the three cases presented, combination of Xylazine hydrochloride
and Ketamine hydrochloride were used at an average dose of 0.13 mg/kg and 0.04
mg/kg body weight respectively to achieve effective standing sedation. No
adverse effects were noticed. The advantage of using both the drugs in the present
case was that the elephants could be handled and chained in a standing posture
and the overall dosage of both the drugs could be considerably reduced.
Though the present approach of chemically restraining the elephant was
not a remedy for musth, it provided effective means of mitigating the problem by
securing the animal to avoid any untoward incident.
CONCLUSION
The present study highlights successful restraint of elephant in musth on
three different occasions using Xylazine hydrochloride and ketamine
hydrochloride at a dose rate of 0.13 mg/kg and 0.04 mg/kg body weight and its
subsequent rehabilitation.
146
REFERENCES
Bongso, T.A. (1980). Sedation of the Asian elephant with xylazine. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association. 177( 9):783.
Cheeran, J.V. (1994). Note on Controlling Musth in Elephants. Zoo’s Print. 9(12): 27-28.
Cheeran,J.V., Radhakrishnan,K. and Chandrasekharan,K. (2002). Musth Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):28-30.
Cheeran, J.V., Panicker K.C., Kaimal, R.K. and Giridas, P.B. (2003). Tranquillization and
translocation of captive bulls. In: Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations Bangkok, Thailand. 5 -10 February 2001.
Dutta, B. and Pathak, S.C. (1997). Capturing Musth Elephant (A Case Report) Zoo’s Print. April
Vol. XII, No.4:12.
Fowler, M.E. (1986). Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine, W.B. Saunders Company, USA, 2nd Ed.
892-893.
Hall-Martin, A.J. (1987) Role of musth in the reproductive strategy of the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana).S.Afr.J.Sci. 83:616-620.
Jainudeen, M.R. (1970). The use of etorphine hydrochloride for restraint of a domesticated
elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
157(5):624-626.
Jainudeen, M.R., Bongso, T.A. and Perera, B.M.O.A. (1971). Immobilization of aggressive
working elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 89(26):686-688.
Kahl, M.P. and Armstrong, B.D. (2002). Visual displays of wild African elephants during musth.
Mammalia 66:159-171.
Nayar, K.N.M., Radhakrishnan, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Ravindran, S., and
George, P.O. (1992). Anaesthesia for surgical manipulations in the elephant. In: Silas,
E.G., Nair, M.K., and Nirmalan, G. (Editors), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology,
Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the
Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989).
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India pp. 156-158.
Nayar, K.N.M., Chandrasekharan, K. and Radhakrishnan, K. (2002). Management of surgical
affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):5559.
Pathak, S.C. (1991). Xyalzine-ketamine anesthesia in Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus).
– Trial on 53 clinical cases. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and
Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India. pp:21.
Poole, J.H. (1987). Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth. Behavior.
102:283-316.
Rasmussen, L.E.L. and Schulte, B.A. (1998). Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian
(Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Anim. Reprod. Sci.
53:19- 34.
Sabapara, R.H. and Raval, P.P. (1993). Controlling musth elephants by tranquilzation: two
contrasting cases. Zoo’s Print, Nov’93:26-27.
147
Sharma, K.K. and Dutta, B. (1996). Musth and its Management in Asian Elephant: A Discussion
Based on Four Clinical Cases. Zoo’s Print. Apr; 11(4):21-22.
Sarma, K.K. and Pathak, S.C. (2001). Cardio vascular response to xylazine and Hellabrunn
mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal
78(5):400-492.
Schmidt, M.J. (1983). Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an
adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 14: 4-97.
Thakuria, D.B. and Barthakur, T. (1994): Management of musth in a male African elephant by
chemical sedative in the Assam State Zoo, Guwahati. Zoo’s Print, Sep, 94: 120.
148
EFFECTIVENESS OF ELECTRIC FENCING IN SRI LANKA IN
MITIGATION OF HUMAN ELEPHANT CONFLICT: THE ROLE OF
SOCIAL ASPECTS
P.K. PREMARATHNE* and L.H.P. GUNARATNE
Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
Human elephant conflict (HEC) has become a major environmental issue in Sri
Lanka, which is at an escalating trend with more elephant and human deaths, property
damages, and many recoverable and unrecoverable losses. Fragmentation and loss of natural
habitats, disturbances of migratory routes due to increasing human settlements are the
prominent reasons for the conflict. With a view of mitigating the HEC, a number traditional
as well as introduced measure has been adopted by communities and Department of Wildlife
Conservation. Among the various abatement strategies, electric fences appear to be the most
preferred.
Against this background, the study on the five electric fences namely, Kandaketiya,
Kalagama, Herathgama, Mahaweli System G and Lunugamvehera was carried out with the
objective of finding out the effectiveness of electric fences in Sri Lanka. The data were
collected from 238 respondents and officers in DWLC regional offices. The study revealed
that proper maintenance of the electric fences is the key factor for their effectiveness. The
level of community participation for maintaining of the electric fences and acceptance levels
of the fences is depicted through their attitudes and perceptions. Further, involvements of
community based organizations (CBOs) were crucial in establishment and maintenance.
Social factor appear to more important than technical factors. The study makes suggestions
based on findings for improved level of community participation and acceptance for effective
fencing.
The study targets to evaluate the role of social factors to increase the effectiveness of
electric fencing in Sri Lanka. The specific objectives are; to investigate the social acceptance
and perception of mitigation measures of the conflict and to identify the needed measures to
improve the social acceptance and community support on electric fencing.
149
INTRODUCTION
Elephant is the key animal species with supremacy in the Sri Lankan wild
from the ancient periods of time. Similar to most of the endangered species in the
wild, extinction of elephants is at an ascending trend in the world. The main
causes for this were the excessive level of habitat encroachment and poaching by
human.
In Sri Lanka, the present elephant population is approximated between
3,160 and 4,405 elephants (Kemf & Santiapillai, 2000). During last fifty decades
the forest cover got reduced in more than 18 % with the increase of human
population from 8 million to 19.5 million. As a result, elephants have to limit their
territorial boundaries to national parks and some forest pockets in Northeastern,
Eastern and Southern parts of the island. The coexistence between humans and
elephants has been deteriorated during past few decades. Encroachment and
replacement of the forestlands for slash and burn cultivation, expansion of human
settlements towards elephant habitats were intensified during last few decades.
Competition for the scarce land, food and water has created the conflict between
humans and elephants over the time.
Crops, houses and some instances human lives are frequently damaged by
roaming elephants. The human encroachment at a higher degree left the elephants
to complete dependency on cultivated crops. Since the traditional mitigation
strategies are now lack in effectiveness in high HEC areas, farmers are forced to
use different ways to harm elephants.
Number of strategies such as promulgation of protected areas by
resettlement of people, translocation of aggressive male elephants, elephant
drives, electrical fences, compensation payments and conservation aimed other
measures have been taken by the governmental as well as non-governmental
authorities. Among currently practicing measures for mitigating human-elephant
conflict, electric fences are considered as the most effective measure. If the
electric fences have been strategically located, it acts as very effective elephant
barriers (De Silva, 1998). The electrified fences appear to be the people's solution
to the elephants’ problem by physically separating their territories. In this
context, the effectiveness of the electric fences is mostly depending on the social
acceptance.
150
METHODLOGY
The theoretical framework of sampling procedure, data collection, data
analysis, details of the selected electric fence and the sample areas has been
presented in this chapter.
Selection of the electric fences and areas for the study
Based on the severity of the HEC, geographical location and involving
organizations in operational activities of the fences, following five electric fences
were considered for this study: Kandeketiya electric fence near VictoriaRandenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Herathgama electric fences near KahallaPallekele Sanctuary, electric fence around Mahaweli System G, Kalagama electric
fence at Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary and Lunugamvehera electric fence at
Lunugamvehera National Park.
Description of the area and the electric fences
Kandeketiya electric fence at Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary
Kandeketiya electric fence in Kandeketiya Divisional Secretariat Division
has been established to prevent elephant damages coming from VictoriaRandenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary which located in Central region of the country
and extends approximately 41,600 hectares. The fence was constructed during
1998 to1999 period from Uma oya to Pathagala rock extending approximately up
to 9 km. Due to the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme (AMDP),
the forest cover was extensively cleared loosing a substantial land extent from
these catchments for the huge reservoirs. It has arisen a number of environmental
issues like human elephant conflict. Approximately 75 to 100 elephants living in
this sanctuary invade nearby villages in search of food. The study was conducted
for totally 47 households from the villages protected with fence namely
Akkiriyawatta, Maliyadda and Wewathenne and the villages that do not protected
with electric fence such as Lemasooriyagama, Othalawa, Serasumthenne,
Serupitiya, Meeriyabedda and Theripehe.
Herathgama electric fences near Kahalla-Pallekele Sanctuary
Herathgama electric fence in Northwestern region of the island protects
mainly Polpithigama D.S.Division from the attacks by the elephants in KahallaPallekele Sanctuary. This sanctuary is located within three Districts extending
21,690 hectares. The sanctuary consists of 20 to 30 elephant’s in resident herd and
80 to100 in migratory herd. The forest is one of the resting-places of migrating
herds between Wilpattu and eastern forests of the country. The fence was
constructed in 2000-2001 period extending about 33 km from Siyabalangamuwa
reservoir to Immihaminegama villages covering Herathgama, Irrudeniyaya,
Thibbatuwewa, Pothana, Koonwewa, Siyabalangamuwa, Pothuwila, and
Galahitiyawa. The survey was included 58 households from the villages in fenced
areas namely Siyambalangmuwa, Siyambelewa, Hatangama, Thibbatuwewa,
Galahiyawa, Herathgama, Nikawewa, Pothuwila, Irudeniyaya, Mahapitiya,
Bambaragalayaya, Pansiyagama and the villages not covered by the electric fence
such as Jayalanda, Meegalewa, Kankanigama, Kalankuttiya and Govigammanaya.
151
Electric fence around Mahaweli System G
Mahaweli System G locates in between the Dambulukelle forest and the
Wasgamuwa National Park. Being a comparatively narrow land strip, elephants
migrate through this settlement area. The Electric fence of Mahaweli System G
extends approximately 105 km. It was constructed in 2000-2001. The Mahaweli
System G is totally covered by this electric fence. The study was conducted in
three areas namely, Atthanakadawala-Seegala, Galmulla and Damanayaya
covering 43 households considering before and after fence scenario.
Kalagama electric fence at Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary
The Kalagama electric fence in Anuradhapura District with approximately
10 kilometers in length was established in 2001. The fence lies from
Konpolayagama to Undurawa along the boundary of Kalawewa- Balaluwewa
sanctuary, the catchments of Kalawewa and Balaluwewa reservoirs. The sanctuary
is a transit as well as habitat for many (100-128) elephants. Data was collected
from the villages namely Undurawa North, Kalagama, New Balaluwewa and
Dambewatuna.
Electric fence at Lunugamvehera National Park
The Lunugamvehera electric fence extends 17 km in length that
considered for the study. It initiated from the Wilamba Wewa (reservoir) closer to
the National Park and continues towards the direction of Yala National Park.
Lunugamvehera National Park (23,499.77 hectares) is located in Hambantota
district in the Southern region of the island. Human encroachment for cattle
feeding is a severe issue at the National Park in which around 150 elephants are
living. The villages namely Kiulara, Thanamalwila and Ranawarawa were
considered the villages without having coverage from electric fence.
Punchiappujandura, Lunugamvehera, Boogahawewa, Gestupana, Colony 1,
Colony 2 and Padikepuhela, Karawile, Thammennawa and Hunathuwewa villages
were considered the protection from electric fence including number of 60
respondents.
Data collection
A well-structured questionnaire was prepared for household survey in
selected sample areas. The expected data to collect were general household
information, land ownership, behavioral pattern of the wild elephants, number of
crops and property damages, number of injuries, number of human deaths before
and after the electric fence, severity of the damages, attitude of the villagers
towards the electric fencing. HEC related information such as numbers of human
deaths, numbers of injuries, numbers of property damages, numbers of plant
destructions and numbers of crop damaging incidences were collected from key
informants. Relevant secondary information includes total number of elephant
related incidences during past few years, existing mitigating measures was
collected from government institutions such as DWLC, Mahaweli Authority and
divisional secretariat officials in relevant areas. The information on electric fences
was also obtained
152
Considering the damage incidences both in fenced and non-fenced areas,
the effectiveness of the electric fences have been evaluated on avoidance of
damages. The Kandeketiya electric fence has not shown a substantial reduction in
the number of incidences. Because of the inadequate length of coverage by
electric fence and the elevated human activities in elephant habitats are the main
reasons.
Table 1. The effectiveness of electric fences in damage avoidance in 2003
Incidences
VRR
Damage reduction in each site
KP
Mahaweli S.G
Kalagama
LMV
Human deaths
1
0
2
3
0
Human injuries
3
3
0
0
3
Property damages
Plants destructionCoconut trees
Plants destruction other trees
Crop damagesPaddy lands
Crop damages-other
Damages to stored
paddy
9
6
2
9
1
28
123
194
17
92
29
30
89
72
114
10
15
113
146
145
0
-9
21
96
81
3
13
4
5
0
According to the findings in table 01, the Kandeketiya electric fence has
shown its effectiveness by avoiding human injuries. The electric fencing seems to
be less effective in avoiding human deaths and damages to stored paddy. Slight
increases of the incidences can be experienced in property and other crop
damages. Related to the Herathgama electric fence, the number of incidences is
fairly low and there are no records on human deaths or injuries. Plants destruction
by elephants appeared to be fairly high even after establishing the fence may be
due to weak points. Meanwhile the effectiveness of Kalagama electric fence at
Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary is fairly high. However, plant destruction has
not decreased satisfactorily. The Lunugamvehera electric fence shows high
effectiveness in avoiding damages.
Most of the fences are not functioning at expected levels of effectiveness.
Some reasons that affect the effectiveness of the electric fencing are partially and
incomplete maintenance, lack of community participation to various activities
related to maintenance of the fence. The human elephant conflict in Kandeketiya
was arisen with the implementation of Accelerated Mahaweli Project which
damaged elephant habitat, migratory routes as well as the human -elephant co
existence.
153
Table 2. Satisfaction of stakeholders on electric fencing as a HEC mitigation measure
KahallaResponse
Separation with a
System
VRR
Lunugam
Kalagama
Pallekele
G
-vehera
44.20%
38.89%
81.60%
60.00%
62.43%
25%
20.37%
12.20%
13.50%
20.91%
11.50%
-
-
-
-
-
12.96%
-
-
6.66%
-
12.96%
6.10%
16.67%
-
-
7.40%
-
9.83%
10.00%
15%
-
-
-
-
fence
Translocation of
aggressive
elephants
Complete drive
Establishment of a
corridor
Plantation of
fodder trees
Establishment of
elephant
conservation &
management unit
Relocate villages
As shown in the table 02, in Kandeketiya, most of the respondents agreed
to physically separate from elephants by a fence. Forty-four (44.20%) percent of
the responses were with this solution. Peoples’ attitudes towards electric fencing
in the Polpithigama Divisional Secretariat Division, shows the preference to
separate an area for elephants by a fence (38.89%) Attitude of the respondents in
the Mahaweli System G (Bakamoona) towards electric fencing says that
separation of an area by an electric fence is the best solution according to the
majority of respondents (81.60%). It depicts the positive attitudes on the electric
fencing by the people, and in the same way pointed out the effectiveness of the
electric fence related to the System G. According to the responses, majority has
kept more trust on electric fences. Earlier, more attacks of elephants had been
come from catchment areas. With the establishment of electric fence, the trend of
frequent visits of elephants into the villages has been declined. Therefore, peoples'
154
attitudes on electric fence are at positive level, which is shown by the highest
number of responses (60%) with the electric fencing as a solution. At present,
there is a problem with the effective coverage of the electric fence due to poor
maintenance. People are considerably much satisfied (62.43%) of the electric
fences as a mitigation option. However, they are dissatisfied on the prevailing
settings of the electric fences. Due to those weaknesses of location of the fence,
people have an attitude that elephants are still entering into the villages. Some
respondents pointed out that elephants might be visiting the covered area from
other areas and other forests that are located in the same side of the
Lunugamvehera electric fence. Therefore, the HEC is still a problem though it is
not much severe as before. Though the functioning electric fences in study areas
were able to reduce the exposure to elephant related incidences compared to the
non fenced areas, peoples don’t have 100% favors at electric fencing. The reason
is they still suffer from some incidences. Therefore, it seems that combination of
the mitigation measures rather than single measures are much effective and
sustainable in existence.
The social aspects which are influencing on effectiveness of electric fences
can be listed as follows;
1. Role of government organizations
2. Community support
3. Perception and attitudinal factors of the stakeholders
4. Forest links
The role of the government organizations includes the maintenance of
regulations related to the land and conservation policies. In some instances, the
government authorities have failed to enact the regulatory measures such as
relocation of unauthorized settlers from the protected areas and corridors. It is
therefore, the legal operations needs to be strengthened. In Victoria- RandenigalaRantambe sanctuary area, such issue on relocation of settlers had been arisen.
Community support in maintenance of the fences is a crucial factor in
effective electric fencing. The degree of community interest on participation in
fence maintenance is found usually negative sloping with time. For the success of
the electric fences, capacity development of community based organizations can
be practiced.
People in the fenced areas are also interacting with the nearby forests for
fulfilling their needs such as timber, firewood, herbs and cattle feeding etc.
Though these are illegal activities, the communities don’t have other alternatives
so that those issues needed to be considered in a reasonable approaches rather
than imposing strict regulations. That kind of approaches brings the community
much closer interacts with electric fences. In Lunugamvehera, the one of the
influencing factor on fence failure is extensive cattle feeding in national park.
Those can be limited using approaches such as establishing separate feeding areas,
buffer zones for outside animals.
155
The electric fences act as the barriers for accessing in to the forest recourses by
the concerning communities. Therefore, those who are loosing their prevailing
lands due to acquisition of lands for protected areas need to be allowed to use
some extent of the land with certain restrictions. Therefore, wherever those routes
of electric fencing are demarcated, a comprehensive pre- study is needed. If not,
the disputes between community and authorities will be resulted and it makes the
failures of the fences.
CONCLUSION
The study found that even the short-term benefits of electric fencing are
not fully achieved in most of the cases. However, the weaknesses related to social
related aspects need to be addressed. In such situations, the perceptions of the
people in the conflict were not considered in policy making. The most important
is community support in maintaining the fence. Community organizations have to
play a role to protect the fence and keep clean the route of the fence. This needs to
be supported by authorities by provision of funds and material (e.g. posts for
replacement). Inability to achieve the intended benefits of the fences can be
attributed to this factor mostly.
Electric fence related activities can be improved with close rapport and
relationship between government authorities and community. Active village level
organizations need to be given the responsibilities and authority with transferring
benefits. Further, the community should be made to understand the importance of
the fence is to reduce the conflict.
The tasks assigned for the communities need to be in flexible manner. The
activities can be allocated with responsibilities and continuous monitoring.
Further, the maintenance and related operations should be assigned for the
communities not only in closer areas of the fence but also to the communities
within the effective distance. The effectiveness of the electric fencing as well as
the social acceptance can be improved with the approach of high level of
community participation in all the stages of fence establishment. Integrated
approaches along with electric fencing will be the best way to improve the as well
as increase the level of community involvement.
156
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was conducted with the generous funding from
Economy and Environment Programme for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA). Our
special thanks extend towards Dr. David Glover and Dr. Hermi Francisco and
Professor Nancy Olewier for their kind cooperation and also to Ms. Cathy Ndiaye
in EEPSEA.
Our heartiest gratitude extends to Mr. Edmond Wilson (Deputy Director,
Elephant Conservation, Law Enforcement and operations), Mr. Hendavitharana
(Social Scientist, DWLC) and the staff members in conservation, IT and GIS
units. Also we appreciate the support of Mr. Manjula Amararathne (Assistant
Director-DWLC-Northwestern region), Mr. Mahesh (Elephant Control Unit,
Galgamuwa), Assistant Directors of DWLC, Central, Mahaweli and Southern
regions and staff of DWLC offices at Herathgama, Anuradhapura, Galgamuwa,
Meegalewa, Galkiriyagama, Keerthibandarapura, Minipe, Lunugamvehera and
Elahera. We wish to extend our thanks to the staff of the Residential Office of
Mahaweli System G for their support in data collection.
REFERENCES
De Silva, M. (1998) Status and Conservation of the Elephant (Elephas maximus) and the
Alleviation of Man-Elephant Conflict in Sri Lanka. Gujah, 19.
IUCN, Maps Electric Fencing. (2000) IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group, online reference
at www.iucn.org.
Kemf, E. and Santiapillai, C. (2000) Asian Elephants in the wild: 2000- WWF Species Status
Report. WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland.
Santiapillai, C. (1997) Elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. The Island. (Sri Lanka) August.
24.1997
157
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FLORISTIC COMPOSITION
OF THE HAKGALA STRICT NATURE RESERVE AT 1800m
ELEVATION
R.M.W. RATHNAYAKE*
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
The woody vegetation of Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve at an altitude of 1800 m was
quantitatively studied by plot sampling. Twenty two species were found to be endemic. The
exotic species, Cestrum nocturnum was the most abundant species at this altitude. Nineteen
percent (11 species) of the species identified were present at less than 10 stems per ha
density, and the most dominant gbh class was 10-20 cm. Only 19% of the species (11 species)
was represented by 100 or more individuals per ha. Eighty eight per cent of species (50
species) were represented by less than 5% of the basal area. Based on the relative cover
values of species, Neolitsea fuscata, Michelia nilagirica and Semecarpus coriacea were the
dominant species found in the vegetation.
KEY WORDS: Floristic composition
INTRODUCTION
Upper Montane Rain Forests (UMRF) cover the higher parts of Sri Lanka
ranging from 1500 m to the highest peak Piduruthalagala (2524 m), and these
forests are characterized by a peculiar floristic composition within the IndoMalaysian region (Werner, 1982). Generally a large proportion of the angiosperm
flora of Sri Lanka is endemic and commonly found in the low country wet zone
and montane zone.
Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve (HSNR) is located in botanically rich
UMRF ranging from 1600 m to 2178 m elevation. The environmental conditions
prevailing at different elevations could affect the physiognomy and floristic
composition of the forest at respective elevation (De Rosayro, 1958).
According to Grubb et al. (1963), the woody species i.e. trees and shrubs
of UMRF exceeding 10cm gbh (girth at breast height) could be considered as
woody vegetation. Wijesundera (1991) studied the phytosociology of HSNR, and
Rathnayake et al. (1996)a & b studied the woody vegetation of the same forest at
1600 m elevation. Before these studies, species present in the UMRF in Sri Lanka
have been identified by numerous authors (Vincent (1883), Chapman (1947),
Koelmeyer (1957), Nisbet (1961) & Greller & Balasubramanian (1980)).
It could be considered that HSNR is at dynamic state and knowledge of
forest structure and floristic is necessary to the study of forest dynamics, plantanimal interactions and nutrient cycling.
The Objectives of the present study was to study the forest structure in
terms of distribution of stem sizes and basal area and floristic.
158
Study site
The study was carried out at mid elevation (1800m) of Hakgala Strict
Nature Reserve (HSNR) which lies 6 km southeast of Nuwara Eliya in Central
and Uva provinces (latitudes being between (6053’ – 6057’ N and longitudes being
between 80046’ and 80050’E) (Green (1990)), and the well known Hakgala
Botanic Garden is situated in the bottom of this reserve. HSNR covers an area of
approximately 1,142 ha, and is surrounded by Madulsima range on the east,
Haputale on the south, Pedro range on the northwest, Adam’s Peak and Elk Plains
on the west and Udapussellewa range on the North East respectively. The HSNR
consists of three peaks aligned in the east west direction, and it is ranging from
1600 m to 2173 m elevation. Numerous streams, streamlets, steep slopes, gullies
and many rocky out crops are found in the reserve.
Floristic composition and structural characteristics
Plant specimens were collected from the woody vegetation and herbarium
specimens were prepared following herbarium techniques (Mitra, 1957). They
were then identified in the National Herbarium, Peradeniya and in the Hakgala
Botanic Garden. The identifications were confirmed by referring to the books
(Dassanayake & Fosberg (1980) & Wijesinghe (1994))
.
For the quantitative survey, an undisturbed representative area of about 1
ha of the forest vegetation was selected. According to Yamada (1977) ten plots of
20 x 20 m were demarcated randomly in this area. Stem density, frequency and
dominance (in terms of basal area) were estimated for each species of woody
vegetation (Greig-Smith, 1957).
Stem density of Species A in sample plot X
= No. of stems of species A in sample plot X
Area of sample plot X
Dominance of Species A (relative cover value)
= Total basal area of species A x 100
Sum of basal areas for all species
159
RESULTS
Table1 shows the species composition of all species (gbh > 10 cm), life
forms and endemicity. The distribution of species among taxa was uneven. A total
of 57 species belonging to 43 genera and 27 families were recorded. Taxonomic
richness (total number of taxa) was 127. About 12.3% (7 species) of the species
belonged to the family Lauraceae; 10.5% (6 species) to Rubiaceae and 7 % (4
species) to each family of Myrtaceae and Symplocaceae. The vegetation also
consisted of 77.2 % (44 species) trees and 22.8% (13 species) shrubs. About
38.6% (22 species) species was found to be endemic. The only exotic species
found in the vegetation was Cestrum nocturnum.
Table 1. Floristic composition of woody perennial vegetation in Hakgala Strict Nature
Reserve at 1800 m elevation
T= tree, S = Shrub,
*- endemic, #- Exotics
Family & Species
Life Form
1, Aquifoliaceae
Ilex walkeri Wight & Gardn ex Thw.
T
2. Anacardiaceae
Semecarpus coricea Thw.
T*
3. Asteraceae
Senecio corymbosus Wall. Ex DC.
S
4. Buxaceae
Sarcococca zeylanica Bail.
S
5. Caprifoliaceae
Viburnum erubescens Wall. Ex DC.
Viburnum coriaceum Bl.
T
S
6. Celastraceae
Euonymus revolutus Wight
Microtropis Wallichiana Wight ex Thw.
T*
T*
7. Clusiaceae
Calophyllum walkeri Wight.
T*
Life Form
Family & Species
8. Daphniphyllaceae
Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Thw.
T
9. Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus montanus Thw.
T*
10. Ericaceae
Vaccinium symplocifolium (G. Don ) Alston
S
160
11. Euphorbiaceae
Glochidion coriaceum Thw.
T
12. Flacortiaceae
Caesaria thwaitessi Briq.
Scolopia crassipes Clos.
T*
T*
11. Icacinaceae
Apodytes gardneriana Miers
Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer
T*
T
12. Lauraceae
Actinodaphne ambigua (Meisn.) Hook. f.
Actinodaphne glauca Nees
Actinodaphne speciosa Nees
Actinodaphne sp. 1
Cinnamomum ovalifolium Wight.
Neolitsea fuscata (Thw.) Alston
Neolitsea sp. 1
T*
T*
T*
T
T*
T*
T
13. Magnoliaceae
Michelia nilagirica Zenker
T
14. Melastomataceae
Memecylon rotundatum (Thw.) Cogn. In DC.
Osbeckia sp.
S*
S
15. Moraceae
Ficus microcarpa L.f.
T
16. Myrsinaceae
Ardisia gardneri C.B. Clarke
Maesa perrottetiana A.DC.
Rapanea robusta Mez.
S*
S
T
17. Myrtaceae
Eugenia mabaeoides Wight
Syzygium assimile Thw.
Syzyfgium revolutum Walp.
Syzygium rotundifolium Arn.
T*
T
T
T*
18. Oleaceae
Olea polygama Wight
T
Life Form
Family & Species
19. Rubiaceae
Canthium montanum Thw.
Ixora calycina Thw.
Lasianthus gardneri (Thw.) Hook. f.
Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.)
Psychotria zeylanica Sohmer
Tarenna flava Alston
T*
T
S*
S
S
T
20. Rutaceae
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Euoida lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr.
T
T
21. Sabiaceae
161
Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.)
Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Max. in Walp.
T
T
22. Sapindaceae
Allophyllus varians (Thw.) Radlk.
T*
23. Sapotaceae
Isonandra lanceolata Wight
T
24. Solanaceae
Cestrum nocturnum L
S#
25. Symplocaceae
Symplocos bractealis Thw.
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moor.
Symplocos elegans Thw.
Symplocos sp.
T*
T
T*
T
26.Theaceae
Eurya ceylanica Wight
S
27. Ulmaceae
Celtis Cinnamomea Lindl. Ex Planch.
T
Unidentified sp.1
Unidentified sp.2
T
T
Structural characteristics
Table 2 provides trees and shrub families (> 10cm gbh) with percentage of
mean total basal area and density (individual’s ha-1). Overall density of live stems
in all size classes was calculated to be 2641 individuals’ ha-1. At the family level,
stem density and relative basal area differed between the stem size classes.
Thirteen families of species were represented below 80cm gbh stems. Only two
families i.e. Lauraceae and Rutaceae represented all the stem size classes. Above>
100cm gbh values were represented by 11 families. Families Caprifoliaceae,
Elaeocarpaceae and Sapotaceae represented only 21 –20cm gbh stem size class.
The highest relative basal area values were recorded for families, Lauraceae
(22.1%), Magnoliaceae (13.7%) and Myrtaceae (11%). Except seven families i.e.
Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Myrtaceae, Sabiaceae, Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae and
Rutaceae, other families showed less than 5% relative basal area. Families,
Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Sabiaceae
showed more than 100 individuals/stems ha-1. Family Solanaceae (367
stems/individuals ha-1) represented the highest stem density. Four families i.e.
Buxaceae, Celastraceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Melastomataceae and Sapotaceae were
rarely found representing less than 5 stems/individuals ha-1(Tables 2).
The stem density showed a reversed “J” shaped curve (Figure 1). The
highest density was recorded for 10 –20 cm gbh stem size class and the lowest
density class was > 100 cm gbh stems. Further Figure 2 and Table 2 show that
54.1% (1429 individuals ha-1) fall in to the lowest girth class (i.e. 10-20 cm).
Eleven species exceeded >100 cm girth (gbh) with a density of 43 individuals per
ha.
162
Table 2. Relative basal area values and density (number of individuals per ha)
Values in each stem size class
%BA- relative basal area
No. - Density (number of individuals per ha)
Family
10-20
Anacardiaceae
Aquifoliaceae
Buxaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Celastraceae
Clusiaceae
Cornaceae
Daphniphyllaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Ericaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Icacinaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Melastomataceae
Moraceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrtaceae
Oleaceae
Rubiaceae
Rutaceae
Sabiaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapotaceae
Solanaceae
Symplocaceae
Theaceae
Ulmaceae
Total
%BA
0.01
1.80
0.45
0.02
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.12
0.16
2.62
0.08
2.10
5.15
0.32
0.39
0.94
1.23
0.30
15.77
No.
2
83
4
1
4
6
2
5
24
130
10
121
687
16
48
206
51
29
1429
Stem size class (gbh) cm
41-60
61-80
21-40
%BA
0.06
2.0
0.01
1.05
0.24
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.14
0.12
0.17
5.90
0.12
0.15
4.85
2.32
1.58
0.85
0.43
0.01
0.95
0.22
0.61
0.37
22.29
No.
8
69
3
10
3
1
3
4
12
4
17
183
2
10
115
84
60
23
36
1
147
5
26
5
831
%BA
0.03
0.08
0.62
0.03
0.06
0.48
0.21
4.45
0.14
0.04
1.65
2.59
0.15
0.10
0.13
1.00
0.89
12.65
163
No.
2
9
5
1
3
3
2
57
2
3
17
33
6
4
14
12
4
177
%BA
1.20
0.02
0.05
0.37
0.10
0.17
2.14
4.70
0.16
0.48
2.45
0.20
1.21
1.20
0.08
14.53
No.
5
1
3
3
2
1
27
12
1
4
25
3
8
5
2
102
81-100
%BA
2.11
0.43
0.21
0.37
3.80
1.40
0.62
3.46
0.20
0.73
13.33
>100
No.
8
2
1
2
20
3
2
16
2
3
59
%BA
2.90
0.58
0.20
3.20
7.56
0.39
1.05
0.89
1.50
2.70
0.51
21.48
No.
7
2
1
9
10
1
2
1
4
5
1
43
stem density (no. of stems
per ha)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
20-40
21-40
41-60
61-80
gbh classes (cm)
81-100
Figure 1. Stem density classes of woody perennial vegetation at study site
The total basal area (sum of the stem cross sectional area) at breast height
extrapolated to per hectare basis) for the study area was 39.8m2 ha-1. The highest
relative basal area was recorded for 21-40cm gbh stem size class i.e., 22.29 and
the lowest relative basal area was recorded for 41 – 60cm gbh stem size class i.e.
12.65. (Table 2). The largest trees (> 100cm gbh), which constituted only 16% of
the tabulated stems accounted for 21.5% of total basal area.
A dominance-diversity curve was computed at the species level by ranking
the relative basal area of all stems > 10 cm gbh for trees and shrubs were
identified (Figure 2). All but seven species i.e. Neolitsea fuscata (16.9 %),
Michelia nilagirica (13.7%), Meliosma simplicifolia ( 9.4 %), Semecarpus
coriacea (6.2%), Syzygium rotundifolium (5.9%) and Acronychia pedunculata
(5.5%) and Eugenia mabaeoides (5%) constituted less than 5% of the percentage
basal area.
16
14
12
10
Relative basal
area
8
6
4
57
53
49
45
41
37
33
29
25
21
17
13
9
5
0
1
2
Species rank
Figure 2. Dominance diversity curve for the woody perennial vegetation at study site
According to the dominance values (in terms of relative basal area values)
different dominant families, genera and species were found (Table 2). Below 60
cm gbh classes, the dominant families were Lauraceae, Solanaceae and
Myrtaceae. Within these three families, the genera of Neolitsea, Cestrum and
Eugenia and species of P.zeylanica, C.aurantiacum and N.fuscata were the
dominants. The dominant families above 60 cm gbh were Lauraceae,
164
>100
Magnoliaceae and Anacardiaceae. Within the dominant genera of Neolitsea,
Semecarpus and Michelia, dominant species of N.fuscata, S.coriacea and Michelia
nilagirica were found.
DISCUSSION
From the results it was evident that the vegetation at 1800 m of HSNR was
dominated by the families Lauraceae (12.3%, 7 species), Rubiacea (10.5%, 6
species), Myrtaceae (7%, 4 species) and Symplocaceae (7%, 4 species).Lauraceae
commonly occurs elsewhere at this elevation, and has been reported as the
dominant in the vegetation at this elevation. Dominance of Lauraceae at this site
may reflect the abundance of several avian dispersers of this family. Taxonomic
richness (total number of taxa) was quite high at the study site like other montane
forests (Grubb et al. (1963), Heaney & Proctor (1990) & Tanner (1977)). The
presence of 38.6% endemic species further reveals the importance the forest
vegetation. Number of species found in the montane zone of Sri Lanka was 591,
and 291 species were endemic (Abeywickrama, 1956). Trimen (1885) also has
reported that about five sixth of the country’s endemic species are present in the
hill flora. According to Willis (Procteor et al (1988) and de Rosayro (1958),
endemic species occurred in the montane rain forests mainly due to isolation of
mountains, and isolated species may have evolved and became endemic. The only
exotic species i.e. Cestrum nocturnum was found with the highest abundance, and
it has been introduced to Sri Lanka through Hakgala Botanic Garden in 1889
(Trimen, 1890). This exotic species was considered as a weed of montane zone
(Bond, 1952). According to Rathnayake et al. (1996) a, C.nocturnum was an
exotic species found at 1600 m too, but it was absent at 2000m elevation probably
due to the facts that the seeds or fruits of these two species are normally dispersed
by birds (Alston, 1931), and at the higher elevations the birds could not disperse
them successfully. Further, the presence of extreme environmental conditions (i.e.
high wind velocity and high light intensity) at higher elevations, coiled already
affects the survival of this species. According to the highest abundance of
C.nocturnum in HSNR it could be suggested that it could suppress the growth of
other species present in the forest. At the moment this exotic species has spread
through the lower elevation on to the higher elevations seriously threatening the
endemic vegetation of the upper montane rain forests.
Stem density showed a reversed “J”-shaped curve which is typical for a
mature stand, with many small stems compared to few large ones. The large size
classes of stems were more variable spatially than small stems, so a large sample
area would be needed to characterize composition and structural attributes of
larger trees than small trees.
According to Figure 1, many individuals of woody perennial vegetation do
not exceed 20 cm gbh, and smaller individuals of overstorey vegetation may allow
saplings to share the space for exposing to the light. Generally, C.nocturnum
shows low gbh classes and that could be helpful in the case of saplings of
C.nocturnum. High gbh values (> 100 cm gbh) were recorded for Michelia
nilagirica, Semecarpus coriacea, Ficus sp. and etc., and they may not allow
saplings to share the space. Compared to other species therefore their relative
densities were low.
165
Less than ten species showed more than 5% of relative basal area at each
elevation, and they are the dominants. It could be suggested that these species
might determine the future of whole forest. That means these species may affect
the seed germination, growth of saplings and growth of other plants. The highest
relative basal area values were recorded for Michelia nilagirica and Neolitsea
fuscata at 1800 m as well as 1600 m studied6, and they were not found at 2000 m
elevation (Rathnayake et al., 1996a) due to their huge and tall stems and presence
of shallow soil depth and other unfavorable environmental conditions. It was not
the highest basal area holding species at these two elevations, because
C.nocturnum is shrub form with low gbh values.
The cover values give an idea of timber volume of the forest, although
timber of this forest is not important in furniture industry. Relative basal area is a
useful indicator of particular species in a forest and it may reflect the importance
of the species in the community dynamics. Based on the overall relative cover
values of species Neolitsea fuscata, Michelia nilagirica and Semecarpus coriacea
were the dominants, and they could be considered as dominant species involved in
community dynamics. They are endemic, and community dynamics mainly
depend on these species too.
Sampled areas in comparable studies ranged from 400m2 to 4000m2
(present study). Taxonomic richness (total number of taxa) was quit high at
HSNR like other montane rain forests (Grubb et al., (1963), Heaney & Proctor
(1990), Abeywickrama (1956) & Nadkarni et al., (1995)). Some of families and
genera found in Hakgala SNR are common at study sites of other montane, forests
(Heaney & Proctor (1990), Tanner (1977), Proctoer et al., (1988), Nadkarni et al.,
(1995), Weaver & Murphy (1990), Edwards (1977) & Edwards & Grubb (1977)).
In the present study, the densest species was C.nocturnum, and the most dominant
species was Neolitsea fuscata. Therefore the results of the present study were
different from those of Wijesundara (1991), and these changes could be due to the
forest die back, natural death of some trees and the greater distribution of
C.nocturnum. At Barva forest in Jamaica, the dominant family was Euphorbiaceae
(14.5% of basal area) (Tanner, 1977), whereas this taxon comprised only 0.5% of
the total basal area only at 1800 m elevation in Hakgala SNR. The dominant
family at Monteverde forests in Jamaica was Lauraceae (31% of total basal area)
(Edwards, 1977), comprised only 5.8% of the basal area at the Barva site (Tanner
1977). In the present study, the dominant family was Lauraceae (i.e 22.9% of total
basal area). This difference may result from different forest disturbance regimes;
and climatic conditions.
The current data on tropical forests suggest the similar elevation and
environmental conditions do not dictate similar structure and floristic in tropical
montane vegetation. A larger body of information on environmental factors,
especially those that influence patterns of disturbance and regeneration are
necessary to explain the great variation exhibited in tropical montane forests. The
results of the present study could be useful in measures pertaining to the
conservation of naturally established flora in the upper montane rain forests. It is
also recommended that regular floristic studies, both qualitative and quantitative,
at least at 6 year intervals be carried out and in order to monitor the possible
vegetation change that could occur overtime in this vegetation.
166
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De Rosayro, R.A. (1958). The Climatic and Vegetation of the Knucles Region of Ceylon. Ceylon
Forester 2 (3 & 4) : 201-260.
Grubb, P.J., Lloyd, J.R., Pennington, T.D. & Whitemore, T.C. (1963). A comparison of montane
and lowland rain forest in Ecuador. The forest structure, physiognomy and floristics.
Journal of Ecology 51: 567-601.
Rathnayake, R.M.W., Jayasekera, L.R. & Solangaarachchi, S.M (1996). A quantitative study of
overstorey vegetation of an upper montane rain forest. The Sri Lanka Forester XXII
(3&4):43-49.
Rathnayake, R.M.W., Solangaarachchi, S.M. & Jayasekera, L.R. (1996). A quantitative study of
pigmy forest at 2000 m in Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve. Proceedings of the Second
Annual Forestry Symposium. Department of Forestry and Environment Science.
University of Sri Jayawardenapura, Sri Lanka. pp. 215-222.
Vincent (1883). The Forests of Ceylon. Tropical Agriculturist 2 (1-12):280-281.
Werner, W.L. (1982). The Upper Montane Rain Forests of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester 15
(3&4): 119-131.
Wijesundara, D.S.A.. (1991). Phytosociology of a montane forest in Sri Lanka. M.Phil. thesis,
Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Chapman, V.J. (1947). The application of aerial photography to ecology as exemplied by the
natural vegetation of Ceylon. Indian Forester 73 (7):287-314.
Koelmeyer, K.O. (1957). The climate classification and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon. The
Ceylon Forester 3 (2): 144-163.
Nisbet, R.H.McD. (1961). A forest inventory of the Peak Wilderness-Agra Bopats Forest Area and
part of the Kelani Valley Forest Area. Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. 58p.
Greller, A.M. & Balasubramaniam, S. (1980). A prelimiary floristic classification of the forests of
Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester 14 (3-4):163-170.
Green, M.J.B. (1990). IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas. IUCN-The
Conservation Union, Cambridge, U.K pp. 211-212.
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Mitra, J.N. (1957). An Introduction to Systemic Botany and Ecology. The World Press Private
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Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (1980- ). Revised Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon. Parts IVII. Amerind Publishing Co. (Pvt) Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Wijesinghe, Y. (1994). Checklist of Woody Perennial Plants of Sri Lanka. Forest Department, Sri
Lanka. 20 p.
Yamada, L. (1977). Forest ecological studies of the montane forests of Mt. Pangrango, West Java.
IV. Floristic composition along altitude. South East Asian Studies. 15: 226-254.
Greig-Smith, P. (1957). Quantitative Plant Ecology (3rd edition). Butterworth, London, England.
256 p.
Heaney, A. & Proctor, J. (1990). Preliminary studies on forest structure and floristics on Volcan
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Tanner, E.V.J. (1977). Four montane rain forests of Jamaica: a quantitative characterization of the
floristics, the soil and foliar mineral levels, and a discussuion of the interelations. Journal
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Abeywickrama, B.A. (1956). The origin and affinities of the flora of Ceylon. Proc. Ann. Sess.
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Willis, J.C. (1908). The floras of Hill tops in Ceylon. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden
Peradeniya 4 (4): 131-138.
Trimen, H. (1890). Ceylon Administrative Reports. Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. Report of
the Director for 1889 12 p.
Bond, T.E.T. (1952). Wild Flowers of the Ceylon Hills. Oxford University Press. 240 p.
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composition of a Neotropical cloud forest Monteverde, Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical
Ecology 11:481-495.
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Edwards, P.J. (1977). Studies in a montane rain forest in NewGuinea. II. The production and
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Guinea. I. The distribution of organic matter in the vegetation and soil. Journal of
Ecology 65:943-969.
168
SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF THE CERATOPHORA TENENTII:
GUNTHER, 1834 (SQUAMATA: AGAMIDAE) IN THE NORTHERN
FLANK OF KNUCKLES CONSERVATION FOREST IN SRI LANKA
R.K. RODRIGO1*, U.K.G.K. PADMALAL1, I.U.P.A. SAMARAWEERA1 and A.U.L.D.
JAYANTHA2
1
The Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Science, The Open University of Sri
Lanka, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
2
The Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted in the eastern slope of the northern flank of the Knuckles
forest range in Sri Lanka for a piod of 3 months from March to June 2002 with the objective
of studying the substrate preference of C. tennentii. Data were collected between 0800 to 1800
hrs following focal sampling method. Juvenile (J), male (M) and female (F) lizards were
observed. The most preferred substrates were tree trunks (Juveniles = 34.3%, males =
37.3%, females = 13.5%) and cardamom stems (Juveniles = 33.5%, males = 28.2%, females =
32.2%) throughout the study period. The animals spent less than 10% of the total observed
time on ground litter, logs, moss covered logs, twigs and moss covered twigs. This is the first
study of the kind, substrate preference of any agamid lizard, in Sri Lanka.
KEY WORDS: Substrate preference, Cetatophora tenentii, Knuckles conservation forest
INTRODUCTION
Knuckles forest range comprises different unique ecosystems (De
Rosayro, 1958), with a high species endemism and richness (Ministry of forestry
and environment, 1999). Out of five species of the endemic agamid lizard genus,
Ceratophora, C. tenentii is distinctive to these mountain forest habitats. Due to
habitat destruction by clearing the under storey for cardamom plantations, logging
and man made fires, change in macro and microenvironment of the species is
invariably resulted. A drastic change in ambient temperature following montane
habitat destruction can be highly influencing the thermoregulation activity pattern
of ectotherms (Clarke, 1996) such as agamid. The study has designed to determine
the substrates preference of the endemic and highly threatened lizard species
(Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. & Samarasekara, V. N., 2001).
C. tenentii belongs to the class reptilia, order Squamata, family Agamidae
(Lizards) and sub family Lyriocephalinae. Cophotis, Ceratophora and
Lyriocephalus are the three extant genera of the sub family and are endemic to Sri
Lanka (Deraniyagala, 1953; Manamendra-Arachchi, & Liyanage, 1994). The
genus Ceratophora is represented by five species C. tennentii, C. stodartii, C.
aspera, C. eardlarnii and C. karu (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998).
C. tennentii is distinguished from all other Ceratophorans by the complex,
laterally compressed rostral appendage (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi,
1998), its similarity to a leaf has earned this lizard the common name, the LeafNosed Lizard (Senanayake, 1979). The total length of the adult male is about 185
mm and that of adult female is about 183 mm (Deraniyagala, 1953).
169
Predominant colour of the dorsum and sides of mature individuals is
reddish brown to olive green; larger scales more greenish than smaller ones. Area
around the eye and sides of neck are with black margins. There are about ten
broad, dark brown bands on tail separated by narrow, lighter interspaces. Venter is
usually whitish. Male is darker than female (Manamendra-Arachchi, 1990).
Juvenile lizard is dark brown both dorsally and laterally (Pethiyagoda &
Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998).
Distribution of the C. tennentii is only in Knuckles mountain region
(Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Liyanage, S. 1994), which has been isolated from
rest of the central hills by the Mahaweli River, at an altitude of 760-1220 m
(Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998). Most of the habitat of this species
is now under cardamom (Elettaria cardamonium) plantations (ManamendraArachchi & Liyanage, 1994), with its concomitant clearing of undergrowth. This
slow moving lizard is frequently seen arboreal (Pethiyagoda & ManamendraArachchi, 1998).
Location
The selected habitat “Rivers Turn” is located in the Matale district in Sri
Lanka. The study site is located adjacent to the Matale - Laggala main road in the
Eastern slope of the mountain range 07. 523050 N and 080.736150 E (Figure 1).
Habitat
The study area was montane tropical wet evergreen vegetation. A clear
stratification of the vegetation could be seen in the area, consisted of continuous
canopy, under storey and ground layer. Calophyllum spp., Syzygium spp.,
Neolitsea spp., and Symplocos spp. were the dominant plant species in the canopy.
Most of the trees trunks were covered by mosses, lichens and orchids. In the
understorey, Strobilanthes spp., Lisea spp. and Elettaria cardamonium were the
common plants. The ground layer contained different herbs, grasses, orchids,
ferns and fern allies (De Rosayro, 1958) (Figure 2).
METERIALS AND METHODS
All observations were made in the eastern slope of the northern flank of
the Knuckles forest range (Reverse Tern) from March to June 2002. Data were
collected between 0800 to 1800 hrs in the cardamom plantation. Relevant ambient
temperature, substrate and weather condition were reported simultaneously.
Substrate of each lizard was noted in every minute (time sampling) following
focal sampling method (Altmann, 1975). Light intensity was taken in every 30
minutes using a standard light meter. Ambient temperature of the site, where the
observations were made, was noted in every 30 minutes with an alcohol
thermometer throughout the study period. The weather condition was recorded
according to four categories viz sunny, windy, misty and rainy. Males, females
170
and juveniles were considered for the study and they were identified according to
taxonomic characters, their color patterns, size (Deraniyagala, 1953), and
experience of the author. Every lizard was observed approximately from 2m
distance for immunized the effect to the lizard natural behavior and a pair of
binoculars (“Pentax” 8x30) was used to observe lizards from distance.
Source: IUCN Sri Lanka (2003)
Figure 1. Box indicated the reverse turn.
Figure 2. Habitat of the study area with Cardamom plants.
171
Percentage of substrate use
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
BT
CT
GL
L
LM
T
TM
TT
TTM
Substrate
Juvenile
Male
Female
BT= Bamboo Trunk, CT= Cardamom Trunk, GL=Ground Litter, L=Leaf,
LM=Log-Moss Covered, T=Twig, TM=Twig-Moss Covered, TT=Tree
Trunk, TTM=Tree Trunk- Moss Covered.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
8.0
0
8.3
0
9.0
0
9.3
0
10
.00
10
.30
11
.00
11
.30
12
.00
12
.30
13
.00
13
.30
14
.00
14
.30
15
.00
15
.30
16
.00
16
.30
17
.00
17
.30
18
.00
Average Ambient Temperature (°C)
Figure.3. Substrates used by juvenile, male and female lizards.
Time (hrs)
Figure 4. Average ambient temperature in the study site throughout day.
172
RESULTS
Substrate preference of the lizards
The most preferred substrates were tree trunks (Juveniles = 34.3%, males
= 37.3%, females = 13.5%) and cardamom trunks (Juveniles = 33.5%, males =
28.2%, females = 32.2%) throughout the study period. The lizards next used moss
covered tree trunks (Juveniles = 10.7%, males = 14.5%, females = 30.5%) and
bamboo trunks (Juvenile = 9.8%, male = 10%, female = 3.2%) out of the total
observed time period of a day. The animals spent less than 10% of the total
observed time on ground litter, logs, moss covered logs, twigs and moss covered
twigs (Figure 3).
Weather condition of the study period
During the study period weather fluctuated through out the day from
sunny to rainy conditions from 0800hrs to 1130hrs there was a gradual increasing
in the sunny condition. When the noon, sunny condition was gradually started to
turning to the windy condition till 1330hrs. In the afternoon the weather
conditions of the study area was misty and late afternoon there was a rainy
condition.
Ambient temperature in the study site
Ambient temperature variations between 0800 – 1800 are shown in Fig.
04. In the morning average ambient temperature of the study site was 16.8 °C.
The temperature slowly increased with the time and it was highest (24.25 °C)
between 1000 – 1100 am. After 1200 noon average ambient temperature of the
site gradually decreased and it was about 16.25 °C at 1800 hrs (Figure 4).
DISCUSSION
Most used substrate by lizards was cardamom trunks (Figure 3). Flowers of the
cardamom plants support many kinds of insects as a food source for C. tennenti.
Further, foliation of cardamom bushes provides a good opportunity for basking as
the trunks expose to the sunlight more frequently compared to other substrates
(author’s comment). Therefore, lizards preferred to hang on the cardamom trunks
and next most used substrate was tree trunks (Figure 3). Moss-covered tree trunks
used as the substrate by female lizards many times (30.5%) compared to juvenile
(10.7%) and male (14.5%) lizards. Bamboo trunks, ground litter, logs, moss
Covered logs, twigs and moss-covered twigs were used less than 10% of the total
observed time (Figure 3). Moss covered surfaces have been preferred least
frequently; may be due to low temperature of the substrate brought about by
trapped moisture unless it is a tree trunk that directly exposed to the sun light. The
color of the body of C. tennentii, lizards was frequently changed when lizards
were changed the substrate as most of the reptiles are doing, as a defensive
mechanism (Pough, 2001).
173
During the study period weather were fluctuated sunny to rainy conditions. In
the morning average ambient temperature was low (16°C) in the study site due to
the heavy mist and drizzling. The selected habitat is situated in the east side of the
Knuckles forest range. Therefore, during the morning hours the light intensity is
gradually increased within the study site. Because of that, the average ambient
temperature has been increased (highest temperature was recorded as 24.25°C
around 10.30 hrs) during 0900 to 1100 hrs. After the noon the average ambient
temperature was fluctuated between 20°C to 16°C till night was fallen. (Figure 4).
At the night lowest average ambient temperature in the study site was recorded
14°C.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mr. D.B.Ekanayake, the owner of the Cardamom
plantation in Riverse-turn, where the study was conducted, for granting me
permission to carry out the study. Mr. Mendis Wickramasinghe, the instructor of
the reptiles group and my colleagues of the Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri
Lanka (YZA), helped me to lead this project to be successful. The staff members
of the Biodiversity Section of IUCN –The World Conservation Union- Sri Lanka
are also acknowledged for providing me with references. Finally, I appreciate the
help given by Dr. C.N.B. Bambaradeniya for his assistance in completion of this
project and the report subsequently.
174
REFERENCES
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Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. and Samarasekara, V.N. (2001). An overview of the threatened
herpetofauna of South Asia. IUCN - The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka country
office, 53, Horton place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka. Pp 98-101.
Clarke, A. (1996). The influence of climate change on the distribution and evolution of organisms.
In the Animals and temperature (Ed. Johnston. I.A. & Bennett. A.F.). Society for
experimental biology, Seminar series 59,University press, Cambridge. Pp 377- 407.
De Rosayro, R.A. (1958). The climatic and vegetation of the Knuckles region of Ceylon. Ceylon
Forester. 3: 201-260.
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1953). A colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. II. Ceylon
National Museums, Colombo. Pp 59-63.
Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and Liyanage, S. (1994). Conservation and distribution of the agamid
lizards of Sri Lanka with illustrations of the extent species. Journal of South Asian
Natural History. 1(1):77-96.
Ministry of forestry and environment. (1999). Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka. Ministry of
forestry and environment, “Sampathpaya”, Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
18p.
Pethiyagoda, R. and Manamendra-Arachchi, K.N. (1998). A revision of the endemic Sri Lankan
agamid lizard genus Ceratophora Gray, 1835, with description of two new species.
Journal of South Asian Natural History. 3(1):1-50.
Pough, F.H. et al. (2001). Herpetology. Second edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.USA. Pp
431-464.
Senanayake, F.R. (1979). Notes on the lizards of the genus Ceratophora. Loris. 15(1):18-19.
175
COMPARISON OF HERPETOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THREE
WETLAND IN HABITATS THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF SRI LANKA
R.K. RODRIGO1*, U.K.G.K. PADMALAL1, C.N.B. BAMBARADENIYA2, V.A.M.P.K
SAMARAWICKRAMA2, N. PERERA2, M.S.J. PERERA2 and T.N. PERIES2
1
2
The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
IUCN-The World Conservation Union, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 7. Sri Lanka.
Abstract
This comparative study investigates the diversity of herpetofauna in Rekawa,
Kalametiya-Lunama and Walawa wetland habitats in the South-East coast of Sri Lanka.
Data were gathered in systematic manner at fortnight intervals during 1st October 2002 to
31st March 2003 in selected habitats in three sites. Fifteen amphibians of four families and 43
reptiles of 15 families were recorded in the study area. The endemic species noted consisted
of one amphibian species (Rana gracilis) and five reptile species (Lankascincus fallax,
Mabuya madaraszi, Sphenomorphus rufogulus, Lycodon osmanhilli and Xenochrophis
asperrimus). A higher diversity of herpetofauna was found in Walawa (Shannon index =
0.233) compared with the other two sites (Rekawa=0.176, Lunama-Kalametiya = 0.223)
possibly due to numerous habitats associated with the Walawe River. A number of threats to
herpetofauna have been identified, among which clearance of habitats, collecting turtle eggs,
spread of alien invasive flora and highway accidents can be highlighted. Sustainable
development schemes, awareness programs conducted for the villagers and for the school
children and mangrove reforestation are some of recommendation made to conserve the
biodiversity of the area including the herpetofauna.
KEY
WORDS:
HERPETOFAUNAL, DIVERSITY, REKAWA, LUNAMAKALAMETIYA, WALAWA ESTUARY, SOUTH-EAST COAST,
SRI LANKA.
Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island located in the south-eastern tip of peninsular India,
between northern latitudes 5° 55’ and 9° 51’ and eastern longitude 79° 41’ and
81° 51’. The total land area is approximately 65000km2. The land consists of three
peneplains; the first (0-125m), the middle (125-750m) and the third (above750m)
(Pemadasa, 1996). The island is divided in to four main climatic zones viz wet,
dry, intermediate and arid zones according to the annual rainfall and temperature.
In terms of “biodiversity per unit area”, Sri Lanka is ranked among the
highest in Asia (Bambaradeniya, 2001a) and is considered as one of the 25 global
biodiversity hot spots which reports diverse ecosystems resulted from a wide
range of topographic and climatic variations (Myers et al., 2000). In fact, the
island is a mega hotspot of herpetofauna harboring 103 amphibians and 181
reptiles, out of which several taxa are geographic relicts (Crusz, 1986; de Silva,
2001). Further more, when compared with other countries with high percentage of
endemic reptilian taxa, Sri Lanka rank 4th the world (De Silva, 1996).
176
Sri Lanka having 103 species of amphibians, of which 87 of them are
endemic to the island. Ichthyophiidae, Bufonidae, Microhylidae and Ranidae are
the families recorded island wide from coastal areas up to highlands (Kirthisinghe,
1957; Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996; Manamendra-Arachchi &
Pethiyagoda, 1998; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001a; ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001b, Gower & et.al., 2005; Manamendra-Arachchi &
Pethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura & Manamendra -Arachchi, 2005).
According to the published literature, Sri Lanka harbors a total of 81
inland tetrapod reptile species (48 endemic) (Deraniyagala, 1953; De Silva, 1980;
Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998; Greer, 1991; Bahir & Maduwage,
2005; Bahir & Silva, 2005; Batuwita & Bahir, 2005) and 82 inland serpentoid
reptile species (44 endemic). In addition to the inland reptiles, 13 species of sea
snakes and five species of marine turtles occur in the coastal waters of the island
(De Silva, 1996). Among the tetrapod reptilia, three endemic genera of skinks
(Lankascincus-6 species; Nessia-8 species and Chalcidoseps- 1 ) and three
endemic genera of agamid lizards (Ceratophora-5 species; Lyriocephalus1species; Cophotis- 1 species) are considered as geographical relicts while one
endemic Uropeltid genus (Pseudotyphlops- 1 species) and four endemic Colubrid
genera (Aspidura- 5 species; Cercaspis- 1species; Haplocercus-1 species;
Balanophis- 1 species) are recognized as that of serpentoid counterparts (Crusz,
1986; Greer, 1991).
Of the total herpetofaunal species in Sri Lanka, 61% of amphibians (33
species) and 55.4% of reptiles (86 species) have been identified as nationally
threatened (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2000).
Study area
Rekawa, Kalametiya-Lunama lagoon and Walawa estuary are situated in
the South-East coast of Sri Lanka (Figure 1). These sites lie between Godawaya
(N 06°06’26.2” E081°03’01.1”) and Tangalle (N6°02’19.7” E080°48’38.0”)
N
Walawa
Lunama & Klametiya
Figure 1. Map showing the study sites; Rekawa, Lunama & Kalametiya and Walawa.
177
Rekawa is situated on the border of the intermediate and dry climatic
zones on the southern coast of Sri Lanka. The prominent feature of the area is that
a large brackish water lagoon surrounded by the extensive mangrove vegetation,
which is the dominant vegetation, bordering the lagoon extending over an area of
about 250 hectares (Cooray, 1998).
The two interconnected brackish water lagoons, namely Kalametiya
(Kalametiya lagoon is mainly fresh water now) (606 ha) and Lunama (192 ha),
both lagoons are parts of the Kalametiya sanctuary. Along the coast there is a low
and narrow ridge of sand dunes separating the lagoons from the sea. The highest
point of the area is Ussangoda hill, which is 20m above the sea level, and 1 km
east of the Lunama Lagoon (CEA/Euro consult, 1995). Kalametiya lagoon can be
roughly be divided into a silted and well-vegetated northern section and a
southern part with open water surfaces. The northern section is only inundated
during high floods with a maximum water depth of 1.25m (CEA/Euro consult,
1995). Lunama lagoon does not open into the sea. The lagoon is very shallow with
a mean depth of 0.75m. It has a gently sloping bed, but in the south –west, the
bank rises more abruptly. The bottom is covered by a thick package of organic
matter and aquatic plants (CEA/Euro consult, 1995).
Walawa estuary is a special habitat for the many of the flora and fauna
found in the area. It makes different kinds of habits and vegetations types such as
mangrove, marshlands, and bogs. Before reaching to the sea, Walawa River is
running parallel with the sea from Godawaya to Welipatanwila. The special
feature of the estuary is that its mouth is opened to sea only during the rainy
seasons of the year.
This is a preliminary study of the herpetofauna diversity in Rekawa,
Kalametiya- Lunama and Walawa wetland areas. Being the first comparative
herpetofaunal study in the selected area this research will enable to gather
valuable baseline data. These eco-systems are highly fragmented and
overexploited by man. It is very useful to monitor environmental variables in such
a way that ecologists can detect environmental changes and relate the findings
with the changes in herpetofaunal populations. For example, if the salinity and
water level of a costal lagoon are recorded on a regular basis, an ecologist can
extrapolate whether a particular measurement is within the typical range of
fluctuations or a significant change has been occurred or being occurred based on
ecological parameters (Sutherland, 1996). Amphibians and reptiles are very
sensitive to the rapid environmental changes in the eco-systems (Pough et al,
2001); doing a survey on currently existing species of these taxa and obtaining
data on ecological parameters from respective habitats, the information gathered
would be applicable for the evaluation of different ecosystems in the area. Final
out put of the study can also be used in continues monitoring of the herpetological
diversity in the study area in future.
178
METETERIALS AND METHODS
The data on herpetofaunal species were gathered from 1st October 2002 to
31 March 2003 systematically. Field sampling was carried out every other week;
each sampling session spanned over six continuous days. Each selected site was
sampled in the morning, noon, evening and night throughout the study period in
order to avoid the time bias for a particular location in the case of transects.
Rekawa, Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa were the selected sites in the study
area. Sampling locations were selected in each site considering the accessibility,
representative habitats, special habitats and spatial distribution in the study area
through an initial reconnaissance survey.
st
Pit fall traps (Sutherland, 2000) -5 baskets of 12 liter each were set along a
belt transect at 20m x 5m. Traps were only activated for three days per a sampling
session and were searched in the early morning, noon and late evening. Direct
counts used for amphibians individuals at spawning sites in the study area was
often used (Sutherland, 2000). Night Sampling was carried out especially for the
survey of nocturnal herpetofauna in the study area. The sampling locations were
randomly selected and the special habitats were searched from 1900hrs to 2400hrs
using a spotlight. The time taken to study each location was dependant on the size
of the area. Visual Encounter Method was used for herpetofauna in each site in
the day and night (Wickramasinghe and Bambaradeniya, 2001). Belt Transect
(100m x 5m transect) was laid in the selected locations in the study sites. Each
transect was searched for a 2m height from the ground level. One replicate for
each transect was done in an analogous habitat (location). Visual Observation for
amphibians and reptiles, were observed during the sampling period. The total
number of herpetofaunal individuals recorded at each location throughout the
study period was taken into account for calculations.
Following guides and keys were used for the species identification and
nomenclature; for amphibians Dutta, Manamendra-Arachchi, (1996) and for
reptiles Deraniyagala, (1953). De Silva, (1980), Wall, (1921). Site-specific data
gathered during the survey was used to calculate Shannon Index. RESULTS
Methods distinct habitats were identified in the study area for the
herpetofaunal survey. The three study sites, Rekawa, Lunama-Kalametiya and
Walawa, supported 8, 9 and 10 different habitats types respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Selected different habitat in the three study sites.
Rekawa
Coastal Sand Dune
Coconut Plantation
Grassland
Home Garden
Mangrove Associated
Mangrove True
Paddy Field
Scrubland
Lunama- Kalametiya
Chena
Coastal Sand Dune
Grassland
Home Garden
Mangrove Associated
Mangrove True
Paddy Field
Reed Bed
Scrubland
179
Walawa
Casuarina
Coastal Sand Dune
Coconut Plantation
Grassland
Home garden
Mangrove Associated
Marshland
Paddy Field
Salt Marsh
Scrubland
The twenty six herpetofaunal families recorded in Sri Lanka, the study
area supported nineteen families. In Rekawa eight families of reptiles and three
families of amphibians were recorded. There were nine families of reptiles and
two families of amphibians recorded in Lunama-Kalametiya. The highest richness
of herpetofaunal families was recorded from the Walawa site, which include
families of reptile eleven and three families of amphibians (Table 2.).
Table 2. Herpetofaunal families recorded from the study sites.
* Present
- Absent
Family (recorded in Sri Lanka)
Reptiles
Crocodylidae
Dermochelyidae
Cheloniidae
Bataguridae
Testudinidae
Trionychidae
Agamidae
Chamaeleonidae
Gekkonidae
Lacertidae
Scincidae
Varanidae
Acrochordidae
Typhlopidae
Uropeltidae
Boidae
Colubridae
Elapidae
Hydrophiidae
Viperidae
Amphibians
Ichthyophiidae
Bufonidae
Microhylidae
Ranidae
Rekawa
Kalametiya-Lunama
Walawa
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
-
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
-
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
The study area represented 27% (15) amphibian and 25% (43) reptile
species of Sri Lanka (Figure 2). The most common amphibian species recorded
was Common Paddy field Frog (Limnonectes limnocharis) (242 individuals)
while Fan Throat Lizard (Sitana ponticeriana) was the most common reptile (62
individuals) recorded in the study area. A rare species of turtle namely
Leatherback Turtle (Dermochylus coreaceae) was observed in a sand dune in
Godawaya while Scaly-fingered Gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris) was also
recorded in Rekawa. of fifteen amphibians and fourty three reptiles recorded in
the study area, one species of amphibians and eight species of reptile are
considered as threatened according to the IUCN national red list (IUCN Sri
Lanka, 2000).
180
181
No.of Species
200
150
103
100
43
15
50
0
Amphibians
Reptiles
Sri Lanka
Study Area
Figure 2. Herpetofauna richness in the study area compared to Sri Lankan herpetofauna richness.
No.of Species
The number of amphibians recorded in the Rekawa, Lunama-Kalametiya
and Walawa were ten, six and fourteen species respectively (Figure 3). The
reptiles recorded in Rekawa, Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa were 12, 21and 29
species respectively (Fig. 3). The Shannon diversity index for Rekawa =0.176,
Lunama-Kalametiya =0.223 and Walawa =0.233. According to the Shannon
diversity index highest species diversity was recorded in the Walawa and the
lowest was in Rekawa.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Rekawa
KalametiyaLunama
Walawa
Site
Amphibians
Reptiles
Figure 3. Number of amphibians and reptiles species recorded from the different study sites.
181
Out of 38 endemic amphibian species recorded Sri Lankan Wood Frog
(Rana gracilis) was the only endemic amphibian found in the study area whereas
of 81 endamic reptile species recorded Common Lanka Skink (Lankascincus
fallax), Red Throat Little Skink (Sphenomorphus rufogulus), Lycodon osmanhilli,
Mabuya madaraszi and Common Pond Snake (Xenochorophis asperrimus) were
the endemic.
In all eleven different human impacts have been identified as possible
threats to herpetofauna in the study area (Table 3.). Clearance of habitats for
various needs including settlements, cultivations and industrial developments has
affected the vegetation types of the area resulting in habitat fragmentation.
Specific threats such as collecting turtle eggs, intentional killing of snakes and
discriminate use of fishing nets contribute for direct loss of herpetofauna. A
remarkable number of road kills occurred during late hours especially in the rainy
season. However, Lunama-Kalametiya site has severely affected by human
interferences compared to other study sites. Following table summarizes the
threats to herpetofauna in different sites.
Table 3. Comparative severity of identified threats to herpetofauna in different sites.
Degree of human interference; - Nil + low
++ moderate
Threat
Rekawa
+++ high ++++ very high
LunamaKalametiya
Walawa
Clearance of habitats
+
+++
Shell mining.
-
++++
-
Coral Mining
++++
-
-
Poorly planned irrigation systems
++
+++
-
++
Discriminate use of agro-chemicals
+
++
++
Feral livestock
+
+++
+
Collection of turtle eggs
+
++++
++++
Intentional Killing
+
++
+
Fishing activities
+
+++
++
Highway accidents
+
+++
+
Spread of alien species
+
++++
+++
DISCUSSION
The reptile fauna of the area occupies a wide range of ecological niches,
such as sea (eg: turtles and sea snakes), freshwater (eg: terrapins and mugger
crocodile), ground surface (eg: star tortoise and cobra), trees (eg: geckoes and
green vine snake and green garden lizard) and soil (eg: Skins). Amphibians are
also distributed in every niche except the sea & lagoon (Limnonectes limnocharis
being aquatic, Polypedates maculatus being arboreal, Bufo fergusonii being
terrestrial and Sphaerotheca rolandea being fossorial.)
Some amphibian species such as Bufo fergusonii, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
and Limnonectes limnocharis were very common in the study area while some
were comparatively rare species such as (Uperodon systoma, Kaloula
taprobanica, Philautus leucorhinus and Sphaerotheca rolandea.) When taking
tetrapod reptiles in to the account, Varanus bengalensis, V. salvator and Calotes
182
versicolor were the most common species. Sitana ponticeriana was only recorded
in Walawa study site restricted to a few habitats viz coconut and casuarina
plantations and sand dunes. Dermochylus coreaceae, Crocodylus palustris,
Lepidodactylus lugubris and Mabuya madaraszi were comparatively rare in the
study sites. Discussions with the villagers led to conclude that D. coreaceae
prefers sand dunes of Walawa rather than other sites as the area is relatively less
affected by human disturbances. Python molurus, Xenochrophis asperrimus and
Lycodon osmanhilli were also rare in the area and X. Piscator was the most
abundant snake in the study sites.
A survey on biodiversity status profile of Bundala national park conducted
by Bambaradeniya et al (2002) revealed fifteen amphibians (1 sp. endemic) and
forty eight reptiles (6 spp. endemic) of which one amphibian and thirteen species
of and reptiles were listed as nationally threatened. It is interesting to note that
Bundala being the closest national park and the wetland to the study area, to have
an almost similar herpetofaunal richness.
The diverse habitat types (n=10) in the Walawa river might be the
possible reason for a higher diversity in the site. A new sight record of an endemic
amphibian, Sri Lanka Wood Frog (Rana gracilis), was recorded from a home
garden and from a casuarina plantation in Walawa. Another rare observation was
made in Godawaya (Walawa) beach; a female leatherback turtle (Dermochelys
coreaceae) in December 2002.
Sixteen sea snakes are recorded from the coastal waters around Sri Lanka.
Hydrophis cynocinctus, H. gracilis, H. Spiralis were common in Walawa.
According to fishermen’s experience, abundance of these sea snakes can vary
with the season. It is also worth to note that all the individuals found in the study
were by catches from fishing nets.
A previous study conducted in Lunama and Kalametiya reported thirty
eight species of reptiles and there were no information on amphibians. These
include fifteen serpentoids and twenty three tetrapod; ten species were endemic
while twenty three species were nationally threatened (CEA/Euro consult, 1995).
The same has recorded Bungarus ceylonicus, Crocodylus porosus, Calodactylodes
illingworthorum, Cyrtodactylus sp., Hemidactylus depressus, Calotes, Dasia
helianus, Mabuya beddomei, M. bibronii, which the present study could not
record.
The lowest herpetofaunal diversity was recorded from Rekawa (Fig.3).
Five species of marine turtles (Dermochelys coriacea, Caretta, Lepidochelys
olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia mydas) are recorded in Rekawa
(De Silva, 1997) but during the study period C. mydas was the only turtle
observed. There are few studies have been conducted for sea turtles in the area.
Out of the total individuals of turtles nest in Rekawa beach, 93.4% was C. mydas,
5% was D. Coriacea and 1.6% was C. Caretta during a three months period
May-July 1994 (Cooray, 1998).
183
In Sri Lanka, mangroves are found scattered mainly along the north-western,
north-eastern and eastern coasts bordering lagoons and river estuaries (De Silva
and De Silva, 1998). The mangrove habitats support to accommodate vast number
of fauna and flora and it gives many valuable products and uses such as tannin,
lime, animal feed, medicine, food and beverages, firewood and timber and brush
pile for lagoon fishery industry (Pinto, 1986). Most of mangrove forest areas have
been subjected to human interference for a long time. As a result of human
interference, Walawa, Lunama-Kalametiya sanctuary and Rekawa have been
profoundly affected by the clearance of these mangrove habitats and associated
vegetations for human settlements, chena cultivations and shell mining. Vast areas
of undisturbed natural scrublands have been cleared for the establishment of an
industrial zone in the Bata-Atha area, which is an important habitat for many rare
herpetofaunal species such as Calliophis melanurus, Geochelone elegans etc.
(pers.obs). In Walawa, coastal sand dunes and scrublands have been cleared for a
coconut plantation and this can adversely affect the marine turtles which arrive at
the beach in search for nesting habitats. A mangrove patch in Lunama area has
been cleared for illegal shell mining. As a result of shell mining, large pits are
created in the habitat and this has become a major problem for certain ground
dwelling herpetofaunal species especially for terrapins and tortoises. Besides the
direct habitat loss, species get trapped in these pits and eventually die.
Fragmentation of habitats results in edges (Hunter, 1990) and this could be
a major problem for the survival of herpetofauna species in the area. According to
Hunter,(1990) certain species need large tracts of interior forests to outlive and
edges might be detrimental for them in which competition, parasitism and
predation could be higher and thus problematic. Due to human activities on these
habitats the quality of composition and structure of the vegetation is lost and it has
a direct impact on the abundance of herpetofauna. From a research on the effect of
forest structure on amphibian abundance and diversity in the Chicago region,
scientists have concluded that a high quality forest supports higher species
richness and diversity than a low quality forest (Nuzzo and Mierzwa, 2000).
Presence of appreciable sea grass beds, coral reefs, lagoons etc along the
coastal waters around the island provide ample feeding localities for turtles (De
Silva, 1997) and sea snakes (Allen and Steen, 1994). Illegal coral mining in the
Rekawa coast line results in lost of feeding, breeding and nesting habitats for
many sea snakes and marine turtles.
Establishment of poorly planned irrigation systems in Lunama-Kalametiya
area brings silt, agro-chemicals and garbage in to the lagoons and ultimately the
drainage is directed to the sea and as a result coral habitats are polluted.
Fishing activities, specially netting, cause direct injuries to the turtles and
sea snakes following being trapped. A study on the effect of fishing on turtle
populations (Jinadasa,1984) has showed that the sea turtles in the whole stretch of
shore from Ambalangoda to Kalpitiya are caught unintentionally about 4-5
individuals per week during the heavy fishing seasons (non monsoon) and about 1
individual during the poor fishing season (monsoon). He further concludes the
number caught for the entire country could be about 12 to 15 individuals per week
during heavy fishing season and 3 individuals per week during poor fishing
184
season. Not only such fishing activities, but also collecting eggs and slaughtering
for human consumption are the other threats pertaining to marine turtle
populations (Santhiapillai, 2000, Wickremasinghe, 1981). This problem can be
minimized by educating the villagers, fisherman and school children of the
respective areas.
Spread of alien invasive species is among the various threats to the
biodiversity of Sri Lanka (Bambaradeniya, 2001b). Lunama-Kalametiya and
Rekawa lagoons have been threatened by the distribution of Prosopis juliflora
primarily and also by Opuntia dillenii and Eichhornia crassipes.The siltation
decreases lagoon capacity and finally silted area is invaded by these
monocultures. Due to large herds of cattle and feral buffalo in Ussangoda
grassland and scrublands in Ussangoda and Kalametiya, habitat destruction is
maximal. Soil erosion and disturbance to the vegetation are the direct results of
unlimited grazing and physical damage caused by the hooves.
Major and minor roads running through wetlands cause numerous road
kills of diverse herpetofauna species. X. piscator, V. bengalensis and L.
limnocharis were the most common species subjected to road kills. Such incidents
were recorded more during the rainy season and often wetlands and paddy fields
were the associate habitats found besides the roads (Rodrigo et. al., 2003;
Bambaradeniya et. al., 2001).
Some of the recommendations made for conservation of the herpetofauna
in the area was; 1. Development schemes proposed in the area should be
preplanned in order to minimize habitat destruction and to maintain habitats in a
sustainable manner. 2. Mangrove reforestation can be implemented in the lagoons
and estuaries of the area. 3. Awareness programs should be conducted for
villagers and school children regarding every aspect of conservation (including
herpetofauna and pertaining legislations). 4. Sign boards regarding animal
crossing areas and underground tunnels connecting habitats on either side of the
roads should be set to minimize the road kills.
Acknowledgments
Dr. Nayana Kariyawasam, the coordinator research project, the open
university of Sri Lanka is acknowledged for support and encouragement. Our
colleagues, Mr. Rohan Wasantha, Mr. Chamil Perera, Mr. Dayantha Withanage,
Miss Rumesha Perera and Mr. Hasantha Sanjeewa are gratefully acknowledged
for their generous support given during fieldwork. Mr. L.J. Mendis
Wickramasinghe helped me in numerous ways during the research period thus; a
special gratitude goes to him.
This study was carried out as a part of a systematic biodiversity
assessment project conducted in Rekawa/Ussangoda/Kalametiya coastal
ecosystems by the IUCN Sri Lanka, funded by the Global Environment Facility
program of the UNDP.
185
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188
APPENDIX 1. Habitat, site, relative abundance and status of amphibians in the study are.
Habitat: Ca= Casuarina Plantation; Ch= Chena; Co= Coconut Plantation; Cs= Coastal Sand Dune; Ho= Home Garden; Ma=
Marshland; Mn= Mangrove; Pa= Paddy Field; Sc= Scrubland; Sm= Salt Marsh.
Area: R=Rekawa; LK=Lunama-Kalametiya; W=Walawa Estuary.
Relative Abundance: VC=Very Common; C=Common; UC=Uncommon; R=Rare; VR=Very Rare.
Status in National Red List 1999: TR=Threatened
* Endemic species
Family
Bufonidae
Microhylidae
Ranidae
Scientific Name
Bufo fergusonii
Bufo melanostictus
Uperodon systoma
Microhyla ornata
Microhyla rubra
Kaloula taprobanica
Sphaerotheca breviceps
Sphaerotheca rolandae
Limnonectes limnocharis
Hoplobatrachus crassus
Rana gracilis*
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctic
Euphlyctis hexadactylus
Polypedates maculatus
Philautus leucorhinus
Commom Name
Ferguson's Dwarf Toad
Common Toad
Baloon Frog
Ornate Narrow- mouthed Frog
Red Narrow-mouthed Frog
Common Bull Frog
Banded Sand Frog
Marbled Sand Frog
Common Paddy Field Frog
Indian Bull Frog
Sri Lankan Wood Frog
Skipper Frog
Six-toed Green Frog
Chunam Tree-Frog
-
Habitat
Sm, Ho, Ma, Co, Ch & Mn
Ca & Ho
Sm
Ma, Co & Pa
Co
Ho & Co
Co, Ho & Sc
Gs
Ma, Ho, Sc, Pa & Mn
Sc, Ho, Gs & Pa
Ho & Ca
Ho, Pa, Ma, Sc, Mn, Gs & Ch
P, Sc & Ho
Gs
Sm
189
Area
W, LK & R
W
W&R
W&R
R
W, R & K
W & Ka
W&R
W, LK & R
W, K & R
W
W, LK & R
W, LK & R
K
W
Relative Abundance
VC
C
UC
C
UC
UC
C
UC
VC
C
VR
VC
C
C
VR
Status in National Red List
TR
-
APPENDIX 2. Habitat, site, relative abundance and status of reptiles in the study are.
Habitat: Ca=Casuarina Plantation; Ch= Chena; Co= Coconut Plantation; Cs= Coastal
Sand Dune; Ho= Home Garden; Ma= Marshland; Mn= Mangrove; Pa= Paddy Field; Ri=
Riverine Vegetation; S=Sea; Sc= Scrubland; Sm= Salt Marsh
Area: R=Rekawa; LK=Lunama-Kalametiya; W=Walawa Estuary.
Relative Abundance: VC=Very Common; C=Common; UC=Uncommon; R=Rare;
VR=Very Rare.
Status in National Red List 1999: TR=Threatened
* Endemic species
Family
Crocodylidae
Trionychidae
Bataguridae
Testudinidae
Cheloniidae
Scientific Name
Crocodylus palustris
Lissemys punctata
Melanochelys trijuga
Geochelone elegans
Chelonia mydas
Lepidochelys olivacea
Dermochelys coriacea
Commom Name
Mugger
Flap Shell Turtle
Parker's Black Turtle
Star Tortoise
Green Turtle
Olive Ridley Sea Turtle
Leatherback Turtle
Varanidae
Varanus salvator
Varanus bengalensis
Water Monitor
Land Monitor
Agamidae
Calotes versicolor
Sitana ponticeriana
Heidactylus frenatus
Hemidactylus brookii
Hemidactylus triedrus
Hemidactylus leshenaulti
Gehyra mutilata
Lepidodactylus lugubris
Mabuya carinata
Mabuya macularia
Mabuya madaraszi*
Lankascincus fallax*
Riopa punctata
Sphenomorphus rufogulus*
Python molurus
Ahaetulla nasutus
Amphiasma stolata
Atretium schistosum
Boiga trigonata
Cerberus rhynchops
Dendrelaphis tristis
Lycodan aulicus
Lycodon osmanhilli*
Lycodon striata
Oligodon arnensis
Ptyas mucosa
Xenochorophis asperrimus*
Xenochorophis piscator
Bungarus caeruleus
Hydrophis cynocinctus
Hydrophis gracilis
Hydrophis spiralis
Naja Naja
Daboia russelii
Common Garden Lizard
Fan Throated Lizard
Common House Gecko
Spotted House Gecko
Termite Hill Gecko
Bark Gecko
Four Claw Gecko
Scaly Finger Gecko
Common Skink
Bronze Green Little Skink
Spotted Skink
Common Lanka Skink
Dotted Garden Skink
Red Throat Little Skink
Indian Python
Green Vine Snake
Buff-Striped Keelback
The Olive Keelback
Gamma Cat Snake
Dog faced Water Snake
Common Bronzeback
The Common Wolf Snake
Osmanhill’s Wolf Snake
Shaw's Wolf Snake
Kukri Snake
The Common Rat Snake
Commom Pond Snake
Checkered Keelback
The Common Indian Krait
The Chittul
John's Sea Snake
The Narrow Banded Sea Snake
Cobra
Russell's Viper
Dermochelyidae
Gekkonidae
Scincidae
Boidae
Colubridae
Elapidae
Viperidae
190
Habitat
Ri
Mn, Ma, Gs & Pa
Pa & Mn
Sc & Ma
Cs
S
Cs
Ca, Cs, Ma, Mn, Sc, Ho,
P & Pa
Sc, Gs, Mn, Ho & Ch
Ho, Co, Ca, Cs, Mn, Sc &
Ch
Co, Ca & Cs
Ho, Co, Sc & Ch
Ho
Gs & Sc
Mn
Ho
Ho
Ca, Co & Ho
Sc
Ho
Ho
Ch
Ho
Ho & Sc
Ho
Pa & Ho
Pa
Ho
Mn
Mn & Sc
Sc
Gs
Ho & Sc
Sc
Pa & Sc
Mn & Ma
Pa & Ma
Pa
S
S
S
Ho & Pa
Pa & Ho
Area
W
W, LK & R
LK
W
R
W
W
Relative Abundance
R
C
UC
R
C
C
VR
Status in
TR
TR
TR
TR
-
W, LK,& R
W, LK,& R
VC
VC
-
W, LK,& R
W
W, LK,& R
W
LK & R
LK & R
K
R
W, LK & R
W
LK
W
LK
W
R
W, LK & R
W
LK
W
W
LK
LK
W
W & LK
W & LK
W & LK
W, LK & R
W & LK
LK
W
W
W
W & LK
LK
VC
C
VC
VC
C
UC
UC
VR
C
UC
VR
UC
UC
VR
VR
UC
UC
R
C
UC
UC
R
VR
R
UC
UC
VR
C
UC
C
VR
C
UC
UC
TR
TR
TR
TR
-
EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FLORA AND FAUNA OF YALA AND
BUNDALA NATIONAL PARKS IN SOUTHERN SRI LANKA
S.P. SAMARAKOON*
Department of Botany, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
An attempt was made in 2003 to identify the climate variability and its effects on flora and fauna
in Hambantota. The objectives of the study were (1) to extract the patterns of climate variability, (2)
to construct a “Climate Trend Diagram (CTD)” and (3) to study the effect of climate change on flora
and fauna.
Rainfall and temperature data (1869 - 2002) were collected from Colombo Meteorological
Department and analyzed using Statistical Packages to find the cycles of relatively similar patterns
and trend lines for each cycle. Information on flora and fauna were collected from desk-top studies,
and field visits.
The mean annual rainfall and temperature at Hambantota were 1022.4 mm, and 27.10C
respectively. Generally, the rainfall was declining and temperature was increasing since 1970s.
November showed the highest rainfall of 183.1 mm and the driest months were February, July,
and August. The actual rainfall and the mean temperature showed patterns of climatic cycles of 16years and 6-years respectively. Since 1970s, the CTD showed that the mean annual temperature has
been increasing and the rainfall decreasing.
Presumably, the prolonged drought has decreased ground water and increased scrub species.
Plants and animals, which have relatively higher demand for water, were the most threatened
species. The long-term effects of climate change were reflected by forest die-back, and spread of
woody weeds in Bundala and Yala National Parks.
INTRODUCTION
According to the information available throughout the history it is apparent that
the climate of different parts of the earth has been changing and such changes are
generally referred to as natural climate changes or more precisely climate variability
(IPCC, 2001; IPCC, 2004). Usually these changes occur in the atmosphere, but the
effects of such changes affect on other environmental components including both biotic
and a-biotic parts. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (United
Nations, 1992; Orlando, and Smeardon, 1999) defines climate change as "a change of
climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods”. Atmosphere is an essential part of
the physical and chemical environment for life. Changes, anthropogenic or otherwise, to
the physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere have the potential of affecting
directly the quality of life and even the very existence of life. Climate generally defined
as the pattern or cycle of weather conditions such as wind, rain, snowfall, humidity, and
clouds, including extreme or occasional ones, over a large area, averaged over many
years. During the past century or so with the increased use of mineral oils and emission
of green house gases and the destruction of natural environment the man has been
identified as the major factor behind the change in natural climatic changes. Sri Lanka as
an island country in the tropics, its vulnerability to the effect of global climatic changes
191
such as increased atmospheric temperature becomes serious. This is especially true for
Hambantota area (South Eastern corner of the island) compared to other areas of the
country because of its inherent dry, high temperature and low rainfall situation despite its
ancient historical settlements (Perera, 1965). The present study is aimed to identify the
climate variability patterns and the advent of the serious anthropogenic modern climate
change and the vulnerability of flora, and fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks in
Hambantota District to the drastic effects of climate changes.
OBJECTIVES
(1) To study the patterns of climate variability since 1869-2002 in Hambantota Area.
Hambantota has weather recordings of rainfall and temperature since the year 1869.
Although daily maximum and minimum temperatures appear more serious effects on the
vegetation and fauna for most of the period only mean temperature values are available;
mean monthly temperature gives only marginal understanding of the effects while annual
mean gives still less representation of the real temperature variation.
(2) To identify and extract rainfall and temperature cycles for Hambantota District.
(3) To study the variation of rainfall and temperature trend lines for each of the climate
cycle.
(4) To construct a pictorial representation of both monthly rainfall and temperature
continuous variability for 134 years from January 1869 to December 2002.
(5) To identify the advent of major climate change in Hambantota.
(6) To study the effect of climate change on flora and fauna of National Parks of
Hambantota Area.
192
Extraction of climate cycles using mean monthly rainfall and temperature (continuous) in
Hambantota
Monthly rainfall and temperature data of Hambantota were collected from
Colombo Meteorological Department for the period from 1869 to 2002. These data were
analyzed using SPSS Statistical Package and Microsoft Excel to find the patterns of
monthly changes, mean individual monthly changes, continuous monthly changes and
patterns of annual changes. Periods (cycles) of relatively similar variability patterns for
rainfall and temperature were extracted.
Climate cycle trend lines
For each climate cycle the trend lines were drawn using the Excel Programme to
show the climate trends.
Construction of climate trend diagram
Using the extracted rainfall and temperature trend lines a “Climate Trend
Diagram” was constructed for Hambantota.
The effect of climate change on flora and fauna of the national parks
Information on flora and fauna of the Yala and Bundala National Parks was
collected as follows:
i. Desk-top studies of the previous work:
For the desk-top study information were collected from (a) the Department of
Wildlife, and (b) my previous studies of the area and (c) Interviewing the relevant
personnel of the park.
ii. Field studies of the different areas of the national Parks
The changes in the botanical and faunal composition during the recent past (! 990
- 2002) were noted. Special attention was paid to study the spread of woody weeds, forest
die-back and the presence of large herds of domesticated and feral cattle in the park area.
Information regarding the vulnerability of flora and fauna to changing climate and
potential climate related problems were collected through the historical and field studies
of the occurrence of wild fire, spread of woody weeds (Lantana camara, Prosopis
juliflora), possibility of the spread of giant panic grass (Panicum maximum), forest
dieback (Manilkara hexandra, Drypetes sepiaria, Salvadora persica, and availability of
water, changes in the botanical composition, and encroachment of the parks by the feral
cattle and buffaloes.
The Climate Trend Diagram was used to identify the human influenced climate
change in Hambantota. The points of deviation from the normal patterns of variation in
the rainfall and temperature cycles were considered as the points of the commencement
of severe human influence on the climate variability.
193
Analysis of climate data
Descriptive statistics
The central tendencies in terms of the mean and the dispersion in terms of range,
minimum and maximum values, standard deviation and variance are shown in the Table
1. With a mean of 183 mm the month of November showed the highest rainfall at
Hambantota, followed by December (128 mm) and October (127 mm).
Since 1869 the minimum, maximum and mean values of monthly rainfall at
Hambantota in October, November and December were 1, 10, 2 (mm); 564, 472, 486;
and 127, 183, and 128 (mm) respectively (Table 1). In all the other months the mean
rainfall were less than 100 mm and the lowest rainfall were experienced in the months of
February, July and August with less thank 50 mm.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for rainfall (mm) data (1869 - 2002) Hambantota
Month
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
TOTAL
Minimum
mm
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
10
2
489
Maximum
mm
376
273
258
333
512
235
224
214
452
564
472
486
2063
Mean
mm
83
44
63
92
93
59
44
46
64
127
183
128
1013
Standard
Error
6
4
5
5
7
4
4
4
6
8
8
7
21
Standard
Deviation
74
50
55
62
85
49
44
42
65
92
95
85
247
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for temperature (0C) data (1869 - 2002) Hambantota
Month
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
Minimum
(0C)
24.7
24.0
25.8
25.7
25.8
25.2
25.6
25.9
26.2
25.6
25.4
24.6
Maximum
(0C)
32.4
33.2
33.7
34.1
34.5
34.4
34.1
33.8
33.2
33.1
32.5
31.9
Mean
(0C)
26.6
27.0
27.8
28.4
28.5
28.2
28.3
28.1
27.9
27.7
27.2
26.6
Classification of months and years based on rainfall data
194
Standard
Deviation
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.7
(a) Classification of cases (years)
The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical analysis of the mean annual rainfall
and temperature data of Hambantota (1869-1980) did not show meaningful cluster
separation.
(b) Classification of variables (months)
The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical cluster analysis to classify the
variables (months) using the mean monthly rainfall data of Hambantota (1869-1980) is
shown in the Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Classification of months based on the rainfall data
Based on mean monthly rainfall the variables (months) can be classified into 4 groups
and 7 cycles (spells) as follows:
Group 1: February, March. June, July, August, and September (44-64 mm of rainfall):
Two cycles (spells) of drought,
(a) February and March, and (b) June, July, August, and September
Group 2: January, April, and May (83-93 mm of rainfall): Two cycles (spells) with
Moderate rainfall (a) January, and (b) April and May
195
Group 3: October and December (127-128 mm of rainfall): Two cycles (spells) with High
rainfall (a) October, and (b) December
Group 4: November (183 mm of rainfall): One cycle with very high rainfall
Classification of months and years based on temperature data
The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical cluster analysis to classify the
variables (months) using the mean monthly temperature data of Hambantota (1869-1980)
is shown in the Figure 2.
******HIERARCHICALCLUSTER ANALYSIS******
Dendrogram using Average Linkage (Between Groups)
Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine
Figure 2. Classification of months based on the mean monthly temperature data
Based on mean monthly temperature the variables (months) can be classified into 3
groups and 7 cycles (spells) as follows:
Group 1: November, December, January, February (26.6-27.2 0C):
One cycle (spell) of mild temperature
Group 2: March, August, September, October (27.7 – 28.1 0C): Two cycles (spells) with
Moderately high temperature (a) March, and (b) August, September, and October
Group 3: April May, June, and July (28.1– 28.5 0C): One cycle (spell) of high
Temperature
On the other hand the minimum mean temperatures were recorded for the months of
November, December and January and maximum means for May, April, July, June and
196
August (Table 2). As such under the influence of low rainfall and the high temperatures
the driest months in Hambantota are June and July followed by August and September.
Rainfall patterns
(a) Mean Annual Rainfall
Except around the 9th Year (1877), generally the graph of mean annual rainfall
looked somewhat arc-like (Figure 3). About 85% of the peaks appeared above the 1000
mm rainfall line and one peak has risen above the 2000 mm level. About 5 years
(approximately 11% of the years) the rainfall had been very low (the inverted peaks).
Generally, the shape of the curve showed that the rainfall had been declining during the
last 30 years (from about the year number 100) or so indicating a severe long drought in
Hambantota.
Figure 3. Mean annual rainfall of Hambantota plotted against year.
(b) Mean Continuous Monthly Rainfall (January 1869 to December 2002)
Figure 4. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1869-2002) plotted against number of the month
When monthly rainfall was plotted against the number of the month starting from
January 1869 and ending at December 2002 some interesting patterns were resulted
(Figure 4-11). The month number 69 (1874 November) showed a high peak of more than
300 mm of rainfall. Similarly, the graph showed a general pattern of recurrence of high
rainfall over 200 mm, which had a cycle of approximately 25months. The frequency of
the rainfalls over 300 mm is approximately 30 years.
An interesting observation of Figures 4-11 is that the overall monthly variation of
rainfall has distinct units of periods with consistent duration of 192 months (16 years
approximately). The overall trend line of rainfall during the period (monthly values from
the year 1869 to 2002) was neither positive nor negative (Figure 4). A long band of
rainfall spectrum was used to extract rainfall cycles (
) which are shown in the
concise diagram.
197
198
Figure 9. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1970-1994)
Figure 10. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1995-2002)
199
Temperature patterns
Monthly temperature values were plotted against the number of the month starting
from January 1869 and ending at December 2002 and the results are presented in the
Figure 3.8. An interesting observation of it is that the overall monthly variation of
temperature has distinct units of periods with consistent duration of 75 months (6 years
approximately). The overall temperature trend line during the period (monthly values
from the year 1869 to 2002) was positive. As for rainfall data a long band of temperature
spectrum was used to extract temperature cycles (Figure 3.9). Temperature variation
patterns for 25 year periods are shown in figures from 3.9 - 3.14 sequentially. Each
temperature cycle has its own inherent features however apparently the duration is the
same (6-years).
Figure 11. Continuous monthly mean temperature of Hambantota (1969-2002)
Figure 12. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1869-1894)
200
201
Construction of climate trend diagram (Figure 4)
As noted in the previous sections, after careful observations of the rainfall and
temperature graphs it was possible to extract patterns of climatic cycles. It was found that
there was a conspicuous rainfall cycle which occurred in 16-year (192 months) periods.
Similarly, the continuous monthly temperature curve suggests temperature cycles of
approximately 6-year (75 months) duration. Within a cycle, either rainfall or temperature,
there was more or less a similar pattern of fluctuations. For each cycle a graph (rainfall in
mm verses month, and temperature 0C verses month) was plotted and the trend of each
graph (positive, negative, or neutral) was extracted and such trend lines were used to
construct the Climate Trend Diagram (CTD). Climate data of all main climate stations
were analyzed and a climate diagram for each was constructed in the previous studies of
the variability of climate of Sri Lanka (Mueller-Dombois, 1968). However, the use of
climate trend lines in the present study appears to be a new approach to obtain more
information using monthly data of 133 years.
202
The main features of the CTD (Figure 4) were as follows:
(1) Left vertical line (Y axis) represents monthly rainfall (2 cm = 100 mm),
(2) Right vertical line (Y axis) represents mean monthly temperature (1 cm = 1 0C),
(3) Lower horizontal line (X-axis) represents time in months since the year 1869. It is
graduated in temperature cycles of approximately 6 years (75 months), and
(4) Upper horizontal line (X-axis) represents time in months since the year 1869. It is
graduated in rainfall cycles of approximately 16 years (192 months).
The diagram clearly shows that during the last 30 years the rainfall has been decreasing
(the thick trend lines) and the temperature increasing (the thin trend lines) in Hambantota,
an indication of severe drought in the area; further the temperature trend line has
surpassed the rainfall trend line during the last 10 years. Such a situation may be directly
attributable to humanly influenced climate change during that period, rather than natural
climatic variations. Although rainfall trend line was horizontal during the last cycle the
good news is that the raw data suggests a slightly positive trend since 1997 up to the
present days (not shown in the diagrams).
Figure 4 Climate (rainfall and temperature) Trend Diagram (CTD) for Hambantota
showing the variation of climate through the last 133 years from 1869 to 2002.
Figure 18. Climate (rainfall and temperature) Trend Diagram (CTD) for Hambantota
203
Effect of climate change on flora and fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks
Principal habitats and vegetation in Yala and Bundala of and Hambantota
In Yala and Bundala National Parks the principal habitat types present are (1)
dense forests, (2) open forests, (3) scrub forests, (4) grasslands, (5) fresh water tanks, (6)
lagoons, and (7) sand dunes (Survey Department, 1988). Grasslands in the area are of two
types, viz., Pitiyas, which occur usually around the Wewa (artificial tanks) and Pelessas
associated with open forests and mainly located towards the coastal belt in areas such as
the Block I and Yala east (Samarakoon, 1997, 1998). Closed canopy dense forests in
Yala National Park are generally located in the northern areas (Block IV and V) and
along the banks of River Menik, and Kumbukkan Oya (Riverine forests) (Samarakoon,
1998). In Bundala closed canopy dense forests are not found and its forests are either the
open canopy type or the scrub type. It was found that certain forests and grasslands
habitats in Bundala National Park are changing at a faster rate due to introduction of
serious alian weedy species (Mesquite and Lantana) coupled with sea level rise as a result
of global climate change. Mesquite has already conquered many low-lying areas
replacing the fringe mangroves in lagoons and the natural vegetation in the grassland
park country around the lagoons. As a result a large number of previously grassland type
and deciduous type scrub forest habitats with a grassland component (Pelessa) have been
changed into a more or less closed canopy single species thorny forest, which is usually
devoid of a grass cover on the ground. Despite the fact that mesquite is a palatable
species browsed by the elephants and deer the presence of large thorns gives it a negative
value; on the other hand the changed habitat does not produce sufficient feed material for
the domesticated buffaloes and neat cattle. It appears the end results are: 1) migration of
the domesticated grazing animals into the grasslands in the Yala National Park causing
severe problems to wild animals, and 2) human elephant conflict.
Flora of Yala and Bundala National Parks
Within the park a total of about 280 species of flowering plants have been
recorded representing large trees, shrubs, and herbs. A list of common trees and shrubs
found in the Yala and Bundala National Parks is shown in the Table 3. In the present
study a total of 9 tree species and 8 shrubs species were noted as commonly found in the
two parks. It was noted that Lantana camara has penetrated into the deep forests, almost
every part of Yala and Bundala, and has become the dominant thorny shrub particularly
in the scrub forest habitats. Its presence and dominance especially in the open forest areas
has displaced the natural shrub species which are a major component of the herbage eaten
by the large mammals including the elephant. It has, during the last century, changed the
botanical composition of the flora and the habitats of the park country.
204
Table 3. List of common trees and shrubs in Yala and Bundala National Parks
* Not in Bundala and coastal areas of Yala
Species
Vernacular
name
Trees
Chloroxylon swietenia*
Vitex pinnata
Manilkara hexandra
Drypetes sepiaria
Feronia limoponica
Azardracta indica
Tamarindus indica
Berrya cordifolia*
Terminalia arjuna
Burutha
Milla
Palu
Weera
Divul
Kohomba
Siyambala
Halmilla
Kumbuk
Species
Vernacular name
Shrubs
Cassia auriculata
Salvadora persica
Carissa spinarum
Randia dumetorum
Gymnema sylvestre
Securiniga leucopyrus
Lantana camara
Prosopis juliflora
Ranawara
Maliththan
Karamba
Kukuruman
Mas-bedda
Katupila
Gandapana (Weed)
Mesquite (Weed)
Fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks
Animal numbers were obtained from the Yala and Bundala National Parks and the
department of Wildlife Conservation in Colombo. Of the large mammals highest number
estimated is for the spotted deer (5,205) and the lowest for leopard and sloth bear (Table
4). In the whole of Yala Protected Areas Complex (YPC) the estimated number of
elephants is a meager 319. In addition to the large animals the author has observed many
cattle (neat type), mostly domesticated, are grazing within the YPC. Lists of other
mammals, birds and other animals are given in the Table 5.
Table 4. Large mammals and their numbers in Yala Protected Area Complex
Source: Department of Wildlife Conservation
Scientific name
Vernacular Name
Elephas maximus
Bubalus bubalis
Cervus unicolor
Axis axis
Sus scropfa
Panthera pardus kotiya
Melurus ursinus
Elephant
Buffalo
Sambur
Spotted deer
Pig
Leopard
Sloth Bear
205
Estimated
number in the
YPC
319
1,749
898
5,205
637
124
125
Table 5. List of the other mammals, birds (including the migratory ones), and other animals
commonly found in Yala and Bundala National Parks.
Scientific name
Mammals:
Loris tardigradus
Canis aurius
Tragulis meminna
Vivericula indica
Canis aurius
Prebites entellus
Paradoxurus
zeylonensis
Manis crassicaudata
Histrix indica
Lepus negricollis
singhala
Other Animals:
Testudo elegance
Calotes versicolor
Calotes calotes
Calotes ceylonensis
Varanus bengalensis
Varanus salvator
Lankascinus fallax
Python molurus
Crocodilus palustris
Crocodilus porosus
Bufo athukoralei
Limnonectes greenii
Vernacular Name
Una-hapuluwa
Nariya
Miminna
Urulawa
Hiwala
Wandura
Kalawedda
Kaballawa
Ittawa
Hawa
Taraka-ibba
Gara-katussa
Pala-katussa
Thola-visithurukatussa
Thala-goya
Kabara-goya
Dumburu-hiraluwa
Pimbura
Kimbula
Geta-kimbula
Athukoralagekurugemba
Lanka-welmediya
Scientific name
Birds:
Gallus lafayetti
Galloperdix
bicalcarata
Ephippiorhynchus
asiaticus
Letoptilosjavanicus
Pelecanus
phillipensis
Phalacrocorax niger
Mycteria
leucocephala
Bubulcus ibis
Egretta garzetta
Mesophoyx
intermedia
Casmerodius albus
Ardeola grayii
Migratory Birds:
Tringa hypoleucos
Dendronanthus
indicus
Limosa limosa
Pitta brachyura
Pluvialis fulva
Phoenicopterus
ruber
206
Vernacular
Name
Wali-kukula
Haban-kukula
Ali-manawa
Bahurumanawa
Alu-pastuduwa
Diya-kawa
Latu-wekiya
Gawa-koka
Kuda-ali-koka
Sudu-medikoka
Maha-sudukoka
Kana-koka
Silibilla
Helapenda
Penda-kalugohonduwithth
a
Awichchiya
Ranmahaolevia
Siyakkaraya
Vulnerability of flora and fauna
Demand for water
A list of major plant and animal species found in the area which demand relatively more water for
their sustenance is shown in the Table 6.
Table 6. List of major plant and animal species considered having high demand for water.
Scientific name
Plants:
Vitex pinnata
Manilkara
hexandra
Drypetes sepiaria
Azardracta indica
Tamarindus indica
Terminalia arjuna
Vernacular
name
Milla
Palu
Scientific name
Animals:
Elephas maximus
Bubalus bubalis
Cervus unicolor
Vernacular name
Elephant
Buffalo
Sambhur
Weera
Kohomba
Siyambala
Kumbuk
The trees listed are evergreen and relatively use more water for transpiration.
Terminalia arjuna, usually grows on the riverbanks and benefited by the availability of
soil water even during the long droughts; the other species of trees are adapted to grow
mainly on hilly mounds where there is more silt in with higher water holding capacity
compared to sandy soils in the valleys amongst the hills, where only grass and strongly
zerophytic plants (e.g., Acacia eburnean) survive. Generally, in some Blocks of Yala and
almost all the areas of Bundala the vegetation is a mosaic of forested (or scrub forest)
hills and valleys of grassland with scattered thorny trees. Such a system had been
surviving in the area for hundreds of years in equilibrium with the climate. However,
with the onset of serious climate change in 70s annual drought became more and more
severe and the new climate affected the natural vegetation by way of replacing some tree
species (e.g., Manilkara hexandra, and Drypetes sepiaria) which cannot survive during
the severe droughts due to lack of sufficient water. Similarly, the animal species listed in
the table are large and need more water for the maintenance of transpiration and normal
bodily needs. Further such animals prefer to stay in water and muddy habitats at least few
hours a day to avoid high temperatures during the day time. Plant and animal species,
which have higher demand for water, appear more threatened by the effect of climate
change.
207
Woody weeds
Another consequence of habitat destruction (death of tree species) is the
introduction of woody weeds such as Lantana camara, mesquit and other thorny shrubs,
which demand less water and spread very fast. Further, generally they are not good feed
material for the animals such as the elephants; however, I have observed that both species
provide food for birds.
The effect of habitat change due to climate on the large animals is immediately
visible in many areas of both parks. However, although not easily observable, the effect
of climate change on smaller mammals and other vertebrates for example the amphibians
and the like is more drastic. Some species require moist and watery places for the
completion of their life cycles. With the destruction of their habitats (depletion of water
in the streams and ponds for example) such animals become extinct in the area or become
imprisoned, isolated and restricted to places where the environmental condition is still
remain suitable.
Forest dieback
Forest dieback is a phenomenon occur in certain areas, for example the Horton
Plains Montane Forest) of the country, reported since 1960s, 70s, 80s and 90s
(Samarakoon, 1994). I have observed the same phenomenon occurring in Hambantota
and its surroundings since early 1990s. The death of patches of Maliththan (Salvadora
persica) and Weera Trees (Drypetes sepiaria) was seen in Bundala National Park (Figure
5). The dead or dying patches were noted closer to the water front of the lagoon area.
Since 1996 the death of Palu trees (Manilkara hexandra) was observed in that area and
the death of the mangrove species Kirala (Sonneratia casiolaris) was observed in the
Menik Ganga estuary at Yala (Figure 6). As at present the Weera trees are very rare in the
affected areas and a large number of Palu trees are dead and similar numbers are dying.
The apparent reasons behind the death of these species are the increase in the mean sea
level with the increase in earth atmospheric temperature and unavailability of sufficient
fresh water during the long severe droughts.
208
Figure 5. Map showing the die-back areas of Palu (Manilkara hexandra) trees in Bundala National
Park
Figure 6. Map showing the die-back areas of Kirala (Sonneratia caseolaris) trees in Menik River
estuary at Yala
209
Crop failure
In parallel with the death of forest population water availability for paddy and
other cultivations in Hambantota became very low especially during the last 20 years or
so. Keep in mind that a sufficient water supply could be provided for the crops
government constructed vast irrigation schemes such as the Lunugamvehera and other
reservoirs in late 1980s early 1990s. With the declining rainfall and increasing
temperatures such reservoirs were never filled even during the rainy season. Thousands
of crop fields were devastated. The farmers became poorer and poorer; some changed
their way of earnings; to earn their living some secretly cultivate Cannabis sativa in the
jungles; some others encroached into the national parks and hunted animals and yet
others involve in some other practices. Most of these practices created social problems.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Climate change associated with global temperature increase and rainfall
fluctuation causes drastic changes to the habitats of Hambantota area
(2) Throughout the climatic history of 134 years in Hambantota it is possible to
identify rainfall cycles of approximately 16 years and temperature cycles of
approximately 6 years.
(3) Since 1869 to about the year 1965 the rainfall in Hambantota had been increasing
and showed marked positive trends in consecutive cycles.
(4) Since around 1970 the mean rainfall declined and the rainfall trends of the cycles
were negative or more or less neutral.
(5) The mean monthly temperatures around the year 1900 were very high and above
the level of 28 0C. The temperature effected drought prevailed for a brief period of
about one year.
(6) In general the average temperature trend during the last 20 years or so had been
on the increase.
(7) Increase in sea water levels causes sea water intrusion into the lagoons and
estuary systems which lead to the destruction and slow change of the existing habitats.
(8) Increased temperature and relatively low rainfall for a long period of about 20
years or so in Hambantota means decrease in ground water levels, decrease in water
availability for plants and animals.
(9) As mitigate actions measures such as the following are suggested:
(i) Rehabilitation of the ancient tanks in the area
(ii) Instead of cultivating high water demanding crops to cultivate less water
demanding crops
(iii) Instead of practicing animal husbandry using high water demanding animals use
less water demanding crops
(iv) Try to make use of the dry situation as a resource of high value (E.g. to produce
more salt, dry fish)
210
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Dr. B.M.S. Batagoda, Project Director and Mr. T.K. Fernando, Consultant
of the Climate Change Enabling Activity (Phase II) Project of the Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources, “Sampathpaya”, No. 82, Rajamalwatta Road,
Battaramulla for providing the necessary funds for this study.
REFERENCES
IPCC (2001): Climate Change (2001): Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to
the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Watson, R.T.
and the Core Writing Team (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,United Kingdom, and
New York, NY, USA, 398 p.
IPCC (2004) IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientific Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support
Analysis of Risk and of Options, SWITZERLAND INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON
CLIMATE CHANGE IPCC Secretariat, c/o WMO, 7bis, Avenue de la Paix, C.P. N° 2300, 1211
Geneva 2 Ireland, May 11 – 13, 2004
Mueller-Dombois, D. (1968). Ecogeographic analysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular reference
to vegetation The Ceylon Forester 8 (2-4): 39-58.
Orlando, B.M. and L. Smeardon (eds.) (1999) Report of the Eleventh Global Biodiversity Forum:
Exploring Synergy Between the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention
on Biological Diversity. IUCN—the World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, United Kingdom, 46 p.
Perera, L.S. (1965) Rohana Rajyaya (Kingdom of Rohana), Anuradhapura Period (Vidyankankaaa
University Press.
Samaranayake, R. (1983). Hambantota A Profile of a District in Rural Sri Lanka Ministry of Plan
Implementation Sri Lanka
Samarakoon, S. P. (1994). Dying of trees in Horton Plains Bio News 8:106-109.
Samarakoon, S. P. (1997). A preliminary investigation of the plant communities of Nimalawa sanctuary in
southern Sri Lanka Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. 249p.
Samarakoon, S. P. (1997). Vegetation types of Lunugamvehera National Park.
Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. 250p.
Samarakoon, S. P. (1998). Fodder plants of Yala National Park Complex in southern Sri Lanka.
Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. 128-129.
Samarakoon, S. P. (1998). Herbage production from native grasses and planted pastures under coconut in
southern Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. 130131.
Samarakoon, S. P. (1998). Some preliminary observations on the ecology of Kirinda sand dune in southern
Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. 198p.
Survey Department, (1988). 1:50,000 Maps compiled and published by the Surveyor General of Sri Lanka.
211
MARINE TURTLE CONCERVATION PROJECT AT
BUNDALA NATIONAL PARK
I.H.S.K. DE SILVA*
Bundala National Park,Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
Five of the world's seven species of marine turtle come ashore to nest in the beaches of Sri
Lanka. All five species are listed as endangered by the world conservation union (IUCN), and
protected under national law.
All five species of marine turtles visit Sri Lanka nest at Bundala beach, which is about 16
Km in length every year during the turtle nesing period. Bundala cost line host nesting endangered
Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivaceae), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead turtle (Caretta
caretta), Hawksbill turtle (Dermochelys imbricata) and Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys Coriaceae)
Leatherback turtle is critically endangered species in the world.
Green turtles and Olive Readly turtles both visited Bundala beach for nesting during last
four years Olive Readly nested three hundred and nine times (309) for the last four years. Year 2004
and year 2005 was not recorded any nesting sites of Logger head and Leatherback turtle on the
Bundala beach, While Hawks bill turtle did not come last three years to Bundala beach except only
single nesting site was recorded year 2004.
There are one hundred nineteen (119) uncertain arrivals of individuals were recorded.
Uncertain means no direct evidence for which species made the nests, but nesting sites could be found
on the beach. However compare to year 2002 and 2003 number of uncertain records comparatively
reduce year 2004 and 2005.
Two conservation methods i:e in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation method were
applied for hatch of turtle eggs. Irrespective of the method used the success rate of hatchling of
Green turtle and Olive readly were more than 85%. Lowest rate was recorded for Olive readly as
15.2%. Highest success rate were recorded in 2005 (83.4%) (Table 2) Wild boar and feral dogs are
the main predators of turtle eggs on Bundala beach. To protect from predators, used concrete
cylinders (dia - 30", height - 1 1/2', thickness 2") and labeled it to easy to identification, and
determine the date of hatchlings come out.
INTRODUCTION
Bundala National Park is located in the Hambantota District (6008' - 6014N,
81 08' - 81018'E) covering an area 3698 ha. The park falls within the Southeastern Arid
Zone of Sri Lanka, with a general climate that can be classified as hot and dry. The
average annual rain fall for the area is about 1,074 mm, with the highest monthly rainfall
occurring in November. The mean annual temperature is about 27.1C0. Topographically,
the park is generally flat with sand dunes bordering the coastline.
Three shallow brackish water lagoons located within the park namely Malala (650
ha), Embilikala (430 ha) and Bundala (520 ha), from a complex Wetland system that
harbors a rich bird life, including several species of migratory waterfowl. Recognizing
the importance of Bundala as an important habitat for wildlife, it was declared as
sanctuary under the fauna and flora protection ordinance in 1969, and later upgraded to a
National Park in 1992 (Wet land site report and conservation management plan, Bundala
National Park-1993).
Beside the bird life, the lagoons support a large number of fish and Shrimps. The
reptile fauna of Bundala National Park includes many IUCN Red list species such as
0
212
estuarine crocodile; endemic frog (Bufo atukoralei) also has been recorded from the Park
(Bambaradenya et al., 2001).
Every year during the turtles breeding period Bundala cost line host nesting
endangered Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivaceae), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas),
Loggerhead turtle (Caretta), Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Leatherback
turtle (Dermochelys coriaceae)
All five marine turtle species that nests in Sri Lanka are listed on the convention
on International Trade in Endangered species (CITES) Appendix 1, of which Sri Lanka is
a signatory.
Sri Lanka is also a signatory to a Mou (Memorandum of Understanding) on the
conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their habitats of the Indian Ocean
and South - East Asia (IOSEA)
The Bundala National Park (BNP) initiated a monitoring program of nesting
turtles at Bundala beach in year 2002. At present BNP get the service of volunteers from
local villages to patrol the beach, to collect information about nesting and protect turtle
nests. Concrete cylinders are used to protect nest by wild boars and feral dogs.
The project has two main objectives. The main objective is to record the number of
each turtle species nesting on the Bundala beach.
The second objective is to establish suitable methods of insitu and exsitu
conservation methods for turtle nests at Bundala beach.
Study Area
Sri Lanka has four climatic zones which include the wet zone, dry zone,
intermediate zone and Arid zone. The study Area is located in the arid zone in
Hambantota district in Southern Province.
The study Area is located at 6008' - 6014'N, 81008' - 81018'E. The length of the
Bundala beach is approximately 16 Km length. The beach contains number of sand
dunes.
Field survey
Although the nesting beach at Bundala is 19 Km in length currently only 4 Km of
this is included in the conservation area. The major threat to nesting females, the eggs in
the nest and the hatchlings in this area includes natural predators such as wild boar, and
feral dogs, which damage nests and prey on hatchlings as they emerge.
This is combated by a team of 15 volunteers who come from the vicinity of the
park to beach patrol 24 hours per day. The 4 Km stretch of beach at Bundala is monitored
24 hours a day, seven days a week so all members of staff work on and shift rotation
system. There are different sets of overlapping shifts from 2.00 a.m. - 6.00 a.m., (5 staff),
from 10 p.m. - 2 a.m. (5 staff), from 2 p.m. - 10 p.m. (3 staff) and 6 a.m. - 2 p.m. (2 staff)
Nesting females that are observed at night are allowed to dig their nest and then recorded
the number of eggs in the nest, their location and their biometric data (length of carapace,
213
width, number of scales etc.). Once the nesting process is complete, the nests are covered
by large concrete cylinders (height - 1 1/2 feet, diameter 30 inch, thickness 2 inch)
specifically to protect the nest from the wild boar and feral dogs that are so plentiful in
the park, throughout the incubation period (Figure 1). In addition hatchling number of
emerging from the nest of each species is recorded. Identification was done using a
colored atlas of same
Figure 1. Turtle nest protecting cylinder
RESULTS
Five species of turtle which are logger head, Hawk bill, Leatherback, Green turtle
and Oilve redly nests Bundala beach. But Loggerhead and Leatherback turtle did not nest
during last two years. In addition Hawks bill did not nest in year 2003 and year 2005.
Olive redly and Green turtles nest at Bundala beach regularly during last four years
(Table 1).
214
Table 1. Nesting records of five species of turtles at Bundala beach from 2002 – 2005.
Year
Name of
species
Green Turtle
Olive Redly
Loggerhead
Hawkbill
Leatherback
Uncertain
2002
2003
2004
2005
Grand Total
26
92
35
18
10
44
06
152
09
05
33
06
10
01
18
03
55
24
41
309
44
19
15
119
160
No of Sp
140
120
Green Turtle
100
Olive Redly
Loggerhead
80
Haw kbill
60
Leatherback
40
Uncertain
20
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 2. Nesting records of five species of turtles at Bundala beach from 2002 – 2005.
Figure 2. Green Turtle
Figure 3. Hawkbill
Figure 5. Loggerhead
Figure 4. Olive Redly
Figure 6. Leatherback
215
Olive readly arrived three hundred and nine times (309) for last four years to
Bundala beach which was recorded highest nesting. Lowest attendance was recorded for
Leatherback for last four years (15 times), while Hawks bill, Green turtle and logger head
were recorded 19 times, 41 times and 44 time attendance respectively (Table 1).
Second highest attendance (119 times) was recorded uncertain species which were
not identified particular species but could be fond nests (Table 1).
Success rate of hatchling is very high irrespective of two conservation methods.
Highest success rate of hatchlings of Green turtle could be fond year 2002 (96.01%)
while year 2005 it was 88.31%. Year 2003 and 2004 the rate was 85.7% and 85%
respectively. Highest success rate of hatchlings of Olive Readly was recorded during the
year 2005 (85.09%) (Table 2).
Success rate of hatchling of uncertain species, year 2005 was recorded (83.4%).
Lowest rate was recorded year 2003 (67.42%) (Table 2).
Table 2. Success rate of hatchlings of in-situ and ex-situ conservation method for five species of
turles at Bundala beach.
Year
Name of species
Green Turtle
Olive Redly
Loggerhead
Hawkbill
Leatherback
Uncertain
2002
2003
2004
2005
96.01%
15.2%
92.07%
92.17%
83.33%
81.06%
85.71%
80.59%
71.27%
72.34%
67.92%
85%
80.07%
88.31%
85.09%
83.41%
120.00%
Sp percentage
100.00%
Green Turtle
80.00%
Olive Redly
Loggerhead
60.00%
Haw kbill
Leatherback
40.00%
Uncertain
20.00%
0.00%
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure2. Success rate of hatchlings of in-situ & ex-situ conservation method for five species of turtles at Bundala
beach
216
DISCUSSION
Green turtle and Olive Redly turtle came to Bundala beach for nesting throughout
last four years (2002-2005). Therefore nesting of two species can be seen throughout the
year in Bundala beach. Leatherback and Loggerhead did not come during last two years.
Hawks bill turtle did not come during last three years except one attendance of year 2004.
According to IUCN Leatherback, Logger head and Hawk bill species are critically
endangered species in the world. In addition it may be the reason, which these species
may nest beyond the conservation area. Turtle conservation project confined about 4 Km
length of the beach.
Success rate of hatchling of all five species are very high irrespective of in-situ
and ex-situ conservation method. Species which are not seen at the time of nesting were
recorded as uncertain species. Success rate of uncertain species is high in last four years
(Table 2). Number of volunteers need to minimize the record of uncertain species.
Furthermore volunteers should be given appropriate technology and knowledge to
identify species using their tracks.
CONCLUSION
Beach of Bundala National Park provides good nesting habitats for five species of
turtles in the world. Green turtle and Olive readly came to nest throughout the last four
years to Bundala beach. Therefore Bundala National Park harbors rich reptile diversity.
No special reason could be found for the absence of critically endangered three species of
turtles Leatherback, Hawk bill and Logger head turtle, for the last three years.
In situ and ex-situ conservation methods are very successful in the Bundala beach.
The area of the project must be expanded for 16 Km and it will help to get more number
of attendance and nesting sites. In addition the number of volunteers should be increased,
so that more data could be gathered during peak nesting season.
REFERENCES
Archie, C. (1980). Life Nature Library. The Reptiles. Pp 9-185.
Bambaradeniya C.N.B. (2001). Guide to Bundala, A Guide to the Biodiversity of Bundala of Bundala
National Park - a Ramsar wetland in Sri Lanka. 54p.
Caughley, G, Sinclair, A.R.E. (1994). Wildlife ecology and Management. Pp 1-300.
Central Environmental Authority (1993). Wetland site Report and conservation management plan, Bundala
National Park.103p.
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1955). A colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Serpentoid Reptilia.
National Museum of Sri Lanka. 3:14-119.
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1993). A colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Tetrapod Reptilic National
Museum of Sri Lanka vol 03.
217
AN ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DEPENDENCY OF
SURROUNDING COMMUNITY, IMPACTS OF AQUATIC WEEDS AND
EFFECTIVE WEED CONTROL METHODS OF THE WATER BODIES IN
ANAWILUNDAWA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND RAMSAR WETLAND IN
SRI LANKA
S. C. WILSON*
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary (AWS) was established in June 1997 by the
Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), Sri Lanka under the provisions of the FFPO.
(Government Gazette number 97915 of 11 June 1997) Considering its biodiversity and Wetland
values, the sanctuary was recognized as a wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar
convention in 2002.
The AWS consists of a group of seven shallow cascading reservoirs including the around
terrestrial landmass. The reservoirs are the heart of the sanctuary which depends on the balance
of the wetland ecosystem. The people in and around, depend on the water resource of the sanctuary
for their livelihoods. Therefore the reservoirs play a significant role for the balance of the wetland
ecosystem as well as the dependencies of the surrounding community. But the reservoirs are covered
with aquatic weeds.
The objective of the present study is to access the impacts of the weeds and to propose
management practices to control the aquatic weeds. The direct observations, interviewing the
community, and several pilot practices had been conducted during the study.
The results reviles that, there is a seasonal pattern of water resource dependency in the
study area. The extraction of non timber forest products takes place throughout the year. The water
level of the sanctuary indicates a positive relationship with the water resources dependencies. There
are about ten aquatic weeds in the AWS. The most impacts cause from Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes), Salvinia (Salvinia molesta), and Water lettuce (Pistia stratootes). The large leaf area of
weeds leads to increased water loss through transpiration. It interfere with fish life by reducing
oxygen level in water, producing toxic substances such as Hydrogen Sulphide and reducing
phytoplankton population, prime food sources for fish. Weeds reduce the water flow and increase the
siltation. When compared with the previous records, in the full capacity condition, the water capacity
of the reservoirs are eight inches lower than that of 1995. Water hyacinth also downgrades
recreational water facilities by reducing the water surface, creating offensive odors and tainting of
water.
Mechanical control of weeds is one method, and removal of Salvinia by hand or machine is a
practical control method. Biological control of Salvinia and Water hyacinth is a better method in this
sanctuary as this is a protected area. In 1990, Agriculture Department of Sri Lanka has introduced
Salvinia weevil to these water bodies. The DWC, the management authority of the sanctuary,
organized a campaign for the removal of aquatic weeds May, 2005 during the peak drought.
Surrounding community involved with this activity through their CBO. Prevention is the best form
of weed control. The community can also help to prevent the spread of aquatic weeds by reporting
the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Rehabilitation of water outlets of the reservoirs should be
done immediately. Desilting of the water bodies is another important practice to increase the water
capacity. Community participation for weed control, desiltation of the reservoirs, to control the
illegal activities affecting the balance of the ecosystem of this study area could be suggested as some
immediate site specific actions with appropriate strategies.
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INTRODUCTION
Sri Lanka has a golden history about Protected Area (PA) Management. The first
PA, Mihintale Sanctuary was declared by king Devanampiyatissa the Great in about 200
B.C. After the Mihintale Sanctuary, Sri Lanka has 82 PAs including 3 Strict Natural
Reserves, 17 National Parks, 4 Nature Reserves and 58 Sanctuaries. All these PAs are
under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) which has the
authority of Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance (FFPO).
The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary (AWS) was established in June 1997 by
the DWC under the provisions of the FFPO. (Government Gazette number 97915 of 11
June 1997) Considering its biodiversity & Wetland values, the sanctuary was recognized
as a wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar convention in 2002.
The AWS consists of a group of seven shallow cascading reservoirs including the
surrounding terrestrial landmass. The reservoirs are the heart of the sanctuary which
depends on the balance of the wetland ecosystem. The sanctuary includes the state lands
as well as private lands including home gardens and paddy fields. The people in and
around, depend on the water resource of the sanctuary for their livelihoods. Therefore the
reservoirs play a significant role for the balance of the wetland ecosystem as well as the
dependencies of the surrounding community.
All seven reservoirs of the AWS are shallow with maximum depth not exceeding
4.0 meters during full storage. (Wetland site report & conservation management plan,
Anaiwilundawa tanks, 1994) But the water is covered with varied aquatic weeds.
Several researches were carried out by various researchers. There are records on
previous applications of biological control of Water hyacinth and Salvinia by the
Department of Agriculture. But there are no previous studies on aquatic weeds and water
dependencies in AWS.
Significance of the study
The AWS harbours a rich native terrestrial and aquatic faunal and floral
biodiversity that is further enriched by the seasonal migration of waterfowls. These
factors led to the declaration of Anaiwilundawa as a birds sanctuary and recognition of it
as a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention. The group of seven
reservoirs, which cover the area of about 14ha, is the heart of the wetland ecosystem.
219
Research problem
The water capacity of reservoirs is the most important factor for the
sustainability of the sanctuary. The people living around the sanctuary use the water
for different purposes. But the reservoirs are covered with aquatic weeds. It is a
significant threat to the natural balance of the wetland ecosystem as well as the
community which depends on the water of reservoirs. The management practices
need to be applied to control the weeds.
Purpose of the study
AWS, the wetland ecosystem contains seven reservoirs. The water is the main
factor for the balance of the ecosystem. The people on diverse needs, depends on
water of these reservoirs. The existing quality of water is deteriorating. In this study
the researcher is going to find the impacts of aquatic weeds of the reservoirs in AWS.
The findings are important to the managers of the sanctuary who are
responsible for the conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources of this
wetland ecosystem. They can be incorporated into the management plan. The
proposed management practices can be applied in other wetlands as well under
similar conditions. The weed control methods would be important to the DWC who
are the management authority of the sanctuary.
Scope of the study
In this study the writer wishes to focus the attention on the aquatic weeds but not
on terrestrial weeds. The list of the aquatic weeds in tank system is being prepared. The
direct and indirect dependencies on tanks are being studied. The writer wishes to discuss
the weed management methods. These methods can be applied by the DWC who are the
management authority of the sanctuary. The writer does not plan to calculate the total
area density of each aquatic weed in tanks.
Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary, the wetland ecosystem contains seven
reservoirs. The water is the main factor for the balance of the ecosystem. The people have
various dependencies on the water of these tanks. The existing condition of the water is
becoming unsuitable for fauna and flora existence.
The main objective of the study is to propose management practices to control
aquatic weeds.
In this study the researcher hopes, to discuss the impacts of aquatic weeds on
wetland ecosystem of AWS, and to find out the dependencies of surrounding community
on water of the reservoirs.
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METHODOLOGY
Study Area
Location
The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary, covering an area of 1400ha, is situated
between the coast and the Negombo – Puttalam railway/road (70 42’ N, 790 49’ E) in
Puttalam District of North-Western Province in Sri Lanka (CEA, 1994). The closest
towns are Chilaw (10km) to the South and Puttalam (35km) to the North (Figure 1)
221area
Figure 1. The study
Declaration
The AWS was established in June 1997 by the Department of Wildlife
conservation under the provisions of Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance.
In August 2001, the sanctuary was recognized as a Wetland of Internationally
Important by the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), following a request made by the DWC. Figure
1 shows the study area
Methodology
The survey had been carried out in August and October 2005. In this survey direct
observations of dependencies on reservoirs had been recorded. During the day time from
6.00am to 7.30 pm the activities of the people in the sanctuary were observed. A selected
set of people were interviewed to find out the dependencies on water, to find their means
of income generation activities, names of weeds in water, to identify medicinal herbs.
The weeds, some shrubs, trees were identified with the guidance of herbarium and
books on taxonomy. The faunal species were identified with the guidance of taxonomy
books.
The traditional weed control methods were identified by interviewing the village
community.
RESULTS
Aquatic plants in AWS
The list of aquatic plants found in AWS is shown in table 3.
Table 1. Aquatic plants in AWS
Family
Acanthaceae
Alismataceae
Amaranthaceae
Aponogetonaceae
Araceae
Araceae
Asteraceae
Ceratophyllaceae
Convolvulaceae
Cyperaceae
Fabaceae
Hydrocharitaceae
Lemnaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Limnocharitaceae
Species
Hygrophila schulli
Limnophton obtusifolium
Alternanthera sessilis
Aponogeton natans
Lasia spinosa
Pistia stratiotes
Eclipta proatrata
Ceratophyllum demersum
Ipomoea aquatica
Schoenoplectus
Nepyunia oleracea
Ottelia alismoides
Lemna sp
Utricularia aurea
Limnocharis flava
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Local Name
Niramulliya
Mukunu wenna
Kekatiya
Kohila
Diya paradel
Kikirindi
Kankung
Marsiliaceae
Menyanthaceae
Nelumbonaceae
Nymphaeaceae
Onagraceae
Polygonaceae
Pntederiaceae
Pteridaceae
Salviniaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Typhaceae
Marsilia quadrifolia
Nymphoides hydrophylla
Nelumbo nucifera
Nymphaea pubescens
Ludwigia adscendens
Polygonumtomentosum
Pllygonom glabrum
Eichhornia crassipes
Monochoria vaginalis
Acrostichum aureum
Salvinia molesta
Limnophila aquatica
Typha angustifolia
Kumudu
Nelum
Manel
Diyanilla
Sudu kimbul wenna
Japan jabara
Karam koku
Salvinia
Hambu pan
The various dependencies of water resources in the sanctuary
People surrounding the sanctuary have various types of dependencies on the
sanctuary especially. Most of them are on reservoirs, or associated with the reservoirs.
There are two types of dependencies on water resources i.e. direct dependencies and
indirect dependencies.
Direct dependencies
1. water for bathing and washing
2. drinking water for cattle and other domestic animals
3. wallowing grounds for buffaloes in tank water
4. rowing boats and swimming– entertainment
5. water for paddy cultivation
6. water for vegetable cultivation
7. fishing
Indirect dependencies
1. fish and terrapins
2. edible green leaves - Kan kun, Gotukola, Mukunuwenna, Thampala,
Neeramulliya, Anguna, Thora, Girapala, Pitasudu,
3. fruits – Tal, Mango, Wood apple, Tamarind, Cashew, Kon,
4. vegetables- Lotus stems, water lily seeds, Drum sticks,
5. reeds for handicrafts
6. fire wood
7. grassing lands
8. edible mushrooms
9. Erriconuts
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The seasonal pattern of major dependencies of AWS
Figure 2 shows various types of major dependencies that vary with the seasons
and availability in the sanctuary.
Fire wood extraction and extraction of fruits and vegetables are found throughout
the year. Water for Paddy cultivation recorded in two periods April to July in Yala season
and November to March in Maha season. During the dry season from March to October
and September to November while water level becomes low villagers release buffaloes
for grazing and wallowing. According to these facts the highest water resource
dependency is recorded from February to May.
DEPENDENCY
Grass land
Fire wood
Fruits & vegetables
Wallowing ground
Entertainments
Fishing
Paddy cultivation
Water for bathing
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
MONTH
Figure 2. Various types of major dependencies
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Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Over exploitation of resources
Poaching
During the weekends and holidays large numbers of bird hunters and teams of
poachers visit the sanctuary. The poaching of soft-shell and hard-shell terrapins supplies
the demand created by hotels in the area.
Extraction of clay from reservoir beds in dry period
During the dry season clay mining takes place on the reservoir beds for brick making
industry.
Pollution
Biocides are not reported to be used in huge quantities within the sanctuary, but
there can be the risk of pollution through the runoff from long stretches of paddy fields
and coconut plantations within the catchments area. Small quantities of plastic and
polythene wastes can be seen on the road sides leading to the sanctuary. These
indigestible materials accumulate in the reservoir and water canals. At present this is not
a severe problem if the dumping of polyethylene is not controlled it is going to be a
severe environmental problem in future.
Natural threats
The rainfall records in Puttalam show a paternal reduction during the recent past. The
tank system remained without water for long periocls during the last few years.
DISCUSSION
The present study shows that about 10 weed species have extensively spread in
the reservoir system of the AWS. Invasive alien weed species have caused comparatively
higher impact on water than the native weed species. Almost all the villagers in and
around the sanctuary depend on water resources of the sanctuary; furthermore the water
is the main factor that contributes to the balance of the natural ecosystem. But large scale
commercial activities making use of water recourses do not take place in the study area.
Most dependencies are for private consumptions such as income generation activities of
the local community such as paddy cultivation, fishing, fire wood collection, vegetable
cultivation etc.
Irrigation Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation are the
responsible Government Institutions for maintaining the water capacity of the sanctuary.
DWC display some sign boards and information boards in the Sanctuary, but without
clearly demarcated boundaries. As far back as 2004 DWC recruited and stationed number
of employees for protection of the Sanctuary.
The Department of Wildlife Conservation initiated a weed control programme in
2005 and removed aquatic weeds manually in Anawilundawa and Suruwila tanks.
However chemical weed control methods are not recommended to be carried out in the
Sanctuary. Community Based Organizations have been formed with the guidance of
225
DWC and Divisional Secretary of the area. The DWC which is the management authority
of the sanctuary organized a campaign for removal of aquatic weeds in May 2005, during
the peak dry period. Adjacent communities were involved in this activity through their
CBO.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
The natural balances of the ecosystem, the various dependencies of the
community and wetland values are related to the water availability of this sanctuary.
Issue of insufficient water supply
During the draught season the water level of the reservoirs decreases dramatically.
It is the core problem related to the water level. Besides water flows out to the reservoirs
since the sluice gates are not maintained properly and some of them do not operate at all.
Aquatic weeds
The water capacity of the reservoirs is very low because of the above situation.
The nutrition level and the eutrophication are high as a result the aquatic weeds grow
rapidly.
There are about ten aquatic weeds in the study area. The most of the impacts are
caused by Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Salvinia (Salvinia molesta), and Water
lettuce (Pistia stratootes). Water hyacinth also downgrades recreational facility by
reducing the water surface, creating offensive odors and tainting water.
Large leaf surface of weeds increases water loss through transpiration. It also
interferes with fish life by reducing water oxygen levels, producing toxic substances such
as hydrogen sulfide and reducing phytoplankton population, which is prime food source
for fish. They change the ecological balance and habitat of the area. Besides they reduce
the water flow and thereby increase siltation.
When compared with the previous records, the water capacity of the reservoirs
appear to be decreasing and it was eight inches lower than that of 1995 in the full
capacity condition.
The major dependency levels vary with the season, due to availability of water.
The highest dependency is recorded from March to July.
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Recommendation
Mechanical control of weeds is one method, and removal of Salvinia manually or
by machine is a practical control method. Biological control of Salvinia and Water
hyacinth is the better method in this sanctuary as this is a protected area. In 1990,
Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka introduced Salvinia Weevil to these water bodies.
Community participation for weed control of this study area has proved to be
effective. CBO’s have formed in each village. Through these CBO’s the community can
be involved to removing the weeds, as well as to control illegal activities of the people
especially from the outsiders.
Repairing of sluice gates and desiltation the reservoirs should be implemented
immediately by the responsible agencies to maintain the water level of the sanctuary.
Sand mining, felling of timber and poaching should be controlled through Law
Enforcement and by regular patrolling by the Department of Wildlife Conservation.
REFERENCES
Anon, Weed note No1/99, Agriculture western Australia.
Anon,(2004) NRM facts, Salvinia and Water lettuce, Department of Natural Resources and Mines, The
state of Queen land.
Anon, (2003) Weed management guide, Natural Heritage Trust, Australi
Anon,(2003),Wetland conservation in Sri Lanka,IUCN.
Anon,(1994)Wetland site report and conservation management plan Annaiwilundawa tanks,Wetland
conservation project, Sri Lanka,CEA.
Griffiths, M.W.,Julian, M.H.,Stanley,J.N.(2001)Biologiacal control of water hyacinth
Purcell, M.F., Wright,A.D.,(1981)The biology of Australian weeds,226-240.
Website, www.agric.wa.gov.au
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