production - Global Aquaculture Alliance

Transcription

july/august 2013
the
global aquaculture
The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood
January/February 2009
DEPARTMENTS
From The Director
From The Editor
GAA Activities
Industry News
GAA Calendar
Advocate Advertisers
16 Environmental Trigger For EMS/AHPNS
Identified In Agrobest Shrimp Ponds
Noriaki Akazawa, Mitsuru Eguchi
18 EMS/AHPNS: Infectious Disease Caused By Bacteria
Loc Tran; Linda Nunan; Rita M. Redman;
Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.; Kevin Fitzsimmons, Ph.D.
22 Ongoing Vietnam Studies Find Vibrio With Phage
Transmits EMS/AHPNS
Dr. Dang Thi Hoang Oanh, Dr. Truong Quoc Phu,
Dr. Nguyen Thanh Phuong, Dr. Pham Anh Tuan
On the cover:
Studies at Agrobest’s integrated shrimp farm in Pahang, Malaysia,
have identified pH level as an environmental trigger for EMS/AHPNS.
Photo courtesy of Noriaki Akazawa.
Page 52
24 Economic Analyses Project Rising Returns
For Intensive Biofloc Shrimp Systems
2
3
5
84
86
88
Eel Production
In Europe
To survive, the glass eel
industry realizes it must
increase its restocking
efforts and take additional
measures to achieve
a sector recovery.
Terry Hanson, Ph.D.; Tzachi Samocha, Ph.D.; Timothy Morris;
Bob Advent; Vitalina Magalhães; André Braga
28 Sustainable Aquaculture Practices
Manage pH Cycles To Maintain Animal Health
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
32 Off-Flavors In Salmonids Raised
In Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.
36 Sea Lice Control: Perspectives From Chile
Sandra Bravo
40 Extrusion Supports Fortification Of Specialized
Shrimp Feeds Based On Vegetable Proteins
Joseph P. Kearns
44 Korean Research Studies Protein Levels,
P:E Ratios In Olive Flounder Diets
Dr. Sungchul Charles Bai, Kumar Katya
46 Offshore Mussel Culture
Scott Lindell
Page 66
Liming Limited
Against Vibriosis
The volumes of quick lime
and hydrated lime needed
to effectively control
vibriosis in shrimp ponds
would raise pH levels in
culture water and stress
the animals.
48 Freshwater Prawn Farming In Brazil
Helcio Luis de Almeida Marques, Marcello Villar Boock,
Patrícia Moraes-Valenti
52 Eel Production In Europe
Dr. Joost Blom
69 Fishmeal Replacement In Cobia Diets Reduces Costs,
Improves Sustainability
71 Live Feed Enrichment With Probiotics
56 Seafood Marketing
Turbot Markets
José Fernández Polanco, Ph.D.; Prof. Trond Bjorndal, Ph.D.
59 Food Safety And Technology
Killing Methods, Post-Slaughter Quality
Part I. Developing A Slaughter Program
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.; David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
62 U.S. Seafood Markets
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown; Angel Rubio
ii
July/August 2013
global aquaculture advocate
Ing. Juan Portal, Dr. Carlos A. Ching
Dr. Osvaldo Sepulveda Villet, Dr. Brian Shepherd,
Dr. Fred Binkowski; Dr.Wendy Sealey
76 Large-Scale Production System For Copepods
Brie Sarkisian, Jason Lemus, Phillip Lee
78 U.S. Field Trials Show Promise For Mullet Farming
In Polyculture
Gregory N. Whitis, M.Aq.; Luke A. Roy, Ph.D.;
David Teichert-Coddington, Ph.D.
80 Dietary Threonine Factor In Tilapia Fillet Yield
66 Study: Quick, Hydrated Limes Impractical
For Controlling Vibriosis In Shrimp Ponds
Carlos E. Tudela; Jorge A. Suarez, Ph.D.; Zachary Daugherty;
Matthew Taynor; Ronald Hoenig; John Stieglitz;
Alejandro Buentello, Ph.D.; Daniel D. Benetti, Ph.D.
Dr. Wilson Massamitu Furuya, Mariana Michelato,
Dr. Valéria R. Barriviera Furuya
82 ELISA Kits Offer Quantitative Analysis
Of Trifluralin In Fish
Lance Ford
July/August 2013
1
from the director
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Alliance is an international non-profit, non-governmental
association whose mission is to further envi
ronmentally responsible aquaculture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers, processors, marketers and retailers of seafood products worldwide. All aquaculturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Lee Bloom, Secretary
Jim Heerin, Treasurer
Iain Shone, Assistant Treasurer
Jeff Fort, Chief Financial Officer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
Rafael Bru
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
Jeff Fort
John Galiher
Jim Heerin
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Robins McIntosh
Sergio Nates
John Peppel
John Schramm
Jeff Sedacca
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
EDITOR
Darryl Jory
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
Assistant Editor
David Wolfe
davidw@gaalliance.org
Graphic Designer
Lorraine Jennemann
lorrainej@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2013
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
2
July/August 2013
from the editor
Who Packs Your
Parachute?
The Biggest
Challenge: Disease
There’s a story about a U.S. Navy fighter pilot
shot down during the U.S. military involvement in
Southeast Asia in the 1960s and 1970s. The pilot,
Capt. J. Charles Plumb, survived, ejecting from the
jet and parachuting safely to the ground. But he
Wally Stevens
landed in enemy territory, where he was captured
Executive Director
and imprisoned as a POW for nearly six years.
Global
Aquaculture Alliance
Plumb’s story – which he has told countless
wallys@gaalliance.org
times as one of the United States’ most sought-after
motivational speakers – is one of perseverance and
courage. But it’s also one of trust and gratitude.
One day after returning home, Plumb was approached by a man in a restaurant. The
man, the Navy sailor who packed Plumb’s life-saving parachute, recognized him and
introduced himself. “I packed your parachute,” he said. Plumb thought of the countless
hours the sailor spent in the bowels of the aircraft carrier carefully folding parachutes for
pilots he didn’t know personally.
Trusting and recognizing those who “pack your parachute” is one of the themes of
Plumb’s motivational speeches, and it’s advice we should all take to heart as we decide
with whom we align ourselves professionally. Everyone has someone upon whom they
rely to provide the reassurance and confidence they need to be successful in life and in
business. And the aquaculture industry is no different.
Think of third-party certification as your parachute. Certification programs such as
the Best Aquaculture Practices provide farms, processing plants, feed mills and hatcheries with the assurance that they’re adhering to a rigorous set of standards addressing
environmental and social responsibility, food safety, animal welfare and traceability.
And there’s longevity to this assurance. The BAP shrimp farm standards were introduced in 2003, when the concept of third-party certification for aquaculture was in its
infancy. Since then, multiple sets of standards have been created, the most recent being
the BAP multi-species farm standards, which opened up the program to a number of
finfish and crustacean species not previously covered, including seabass, sea bream,
cobia, seriola and barramundi.
Additionally, the BAP standards are continually strengthened and improved by a
committee with diverse representation, and BAP-certified facilities are subject to annual
audits. These regularly trained auditors are independent and held accountable to ensure
they’re capable of auditing facilities against the BAP standards.
As you recognize those who pack your parachute, also think about those whose parachutes you are packing. Whose lives are you affecting? The Global Aquaculture Alliance
sets out to provide an arena for success for its supporters and BAP market endorsers. As
suppliers and retailers of seafood from BAP-certified facilities, you’re also providing an
arena for success, for consumers who seek safe, healthy, sustainable seafood.
Consumers expect that the farmed seafood they’re buying is produced with such
thoroughness. They don’t know personally the farmers and processors who handle their
fish, but they know they can trust their retailers. And retailers know they can trust their
suppliers and producers when they’re aligned with the right organizations.
We have a lot to learn from Capt. Plumb and the Navy sailor who packed his parachute. We should strive to be a little bit like both – trusting and recognizing those upon
whom we depend and supporting those who depend on us.
Don’t get caught without a parachute.
To many people in the aquaculture industry, animal disease is the most significant challenge we face as
we strive to develop and expand production. Many
diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites and
other undiagnosed and emerging pathogens have
Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
affected aquaculture, and they will continue to have
significant impacts as our industry expands to meet the
Editor, Development Manager
Global Aquaculture Advocate
challenge of increased production.
The infectious salmon anemia (ISA) virus in
Atlantic salmon is a well-known and notorious example of a disease that can cause serious problems. After
more than two decades of impressive growth, the Chilean salmon industry faced major
production losses in mid-2007 due to the effects of the virus.
Industry has been aggressively addressing the ISA challenge, helped by an initiative of
the Global Aquaculture Alliance – co-sponsored by the Subsecretary of Fisheries – Chile,
SalmonChile and World Bank, and developed by an international team of experts. However, ISA continues to be a major issue for salmon farming globally.
Recent industry news reported that in Canada, a cull was ordered after the third case
of ISA in one year was discovered at a Newfoundland fish farm. ISA was also detected in
a farm in central Norway, and measures were taken to avoid the spread of the disease. And
in Chile, SERNAPESCA, the country’s Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, is
implementing even stricter new regulations on salmon production, reducing both density
and numbers of fish.
Another current and pertinent example is that of the early mortality syndrome or acute
hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome (AHPNS) in shrimp farms. It continues to be a most
serious problem in Asia and perhaps other regions, and has significantly affected farmed
shrimp supplies to global markets.
In this context, I would like to remind us all that most, if not all, major shrimp diseases in the industry’s relatively brief existence have eventually found their way to all
shrimp-farming areas around the world. I believe it is unrealistic to expect otherwise and
unwise not to act proactively following the recommendations of industry disease experts
and using available tools.
Communications are critical for effective disease management. Along these lines, this
issue of the Advocate brings you several articles with the latest findings on EMS/AHPNS,
which we hope will be useful to shrimp farmers around the world. We will continue
bringing you the latest information available.
As past stated, diseases are a fact of life in ours and every other animal production industry. The development of better strategies to address these challenges must be a priority to
strengthen and expand global aquaculture production and realize the objective of doubling
production in a decade. This may be particularly relevant in the more tropical latitudes.
In a recent study by T. L. F. Leung and A. E. Bates, the authors analyzed the severity
of disease outbreaks across different latitudes in a diverse range of aquaculture systems.
Among other findings, they reported that diseases progress faster and cause higher cumulative mortality – particularly at early stages of development and in shellfish – at lower
latitudes.
Aquaculture industries in tropical countries – where most future aquaculture growth is
forecasted to take place – experience proportionally greater losses to disease outbreaks and
have less time to mitigate losses.
That’s important food for thought for those in the seafood business.
Sincerely,
Sincerely,
Wally Stevens
Darryl E. Jory
FOUNDING MEMBERS
Agribrands International Inc.
Agromarina de Panamá, S.A.
Alicorp SAA – Nicovita
Aqualma – Unima Group
Aquatec/Camanor
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras
Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão
Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.
Bluepoints Co., Inc.
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Chicken of the Sea Frozen Foods
Continental Grain Co.
C.P. Aquaculture Business Group
Darden Restaurants
Deli Group, Ecuador
Deli Group, Honduras
Delta Blue Aquaculture
Diamante del Mar S.A.
Eastern Fish Co.
El Rosario, S.A.
Empacadora Nacional, C.A.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Expalsa – Exportadora de Alimentos S.A.
FCE Agricultural Research and Management, Inc.
High Liner Foods
India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group
INVE Aquaculture, N.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Long John Silver’s, Inc.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maritech S.A. de C.V.
Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC
Monsanto
Morrison International, S.A.
National Fish & Seafood Co./
Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.
National Food Institute
National Prawn Co.
Ocean Garden Products, Inc.
Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM
Pescanova USA
Preferred Freezer Services
Productora Semillal, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
Sociedad Nacional de Galápagos
Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
July/August 2013
3
Join the world’s leading
aquaculture organization
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply.
Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance,
the leading standards-setting organization for farmed
seafood.
Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture management. Connect with other responsible
companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.
Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine,
GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits. Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office
for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture
St. Louis, Missouri, USA – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
GOVERNING MEMBERS
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Alltech
Blue Archipelago Berhad
Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.
Cargill
Chang International Inc
C.P. Food Products, Inc.
Darden Restaurants
Delta Blue Aquaculture LLC
Diversified Business Communications
Eastern Fish Co., Inc.
Grobest USA Inc
High Liner Foods
Integrated Aquaculture International
International Associates Corp.
INVE B.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Marine Technologies
Mazzetta Co. LLC
Megasupply
Morey’s Seafood International
National Fish & Seafood Inc.
Novus International
Pescanova USA
Red Chamber Co.
Rich Products Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua
Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seajoy
Thai Union Group
Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Wuhan Liangzhongxing Supply Chain
Management Co., Ltd.
Zeigler Brothers , Inc.
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July/August 2013
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld
Ammon International
Anova Food Inc.
Aqua Star
Aquatec Industrial Pecuaria Ltda.
BioMar Group
Blue Ridge Aquaculture
Camanchaca Inc.
Channel Fish Processing Co., Inc.
Direct Source Seafood
DNI Group, LLC
DSM Nutritional Products
Fortune Fish Co.
Gorton’s Seafood
Great American Seafood Imports Co.
H & N Foods International, Inc./Expack
Hai Yang International, LLC
Harbor Seafood
Harvest Select
International Marketing Specialists
iPura Food Distribution Co.
Maritime Products International
Mirasco, Inc.
North Coast Seafoods
Odyssey Enterprises, Inc.
Orca Bay Seafoods
Ore-Cal Corp.
PSC Enterprise LLC
Quirch Foods
Rubicon Resources
Seacore Seafood, Inc.
Seafood Industry Development Corp.
Seattle Fish Co.
Seattle Fish Co. of New Mexico
Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
Solae, LLC
Tampa Bay Fisheries, Inc.
Tampa Maid Foods
The Fishin’ Co.
The Great Fish Co.
United Seafood Enterprises, L.P.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
All China Federation of Industry
and Commerce Aquatic Production
Chamber of Commerce
American Feed Industry Association
Asociacion Latino Americana
de Plantas de Rendimiento
Associação Brasileira de Criadores
de Camarão
Australian Prawn Farmers Association
Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation
Camara Nacional de Acuacultura
China Aquatic Products Processing
and Marketing Association
Fats and Proteins Research
Foundation, Inc.
Indiana Soybean Alliance
Indonesian Aquaculture Society
International Fishmeal and
Fish Oil Organisation
Malaysian Shrimp
Industry Association
Marine Products Export
Development Authority
National Fisheries Institute
National Renderers Association
Oceanic Institute
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
SalmonChile
Salmon of the Americas
Seafood Importers
and Processors Alliance
Soy Aquaculture Alliance
Thai Frozen Foods Association
Universidad Austral de Chile
U.S. Soybean Export Council
World Aquaculture Society
World Renderers Organization
gaa activities
Alliance Signs MoU With ASC, GlobalGAP
The Global Aquaculture Alliance has
entered a memorandum of understanding
(MoU) with the Aquaculture Stewardship
Council (ASC) and GlobalGAP whereby
the standards-setting organizations will
work collaboratively to increase efficiency
and streamline the auditing process.
In an April 22 ceremony before the
European Seafood Exposition in Brussels, Belgium, GAA, ASC and GlobalGAP agreed to explore ways to reduce
duplication of effort for farms and other
aquaculture facilities that undertake certification under the different programs.
All three certification programs share
common elements that address key environmental and social impacts of aquaculture, yet currently audits for each organization’s standards are conducted separately.
The groups recognize that by working
together, they can more effectively promote environmentally and socially
responsible seafood farming and processing. The goal of the MoU is to make certification more accessible and create
greater value to a greater number of
farmers and processors.
“It makes perfect sense for us to work
together,” BAP Vice President of Development Peter Redmond said in a press
briefing following the signing. “We’re not
enemies – we have strong mutual ground
where we want to work together. We
want to take a lot of duplication out, and
we want to create an environment for a
retailer or a supplier where there isn’t this
confusion, this murkiness.”
“The New England Aquarium, which
helps seafood-buying companies navigate
Chris Ninnes (ASC, left), Peter Redmond (BAP) and Kristin Moeller (GlobalGAP)
signed an agreement in Brussels to collaborate on certification.
the certification landscape, supports the
spirit and intent of this MoU,” said
Heather Tausig, aquarium associate vice
president of conservation. “By facilitating
greater transparency, alignment, efficiency
and collective action among multiple standards, this collaboration helps bolster the
credibility and integrity of certification as
an important tool for sustainability.”
The individual certification programs
will continue to operate separately, and
the integrity and transparency of the programs will not be compromised by any
cooperative actions.
In addition to reducing duplication of
effort in the auditing process, GAA,
ASC and GlobalGAP will seek to
develop common requirements related to
feed and explore common approaches to
the management of certification information and auditor training.
“This MoU has taken time and discussion to materialize,” said Melanie
Siggs, who convened the first standard
holders’ meeting while working for SeaWeb in 2010. “That’s because the parties
involved recognize the importance of this
step in the evolution of seafood standards
and aquaculture development. I’m
thrilled to see this step forward that will
support all stakeholders from producers
to buyers.”
BAP Finfish/Crustacean Certification
Now Available
Application forms are now available for facilities that seek
certification under the new Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP)
standards for finfish and crustaceans. To apply, visit www.
gaalliance.org/certfication/process.php and review the information on the certification process. Download an application form
in Excel format, as well as a copy of the standards and guidelines
in PDF format.
The new multi-species farm standards can be implemented
at all types of production systems for finfish and crustaceans,
excluding cage-raised salmonids, which retain separate BAP
standards. The new standards apply to species that include but
are not limited to seabass, sea bream, cobia, seriola, trout, grouper, barramundi, perch, carp, flounder, turbot, striped bass,
crabs, freshwater prawns and crawfish.
The finfish/crustacean standards
replace the species-specific BAP standards previously established for shrimp,
tilapia, Pangasius and channel catfish.
Farms new to BAP certification that
raise fish or crustaceans other than salmonids must use the Finfish
and Crustacean Farms Standards documents. Farms that are currently BAP certified will have a transition period to adapt to the
new standards, which will become mandatory on January 1, 2014.
There are some limits to the facilities covered under the new
multi-species standards. Only farms that use captive broodstock
for the production of stocking material are eligible. Farms must
also not use wild-caught feed items.
July/August 2013
5
GAA Welcomes New Salmon Farms
To BAP Program
Certifications of salmon farms have recently been leading the
Best Aquaculture Practices program growth, with additional certifications of facilities that produce shrimp and tilapia (Table 1).
In early June, Blumar S.A. became the third salmon company in Chile to achieve three-star Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) certification.
Blumar’s processing plant in Concepcion recently earned
certified status, joining the company’s 11 BAP-certified salmon
farm sites and the four BAP-certified feed mills from which it
sources feed – Biomar Chile S.A.’s Planta Castro and Planta
Pargua, EWOS Chile Alimentos Ltda. and Nutreco Chile
S.A.’s Osorno facility.
Located in Chile’s Region XI, Blumar’s farms collectively
produce about 4,500 mt/cycle of salmon. The fish are marketed
in the United States, the European Union and Brazil to both
retail and foodservice customers. Among Blumar’s customers are
Walmart, Sam’s Club and Sysco.
“At Blumar, we are convinced that all our processes have to
be environmentally and socially sustainable to achieve long-term
profitability and project our activity into the future,” said
Gerardo Balbontin Fox, CEO of Blumar Seafood. “The three-
star BAP certification of our integrated salmon-farming operations is solid proof of our commitment to the environment, the
neighboring communities and our customers around the world.”
Multiexport Foods S.A. received two-star BAP certification
in May. Six Multiexport salmon farms in Chile were certified. In
January 2012, the company’s processing plant in Puerto Montt
became the world’s first salmon plant to receive BAP certification.
The six farm sites – Izaza, Polla, Refugio, Simpson, Williams
and Wickham – collectively produce more than 20,000 mt of
salmon annually in Chile’s Region XI. The fish are marketed
throughout the Americas, mainly in the United States and Brazil, to both retail and foodservice customers.
“Multiexport Foods is proud of our results and ongoing
efforts with our continuous improvement projects related to sustainability and the environment,” said Jason Paine, general manager of Multiexport Foods – USA. “We are pleased with the
recent recognition of two-star BAP certification, which provides
an important validation to our strong commitment to improved
aquaculture practices.”
Table 1. Recent BAP certifications around the world.
Facility
Location
Country
Species
Farms
Australis Mar S.A. (2 farms)
Puerto Varas
Chile
Salmon
Grieg Seafood B.C., Ltd. (2 farms)
British Columbia
Canada
Salmon
Mainstream Canada (3 farms)
British Columbia
Canada
Salmon
Nespelem, Washington
United States
Salmon
Beihai City, Guangxi
Jember, East Java
China
Shrimp
Indonesia
Shrimp
Surat Thani
Thailand
Shrimp
Yangjiang, Guangdong
China
Tilapia
Pacific Aquaculture Inc. (2 farms)
Liu Mao Ye Farm
P.T. Delta Guna Sukses
Thai Union Frozen
Processing Plants
Guangdong Shunxin Sea Fishery Co., Ltd.
BAP Processing Standards Benchmarked
Against GFSI
The Global Aquaculture Alliance’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) seafood processing plant standards were successfully
benchmarked against the latest Global Food Safety Initiative
(GFSI) food safety requirements in mid-May.
The BAP standards now align with GFSI Guidance Document Sixth Edition, which according to GFSI represents an
upgrade from the previous edition in that the requirements for
program management were strengthened, and the document was
expanded to cover primary production, processing and supporting activities more robustly.
The BAP seafood processing plant standards were originally
benchmarked against GFSI Guidance Document Fifth Edition
in June 2010.
“Being successfully re-benchmarked by GFSI is a testament
6
July/August 2013
that BAP-certified facilities meet the highest standards for food
safety,” GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens said. “BAP-certified facilities will be able to continue to meet the demands of
seafood retailers and distributors requiring GFSI. This rigorous
process addresses not only food safety and the content of the
standards, but also scheme governance.
GFSI documents provide an internationally recognized
benchmark against which any food-assurance standard can be
measured. Representing a collaboration of leading experts from
retail, foodservice and manufacturing companies, GFSI pursues
continuous improvement in food-safety management and cost
efficiency in the supply chain.
Pacific Seafood’s certified farm raises trout on the Columbia River.
First U.S. Steelhead Trout Farm
Achieves BAP Certification
On April 19, Pacific Seafood Group’s steelhead trout farm on the Columbia River
became the United States’ first salmonid farm to achieve Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) certification.
Operated by Pacific Seafood’s Pacific Aquaculture division, the farm is located in
Nespelem on the Colville Nation in northeastern Washington state. Pacific Seafood
purchased the farm in 2008 but partners with the Colville Nation to operate it. Most
farm employees are members of the Colville Nation.
The farm produces more than 3,630 mt of steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss, annually
in pens. The fish are marketed throughout North America, mostly fresh, to both retail
and foodservice customers.
“Our team is extremely proud to receive BAP certification,” said John Bielka, general manager of Pacific Aquaculture. “It demonstrates that we are living out our company vision of providing the healthiest protein on the planet while promoting sustainable practices.”
“This is an exciting development for us in this species and a great step forward,” said
Peter Redmond, BAP’s vice president of development. “GAA is excited to further develop
our relationship with Pacific Seafood and welcomes the Colville Nation into the growing
fold of those who strive to grow fantastic-quality fish in a responsible manner.”
Based in Clackamas, Oregon, family-owned Pacific Seafood is one of the United
States’ largest seafood suppliers and distributors. The company processes seafood from
Alaska to Mexico and has facilities in seven western U.S. states.
GAA Home Office Moves ‘Up’
The St. Louis office of the Global Aquaculture Alliance has a new home that reflects
larger, more modern quarters that will allow continued expansion of the organization.
GAA’s new address is 4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302; St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA.
The main telephone and fax numbers remain +1-314-293-5500 and +1-314-293-5525.
GAA is now located on the third floor of the PNC Bank Building in South St. Louis
County. The building is easily accessible at the corner of Interstate 255 and Telegraph Road.
GAA remained at its original business location – on the second floor of the Kadean
Building, about 3 km south of its new address – for over 13 years. The move was
prompted primarily by the need for more space.
“We simply outgrew the old office,” GAA President George Chamberlain said.
“We had to store records and other file materials in separate rooms in the basement.
And although it was initially an economical location, we were still operating in what used
to be a medical suite.”
The new office includes space for additional employees and furnishings, bringing
reference materials closer to their users, upgraded facilities and sound improvements. A
third-floor view to the Mississippi River is a bonus.
“It’s great to be here,” said David Wolfe, a writer and editor who has been with
GAA since 1999. “We’re still unpacking, but it already feels like home.”
July/August 2013
7
Nicovita Symposium Confirms Importance
Of Innovation, Technology
Case Study On WSSV In Mozambique,
Madagascar Examines Methods, Management
there is an urgent need for increased food production. A recent report
indicated nearly a billion people go to bed hungry every night.
According to the World Bank Fish to 2030 project, the 2011
seafood supply included 90.4 mmt of seafood from fisheries and
63.6 mmt from aquaculture. Although aquaculture production
continues to increase, it needs to expand at least 7.2% annually.
Where Must We Go?
United Nations and World Bank projections indicate that by
2030, fisheries harvests will increase slightly to about 95.7 mmt,
while aquaculture production must expand considerably to about
93.4 mmt. The species of greatest anticipated growth are
shrimp, tilapia, carp and catfish, and Latin America can expect a
significant increase in production.
GAA’s Darryl Jory was the keynote speaker at Nicovita – Alicorp’s
symposium in Ecuador.
The overall conclusion drawn at the April Nicovita – Alicorp
SAA symposium in Arenillas, Ecuador, was that only with innovative leadership and novel technologies will the aquaculture
industry grow globally to sustainably provide increased production.
A leading manufacturer of aquaculture feeds based in Peru,
Nicovita – Alicorp held its sixth symposium under the theme of
“We Are Responsible for Tomorrow – So We Act Today.” The
event was attended by around 350 people from several countries
in the region.
Dr. Darryl Jory, GAA development manager and editor of
the Global Aquaculture Advocate, was the keynote speaker. He
opened the symposium with “Aquaculture’s Future: What Are
We Doing Today?” and also closed the event with an overview
of the various talks presented.
The speakers and many exhibitors focused on several key questions.
Where Are We?
There already are more than 7 billion people worldwide, and
What Are We Doing?
Several major factors limit aquaculture expansion: diseases,
feeds and ingredients, environmental impacts, financing industry
expansion and markets.
Disease issues examined at the symposium included infectious salmon anemia in Chile and bacterial infections in white
shrimp. There were also discussions on Ecuador’s innovative
efforts in shrimp breeding.
Of particular importance was the discussion of early mortality syndrome, which is currently impacting shrimp in Asia. Possible causes were considered, and management strategies were
recommended for this new disease.
What Do We Need To Do?
As expressed at the symposium, the keys to successful expansion of the aquaculture industry are innovation and technology,
applied in each component of the supply chain. Greater efficiency is needed, as well as development of new species and
more production from established species. Aquaculture needs
improvements in breeding and genetics, feeds, health management and production technology, as well as new markets.
Cause Of EMS Shrimp Disease Identified
After months of investigation by a research team led by Dr.
Donald Lightner at the University of Arizona, the elusive pathogen that causes early mortality syndrome (EMS), an emerging
shrimp disease in Southeast Asia more technically known as
acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome (AHPNS), has been
identified.
The researchers found that EMS is caused by a bacterial
agent, which is transmitted orally, colonizes the shrimp gastrointestinal tract and produces a toxin that causes tissue destruction
and dysfunction of the shrimp digestive organ, the hepatopancreas. It does not affect humans.
Lightner’s team identified the EMS/AHPNS pathogen as a
unique strain of a relatively common bacterium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, that is infected by a virus known as a phage, which
causes it to release a potent toxin.
Research continues on the development of diagnostic tests
for rapid detection of the EMS/AHPNS pathogen that will
enable improved management of hatcheries and ponds, and help
lead to a long-term solution for the disease. It will also enable a
8
July/August 2013
better evaluation of risks associated with importation of shrimp
from countries affected by EMS.
Some countries have implemented policies that restrict the
importation of frozen shrimp or other products from EMSaffected countries. Lightner said frozen shrimp likely pose a low
risk for contamination of wild shrimp or the environment
because EMS-infected shrimp are typically very small and do not
enter international commerce. Also, his repeated attempts to
transmit the disease using frozen tissue were unsuccessful.
The World Bank and the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation initiated a case study in Vietnam in July 2012 to investigate
EMS and its impacts, and recommend management measures
for the public and private sectors. The study team included
Lightner. At a panel discussion at GAA’s GOAL meeting in
October 2012, Lightner and Dr. Timothy Flegel speculated that
the elusive nature of EMS might be explained by a bacteriophage.
EMS/AHPNS is among the topics that will be addressed at
GAA’s GOAL 2013 conference in Paris, France, in October.
The study team met with stakeholders in Mozambique and Madagascar to review the impacts of the WSSV outbreak and potential
strategies for recovery.
The third case study by the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation and the World Bank ventured to Mozambique and Madagascar May 10 to 23 to deal with an outbreak of white spot syndrome
virus (WSSV) at shrimp farms in the region. As with the other
studies in this series on “Lesson Sharing in Aquaculture Disease
Management,” the ultimate objective was to reduce the risk of disease through improved management and policy.
The study team consisted of George Chamberlain (coordinator), Donald Lightner (shrimp pathologist), Noriaki Akazawa
(Asian shrimp farm manager), Marcos Villarreal (Central American
shrimp farm manager), Richard Towner (geneticist), Peter van Wyk
(financial analyst) and Adolfo Alvial (public private partnerships).
The methodology was to meet with stakeholders in Mozambique and Madagascar to review the chronology and impacts of
the WSSV outbreak, the measures taken by the public and private
sectors, and the strategies for recovery.
Of the 10 shrimp operations located in this region, only five
were operating at the time of the visit. Most produce black tiger
shrimp in large, semi-intensive ponds in remote areas where logistics are difficult and production costs are high. They overcome
these high costs by selling to premium markets, which value
extraordinary product quality and commitment to environmental
Site visits were
made to a number
of the large, semiintensive ponds
that produce highquality black tiger
shrimp.
and social sustainability. Two of the farms are certified as organic.
To maintain their unique market niche, farms in this region do
not wish to deviate greatly from their existing semi-intensive production systems.
At the concluding workshop in Antananarivo, Madagascar, the
team presented a summary of the study findings. Lightner described
the biology and transmission of WSSV. DNA sequencing of the
strains present in Mozambique and Madagascar indicated they were
derived from a unique strain originating in Saudi Arabia.
Akazawa reviewed methods used to manage WSSV in Asia,
principally through exclusion using specific pathogen-free (SPF)
broodstock, filtration and disinfection of water, and netting over
ponds to exclude birds. Villarreal described the similarities of
shrimp farms in Central America to those in East Africa at the
time of their WSSV outbreaks and the steps taken in Central
America to eliminate use of wild stocks and begin breeding for
WSSV resistance.
The concluding
workshop emphasized the importance of cooperation and sharing
of resources to
overcome the
WSSV crisis.
Much of the workshop emphasized the importance of cooperation and sharing of resources to overcome the WSSV crisis.
Chamberlain described the time and resources needed to develop
SPF lines of black tiger shrimp in Brunei and the need to take
advantage of existing SPF domesticated lines in Madagascar.
Towner outlined the structure of a family breeding program to
achieve WSSV resistance in black tiger shrimp.
Van Wyk constructed an enterprise budget for a typical farm
in the region and concluded that the addition of modest aeration
would enable increased yield and reduced water exchange, and
generate sufficient revenue to support improved water filtration.
However, aeration for other than emergency use is not allowed
under the rules of European Union organic certification.
While the remote location of each farm forces it to be independent and self-sufficient, the outbreak of WSSV introduced the
need for increased cooperation in both the public and private sectors. Development of a breeding program to produce WSSVresistant postlarvae would be more affordable if the costs were
shared by all farms in the region.
After much discussion, the stakeholders agreed on four areas
of common interest: surveillance of WSSV prevalence in wild
crustaceans, biosecurity measures at the farm level, development of
SPF WSSV-resistant postlarvae and regional cooperation among
national agencies and producer associations. Their inspirational
spirit of cooperation was reflected in an African proverb: “If you
want to go fast, go alone. If you want to go far, go together.”
July/August 2013
9
BAP Farm Auditor Course Set
For September In Canada
The September course will cover the
marine cage portion of the new multispecies standards, as well as BAP’s new
mussel farm standards.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance
invites aspiring auditors, returning auditors requiring refresher training, producers, government officials and other industry observers to attend the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) Farm Auditor
Training Course to be held in Toronto,
Canada, from September 11 to 13.
The course will teach the marine cage
portion of the new BAP multi-species
finfish and crustacean farm standards that
were completed in late April. The course
will also cover the new BAP mussel farm
standards, which are in the process of
being finalized.
The venue for the course in Toronto
has not yet been determined.
To be considered for participation,
candidates must initially complete an
online application and submit credentials
for review. Auditor candidates must have
at least five years of seafood industryrelated experience, a degree in a relevant
scientific field and/or other relevant education, audit-specific training and proficiency in English.
Although participants must complete
all of the homework and tests for all facility categories, they need only pass the
homework and final exams for the areas
of competency for which they were
accepted into the course.
Auditors must be independent to
avoid conflict of interest. Course appli-
cants who work for seafood traders,
importers, exporters, farms, hatcheries,
feed manufacturers or similar companies
may attend as observers but cannot be
accepted as auditor candidates.
For more information on the course
program, how to apply, competency
requirements, fees and more, visit the
“BAP Auditor Course Info” page of the
Best Aquaculture Practices website at
www.bestaquaculturepractices.org. Please
follow the instructions carefully.
Improper submittals will be rejected.
Candidates are encouraged to apply as
soon as possible, as participants are
admitted on a space-available basis.
Changing the way fish,
and the industry, view protein.
Course candidates are encouraged to apply
as soon as possible, as participants are
admitted on a space-available basis.
Trusted,
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for Aquaculture
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ingredient source for the aquaculture industry.
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© 2012 Tyson Foods, Inc. Tyson is a registered trademark of Tyson Foods, Inc. 24802903-0007
Publication
Global
Type Half-Page Horizontal
July/August
2013 Aquaculture
global aquacultureAd
advocate
10
Dimensions 7.5 × 4.875 inches
July/August 2013
11
Topics, Speakers Identified For GOAL 2013
States. The aquaculture industry is working on strategies to
manage the disease, and an update will be provided.
AHPNS isn’t the only disease that will be discussed. An
update on infectious salmon anemia will also be provided by Dr.
Fred Kibenge, professor of virology and chairman of the department of pathology and microbiology at the University of Prince
Edward Island in Canada.
Day 2 – Challenges, Solutions
Hundreds of seafood and aquaculture professionals from around the
world will meet in Paris to exchange ideas and gain insights on the
global status of aquaculture.
The program for Global Aquaculture Alliance’s GOAL 2013
conference is shaping up nicely. At press time in early June, the
program outline and a number of speakers were set.
Held at the Hotel Pullman Montparnasse in Paris, France,
from October 7 to 10, the conference will feature three days of
presentations and discussions, beginning in the morning with
general sessions and followed in the afternoon by breakout sessions designed to provide additional interaction between the
speakers and the audience.
Day 1 – Production Trends,
Health Management
As in previous years, day 1 of the conference will center on
production trends and fish health management. In addition, international trade – and the politics surrounding it – will be addressed,
particularly weighing the impacts of the European Union’s Generalized System of Preferences on global seafood supplies.
Atlantic salmon, shrimp, Pangasius, tilapia, seabass and sea
bream are among the species that will be addressed at length on
day 1. Production data and forecasting will be offered by representatives of leading seafood production associations and companies. For example, Lara Barazi-Yeroulanos, chief executive officer of Kefalonia Fisheries S.A. in Greece, will tackle seabass and
sea bream production, and the sustainability of Mediterranean
aquaculture from both scientific and economic standpoints.
Early mortality syndrome in shrimp – which has had a big
impact on shrimp production in Southeast Asia – will dominate
the program as it applies to fish health management. The cause
of the elusive pathogen, also known as acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis syndrome (AHPNS), has been identified by Dr. Donald
Lightner and his team at the University of Arizona in the United
On day 2, the discussion will transition to the issues and challenges facing the global aquaculture industry. The day’s sessions will
center on two subjects – identifying aquaculture growth opportunities in Africa and the sustainability of the fish feed supply.
Fish feed is a hot topic in the European marketplace. The
presentations and discussions on fish feed will involve the latest
innovations in feed formulations, debating efforts to increase
feed efficiency and reduce dependency on marine proteins, and
measuring the progress of fishery improvement projects.
For example, Duncan Leadbitter, technical director of the
Sustainable Fisheries Partnership, will provide an update on
projects for feed fish fisheries in Southeast Asia. His presentation will include an explanation of recent progress and what will
be needed to improve problem fisheries in the near future.
Day 3 – Marketplace
Day 3 of the GOAL 2013 conference will focus on the marketplace. Peter Redmond, vice president of business development for the Best Aquaculture Practices program, will moderate
three panel discussions featuring representatives of many of the
world’s leading retailers, who will address the challenges and
opportunities they face. Dissecting Europe’s complex marketplace and meeting the needs of Europe’s discerning buyers and
consumers will be among the topics they address.
Also on day 3, the need to better educate the public – and
those who influence consumers, particularly dieticians and nutritionists – about the health benefits of seafood consumption will
be discussed.
For updates on the GOAL conference program, check the
GAA site regularly: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2013/goalprogram.php.
12
July/August 2013
after six years, the Global aquaculture alliance’s annual Goal (Global
outlook for aquaculture leadership) conference is returning to europe
in style. Paris, France, is the home of Goal 2013, and you’re invited to join
us in this center of the culinary world, where dining on carefully sourced,
thoughtfully prepared food is a way of life.
Calling All Stakeholders
this year’s theme, “Join the Journey,” invites seafood professionals up and
down the value chain to engage in the responsible aquaculture movement.
the theme recognizes that responsible aquaculture is not a destination but
rather a journey. many of the sustainable seafood goals set by retailers and
foodservice operators, as well as suppliers and producers, a number
of years ago have been or are about to be met.
GOAL 2013 will define the agenda for the next 10 to 20 years. What else
can be done to ensure that the additional 40 million metric tons of seafood
required by 2030 to meet the world’s food needs are produced in
a responsible manner?
Africa Review, European Marketplace
among other topics, Goal 2013 will examine the role of africa in meeting
the world’s seafood needs. currently, africa represents only 2.2 percent of
global aquaculture production. Yet the continent has about 26,000 kilometers
(16,000 miles) of coastline and a population of 1 billion. How can africa
benefit from increasing its aquaculture output? The event will also focus
on the european marketplace and what the aquaculture sector can do
to better meet the needs of discerning european buyers and consumers.
Educating Seafood Professionals
The Hotel Pullman Montparnasse conference hotel offers easy
access, excellent amenities and special rates for GOAL attendees.
Janet Vogel Leaves Advocate Staff
Janet Vogel has left her position as manager of the Global
Aquaculture Advocate. For assistance with advertising in GAA’s
bimonthly magazine, please contact GAA Communications
Manager Steve Hedlund at steven.hedlund@gaalliance.org or
+1-207-831-0196. For information on ad specifications, contact
GAA Designer Lorraine Jennemann at lorrainej@gaalliance.org
or +1-314-293-5500.
Welcome to Paris
Vogel, who joined the Advocate staff in July 2011, was
responsible for magazine advertising sales, distribution and production. She came to GAA with nearly 30 years of seafood
industry experience in sales and marketing.
During her two years with the magazine, Vogel expanded
advertising sales and significantly increased the number of
industry events at which the Advocate is distributed.
the Goal 2013 conference program will feature three half-day sessions
of presentations and discussions, providing attendees detailed, up-to-date
information on the farmed seafood value chain, including supply and
demand forecasts, environmental and social challenges, investment
opportunities and consumption trends. throughout the event, dozens
of speakers and panelists will share their thoughts on the future
of responsible aquaculture.
many of the world’s leading farmed seafood species will be covered,
including:
• White and black tiger shrimp • Pangasius
• Atlantic salmon
• Seabass, sea bream
• Tilapia
• Emerging species
The feed fish supply and the need to increase the amount of sustainably
caught feed fish will also be discussed.
www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2013
July/August 2013
13
GOAL REGISTRATION
NOW AVAILABLE!
Visit www.gaalliance.org/
GOAL2013
for program details and full
registration information. Link
to make hotel reservations, too.
Hotel Pullman Paris Montparnasse
The Pullman Paris Montparnasse is an upscale, 957-room hotel located in
the heart of Paris’ historic Left Bank district. It’s one of Europe’s largest
business hotels, with 4,153 square meters (45,370 square feet) of meeting
space and 49 meeting rooms. The hotel is just a stone’s throw from the
Montparnasse Métro station and only 10 minutes by train to the Eiffel Tower.
It’s located about 37 kilometers (23 miles) from Charles de Gaulle
International Airport.
The hotel has two dining options — Justine, a full-service lunch and dinner
spot, and Café Atlantic, an ideal location for a quick bite or drink, or
a casual business meeting.
Networking With Leaders
GOAL 2013 is expected to draw upward of 400 seafood professionals
representing many of the world’s leading retailers, foodservice operators,
suppliers, producers, academic institutions and environmental and social
organizations. There will be many opportunities to network with industry
leaders and set up meetings with existing and potential suppliers and buyers.
GOAL 2013 is conveniently held just days after the CONXEMAR International
Frozen Seafood Products Exhibition in Vigo, Spain, and before the Groundfish
Forum and Seafood Barcelona.
Offsite Tours
GOAL 2013 will include a pre-conference tour of Rungis Market in Paris, the
world’s largest wholesale food market, which handles more than 1.4 million
metric tons (1.5 million U.S. tons) of food a year. Rungis Market has an
annual turnover of about €7.8 billion (U.S. $10.4 billion), features over 1,200
companies and employs 11,683 workers. As for seafood, the facility’s 55
seafood vendors handle more than 169,000 metric tons (186,290 U.S. tons)
of fresh, frozen and smoked finfish and shellfish a year.
GOAL 2013 Online
For more information on signing up for tours or for event and registration
information, please visit the GOAL 2013 web pages at www.gaalliance.org/
GOAL2013. Photos, videos and profiles of speakers from previous GOAL
events are also posted here. More information about GOAL 2013 will be
added as it becomes available.
CONFERENCE PROGRAM
MONDAY, OCTOBER 7
Registration
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture
www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2013
14
July/August 2013
Lunch
1:00-2:00 p.m.
1:00-2:00 p.m.
Welcome Reception
AFTERNOON PROGRAM
TUESDAY, OCTOBER 8
Breakout Sessions
In-depth discussions on production
data, international trade
and health management
MORNING PROGRAM
9:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m.
Opening Remarks
Keynote Address
Presentation of Lifetime
Achievement Award
Production Data
Forecasting global supplies of
Atlantic salmon, shrimp, Pangasius,
tilapia, seabass and sea bream
Lara Barazi-Yeroulanos, CEO of Kefalonia
Fisheries S.A. in Greece, will address
seabass and sea bream production
and the sustainability of Mediterranean
aquaculture, from both scientific and
economic standpoints.
Willem van der Pijl, a seafood market
and supply chain specialist for LEI
Wageningen U.R. in the Netherlands,
will focus on the constraints for future
development of shrimp production
in Asia, with a focus on Myanmar. Pijl
has conducted research for the Dutch
Centre for the Promotion of Imports
from Developing Countries and Dutch
Sustainable Trade Initiative.
International Trade
Weighing the impacts of E.U.’s
Generalized System of Preferences
on global seafood supplies
Health Management
Update on early mortality
syndrome in shrimp, infectious
salmon anemia and other diseases
Lunch
Dr. Fred Kibenge, professor of virology
and chairman of the department of
pathology and microbiology at the
University of Prince Edward Island,
will provide an update on efforts to
manage infectious salmon anemia.
2:00-5:00 p.m.
BAP Meetings
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 9
MORNING PROGRAM
9:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m.
AFTERNOON PROGRAM
2:00-5:00 p.m.
Breakout Sessions
In-depth discussions on investing
in Africa and fish feed
BAP Meetings
Gala Dinner
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 10
MORNING PROGRAM
9:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m.
Keynote Address
Presentation of Lifetime
Achievement Award
Opportunity Africa
Identifying aquaculture growth
opportunities in Africa
Jim Greenberg, DevCorps International, will lead a panel discussion on
aquaculture growth opportunities in
North Africa and the Middle East.
Fish Feed
Presenting the latest innovations
in feed formulations and debating
the effort to increase feed efficiency
and reduce dependency
on marine proteins
Duncan Leadbitter, technical director
of the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership,
will provide an update on improvement projects for feed fish fisheries in
Southeast Asia, including the progress
necessary to improve problem fisheries
in the near future.
Antoine Hubert, associate partner
of Ynsect in Paris, will talk about the
potential of insect meal as a feed
ingredient and address the challenges
faced by the sector.
Presentation of Global
Aquaculture Innovation Award
Sponsored by Novus International
Keynote Address
Retail Roundtable
The world’s leading seafood
retailers discuss the challenges
and opportunities they face
European Marketplace
Dissecting Europe’s complex
marketplace and meeting the
needs of Europe’s discerning
buyers and consumers
Educating the Educators
Providing those who influence
consumers, particularly dieticians
and nutritionists, with the information they require to help consumers
make more educated seafoodpurchasing decisions
Linda Cornish, executive director
of the Seafood Nutrition Partnership,
will lead a discussion on promoting
the nutritional benefits of farmed
seafood and what industry can do
to better educate consumers.
OFFSITE ACTIVITIES
Rungis Market
Tours of Rungis Market to be held
late Monday, Tuesday and Thursday
July/August 2013
15
challenge: ems/ahpns
Environmental Trigger For EMS/AHPNS
Identified In Agrobest Shrimp Ponds
Noriaki Akazawa
Agrobest Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
Batu 20, Jalan Pekan-Nenasi
26680 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
agbna05@yahoo.co.jp
Mitsuru Eguchi
Kinki University
Nara, Japan
Environmental Interaction?
Shrimp held in aquaria with pH within the “safe zone” behaved normally, while
those in aquaria outside the safe zone exhibited AHPNS symptoms and mortality.
Summary:
In studies of early mortality syndrome/acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis syndrome at a large
integrated shrimp farm in peninsular Malaysia, results indicated
that the disease originated with
infected postlarvae and quickly
spread throughout the farm.
Subsequent data analysis and
aquarium trials indicated the
disease manifested only when a
given environmental parameter,
pH, was within a specific range.
Survival rates have improved
with management of the target
parameter to avoid the zone of
EMS/AHPNS susceptibility.
Agrobest Sdn. Bhd. is a large integrated shrimp farm located in the state of
Pahang, Malaysia (see cover photo). It
consists of 461 plastic-lined ponds with an
average area of 0.75 ha. In 2010, the farm
produced approximately 11,000 mt of
Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, and 500 mt of black tiger shrimp,
Penaeus monodon.
Early mortality syndrome, also known
as acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syn-
16
July/August 2013
drome (AHPNS), appeared at Agrobest
in early January 2011 in five ponds that
were stocked with postlarvae from the
same hatchery about one month earlier.
While the disease appeared to originate from this hatchery, not all ponds
stocked with postlarvae from that hatchery were affected. The plankton blooms
in the five affected ponds were an unusual
color – dark green, almost black, which is
more typically seen at the end of a production cycle. Environmental factors
appeared to have a role in the manifestation of the disease.
Radiating Expansion
Within one week after the outbreak
in the first five ponds, several neighboring ponds were affected with the disease.
Within two months, it had spread
throughout the farm. Typical mortality in
the affected ponds was 70 to 80%, and all
ages and sizes of shrimp were affected.
Based on the radial outward expansion
of the disease from the initial epicenter, it
appeared to be caused by a virulent pathogen, but repeated tests for all known
viruses were negative. Shrimp production
at Agrobest fell dramatically, as it did
throughout Malaysia. Research on the
AHPNS problem was quickly ramped up.
In an initial trial, stressed shrimp
from an affected pond were transferred to
aquaria with clean pond water. During
the morning of their transfer, the shrimp
were severely stressed, exhibited opaque
muscle tissue and were inactive on the
bottom. High mortality was expected.
However, by that afternoon, the shrimp
in the aquaria had recovered normal coloration and activity. They continued to
behave normally for an additional week,
when the trial was discontinued.
In a second trial, non-infected shrimp
were transferred to aquaria with water
from a pond experiencing a die off from
AHPNS. The shrimp remained unaffected, indicating that pond water in itself
was not necessarily infective.
In a third trial, fresh dead shrimp
from an infected pond were put in
aquaria with non-infected shrimp. In
some of the aquaria, the dead shrimp
were placed in cages immersed in the
aquaria that kept the dead animals from
the live shrimp. There was no mortality
in aquaria with caged dead shrimp, but
mortality commenced in one or two days
in aquaria that received dead shrimp outside cages. This indicated the pathogen
could be transmitted through direct
exposure to dead shrimp.
Despite the widespread outbreak at
Agrobest, some ponds remained unaffected, which supported the hypothesis of
environmental interaction with the disease. To better understand and manage
the AHPNS, the Agrobest team intensified its collection of environmental data
from each pond and teamed up with
researchers at Kinki University in Japan
to isolate, purify and sequence the DNA
of the pathogen.
Tests confirmed that cannibalism was a mechanism of disease transfer.
A review of water quality data from
approximately 80 affected and unaffected
ponds stocked during the same month
indicated several water quality differences
that were correlated with outbreaks. To
determine whether any of these correlated conditions might influence the
expression of AHPNS, additional aquarium trials were implemented.
Environmental Trigger
Suspected water quality triggers
within affected ponds were investigated
by maintaining water quality parameters
in the aquaria within specific ranges.
These trials were successful in identifying
pH as a key environmental trigger. At
lower pH (around 7), the disease repeatedly regressed, while at higher pH (8.5 to
8.8), it repeatedly manifested.
To further validate this finding,
infected shrimp were placed in aquaria
filled with water from ponds that were
yielding excellent harvests. The water
quality in these ponds was assumed to be
suitable for avoiding AHPNS. In aquaria
where the pH was manipulated into the
suspected zone of AHPNS vulnerability,
mortality was induced. However, in
aquaria where water quality was maintained outside the zone of vulnerability,
symptoms were not observed.
Histopathology,
Microbiology, Transmission
The ability of the Agrobest team to
control the expression of AHPNS enabled
further collaborative research on the histopathology, DNA sequencing and transmission of the disease. Histopathology of
infected shrimp by the National Research
Institute of Aquaculture (NRIA) in Japan
indicated dysfunction of the hepatopan-
creas and characteristic sloughing of tubule
cells. Microsporidia also multiplied in the
hepatopancreas organs of infected animals.
The hepatopancreas tissues of non-infected
shrimp and those maintained in the safe
zone during aquarium trials remained normal without multiplication of bacteria and
microsporidians.
To determine the DNA sequence of
bacterial pathogens, the Agrobest team isolated bacteria from the hepatopancreas tissues of shrimp and sent the isolated colonies to Japan, where researchers from Kinki
University and the National Research Institute of Aquaculture amplified and
sequenced the DNA using polymerase
chain reaction primers that target 16S
rDNA sequences of bacteria. In a similar
way, researchers from Kinki University and
NRIA examined pond water and sludge
from infected and non-infected ponds by
amplifying the DNA with 16S rDNA
primers followed by differentiation using
denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis.
Several types of bacteria were identified from shrimp, pond water and sludge
from infected and non-infected ponds.
Vibrio was the most common genus, and
one of the species seemed to correspond to
V. parahaemolyticus, but this has not been
finalized. No major differences in bacterial
prevalence or distribution were found
between infected and non-infected ponds.
This supported the hypothesis that
AHPNS bacteria were present throughout
the farm, but only shrimp in ponds
exposed to AHPNS-susceptible environmental conditions manifested the disease.
In aquarium studies, infected shrimp
exhibited abnormal behavior that led to
cannibalism by non-infected shrimp,
despite the presence of pelleted feeds in
the aquaria. Once the cannibalism began,
the mortality of non-infected shrimp rapidly increased. Thus, cannibalism was considered a major mechanism for transmission of AHPNS in ponds.
Once initially established at the farm,
AHPNS reappeared in subsequent production cycles, despite the use of a variety
of postlarvae suppliers, reduction in
stocking density from 120 to 85/m2,
chlorination of seawater and virtually zero
water exchange.
In 2012, pond management efforts
were directed toward maintaining water
quality outside the AHPNS-susceptible
zone. Encouraging results were achieved,
and the typical mortality range of 70 to
80% declined to 20 to 30%. However,
during the fall of 2012, a relapse in mortality occurred in conjunction with a
shipment of feed with poor water stability. After correcting this issue, productivity improvements resumed.
Dead and moribund
shrimp near the
side of an AHPNSaffected pond.
July/August 2013
17
EMS/AHPNS: Infectious Disease
Caused By Bacteria
Loc Tran
Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory
School of Animal and Comparative
Biomedical Sciences
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721 USA
thuuloc@email.arizona.edu
Linda Nunan
Rita M. Redman
Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory
School of Animal and Comparative
Biomedical Sciences
This histological section of a shrimp’s hepatopancreas in a reverse gavage challenge test shows the lesions of an acute phase
of AHPNS characterized by massive sloughing and necrosis of
the tubular epithelial cells (arrows). Scale bar = 100 µ.
Kevin Fitzsimmons, Ph.D.
Gross signs of AHPNS in shrimp include an empty stomach
(left), a pale atrophied hepatopancreas and an empty midgut.
Summary:
Asia’s shrimp-farming industry has been heavily affected
by early mortality syndrome or acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis syndrome. Studies by the University of Arizona Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory identified the
causative agent for AHPNS as a unique strain of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus that can produce toxins responsible for
the primary pathology in affected shrimp. Infected live
shrimp and fresh shrimp tissues can transmit the disease to “clean” shrimp, but the agent is inactivated by
freezing and thawing. Affected shrimp pose no human
health concerns.
The shrimp-farming industry in Asia, the largest and most
productive region in the world, was affected in 2009 by an
emerging disease called early mortality syndrome or, more
descriptively, acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome.
AHPNS began to cause significant production losses in southern
China, and by 2012 had spread to farms in Vietnam, Malaysia
and Thailand.
AHPNS has not only caused serious losses in terms of production and revenues in affected areas, but has also been responsible for secondary impacts on employment, social welfare and
international market presence. The disease has caused significant
shortages of shrimp products for the global market, which in
turn impacted the global price of shrimp.
Pathology
AHPNS usually occurs within 45 days in shrimp ponds with
newly stocked postlarvae of both black tiger shrimp, Penaeus
monodon, and Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. The
18
July/August 2013
Department of Soil, Water
and Environmental Science
Tucson, Arizona, USA
gross signs of AHPNS are evident in pond-side examinations of
affected shrimp accompanied by dissection and examination of
the hepatopancreas organs of the shrimp.
Shrimp with early AHPNS show pale to white coloration of
the hepatopancreas, as well as atrophy that can reduce the size of
the organ by 50% or more. In the terminal phase of the disease,
black streaks or spots due to melanin deposition from hemocyte
activity appear in the hepatopancreas. Mortality in affected shrimp ponds can approach 100%
within a few days of disease occurrence.
The histopathology of AHPNS presents as an acute progressive degeneration of the hepatopancreas from proximal to distal
with dysfunction of tubular epithelial cells. Such cells round up
and detach from the affected tubules, and become necrotic
within the tubules or the gut lumen. In the terminal phase of
AHPNS, the hepatopancreas shows marked hemocytic infiltration and development of massive secondary bacterial colonization that occurs in association with the necrotic and sloughed
epithelial cells. This unique pathology suggested that the primary lesions in the hepatopancreas are mediated by a toxin.
Preliminary Studies
Two approaches were initially undertaken by the University
of Arizona Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory (UAZ-APL) to
determine the etiology of AHPNS. The studies sought to identify a possible environmental toxin in water, sediments, and algae
from affected ponds, feed samples and pesticides as the possible
cause of the disease. Researchers also tested for potential infectious agents using frozen shrimp collected from affected farms in
2011 and 2012. None of the treatments were found to induce
pathology consistent with AHPNS.
Because the initial studies did not pass the disease to the
experimental animals, several site studies in an AHPNS-
This histological section of a shrimp hepatopancreas in an immersion challenge test shows an advanced stage of AHPNS
characterized by hemocytic inflammation, bacterial infection
and massive sloughing and necrosis (arrows, top to bottom).
Scale bar = 50 µ.
endemic area of Vietnam were conducted during middle and late
2012. The results from these studies showed that AHPNS
lesions could be induced in experimental shrimp through feeding
of infected non-frozen shrimp carcasses, cohabitation of infected
and experimental shrimp, and immersion in a mixture of bacteria
isolated from an infected shrimp’s stomach. The mixed bacteria
sample found to induce AHPNS was brought back to UAZAPL for further characterization to determine the infectious
nature and causative agent of AHPNS.
Infectivity Studies
Challenges by immersion or reverse gavage via an anal route
to the hepatopancreas were employed using the mixed bacteria
isolated from the AHPNS-infected shrimp in Vietnam. Experiglobal aquaculture advocate
July/August 2013
19
ment 1 was an immersion study with the mixed bacteria, while
experiment 2 used immersion with individual bacterial isolates
from the mixed culture. Experiment 3 was an immersion bioassay with individual bacteria colonies isolated from AHPNS-positive treatments of experiment 2 and reverse gavage of filtered
broth fluid inoculated with a pure culture of a pathogenic bacterial colony.
Immersion in the mixed bacteria induced mass mortality and
AHPNS pathology identical to that of affected field specimens.
The most dominant bacterial colony isolated from the mixed
culture was also able to cause mass mortality and AHPNS
lesions in experimental shrimp in the immersion challenge of
experiment 2. The same type of bacterial colony recovered from
the animals challenged in experiment 2 could also cause the same
pathology in shrimp in subsequent experiments, thus confirming
that AHPNS is caused by an infectious agent.
Interestingly, the cell-free supernatant fluid of the broth media
inoculated with the pathogenic pure culture could induce the same
AHPNS pathology in shrimp by reserve gavage. This evidence
reinforced the initial assumption that the primary lesions of
AHPNS are mediated by a toxin or toxins. Using biochemical and
molecular biology tests, the bacterial culture found to induce
AHPNS was identified as a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
Human Health, Biosecurity Implications
Some rare strains of V. parahaemolyticus produce the toxins
thermal-stable direct haemolysin and thermal-stable related haemolysin, which are responsible for foodborne gastroenteritis in
humans who consume undercooked seafood. Fortunately, the
unique AHPNS-causing V. parahaemolyticus strain does not generate these toxins. Thus, the health implications for shrimp
products from AHPNS-affected countries should not be higher
than for shrimp products from AHPNS-free countries.
Since AHPNS is an infectious disease, a major concern for
the industry is the spread of the disease. Several experiments carried out by UAZ-APL indicated that infected live shrimp and
fresh (never frozen) shrimp tissues can effectively transmit the
disease to “clean” shrimp. This implies that untested live and
fresh shrimp from affected areas may pose a risk until a fast and
reliable test for detection of AHPNS is available. Because the
20
July/August 2013
AHPNS agent is localized in shrimp gastrointestinal tracts,
headed and deveined fresh shrimp pose a lower risk than headon and unveined fresh shrimp.
Concerning the viability and survivability of the agent of
AHPNS in frozen shrimp products, several experiments conducted by UAZ-APL found that frozen infected shrimp collected
from Vietnam did not cause AHPNS pathology in “clean” experimental shrimp, indicating the bacteria was not transmitted.
All evidence to date indicates the agent is inactivated by
freezing and thawing. This implies that frozen shrimp products
are unlikely to carry the transmissible agent of AHPNS. Hence,
the risk of transmission of the disease from frozen commodity
shrimp products to farmed and wild shrimp in importing countries appears to be minimal.
Future Research
Future studies will further elucidate the involvement of a
phage in either toxin production or conferring increased pathogenicity to the bacteria. Toxin(s) and toxin-producing genes of
AHPNS-causing bacterial strains will be analyzed as potential
targets for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing and
polymerase chain reaction diagnostics. Several approaches are
under investigation to develop viable solutions for the detection
and control of AHPNS.
Fortunately, the unique AHPNS-causing
vibrio does not generate the toxins which
are responsible for foodborne gastroenteritis in humans. All evidence to date
indicates the agent is inactivated
by freezing and thawing.
July/August 2013
21
Ongoing Vietnam Studies Find Vibrio
With Phage Transmits EMS/AHPNS
Dr. Dang Thi Hoang Oanh
The hepatopancreas organs of AHPNS-affected shrimp have a pale or white color,
along with discontinuous contents in the gut (left) or an empty gut.
Department of Aquatic Pathology
College of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Cantho University
Campus 2, 3-2 Street,
Ninh Kieu District
Cantho City, Vietnam
dthoanh@ctu.edu.vn
Dr. Truong Quoc Phu
Dr. Nguyen Thanh Phuong
Department of Aquatic Pathology
College of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Cantho University
Dr. Pham Anh Tuan
Gram staining of a fresh smear of hepatopancreatic tissue from an affected shrimp
(left) shows the presence of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria. The image on the
right shows hepatopancreatic cells, tubule sloughing and hemocytic inflammation.
Summary:
Early mortality syndrome or acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome has
heavily affected shrimp farms in Vietnam. In 2012, samples collected from
92 AHPNS-affected ponds in the Mekong Delta found a number of Vibrio
isolates, with the majority V. parahaemolyticus. Three isolates were found
to carry phages. Experimental challenge of white shrimp showed that a V.
parahaemolyticus strain that carried a phage was capable of causing AHPNS
pathology in non-infected shrimp.
Its million ha of inland water surface,
3,260 km of coastline and large exclusive
economic zone give Vietnam great potential for aquaculture and fisheries development. The country’s seafood sectors have
been ranked first for farmed catfish, third
for shrimp and aquaculture production,
and seventh for total seafood production.
More than 90% of Vietnam’s culture
area and 70% of its production are found
on the Mekong River Delta. Black tiger
shrimp, Penaeus monodon, make up about
81% of production, while white shrimp,
Litopenaeus vannamei, comprise the
remaining 19%.
farmed in coastal provinces of Vietnam in
2010. In 2011 and 2012, AHPNS continued to cause serious shrimp mortality
across the delta and appeared at shrimp
farms in some northern coastal provinces.
The disease has been reported to
occur all year, with more severity from
April to July. It has affected farms that
culture black tiger shrimp, or white
shrimp, mainly in areas of intensive and
semi-intensive farming systems. Incidences of AHPNS seem to be higher in
farms with high salinity and during dry
seasons with high temperatures.
AHPNS
In research supported by the Directorate of Fisheries, Vietnam Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development, and
the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization, the authors collected samples from 92 affected ponds on shrimp
Disease has been a serious obstacle for
shrimp farming in the Mekong Delta,
especially early mortality syndrome or
acute hepatopancreatic necrosis syndrome
(AHPNS), which appeared in shrimp
22
July/August 2013
Sample Collection
Directorate of Fisheries
Hanoi City, Vietnam
farms in Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu,
Ca Mau and Kien Gang Provinces in the
Mekong Delta from March to September
2012. However, only 56 of the ponds
were recorded as affected by AHPNS.
Various disease signs were noted at
pond level. Moribund shrimp stopped
feeding and came to the sides of ponds.
Dead shrimp were found at the bottoms
of culture ponds from 10 to 45 days after
stocking. Diseased shrimp displayed clinical signs such as hepatopancreatic atrophy with the organ a pale/white color and
discontinuous contents in the gut or
empty gut. Mortality up to 60% has been
observed three to seven days after the
appearance of clinical signs.
Results
Histological analysis of moribund
shrimp specimens revealed typical pathology of AHPNS, such as dysfunction of
hepatopancreatic cells, tubule epithelium
sloughing, significant hemocytic inflammation and some tubules with putative
vibriosis.
Gram staining of fresh smears of
hepatopancreatic tissue from affected
shrimp clearly showed the presence of
Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria. A
total of 42 Vibrio bacterial isolates were
recovered from hepatopancreatic tissue
samples from shrimp with typical
AHPNS pathology and identified at species level.
These bacteria were Gram-negative,
short rod-shaped and positive for oxidase
and catalase, oxidation and fermentation
of glucose. They grew on thiosulfate
citrate bile salt agar in green-colored,
round, convex colonies with diameters of
2 to 3 mm.
Among these, one isolate was identified as V. alginolyticus, one was identified
as V. fluvialis, one was identified as V. vulnificus, and 39 isolates were identified as V.
parahaemolyticus, as confirmed by 16S
rRNA sequencing. All the V. parahaemolyticus isolates revealed hemolysis after two
days of incubation on blood agar plates.
Three isolates were found to carry phages.
Water samples were also collected
from the affected ponds. Environmental
parameter tests showed that water quality
was not the main cause for shrimp health
issues. Concentrations of ammonia,
nitrite and sulfide were within acceptable
ranges for shrimp culture in all tested
ponds.
Residues of pesticides such as cypermethrin and deltamethrin have been
detected in both affected and unaffected
ponds in the Mekong Delta. However,
experimental study evaluated the effects
of deltamethrin showed no signs of typical AHPNS in hepatopancreas tissues of
exposed shrimp.
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Challenge Effects
Challenge by immersion of healthy L.
vannamei postlarvae (P.L.15) in 0.22-µ
filtered hepatopancreatic extract from
AHPNS shrimp in a 10-fold dilution
gave negative results for AHPNS histopathology seven, 14 and 21 days after the
immersion. Similarly, challenge experiments involving muscular injection of 1-g
L. vannamei juveniles with 0.22- and
0.45-µ filtered whole head or hepatopancreatic extract from AHPNS shrimp
resulted in no mortality or AHPNS histopathology 14 days after injection.
Experimental challenge of 1.5-g
white shrimp at 104, 105 and 106 CFU/g
showed that a V. parahaemolyticus strain
that carried a phage was capable of causing AHPNS pathology similar to that
seen in shrimp collected from ponds in
the groups challenged with 105 CFU/g at
nine days and 106 CFU/g at six days
post-challenge.
Currently, the authors are conducting
a laboratory feeding and co-habitation
trial using fresh AHPNS-infected shrimp
specimens.
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July/August 2013
23
production
Economic Analyses Project Rising Returns
For Intensive Biofloc Shrimp Systems
compared to that of the best trial in 2011
in Table 1. The best 2011 trial results
came from a “fast-growth” line fed an
HI-35 feed.
Data Analyses
The positive effects from increased stocking size, growth rate and survival resulted
in reduced crop duration and increased potential profits.
Summary:
In trials raising larger juvenile
shrimp than those used previously in indoor super-intensive
recirculating raceway systems,
the positive effects from
increased stocking size, growth
rate and survival resulted in a
reduced crop duration time.
Improvements in several production factors resulted in higher
projected total production, sales
and financial performance. The
more-expensive specialized diet
financially outperformed lowerpriced feed in the raceways.
Production of shrimp in indoor
super-intensive recirculating systems can
produce large quantities of shrimp, but
can have high initial investment and
operating costs. Economic analyses of
2012 trials from two different production
systems at the Texas A & M AgriLife
Research Mariculture Lab at Flour Bluff,
Corpus Christi, Texas, have been very
encouraging.
The first study compared a commercial
35%-crude protein feed formulated for use
in biofloc-dominated, super-intensive,
zero-exchange systems (HI-35, U.S.
24
July/August 2013
Terry Hanson, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
203 Swingle Hall
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
hansontr@auburn.edu
Tzachi Samocha, Ph.D.
Timothy Morris
Bob Advent
Texas A & M AgriLife Research
Mariculture Lab at Flour Bluff
Corpus Christi, Texas, USA
Vitalina Magalhães
André Braga
Estação Marinha de Aquacultura
Instituto de Oceanografia
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande
Rio Grande, Brazil
$1.75/kg) and a standard 35%-protein
feed formulated for semi-intensive shrimp
production (SI-35, $0.99/kg). Each treatment was conducted in three, 40-m3 raceways using juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei
from a cross between fast-growth and
Taura-resistant genetic lines.
The second experiment used only the
HI-35 feed and was run in two, 100-m3
raceways with the same strain of shrimp.
The performance of these systems is
By extrapolating production results
into the context of a commercial facility,
10-year cash flows and enterprise budgets
were developed to provide comparable
financial indicators of profitability. For
this hypothetical analysis, one greenhouse
system contained 10 raceways: eight 500m3 growout raceways and two 500-m3
raceways used as nurseries to grow
10-day-old postlarvae (P.L.10) to 2.7-g or
3.6-g juvenile shrimp.
Analyses included a fixed cost component covering construction and equipment/
machinery costs for an initial investment
of approximately U.S. $992,000. Other
critical prices and costs included the selling
price of shrimp ($7.20/kg), the two diets
(see prices above), juvenile production
costs of $20/1,000 P.L.10 and an interest
rate of 8% for operating, equipment and
construction loans.
The economic questions answered by
this analysis were whether the production
results were financially positive, given that
one feed was much more expensive than the
other, and secondly, was the progress made
between the 2011 and 2012 trials improving
the profitability of the super-intensive, recirculating shrimp production systems.
Table 1. Summary of production for super-intensive recirculating
shrimp production systems, comparing 2011 trial to 2012 trials.
Treatment
2011
Stocking density (juveniles/m3)
Survival rate (%)
500
81.6
Growth rate (g/week)
1.85
Stocking size (g)
1.8
Harvest size (g)
23.6
Feed-conversion ratio
1.43
Crop length (days)
83
Production (kg/m3)
9.58
HI-35
40 m3
SI-35
40 m3
HI-35
100 m3
500
87.3
(+7.0%)
2.03
(+9.7%)
2.7
(+50%)
22.3
(-5.5%)
1.25
(-12.6%)
67
(-19.3%)
9.74
(+1.7%)
500
88.2
(+8.1%)
1.76
(-4.9%)
2.7
(+50%)
19.8
(-16.1%)
1.43
(0%)
67
(-19.3%)
8.71
(-9.1%)
500
79.5
(-2.6%)
2.13
(+15.1%)
3.6
(+100%)
22.7
(-3.8%)
1.48
(+3.5%)
63
(-24.1%)
9.03
(-5.7%)
Table 2. Summary of production and sales for extrapolated
super-intensive recirculating shrimp production systems,
comparing 2011 trial to 2012 trials.
Treatment
Production (kg/crop)
Annual crops
Production (kg/year)
Selling price (U.S. $/kg)
Total annual sales (U.S. $)
2011
HI-35
40 m3
SI-35
40 m3
HI-35
100 m3
38,320
4.4
168,608
7.20
1,213,978
38,960
5.5
214,280
7.20
1,542,816
34,840
5.5
191,620
7.20
1,379,664
36,120
5.8
209,496
7.20
1,508,371
The harvest sizes in the 2012 trials
decreased by 5.5, 16.1 and 3.8% for the
HI-35 40 m3, SI-35 40 m3 and HI-35
100 m3 trials, respectively. The produc-
A more-expensive diet outperformed
lower-priced feed in the raceway
production of white shrimp.
tion per cycle was slightly greater for the
HI-35 40 m3 trial compared to the 2011
trial, 9.1% lower for the SI-35 40 m3
treatment and 5.7% lower in the HI-35
100 m3 trials. But, put into perspective,
production above 9 kg/m3 is very good.
The feed-conversion ratios (FCRs)
improved by 12.6% for the HI-35 40 m3
trial compared to the 2011 trial. There was
no difference in FCR values between the
2011 trial and the 2012 SI-35 40 m3 trial,
and there was a poorer FCR for the HI-35
100 m3 trial compared to the 2011 trial.
Results
As shown in Table 1, each trial had the
same stocking rate of 500 juveniles/m3.
The juvenile shrimp stocking size was 50%
larger for the two 40-m3 trials and 100%
larger in the HI-35 100-m3 trial compared
to the 2011 juvenile stocking size.
The growth rates increased by 9.7% and
15.1% for the HI-35 40 m3 and HI-35 100
m3 trials, respectively, when compared to
the 2011 trial, while the SI-35 40 m3
growth rate decreased by 4.9% when compared to the 2011 trial. The survival rates
improved by 7.0% and 8.1% from the 2011
trial to the HI-35 40 m3 and SI-35 40 m3
trials, respectively, while the HI-35 100 m3
trial saw a decrease in survival of 2.6% from
the 2011 trial.
July/August 2013
25
Gross receipts (U.S $/kg)
Variable costs (U.S $/kg)
Income above variable costs (U.S $/kg)
Fixed costs (U.S $/kg)
Total specified expenses (U.S $/kg)
Net returns (U.S $/kg)
Payback period (years)
Net present value (U.S. $, million)
Internal rate of return (%)
2011
HI-35
40 m3
SI-35
40 m3
HI-35
100 m3
7.20
5.38
1.82
0.59
5.97
1.23
2.9
1.0
31.3
7.20
4.06
3.14
0.47
4.53
2.67
1.4
2.9
66.6
7.20
4.54
2.66
0.53
5.07
2.13
1.9
2.0
50.1
7.20
4.31
2.89
0.48
4.79
2.41
1.6
2.6
60.6
Shorter Cycles
The positive effects from increased
stocking size, growth rate and survival
resulted in a reduced crop duration time.
In all cases, the 2012 trials had shorter
crop durations, which leads to more crops
per year. There were 19.3%, 19.3% and
24.1% reductions in crop days between the
2011 trial and the HI-35 40 m3, SI-35 40
m3 and HI-35 100 m3 trials, respectively.
These reductions resulted in 5.5
crops/year for the HI-35 40 m3 and
SI-35 40 m3 trials, a 25% increase over
the 2011 trial’s 4.4 crops/year; and a 32%
increase to 5.8 crops/year for the HI-35
100 m3 trial compared to the 2011 trial.
In Table 2, production and sales information is presented for the 2011 trial and
the three 2012 trials. The combination of
improvement in several production factors
1,439
resulted in more total production and sales
kg/ha
for the two HI-35 trials and the SI-35 40
m3 trial over the 2011 trial.
In Table 3, a summary enterprise budget based on 2011 and 2012 results indicates a positive net return. The three 2012
trials had greater than U.S. $2.00/kg
Article
Submissions
Contact
Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
E-mail:
Telephone: +1-407-376-1478
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
952
kg/ha
returns, with the HI-35 40 m3 trial having
a $2.67/kg net return. The 2012 trials had
variable production costs of $0.84-1.32/kg
less than the 2011 trial’s costs. Likewise,
the payback period was one to 1.5 years
less for the 2012 trials than for the 2011
trial. All net present values were two to
nearly three times greater than those for
the 2011 trial, and the internal rate of
return for the 2012 trials ranged from 50.1
to 66.6% – much higher than the 33.1%
return for the 2011 trial.
The more-expensive diet, HI-35, financially outperformed the lower-priced SI-35
feed in the 40-m3 and 100-m3 raceways.
The improvements in 2012 also resulted in
much better financial performance.
Perspectives
The highly favorable financial results
for the 2012 trials need to be considered
with caution, as major assumptions were
used in this analysis. First, the model
assumed a readily available year-round
PL10 supply, which may be difficult in the
continental U.S. It was assumed there
would be a stable market price for the
product over the 10-year period of the
simulation. Also, research trials using
these systems have yet to actually conduct
back-to-back production cycles.
One research crop a year is an accomplishment, but to actually conduct 5.8
crops annually, the result for the HI-35
100 m3 trial, with the same high level of
results is much more difficult to achieve.
These caveats are large and need to be
addressed. However, the financial analyses conducted here using a tested bioeconomic model can help researchers focus
on improvements that provide the most
return and sharpen the competitiveness of
these intensive biofloc shrimp systems.
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Table 3. Summary enterprise budgets for super-intensive
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comparing 2011 trial to 2012 trials.
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%
Moana_5.indd 1
July/August 2013
23/04/13 17:56
27
production
sustainable aquaculture practices
Manage pH Cycles To
Maintain Animal Health
Acidic
Death Point
0
pH
0
Department of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
8.3
14
14.0
Natural Water pH
The pH of natural waters usually is
between 5.0 and 9.0, but lower and
pH levels in ponds are affected by such factors as time of day, vegetation
higher values sometimes occur. Rainwater
and aeration activity.
normally has a pH around 5.6, because it
is saturated with carbon dioxide that has
an acidic reaction in water. Lower pH
may occur in rainwater because of air pollution – especially conSummary:
tamination of the atmosphere with sulfur compounds from the
combustion of fossil fuels that oxidize to form sulfuric acid.
Waters with lower pH are acidic and those of higher
Sulfides in some soils and geological formations oxidize to
pH are basic. The ideal pH for most aquaculture species
form sulfuric acid that results in highly acidic conditions (pH 2
is between 6.0 and 8.5. Lower pH values may result in
to 4) in water that contacts the formations. Highly leached soils
decreased growth and survival, and greater susceptibilare deficient in bases, and water in contact with them will have
ity to disease. pH typically is lowest in the early mornlow alkalinity and pH as low as 5. Waters with high concentraing, increases during the afternoon and declines at
tions of humic substances also can have similarly low pH.
night. The most accurate way to measure pH is in situ
Soils may contain basic substances such as limestone, calcium
with an electronic pH meter.
silicate and feldspar that dissolve to increase alkalinity and pH in
water. The pH of water tends to increase with greater alkalinity
Pure water ionizes equally into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl
and total dissolved solids. Waters in arid and semi-arid regions
ions. If the concentration of hydrogen ion increases, the concentypically have pH above 7.5 or 8.0. Normal seawater also has a
tration of hydroxyl ion must decrease and vice versa. Water is
pH near 8.0.
acidic if its hydrogen ion concentration is greater than its
hydroxyl ion concentration and basic (alkaline) if the opposite is
Acidity, Basicity
true. Of course, pure water is neutral – neither acidic nor basic.
It is important to distinguish between acidity and basicity or
To avoid the expression of very small concentrations of
alkalinity as defined by the pH scale (Figure 1) and the water
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, it is customary to use the pH or
quality variables mineral acidity, total acidity and total alkalinity
negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration as a surrogate for
(Figure 2). Carbon dioxide normally cannot lower the pH of
the concentration. The negative logarithm of 10-7 molar, the
water below 4.5, and waters with a pH lower than this are said to
hydrogen ion concentration of pure water, is 7. This pH is the
contain mineral acidity – usually sulfuric acid. Carbon dioxide
middle or neutral point of the pH scale.
exists in water up to pH 8.3, so water with pH between 7.0 and
Waters with lower pH are acidic and those of higher pH are
8.3 contains acidity even though it is basic on the pH scale.
Carbon dioxide
Mineral acidity
No alkalinity
Acidity
Present
Carbon dioxide
Alkalinity from bicarbonate
Acidity from carbon dioxide
Alkalinity
Present
No carbon dioxide
Alkalinity from bicarbonate
and carbonate
No acidity
Night
Daylight
9
8
pH
basic. Hydrogen ion concentration
increases tenfold for each unit decrease in
pH because the scale is logarithmic. For
example, hydrogen ion concentrations at
pH 6, 5 and 4 are 10, 100 and 1,000
times greater, respectively, than at pH 7.
The converse is true for hydroxyl ion concentration.
Comment
Figure 2. Water quality variables and pH.
10
4
710
Neutral
Increasing Basicity
Figure 1. Ideal pH for most aquaculture species.
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
July/August 2013
Alkaline
Death Point
Increasing Acidity
4.5
28
Ideal Range
For
Aquaculture
7
6
5
Photsynthesis
≥ Respiration
Moderate
Alkalinity
No
Photosynthesis
Low
Alkalinity
4
6:00
Noon 6:00Midnight 6:00
a.m.p.m. a.m.
Figure 3. Daily pH cycle in aquaculture ponds.
The alkalinity of water results from titratable bases in a
sample – mainly bicarbonate and carbonate. Bicarbonate can
occur in water down to pH 4.5, so water with a pH between
4.5 and 7.0 contains alkalinity despite the fact that it is acidic
on the pH scale. Carbonate does not occur in water until the
pH rises above 8.3. The alkalinity serves to buffer water
against pH change, and a portion of the carbon in bicarbonate
is available to plants for use in photosynthesis.
Aquaculture, pH Fluctuations
The ideal pH for most aquaculture species is between 6.0
and 8.5 (Figure 1). Lower pH values may result in slower
growth, poorer survival and greater susceptibility to disease in
aquaculture species. Brief daily excursions of pH above 8.5 are
common in ponds and apparently do not harm aquaculture
species. However, long-term exposure to pH of 9.0 or above
will have effects similar to those of suboptimal pH. The acid
and death points for most species are pH 4 and pH 10, respectively. Daily fluctuations in pH in ponds result from the net
removal of carbon dioxide by plants for use in photosynthesis
during the day and the release of carbon dioxide into the water
at night by respiration. Because carbon dioxide has an acidic
reaction, pH typically is lowest in the early morning. It
increases to a maximum during the early afternoon and
declines at night (Figure 3). Large daily pH fluctuations are
favored by dense phytoplankton blooms and low-alkalinity,
weakly buffered water. Aquaculture ponds typically have dense
July/August 2013
29
cially those with plastic-lined bottoms and no water exchange.
Alkalinity also can decline in ponds built on acid-sulfate soils
bearing pyrite, as the oxidation of pyrite yields sulfuric acid and
lowers alkalinity and pH. The remediation of ponds built in
acid-sulfate soils is too complex to discuss here.
The Crab Secret
Corner
plankton blooms, so they should be limed if total alkalinity is
lower than 50 mg/L. Daytime pH is often highest in well-illuminated surface
water, where photosynthesis is more rapid than in deeper water.
The exception is clear water with underwater aquatic weed infestations where pH is greater within the weed beds. Of course,
mechanical aeration in aquaculture ponds mixes the water column and often prevents depth-related differences in pH from
developing.
When pH rises above 8.3, no free carbon dioxide will be
present, but plants can obtain inorganic carbon for photosynthesis from bicarbonate. Removal of carbon from bicarbonate results
in the release of carbonate ions into water, and carbonate hydrolysis causes pH to rise further.
In most waters, there is sufficient calcium to limit the carbonate concentration through calcium carbonate precipitation
that tempers pH increases. However, in water with low calcium
but high total alkalinity concentrations, pH values of 11 or more
can occur in the afternoon. Liming materials do not dissolve well
in such waters, but calcium sulfate (gypsum) can be applied to
increase calcium concentration.
A major reason for a decline in alkalinity in an aquaculture
system is nitrification. Ammonia nitrogen – the major nitrogenous waste of aquatic animals – is oxidized to nitrate by denitrifying bacteria. The resulting hydrogen ions neutralize alkalinity,
reducing buffering capacity and increasing the possibility of
lower morning pH. Routine liming often is needed to maintain
adequate alkalinity in highly intensive aquaculture systems, espe-
Measuring pH
The most accurate way to measure pH is with a standard
electronic pH meter. Litmus paper only indicates whether water
is acidic or basic, and the pH estimated from pH strips only provides an indication of the true pH. Small, pocket-sized pH
meters are available from aquaculture supply houses, but these
devices are generally unreliable after a short period of use.
It is more reliable to measure pH in situ, because this variable
changes quickly during sample storage. The time of day obviously influences the pH, with the lowest values typically found in
the morning and the highest between noon and mid-afternoon.
The time of day obviously influences
the pH, with the lowest values typically
found in the morning and the highest
between noon and mid-afternoon.
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Mix first 5 ingredients in a
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July/August 2013
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Fish raised in recirculating systems can take on objectionable earthy off-flavors from the culture environment.
Off-Flavors In Salmonids Raised
In Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
Summary:
The presence of compounds such as geosmin and
2-methylisoborneol (MIB) in recirculating aquaculture
systems (RAS) can result in earthy or musty off-flavors
in salmonids raised in the systems. Based upon recent
studies, actinomycetes, a group of filamentous bacteria,
are considered the main contributors of geosmin and
MIB in RAS. These lipophilic compounds are rapidly
absorbed and bioaccumulate in fish flesh by diffusion
across the gills and uptake across the epithelial lining of
the gastrointestinal tract.
Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
Natural Products Utilization Research Unit
National Center for Natural Products Research
P. O. Box 8048
University, Mississippi 38677-8048 USA
kevin.schrader@ars.usda.gov
Aquaculture producers typically verify the flavor quality of
their products by sensory evaluation before harvesting crops for
market. Off-flavors detected in a product may require holding the
32
July/August 2013
fish in a purging system containing fresh, clean water to depurate
from the fish flesh the compounds causing the undesirable taints.
The adverse impacts of preharvest off-flavors in fish cultured
in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) include the inability
to sell the cultured product, loss of market demand due to inconsistent product quality, inhibition of growth into new markets
and economic losses associated with delays in stocking a new
crop while holding off-flavor fish until flavor quality improves.
Off-Flavors In Salmonids
Based on recent research, “earthy” and “musty” appear to be
the most common off-flavors that occur in the flesh of salmonids
such as Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus; Atlantic salmon, Salmo
salar; and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, raised in RAS.
In one study, a sensory evaluation of over a dozen fillets of
RAS-cultured Arctic charr was performed by six trained panelists to identify the types and intensities of any off-flavors present. The panelists followed guidelines provided by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists and found that earthy was
the most common, intense and objectionable off-flavor detected
in the Arctic charr fillets, while less-intense off-flavors present
were described as “ammonia,” “bitter,” “metallic” and “muddy.”
In another study, fillets of Atlantic salmon cultured in RAS
were evaluated for flavor quality and determined to possess
earthy and musty off-flavors at objectionable intensities, with
less-intense off-flavors described as “metallic,” “moldy,” “nutty”
and “woody” also present. During studies of the flavor quality of
fillets of rainbow trout raised in RAS, objectionable levels of
earthy and musty off-flavors have also been detected.
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Model 61 Systems ad_Layout 1 10/29/12 12:24 PM Page 1
Isolates of geosmin-producing actinomycetes growing
on agar plates.
Bioaccumulation
In freshwater aquaculture systems such as earthen ponds and
RAS, it has been clearly established that the bioaccumulation of
the odorous compounds geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB)
is responsible for earthy and musty off-flavors, respectively.
These lipophilic compounds are rapidly absorbed and bioaccumulate in fish flesh by passive diffusion across the gills and
uptake across the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract
when water containing these compounds is consumed by the fish
while drinking or feeding.
Although the compounds are rapidly absorbed by fish, elimination by passive diffusion back across the gills or by metabolism
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occurs more slowly, depending on conditions such as water temperature and the adipose content of the fish.
In the studies above, instrumental analysis of the sampled fillets
confirmed the presence of geosmin and/or MIB. Geosmin and
MIB, the most common off-flavor sources encountered in freshwater aquatic animals, have been verified as the cause of earthy and
musty off-flavors in a wide variety of cultured products (Table 1).
The presence of many preharvest off-flavor compounds,
especially geosmin and MIB, in aquaculture systems can be
attributed to the actinomycetes, a group of filamentous bacteria,
and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Geosmin production has
also been detected in myxobacteria, certain fungi, liverwort and a
free-living Vanella species amoeba, although bacterial symbionts
present in the cytoplasm were suspected to be the actual source
of geosmin. The production of MIB has also been found in Penicillium species and liverwort.
Although these additional organisms produce geosmin and
MIB, the focus of contributors to earthy and musty off-flavors in
aquaculture has been on actinomycetes and cyanoabacteria, especially since these microorganisms are abundant in many aquatic
ecosystems used for culturing aquatic animals.
Based upon recent studies, actinomycetes are considered the
main contributors of geosmin and MIB in RAS. Conversely,
Table 1. Aquatic products found to reflect
off-flavors due to the presence of geosmin
and/or MIB. Verified sources in parentheses.
Arctic charr* (geosmin)
Barramundi* (geosmin)
Caviar*
Channel catfish
Hybrid striped bass* (geosmin)
Nile tilapia
Rainbow trout* (geosmin)
Sockeye salmon
White sturgeon* (geosmin)
Atlantic salmon* (MIB, geosmin)
Bream
Clams
Coho salmon* (geosmin)
Largemouth bass* (MIB, geosmin)
Northern Pike
Penaeus shrimp
Walleye
Yellow perch* (MIB, geosmin)
* Aquatic products from recirculating aquaculture systems..
Table 2. Odorous compounds
produced by various actinomycetes.
Compound
Cadin-4-ene-1-ol
Furfural
Geosmin
2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine
5-methyl-3-heptanone
2-methylisoborneol
Odor
Genus/Species
Woody
Putrid
Earthy
Streptomyces
Streptomyces
Microbispora rosca
Micromonospora
Nocardia
Streptomyces
Streptomyces
Streptomyces
Actinomadura
Nocardia
Streptomyces
Streptomyces
Musty
Sweet
Musty
Weak fruity
Mucidone
Table 3. Actinomycetes isolated from RAS.
Species
206-842-3609
34
w w w. s e a s h a r e . o r g
July/August 2013
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Nocardia asteroides
Nocardia cummidelens
Nocardia fluminea
Nocardia salmonicida
Streptomyces albidoflavus
Streptomyces cyaneofuscatus
Streptomyces krainskii
Streptomyces luridiscabiei
Streptomyces roseoflavus-like
Streptomyces thermocaboxydus-like
Compound
MIB
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin
Geosmin, MIB
Geosmin, MIB
cyanobacteria are the main causes of geosmin- and MIB-related off-flavors in catfish cultured in earthen ponds.
In a study, a planktonic MIB-producing cyanobacterial species of Pseudanabaena was isolated from the biofilm of the
culture tank of an indoor RAS. However,
this was a rare case for indoor RAS
because the conditions are usually not suitable for the growth of planktonic cyanobacteria due to limited light availability
and the high turbulence and mixing of the
water.
Other Odorous Compounds
In addition to earthy and musty odorous metabolites, a variety of other odorous
compounds are produced by various species of actinomycetes (Table 2). However,
geosmin and MIB are the only odor compounds confirmed to cause earthy and
musty off-flavors in the flesh of aquatic
animals cultured in RAS.
Actinomycetes are members of grampositive, filamentous bacteria in the order
Actinomycetales. Most actinomycetes are
aerobic, although some are facultative
anaerobes and anaerobes. They include
odor-producing genera such as Micromonospora, Nocardia and Streptomyces.
The genus in which many odorous
compounds, including geosmin and MIB,
have been identified is Streptomyces. Members of this genus are generally considered
aerobic, with some species designated as
facultative anaerobes. In the family Streptomycetaceae, Streptomyces are spore-producing heterotrophs that may or may not
form aerial mycelia or produce pigments.
Colonies of Streptomyces species that
produce aerial mycelia on agar plates typically have a “chalky” appearance. Spores
that form on the bacterial filaments usually occur in chains of various lengths and
morphologies that can aid in their presumptive identification. A list of the species of actinomycetes that produce geosmin and MIB off-flavors in fish raised in
RAS is provided in Table 3.
From the studies mentioned, the
sources of the less-intense objectionable
off-flavors remain unknown at present.
The moldy and muddy descriptors are
likely due to the presence of geosmin
and/or MIB. The nutty off-flavor is possibly feed-related in origin, while the
woody off-flavor was believed by the
panelists to be due to the combination of
the characteristic “fishy” or “oily” flavor
of the salmon with the presence of MIB
in the fish flesh at levels near the human
sensory detection threshold.
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35
production
Atlantic salmon are widely affected by sea lice, while coho salmon are generally resistant to the parasites.
Sea Lice Control: Perspectives From Chile
Sandra Bravo
Institute of Aquaculture
Los Pinos s/n, Balneario Pelluco
Puerto Montt, Chile
sbravo@uach.cl
Summary:
Sea lice are a significant threat to the Chilean salmonfarming industry. Since the confirmed report of sea lice
in 1981, several drugs have been used to keep infestations under control. Chilean salmon farmers also understand that prevention and good management practices
based on biosecurity measures are the best tools to minimize outbreaks of disease. Government measures to
control lice include standardized monitoring, fallowing,
synchronized delousing among neighboring salmon
farms and partial harvesting when lice outbreaks are
apparent.
As in the Northern Hemisphere, sea lice are a significant
threat to the Chilean salmon-farming industry. Caligus rogercresseyi were first recorded in Chile in 1997, infesting Atlantic
salmon reared in the Puerto Montt area. Sea lice and their control have been major pathological issues for the Chilean salmon
industry since 1981, when Caligus teres infesting coho salmon
were first recorded in Region X.
In contrast to Lepeoptheirus salmonis, which parasitize mainly
Atlantic salmon, C. rogercresseyi also parasitize a wide range of
36
July/August 2013
wild fish, including their natural hosts Eleginops maclovinus,
Odonthestes regia and Odonthestes nigricans. C. rogercresseyi, which
are now widely distributed in Region XI, have also been reported
in southern Argentina infesting anadromous brown trout and in
the north of Peru infesting tilapia reared in seawater, confirming
wide distribution in South America.
The salmon industry is one of the main economic activities
of the southern regions in Chile. The total salmon production in
2012 reached 804,000 mt, comprised of 61.4% of Atlantic
salmon, Salmo salar; 14.0% coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch;
and 24.5% rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Atlantic salmon
and rainbow trout are susceptible to C. rogercresseyi, while coho
salmon have been shown to be resistant.
After the outbreaks of infectious salmon anemia (ISA)
recorded in Region X from 2007, the salmon industry has been
expanding southward to Region XI. In parallel with the relocation of salmon production, sea lice infestations also spread to
Region XI, and today, C. rogercresseyi are the most serious threat
for this region.
Development
As with L. salmonis, the rate of development of C. rogercresseyi
is strongly temperature-dependent. The life cycle of C. rogercresseyi
is completed in 26 days at 15° C, in 32 days at 12° and in about 45
days at 10°. At 4° C, there is no development of the lice.
The cycle comprises eight developmental stages: two planktonic nauplius stages, one infective copepod stage, four attached
chalimus stages and one adult stage, without preadult stages.
Under laboratory conditions, females can survive for up to 1,000
degree days at 10° C, and males around 800 degree days. Copepodid and adult lice cannot survive for more than seven days free
in seawater without a host.
July/August 2013
37
of Caligus to be introduced into the Chilean market.
In 2011, the pyrethroids deltamethrin and cypermethrin together with diflubenzuron were the main
medicines used against Caligus in Chile. Despite
widespread resistance to emamectin benzoate, the
product is still used as an alternative treatment by
salmon farmers (Table 1).
Since the first ISA outbreaks were reported in
2007, Chilean salmon farmers have understood that
prevention and good management practices based on
biosecurity measures are the best tools to minimize
outbreaks of disease, and that the use of veterinary
medicines is not a singular solution to management
problems.
Attached by Suction
Female Without
Egg String
Male
Gravid
Female
Egg
Nauplius I
Chalimus II
Chalimus III
Chalimus IV
Chalimus I
Nauplius II
Copepodid
Free Swimming
Assessment, Control
Attached by Frontal Filament
In 2007, a specific program for assessment and
control of caligidosis was implemented by Sernapesca.
Among the measures included were the following:
• standardization of weekly Caligus monitoring
• fallowing for three months between salmon production cycles
• synchronized delousing among neighboring salmon farms
• delousing treatment when more than 6 adult lice/fish were
present
• harvesting of 25% of farm biomass when over 9 lice/fish
were present during three weeks within a six-week period.
Life cycle of Caligus rogercresseyi.
C. rogercresseyi females can produce up to 11 batches of egg
strings over a period of 74 days, with a periodicity between
extrusions of egg strings of four days in summer and six days in
winter. The reproductive output of C. rogercresseyi is lower than
the fecundity rate reported for L. salmonis, for which up to 1,000
eggs have been reported for one pair of egg strings. C. rogercresseyi produce 100 eggs for one pair of egg strings.
Treatments
Since the confirmed report of sea lice in 1981, several drugs
have been used to keep lice infestations under control. As in the
Northern Hemisphere, bath treatments followed by oral treatments were initially used.
Ivermectin administered in feed was introduced in Chile at
the end of the 1980s and used until 2003. At the end of the
1990s, emamectin benzoate, under the trade name Slice, was
introduced to the Chilean market and became the only product
approved for the control of Caligus by the Chilean medicinal
authority from 2000 to 2007. In 2001, three generic emamectin
benzoate preparations that became available in Chile at a lower
price comprised 79% of the market.
Since early 2005, a notable loss of efficacy of the treatments
with emamectin benzoate was noticed at several fish farms. The
decrease in sensitivity of C. rogercresseyi to the parasiticide contributed to an increase in its use, which reached 1.5 g/mt salmon
produced in 2007.
After the evidence of resistance to emamectin benzoate
recorded in C. rogercresseyi, caligidosis was included on the list of
high-risk diseases for salmonids in 2007 by Servicio Nacional de
Pesca (Sernapesca), the competent government authority in
Chile. This allowed other chemotherapeutic products for control
Perspectives
Despite the measures implemented by the competent authority, sea lice are still a pathological problem for the salmon industry in Chile. The situation relates in part to the concentration of
farms, as well as a lack of enough medicines with different
modes of action and limited execution of strategies for rotation
that minimize the risk of resistance. The further development of
effective, integrated pest management will require greater understanding of both hosts and parasites, as well as the environments
within which they interact.
Since the first ISA outbreaks were
reported in 2007, Chilean salmon farmers
have understood that prevention
and good management practices based
on biosecurity measures are the best tools
to minimize outbreaks of disease.
Table 1. Drugs used to control sea lice in Chile.
Active Ingredient (K)
Emamectin benzoate
Ivermectin
Diflubenzuron
Cypermethrin
Deltamethrin
Nuvan
Total salmonid
production (mt)
38
July/August 2013
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
52.0
20.0
0
0
0
1.6
342,407
77.0
10.0
0
0
0
3.4
504,422
121.0
3.0
0
0
0
0
482,392
127.0
3.0
0
6
0
0
488,256
149.0
0
0
0
0
0
569,146
212.0
0
0
0
0
0
614,139
326.0
0
0
0
0
0
647,263
906.0
0
0
0
5.2
0
600,835
285.0
0
162.0
0
105.2
0
630,647
2009
2010
2011
49.0
47.0
65.0
0
0
0
3,878.0 3,639.0 2,815.0
341.6
29.7
0
39.9
34.3
31.7
0
0
0
473,579 423,121 613,219
food
BRC
certification
July/August 2013
39
production
This conical rotating twin-screw extruder was designed to efficiently produce shrimp feed. An oblique tube die is attached
after the back-pressure valve.
Extrusion Supports Fortification
Of Specialized Shrimp Feeds Based
On Vegetable Proteins
Summary:
Joseph P. Kearns
Aquaculture Process Engineering
Manager
Wenger Manufacturing, Inc.
714 Main Street
Sabetha, Kansas 66534 USA
jkearns@wenger.com
Shrimp feed production by extrusion
cooking has developed into a solid
method. Recent advancements in this
technology include higher feed production capacity, smaller pellet sizes, a wider
range of ingredient options and development of amino acid fortification.
Advanced Die Technology
Higher production capacities have
been made possible by the development
of advanced die technology. The limiting
factor – open area in the die – was eliminated by use of the patented oblique tube
40
July/August 2013
Extrusion manufacturing of aquafeeds has recently seen advances in several
areas. The development of new die technology has multiplied hourly output.
Capabilities for smaller pellet sizes allow more pellets per feeding or more
feedings per day. Extruders require a lower level of starch than pellet mills
to bind vegetable proteins with other ingredients in feed formulations.
Extruders can work with a wide range of ingredients, including liquid products
and supplements.
die that increased rates by three to five
times. By virtue of a pressure drop, the
tubes also elevated density into the low
700 g/L range. Capacities now vary 8-10
mt/hour via extrusion cooking.
Extrusion cookers can easily make feeds
with diameters smaller than those from pellet mills. Feeds down into the 0.6- to 0.8mm range are possible, with some manufacturers making even smaller feeds. It is
difficult to hold pellets smaller than 0.8 mm
on a standard perforated dryer bed. Fluid
bed dryers are required below 0.8mm.
Common sense says that the smaller
the pellet, the more pellets per kilo. In
pond settings, this could relate to simply
more pellets per feeding. In the case of an
indoor stacked raceway system, such as
that developed by Dr. Addison Lawrence
of Texas A & M, smaller-diameter pellets
allow feeding more times per day while
not exceeding the general percentage fed
based on the biomass in the system.
Experiments have shown that shrimp
eat more continuously in indoor raceways. Water flow can be controlled in a
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July/August 2013 41
manor to spread the feed across the system. Automatic feeding systems can
effectively introduce feeds at the desired
intervals in these close-quarters systems.
Shrimp Diets
the
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informative – and free!
42
July/August 2013
The Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, has become a major species
raised in cultivation around the world.
Through many studies and experiments, it
has been proven that a high level of fishmeal is not needed in their diets. Vegetable proteins are quite acceptable as long as
all nutritional factors have been met.
Extruders require a lower level of
starch than pellet mills to bind vegetable
proteins with other ingredients in feed
formulations. Ten percent starch is sufficient for sinking feeds in extruders, which
leaves 90% of the formula to achieve
inclusion of protein and other needed
nutritional elements. Soybean meal generally is about 44 or 48% protein, and
fishmeal is 65% protein. Pellet mills
require 25 to 30% starch to hold pellets
together.
The statement that extruders can
work with a wider range of ingredients
simply means ingredients of lower protein content, such as soybean meal and
other vegetable proteins in the case of L.
vannamei, can be included to achieve a
total protein level without having to
solely rely on fishmeal. Of course, some
fish product is included for a complete
amino acid profile, but using less can
greatly reduce the cost of feed.
Another point sometimes overlooked
is the ability of extrusion cookers to handle
a level of liquid inclusion, such as groundup fishery by-products. Nutritionists can
likely imagine possibilities for including 15
to 30% fresh aquatic waste from squid or
other species in feed. A product that has
It’s what we do that makes it more profitable.
not been double-processed such as fishmeal is more attractive to shrimp.
Essential Amino Acids
Various options are available to
achieve good amino acid profiles in feed
when using vegetable proteins. Essential
amino acids are not optimal in plant proteins, and it is not that feasible to use
crystalline amino acids to fortify feeds to
be placed in water. The added amino
acids leach out and do not make it into
animals’ guts when needed to create the
conversion into body mass. One effective
solution is to bind the amino acids to the
vegetable protein, but until recently, the
cost of doing so was prohibitive.
The injection of engineered liquid into
the extruder achieved the goal. Many trials
by the author were conducted to achieve the
right process conditions to bind the desired
amino acids to the vegetable protein. The
results showed that with injection of crystalline methionine, plant protein digestibility
was increased, a threefold increase in the
amino acid content was achieved and, most
importantly, more than 99% of the amino
acid included was attached.
The growth rates of shrimp given this
formulation bound with methionine were
equal to those of L. vannamei that
received crystalline methionine in feed.
Perspectives
Additional studies are planned for
other vegetable proteins. Tests with
lysine confirmed it can be bound to vegetable proteins in aquafeed. Taurine presents additional possibilities for applications in marine fish sectors.
Extrusion is showing further promise
as the industry develops and moves forward to lower fishmeal usage while maintaining current levels of production.
As fish farmers, you know that hard work and
care for your farm today will ensure that it will be there for tomorrow.
You also know that a helping hand can make it more profitable.
For over thirty years, Alltech has been working with fish farmers around
the world to ensure their feed produces the best results. Alltech knows that
providing the correct diet for your fish can bring you closer to your goal of
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Photography: Alan Henthorne
global aquaculture
Water-stable extruded
shrimp pellets can
be manufactured
in small sizes
and reflect targeted
essential amino
acid profiles.
“Commitment.
It’s what we do.”
@Alltech
July/August 2013
43
production
Based on multiple analyses of weight gain, it was concluded
that the optimum dietary protein level for olive flounder fry
could be greater than 51.2 but less than 57.7% protein in fish
from 4.1 to 18.2 g.
Korean Research Studies Protein Levels,
P:E Ratios In Olive Flounder Diets
Flounder Juveniles
In further work, juvenile fish averaging 13.30 ± 0.06 g were fed
one of six experimental diets containing 30, 36, 42, 48, 54 or 60%
crude protein. The percentage of weight gain linearly increased up
to the group of fish fed 48% protein, then gradually declined.
Analysis of weight gain data suggested that the optimum
dietary protein level for maximum growth of juvenile olive flounders could be greater than 44.0 but less than 50.2% crude protein.
Dr. Sungchul Charles Bai
Professor, Director
Feeds and Foods Nutrition Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan 608-737, Republic of Korea
scbai@pknu.ac.kr
Kumar Katya
Gunhyun Park
Department of Marine Biomaterials and Aquaculture
Feeds and Foods Nutrition Research Center
Energy intake is a basic nutritional requirement, because maintenance of life processes takes priority over growth and other functions. Thus, energy concentrations with optimum protein levels
are important considerations in diet formulations for fish.
Olive Flounder Nutrition
Additional data on the nutritional requirements of olive
flounders could help promote the formulation of extruded
pellet diets for this species.
Summary:
The authors conducted research to determine the optimum dietary protein levels and protein:energy ratios for
different age groups of olive flounders. Based on study
results, they concluded that optimum dietary protein
levels could be 60.0% for flounder larvae, 51.2 to 57.7%
for fry and 44.0 to 50.2% for juvenile olive flounders.
The optimum dietary protein:energy ratio for juvenile
fish could be 27.5 mg protein/kJ with a diet containing
45% crude protein and 16.7 kJ/g diet energy.
Dietary protein is the most important nutrient affecting the
growth of fish and the primary component affecting feed costs,
as well. The protein requirements of fish vary greatly with
respect to changes in biotic factors such as species and age, and
abiotic factors that include rearing environment, water temperature, water quality and feeding rate. Protein supplementation in
fish feed at suboptimal or excessive levels is both economically
and environmentally unsound.
In general, protein requirements usually decrease as fish age
from larval through adult stages and vary according to different
carnivorous, omnivorous and herbivorous feeding habits. Thus,
it is imperative to have a clear understanding of accurate protein
requirements for each growing size of various economically
important fish species.
Furthermore, the levels of protein and energy in fish diet
should also be kept in balance. Theoretically, a dietary deficiency
or excess of digestible energy can reduce growth rates in fish.
44
July/August 2013
The Republic of Korea is the leading global flatfish producer,
and olive flounders, Paralichthys olivaceus, rank first in Korean
marine finfish aquaculture production. In 2012, annual olive
flounder production was reported as 40,800 mt, contributing
over 56% of total marine finfish aquaculture.
While culture operations for this species have expanded rapidly, feeding is still dependent on moist pellets and trash fish.
Only 20 to 30% of farmers use extruded pellet diets.
The authors conducted a study to determine the optimum
dietary protein levels and protein:energy ratios for different age
groups of olive flounders. This information could help promote
the formulation of extruded pellet diets for this species.
Protein Levels, P:E Ratios
As for other marine fish, protein requirements usually
decrease as olive flounders age.
Growth performance and survival data indicated that the
optimum dietary protein level for maximum growth and survival
of olive flounder larvae could be 60% crude protein. The laboratory-developed diets showed potential efficiency for rearing olive
flounder larvae.
Flounder Fry
As mentioned before, protein requirements usually decrease
with increases in fish size, so comparatively lower protein
requirements have been reported for various species of fish fry
over larvae. In a further eight weeks of experiments, fish with
weights averaging 4.10 ± 0.02 g were each fed one of five experimental diets containing 35, 45, 50, 55 or 65% crude protein.
Eight experimental diets were formulated with two energy
levels and four protein levels. At 12.5 kJ/g, diet crude protein
levels were 25, 30, 35 and 45%, while at 16.7 kJ/g diet, protein
levels were 35, 45, 50 and 60%. The energy levels of diets were
calculated based on 16.7, 37.6 and 16.7 kJ/g diets for protein,
lipid and carbohydrate, respectively. Triplicate groups of fish
averaging 8.10 ± 0.08 g were fed one of the experimental diets
for eight weeks.
At the end of the experiment, diets containing 45% crude
protein and 16.7 kJ/g diet appeared to be utilized more efficiently in terms of feed efficiency, specific growth rate and protein retention than diets containing the other protein and energy
levels. Based upon overall performance, it could be concluded
that the optimum protein:energy ratios could be 27.5 mg protein/kJ with diet containing 45% crude protein and 16.7 kJ/g
diet energy in juvenile olive flounders.
Flounder Larvae
Marine fish larvae are usually fed live feed, such as Brachionus
plicatalis rotifers and nauplii of Artemia species brine shrimp until
they are about 40 days or older, when they are weaned onto microparticulate diets. These diets are more convenient to use, less
variable in nutrient composition, more likely to be nutritionally
complete and often more cost-effective than live feed.
In the authors’ first experiments, fish averaging 0.3 ± 0.7 mg
mean weight were fed one of six experimental diets: three laboratory-developed diets containing different levels of dietary protein and three commercial diets. The feed particle size for each
diet was adjusted over the experimental period of 83 days. Fish
fed the experimental diets were also concurrently fed live feeds
until 45 days after hatching, as this is the normal procedure in
commercial hatcheries.
Microparticulate diets are more convenient
to use, less variable in nutrient
composition, more likely to be
nutritionally complete and often more
cost-effective than live feed.
July/August 2013
45
production
Tunicates
Offshore Mussel Culture
Project leader
Scott Lindell
(left) and seafood
wholesaler Jared
Auerbach examine newly seeded
mussel socks to
be hung on longlines off Martha’s
Vineyard,
Massachusetts.
Biologists Refine Longline Methods In New England, USA
Scott Lindell
Manager, Marine Resources Center
Director, Scientific Aquaculture
Program
Marine Biological Laboratory
MRC 315, 7 MBL Street
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 USA
slindell@mbl.edu
met by mussels grown within the United
States, bringing revenue and jobs to a
weakened economy.
Past Projects
Massachusetts mussel farmer Alec Gale harvests his first offshore longline.
Summary:
With limited space and carrying capacities available in inshore areas, aquaculture
operations are looking into offshore longline mussel aquaculture. In New England, USA, researchers are striving to increase production efficiency and perfect
techniques related to mussel socking and eradication of tunicates. Defining the
most effective socking method and an environmentally friendly way to decrease
tunicate fouling are major goals. Interest from U.S. fishermen is increasing,
but permitting is slow and uncertain, and start-up costs can be substantial.
Most mussels around the world are
farmed in inshore waters. With decreased
space availability and carrying capacities of
these sites being reached, more and more
operations are looking into offshore longline mussel aquaculture. Researchers at the
Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) in
Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA, are
working to find optimal methods for offshore mussel farming in New England.
Mussels In New England
The southern New England region of
the United States is an ideal place to grow
46
July/August 2013
mussels due to its climate, proximity to
markets and reasonable operating costs.
The temperate, plankton-rich waters produce market-size mussels in 10 to 12
months, versus 20 months in waters further north. Because of the unique spawning cycles in southern New England, mussels are at their prime – with higher meat
yields – during the summer months, when
the market is the strongest.
Currently, 85% of the demand for
mussels in the United States is met by
imports from Canadian mussel farmers.
The clear demand for mussels could be
Previously, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and University of
New Hampshire looked into mussel
farming with mixed results (the former
plagued by pea crab infestations). At the
start of the MBL-led pilot project in
2008, it was essential to assess the viability of offshore mussel farming in cooperation with fishermen who might ultimately adopt these ventures.
Around the world, many techniques
are used to produce mussels, from different socking techniques and lines to differing densities of mussel seed. Canadian
socks were used for this project. In Canada, mussels are placed in cotton-bisected,
fixed mesh socks hung vertically in the
water column from a head rope.
This is an attractive method because
untrained labor can easily fill the socks at
standardized densities by matching
graded seed sizes with various sock diameters. It is also relatively inexpensive –
U.S. $0.10-0.15/m – when compared
with other socking methods.
From this initial project, the net yield
of processed and marketable mussels from
the gross weight of the harvested socks
was 75%. The steamed meat yield of the
mussels was 20% in late August versus
30% in early July. A 30% yield is desirable
for live markets, with lower percentages
usually going into canned products.
As mentioned previously, fouling of
the mussel lines has been a problem in
other parts of the world. Tunicates do
not directly harm mussels, but they compete for the same food and make the
mussels more difficult to harvest and
clean for processing.
In Canada, several methods are used
to combat tunicate fouling, including
freshwater sprays and lime dips. The
author’s team is testing various durations
of freshwater sprays, freshwater baths,
brine baths and acetic acid sprays, followed by an hour of air drying. Preliminary results show freshwater baths followed by air drying was the most effective
method.
Perspectives
culture Center. All of the current projects
strive to increase the efficiency of offshore
mussel farming as well as perfect techniques related to collecting seed, socking
and eradication of tunicates, small, invasive encrusting marine organisms.
Defining the most effective socking
technique is the largest component of the
current project. The Canadian socks have
advantages, but also require more labor
than others, and the socks can only be
used once, making them less environmentally friendly.
The most widely used type of sock in
New Zealand and Europe is a biodegradable cotton sock with a reusable continuous
core rope. The core rope often has uneven
frays or loops, providing more surface area
to which the mussels can attach. These
ropes can be socked mechanically, and their
continuity makes them faster to deploy and
harvest, although more-skilled labor is nec-
essary to operate the machinery, and the
initial cost of the core rope is high.
Both the Canadian socks and the
continuous socks can be deployed in two
fashions: as single droppers or as continuous droppers, although the single droppers of discrete 3- to 5-m length are used
almost exclusively with the Canadian
socks. Continuous droppers are socks
strung along the head rope, dropping 3 to
6 m below the head rope with 1 m of
spacing between each dropper.
The author’s current project will incorporate continuous rope in this fashion, as
well as some of the Canadian socks by
tying the loose ends in pairs. Previous
projects using single droppers exclusively
experienced significantly fewer mussels on
the lower halves of the socks. This was
probably due to whiptailing and fall off.
To evaluate this theory, the Canadian
socks will be hung in both configurations.
While these projects hope to optimize
the techniques associated with offshore
mussel aquaculture, some technical and
social issues still need to be addressed.
Interest from U.S. fishermen is increasing, but permitting is slow and uncertain,
and start-up costs can be substantial.
Capital costs can be reduced by using
screw anchors and new remote installation technology.
Currently, permitting in some state
waters can take months to years and
involve dozens of agencies. Some groups
are looking at farm sites beyond their
states’ 3-mile (4.8-km) boundaries to take
advantage of potentially more streamlined
permitting in federal waters. To help
fishermen assess new business opportunities, the author’s Marine Biological Laboratory has led various workshops, demonstrations and presentations.
Current Status
Based on the success of the pilot project, nine longlines are currently being
farmed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts with funding from Rhode Island Sea
Grant and the Northeast Regional Aquaglobal aquaculture advocate
July/August 2013
47
production
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New market niches and increases in product value can help Brazil’s freshwater prawn industry work to re-establish itself.
Right: Prawn polyculture with tilapia also offers growth potential.
Freshwater Prawn Farming In Brazil
Improved Marketing, Production Chain May Bring Sector Back
Summary:
At present, Macrobrachium rosenbergii is the only shrimp species
commercially farmed in Brazil.
Most freshwater prawn farms
are small, and prawn culture is
often a secondary farming activity. Commercial hatcheries produce larvae, but organizational
problems in the production chain
tend to restrain production. Limited processing capacity is also a
problem. However, demand is
on the upswing, and marketing
efforts that include advertising,
special events and agritourism are
improving and expanding.
The farming of giant Malaysian
prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, in
Brazil began in the early 1980s and
attained an annual production of about
700 mt at the beginning of the 1990s
(Figure 1). However, production
decreased in 1995 for several reasons,
including problems with marketing strategies, the rise of marine shrimp farming
and expansion in the farming of fish species such as tilapia. A second fall occurred
in 1998-1999 due to the closing of the
largest freshwater prawn farm, which
48
July/August 2013
Helcio Luis de Almeida
Marques
Scientific Researcher, Fisheries Institute
Agência Paulista de Tecnologia
dos Agronegócios
São Paulo State, Brazil
helcio@pesca.sp.gov.br
Marcello Villar Boock
Scientific Researcher, APTA Regional
Agência Paulista de Tecnologia
dos Agronegócios
Patrícia Moraes-Valenti
University of Santo Amaro
São Paulo, S.P., Brazil
produced about 20 mt monthly with 50
ha of ponds.
According to United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization data, an
annual production of 450 mt was reached
in the first half of the past decade, but
problems in postlarvae supply reduced
production in 2007, 2008 and 2009.
These problems occurred due to the closure of the largest hatchery of the
Espírito Santo in 2008 and the temporary
stoppage of another important hatchery
in São Paulo in 2009.
With the 2011 start–up of a new
hatchery in Espírito Santo, production is
expected to grow again.
Production Status
At present, M. rosenbergii is the only
species commercially farmed in Brazil.
Climatic conditions are suitable for production all year, except in the southern
region, where farming occurs only from
October to April. The entire production
is absorbed by the national market.
Official statistics are scarce, but unofficial 2009 data obtained from hatchery
owners indicated that M. rosenbergii were
produced in all Brazilian regions and in at
least 15 states. Prawns are cultured semiintensively, mainly in Espírito Santo State,
where Cooperativa dos Aquicultores do
Espírito Santo (CEAQ), the largest Brazilian cooperative of producers, is located.
Generally, prawn culture is a secondary farming activity, but some producers
believe that prawns have more stable sale
prices than the primary products of the
farms and thus present higher profitability. Farms are small – 0.5 to 2.0 ha – but
two farms located in the states of Minas
Gerais and Rio de Janeiro have about 5
ha of ponds.
In 2010, eight commercial hatcheries
were operating in the states of São Paulo,
Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Norte and Rondonia. In Espírito Santo, there are two
hatcheries, and another is under construction. Discontinuity in supply and
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July/August 2013
49
ever, the purchasing power of lower
classes has recently been increasing, and
therefore demand is also rising.
700
600
Marketing Strategies
500
400
300
200
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
0
1991
100
1990
Production (mt)
800
Year
Figure 1. Annual production of M. rosenbergii in Brazil.
poor organization of the production chain
are major problems. Postlarvae prices are
higher than those for marine shrimp,
varying U.S. $20-50/1,000 shrimp
(excluding transport).
Some farmers stock postlarvae in
earthen pond nurseries at 100-200/m2 for
45 to 60 days before the growout phase.
Grow-out ponds of 0.1- to 0.3-ha size
typically receive juveniles or postlarvae
stocked at densities of 8-10/m2. Prawns
are grown 120 to 180 days, depending on
the local temperature.
If nursery ponds are used, it is possible to perform two or three cycles yearly
in northern states and one or two cycles
in the southern states. Productivity is
around 1.5-2.5 mt/ha/cycle. Prawns are
harvested at 20- to 30-g mean weight.
Survival rates vary from 50 to 80%.
Only a few farms produce prawns in
polyculture with tilapia, but there is
potential for expansion since the low
profitability of fish culture in ponds
causes hundreds of hectares of ponds to
be unused or underutilized all over the
country.
Processing
If prawns are sold fresh, they are maintained after harvest for one or two days
maximum in isothermal boxes with ice
until selling time. Poor processing is still a
problem, since almost all producers freeze
prawns in domestic freezers for delivery to
customers or for sale at the farm gate, with
consequent loss of quality.
Only three Brazilian farms and
CEAQ are legally equipped for prawn
processing. Frozen prawns are packed in
plastic bags of 0.5 or 1 kg after removing
their rostrums and chelae, but there is an
increasing demand for whole prawns.
Only frozen tails and frozen meat are
eventually sold.
50
July/August 2013
Prawn Sales
In Espírito Santo, most producers sell
their entire production to CEAQ, which
provides equipment and technical support
to harvest the prawns, as well as an airconditioned truck to transport them. In
São Paulo, a small agritourism farm that
includes a hatchery, restaurant and retail
outlet for frozen prawns, provides postlarvae, feed and technical support to partner producers and guarantees the purchase
of their production.
Prawns are sold mainly to restaurants
and hotels. Sales to individual consumers
occur only at specific sale points or the
farm gates. Currently, the sale of prawns
in fish markets or supermarkets occurs
only in Espírito Santo and Rio de
Janeiro. In other states, prawns are all
sold frozen in limited retail outlets, with
the purchase of fresh prawns being done
only at the farm gate.
Prawns are generally size classified as
small (15 to 20 g), medium (25 to 35 g)
and large (35 to 45 g). Prices vary U.S.
$15-18/kg and differ by about $1 from
one size class to another. There are market niches for all prawn sizes, including
the very small 10-g prawns.
The demand for premium prawns
larger than 50 g, at prices of U.S. $20-23/
kg, has increased in recent years. Many
restaurants, mainly those specializing in
Oriental food, are also looking for large
live prawns at prices up to $25/kg.
Another interesting market niche is the
sale of berried females at prices about
30% higher than normal prawns of the
same weight. Some restaurants offer delicacies prepared with rice and prawns with
orange eggs to give a special color and
flavor to the dish.
Freshwater prawns in Brazil are generally consumed by the middle and
upper-middle classes, because their prices
are high when compared to other protein
products such as beef or chicken. How-
The CEAQ and some large farms
produce good publicity material such as
banners and brochures that present the
qualities of prawn meat – low fat, low
cholesterol, delicate flavor and nice texture. They also teach the basics of preparation of prawns and provide common
recipes. This strategy is even more effective when the information is included in
all packages of the product.
Visual advertising contributes greatly
to marketing prawns and promoting the
names of the producers and farms. The
placement of logos, photos and tags on
trucks and vans used daily also contributes
to the same purposes. Outdoor signs are
becoming more commonly used to identify and show the way to farms, restaurants
and retail outlets that offer prawns.
Agritourism is a good strategy to
aggregate value for the farmed prawns.
This is mainly possible on farms close to
big towns or tourist routes. People of all
ages visit the ponds, broodstock tanks
and prawn aquariums, and enjoy cooked
prawns. In Rio de Janeiro, a large farm
located close to a highway recently
opened a restaurant within the property.
In São Paulo, a small agritourism farm
with a hatchery also maintains a restaurant within the farm.
Besides gastronomy, other forms of
agritourism include the promotion of
events at the farms, such as guided tours of
the ponds and nurseries, harvest simulations, and promotion of courses and talks
on prawn cultivation, as well as recreational activities. In Espírito Santo,
CEAQ recently started to promote the
annual Gastronomic Meeting of Prawns,
with about 400 participants. The meeting
includes musical performances and servings of several prawn-based dishes in addition to sales of frozen prawns.
Freshwater prawn culture is recognized
as a sustainable activity. Marketing strategies should disclose this characteristic, following the worldwide trend of consumers
wishing to select products farmed in a sustainable way. Some interesting strategies
for the future could address organic culture
or communicate sustainable technologies
such as production with minimal water
exchange or in integrated systems.
tion in Brazil has seen some falls followed
by recoveries. This suggests it is a resilient
activity that continues to offer potential for
expansion but also presents some chronic
organizational problems in the productive
chain.
The recent decline in production
occurred due to specific problems with
important hatcheries and not factors such
as diseases, low profitability or low
demand. Freshwater prawn farming in
Brazil currently has a favorable outlook
due to increasing demand, the emergence
of new market niches and increases in
product value, as well as the prospect of
improved organization of the production
chain as a whole. Governmental actions
to stimulate production would be helpful
in this process.
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Perspectives
Over time, freshwater prawn producglobal aquaculture advocate
July/August 2013
51
production
Eel Production In Europe
Dr. Joost Blom
Sales Manager
Biomar A/S
Mylius Erichsensvej 35
DK-7330 Brande, Denmark
job@biomar.dk
Roller Coaster Ride To Sustainable Future?
with small wild-caught eels, which were
allowed to grow to sizes often exceeding
the 2-kg size prized by the local market.
In the 1980s, the first indoor, technologically advanced recirculating farms were
established, allowing year-round temperature-controlled culture, even in the
colder climates of northern Europe.
The controlled conditions of the recirculating farms allowed them to make use of
the glass eels that arrived at European coasts
in large numbers each winter and spring.
Farmers perfected techniques to achieve
very high survival rates of the delicate stocking material. Next to wild fisheries, these
farms became an increasingly important
supply for the markets that considered eels a
traditional delicacy throughout Europe.
The high prices paid for eels led to a
rapid increase in the number of farms in the
mid-1990s, but by 1999, the increase in
production, together with increased imports
from Asia, resulted in overproduction
(Figure 1). Prices dropped below production costs.
Mature eels are stocked “over the dike” in the sea. Photo courtesy of DUPAN.
Issues
The first eel ponds were established in Italy in the early
1970s, following Japanese examples. These farms were stocked
52
July/August 2013
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
4000
1999
5000
1998
Industry Development
12000
1997
As one of the most technologically advanced forms of aquaculture in the world, eel farming saw an initial rapid growth in
production up to the early 2000s. In the past decade, however,
the industry has been facing a series of challenges that could
damage its future outlook. Farmers are now striving to find new
ways to secure the future of European eel production in a more
sustainable way.
In 2002, imports from China were banned due to the presence of chemical residues, and the demand for eel fillets from
supermarkets helped push eel prices back to a profitable level.
Nevertheless, the decreased financial reserves of the farms due to
the low prices in previous years took their toll.
In the following years, the exploding production in China
and the lack of Japanese glass eels increased demand for the
1996
After rapid expansion of glass eel culture in the mid1990s was followed by overproduction, pricing problems,
glass eel shortages and NGO pressures, European Union
countries adopted national management plans for the
eels. Importation of consumption eels was stopped, and
exportation was phased out. Restocking by the eel industry has shown positive effects on local eel populations.
To survive, the industry realizes it must increase its restocking efforts and take additional measures to help the
recovery of glass eels.
Eel Production (mt)
Summary:
Source: Federation of European Aquaculture Producers.
Figure 1. Annual eel production in Europe.
July/August 2013
53
Industry Initiatives
Mature eels are caught in front of a pumping station that blocks
their migration to the sea. Photo courtesy of DUPAN.
shrinking supply of European glass eels. Skyrocketing glass eel
prices put additional strains on the financial position of the
farms. Production started to decline with an increasing number
of farmers unable or unwilling to take the financial risks of continued operation.
The situation for the eel industry got even more difficult by
the mid-2000s. It was clear that the number of glass eels arriving
at European coasts declined significantly since the 1980s. Due to
the complex nature of the eels’ life history, a clear reason for the
decline could not be given, but climate change, diseases, pollution, overfishing and – most of all – lack of access to and from
the natural freshwater habitat were all speculated to contribute.
Regulatory Action
As a result, the European eel was placed on the CITES
Appendix II in 2007. Although trade is still allowed within the
regulations of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, supermarkets in the main
eel consumer markets like Holland, Germany and Denmark were
pressured by non-governmental organizations to stop selling eels.
The result was a second wave of farms going out of business.
China again exported large amounts of eels to the European
markets at low prices. The European Union adopted a regulation
in 2007 to establish measures for the recovery of the European
eel stocks, but without clearly defined measures, the farmers
feared that glass eels would be either inaccessible or unaffordable
in the future.
Some relief finally arrived in 2009, when all E.U. countries
adopted national eel management plans for the recovery of the
eels. The importation of consumption eels was stopped, and the
exportation of glass eels was reduced and later phased out. By
this time, eel production had been reduced significantly, but was
regaining balance in consumption and pricing. The future
looked brighter again.
Over the past decade, the eel industry has been supplying
small eels for restocking, mainly in Germany and northern countries where water temperatures are too low to stock glass eels
during the glass eel season, or glass eels cannot be stocked without a quarantine period. These restockings have shown a positive
effect on the local eel populations.
To survive, the eel industry has come to the realization that it
will have to increase its restocking efforts, either by itself or as
part of the national eel plans, and take additional measures to
help the recovery of the eels.
54
July/August 2013
Several industry initiatives have been launched. In 2010, the
Sustainable Eel Group (SEG) was founded by a group of scientists, conservationists and people with a commercial interest in
eels to take practical action to accelerate the recovery of glass
eels. SEG takes a leading role within the E.U. to promote the
recovery of European eels and look for more sustainable ways of
operating the eel industry.
To help achieve these goals, SEG scientists and conservationists developed sustainability standards for eel production. In
the past year, some 75% of the European eel farms and processors were independently assessed. The next step is assessment of
the glass eel fisheries.
The pilot standards are to be revised during 2013 as new
insights in the eel recovery become available and lessons emerge
from the pilot phase. The overall aim is for the industry, scientists and conservationists to work together for the eels’ recovery.
In Holland, the country with the greatest production and
consumption of eels, eel fishermen, farmers and processors have
formed a Dutch sustainable eel foundation, DUPAN. The organization aims to substantially contribute to the Dutch national
eel plan to accelerate and exceed its goals. DUPAN supports
activities ranging from restocking of eels and transfer of mature
eels over the dikes to the sea, to education and research supporting recovery initiatives.
The organization raises a substantial amount of money from
sales of eels that carry the label of the Sustainable Eel Fund,
government grants and donations. DUPAN is now considered
the leading authority on the private eel sector in Holland and is
also active internationally as one of the members of SEG.
Selection. Service. Solutions.
Perspectives
To achieve sustainability, the eel industry will have to reach a
zero negative impact on the wild eel population. The impacts of
catching glass eels can be reduced by selecting eels from areas
with low natural survival. They can be further offset by supporting stocks in areas with good survival through restocking.
Natural recruitment can be improved by transporting mature
eels from areas from which they would normally have little
chance to migrate to the ocean for spawning due to dams and
power stations. In addition, measures are being taken to minimize losses during capture, transport and culture, and to safeguard the well-being of the eels in farming conditions.
Eels have been part of the culture of Europe as a traditional
delicacy. In Holland, smoked eels are as much part of its heritage
as windmills, tulips and wooden shoes. The ultimate goal of the
eel industry in Europe is to be able to continue to deliver eels to
the table, but at the same time to contribute to the recovery of
the European eel population. Without a wild eel population, the
eel industry will not survive, and a positive future will be a benefit for both.
The overall aim is for the industry,
scientists and conservationists to work
together for the eels’ recovery.
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July/August 2013
55
marketplace seafood marketing
Turbot Markets
Constrained By Recession, Spanish Demand
Dictates Production
Portugal are unlikely to recover in the
short term.
Regarding the wild turbot fishery,
after a high level of 12,864 mt production
in 1995, world landings have been in
decline and stood at about 5,500 mt in
2010-11. E.U. landings, which represent
the majority of world production, were
around 4,900 mt in 2010-11. The prospects for increased landings are limited,
so any expansion in quantity must come
from farming.
Turbot Markets
José Fernández Polanco,
Ph.D.
Universidad de Cantabria
Avenida de los Castros s/n E-3900
Santander, Cantabria, Spain
polancoj@unican.es
Prof. Trond Bjorndal, Ph.D.
Institute for Research in Economics
and Business Administration
Bergen, Norway
price increases may negatively affect consumption.
Turbot Production
As retail prices for turbot decreased in 2012, sales rose in Spain.
Summary:
Although turbot sales increased
in Europe in 2012, production
of turbot is likely to stagnate in
coming years. Producers need to
enter new market segments as
they prepare to address expected
price increases. While Spain, the
dominant market for turbot,
remains in a recession, the turbot
market is likely to remain constrained. Short term, turbot
marketing will have to focus on
mitigating shocks from the shortage in production after the 2012
expansion in sales.
Turbot is a high-value fish species
that is much favored in fine restaurants.
Aquaculture of turbot started in Scotland
in the 1970s, but from the early 1980s,
primary expansion took place in Galicia,
Spain. Techno-biological improvements
in the early 1990s triggered steady growth
56
July/August 2013
in production across numerous European
countries. Still, the main production
takes place in Galicia, with modest culture in France, Portugal, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Norway and
Wales.
This picture was expected to change
in 2010, with Portugal becoming the
leading turbot producer due to the projected annual production of 7,000 mt at a
facility belonging to Pescanova’s aquaculture cluster in the northern part of the
country. However, this facility has not
reached its full capability, and issues with
the water system in late 2012 resulted in
a total loss of production and significant
downsizing in January of this year.
Considering the financial difficulties
of the Pescanova group, and with no new
investments in capacity building pending,
production of turbot is likely to stagnate
in coming years. Stagnation in production is likely to have an impact on price.
As total output will not increase, there
will not be a need for producers to enter
new market segments. However, expected
Farmed production of turbot was
until recently almost exclusively based in
the European Union. Outside Europe,
the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations reported an
increasing production of farmed turbot in
China, rising from 5,000 mt in 2005 to
60,000 mt in 2010 – although it is
unclear whether these figures actually
referred to turbot or another flatfish like
flounder. Chile, with a modest production close to 300 mt in 2010, is the other
relevant non-European producer of the
species Psetta maxima.
Within Europe, farmed production
comes from five main countries, with
over 71% of the output coming from
Spain in 2011. Spanish production has
grown consistently from 38 mt in 1985 to
7,970 mt in 2012. Portuguese production
has also increased considerably to reach
2,500 mt in 2011.
The failure in the water abstraction
system at the Pescanova facility resulted
in increased mortality due to uncontrolled
disease, and production was stopped,
with output estimated at 3,000 to 3,500
mt. Due to the increasing financial difficulties of the Pescanova group, currently
under intervention in a suspension of
payments procedure, production levels in
Spain is not only the largest producer
of turbot, but also one of the largest markets. Since it has a negligible wild harvest, the country is served almost entirely
by farmed product. However, wild turbot
is imported from the Netherlands during
the harvest season, causing some impact
on farmed prices.
There was an upward trend in sales
from 2,204 mt in 2004 to 3,627 mt in
2009, with a particularly noticeable
increase from 2007 to 2008 (Table 1).
However, consumption declined in 2010
and into 2011. The effects of the financial crisis on Spanish consumers’ budgets
may be the reason for these decreases,
which were also observed for other popular farmed species like sea bream. The
concurrent rise in retail turbot prices has
acted as a catalyst in decreasing demand.
This trend dramatically changed in
2012 as a result of the financial difficulties
of Pescanova and reduced fattening periods due to increased mortality in other
farms in Galicia. Turbot sales increased
67.0%, and prices decreased in all retail
categories. Supermarkets represented
58.5% of total sales – an increase of
103.0% compared to 2011 – followed by
hypermarkets and traditional fishmongers
(each 16.0%) and fish markets (9.5%).
The relative share of traditional outlets has declined since 2011, reflecting
the trend of retail concentration in the
seafood market accelerated by the consequences of the economic crisis on smaller
fishmongers and markets since 2008. The
increase in supply resulted in decreases in
prices at all retail categories except fishmongers. The largest decreases compared
with 2011 were observed for supermarkets (7.5%) and fish markets (6.3%).
As of April, the issues at Pescanova
had not yet affected turbot prices, with
retail numbers maintained at levels similar to the previous year. However,
increases in the price of turbot are
expected, as the shortage in supply will
become more evident. The ability of
Galician farms to replace the production
from Portugal will be a critical factor to
stabilize the prices.
Future Market Challenges
The interesting question about turbot
is why production has not increased more.
Many top chefs regard it as the most
attractive fish species. Moreover, it has a
great reputation in a much wider area than
seabass and sea bream, as it is also caught
(in small quantities) in Northern Europe
and hence has a larger market to tap. The
reasons for the limited growth of this
industry are to be found on both the supply and demand sides.
On the supply side, the reason for the
limited growth in farmed quantity has to
do with production technology. Turbot
cannot be produced in sea pens, but must
be produced in land-based tanks or raceways. This requires more investment in
capital and production costs, and makes
it more difficult to increase production
when market signals are positive. Hence,
Table 1. Turbot sales and prices for main retail channels in Spain.
Total
Sales
Year (mt)
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2,204
1,885
2,499
2,304
3,048
3,627
3,517
3,258
5,445
Hypermarkets
Supermarkets
Quantity
(mt)
Price
(€/kg)
Quantity
(mt)
527
440
537
473
556
932
820
654
874
9.78
9.84
10.06
10.62
9.46
9.39
9.10
9.31
8.98
781
545
829
689
1,210
1.536
1,749
1,569
3,186
Fish Markets
Fishmongers
QuanQuantity
tity
Price
Price
Price
(€/kg) (mt) (€/kg) (mt) (€/kg)
8.43
9.61
10.13
9.63
9.56
9.01
9.33
9.39
8.68
369
333
403
335
479
396
330
370
511
8.54
8.81
8.97
8.29
9.22
9.39
10.23
10.29
9.64
527
567
730
807
803
764
618
664
875
8.75
8.62
9.22
9.11
8.89
9.50
9.47
9.79
9.88
Source: MAGRAMA
July/August 2013
57
production costs cannot decline as much
as for salmon as long as this land-based
production technology is used.
Lessons can be learned from the Portugal facility problems. Given that recirculation systems and offshore turbot aquaculture are still largely in the planning
stage, with limited large-scale experience,
production is concentrated in land-based
facilities. These need a continued supply
of water directly from the sea. On the
northern Spanish shore, only the estuaries
in Galicia provide optimal conditions for
these facilities. All other locations result in
increased maintenance costs.
In the case of Galicia, legal and political issues have limited the growth of
facilities and production, and no new
farms will be allowed in the near future.
Turbot are cold-water fish, and conversion rates fall significantly as water temperatures decrease. This makes it difficult
to compete with the Galician productivity
rates until recirculation technologies
improve and become competitive for this
species.
marketplace
food safety and technology
Killing Methods,
Post-Slaughter Quality
Part I. Developing A Slaughter Program
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Distinguished Professor
flickg@vt.edu
Perspectives
Turbot is a very popular product, and
many markets remain to be exploited in
Europe and elsewhere. Nevertheless,
Spain is still the dominant market and
the engine for sector development. While
Spain remains in a recession, the turbot
market is likely to remain constrained. In
the long run, however, production may
increase as Spain recovers and other markets are developed. Nevertheless, the
constraints on expanded production in
Spain must be kept in mind.
In the short term, marketing will have
to focus on mitigating the shocks from
the shortage in production after an
important expansion in sales during 2012.
Reduced supply will result in increased
prices in 2013, and maybe a period of
turbulence in the future evolution of
prices. Price instability negatively affects
retailer interest and may affect the industry’s future sales. Securing stability in the
markets will allow making improvements
in the future, when production issues
should be resolved.
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
davekuhn@vt.edu
When shrimp are harvested at night, which reduces temperature stress, they
are typically placed in chilled water as part of the humane slaughter process.
Summary:
The methods used to kill fish
depend on many factors, including
fish size and species, aquaculture
production system, fish quantity,
market preferences and effects
on product quality. Also, some
methods may not be approved in
some countries, as with the use
of anesthetics and regulations
concerning the ethical treatment
of animals. International organizations have prepared guidelines
for ethical treatment prior to
and during slaughter. Slaughter
methods may soon be specified
in the purchase requirements of
major seafood buyers.
Harvesting fish for slaughter usually
requires some handling and concentration of fish, which can result in fish
58
July/August 2013
stress. Harvesting is known to result in
elevated levels of cortisol, the primary
stress hormone in fish, as well as lactic
acid and glucose. It can also cause
reduced glycogen levels, decreased muscle
pH and rapid onset of rigor mortis.
Preharvest physiological changes can
result in lower product quality and
reduced processing yields, which can have
a significant effect on profitability. What
is least traumatic to the animals is best for
meat quality.
Slaughter Methods
A variety of slaughter methods are
currently used for fish, depending on the
species, resulting product quality and
market demand. Some fish are individually processed, while others are collectively killed.
According to the Silsoe Research
Institute: “Slaughter is generally a twostage process. The animal is first stunned
to make it insensible to pain. Death is
Food Science and
Technology Department
Center for Applied Health Sciences
Duck Pond Drive
Virginia Tech (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
then introduced by various methods that
include bleeding, stopping the heart or
preventing access to oxygen. These two
stages can occur together, but where they
are distinct operations, the stun-to-kill
time must be minimized to prevent recovery of consciousness before death occurs.”
In evaluating methods of euthanasia,
the following criteria are considered:
• ability to induce loss of consciousness and death with a minimum of
pain and distress
• time required to induce loss of consciousness
• reliability
• safety of personnel
• irreversibility
• compatibility with intended animal
use and purpose
• documented emotional effect on
observers or operators
• compatibility with subsequent evaluation, examination or use of tissue
July/August 2013
59
• drug availability and human abuse
potential
• compatibility with species, age and
health status
• ability to maintain equipment in
proper working order
• safety for predators or scavengers
should the animal’s remains be
consumed
• legal requirements
• environmental impacts of the
method or disposition of the animal’s remains.
Protection For Fish
Although the slaughter of mammals
and avian species for human consumption is regulated by law in many countries, most do not yet extend this protection to farmed fish. Various groups have
stated that since there is no reason to
suppose fish are incapable of feeling pain
and distress, there is good argument for
affording fish protections similar to those
given to higher vertebrates.
Acceptable slaughter methods must
render the animals insensible immediately and should be performed without
causing avoidable pain or suffering.
According to the Humane Slaughter
Association: “The ideal slaughter system
Acceptable slaughter
methods must render
the animals insensible
immediately and should
be performed without
causing avoidable pain
or suffering.
for fish encompasses methods that do
not remove the animals from water.
Where this cannot be avoided, fish
should not be out of water for more than
15 seconds. After this amount of time,
the animals show adverse behavior.”
In the United Kingdom, where concern
for farm animal welfare is more widespread
than in many other developed countries, as
evidenced by the prevalence of pro-animal
legislation, policy and consumer interest, the
well-being of fish is of such importance that
some retailers are anticipating the inclusion
of humane fish slaughter elements in their
purchasing policies.
A section of the Aquatic Animal
Health Standards Commission report of
September 2009 includes information on
personnel; fish loading, unloading and
transport; facility design for holding fish
prior to slaughter; and stunning and killing
methods. The chapter also contains a summary of stunning methods for fish and
their respective welfare issues. Some firms
are currently reviewing the report and may
include some of the recommendations in
developing plans for new facilities or the
renovation of existing structures.
Assessing Insensibility
According to a report by the Humane
Society of the United States, a method to
assess consciousness in fish is monitoring
their eye roll reflex, movement of the
eyes when fish are rolled from side to
side. When conscious, fish attempt to
remain upright when rolled to the side,
and their eyes roll relative to the head.
However, when unconscious, the eyes
remain fixed relative to the head, showing
no movement.
Other acceptable non-invasive means
of assessing unconsciousness include
monitoring self-initiated behavior, such as
the ability to swim normally and maintain
equilibrium. Responses to stimuli such as
catching or handling, pin prick or electric
stimulus are additional indicators, as are
clinical reflexes, such as rhythmic movement of opercula, the bony flaps over gills,
which indicates breathing.
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marketplace
u.s. seafood markets
Reduced Thai Shrimp Production Drives
Lower U.S. Imports
Paul Brown, Jr.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08752 USA
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Whole Salmon Imports
Slip, Fresh Fillets Dip
Janice Brown
Angel Rubio
YTD imports from Thailand were down significantly, particularly when taking into account the lower imports last year.
Reflecting a more dramatic change, in 2010, April YTD imports
from Thailand were 118 million lb, while in 2013 that April
YTD figure was 66 million lb – a 52 million-lb shortfall. Ecuador and Indonesia were also down YTD through April.
Indian shrimp imports continued their sharp upward trend,
rescuing the U.S. shrimp supply from worse shortages. April
shrimp imports from Vietnam were also higher, leaving its YTD
imports only slightly lower.
Imports of shell-on shrimp, including easy-peel for retail,
were slightly lower in April but down over 13% YTD. Bucking
that trend, in April, imports of 21-25 and 26-30 shrimp (led by
India) were significantly higher. April imports of 41- to
50-count shrimp, dominated by Ecuador, were also higher.
Imports of all other count sizes were lower.
Imports of raw peeled shrimp were almost 10.0% lower for
April, but YTD imports managed to stay in positive territory at a
moderate increase of 3.5%. India and Vietnam increased their
peeled imports, while Thailand, Ecuador and Indonesia levels
were lower. Warmwater cooked shrimp, dominated by Thailand’s production, continue to be sharply lower.
Buying pressure from Europe and Asia are affecting shrimp
supplies available to the U.S. market.
Summary:
With U.S. shrimp imports from Thailand down,
imports from India and Ecuador are rising, although
buying pressure is being exerted from both Europe and
Asia. Improved supply from Thailand is anticipated in
the third quarter. Whole salmon saw decreasing U.S.
imports in April. A strike in Chile at the end of May
caused a shortage in the fresh salmon fillet market. Fresh
tilapia fillet imports continued their strong growth in
April, although supply is expected to contract during the
summer months. Frozen fillet imports dropped further.
Despite large import volume, the channel catfish market
has remained steady since mid-March. Import prices
for Pangasius continued to drop, but that market also
remains steady.
The year 2012 saw shrimp imports to the United States
decline 7.2% from 2011 figures, the first year-over-year decline
since 2009. The decline was led by sharply lower imports from
Thailand, the largest supplier of shrimp, especially value-added
product, to the U.S.
April shrimp imports were down almost 10% month over
month, pushing year-to-date (YTD) imports down almost 9%.
Imports from Thailand and Ecuador were down sharply for the
month compared to April of last year. Indonesia was off slightly.
Shrimp Market
Shrimp prices remain generally high. Production problems
due to early mortality syndrome in Thailand have constrained
U.S. imports of value-added white shrimp, particularly retail
cooked shrimp. Improved supply from Thailand is anticipated in
the third quarter.
Production of 16-20 through 26-30 headless, shell-on; easypeel and peeled white shrimp from India is seasonally improved.
Imports from India have been heavy and should continue. However, buying pressure from other areas around the world due to
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, April 2013.
Form
April
2013 (1,000 lb)
March 2013
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2012
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2013
(1,000 lb)
YTD 2012
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
30,150
29,765
9,165
5,480
74,560
30,996
30,868
7,828
3,671
73,363
-2.73%
-3.57%
17.08%
49.28%
1.63%
30,981
32,968
11,138
8,042
83,129
-2.68%
-9.72%
-17.71%
-31.86%
-10.31%
121,031
136,044
37,361
23,025
317,461
139,327
131,452
50,198
27,225
348,202
-13.13%
3.49%
-25.57%
-15.43%
-8.83%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
62
July/August 2013
shortages and the preliminary U.S. countervailing duty rates
may unsettle that market.
Ecuador’s shrimp production has been heavy. Here again,
buying pressure is being exerted from both Europe and Asia on
this supply. With some exceptions, market prices have been
generally strong.
Black tiger production continues to be replaced by white
shrimp in India and Vietnam. The black tiger market has been
strong for the available supply, and production will be seasonally
later than whites. The premium for black tiger shrimp continues
to increase versus white shrimp. As this spread develops, the
move to white shrimp will likely increase.
April YTD imports of salmon to the United States showed
an 8.04% increase when compared to imports from the same
time last year (Table 2). Imports for April, however, were 5.82%
lower than in April 2012. Fresh whole fish imports continued to
see YTD figures decrease, while fresh fillet imports were up
YTD. Total month-to-month data was down 18.27% when
compared to March.
Whole Fish
In April, YTD imports of fresh whole fish continued the
year with a decrease of 9.3% below April 2012 YTD figures.
Similarly, a monthly comparison revealed a 17.5% decrease since
March. April whole fish figures were 16.9% lower than in April
2012. Canadian imports were lower, 13.3% down YTD.
The market for whole fish during May and the beginning of
June was steady. The entire month of May was full steady to
firm for both the Northeast and West Coast Canadian whole
fish markets. Supplies were barely adequate for a moderate to
active demand. Many market participants reported that May was
a strong sales month. Current supplies are adequate for a more
moderate to fair demand. All sizes are now above their threeyear price averages.
The European whole fish market in April was about steady
to weak. Supplies were fully adequate for a fair to dull demand.
A few lower-still offerings were noted in the beginning of June.
During May, the West Coast whole fish market was full
steady to firm on all sizes. The market was unchanged, and
demand moderated some in early June. Supplies on the West
Coast remained light, however, especially on bigger fish. Similar
to the Northeast market, most sizes were at or above their threeyear averages.
Fillets
Import volumes of fresh fillets continued 2013 with an April
YTD increase of 21.0%. Monthly overall fillet imports, however,
were lower. The April total was 18.8 million lb imported, which
was 15.3% lower than for March. April 2013 imports were
higher, 11.1% over April 2012.
The U.S. imported 15.1 million lb of salmon fillets from
Chile during the month of April. Imports from Chile were
30.5% higher YTD, and 63.6 million lb have been imported
thus far for 2013. The dip in monthly imports followed the seasonal trend and tended to coincide with the end of Lent. Overall
imports were at the highest levels to date at 78.1 million lb.
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July/August 2013
63
brisk. All sizes are above their three-year price averages. The
European fillet market remains unchanged. Supplies of fillets
from Europe are adequate for a moderate to fair demand.
The market has remained steady since mid-March. Replacement costs in March saw a considerable increase from the previous month, but retreated again in April. The undertone was
generally steady.
Pangasius
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, April 2013.
Form
April 2013
(lb)
March
2013 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2012 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2013
(lb)
YTD 2012
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
16,250,546
414,117
18,886,627
4,551,863
40,103,153
19,699,662
660,527
22,303,447
6,403,689
49,067,325
-17.51%
-37.31%
-15.32%
-28.92%
-18.27%
19,560,730
496,668
16,997,091
5,527,485
42,581,974
-16.92%
-16.62%
11.12%
-17.65%
-5.82%
70,546,909
1,716,031
78,088,840
25,938,884
176,290,664
77,760,667
1,931,804
64,523,037
18,959,172
163,174,680
-9.28%
-11.17%
21.02%
36.81%
8.04%
Imports of frozen Pangasius fillets reached the highest
recorded level for the month of March. April figures increased
over March levels, but were still lower compared to the same
time a year ago. Note that duties were imposed in March for all
new incoming shipments and then increased after ministerial
errors were found following an assessment of some third-party
comments. Meanwhile, imports continued to follow a seasonal
pattern and remained 12% shorter than last year.
Import prices dropped to their lowest point since October
2006. However, we must take into account that most of the
product traded in the U.S. is “DDP” (delivered and duty paid),
so in order to have a proper assessment of these import prices,
one must estimate the duty paid, which can vary depending on
the packer. So, despite the correction of duties released in May,
the market has remained steady since the jump in prices seen in
March.
Fresh Tilapia Fillet Imports Rise In Unsettled Market
Frozen Whole Fish
Imports of fresh fillets continued to increase in April when
compared to 2012, both on a monthly and YTD basis. Figures
since 2011 were revised again using new harmonized codes created by the U.S. Department of Commerce in 2012. The alleged
error for Costa Rica was calculated again with minor revisions.
Imports for 2013 continued their strong growth in April,
Form
Pangasius
Channel catfish
Total
April
2013 (lb)
March
2013 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2012 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2013
(lb)
YTD 2012
(lb)
Change
(Year)
16,115,469
1,165,404
17,280,873
14,811,098
1,496,967
16,308,065
8.8%
-22.1%
6.0%
17,908,535
533,745
18,442,280
-10.0%
118.3%
-6.3%
60,184,659
4,034,162
64,218,821
68,457,395
4,154,758
72,612,153
-12.1%
-2.9%
-11.6%
Mycofix
April
2013 (lb)
March
2013 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2012 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2013
(lb)
YTD 2012
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh fillets
Frozen whole fish
Frozen fillets
Total
5,226,716
6,241,167
12,818,196
24,286,079
5,620,985
5,679,758
14,607,218
25,907,96
-7.0%
9.9%
-12.2%
-6.3%
4,674,237
5,610,713
26,288,636
36,573,586
11.8%
11.2%
-51.2%
-33.6%
21,184,694
26,354,607
92,849,475
140,388,776
19,390,890
27,669,844
115,654,349
162,715,083
9.3%
-4.8%
-19.7%
-13.7%
x i n Ri
MYCOFI
X
nag eM
®
More protective.
Mycotoxins decrease performance and interfere
with the health status of your animals.
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, April 2013.
Form
a
to
sk
Fresh Fillets
Following a clear seasonal pattern, imports of frozen tilapia
fillets declined precipitously in March from the previous month.
Interestingly, April imports fell even more, despite historical
data that suggests imports typically reach rock bottom in March
and improve moving forward.
According to traders and expectations reported around February, April’s figures made sense. Back in February, importers
who actually took larger buying positions reported considerably
higher replacement costs. We must remember that such negotiations and set prices were for product that was going to arrive in
the U.S. throughout April. Given the high offerings from packers overseas and generally adequate inventories through February, not many importers took buying positions – hence the drop
in imports in April.
Furthermore, inventories depleted through the Lenten season. Couple this with lower imports at a higher replacement
price, and higher asking prices from importers make sense. As a
result, Urner Barry quotations have been adjusting higher.
Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, April 2013.
M
U.S. imports of frozen whole tilapia appear to have regained
their historical seasonal trend, with March and April imports
following historical trends. Imports in April increased from
March as well as April 2012. YTD figures were just 5% below a
year ago (Table 3).
Frozen Fillets
Duties on imported Pangasius were reassessed higher
after ministerial errors were found.
Myco
Higher
replacement
prices helped
lead to lower
imports of
frozen tilapia
fillets.
although it was expected that supply could begin contracting
during the summer months. At the moment, YTD imports of
fresh fillets are considerably higher than in any of the previous
five years and just 154,000 lb shy of the record year in 2008.
Pricing remains relatively steady throughout the year, but in
recent weeks, quotations above and below listed levels have been
collected. As a result, the undertone of this market has grown
increasingly unsettled.
en
t
The market during May and the first part of June was full
steady to firm for all sizes. Overall supplies were barely adequate
for a moderate to active demand. A strike in Chile at the end of
May caused a shortage in the market, and currently the market is
Mycofix is the solution for mycotoxin risk management.
®
Channel Catfish Remain Steady, Pangasius Dip
Channel Catfish
U.S. imports of frozen channel catfish in March showed a
clear break in seasonal behavior. April imports decreased and in
a way corrected such seasonality. Still, April imports were signif-
64
July/August 2013
icantly higher when compared to the same time a year ago
(Table 4). Despite the past two months’ unusually large import
volumes in relation to the past few years, YTD figures were still
less than last year’s April numbers.
mycofix.biomin.net
Naturally ahead
July/August 2013
65
innovation
Study: Quick, Hydrated Limes Impractical
For Controlling Vibriosis In Shrimp Ponds
Ing. Juan Portal
Technical Assistance Manager
Nicovita – Alicorp SAA
Av. Panamericana Norte
Km. 1272
Tumbes, Peru
jportac@alicorp.com.pe
Dr. Carlos A. Ching
Aquaculture Manager
Nicovita – Alicorp SAA
Callao, Lima, Peru
Inhibitory Concentrations
Research was done to determine the
minimum inhibitory concentrations of
calcium oxide quick lime and calcium
hydroxide hydrated lime against pathogenic strains of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
and V. alginolyticus identified in a shrimp
farm next to the Tumbes University campus and isolated in agar.
Both types of lime were tested at a
pure bacterial concentration of 5 x 103 colony-forming units (CFUs) per mL for an
incubation period of 24 hours at 28° C.
Using an adaptation of the standard methods described by the U.S. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards,
researchers found MIC values of 30 ppm
for calcium oxide use against both V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus, 900 ppm
for calcium hydroxide treatment of V.
parahaemolyticus and 400 ppm for control
of V. alginolyticus with calcium hydroxide.
Shrimp farmers in Latin America commonly use hydrated lime at rates of 75-100 kg/
ha to manage outbreaks of pathogenic Vibrio species with uncertain results. Eventually,
many have to use probiotics or antibiotics to control the vibriosis.
Summary:
Based on the results of a study in Peru, the authors found that the high volumes of quick lime and hydrated lime needed to effectively control vibriosis
outbreaks in shrimp ponds would raise pH levels in culture water and stress
the animals under culture. The liming treatments also would have very shortterm effects. The use of quick lime is also not recommended because it can
be harmful to workers who apply it.
Although the application of lime has
proven to be beneficial in controlling
shrimp diseases like Taura syndrome and
white spot syndrome by keeping optimum
alkalinity levels, trials conducted at the
Fisheries Engineering Faculty of Tumbes
University in Peru showed that using
lime for controlling vibriosis can be impractical.
This is based on the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) found for
hydrated and quick lime against pathogenic strains of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
and V. alginolyticus. For instance, it would
require applications of 4,000 kg/ha
hydrated lime to control V. alginolyticus and
9,000 kg/ha for V. parahaemolyticus. If
applied at such high concentrations, the
lime would cause drastic pH changes in
66
July/August 2013
pond water and stress the affected
shrimp.
Table 1. Inhibitory effects of calcium oxide
against a pathogenic strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
Replicate
Calcium Oxide
Concentration
1
2
3
4
5
Rate of
Effectiveness
100 ppm
90 ppm
80 ppm
70 ppm
60 ppm
50 ppm
40 ppm
30 ppm
20 ppm
10 ppm
0 ppm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
40%
0%
0%
+ = positive inhibitory effect, – = negative inhibitory effect
July/August 2013
67
Table 2. Inhibitory effects of calcium oxide against
a pathogenic strain of Vibrio alginolyticus.
Replicate
Calcium Oxide
Concentration
1
2
3
4
5
Rate of
Effectiveness
100 ppm
90 ppm
80 ppm
70 ppm
60 ppm
50 ppm
40 ppm
30 ppm
20 ppm
10 ppm
0 ppm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
20%
0%
0%
Calcium
Hydroxide
Concentration
1
2
3
4
5
Rate of
Effectiveness
1 ppt
900 ppm
800 ppm
700 ppm
600 ppm
500 ppm
400 ppm
300 ppm
200 ppm
100 ppm
0 ppm
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
100%
100%
40%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Table 4. Inhibitory effects of calcium hydroxide
against a pathogenic strain of Vibrio alginolyticus.
Replicate
Calcium
Hydroxide
Concentration
1
2
3
4
5
Rate of
Effectiveness
1 ppt
900 ppm
800 ppm
700 ppm
600 ppm
500 ppm
400 ppm
300 ppm
200 ppm
100 ppm
0 ppm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Table 5. Pond water parameters taken before
and one hour after the application of quick and hydrated limes.
One Hour After Application
Pond Water
Parameter
Before Lime
Application
Control
Calcium
Oxide
Calcium
Hydroxide
pH
Temperature (° C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
Total alkalinity (ppm)
Total hardness (ppm)
8.5
30
5.5
158
3,560
8.6
30.5
5.4
153
3,550
9.8
30.6
5.4
159
3,540
9.5
30.5
5.6
162
3,550
68
July/August 2013
innovation
Vibriosis Management?
Table 3. Inhibitory effects of calcium hydroxide
against a pathogenic strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
Replicate
Trials were conducted in two phases: an
exploratory phase using a wide range of
concentrations for both types of lime and
a final phase in which more accurate values were obtained (Tables 1-4).
Both quick and hydrated limes used
at their MICs showed inhibitory effects
that worked through a sudden pH
increase of the medium. The inhibitory
effects occurred at pH levels above 9.5 for
quick lime and over 9.0 for hydrated
lime. When these MIC values for both
types of lime were applied in pond water,
it was found that the action of quick lime
lasted for 10 minutes, and the action of
hydrated lime lasted for 15 minutes.
Some Latin-American shrimp farmers have reported beneficial results in the
use of hydrated lime against pathogenic
Vibrio attacks at concentrations of 75-100
kg/ha based on the “disinfectant power”
of such concentrations. However, the
authors have visited many shrimp farms
in Latin America that have had uncertain
results with the application of these liming rates. Farmers who limed at 75-100
kg/ha eventually had to use other methods, such as the application of probiotics
or antibiotics in feed, to overcome Vibrio
outbreaks.
Also in this study, quick and hydrated
limes were applied at 75 kg/ha to tanks
containing pond water with the pathogenic Vibrio strains tested for MICs.
Results showed the applications were not
successful in controlling the bacterial
populations, even under optimal water
parameters (Table 5).
Perspectives
Although this study found that a
smaller amount (300 kg/ha) of quick lime
was required for inhibiting Vibrio species
than the 4,000 and 9,000 kg/ha of
hydrated lime needed, the use of quick
lime is not recommended because it can
be harmful to workers who apply it. The
sudden rise in water pH quick lime generates can also cause stress to shrimp during a Vibrio outbreak.
Diets with reduced fishmeal content have been successfully tested with cobia, a carnivorous species.
Fishmeal Replacement In Cobia Diets
Reduces Costs, Improves Sustainability
Summary:
The accessibility and low cost
of plant-based protein and lipid
sources make the substitution of
fishmeal and fish oil with alternatives in feeds attractive. Scientists
have been working to understand
cobia’s nutritional requirements
and advance the economic and
environmental sustainability of
feeding carnivorous fish using
fishmeal alternatives. In studies,
up to 75% of the fishmeal in juvenile cobia diets was replaced with
soy products. Up to 80% of fishmeal could be replaced in larger
cobia without compromising
growth performance or health.
Seventy-five percent of the commercial fisheries catch that does not reach
our tables is directed to reduction – fishmeal and fish oil production – which
annually amounts to approximately 16.5
mmt. Traditionally, these two ingredients have been important sources of protein, essential fatty acids and energy for
fish feeds.
In 1988, aquaculture utilized approximately 10% of the total 6.5-mmt production of fishmeal for feeds. In 2008-2009,
aquaculture used 59% of the global fish-
Carlos E. Tudela
University of Miami
Experimental Hatchery
Division of Marine Affairs and Policy
Rosenstiel School of Marine
and Atmospheric Science
University of Miami
4600 Rickenbacker Causeway
Key Biscayne, Florida 33149 USA
ctudela@rsmas.miami.edu
Jorge A. Suarez, Ph.D.
Zachary Daugherty
Matthew Taynor
Ronald Hoenig
John Stieglitz
Alejandro Buentello, Ph.D.
Daniel D. Benetti, Ph.D.
University of Miami
Experimental Hatchery
meal production (5 mmt) and 80% of fish
oil production (1 mmt).
The rising cost of fishmeal, U.S.
$1,300/mt in 2012, stands to threaten the
continuing expansion and prosperity of
the global aquaculture industry. In contrast, plant-based materials sell for a fraction of the price of fishmeal and are readily available worldwide. This accessibility,
coupled with the lower cost of plantbased raw materials, makes the substitu-
tion of fishmeal with alternative protein
and lipid sources attractive for aquaculture nutritionists.
Feeding Cobia
Cobia, Rachycentron canadum, is a
pelagic species found in tropical and subtropical waters worldwide, except for the
eastern Pacific and the Mediterranean.
With its fast growth and premium white
meat, this species has been touted as an
excellent candidate for aquaculture for
more than a decade. Indeed, collective
efforts conducted by researchers and the
private sector the world over led to a
mastery of cobia aquaculture technology
from egg to market.
Currently, the only two major hurdles
for these activities to expand into a major
industry are increasing production efficiency and a more complete grasp of this
species’ nutritional requirements for the
development of optimal feeds. One of the
paramount concerns for cobia farming,
and the industry as a whole, is the economic and environmental sustainability
of feeding carnivorous fish.
Many top feed manufacturers produce
diets with high inclusion levels of fishmeal and fish oil, resulting in high fish in:
fish out ratios (FIFOs). Since feeds
account for more than half of total operating costs in the cage culture of cobia,
the industry has shown great interest in
July/August 2013
69
Since feeds account for over half of total operating costs in cobia cage culture,
the industry has shown great interest in maximizing fishmeal replacement with
suitable lower-cost ingredients.
maximizing fishmeal replacement with
suitable lower-cost ingredients.
Marine Ingredient
Replacement
The challenge for researchers is to
achieve this with no detriment to growth
performance, health or flesh quality.
Therefore, studies have been conducted
on the utilization of vegetable meals and
oils as fishmeal and fish oil replacements
in cobia diets.
Fishmeal and fish oil provide essential
amino acids, fatty acids and a combination of micronutrients necessary for
growth and development that cannot be
found in most plant-based substitutes.
For this reason, replacement of fishmeal
and fish oil is not easily accomplished and
requires supplementation with specific
nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids and
essential amino acids. A lack of fatty
acids not only impacts fish health, but
also the nutritional quality of the meat.
Plant-based ingredients contain several anti-nutritional factors that can negatively affect fish digestion and physiology. These drawbacks are typically
addressed through processing options
designed to maximize vegetable raw
materials. Soybean meal is a plant protein
source that has received significant attention because of its good amino acid profile. Nevertheless, its restricted methionine content and the presence of oligosaccharides limit possible inclusion levels
in fish feeds.
70
July/August 2013
Replacing Fishmeal
Various studies have focused on
replacing fishmeal with a variety of plantbased alternatives in diets for juvenile
cobia. For example, in 2004 and 2005,
researchers R. L. Chou, Q. C. Zhou and
co-workers concluded that up to 40% of
fishmeal could be replaced with defatted
or standard soybean meal. However,
optimal replacement levels were only
between 16 and 19%. In 2007, Angela
Lunger also attained 40% fishmeal
replacement with various organically certifiable alternate protein sources: soybean
meal, soy protein isolate, hemp seed meal
and yeast.
G. Salze reported in 2010 that juvenile
cobia exhibited good growth performance
when fed diets in which 75% of fishmeal
was replaced with alternative products.
While these studies on juvenile fish are
valuable, more nutritional research is necessary on fish up to harvest size to more
accurately describe the needs and
responses of cobia throughout a normal
commercial production cycle.
The nutritional requirements may differ significantly between a 100-g juvenile
and an adult fish at the typical 4-kg harvest size for cobia. Information on nearharvestable fish is extremely relevant
because commercial farms utilize the
largest amounts of feed at this stage of
the production process.
U.M. Research
At the University of Miami, a study
was conducted by Dr. Jorge Suarez and
co-workers on the effects of replacement
of fishmeal by a novel non-genetically
modified variety of soy meal in aquafeed
on the production performance of cobia
between 1.8 and 3.2 kg in size.
The soy-based products used were
dehulled soybean meal, solvent-extracted
soybean meal and a non-GMO variety of
soybean meal produced by Navita Premium Feed Ingredients.
Results indicated that up to 80% of
fishmeal could be replaced in larger cobia,
attaining an FIFO ratio of 1.3, without
compromising growth performance or
health. The ability to replace such a high
amount of fishmeal indicated that the
nutritional requirements of cobia may
change with age and that developing
more cost-effective and environmentally
sustainable diets is possible without compromising health or growth rates. The
study helped validate the need for additional research on cobia, not just at the
juvenile stage, but at all stages of commercial production.
Perspectives
Rising costs and competition for fishmeal among different user groups has
prompted significant advances in fishmeal replacement in formulated diets.
This trend is promising, but more
research is necessary to maximize fishmeal substitutions with novel ingredients
that may allow even greater replacements.
A closer look at the nutritional
requirements and digestive capacity of
larger fish is necessary to optimize growth
and minimize waste in commercial cobia
farms. This mammoth task will more
rapidly attain its objectives under synergistic collaborations among all stakeholders in the production chain, from suppliers of raw materials and aquafeed
manufacturers to commercial farmers and
research institutions.
Continued research on diets and nutrition is needed for cobia at all stages of
commercial production.
innovation
Early use of probiotics in larviculture should target the major developmental events of the culture species’ life cycles.
Live Feed Enrichment With Probiotics
Perspectives On Increasing Finfish Larviculture Success
Summary:
Probiotics can provide needed micronutrients that
prime immune responses in larval fish, thus increasing
their survival in culture. Probiotic dosing can be applied
via immersion, microcosm approaches and enrichment
of live and formulated feeds. The use of enriched live
feed could provide benefits that include predigestion
and resulting increased bioavailability of the probiotics’
nutrients and immune effectors. However, differences
in probiotic viability are observed during and after
enrichment, making batch to batch efficiency hard to
consistently control.
The potential benefits from the use of probiotics – beneficial
microorganisms or their constituents, cellular fractions or metabolites – for preventive care in the aquaculture industry have yet to be
fully realized. More widespread use of probiotics could offer cost
savings in health management practices, given the increasing cost
of remedial veterinary care and the need for more environmentally
sound approaches to aquatic animal health management.
In addition to improvements in animal health and production, the judicious use of probiotics may also offer benefits for
marketing and public perception, as well as improved regulatory
compliance due to reduced environmental footprints for growout
operations.
The use of probiotics is not a new concept, as their performance and effectiveness have been demonstrated in other livestock
industries. An increasing number of dairy farmers embrace
probiotics in their preventive care schedules to reduce calf diar-
Dr. Osvaldo Sepulveda Villet
600 East Greenfield Avenue
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53204 USA
jhonatan.villet@ars.usda.gov
Dr. Brian Shepherd
Dr. Fred Binkowski
School of Freshwater Sciences
University of Wisconsin
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Dr. Wendy Sealey
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Bozeman Fish Technology Center
Bozeman, Montana, USA
rhea, mastitis in milking cows and other adverse effects in their
herds. Poultry operations include probiotics in feeds to reduce
antibiotic dosage, while achieving similar levels of growth
enhancement and disease control. More recently, several commercial probiotic products have become available for the aquaculture
industry, with varying degrees of performance and efficacy.
Challenges
Several challenges impede the widespread adoption of
probiotics in the aquaculture industry, mostly stemming from a
July/August 2013
71
knowledge gap on what exactly constitutes a successful probiotic
for aquatic organisms. In most aquatic production systems, fish
and environmental microbiota are not clearly characterized, and
thus it is not clear which species are relevant to consider as
probiotics, or conversely, which microorganisms might be detrimental in a production environment.
Also, the gut microbial compositions of aquatic species can
be dynamic over different life stages. What is effective as a
probiotic in an early larval stage may not be successful or necessary at a later life stage.
A final challenge is that current fish-farming practices for
water management can actually inhibit the successful establishment of beneficial microbial communities in their production
systems. A better understanding of such issues is essential to
increase the successful use of probiotics in aquaculture systems.
Larviculture Issues
The critical factors that determine successful development of
a fish species for aquaculture have often derived from closing the
life cycle of the species in captivity. Despite major progress with
many species, most production losses still occur in larviculture
and early life stages.
Many factors contribute to these losses, but some of the
more common issues are related to incomplete nutrition profiles
for larval feeds, the occurrence of developmental defects and
major disease events during larviculture. Major larval fish mortality events also coincide with developmental milestones such as
the depletion of the yolk sac in fish, opening of the incipient gut
tract, inflation of the swim bladder, ontogenic shifts from different plankton or particulate feed size and type, and feed training
toward formulated growout diets.
gaa recognizes
that aquaculture is the only sustainable
means of increasing seafood supply
to meet the food needs of the world’s
growing population.
through the development
of its Best Aquaculture Practices certification
standards, GAA has become the leading
standards-setting organization
for aquaculture seafood.
®
72
July/August 2013
learn more at www.gaalliance.org
It is during these critical time points that probiotics and
prebiotics, non-digestible additives that induce growth or
immune function, could provide needed micronutrients that
prime immune responses in larval fish, thus increasing their survival in culture.
Probiotic Use
Several viable routes of probiotic dosing can be applied in
larval aquaculture. Immersion and microcosm approaches appear
to be the simplest in execution.
In immersion, fish are exposed to appropriate concentrations
of probiotics in a contained soak, while in the microcosm
approach, free-forming microbial communities are allowed to
develop within the production system. While these approaches
minimize handling stress, they limit the amount of dosing control
that can be attained, and as such may be somewhat unreliable.
Ingestion of a stable probiotic added to formulated feed
seems a natural solution to the dosage problem, since feeds can
be tailored to specific sizes, concentrations and nutritional profiles. However, for many species, formulated feeds continue to
be problematic to apply during early life stages. Many larval fish
target a specific food size or color, or only respond to other stimuli such as feed movement. For these reasons, live feed continues
to play a prominent part in larviculture.
Enrichment of live feeds with probiotics is a potential
approach for improving the nutritional and immune profiles of
larval feeds. Additionally, since many live feed species used in
aquaculture are non-selective feeders, probiotic particles could be
introduced as enrichment medium.
The use of enriched live feed could provide dual benefits.
Since the live feed would process and predigest the probiotic,
there might be increased bioavailability of the required nutrients
and immune stimulants for the larval fish, resulting in better
nutritional supplementation. Although most commercially available live feed enrichment formulations focus on fatty acid supplementation and abiotic nutrients, probiotic emulsions, particulates or suspensions could be used to introduce additional
nutrients and probiotics into live feeds.
ASIAN PACIFIC AQUACULTURE 2013
The international aquaculture conference and exhibition
organized by the Asia Pacific Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society.
DECEMBER 10 -13, 2013
SAIGON EXHIBITION CONVENTION CENTRE
HO CHI MINH CITY, VIETNAM
Hosted by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD)
Yellow Perch Research
The authors’ research team is focusing on reducing yellow perch
early life stage mortality events that occur during the first 28 days of
culture. Probiotics could be introduced as preventive treatments to
reduce disease and mortality at two time points via live feeds.
A first time point would be during the transition from yolk
sac consumption to incipient gut tract opening. Providing a first
feeding with probiotic-enriched rotifers could promote initial
gut colonization with beneficial microbes, thus resulting in competitive exclusion of potentially harmful microbes from the gut
of the fish.
If the gut tract is colonized by beneficial organisms, their ability to occupy all available surfaces within the intestine would
impede the establishment of less-desirable species. The probiotics
would also provide the fish with an immune stimulus derived from
the normal metabolic by-products of the colonizing microbes, as
has been demonstrated with lactic acid-producing bacteria.
A second critical time point target would be the ontogenic
shift to large plankton or particulate feeding. Feeding larval yellow perch with probiotic-enriched Artemia nauplii during this
period could prime the immune system, reducing stress-induced
Major larval fish mortality events
coincide with developmental milestones.
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July/August 2013
73
diseases and infections.
Some preliminary success in enrichment of live feeds has
been seen with the addition of whole or broken-down yeast cells,
or even cell wall components has been observed in other fish
species. However, challenges persist in the successful application
of live feed enrichment with probiotics.
Differences in probiotic viability are observed during and after
enrichment, making batch to batch efficiency hard to predict or
control. Additionally, there is little consensus on the degree of
efficacy of probiotic transfer from live feeds to larval fish.
Perspectives
Factors such as incomplete nutrition profiles for larval feeds can
contribute to developmental defects in larval fish.
While not completely understood, probiotics can directly and
indirectly benefit early life stages in fish, increasing the likelihood of success in hatchery and growout operations. Thus, early
use of probiotics in larviculture should target the major developmental events, as well as ontogenic shifts in feeding preferences,
habitat use or behavior, along with the use of probiotics as
immune modulators during periods of high stress, such as feed
training, sizing, grading and tank transfers.
Future research should compare the efficacy of a single
probiotic species or strain to that of a community strategy. Also,
what are the optimal routes of probiotic enrichment and delivery
media to the live feed – direct addition to the production tank,
processing of the probiotic into emulsions, inactivation of the
probiotic or further processing, such as freeze drying?
Future research in this area should evaluate the efficacy of a
single probiotic species or strain versus multiple species, optimal
routes of probiotic enrichment and delivery using feeds, and the
type of probiotic processing needed for successful live and formulated feed enrichment.
CALLING ALL STAKEHOLDERS
GAA recognizes that responsible aquaculture is not a destination,
but a journey.
Please join the many seafood leaders who will journey to Paris to discuss:
• Supply and demand for top farmed fish and shellfish species
• Africa review, European markets
• Challenges and solutions
Enjoy cultural events, culinary delights and an unforgettable Gala
Excursion. Plan to bring your spouse!
“Join the Journey” and help define the aquaculture agenda for the
next decade.
Registration now available: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2013/.
74
July/August 2013
July/August 2013
75
innovation
(Figure 1). Each subsystem has three circular 900-L cone-bottom growout tanks
linked together by 4-cm pipe that empty
by gravity into a single 2,200-L conebottom egg production tank. Water and
eggs are withdrawn by gravity through a
200-µ screen on a 10-cm center stand
pipe that flows into a 50-µ plankton net
suspended in a 200-L egg collection tank.
Water returns from the bottom of the
egg collection tank to the egg production
tank via a 4-cm airlift with a flow of
10-14 L/minute. Each tank receives a
gentle supply of air through 4-cm-square
air stones. This aeration helps to evenly
distribute the algae and copepods. A
wooden platform surrounds the tanks to
provide a working surface for the staff.
6.0 m
G
G
G
G
G
G
E.P.
E.P.
7.3 m
Door
C
C
4.9 m
Large-Scale Production System For Copepods
Summary:
The culture of many marine fish
species requires the concurrent
culture of live feed such as algae
and microcrustaceans. The addition of copepods to first feeding
often improves survival for smallmouthed species. Researchers at
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
designed a biosecure indoor production system for marine copepods that combines batch culture
of adults with the continuous culture of eggs. It supplies pathogenfree nauplii for first-feeding larval
red snapper and requires 50% less
labor than smaller-scale systems.
The culture of many marine fish species
requires the concurrent culture of multiple species of live feed such as algae and
microcrustaceans. Larval marine fish
require at least Artemia nauplii, usually
enriched, and some require both enriched
Artemia and enriched rotifers. The most
difficult to culture marine fish species
require copepods, either due to the size
needed for the small mouth size of the
fish or the superior nutritional quality of
copepods compared to rotifers.
Many species of marine fish with
smaller mouths exhibit extremely high
mortality rates during the first feeding
period two weeks post-hatch or have
76
July/August 2013
proven impossible to culture. The addition of copepods to first feeding often
improves survival, but the culture of
copepods in large quantities adds another
level of complexity to the culture protocols for small-mouthed species.
Copepod Research At GCRL
The Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
(GCRL) in Ocean Springs, Mississippi,
USA, has been harvesting wild copepods
and/or culturing captive strains for the
last decade. The facility has investigated
many ways to increase the scale of production and simplify the labor required to
culture copepods. In addition, the transmission of pathogens through the cultured food chain has been a concern.
Researchers at GCRL designed a
biosecure indoor production system for
the marine copepod Acartia tonsa that
combines batch culture of adults with the
continuous culture of eggs, maximizing
Researchers at GCRL
designed a biosecure
indoor production system
for marine copepods that
combines batch culture of
adults with the continuous
culture of eggs, maximizing
production and minimizing labor.
Brie Sarkisian
Thad Cochran Marine
Aquaculture Center
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
39564 USA
brie.sarkisian@usm.edu
Jason Lemus
Phillip Lee
Thad Cochran Marine
Aquaculture Center
production and minimizing labor. A.
tonsa was chosen because it is a local species, and the size ranges of nauplii,
copepodites and adults are appropriate
for many marine fish that require copepods for first feeding.
The copepods produced at GCRL
have been used almost exclusively for the
culture of Gulf of Mexico red snapper,
Lutjanus campechanus. Red snapper is an
overfished species in the gulf, and its harvest is restricted for both recreational and
commercial fishing.
The GCRL project is focused on
developing the technology to culture red
snapper through its life cycle in order to
restock public waters and create a commercial aquaculture industry. GCRL has
produced and restocked thousands of red
snapper juveniles onto reefs off the coast
of Mississippi. Mortality in the hatchery
phase has been high.
7.3 m
Each unit of the copepod production system incorporates growout tanks (left), an egg production tank and an egg collection tank.
C
E.P.
E.P.
G
G
G
G
G
G
2.4 m
17.9 m
C
S
S
Door
Water Storage
Tanks
Figure 1. Diagram of copepod production
systems showing 1,000-L growout tanks
(G), 2,200-L egg production tanks (E.P.),
150-L egg collection tanks (C) and 2,600L water storage tanks. Separate salt-mixing
and water storage tanks are located outside
the building.
Biosecure System
The GCRL copepod systems evolved
from a wild-harvest, 80-mt outdoor tank
system to a greenhouse-enclosed, twophase batch tank system to the current
biosecure indoor batch/continuous system. The indoor system was built in a climate-controlled building that receives
ultraviolet-filtered air. The room and all
tanks were sanitized before operation
using chlorine.
The biosecure system is composed of
four separate but identical subsystems
Production Sequence
The first step in the production
sequence is the stocking of the growout
tanks with freshly harvested copepod
eggs. The tanks receive feed daily beginning with 0.5 L (approximately 25,000
cells/mL) of Isochrysis galbana algae and
increasing to 5 L (approximately 200,000
cells/mL) of algae on day 7.
The second step occurs every five
days, when half the volume of one of the
egg production tanks is drained, and the
entire volume of a 14-day-old growout
tank is added. The egg production tanks
receive 11 L (200,000 cells/mL) of algae
every day.
The third step is the harvest of the
egg collection tanks each day. The plankton nets in all the tanks are sprayed
down, the cod-end harvested, and all
eggs transferred to a beaker for counting.
A portion of the eggs is used to start
another growout tank, and the remainder
is hatched out to feed the young red
snapper larvae. The eggs are then incubated in circular 200-L egg-hatching
tanks. After hatching for 12 hours, the
nauplii are added to the snapper larvalrearing tanks. The average daily harvest
of eggs ranges from 6 million to 16 million eggs over a six-month period. After
hatching, these eggs produce a range of 4
million to 6 million nauplii.
All tanks are filled with reverseosmosis-filtered, artificial seawater. The
seawater is mixed with commercially
available salt and tap water. The temperature averages 25° C, and the salinity is
maintained at 25 ppt. All nitrogen waste
products remain at low levels due to the
algae, and all system water is reused in
GCRL fish production systems.
July/August 2013
77
innovation
U.S. Field Trials Show Promise
For Mullet Farming In Polyculture
The fact that
farmed mullet
lack the strong
fishy taste
common to
wild-caught fish
increases their
potential
as an aquaculture
species.
Gregory N. Whitis, M.Aq.
Alabama Fish Farming Center
Alabama Cooperative
Extension System
529 South Centerville Street
Greensboro, Alabama 36744 USA
whitign@auburn.edu
Luke A. Roy, Ph.D.
University of Arkansas
Pine Bluff, Arkansas, USA
David Teichert-Coddington, Ph.D.
Greene Prairie Aquafarm
Forkland, Alabama, USA
Summary:
Field trails in Alabama, USA,
demonstrated the potential of
raising striped mullet with Pacific
white shrimp in inland ponds.
Using wild-caught fingerlings at
low density, the trials found the
same survival rates as for mullet
and shrimp grown separately.
However, the mullet readily consumed expensive shrimp feed.
There seems to be demand for
U.S. farm-raised mullet, but
further work is needed on the
economic potential, broodstock
conditioning and fingerling production of the fish.
tral Greene County because of a lowsalinity aquifer that yields salinities of 4
to 6 ppt. The water lacks sufficient potassium and magnesium, however requiring
applications of muriate of potash and
potassium magnesium.
There are approximately 40.5 ha of
inland shrimp ponds in Alabama. Production is typically in the range of 2,8003,925 kg/ha. Alabama farm-raised
shrimp are marketed nationally via highend supermarket chains, and some producers market exclusively on the farm.
Practical Polyculture
For the past decade, Pacific white
shrimp, Litopeneaus vannamei, have been
successfully cultured in inland low-salinity waters in west-central Alabama, USA.
More recently, striped mullet, Mugil
cephalus, have been introduced as a potential polyculture species.
Following field trails demonstrating
acclimation survival, shrimp compatibility
and low-density culture, the potential of raising striped mullet with Pacific white shrimp
looks promising.
The primary author was introduced to
the concept of practical polyculture by
aquaculture pioneer Daniel K. Butterfield. Butterfield practiced polyculture on
his large Alabama farm for over 30 years.
Although the co-culture of striped mullet
and Pacific white shrimp isn’t perfect –
both species basically share the same detrivoric trophic level – it did appear promising if striped mullet were introduced as
a low-density addition to the system.
Making the concept more feasible was
the willingness of the farm’s owners, Drs.
David Teichert-Coddington and H. R.
Schmittou. Schmittou, a highly recognized aquaculturist, documented in his
earlier works the hatchery protocol of
striped mullet in Southeast Asia.
Inland Origin
Market-Size Mullet
The success of marine shrimp culture
was first demonstrated by a few intrepid
channel catfish producers in west-central
Alabama back in 1999. All of the inland
shrimp culture in Alabama occurs in cen-
78
July/August 2013
Fingerling mullet were obtained in the
wild from the coastal Gulf of Mexico
waters of Alabama, for mullet hatcheries in
the continental U.S. are nonexistent. Wild
striped mullet proved to be a hardy species
during acclimation. The next step was to
determine compatibility and survival of
mullet and shrimp when co-cultured.
Mullet weighing 30 times as much as
the Pacific white shrimp postlarvae were
grown together for 30 days. In a controlled
experiment, the mullet/shrimp combination experienced the same survival rates as
mullet and shrimp grown separately.
However, it was noted that the mullet fingerlings readily consumed expensive
shrimp feed. Fingerling mullet were then
introduced to shrimp production ponds at
very low densities of 50-74 animals/ha.
The authors determined that the production of market-sized mullet weighing
0.9 to 1.4 kg was a two-year process. Fingerling mullet would grow to “stocker
size,” 45 to 136 g, the first year and then
reach market size in the second year. Alabama’s typical shrimp production season
is from early May to late September.
Mullet were overwintered in production
ponds without shrimp.
Future work needs to be conducted on
increasing stocking rates to commercially
viable levels. Given the current price of
bulk-delivered shrimp feed (U.S. $730820/mt) and a relatively low market price
for striped mullet, just how much “detrivoring” is occurring must be determined.
The owners report that the mullet
visibly respond to the presence of the feed
truck. Intensive mullet culture outside the
U.S. is practiced with artificial feeding.
Seedstock
In order for a mullet industry to get a
foothold, dependable supplies of mullet
fingerlings from commercial hatcheries
will be needed. Mullet are fall spawners.
This actually is a favorable situation on an
inland shrimp farm, because indoor acclimation facilities could serve the dual functions of fry and fingerling production.
One drawback encountered with
striped mullet was a relatively poor condition index for the market-size fish.
Although roe formation is seen, the condition indexes for Alabama mullet were low
based on scientific literature. Work on
improving these indices is needed before
an attempt is made to spawn mullet.
Gregory Whitis (left) and
David Teichert-Coddington
have been raising – and tastefully enjoying – farmed mullet.
Harvesting
If higher-density culture is practiced,
the harvest of farm-raised mullet may be
an issue. Alabama shrimp are harvested
by draining ponds and pumping shrimp
into dewatering towers. Mullet fingerlings and stockers seem to endure this
process without apparent harm. Larger
food-size mullet tend to go upstream
during shrimp harvest and have to be
retrieved when they beach.
One solution may be using a selective
mesh seine before the shrimp harvest. This
would allow shrimp to grade through and
retain the larger mullet. This practice of
grading market-size fish is common at
commercial catfish farms. However, mullet may be more prone to jumping over the
nets. Aquaculturists with practical experience in harvesting mullets are encouraged
to contact the primary author on this particular issue.
Marketing
Marketing to date has not been an
issue. There seems to be a demand for
farm-raised mullet. The farmed variety
lacks the strong fishy taste common to
their wild brethren. The researchers often
have to rescue the mullet from the farm
laborers during the shrimp harvest – at
least until pertinent data have been
recorded. The farm owners have
remarked that their shrimp buyers are
eager to explore the potential markets for
U.S farm-raised mullet.
Perspectives
As a eurythermic and euryhaline species, striped mullet may be a potential
commercial species for shrimp and catfish
producers blessed with access to lowsalinity water. Work still needs to be performed on the economic potential,
broodstock conditioning and fingerling
production of the fish. Until then, the
dedicated staff at the Greene Prairie
Aquafarm will keep on enjoying the
tasteful attributes of U.S. farm-raised
mullet provided by the relentless advances
of extension aquaculture.
July/August 2013
79
innovation
Table 1. Mean values of Nile tilapia performance
fed graded levels of digestible threonine.
Dietary Threonine Factor
In Tilapia Fillet Yield
Dietary Threonine (g/kg)
Parameter
8.96
10.58
12.20
13.83
15.44
Initial weight (g)
Final weight (g)
Daily weight gain (g)
Feed-conversion ratio
Net protein utilization (%)
558.75
783.74
7.49
1.47
41.94
565.5
829.31
8.79
1.26
50.84
566.5
786.79
7.34
1.51
46.57
572.25
769.96
6.59
1.68
39.58
553.50
761.29
6.93
1.60
42.07
Dr. Wilson Massamitu
Furuya
Mariana Michelato
Universidade Estadual de Maringá
Programa de Pós-Graduação
em Zootecnia
3.26
3.34
0.03
0.07
2.01
≥ 0.05
≥ 0.05
≥ 0.05
≥ 0.05
0.036
300
280
270
260
250
240
Dr. Valéria R. Barriviera Furuya
Universidade Estadual
de Ponta Grossa
Departamento de Zootecnia
230
8.96 10.5812.20 13.83 15.44
Figure 1. Fillet weight of Nile tilapia fed graded levels of dietary threonine.
Summary:
In a commercial field trial, Nile tilapia were distributed in net cages and fed
diets containing increasing threonine:lysine ratios. Although no statistically
significant differences were observed in the growth, feed conversion and survival performance of fish that received diets containing 8.96-15.40 g/kg of
threonine, fish fed dietary threonine at 11.40 g/kg showed somewhat higher
fillet weight and fillet yield.
Tilapia culture has played an important role in the economy of Brazil, changing from traditional culture in earthen
ponds to more intensive culture in cages.
It is estimated that approximately 150,000
mt/year of this species are cultured in Brazil, making the country the most important producer in South America.
When fish are reared at high densities,
nutritionally complete diets are necessary to
support growth performance and fish
health. Recently, tilapia nutrition and feeding – particularly the importance of amino
acid nutrition for tilapia under intensive
culture – have received special attention by
many research groups in Brazil.
Fishmeal production has remained
stable, and alternative ingredients such as
feather meal, blood meal, and meat and
bone meal protein have been used as sub-
80
July/August 2013
stitutes for fishmeal in commercial diets
for Nile tilapia in Brazil. However, the
apparent digestibility coefficients for protein and amino acids in these ingredients
are lower when compared to values for
soybean meal.
Threonine
Threonine is the major component of
mucin in the small intestines and skin of
tilapia, and its supplementation is important for maintenance, growth and fish
health. The threonine requirement for
maintenance is high compared to other
amino acids due to its high concentrations in intestinal and skin secretions. For
this reason, threonine is very important
for large fish, because the requirement for
maintenance is much higher.
Threonine has an important influence
on skeletal muscle, where it can change
myoblast proliferation and differentiation, the composition of cytoplasmic
organelles, the number and diameter of
white and red muscle fibers, and patterns
of gene expression related to muscle
development. Involved in protein synthesis, dietary threonine has a high influence
on fish growth and fillet yield.
Growth Trial
To evaluate the effects of dietary threonine under commercial conditions, a trial
was set up in the Paranapanema River in
Brazil. Nile tilapia of 563.3 ± 15.9-g initial
weight were randomly stocked into 20,
1,000-L net cages at 30 fish/cage and fed
extruded isocaloric (3,043 kcal digestible
energy/kg) and isoproteic (260 g/kg of
digestible protein) diets containing digestible threonine values of 8.96, 10.58, 12.20,
13.83 and 15.44 g/kg. Fish were hand fed
three times daily to apparent satiety for 30
days.
Results
Survival at the end of the experiment
was about 98%, and no difference was
observed among treatments. No statistically significant differences in daily
weight gain and feed conversion were
observed.
The dietary threonine:lysine ratios
affected net protein utilization, with the
Community • Environment
• Food Safety • Traceability
Achieve greater
market and consumer
acceptance
through certification.
Best
Aquaculture
Practices
34.8
Fillet Yield (%)
Involved in protein synthesis, dietary threonine has a high influence on fish growth
and fillet yield.
®
The
Responsible
Seafood
Choice.
290
Fillet Weight (g)
Universidade Estadual
de Ponta Grossa
Departamento de Zootecnia
Av. Carlos Cavalcanti, 4748
Uvaranas, CEP 84030-900
Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil
wmfuruya@uepg.br
Standard
P
Error
Value
34.6
34.4
BAP certification
is now
available for:
34.2
34.0
33.8
8.96 10.5812.20 13.83 15.44
Perspectives
• Tilapia
• Channel Catfish
Figure 2. Fillet yield of Nile tilapia fed graded levels of dietary threonine.
best value at 11.54 g/kg of threonine
(Table 1). For fillet weight and fillet
yield, the maximum values were estimated at 11.43 and 11.45 g/kg of threonine, respectively (Figures 1 and 2).
Diets containing 8.96-15.44 g/kg of threonine did not affect fish growth, feed
conversion and survival. However, for
maximal meat production of Nile tilapia
from 550 to 800 g, the dietary threonine
requirement is 11.40 g/kg.
• Salmon • Shrimp
• Pangasius Farms
The use of crystalline amino acids in
diets for tilapia must be based on the
global benefits on fish growth, meat production and economic viability. For fillets, the most important product from
tilapia aquaculture, L-threonine should
be used to maximize fish growth, feed
efficiency and meat production. Individual amino acids digestibility values should
be determined for each ingredient to
establish properly balanced diets for the
sustainable and competitive growth of
world tilapia production.
• Processing Plants
• Shrimp Hatcheries
• Feed Mills
Developed by:
www.gaalliance.org
+1-314-293-5500
July/August 2013
81
innovation
ELISA Kits Offer Quantitative Analysis
Of Trifluralin In Fish
Trifluralin
Antibody
Lance Ford
Bioo Scientific
3913 Todd Lane, Suite 312
Austin, Texas 78744 USA
lford@biooscientific.com
cause loss of body weight and renal failure. As outlined in the European ComHorseradish
Peroxide
mission’s Trifluralin Commission report of
2007, dogs exposed to trifluralin for long
periods showed weight loss, changes in
blood and an increase in liver weight. The
Sample Assay Process
offspring of trifluralin-fed mice showed
An unlabeled trifluralin conjugate is coated onto a 96-well plate. Samples are incubated
abnormalities in their skeletons. The
in the wells, and then antigen is added. The conjugate binds to the antibody if its
fetuses of pregnant mice and rats fed tribinding sites are not already bound by an antigen. As the amount of unlabeled antifluralin experienced a decrease in weight.
gens in the sample increases, less conjugated antigen is bound to the plate. The plate
Rats fed trifluralin developed tumors in
is then developed with substrate, and color change is measured.
their urinary tracts and thyroids.
These data indicate that trifluralin
exposure through drinking water and
other related sources may also have an adverse effect on human
health. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
Summary:
determined that trifluralin is a possible human carcinogen. The
Used to control grasses and broadleaf weeds in a variety
herbicide is banned in Europe and listed as a “persistent bioaccuof fruit, vegetable and grain crops, trifluralin is an
mulative toxic” chemical by the EPA. Therefore, it is critical to
herbicide that can leach into water, where it is highly
monitor the levels of this widely used chemical in water, soil and
toxic to aquatic animals. Antibody-based enzyme-linked
food samples.
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests are proven, sensitive, high-throughput alternatives to more costly
Trifluralin Detection
and complex test methods for the detection of herbicide
Two methods are traditionally used to detect trifluralin in
residues and other chemicals.
environmental samples: gas chromatography mass spectrometry
(GCMS) and high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC). While GCMS and HPLC are proven methods to
Trifluralin is a popular pre-emergent herbicide. It is used
detect trifluralin, they have significant limitations that reduce
worldwide to control weeds in a variety of crops, including soytheir utility to safeguard the environment.
beans, wheat, rape seed (canola), cotton, alfalfa and sunflowers.
The tests are expensive and time consuming, requiring extenTrifluralin is also used to kill green algae in freshwater ponds
sive sample preparation procedures, sophisticated instrumentation
and reservoirs. Trifluralin can persist in soils for many months
and highly skilled analysts. GCMS and HPLC analyses can only
after it is used and can leach into water, where it is highly toxic
test one sample at a time.
to aquatic animals.
For reasons of cost and throughput, both GCMS and HPLC
Trifluralin belongs to a highly potent class of herbicides
are
best suited for very accurate testing of a limited number of
known as nitroanilines. Nitroanilines are highly effective in
samples. These techniques are not practical for the testing of the
inhibiting the growth of undesirable plants by inhibiting microlarge number of trifluralin samples required to effectively monitubule formation. The low cost and high potency of trifluralin
tor our food supply.
led to its widespread use throughout the world in the past four
decades, with millions of hectares of farmland treated with triELISA
fluralin each year. However, in spite of its popularity, questions
Antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
have emerged regarding the safety and environmental accumula(ELISA) tests are proven, sensitive alternatives to GCMS and
tion of trifluralin.
HPLC that can be used for the detection of herbicide residues,
as well as other chemical compounds that pose potential food
Trifluralin Exposure
safety risks, such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and malachite
While significant toxicity is not associated with acute triflugreen. ELISAs are high-throughput assays, with each kit allowralin exposure, chronic exposure to trifluralin in mammals can
82
July/August 2013
ing for the analysis of up to 96 samples simultaneously.
ELISAs are inexpensive and highly specific, which makes
them suitable as herbicide residue-screening applications. Assays
like the Bioo Scientific MaxSignal Trifluralin ELISA Kit also
offer a streamlined sample preparation procedure that increases
sample throughput.
Sample Preparation
ELISA assays are performed following the directions included
with the kits. For fish samples, the sample is homogenized with
a suitable mixture and combined with acetonitrile and anhydrous
magnesium sulfate. After centrifugation, supernatant is cleaned
and dried, then resuspended. Sample is extracted and added to
the plate wells in the kits.
The sample preparation protocol briefly described at the
beginning of this article offers efficient recovery of trifluralin
from catfish samples (Table 1). Detection limits are shown in
Table 2.
Table 1. Rates of trifluralin recovered
from catfish samples spiked
with the indicated amounts of trifluralin.
Spike (ppb)
Recovery (%)
Percent Bound
0
0.25
0.75
2.00
7.50
100
106
68
68
89
0.913
0.858
0.793
0.694
0.534
Table 2. Detection limits given the dilution
factor of 1.6 suitable for 1- to 5-ppb spiking.
To detect higher concentrations of trifluralin
in samples, the dilution factor can be increased
by adding more sample suspension solution.
Sample Type
Detection Limit (ppb)
Meat
Fish
0.4
0.4
Food Safety Kits
Offering kits and instruments
that test aquaculture
products for residues of
importance for import and
export agencies,
corporations, governments,
producers, farmers and
consumers around
the globe.
• Trifluralin ELISA
• Benzo(a) pyrene ELISA
(petroleum contamination monitoring)
• Chloramphenicol (CAP) ELISA
• Nitrofurantoin (AHD) ELISA
• Nitrofurazone (SEM) ELISA
• Furaltadone (AMOZ) ELISA
• Furazolidone (AOZ) ELISA
• Crystal Violet/LCV ELISA
• Malachite Green/LMG ELISA
www.biooscientific.com
Phone - 512-707-8993
Fax - 512-707-8122
support@biooscientific.com
3913 Todd Lane, Suite 312
Austin, Texas 78744 USA
Seeking distributors to supplement their product
line with high quality, cost effective food safety kits.
Best Aquaculture Practices
Auditor Course
September 11-13, 2013 – Toronto, Ontario, Canada
This course will focus on the Marine Cage portion of the new Best Aquaculture
Practices finfish and crustacean farm standards, as well as the pending
mussel farm standards. New auditor candidates,returning auditors and
observers representing producers, governments or other industry entities
are welcome. Please check the BAP website for updates and further details.
Phone: +1-352-563-0565 – Web: www.bestaquaculturepractices.org
July/August 2013
83
industry news
People, Products, Programs
Please send short news items and photos for consideration to:
Darryl E. Jory
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
Aquaculture expansion can help meet Europe’s growing
demand for seafood.
European Commission:
Cooperate To Boost Aquaculture
To boost the development of European Union aquaculture,
the European Commission has issued strategic guidelines that
call for cooperation among member states and stakeholders in
overcoming the challenges facing the sector.
The guidelines do not create new legal obligations, but present a series of voluntary steps that promote an industry that is
economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, and provides consumers with healthy, high-quality seafood.
As outlined in the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy –
currently under negotiation – aquaculture can help fill the gap
between the growing consumption of seafood and dwindling fish
stocks, and generate growth in coastal and inland areas. Each
percentage point of current E.U. seafood consumption produced
internally through aquaculture could help create 3,000 to 4,000
full-time jobs.
The commission has identified four main challenges: reduce
red tape and uncertainties for operators, facilitate access to space
and water, increase competitiveness and level the playing field by
exploiting “made-in-the-E.U.” fish products.
The guidelines identify a mix of measures that include
administrative simplification, spatial planning, market organization, diversification and better labeling to help market forces
unlock the potential of the E.U. aquaculture sector.
Rapid Assay Detects Oyster Toxin
Scientists in the College of Veterinary Medicine at Oregon
State University have developed a new, inexpensive and precise
way to detect the toxin secreted by Vibrio tubiashii, which in the
late 2000s caused millions of dollars in losses to the oyster aquaculture industry in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. The bacteria and
toxin can also affect shrimp, clams and other marine species
important to aquaculture.
“We still need to improve the sensitivity of the test and better quantify results, but it should provide information in about
30 minutes that used to take three or four days,” said Frances
Biel, a faculty research assistant in the OSU Department of Biomedical Sciences. “Rapid detection will let oyster growers know
they have a problem while they can still do something about it.”
The new assay, which uses a “dipstick,” is conceptually simi-
84
July/August 2013
lar to a human pregnancy test. It uses monoclonal antibodies
that recognize the zinc-metalloprotease compound secreted by
the vibrio. At higher levels, the toxin kills tiny seed oysters
before they have a chance to grow.
For additional information, contact Claudia Hase, 1+541737-7001 or hasec@science.oregonstate.edu; or Frances Biel,
fran.biel@oregonstate.edu.
Zeigler Wins National Exporter
Of Year, Other Awards
Zeigler, a family-owned business
based in Pennsylvania, USA, that specializes in the formulation and manufacture
of specialty feeds, recently received several
awards in recognition of its growing
export achievements. The company now
exports to over 40 countries.
In May, the U.S. Small Business
Administration (SBA) named Zeigler
Exporter of the Year for both eastern
Matt Zeigler
Pennsylvania and the entire Mid-Atlantic
works closely
region. Zeigler was then selected as
with his brother
SBA’s National Exporter of the Year durTim and father
Tom to direct his
ing World Trade Day in Denver.
family’s company
Zeigler was also a recipient of the
operations.
National Export Award presented by the
Department of Commerce in Washington,
D.C. In addition, Zeigler was recognized
by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett at the ImPAact Awards
ceremony in Hershey, receiving an Export Impact Award.
“We feel extremely honored to be recognized for our success
in exporting,” Matt Zeigler, vice president of operations, said.
“We’ve been fortunate to have had the support of federal agencies … and local resources … to assist us in our vision to expand
globally. Central to this success have been loyal customers and
suppliers who have stuck with us through both good and bad
times, as well as our dedicated employees.”
For more information on Zeigler, visit www.zeiglerfeed.com.
The attendees traveled from far and wide to learn from the
PAES staff and featured speakers Dr. James Rakocy, the “Father
of Aquaponics;” Dr. Wilson Lennard, famed Australian aquaponics expert; and Yuqing Fan, an entomologist from Epcot Science at Walt Disney World who spoke on pest management for
aquaponic farmers.
“Teaching at the aquaponics course was a real treat for me,”
Rakocy said. “PAES employees have an incredible depth of experience and knowledge that they share with their students as they
guide them through all phases of constructing and operating an
aquaponic system to establish a successful hobby or business.”
The next Aquaponics Technology and Design Workshop is
scheduled for November 5–9, 2013, and will be held at PAES’
Orlando-area location. For more information, e-mail paes.
general@pentair.com or call +1-877-347-4788.
Salmon From Chile Website
Wins Design Competition
The Salmon from Chile website – www.salmonfromchile.
com – won top honors at the 2013 American Web Design
Awards sponsored by the leading design publication Graphic
Design USA. The award celebrates sites that “attract audiences,
disseminate ideas and information, generate response, and promote products, services and ideas.”
Created for Salmon of the Americas by Seattle, Washington,
USA-based Walsh Design, Inc. and McKnight & Company,
LLC to showcase the recent changes that have taken place in the
Chilean salmon sector, the website features clean design, easyto-follow navigation, photos by award-winning travel photogra-
The www.salmonfromchile.com site showcases the positive
changes in the Chilean salmon sector.
pher Gerald Brimacombe and a “how-to-cook” section for home
cooks and foodies alike.
Jeanne McKnight, who handled the project for Salmon of
the Americas and developed the concept and content with
Walsh Design, said the site “tells the story of Chile and Chile’s
innovative salmon sector in a way that makes people want to
learn more – and ultimately buy salmon from Chile.”
Walsh Design is a visual branding company that creates
logos, websites and packaging for food and seafood companies
(www.walshdesign.com). McKnight has been involved in seafood marketing and issues management for 25 years.
GEMMA Micro
The green early weaning diet
Pentair Holds Successful
Aquaponics Workshop
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc. (PAES), the largest
source of aquatic products and systems worldwide, recently held
a successful Aquaponics Technology and Design Workshop at
its facility in Apopka, Florida, USA, that included daily classroom learning, hands-on activities and a tour of Green Sky
Growers, PAES’ rooftop aquaponics facility.
w w w. s k r e t t i n g . c o m / s p e c t r u m
July/August 2013
85
calendar
JULY
Crustacean Society Summer
Meeting
July 7-11, 2013
San Jose, Costa Rica
Phone: 506-2222-2022
Web: www.crust-costarica2013.org
International Symposium
on Sturgeon
July 21-25, 2013
Nanaimo, Canada
Web: http://iss7.viu.ca
AUGUST
Aquaculture Europe 2013
August 9-12, 2013
Trondheim, Norway
Web: www.easonline.org/component/
content/article/226
Aqua Nor
August 13-16, 2013
Trondheim, Norway
Phone: +47-73-56-86-40
Web: http://nor-fishing.no/en/aqua-nor/
aqua-nor-2013/
The Aquaculture
Roundtable Series
August 21-22, 2013
Singapore
Phone: 65-6327-8825
Web: www.tarsaquaculture.com
SEPTEMBER
Asian Seafood Exposition/
Frozen Food Asia
September 3-5, 2013
Wanchai, Hong Kong
Phone: +1-207-842-5504
Web: www.asianseafoodexpo.com
BioMarine Business Convention
September 9-12, 2013
Halifax, Canada
E-mail: biomarine2013@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
Web: www.biomarine.org
Aquaculture Association of
Southern Africa Aquaculture
Conference
Stellenbosch, South Africa
Phone: +27-82-756-3881
Web: www.aasa-aqua.co.za/site/
conferences/
86
July/August 2013
Stay Informed
Seafood and Aquaculture Events
Subscribe To The World’s Leading
Aquaculture Publication
Send event listings in English to:
Event Calendar
homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Fax: +1-314-293-5525
Westminster Food
and Nutrition Forum
September 10, 2013
London, United Kingdom
Phone: +44-01344-864796
Web: www.westminsterforumprojects.
co.uk/forums/event.php?eid=621
Best Aquaculture Practices
Auditor Course
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Phone: +1-352-563-0565
Web: www.bestaquaculturepractices.org
ILDEX Myanmar 2013
Yangon, Myanmar
Phone: +66-670-0900, Ext., 103-104
Web: www.ildex.com/html/page2013-myanmar.ph
Aquaculture Forum Workshop IV
Bremerhaven, Germany
Phone: +49-471-94646741
Web: www.aquaculture-forum.de/en/
World Congress of Mariculture
and Fisheries
Hangzhou, China
Phone: 0086-411-84799609
Web: www.bitconferences.com/wcmf2013/
World Seafood Congress
September 28-October 4, 2013
St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador,
Canada
Phone: 709-778-0756
Web: www.wsc2013.com
OCTOBER
International Frozen Seafood
Exhibition
October 1-3, 2013
Vigo, Spain
Phone: +34-986-433-351
Web: www.conxemar.com/v_portal/
apartados/apartado.asp?te=342
GAA’s Global Aquaculture Advocate, the “Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood,” presents practical information on efficient and responsible aquaculture
technology, current seafood issues and updates on GAA activities. Subscribe
today at www.gaalliance.org/magazine/.
Each issue of the Advocate covers farmed seafood production, innovative
technology, the marketplace and aquaculture advocacy. The Advocate’s blend
of content makes it a useful resource worth keeping for future reference.
Your annual subscription includes Subscriber level membership in the
Global Aquaculture Alliance and valuable benefits such as registration discounts to most GAA-sponsored events, discounts on other GAA publications and a subscription to the GAA Update electronic newsletter.
International Symposium
on Tilapia in Aquaculture
October 6-10, 2013
Jerusalem, Israel
Phone: +972-2-6588888
Web: www.ista10.com
GOAL 2013
October 7-10, 2013
Paris, France
Phone: +1-314-293-5500
Web: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2013
LAQUA13
October 8-11, 2013
Villavicencio, Colombia
Phone: +57-317-440-6691
Web: www.conferenciapecesnativos2013.
com
DanAqua
October 9-11, 2013
Aalborg, Denmark
Phone: +45-9935-5555
Web: http://uk.danaqua.net
Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems Workshop
October 10-11, 2013
Aalborg, Denmark
Phone: +45-35-88-32-16
Web: www.nordicras.net/upload/
nordicras/workshop-akkc%20uk.pdf
Step Up Your Support For
Responsible Aquaculture
Consider Corporate Membership In GAA
Help the Global Aquaculture Alliance continue to advocate fish and shellfish farming as a solution to growing food needs by
joining GAA. You’ll be joining with hundreds of other individuals, businesses and groups from varied aquaculture and seafood
industry sectors that support responsible aquaculture on six continents.
Corporate membership is required to serve on GAA’s board of directors Qualify for discounts at GAA’s annual
GOAL conferences and save on advertising, too. Visit www.gaalliance.org/
about/joingaa.php for more information on corporate dues and benefits.
GAA Membership Benefits
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(U.S. $60/
year)
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Member
(U.S. $150/
year)
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Member
(U.S. $1,000/
year)
Governing
Member*
(U.S. $1,50015,000/year)
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Member**
(U.S. $500/
year)
Six issues of Global Aquaculture Advocate
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X
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X
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X
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other GAA-sponsored events
X
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Registration discount – GOAL conference
–
$100
$300
$600
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Sponsorship discount – GOAL conference
–
–
10%
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5%
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Benefit
Seafood Barcelona
October 22-24, 2013
Barcelona, Spain
Phone: 207-842-5500
Web: www.seafoodbarcelona.com
Bali Seafood
October 22-24, 2013
Bali, Indonesia
Phone: +62-21-7590-1278
Web: www.baliseafood.com
*
Governing membership dues are based on annual seafood sales.
Association membership is for trade organizations and groups only. Registration discounts apply only to designated representatives of the group.
**
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Join The Global Aquaculture Alliance: www.gaalliance.org/about/joingaa.php
July/August 2013
87
advertising
Alltech 43
Asian Pacific Aquaculture 2013
73
Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC
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Best Aquaculture Practices Auditor’s Course
83
Biomin65
Bioo Scientific
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Camanchaca Inc.
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Charoen Pokphand Foods PCL
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Eastern Fish Co.
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Emperor Aquatics, Inc.
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IBC
GeneReach Biotechnology Corp.
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Grobest Global Service, Inc.
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Guabi Animal Nutrition
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Keeton Industries
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Marine Products Export Development Authority 53
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Meridian Products
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Moana Technologies LLC
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Novus International, Inc.
IFC
Omarsa39
Omega Protein
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OxyGuard International A/S
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Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems
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PSC Enterprise, LLC
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Seajoy29
Sea Port
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SeaShare34
Skretting85
Sun Asia Aeration Int’l Co., Ltd.
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Tyson Animal Nutrition Group
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U.S. Soybean Export Council
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July/August 2013
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July/August 2013
89
INNOVATION DISTINGUIShES BETwEEN A lEADER AND A FOllOwER.
—Steve Jobs
How do you stay ahead in a sea of change?
Newly farmed aquatic species, changing raw material availabilities, and even controversial ecological issues have created serious
needs for advancements in aquafeed processing. As a long-time
leader in extrusion, Wenger is addressing these and other challenges with ground-breaking approaches. Consider these recent
Wenger innovations: Oblique Tube Die and Diverging Cone Screw
result in small diameter feeds at rates three to five times those of
previous technology; Thermal Twin Screw Extruder permits high
percentages of fish slurry, oil and high moisture ingredients; HIP
preconditioner, with adjustable mixing intensity, addresses recipe
challenges - especially those with varying content of starch, fiber
and oils. And the list goes on.
Contact us now. With new concepts and fresh initiatives, we’re
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Turning ideas into opportunities.
PROGRESSIVE AQUAFEED PROCESSING
?
What will tomorrow bring
wenger.com
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production - Global Aquaculture Alliance

Transcription

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