Transforming Dimension of IPR - National Law University Delhi

Transcription

Transforming Dimension of IPR:
Challenges for New Age Libraries
Foreword by
Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh
Vice Chancellor, National Law University, Delhi
Editors :
Dr. Priya Rai
Dr. R. K. Sharma
Dr. P. K. Jain
Akash Singh
D E L H I
National Law University, Delhi
Transforming Dimension of IPR
Challenges for New Age Libraries
Editors
Dr. Priya Rai
Deputy Librarian, NLU, Delhi
Dr. R.K. Sharma
Librarian, UN Information Center for India and Bhutan
Dr. P.K. Jain
Librarian, Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi
Akash Singh
Assistant Librarian, NLU, Delhi
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Foreword
The current Intellectual Property landscape in India is presenting moderate
challenges for new age libraries. Increasing signification of Intellectual Property
laws generate a growing need to understand phenomenon and to discuss issues
surrounding precarious aspects of IPR & Copyrights issues.
Information technology environment raises new challenges and opportunities in
light of globalization and propounds new ways for the libraries in governing
information via digital networks. Digital technologies have shifted various
individual's demeanour that has been perfectly legal before the new information
revolution into the formal infringement of IP laws. Technological developments
like internet, digital databases, social networking, cloud computing and digital
rights management have immense effect on the core of copyrights and other IPR
Issues. A balance between intellectual property rights and knowledge management
is essential for prolong growth and control of information explosion.
Tomorrow's society is a knowledge society. How can we contribute to shaping the
knowledge society for tomorrow? New age libraries play an vital role in spreading
awareness relating to publishing, dissemination and use of scholarly
communications, transfer of copyright and maximizing impact factor of their work
under the preview of IPR. A library maintains actual and statutory balance in
copyright laws in preserving and sharing information under the provisions for
libraries in the act. They often provide access to broad ranges of materials preserved
as archival or copyleft material or available in public domain. Libraries are at the
urge of debating in creation of new intellectual property laws to harmonize the
balance between creators, publishers and users of new age libraries. With a good
balance between copyright laws and intellectual property policy, the digital
information environment grow opportunities for all the stockholders of
information.
I hope this compilation of articles makes some new source of emerging and
persuasive information on IPR and allied subjects and creates new and important
issues in debate to pave the way and right approach towards Intellectual property
rights and allied laws.
Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IPR Issues in Libraries
1.
Application of Intellectual Property Rights for Digital
Preservation of Historical Collection at Indian Council
of Historical Research: A Case Study.
Ramesh Yernagula
1
2.
IPR in India: Status, Strategies and Challenges
for Digital Content.
Satish Kumar and Anil Kumar Mishra
5
3.
Significance of Intellectual Property Rights in
Modern Era: An Overview.
Mr. Satyabrata Garanayak and Dr. M. P. Singh
17
4.
Intellectual Property Rights Information in India.
Kalpana
26
5.
IPR Implications Vis-a-Vis Developing Countries
Trips Saga: Implications for Developing Countries.
Rajat Mathuria and Tanvi Dubey
36
6.
Impact of IPR Issues in Metadata Application in
Digital Scenario.
Ms. Darshana Choubey and Dr. Projes Roy
49
7.
Intellectual Property Right Issues with Special
Reference to Indian Institutional Repositories: A Study.
Kankana Baishya
66
8.
Development and Analysis of Intellectual Property
Rights Using Emerging Technologies in the Digital Age.
Mr. Shyam Bihari Gupta and Ms. Gunjan Gupta
77
9.
A Robust, Realistic and Rigorous Action Plan for
Ensuring Adequate Protection of Traditional Knowledge.
Rahul Bajaj
84
10. A Study of Intellectual Property Management in Industries
& Academics & Ways for Collaboration in India.
Shubham Srivastava and Pallavi Shahi
94
11. Awareness and Understanding on Intellectual
Property Rights: A Pilot Study of Library Patrons.
Bhakti S. Badigannavar and P.G. Tadasad
104
Copyright Issues
1.
Fair Dealing in Copyright: Corollary of
Fundamental Rights
Dr. Vishal Mahalwar
117
2.
Copyright Fair Use and Libraries
Madhu K. S and Gagan K
126
3.
Issues of Copyright Protection in the Digital Era
Dr. Mohd. Asif Khan
134
4.
Remedies against Breach of Copyright
Nida ZainabNaqvi and Syed Ahtisham Raza Naqvi
139
5.
Protecting Unrestricted Photocopying:
The Doctrine of Fair Use?
Arihant Jain
151
6.
Photocopying of Copyrighted Works for Educational
Purposes- Issues and Concerns
Isha Wadhwa
158
7.
Role of Libraries in Leveraging and Maintaining the
Copyright Issues
Dr. Durga Prasad and Vijay Singh
167
8.
Digital Technology, Libraries and Copyright Issues,
Lagdhir Rabari
175
9.
An Overview of Copyright Issues in Digital Libraries
Nazrul Islam Azmi
190
10. Copyright in the Digital Age
Priyanka.
202
11. Strengthening the Content Protection in
Electronic Age: Adherence to the Indian Copyright Law
Bharat Kumar Singh and Shreaa Nath Singh
209
12. Copyright in the Information Epoch: An Overview
Sumeet Handa
215
13. Confronting the Plagiarism at JNU: A Case Study
Dr. Parveen Babbar and Dr. P K Jain
222
14. Plagiarism Detection Service: Its Benefits and
Challenges for Academicians and Researchers
B.P. Singh, Mange Ram and Arun Kumar Satsangi
227
15. Relevance of Copyright Laws with Special Reference
to Plagiarism: How Libraries are Fiddling Around
Dr. Saurabh Manglik and Dr. (Ms.) Shiva Kanaujia Sukula
238
16. Legal publishing and Copyright protection over
Law Reports in Digital Age
Vishnu Srivastava and Awadhesh Kumar Patel
248
17. Provision of Copyright for Commercial Legal
Database with Special Reference to SCC
Intekhab Alam
257
18. Copyright Issues in Changing Technical World
Anubhuti Seth and Sahil Jaggi
264
19. What is Revealed is What Excites, What is
Concealed, will it be Forgotten?
Ishnoor Saini and Uday Bedi
276
20. Library Services in Copyright Regime
Ms Geetali Das
287
21. Awareness of Copyright Issues among the Academic
Librarians of West Bengal: A Survey
Sutapa Chatterjee
293
Internet and Challenges for IPR
1.
Internet Challenges and IPR: Social Media and
Implications for Intellectual Property Rights
Amrita Bhattacharya & Banashree Hazarika
302
2.
Social Media and its Implications for Intellectual
Property Law the Facebook and Twitter Saga
Ayushi Dwivedi
315
3.
Present Scenario of Cloud Computing Laws with
Special Reference to India and United States
Mr. Ajit Kumar and Mrs. Rupali Kumar Madan
324
4.
Silver Lining: Cloud Computing for Academic Libraries
Amit Kumar Shaw
335
5.
Cloud Computing and the Libraries
Tawfeeq Nazir
345
6.
Envisioning the Role of Cloud Computing in Libraries
and Information Services
Dr. Priya Rai ,Akash Singh and Dr. Samar Iqbal Bakshi
355
7.
Exploration of Copyright Laws in Open Access Epoch
Akash Singh, Dr. Priya Rai and Dr. Anil Kumar Jain
368
8.
Open Access Movement and Moral Rights:
Rejuvenation of Digital Copyright
Abhinav K. Mishra and Rupesh Chandra Madhav
381
9.
Open Access & Copyright Policies for Publishing: A Study
Vanita Khanchandani
401
10. The Electronic Resources in Public Domain:
A Study of National Law Universities in India
Sonam S. Chauhan and Shalender S. Chauhan
411
11. Software Patent and Open Source Software:
How Big is the Door and How Wide Open?
Ravindra Chingale
423
12. Online Reference Management Tools: A Comparative
Account Of Endnote, Mendley and Zotero
Dr. Faizul Nisha , Dr. Samar Iqbal Bakhshi and V Senthil
443
13. Dspace an Open Source Dynamic Digital Repository.
Dr. Anil Kumar Jain and Sanjeev Kumar
450
14. Digital Object Identifier: An Aid for
Information Retrieval
Purbi Dey Kanungo
464
15. Cryptography: Right to Information Vis a Vis
Right to Privacy
Navtika and Shuchita Agarwal
471
16. Research Data Management (RDM): A Systematic
Approach to Big Data Challenge in R&D and
Higher Education
Dr. Rupak Chakravarty
481
17. Challenges for the New Age Libraries
Copyright in Cyberspace
Indrajit Mitra
492
Policy & Managerial Issues
1.
Management Policies and Security Issues in
Digitalized Environment Related to Library
& Information Sciences
Shaweta Sharma
499
2.
Hybridization of Legal Information Resources:
Indian Scenario
Mahendra Singh Rana and Trilok Chand Joshi
505
3.
Electronic Information Resource Management A Challenge to Meeting Information Needs of
Users of New Age Libraries in India with Special
Reference to Delhi-Based Academic Libraries and
Information Centres Under the Prevailing IPRS
Environment- A Study
Dr Payal Singh , Dr S. D. Vyas and Dr Mohinder Singh
520
4.
Impact of Information Explosion on Library
Professionals in Digital Technology Scenario
Vijay Kumar and Dr. Anand P. Singh
530
5.
Information Communication Technology Implementation:
From Technology Challenge to Effective Information
Delivery in Lucknow University Library: A Survey
Nazia Salauddin and Md Sohail
537
6.
New Ways to Work and Learn in Healthcare Knowledge
Management System in Health Sciences Institute
Dr. S.Siva Chidambaram
547
7.
Digital Library Development: Entering A New Civilisation
Dr. M.K. Galhotra and Dr. (Mrs.) A.M. Galhotra
568
8.
Digital Preservation Technologies for Libraries
Sanjeev Kumar and Preeti Goel
577
9.
Public Library Acts in India in Digital Age:
A Critical Appraisal
Prof. Sudhir Kumar, Dr. Leena Shah, Mr. Ravish Verma
and Dr. Anil Jain
586
10. RFID Security System in Libraries: Application of
Library Management System
Arjun , Harjinder Kaur Dhaliwal and Gurjant Singh
599
11. Leadership Quality and Staff Development for the
New Age Librarian
Dr. Digambar Khobragade
609
12. Doctoral Research on Legal aspects and Allied fields in
Indian Universities: A Bibliometric Study
Ms. Amrit Kaur and Mr. Ramneek Singh
617
13. Physical Stock Verification of Library:
An Experience at FIIB
Dr.Arun Kumar
627
Application of Intellectual Property Rights for
Digital Preservation of Historical Collection at
Indian Council of Historical Research:
A Case Study
Ramesh Yernagula1
Introduction
The Indian Council of Historical Research has a well established Documentation
Centre and has been preserving the documentation in its many forms. The centre's
primary goal is to become more visible in the online information-seeking world in
order to reach the scholars and expand awareness of the collections, services and
their significance. The decision to replace print copies with digital is the
documentation centre's preferred choice of preservation surrogate. This article
discusses the collection development policy, technologies, challenges, and issues
of IPRs of digital preservation etc.
Digital Collection Development Policy for Historical Documents.
Digital collections are better because they are dynamic, changeable, constantly
updatable and available any time, any place, anywhere, observes Joint (2006). As
we gradually move on from maintaining physical archives to digital archives, the
new environment offers a number of benefits and advantages to the documentation
staff as well as users. Digitization provides new opportunities to extend their
utilization and thus avoid damage to these valuable historical archives (Yu, S
2007).
We have developed a digital collection development policy and strategy document,
which should be well thought-out and should meet the organisation's core mission
of digitizing.
1
Dy. Director (Documentation), Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi
Email-ryernagula@gmail.com,dd.doc@ichr.ac.in
2
Transforming Dimension of IPR: Challenges for New Age Libraries
The ICHR Library-cum-Documentation Centre has decided to initiate digital
preservation of microfilms/microfiches and rare collections relating to Indian
History. Microfilms/Microfiches and rare collections along with one digital copy
thereof will be returned to the concerned institutes/individuals.
Interested institutes/Individuals are requested to avail this facility provided by the
ICHR and send their proposal to the undersigned in the format which is enclosed
the Annexure 1 along with undertaking letter
Technology Setup at Documentation Centre
At present, we are digitising the Microfilms/Microfiches in house only and for rare
historical collection are being digitised through leading out source agencies at
Onsite. As such, they are using overhead scanners and are made available us in tiff
& pdf images.
Hardware /Software
Minimum Configuration of P.C: Pentium IV (or higher), 2GB RAM, 300GB Hard
Disk Drive, CD-Drive, Network adapter, Monitor, Preinstalled Windows XP
Model Kodak 3000 Microfilms/Microfiches reader cum scanner
External Hard Disk
DVD Rom
Powerfilm Software
PDF professional
Emerging Challenges
Some of the important ones experienced while processing the digital preservation
at Documentation centre are listed here:
Technology Problem
Digital components like hardware and software are changing their version and
processing capacity leads to grate problem for digital preservation- particularly file
formats
Application of Intellectual Property Rights for Digital Preservation of
Historical Collection at Indian Council of Historical Research: A Case Study
3
Technical Problem
Whenever digitize the dark negatives of microfilms & microfiches, a error shows L
2. These films can't be digitized. Similarly, there are other errors like E3, E5, E7.
Skilled Manpower
Finding skilful staff about new techniques and training them in digitization is a
continuous issue.
Cost Problem
Due to migration of new technology and finding skilled staff are more costly than
physical microfilm/microfiches materials
Metadata Schema:
There are many metadata schemes which are available for indexing of digitised
materials but the selection of metadata schema is one of the greatest problems.
Intellectual Property Rights is also major barrier for preserving the digital
material - especially hosting the digitized material in the public domain.
Intellectual Property Rights Issues
Digital preservation is an important issue when it comes to preserving national
heritage and other historic and current documents, manuscripts, heritage, etc.
National Digital Preservation Programme (NDPP) of India has been launched but it
is at a very nascent stage. Copyright is one of the most valuable intellectual property
rights (IPRs).Discussion on the core topic of this paper i.e. the topic relating to
"converting printed documents or physical microfilms/microfiches to digital form
through digitization what are copyright constraints?. The immediate question
should come to our minds as the librarians whether it is correct? Should we not see
restrictions of copyright law before we take up such copying action?. As we know,
we can convert materials to digital form provided they are in public domain or the
copyright on the material has already expired.
4
We however, need to check whether copyright of publication has expired or not?
When copyright generally expires?
Legal Steps towards before Giving the Digital Preservation Access at Public
Domain.
i.
If the copyright holder or author has given permission to do so else obtain the
permission,
ii. Whether the undertaken is received or not from the participated institutions. If
received do they have any condition on confidentially of data etc.
iii. When material is created for public access being a government publication.
iv. When copyright of book is expired.
This condition varies from one country to other as the copyright provisions differ
from country to country. in. USA, anything prior to 1923 is considered as public
domain. In India it is life plus 60 years. Further, laws in india like Copyrights Act,
1957, Public Records Act, 1993, Right to Information Act, 2005,and Digital
Millennium Copyright Act, 1998 (DMCA).Even the Information Technology Act,
2000 (IT Act, 2000) is not sufficient to accommodate the issues of Digital
Preservation, Digital Curation, etc and we need a dedicated Digital Preservation
Legal Framework in India
Conclusion
Preservation of digital document has now become more obvious and necessary
because of fragility of digital data. While converting from printed to digital through
digitisation, libraries should see the legality of copying/reproduction action for
preservation. The information provided here may be useful for the professionals
and the law makers, who work for bringing standardization in digital preservation
and digitization in India.
References
1.
2.
3.
Bajpai, M.K, Srivastva.2008, A.K, National conference on digitization and
digital preservation,509-518
Yu, S.2007, Constructing a DRM framework for historical newspaper
archives, The electronic Library, 25 (6): 778-789.
http://www.ichr.ac.in
IPR in India: Status, Strategies and
Challenges for Digital Content
Satish Kumar1 and Anil Kumar Mishra2
Abstract
Copyright infringement is a trouble connected to information technology. Often
this is quite obvious. Since much of the copyright law was written with pre-digital
technology in mind, artifacts of these assumptions continue in the law regardless of
attempts to modernize it. This paper looks particularly at the relationship between
information technology and copyright enforcement. It shows the three key
technology factors that matter to rights holders who want to earn money from their
creative works: copying technology, distribution technology, and sales technology.
This paper covers the traditional intellectual property rights (IPR) laws and
associated concepts from printed to digital works, and discusses how the
characteristics of digital replication pose problems for traditional IPR systems. It
provides some perceptivity into the Indian software industry by discussing the
scope of Indian copyright law, the rights of owner, infringement, penalties etc.
Also the paper discuses the distinction between “public” infringers who make
works available to others, either for free or for profit, and “private” infringers who
are making a personal copy. The copyright law in most countries allows copying for
private use, which makes most private infringement legal.
Keywords: Intellectual Property Right, Copyright, Digital content, IPR law,
Copyright law.
Introduction
Intellectual property is an area of law that has evolved with development of
technology. The increasing use of both computers and communication technology
has given rise to a digital economy. This new economy is changing the way
1
Information Scientist, ARIES, Nainital, UK, India, Email – sklisc@gmail.com
Senior Technical Assistant 'B' CVRDE, Defence Research & Development, Organization (DRDO)
Avadi, Chennai, Email – anilmlis@gmail.com
2
6
products are produced, the nature of products and their distribution. Certain
distinctive qualities of the digital medium have given rise to challenging legal
issues. Thus, intellectual property rights (IPR) have come to be recognized as an
important tool for economic dominance. The objective of this paper is to analyze an
emerging digital IPR regime with respect to copyright protection.
As libraries move from the physical medium to the digital, library staffs are
increasingly confronted with the challenges of addressing copyright and other
intellectual property rights (IPR) issues related to digital information. Copyright
has become a hot topic and a vexing issue for all those who have a stake in
scholarship and scholarly communication. In the digital world, the very premises
and philosophy of copyright are being questioned and voices are being heard
reviewing its tenets. What is so different in the digital age that has made it an
engaging topic for all the stakeholders in the scholarly communication process?
Balancing conflicting “private” and “public” interests is neither easy nor explicit.
This issue is further accentuated in the world of academic research, where the
private and public concepts are very nebulous. The issue of rights ownership
transgresses into the realm of hairsplitting issues of creativity, work for hire and
other equally contentious matters [3]. In the world of scholarship and intellectual
heritage, libraries play a very important role: libraries are the voices for the “public
good”. But, in the digital millennium, how do we balance often conflicting
interests? How are libraries and library services affected? This paper attempts to
examine copyright issues and their exceptions, especially in the context of
academic research, with a view to highlight the issues that are of concern to
libraries, scholarship and to society.
We are living in the Information Age, where information is a vital resource. There
are various means through which a person can gain information. One of the best
sources of information is a book. Books are the unparalleled instruments for setting
down man's knowledge and wisdom.
Many libraries in India acquire information sources in different media, one of
which is digital media. The digital form enables the information sources to be easily
copied and transferred over the network. Digital media requires specific
modifications in the Indian Copyright Law or altogether different law to ensure that
the creator's rights are protected by fair use of such media [4].
IPR in India: Status, Strategies and Challenges for Digital Content
7
IPR – Intellectual Property Rights
Today books and other information resources are available in print as well as nonprint form. As more and more information resources are being made available in
non-print form, the concept of Intellectual Property Rights and thereby, Copyright
is gaining importance [2].
Indian IPR Law
India is a member of both Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) and the Berne
Conventions. The GATT negotiations led to agreement on Trade-Related
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) that included provisions relating to protection
of computer software and databases under copyright law. The Indian IPR for
computer software is covered under the provisions of the Indian Copyright Act
1957. Several amendments to Indian copyright law were introduced in 1994, which
came into effect on 10 May 1995 as one of the toughest in the world. For the first
time in India, copyright law clearly explained the rights of the copyright holder, the
position on software rental, and the rights of users to make backup copies. It
imposed heavy punishments and fines for the infringement of software copyrights
[7].
Copyright Law
Copyright laws have been developed to protect the authors' and publishers rights.
Copyrights evolved as a response to the threat posed by copying to the trade in
books. It was founded on the notion of the 'author' and the distinctive nature of
human creativity. The Berne Convention (1971) on copyright does give individual
authors rights that transcend contractual obligations to their employers. However,
this framework is steadily being displaced in favor of one that adds unconditional
'copy rights' to corporate owners of information. The Trade Related Intellectual
Property Rights Agreements' (TRIPS) which came into effect on 1 January 1995
recognizes previous standards such as the Paris and Berne Conventions with the
exception of Article 6b is of the Berne Convention that recognizes that- "Independently of the author's economic rights and even after the transfer of the
said rights, the author shall have the right to claim authorship of the work and to
object to, the said work, which would be prejudicial to his honor or reputation"[12].
8
Today copyright is being extended to our digitized environment and to all digital
products. The industry has been forced to respond to the IP challenges posed by a
digitized environment [13].
In a library, an information resource is used by a large number of users. The Copy
Right law consider, for educational and research purpose, making copies to some
extent as "fair use". Fair use depends upon the percentage of a document that is
copied.
Copy Right law in India
The copyright law of India gives moral rights to the authors of an original literary
work. Moral rights under the Indian Law have been conferred upon the authors of
an original work, and include the combination of three rights, viz. Right of
Publication; Right of Paternity; and the Right of Integrity. It is significant to
note that moral rights stand independent of the economic rights flowing through
authorial creations, and vests with the author even after the transfer of his copyright
[14].
The aspect of moral rights in India has been as author specific right added upon him
rights to prevent mutilation of work in any form [5].
These days more and more books and journals are being printed in electronic form
in addition to print form. This has been made possible by the development in
information technology. The rapid advances in the field of IT are affecting the
society in more than one way. The new technologies have brought in significant
changes in almost all activities of human life be it manufacturing, trade and
business, art or culture etc. The publishing industry is also no exemption as we see
the traditional printing and publishing services are fast giving way to electronic
publishing.
Electronic publishing is a process where activities relating to publication such as
submission of manuscript, formatting, editing, printing and even distribution are
carried out with the help of computers and telecommunication technologies. In its
simplest form, electronic publishing describes a situation where use of computers is
limited to formatting and editing etc. but the final output is processed in the
conventional print forms [15].
9
The latest trend, however, is towards paperless publication where the entire flow of
information from the authors to the readers takes in machine-readable form.
Technologically, electronic publishing is taking two important forms, viz. Optical
Disk (e.g. CD-ROM) publishing and network publishing [6].
Digital Libraries and Content Creation
Digital libraries, by virtue of how content has been created and made available, can
be broadly grouped into three classes: born digital, turned digital and gained
digital libraries [1].
Born Digital
In born digital libraries, the content is created in digital form with the purpose and
understanding that the content is primarily meant for storage and use in digital
form. The tools for creating born digital content are word processing package (e.g.
MS office) or complex multimedia content authoring and development tools.
Born digital content can be categorized into exclusive digital wherein the analog
version is not developed at all. This could include creating course focused content,
e-books, learning objects or other multimedia content where analog counterparts
are not meant to be created or are not required. The other type of born digital content
type is digital for print. In this type, the content is created in digital form for dual
purposes, which include hosting the content in digital libraries and also having a
print counterpart of the content so developed. Many books and journals publishers
follow this model of content creation [1].
The difficulty with born digital content is that content creation can be a time
consuming task taking a long time to settle the digital library. Further, resource
requirement in terms of manpower and financial resources would be high for the
content creation process.
Turned Digital
In the turned digital type, the contents that are in analog form such as the printed
books are converted to digital form. Digitization technologies mainly the scanning
technology is used to turn analog material existing on print media including paper,
10
manuscripts, etc. to digital form and storing them in digital form only. Digitization
technologies are also improving day by day making it easier to turn analog content
into digital content. Major digital library initiatives in the world such as Project
Gutenberg and the Million Book Project belong to the turned digital library kind
[1].
Based on the type of conversion involved, the turned digital kind can be categorized
as turned digital with replica content and turned digital with modified content.
The disadvantages of turned digital content include the large size of the resultant
scanned file which can become time consuming to download for voluminous
publications. With regard to copyright issues, digitizing “out of copyright”
material and institution owned copyrighted material such as dissertation and thesis
is easier but obtaining permissions from copyright owners of other desired
materials is a daunting task.
Gained Digital
In the gained digital type, the content by itself might have been born digital or
turned digital at some source but the library is not associated with the creation of
content. The library only acts as a facilitator to access the already available content.
This could include licensed resources such as the e-journals, e-books, databases,
etc. to which through licensing mechanisms, the library facilitates access to these
resources but do not own the content themselves.
Although very high costs are involved in developing a gained digital content in the
library collection, the consortium access ensures that high-quality resources can be
made available to the users in the shortest time and content is easier to manage. On
the other hand, considering that content is usually licensed, the perpetuality of the
digital content can be a problem area. Moreover, the users should be sensitized
about the copyright issues involved as the library is likely to have entered into
licensing agreements with publishers or other intermediaries with regard to the
usage of the content [1].
Complexities of Digital Networks and Copyright Law
The significant copyright issues in the digital era can be classified into three groups.
•
Issues relating to a whole new set of work, namely, computer programs,
11
databases and multimedia works.
•
Issues relating to reproduction, distribution and communication to the
public of a work through digital media.
•
Issues relating to the management and administration of copyright in the
digital environment [9].
The key problems associated with copyright protection include:
•
the protection of computer programs is too long; and
•
Ideas cannot be protected, such as when a computer programmer looks at
someone else's program and steals its ideas. If a programmer steals the
form of expression from other computer programs, that programmer is
liable for copyright infringement.
Some select situations where copyright problems would not be resolved when
accessing or using information includes [7]:
•
Web Content. In case of copyrighted Web based information, the
technical interchange from computer to computer during surfing could be
in a form of transmission that infringes multiple copyrights.
•
Data Uprising. Library services have been based on ``fair use'' and the
``first sale doctrine''. Any library with copyright works on a Web site,
gopher site, or FTP site could be liable for a lawsuit as a spreader.
•
Resources for the creation of technology based protection tools to
safeguard digital copyrights may have to come from libraries and
publishers of digital works.
•
Increase in Information Value. Those who believe that information gains
value through use and thorough manipulation by a multitude of users,
should not claim copyright and should: push information to users as
rapidly as possible; establish a reputation as a generator of quality data;
•
Reduce the Time-to-Market for Research Data; build publication
vehicles such as CDs, flash drive etc. that users use for faster retrieval;
•
Hyperlinks. A hyperlink used by a site does not directly cause any
essential content to be copied, but merely provides a pointer to another
site. Since readers are free to click on a hyperlink, though, the owner of the
linked site may feel that access should be direct, rather than through the
link.
•
Use of Library Computer Terminals. Library users may make use of
computer terminals to view movies, listen music on video/audio tapes or
12
CDs, run software programs, or download and print copyright materials
from databases. Since a library is a public place, there is potential for
infringement if the users exceed the licensed number of people.
Even though a library has purchased initial copies of these works, it does
not mean that the library is free to make copies.
•
Electronic Rights Management: Several digital copyrightable products
ranging from electronic documents to multimedia products are emerging
in the network environment. The components of electronic copyright
management included in the National Information Infrastructure (NII)
White Paper are: a registration and recording system, a digital library
system with affiliated repositories of copyright works, a rights
management system and a transaction monitoring system to check illegal
use of systems.
•
Digital Broadcasting and Meeting. In the past, broadcasting regulations
primarily covered contents. In the USA, satellite based video services like
Direct-To-Home are regarded as a telecommunication service, whereas in
Europe they are treated as a broadcast service. The IPR framework may
need to address various concerns from the broadcasters' and the right
holders' point of view [11].
Copying Technology
If the technology for making copies of a work requires expensive machines, large
numbers of people, or financial resources beyond ordinary reach, then the
infringement remains a relatively modest and manageable problem. Once the
technology changes to make copying trivially easy, as is true at present with digital
materials, then the traditional limiting factors that previously made the law
enforceable cease to be effective. Ease of copying is often seen as the main problem
in allowing infringement, but it is really only one factor [8].
Distribution Technology
Access technology has two parts: one is the simple distribution of a work; the other
is the ability of those receiving the work to make use of it. Distribution matters for
any form of public infringement that has an effect on the value of a work. Both
rights holders and public infringers need a cost-effective mechanism for getting
copies to the point of sale. If a mechanical distribution technology makes distance a
13
factor in the price, then gaps in the distribution of legitimate copies may appear and
markets may grow up where the legitimate product cannot (or for pricing reasons
does not) fill the demand. If technology drops distribution costs to virtually
nothing, then the market becomes effectively global. Access to the contents can be
more complex. In pre-digital times, it often meant language, and infringement often
had to do with unauthorized translations. Today access means software, network
access, and server space [8].
Sales Technology
The technology of sales determines how a rights holder or a profit-seeking public
infringer can get money for a work. The technology can be a mechanical network of
transfer payments from bookstores to publishers to authors. Within a common
currency area it may function more smoothly than across currency boundaries and
across certain economic boundaries sale may not function at all – such as during the
cold war. Digital sales mechanisms certainly exist in today's internet, but they have
cumbersome aspects, often for security reasons, that make them less attractive for
some potential buyers than in-store payment [8].
Exceptions to Copyright with Respect to Libraries
Copyright is not sheer. There are a number of limiting principles and exceptions to
the rights. Those principles that are relevant for libraries in the digital age are listed
below [3]:
•
Archiving and Copying - Libraries and archives are permitted to make
up to three copies of unpublished copyrighted works for the purposes of
preservation, security or for deposit for research use in another library or
archive. Libraries can also make up to three copies of a published work to
replace a work in their collection if it is damaged, deteriorated or lost, or
the format of which has become obsolete [3].
•
Fair Use - What constitutes “fair use” is debatable. However there are
certain factors that govern fair use [3]:
ü
Purpose and Character of Use, i.e. is it for commercial use or for
non-profit educational purposes?
ü
Nature of the Copyrighted Work - The fair use principle is generally
more indulgent for fact-based works than it is for “fanciful” works,
and also is broader for published works than it is for unpublished
14
works.
ü
Amount or Proportion of the Whole That is to be Copied - Effect that
the use has on market potential or the value of the copyrighted work.
•
First Sale Doctrine - The matter of disposition of a particular copy of a
copyright is limited by the first sale doctrine, according to which the
owner of that particular copy of the work may sell or transfer that copy.
Libraries' lending and marketing of used books are governed by the first
sale doctrine [3].
Issues and concerns are complicated by the difficulty of defining what constitutes a
“copy” in the digital age. The first copy may be the only copy for which the
copyright receives an economic return. The paranoia of the holders of copyright
stems from this fear of losing the market and the right to distribute. There are
understandable concerns of users, including those of libraries, regarding loss of
their rights as provided for in the above exceptions” [3].
Scholarly Communication, Copyright, Libraries and Preservation of
Intellectual Heritage
The role that libraries play in the scholarly communication process is shaped by the
provisions of the copyright. There are essentially three players:
•
the creators, who have legal rights;
•
the publishers, who have legal rights due to transfer; and
•
the users (individuals and institutions such as libraries and academe), who
have legal rights through exceptions and limits. [7]
Authors produce creative and intellectual works while the publishers create a
market and distribute and sell the works. The functions of libraries have been well
defined over the years – collection, preservation, organisation and dissemination
of works of intellectual and artistic content in order to facilitate their use. One of the
important distinctions between the roles of other intermediaries and libraries is the
preservation function. Historically, libraries, as social and cultural institutions,
have the mandate not only to ensure equity of access and availability to the present
generation of users, but also have the responsibility of ensuring that access and
availability for future users [10]. Libraries acquire, preserve, lend and provide
access to works, including those that have lost market viability or are out of print.
15
Often libraries are the only agencies that preserve public domain materials.
Libraries are the facilitators that enable users to exercise their rights to access
copyrighted as well as public domain works [3].
Conclusion
The nature and use of copyright material in the digital environment differs from that
of the print environment. Copyright materials in digital format can be accessed
almost directly from anywhere at any time. Advances in ICT makes it possible for
the digital content to be quickly and easily copied on a large-scale without the
copyright owner's knowledge, without the use of intermediaries, transmitted, and
used by multiple users. The new exploitation opportunities in digital environment
have come with new challenges to provide protection to the copyright holders
against unauthorized use of their contents in digital environment. In the digital
environment contents are created for different purposes and in different modes are
not covered by copyright laws in equal and comprehensive terms. Also, it is
commonly seen that copyright owners many times directly manage with consumers
via contracts, licenses, etc.
Technology has long been recognized as a key factor in enabling copyright
violation. Some new technologies attempt to restrict copying (e.g. Digital Rights
Management software). Now internet software is being used thoroughly for
discovery and policing. The future of copyright enforcement will likely continue to
be a function of technology.
In the Indian context, at present Indian legislation does not deal with the particulars
of computer-based network systems. This is true for many developing countries.
Digital content providers will have to be conformist to various jurisdictional laws
and policies regarding the content provided as well as addressing differing
intellectual property laws. In India content providers need assurance of the proper
use of intellectual property in the open internet environment and efforts in this
direction are on track. There should be legal mechanisms to protect against the
hacking of technological protection measures applied to copyrighted works in
digital environment.
We live in the ever-changing global digital environment, so it is important that
libraries keep abreast of international copyright standards and domestic case law to
16
ensure that their understanding of current copyright legislation is appropriate and
maintains a balance between the “public interest” and the rights of copyright
owners to earn a living.
References
[1] Mahesh, G and Mittal, Rekha. "Digital content creation and copyright issues".
The Electronic Library, Vol. 27(4), 2009, pp. 676-683.
[2] Sheat, Kathy. "Libraries, copyright and the global digital environment". The
Electronic Library, Vol. 22(6), 2004, pp. 487-491.
[3] Urs, Shalini R. "Copyright, Academic Research and Libraries: balancing the
rights of stakeholders in the digital age". The Electronic Library, Vol. 38(3),
2004, pp. 201-207.
[4] Singh, Jnanendra N. and Joshi, Tarun. IPR's in the Digital Era: Copyright
Infringement in India. 5th International CALIBER, Punjab University,
Chandigarh, 08-10 Feb. 2007, Ahmadabad: INFLIBNET Centre, 2007, pp.
145-153.
[5] Kumar, Harsh. Employer's Copyright vis-à-vis author's right: An unsolved
legal dilemma. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights. Vol. 10, 2005, pp. 116.
[6] Study on copyright piracy in India. Available at http://www.education.nic.in/
cr_piracy_study/cpr.asp#content. Accessed on 18 August 2014.
[7] Rao, Siriginidi Subba. IPR in the ensuing global digital economy. Library Hi
Tech, Vol. 19(2), 2001, pp. 179-184.
[8] Seadle, Michael. Copyright in the networked world: the technology of
enforcement. Library Hi-Tech, Vol. 26(3), 2008, pp. 498-504.
[9] James, T.C. Indian Copyright Law and Digital Technologies. Journal of
Intellectual Property Rights, Vol. 7, 2002, pp. 423-435.
[10] Joint, Nicholas. Risk assessment and copyright in digital libraries. Library
Review, Vol. 55, No.9, 2006, pp. 543-546.
[11] Xianrong, Huang and Xiao, Li. Exploring copyright solutions to onlinesharing of scientific literature. Library Hi Tech, Vol. 28(3), 2010, pp. 478-488.
[12] Litman, Jessica. Digital Copyright. New York: Prometheus Books, 2006.
[13] Thomas, P.N.. Knowledge regimes: the WTO, IP and public interests in India,
Telematics and Informatics, 1999 pp. 11.
[14] Reference content from the paper submitted to the WB National University of
Juridical Sciences.
[15] Reference content from the paper submitted to National Law School of India
Significance of Intellectual Property Rights in
Modern Era: An Overview
Mr. Satyabrata Garanayak1 and Dr. M. P. Singh2
Abstract
Technological developments during the last two decades have tremendous
opportunities of speedy information and development of the world market for
information resources and services. The modern society belongs to the technology
and needs variety of information resources. In the ICT era, Intellectual Property
right have been emerging as a big challenge around the competitive world. It is the
practical means to legally act for protecting human creation and public welfare.
The ever changing information technology and different types of digital resources
has threat for our intellectual output process. This paper describes the overview of
intellectual property rights and its related issues.
Keyword: IPR, Copyright, Industrial Design, Trademark, Trade Secrets,
Geographical Indications
Introduction
The importance of Intellectual Property Rights recognized only after the invention
of the printing press which made possible the reproduction of books in large
quantities. Modern communication medium, channels and devices are liable to be
pirated in large scale, if adequate precautions are not exercised. Generally we say
that intellectual property law aims at the protection of creation of any creator for
granting them certain time limit to control and use. The electronic transmission of
copyrighted material, without the permission of its rightful owner, is an
infringement. So we should be aware and respect the creation of a creator because
the creativity of new idea has benefits for our society.
1
MLIS Student, Department of Library and Information Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, Lucknow, U.P, India, Email: satya75bbau@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Library and Information Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University, Lucknow, UP, India , Email: mpsinghdlis@gmail.com
18
What is Intellectual Property Rights?
Intellectual property
property [2].
[4]
is not a single property but also a bunch of intangible
Intellect
Intellect is an intangible creation of the human mind: inventions, literary and
artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce [9], if we
expressed it in a tangible form that is assigned certain rights of property. Examples
of intellectual property include an author's copyright on a book or article, a patent
on the process to manufacture racing motorcycle design, a distinctive logo design
representing a soft drink company and its products etc. [10].
Property
Property identifies those things that are commonly “one's own thing”. A right of
ownership is associated with that property. One can do anything with that property
e.g. buy or sell.
Properties are of two types [3] –
1. Tangible property (Physically present)
2. Intangible property (Spiritually form)
Building, land, house, cash, jewellery are a few examples of tangible properties
which can be seen and felt physically. On the other hand there is a kind of valuable
property that can't be felt physically as it does not have a physical form. Intellectual
property is one of the forms of intangible property. It is above the value of a tangible
asset.
Rights
It is certain laws or acts given to that creator for their creation in certain period of
time.
Definition of IPR
According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) [13],
“Intellectual Property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions;
Significance of Intellectual Property Rights in Modern Era: An Overview
19
literary; and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in
commerce”.
Significance of Intellectual Property Rights in Modern Era
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to give protection, encourage the
research innovation and rewarded for their original work. Without IPR, creators
and inventors would derive no benefit/ gain from new ideas from their work, and
the investment made in that works would never be compensate [6].
It can valuable because it represents ownership and an exclusive right to use,
manufacture, reproduce, or promote a unique creation or idea. Like other forms of
property, Intellectual Property is also an asset which can be owned, sold, and
exchanged.
The importance of intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) and the Berne
Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886). Both treaties
are administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). IPRs
have assumed significant importance since the signing of the Agreement on Trade
Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) under World Trade Organization
(WTO). India has been a World Trade Organisation (WTO) member since 1995.
Role of World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in IPR
WIPO was a specialized agency of the United Nations system of organizations in
1974. It was established by a convention signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967 and
entitled "Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization"
[12]
. The WIPO Convention entered into force in 1970. It is an international
organization dedicated to helping ensure that the rights of creators and owners of
intellectual property are protected worldwide. This international protection acts
human creativity, enriching the world of literature and the arts by providing a stable
environment for marketing products protected by intellectual property.
On April 26 every year we celebrate World Intellectual Property Day to promote
discussion of the role of intellectual property for encouraging innovation and
creativity.
20
Rights protected under Intellectual Property
The intellectual property rights are the bunch of rights. Different types of
intellectual property rights are there. The major types of Intellectual Property
Rights [3] are:
I.
Copyrights and Related rights
II.
Patent
III.
Industrial Design
IV.
Trademark
V.
Trade Secrets
VI.
VII.
Integrated Circuits layout design
VIII.
Protection of new plant varieties etc.
Copyrights and Related Rights
Copyright is generally understood as a right or license free copying. It is a legal
right to prevent others from illegal copying [9]. Copyright is a legal right [6] given to
creators of literary works (i.e. written works, source codes of computer programs),
dramatic works (i.e. scripts for films and dramas), musical works (i.e. melodies),
artistic works (i.e. paintings, photographs, architecture and sculpture etc.), sound
recordings, films, television and radio broadcasts, cable programmes and
performances etc [8]. (The period of copyright protection cover the life of the author
plus 60 years after death).
Copyright protects the expression of ideas: ideas alone
are not protected. It means copyright does not cover
ideas or concepts, procedures, methods and information
themselves, only the form or manner in which they are
expressed [11].
Available image 1: http://lifeexaminations.wordpress.com/2011/02/28/copyright-or-copy-wrong-would-locke-support-copyright/
Patent
A patent is an exclusive right granted by a country for an invention to prevent others
21
from making, using, and selling a patented invention for a fixed period of time [7]
(Once patent is granted, they are valid for 20 years from the date of filing an
application, subject to an annual renewal fees). The purpose of this law is to
encourage inventions by promoting their protection
and proper utilization of invention. Example:
Patent may be a new product, process or design that
provides a new way of doing something [8]. The
figure shown below is Erik Buell Racing Patents
Hybrid Motorcycle Design.
Available image 2:
http://www.asphaltandrubber.com/news/erik-buell-racing-hybrid-motorcycledesign-patent/
Industrial Design
An industrial design protects the visual design or formal appearances of an
industrial object [9] i.e. configuration pattern, colour and style. It is also known as
engineering design. An industrial design focuses on user aspects of products so it
used to improve the production as well as marketable. The main purpose of design
law is to promote and protect the design element of industrial production. It is also
intended to promote innovative activity in the field
of industries. It may be two dimensional or three
dimensional. Example: Any industrial product is
comes under industrial design [8] i.e. different
models of cars, motorcycles, bicycles, phones or
any other industrial commodity etc. The figure
shown below is an industrial model of bicycle.
Available image 3:
http://www.forethoughtdesigns.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page20.html
Trademark
A trade mark is a visual symbol which may be a word, letters, numerical, name,
sign, signatures, symbol, design, or an expression distinguishes products or
services provided by an individual or a company [9]. It is popularly called as “Brand
22
name”. It is mainly used in commercial sector. Its nature and quality indicated by its
unique trademark to help consumers to identify and purchase product or services.
The initial registration term is valid
up to 10 years; after it may be
renewed time to time. Below
figures are different trademark of
different enterprises.
Available image 4: http://www.svw.co.za/articles/tm-famous-trademarks.html
Trade Secrets
A trade secret is non-public or confidential business information concerning with
the commercial practices. It may be process, methods or technique, strategies,
design, formula, pattern and practices etc [9] which is not
generally known to other enterprises, if known that is
illegal. Trade secret law varies from country to country. It
is also called as industrial/ commercial/ manufacturing
secrets. For example trade secrets of Coca-Cola. Due to
trade secrets we can't know secrets to make the Coca- Cola
till now.
Available image 6: http://www.bendweekly.com/index.php?category=9&pg=17
Geographical indications are signs used on certain products
and this product possesses certain qualities, reputation which
corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin [9] (It
may be a country, a region, town or a village). Most
commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of
the place of origin of the goods. Examples: Bordeaux (wine), Darjeeling (tea) and
Tuscany (olive oil). Below figure is the geographical indication of Darjeeling tea.
Available image 7: http://www.intellexip.com/Geogprahical-Indications-12
Layout- design of an integrated circuit
An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit in which the elements of the circuit
23
are embedded into a single chip [5]. Mainly silicon
semiconductors are used to create integrated circuits. These are
also called as a "chip" or a "silicon chip". Layout- designs are
valid for 15 years from the date of its creation.
Available image 8: http://itagbs.com/ic-layout-design/
Protection of new plant varieties
A plant variety is defined as a plant group within a single botanical taxon (Singular)
(taxa= plural: taxonomy) of the lowest rank [5]. A person who breeds plants, and has
discovered and developed a new plant variety called a
“breeder” [1] and can seek protection for their new plant
varieties by applying for a grant of protection for a
plant variety. The grant of protection can last for 25
years (as long as you pay an annual fee) and the plant
variety is your personal property.
Available image 9:
http://www.soei.com/english/about/services_available/plant_variety_protection.
php
Some important IPR Act.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
The Designs Act, 1911
Copyright Act, 1957
Patents Act, 1970
Protection of new plant varieties Act, 1970
The Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 or the Trade Marks Act, 1999
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
Semi-conductor Integrated Circuits Layout- Design Act, 2000
Conclusion
IPR can generally be concluded as the rights given to persons over the creations of
their minds. In the present information age Intellectual Property Right (IPR) is very
much important tool. It is safeguard creators and other producers of intellectual
24
goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control their use.
It is a blessing for authors, inventors and any other innovative ideas which can
unique for our society particular library professionals are religious duty to protect
of this law.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Ram, B. (1996). Intellectual Property Rights and Technology development:
some suggestions [PDF file]. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights, Vol. 1,
Sept. 1996, pp. 249- 253.Available:
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/19691/1/JIPR%201(5)%2024
9-253.pdf
Singh, C. I. & Devi, T. M. (2004). Intellectual Property Rights: Some
Aspects [PDF file], pp. 250- 255. Available:
http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1944/444/1/04Planner_32.pdf
Adukia, R. S. Handbook on Intellectual Property Rights in India [PDF file],
pp. 1- 123.
Available:http://www.metastudio.org/Science%20and%20Ethics/file/readDo
c/535a76367d9d331598f49e2d/34_Hb_on_IPR.pdf
Moorthy, A. L. & Karisiddappa, C.R. (1998). Intellectual property rights
and virtual libraries [PDF file], In Towards the New Information Society of
Tomorrow : Innovations, Challenges and Impact, 49th FID Conference and
Congress New Delhi, 11-17 October 1998, FID Publication No. 719, pp. IV51--IV-61. Available:
A Manual on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) [PDF file],
Entrepreneurship Development and IPR unit, BITS, Pilani, Nov. 2007, pp.
1- 79, available: http://www.bits
pilani.ac.in/uploads/Patent_ManualOct_25th_07.pdf
Focus on intellectual property rights [PDF file], Editor: George Clack &
Mildred Solá Neely, pp. 1- 113, Available:
http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/iprbook.pdf
Introduction to Intellectual Property [PDF file], pp. 1- 25. Available:
http://ipindia.nic.in/ipr/patent/patents_filing.pdf
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) [PDF file], pp. 1- 6. Available:
http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/emerge/website_material_on_IPR.pdf
What is intellectual property? World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) [PDF file], WIPO publication no. 450 (E), ISBN- 978- 92- 805-
10.
11.
12.
13.
25
1555- 0, pp. 1- 24. Available:
http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf
The Concept of Intellectual Property, the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO), WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law
and Use, pp. 1- 14. Available: http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/aboutip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf
Intellectual Property Guidelines, Version 1.0, edited by the Minerva EC
Working Group, September, 2008, pp. 1- 87, Available:
http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/MINERVAeC%20IPR%20Guid
e_final1.pdf
History of WIPO, Available:
http://www1.american.edu/initeb/qj8944a/wipo.htm
What is Intellectual Property? By WIPO, Available:
http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/
Intellectual Property Rights
Information in India
Kalpana1
Abstract
Brief historical information of Intellectual Property rights in four principal kinds of
IP viz. patent Information, copyright information, trademarks information and
design information, is given pointing to some salient features that makes the
Intellectual Property provisions in India together and in conformity with its
international obligations. Existing information on Acts giving Intellectual
Property Laws in various categories of Intellectual Property (IP) have been listed,
as also major international treaties which India has signed.
Keyword : Intellectual Property Rights
Introduction
The tradition of scholarship and intellectual creativity in India goes back to a few
millennia. Yet the concept of Intellectual Property Rights in the modern sense is
rather new and would appear to have no cultural moorings or sanction in our
country. The history of Intellectual Property Rights in India backed by enforceable
legal provisions scarcely goes back to 150 years.
The first Indian statute on Patents was passed in 1856 granting some exclusive
rights (kept for special class) to inventors for fourteen years. It had to be re-enacted
with some modification as the Act of 1859. It granted to inventors of 'new
manufacture' exclusive rights to make, sell and use the invention in India, or to
authorize someone to do so. Its scope was expanded to include design, under the
new 'manufacture' in the patents and Design Protection Act 1972. Then came in the
invention and design Act of 1888, and later the Indian Patents and Design Act 1911,
(which was modeled largely on the British Patents and Design Act 1907). After
independence in 1947, the Government felt the need for a more effective patent
legislation. The existing situation with regard to patents was received by two
1
Research Scholar, MPBOU, Bhopal (M.P)
Intellectual Property Rights Information in India
27
expert committees:
1. Headed by justice Rajagopal Iyengar ; and
2. Headed by Bakshi Tek Chand.
It was revealed the MNCs, who owned 90% of all patents on India had misused
patents largely to ensure a protected market in India for their products, denying
availability of many essential goods to people at competitive prices. The patent
Bill following the reports of these committees was debated for a decade when
finally the Indian Patents Act 1970 was enacted. It was highly acclaimed by,
amongst others, UNCTAD, as a most progressive patent law and inspired similar
legislation in many developing countries. It clearly codified inventions that could
not be patented, permitted patenting of only process, not products, of manufacture
in the field of food, drugs and medicines and substance produced by chemical
processes. The turn of patent was in the case of process relating to food, medicines
and drugs, Five year from the ceiling of the patent or Seven year from the date of
patent whichever was earlier, in case of other process patents, it was fourteen years,
it had provision for 'Licenses right' and compulsory licensing in some
circumstances, it provided for use of inventions for government purposes
acquisition of invention by Central Government and revocation of Patents in public
interest.
Following India's membership of the WTO and obligations under the TRIPS
agreement, the Indian Patents Act 1970, was amended by Patents (Amendment)
Act 1999 and Patents (Amendment) Act 2002, which came into force on May 2,
2003. The provision of the present Act is in line with the TRIPS Agreement.
Trademarks Information
No specific Legislation existed on trademark before 1940. However, remedies for
violation of trade mark were available under the Indian Penal Code 1860 and
specific Relief Act 1877. The Trade Marks Act 1940 was replaced by the Trade and
Merchandise Marks Act, 1958, which has now been repealed and replaced by the
Trade Marks Act 1999.
Designs Information
Designs continued to be governed by the provision of the Indian Patents and
Designs Act, 1911, while the Designs Act 2000 was passed.
28
Copyright Information
In matters of copyright the English copyright Act 1842 was deemed applicable to
India, thought it was never expressly declared to be so. The application of the
copyright Act, 1911 of England was extended to India as a British dominion. The
Indian copyright Act 1914 introduced criminal sanctions for infringement and
continued till the copyright Act 1957 came into force on 21.1.1958. This was
necessitated as much by the changed status of India as an independent nation as by
the advancement of technology of reproduction, information & communication.
The Act had several original features; registration of copyright was voluntary;
administrative machinery for registration of copyright was established, the
government was empowered to protect copyright of citizens from other countries.
It has been amended since then in 1983, 1992, 1994 and 1999 the last one, after
India ratified the TRIPS Agreement as a member of the WTO.
Besides these four principal fields for intellectual property protection, namely,
patents trademarks, industrial designs and copyright India has enacted the
Intellectual property laws for geographical indications of goods, protection of plant
varieties and farmers rights semi conductor IC layout designs information
technology and bio diversity.
Intellectual Property Law Information in India:
The India law to grant and regulate protection of intellectual property in various
fields of Intellectual Property has now been aligned to the requirements and
provision as a visualized under the TRIPS agreement of the WTO. Details study of
the individual Acts dealing with specific Intellectual property instruments, patents
copyright trademarks, industrial designs etc. In this article I will refer to some
general features specially those pertaining to the administration and enforcement of
Intellectual property rights in India that define IP laws in India.
Indian Patent Law Information
The law relating to patents is laid down in the Indian Patents Act (1970) as amended
by Patents (Amendment) Act, 1999 and Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002. Some of
the more significant change introduced by these amendments in the original Act of
1970 are as follows:
29
v
There is no restriction now on Indians applying for patents abroad
v
The definition of term intention is fully consistent with the TRIPS
agreement and includes both products and processed in all fields of
technology. Before amendment only methods or processes of
manufacture relating to food, medicines and drugs were patentable.
v
The list of items that are not to count as inventions for granted patents has
been modified to include exclusions permitted by the TRIPS Agreement.
Earlier an invention was not patentable if its primary or intended use
would be4 contrary to law or morality or injurious to public health. Now it
will not be considered an invention if its primary or intended use or
commercial exploitation could be contrary to public order of morality or
which causes serious prejudice to human animal and plant life or health or
to the environment. Also discovery of any living thing or non living
substance occurring in nature is not regarded as an invention under the
amended act.
v
The rights of the patentee have been brought in line with the4 provisions
of the TRIPS Agreement, as necessitated by changes permitting product
patents.
v
Reversal of burden of proof when infringement of a process patent occurs
has been included in accordance with the TRIPS agreement. It is now for
the defendant to prove that the process being used by him is different from
the patented process alleged to be infringed.
v
The term of patent is now uniform 20 years as required by the TRIPS.
Earlier for a process patent relating to an item of food, medicine or drug it
was five years from the date of sealing of the patent or seven years from
the date of application whichever period was shorter and fourteen years
from the date of patent in respect of any other invention.
v
The provision of licenses of right has been omitted and compulsory
licensing brought in the line with TRIPS.
v
Provisions for exclusive of special marketing rights have been included.
30
v
Provisions for parallel import of patented products have been included.
v
Protection of biodiversity and traditional knowledge, information under
inventions not patentable category.
The Acts makes the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trademarks
appointed under the trade Act, 1999 as the controller of patents with powers of civil
Court.
Indian Copyright Law
The copyright Act 1957 as amended in 1999 governs the copyright law in India. It
came into force on January 15, 2000. It has established a copyright office, under
the immediate control of the Registrar of Copyright, to facilitate registration of
copyright. It has also established a copyright Board (CB) with Registrar of
Copyright as its Secretary. The CB is meant to hear and settle curtain kinds of
disputes arising under the act.
The act defines various categories of works in which copyrights and has inter alia,
provisions for determination of first ownership of copyright, the scope of rights
conferred, assignment and licensing of copyright compulsory licensing and the
circumstances in which it could be granted performing rights of societies;
broadcasting rights; author special rights; international copyrights. The Act sets
out in detail what constitutes infringement and what does not, civil and criminal
remedy; against infringement and remedies against threat of legal proceedings
without any ground.
The Indian copyright law is in conformity with the provisions of the TRIPS
Agreement of the WTO. It is also in line with the provisions of the Berne
Convention for the Protection of literary and Artistic Works (Brussels' Text 1948)
and the Universal Copyright Convention (1952) ; India is a member of both
conventions.
Indian Trademark Law Information
The Trade Marks Act 1999 lays down the law governing trade marks in India. It
extends the scope of protection by registration of Trade marks to services, besides
31
goods. It provides a single register and simplifies the procedure for registration. It
recognizes well known marks as a distinct category, and provides for registration of
collective marks, owned by an association of persons. It firmly discourages
persons tempted to exploit other person's good name in business through false or
misleading means.
The Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks is the Register of
Trade Marks. The act establishes an appellate board with the same powers as the
vested in civil courts; any proceedings before the Board are deemed as judicial
proceedings.
Several measures have been taken to simplify trade mark law and procedures, offer
better protection and make enforcement more effective e.g. a single application for
registration in more than one class; increasing the term of protection from seven
years to ten years; enhancing punishment to bright it at par with copyright law,
making trade mark offences cognizable.
Indian Designs Law Information
The Design Act 2000 lays down the law for protection of industrial designs in India.
The Controller General of Patents, Design and Trade Marks is the Controller of
Design.
The act inter alia defines 'Original' and enlarges the scope of definitions of article
and design. It spells out what designs shall not be registered, brings in the
internationally followed system of classification and ca6taloguing of the Indian
library system, provides for restoration of lapsed designs and maintaining the
register of designs on computer, the two year period of secrecy of a registered
design is revoked and any document for transfer of right in a registered design is
required to be compulsorily registered. More grounds have been added for
cancellation of registration and cancellation proceedings are to be initiated before
the Controller of Designs instead of a High Court. Infringement attracts heavier
penalties' the initial period of registration is enhanced from five years. It provides
for control of anti competitive practices in contractual licensees. Appeal against an
order of the control lies to the High Court.
32
Appeal Mechanism
In keeping in its status as a major vibrant economy and as an active contributor in
the realm of knowledge Information and creativity India though a relatively later
comer in the Intellectual property game, has strong IP laws and effective
enforcement of IPRs. All the Acts dealing with IP in its various forms are aligned to
the TRIPS Agreements making appropriate use of flexibilities available under the
TRIPS. They are fully alive to the role of IPRs in growth and development
consistent with societal and environmental concerns.
All the IP Laws Provide the Following:
i)
A fully empowered administrative machinery to grant and register claims
for IPRs in a fair and transparent manner; and
ii) A mechanism for appeal against administrative decisions if necessary;
and
iii) A procedure for legal enforcement of IPRs. Patents and industrial designs
are required to be registered under the relevant Acts to claim any legal
protection of IPRs. However, copyright and trade marks in India) have no
such requirements their registration is voluntary, but in case of legal
dispute, registration carries distinct advantages. As copying,
counterfeiting and forgery have become easy and rampant and economic
consequences of infringing a copyright or using a brand name (trade
mark) in an unfair way may be huge, it is advisable to get the copyright and
trademark duly registered; and
iv) The provision of appeal against a decision order of the highest controlling
authority is only fair and necessary under a sound legal system. The
appeal earlier used to lie with a High Court of appropriate jurisdiction.
However, the domain of IP being highly specialized, which was often
unfamiliar to a High Court judge, the need of a specialist member of
information on the reviewing bench was always felt. Further the disposal
of an appeal in a High Court was time consuming and involved high cost
of litigation.
33
Having regard to these consideration, the Trade Marks Act 1999 established an
Appellate Board (AB) having advocates who have been active in the field of Trade
Marks for ten years. A bench of the Appellate Board will consist of a judicial
Member and a Technical Member. The bench will sit at a place decided by the
Central Government.
The Appellate Board for trademarks is also the Appellate authority under the
Patents Act, 1970 as amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002. It is also the
Appellate Board for geographical indications. The Technical Member of the AB
for patents cases is a person experienced in patent law to consider appeals against
the decisions of controller. He is a person who has been Controller or has exercised
his functions, for five years or he/she should be an advocate practicing law relating
to patents and designs for ten years. A bench of the Appellate Board constituent of
one judicial member and one technical member.
Pursuing a case before a trade mark Appellate Board or the Copyright Board (which
also have sittings all over India) can be frustrating and difficult experience.
The Appellate Board sits in the following cities: Ahmadabad, Bangaluru, Chennai,
Hyderabad, Kolkata, and Mumbai. The Board fixes its own procedure place and
time of sittings.
The procedure for appeal in the case of copyright is different. The appeal against a
decision of the Registrar of Copyright lies with the copyright Board. The copyright
Board constituted by the Central Government, consists of a Chair person who is or
has been or has the qualification to be a judge of High Court, and two to fourteen
members. The Registrar of Copyrights is the Secretary of the Board. A further
appeal against the decision of the copyright Board lies with the High Court of
appropriate jurisdiction.
Under the Design Act 2000, the appeal against a decision of the Controller of
Designs lies with the High Court. The Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Lay out
Designs Act, 2000 provides for a layout Design Appellate Board, and an appeal
against its decision lies with the High Court. The appellate authority under the
protection of plant varieties and Farmers Rights Act 2001 is the Plant varieties
protection Appellate Tribunal. The Biological Diversity Act 2002 provides for a
appeal against the orders of the national biodiversity authority or a state
biodiversity board, to the High Court. The information Technology Act provides
34
for appeal to a cyber Appellate Tribunal against one order of the Controller of
Certifying Authority or an adjusting officer.
Thus the situation in respect of appeal related to various kinds of IPRs' may do with
some streamlining. The diversity of appellate authorities and procedures for
different IPRs seems unnecessary. There could be a case to have only one
Intellectual Property Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals cases of the category of
IPRs. The Tribunal and its benches may also shed the roving character and have
fixed places for hearing to make it easy, convenient and less costly for litigants to
pursue their cases.
Conclusion
Intellectual Property scenario in India including a historical information on
Intellectual Property (IP) Legislation in India, the IP Acts enacted by India and
major international treaties in IP signed by India, discussed some issues that have
emerged with the rapid advancement in the fields of information and
communication technology. Economic growth and development requires a
flourishing international trade and on an environment of intellectual creativity in
India that gives to a large pool of inventors, innovators and other creative workers.
Both of them need an underpinning of sound IP provisions and effective
enforcement mechanism for IPRs. In this research article I examined the
information on patents, copyrights, trademarks and designs in the growth of
national economy through legislation and national development.
Bibliographical References
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Anderson, S (1997). Copyright and Digital Reproduction in Cyberspace.
Information Outlook, 1(6), 14.
Bock, C (1996). Electronic Administration of Industrial Property Right at the
Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property Rights. World Patent
Information, 18(3), 133-140.
Chalsty, Deborah (1999). The Economic Logic of Copyright. Legal
References Services Quarterly, 17(1/2), 145-159.
Garcia, D L (1986). Intellectual Property Rights. Bulletin of the American
Society for Information Science. 12(5), 13-15.
Gupta, VK (1997). Intellectual Property Right in Commercialization of R & D
and Transfer of Technology. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights, Vol.2 July
35
1987, PP 181-190.
6. Lopez, X R (2005). New Developments in Intellectual Property Rights
Implications for GIS. Journal of Academic Librarianship. 23(6), 577-20.
7. Ganguli P (2001). Intellectual Property Rights: unleashing the knowledge
economy.__New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, India.
8. Griers, Maureen (1998). Information Policy in the Electronic Age. East
grinstead Bowker Saur, USA.
9. Jeffrey, M Samnals (1987). Patent, Trademarks and Copyrights
Laws.__Washington,USA: Bureau of National Affairs.
10. Kumar, Satyendra (2006). Documentation and Information services in cyber
Age.__New Delhi: Gagandeep.
11. Tripathi, R C, Grover, Sood, S and Chakravarti, A K (1998, 2005). Computer
Software and IPR present status in India and future directions. New Delhi:
Electronic Information and Planning.
IPR Implications Vis-a-Vis Developing Countries
Trips Saga: Implications for Developing Countries
Rajat Mathuria1 and Tanvi Dubey2
Abstract
The free trade agreements have bewildered the developing nations because of the
snags associated with it. Amidst such chaos is buried the political unrest and
gambits of the developed nations to regulate and sequentially dominate the
international market. They have accomplished this task by restricting the flexible
provisions of the TRIPS agreement in the FTAs with their leverage. On the other
hand the developing nations have been active participants in the TRIPS negotiation
in order to address and resolve the problem of healthcare at large. This has been
stomped over by the developed nations by negotiating free trade agreements, after
considering bilateralism as an exit line from multilateral constraints. This paper
deals with the subjugating free trade agreements and their bearing on the
developing nations.
The case of U.S.-Jordan FTA affirms the negative impact arising from the
implementation of comparable FTAs in developing countries, particularly in the
area of public health and access to medicines which contains various provisions
like patent term extension, restriction on compulsory licensing etc. Thereafter the
essay focuses on Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreements (ACTA) which contains
TRIPS-Plus provisions and its implications for India's generic medicine export.
Lastly, the essay proposes and recommends a “price” solution for better access to
medicines in developing countries. Differential pricing can be effectively
implemented to trim down the detrimental provisions of TRIPS-Plus on the
aggrieved nations.
Keyword : Intellectual Property Rights
1
2
Advocate, Delhi High Court, B.A., LL.B. (Hons.), National Law University, Delhi.
Final Year Student of Law, Faculty of Law, Barkatullah University, Bhopal.
IPR Implications Vis-a-Vis Developing Countries Trips Saga:
Implications for Developing Countries
37
Introduction
TRIPS was considered a minimum standard for application of intellectual property
rights for the developed nations while was a benchmark for the developing nations.
This was rectified by Maxim Medvedkov, Russia's lead negotiator on WTO
accession who said that “I think we have to draw a line between WTO and bilateral
issues...” thereby considering TRIPS to be a ceiling and not a floor for Russia.3
TRIPS comprehends provisions for balancing patent protection and public health
services which can be an impediment for the developing countries since they are
open to interpretations.
Thus the bilateral free trade agreements were the initiatives of the developed
nations in order to combat the onslaught of “the active participants” in the decisions
and discussions of the WTO. These agreements assisted in divesting the developed
world of many problems like compulsory licensing and provisions of the Doha
declarations.
Doha Declaration and Compulsory Licensing
The uncertainty of the TRIPS provision was a political gizmo for the U.S which
threatened to impose sanctions on Thailand in 1997 and on Brazil in 2000, for their
use of compulsory licensing. The upshot of this discourse led to the formation of a
transnational coalition inclusive of NGOs, WHO and countries facing health
crises.4 These provided assistance to the developing nations for addressing their
concern on public health. This was considered as one of the many reasons for the
initiation of the Doha negotiations in 2002.5 This declaration emphasized on the
chief aim of the TRIPS agreement,6 stating that it should be interpreted and
implemented in order to promote access to medicines for all. Most importantly the
Doha Declaration on Public Health stated that the TRIPS agreement should be
implemented considering the public health issue at large. However this declaration
failed to make requisite recommendations on compulsory licensing which was
emanating as a huge defence tool for the developed nations. Thus the WTO went
3
See IP-Watch(2005), Official: In WTO Talks US Pushes Russia to Restrictive TRIPS Standard,
available at: http://www.ip-watch.org.
Sell, S. and Prakash, A. (2004) 'Using ideas strategically: the contest between business and NGO
networks in intellectual property rights', International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, pp.143–175.
5
Id.
6
Para 4: “it can and should be interpreted and implemented in a manner supportive of the WTO
members' right to protect public health and, in particular, to promote access to medicines for all”
4
38
one step further by providing circumstances under which a country inefficient in
manufacturing drugs can efficaciously use compulsory licensing.7 They fancied
free trade agreements in order to provide enhanced intellectual property protection.
These agreements enforced insensitive restrictions on the developing countries
which are as follows:
Patentability of New Medicines
The FTAs were efficacious in introducing ruthless provisions. All FTAs replicate
Article 27 (1) of the TRIPS agreement which provides that the “patent shall be
available for any invention whether product or processes”. As per this statement,
there are two kinds of patentable inventions: product innovation and process
innovation. However the TRIPS agreement is silent about the patentability of new
inventions. Some construe it to be comprehended in process innovation like in U.S.
law,8 while some rest it on the members to decide its inclusion. Article 27(3) (b)
precisely mentions that the members can exclude therapeutic, diagnostic and
surgical methods for the treatment of humans and animals from patentability.
However the FTAs signed between the U.S. and Australia in 2005 ended such
flexibilities by including patentability for new uses and methods of using a known
product in the free trade agreement. Subsequently USTR, which seeks for
consistency, went one step further by comprehending patentability of new uses and
methods of known products including “for the treatment of humans and animals”,
in the FTAs with Morocco and Bahrain in 2006.9
Protection of Data and Data Exclusivity
Article 39(3) of the TRIPS agreement provides for minimum international standard
for the protection of marketing approval of data by providing for protection of
undisclosed data of the new product against unfair commercial use except where
necessary to protect the public or where steps are taken to ensure that the data is
protected against unfair commercial use. Some WTO members choose to limit the
protection of data that involves considerable effort to financial investment. This
was trounced by the U.S. by embracing a stricter provision in the FTAs signed with
7
Hoen, E. (2002) 'Public health and international law: TRIPS, pharmaceutical patents, and access to
essential medicines: a long way from Seattle to Doha', Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 3, No.
1, pp.27–46.
8
See Kantor, M. (2005) US Free Trade Agreements and the Public Health, http://www.who.int/
intellectualproperty/submissions/US%20FTAs%20and%20the%20Public%20Health.pdf.
9
MFTA, Art 15.9.2; BFTA, Art 14.8.2
39
10
Singapore, Chile, Australia, Morocco, Bahrain, where undisclosed data that
involves considerable effort as well as the information that is linked with the safety
or efficacy of the product that contains a new chemical entity was protected. It also
applied to the chemical entity that is not new.11 Additionally, the FTAs provide for a
minimum patent protection of five years to the patent owners, which was
contradictory to the TRIPS approach of unfair competition law. Thus the data is
unavailable to the second party who applies for marketing approval of such data
within the term of patent protection. There are two additional rights conferred on
the patent owners:
?
?
Patent owners shall be made aware of the third party's marketing approval
application
Patent owners shall give their consent for such issuance.
This restriction creates a monopoly which is not required by the TRIPS agreement
and therefore makes it impossible for the countries facing health crises to use
compulsory licensing.12 Moreover practically a patent term extends beyond the
term of patent protection. In some of the cases the patent may not be issued or the
development period was so long that the patent term had expired. In such cases the
data protection period acts as a substitute, thereby preventing the competitors for a
five year period. In addition to this, the relationship between compulsory licensing
and data exclusivity presents yet another predicament. Due to immense pressure
mounting on the developing countries, undisclosed data was excluded from
compulsory licensing.13 This was a significant achievement precisely for brand
name companies and generally for developed countries, particularly U.S.
Protection of an Effective Patent Term
Article 33 of the TRIPS agreement provides for the term of protection as 20 years.
This is counted from the date of filing. Thus the effective term of protection is put at
peril by two administrative procedures which can substantially reduce the term of
10
8 S FTA, Art16.8; CFTA, Art.17.10; CAFTA, Art.15.10; AFTA, Art. 17.10; MFTA Art. 15.10; BFTA,
Art. 14.9
Correa, Carlos, Implications of Bilateral Free Trade Agreements on Access to Medicines, 84 Bulletin
of the World Health Organization (2006), p. 399, 401.
12
10 Abbott, Frederick The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health and the
Contradictory Trend in Bilateral and Regional Free Trade Agreements, Quaker United Nations Office,
Occasional Paper 14, April at http://www.quno.org 1, 7 (2004).
13
IP Watch (2005) 'Clash continues on US-central America trade deal', IP Watch, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.1, 2, 6,
7.
11
40
protection. These are patent examination process and marketing approval process.
Article 62 (2) of the TRIPS agreement states that the procedure shall provide the
granting of patent within a reasonable period of time without unwarranted
curtailment of the protection period. However such reasonable period was again
subject to interpretations. To guarantee an effective patent period of 17 years, the
U.S. enacted Patent term Guarantee Act, 1999,14 which was later adopted in the
FTAs signed with the developing countries. It stated that the patent shall be
extended at the request of the patent owner to compensate for the unreasonable
delays that occurred in granting patents.15 The second procedure that is the
marketing approval procedure was of serious concern for the U.S. since its Food
and Drug Administration procedures are particularly rigorous and long. Therefore
Congress enacted the Hatch Waxman Act, 198416 which stated that each party shall
make available an extension of the patent term to compensate the patent owner for
the unreasonable curtailment of the patent term as a result of the marketing
approval process. This was again replicated by it in the FTAs. This is problematic
for the developing countries where the patent offices are understaffed and involves
quite large number of departments. Notwithstanding the predicament, there was
legal transplantation of U.S. law into foreign countries.
Restriction on the Authorised Exceptions
There are certain exceptions laid down in Article 30 of the TRIPS agreement to the
exclusive rights conferred on a patent.17 However such exceptions are general and
not specific. These exceptions as alluded to in the agreement should be such as to
not conflict with the normal exploitation of the patent, or prejudice the legitimate
interests of the patent owner, taking into account the legitimate interests of third
parties. This general exception is restricted in the FTAs18 by a provision which
states that if a party permits a third party to use the subject matter of a subsisting
patent solely to support an application for the marketing of that pharmaceutical
product then the party shall assure that the product produced under such authority
14
See 35 USC 154
Id.
16
See 35 US 156
17
“Members may provide limited exceptions to the exclusive rights conferred by a patent, provided that
such exceptions do not unreasonably conflict with a normal exploitation of the patent and do not
unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the patent owner, taking into account the legitimate
interests of third parties.”
18
JFTA, Art. 4.19; SFTA, Art. 16.7.5; CFTA, Art. 17.9.4; CAFTA, Art. 15.9.5; AFTA, Art. 17.9.6;
MFTA, Art. 15.9.5; BFTA, Art. 14.8.5
15
41
shall not be made, used or sold in the territory of that party, to generate information
for the approval of marketing of the product once the patent expires. This exception
popularly known as “bolar exception” was considered regulatory exemption and
therefore fell within the general conditions of Article 30. The permitting of
competitors to produce and stockpile a product for sale after the expiration of the
patent was considered “substantial curtailment” and excluded from Article 30. Not
only this, it also restricts exporting of the patented product to marketing approval.
This restriction refrain the countries having insufficient industrial capacities from
making effective use of compulsory licensing.
Additional Restriction on Compulsory Licenses
Article 31 of the TRIPS agreement prescribes general conditions under which
compulsory licenses can be issued by a WTO member. These conditions remained
undetermined by the agreement and the members are free to determine
circumstances under which these licenses can be granted. However these grounds
have been restricted to three conditions in the recent FTAs signed by the U.S. These
are: to remedy an anti competitive practice, provided it has been declared as such
after a judicial or administrative process; to use for non commercial purposes or in
national emergency, or extreme urgency, where it can only be used by the
government or legislative entity under the government and on the ground of failure
of meeting working requirement provided importation constitute working. Later
these restrictions were further constricted by the U.S. in the FTAs signed with
Singapore and Australia.
Prohibition of the International Exhaustion Doctrine
The U.S championed national exhaustion and then used their leverage to dissuade
the developing countries from complying with the doctrine of international
exhaustion. The result was somewhat ambiguous which was later made
conspicuous by the Doha Declaration which stated that it is upon the will of each
member to establish its own regime for such exhaustion without challenge. Thus
bilateral trade agreements were again an opportunity for the U.S. to prevent full
application of the international exhaustion doctrine. Since the U.S. relied on
national exhaustion doctrine so it compelled many people of U.S to drive to Canada
in the past several years in order to buy cheaper version of the brand name drugs.
42
Restrictions on the Ground of Revocation
The TRIPS agreement under Article 32 provides for revocation. However it leaves
it on the WTO members to determine the grounds of revocation which could be
construed as circumstances involving public interest, abuses that might result from
the exercise of exclusive rights and for compliance with the public health law.
However such grounds of revocation were restricted in the FTAs. The revocation
was permissible in case if it justified a refusal to grant the patent, if it involved
fraud, misrepresentation or inequitable conduct. This was another embodiment for
the rescue operation conducted by the bilateral agreements when the multilateral
agreements failed to meet their ends.
Thus the FTAs were incompatible with the Doha Declaration which was a first step
towards providing flexibility to the provisions of the TRIPS agreement.
In June 2006, the Committee on International Trade Law passed a resolution
expressing concern over some WTO members' concrete steps taken for their self
preservation through bilateral and regional free trade agreements and urged the
governments to refrain from incorporating any such provision which serves as an
impediment in the promotion of public health and access to medicines for all.
Bilateral FTAs between powerful, industrialized countries, particularly the United
States and European Union, and poorer developing countries proliferated over the
past decade. The signing of an FTA represents the beginning of a long and winding
road, but there is little analysis of what happens following the conclusion of
bilateral free trade agreement. One reason for the lack of analysis of the
implantation of FTAs is that these agreements are negotiated and implemented
secretly, behind closed doors with little public debate. The case of U.S.-Jordan FTA
affirms the negative impact arising from the implementation of comparable FTAs
in developing countries, particularly in the area of public health and access to
medicines.
U.S- Jordan Bilateral Free Trade Agreement
The close relationship between Jordan and the U.S. is evidenced by the exceptional
military and financial support Jordan has received from the U.S. over the years.
U.S. backing ensured Jordan's speedy accession to the WTO in 2000 and
subsequently paved the way for the signing of the first bilateral free trade
43
agreement (FTA) between the U.S. and an Arab country in 2001 (the U.S.-Jordan
FTA). High levels of collaboration between the two countries in the area of
intellectual property have existed for some time. However, it was often U.S.
pressure, triggered by industry groups, which dictated the terms of the relationship
between the two countries. For instance, until 1998 Jordan was still placed on the
United States ¯Section 301 Watch List. In the same year, the Pharmaceutical
Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) went even further, by formally
asking the USTR to name Jordan in the next year as a ¯Priority Watch country, for
¯failing to provide adequate intellectual property protection. The relationship
became less turbulent following the country's accession to the WTO and its signing
of an FTA with the U.S. in 2000 and 2001, respectively.
The case of Jordan not only conforms to these observations, but also sheds new
light on the inconsistencies and loopholes present in intellectual property
regulation, given the explicit influence of the U.S. The key players representing the
United States' private sector interests include a number of historically wellestablished and organized business groups and associations. For instance, both the
Business Software Alliance (BSA) and the International Intellectual Property
Alliance (IIPA) have been vocal in their push for strengthened copyright protection
in Jordan. Meanwhile, the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America
(PhRMA)19 continues their pursuance of higher levels of intellectual property
protection in the area of pharmaceutical patents in the country. These business
groups and associations are also supported by their local representatives, agents,
and networks of contacts. What is of concern here is the evident lack of public input
and the absence of public participation and civil society representation in these
discussions, particularly from the Jordanian side.
Moreover, the U.S. - Jordan FTA was one of the first bilateral agreements to include
extensive TRIPS-Plus provisions. These provisions had noticeable impacts on
many development-related areas. In particular, the agreement contains several
TRIPS-Plus provisions, which directly impact public health and access to
medicines in the country. These may be summarized as follows:
19
The Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) represents the US's leading
pharmaceutical research and biotechnology companies, which are devoted to inventing medicines that
allow patients to live longer, healthier, and more productive lives. PhRMA companies are leading the
way in the search for new cures. PhRMA members alone invested an estimated $49.4 billion in 2010 in
discovering and developing new medicines. Industry-wide research and investment reached an
estimated $67.4 billion in 2010. For more see About PhRMA, PHRMA (Feb. 9, 2012),
http://www.phrma.org/about/about-phrma.
44
1. “New use” legal protection for chemical entities.
Although the TRIPS Agreement does not oblige member states to provide legal
protection for new use, the U.S.-Jordan FTA includes reference to this type of
protection. In this regard, Footnote 8 of Article 4.22 the U.S.-Jordan FTA states
that:
“It is understood that protection for ¯new chemical entities? shall also include
protection for new uses for old chemical entities for a period of three years.”
Article 33 of the TRIPS Agreement provides that legal protection shall be granted
to patents for a period of twenty years from the date of filing. The U.S.-Jordan FTA
further extends this period in order to compensate the applicant for the time spent
during the examination of the application and/or marketing authorization. Article
4.23 of the U.S.-Jordan FTA states that:
“With respect to pharmaceutical products that are subject to a patent:
a. Each Party shall make available an extension of the patent term to compensate the
patent owner for unreasonable curtailment of the patent term as a result of
marketing approval process.”
2. Restrictions on compulsory licensing.
The TRIPS Agreement grants member states the right to grant compulsory licenses.
However, the agreement does not list nor specify the grounds whereby such
licenses may be granted, but instead awards member states the discretion to define
such grounds. On the other hand, the U.S. - Jordan FTA lists the grounds where such
licenses may be granted, hence eroding the policy space available to Jordan, by
broadly defining these grounds. Accordingly, Article 4.20 of the FTA states:
“Neither Party shall permit the use of the subject matter of a patent without the
authorization of the right holder except in the following circumstances:a. to remedy a practice determined after judicial or administrative process to be
anti-competitive;
45
b. in cases of public non-commercial use or in the case of a national emergency or
other circumstances of extreme urgency, provided that such use is limited to use by
government entities or legal entities acting under the authority of a government”
The impact of these TRIPS-Plus conditions in the area of public health and access
to medicines is grave. In brief, such measures would result in prolonging the
monopoly terms granted to pharmaceutical patents and would delay the entrance of
generics into the market at an earlier stage.20 Lastly, U.S. interest groups and local
agents collaborate to achieve higher levels of intellectual property protection
without taking into consideration the public interest and consumer rights of local
communities. This "act of state-sponsored violence," as some have proclaimed it,
jeopardizes the lives of millions of citizens across the globe.
Trips plus Through Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreements (ACTA):
Implications for India
Unfettered by opposition, a select group of developed countries have resorted to
tactics of forum-shopping and have succeeded in initiating the TRIP-plus
enforcement agenda through proposed Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
(ACTA). The ACTA would create new standards for enforcement of IPR by
establishing a strong legal framework for IPR enforcement, increasing
international cooperation, and enhancing enforcement measures. Moreover,
recently the failure of ACTA was the major reason for the dropping of criminal
sanctions from the Canada-European Free Trade agreement.
Trips plus Agenda: Elimination of TRIPS Flexibilities
Higher standards for IPR protection under the concept of TRIPS-plus have the
effect of reducing the ability of developing countries to protect the public interest. It
includes a number of initiatives including: the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade
Agreement (ACTA); Interpol's SECURE; the WHO?s IMPACT; WIPO?s ACE
discussions; and many bilateral and regional Free Trade Agreements, Investment
Treaties, and Economic Partnership Agreements. ACTA is a glaring example of
attempts by the developed countries to eliminate TRIPS flexibilities in IPR
enforcement in the developing countries.
20
To this effect, a recent study stated that ¯Reportedly overlaying U.S.-style rules over Jordan's
pharmaceutical sector negatively affects the ability of generic industries to operate, which is why many
from Jordan's generic pharmaceutical industry view the FTA as TRIPS-Minus
46
Implications for India
India produces an enormous number of generic products and is an important
provider of generic medicines to other developing countries. Due to price
differentials, Indian generic products have become particularly popular in
developing countries as a cheaper alternative to branded products; for example,
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) estimates that more than 80% of the AIDS
medicines used to treat more than 5 million people across the developing world
come from Indian companies.21 Multinational pharmaceuticals companies lobbied
against the increasing availability of generic drugs, which are marketed at much
lower prices than their products. It seems that attempts are being made to impede
India's export of generic products to other markets, particularly in the poor
developing countries.22
During 2008 and 2009, several consignments of generic drugs in-transit of Indian
companies were seized by the Dutch customs authorities on grounds of alleged IPR
violations. This caused a major concern in India because it relates to the supply of
generic drugs from India to developing countries and ties into issue of access to
medicines in these regions. Seizure of the consignment of losartan potassium in
December, 2008 was one such case of what is emerging as a clear pattern. Such
instances have caused India great concern due to their systemic and far reaching
implications. Indian government raised this issue before the WTO General
Council. It pointed out that such acts represent a distorted use of the international IP
system and circumscribe TRIPS flexibilities. In addition, this is against the spirit of
a rule based trading system and impeding free trade. Repeat of such actions may
have an impact on Indian exporters? choice of transit routes, which may affect the
economics of trade of pharmaceutical products and consequently, adversely affects
the Indian economy. Additionally, it has a deleterious effect on access to essential
drugs and public health budgets of recipient poor countries. This is further
exacerbated by the EU and Japan move to push ACTA to apply to patents according
to the law of the transit country, meaning that right holders will be able to stop
generic medicines in transition that are alleged to violation the “manufacturing
21
Abbot, Frederick (1998), 'The Enduring Enigma Of TRIPS: A Challenge for the World Economic
System' Journal of International Economic Law, vol.1(4).
Swapan K. Bhattacharya (2007), ' Harmonising patent laws with the TRIPS Agreement of WTO:
India's stride towards globalisation of intellectual properties. International Journal of Intellectual
Property Management' vol 1(3), pp. 253 – 276.
22
47
fiction” in the transit country. In effect, proposed ACTA will allow the border
detention of in-transit medicines destined for developing countries.
As explained above, proposed ACTA is a subtle and concert way of circumscribing
the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement. This also runs counter to the spirit of the
TRIPS Agreement which is a minimum standards agreement. In this regard, India's
primary concerns are based on ACTA's provisions for border measures. If the
ACTA is allowed to supersede the TRIPS standards, it would allow for the seizure
of medicines in-transit by custom authorities simply on grounds of suspicion.
Stringent nature of enforcement measures under the proposed ACTA raise the
apprehension for creating a wider scope for injunctions and damages on all IPRs,
not only on copyright and trademark violations. More importantly, the proposed
ACTA directly oppose India's position on scope of enforcement measures in the
customs dispute with the EU, a dispute which could soon land in the WTO if
resolution to instances of drug seizures by the Dutch in 2008 and 2009 are not
resolved.
Recommendations
The “Price” Solution for Better Access to Medicine
The price solution for better access to medicine, especially in developing and Least
Developed Countries, is based upon the idea of a differential pricing, depending on
the income of the country in which the patented pharmaceutical is commercialized.
Differential Pricing between Developed and Developing Countries
In developed countries with high income, consumers are indifferent to a price
change for any given pharmaceutical as long as they can afford it. However, this is
not true for all consumers since even in developed countries, incomes differ among
consumers. The demand of pharmaceuticals in developed countries is therefore
price inelastic. As to the developing countries a change on the price of a
pharmaceutical has an impact on the consumer decision to purchase a given drug.
In developing countries the demand of pharmaceuticals are price elastic. Demand
of pharmaceuticals in developing countries is price elastic since a change in a price
has an impact an effect on the demand. For expensive drugs which are needed to be
taken over a long period of time, such as AIDS cocktail drugs, consumers in
48
developing countries with low income are particularly sensitive to the price factor.
With the differential pricing solution for access to medicine, the drug would be
available at lower cost in developing countries and the pharmaceutical would still
have enough in capital return in developed countries to sustain competition and
R&D. Thus a patent-holder may rationally set prices near marginal cost in lowincome markets where demand is highly priced elastic. Therefore charging
differential pricing in developed and developing countries would ensure better
access to medicines.
Conclusion
Consequently politicisation of the IPR through criminal sanctions, inadvertently
through PAIPO(an initiative of African Union), which lacks transparency; lack of
political obligation evidently through “no response” policy adopted by the nine
countries questioned on Trans Pacific Partnership, will only lead to distress. A
collective, unbiased and ingenuous step should be taken to combat the emanating
dilemma from these FTAs.
Impact of IPR Issues in Metadata Application
in Digital Scenario
Ms. Darshana Choubey1 and Dr. Projes Roy2
Abstract
This paper discuss about the digital libraries, Intellectual Property Rights and
Metadata. In this paper we discussed about how to save digital objects using
metadata standards, mostly two standard MARC 21 and Dublin Core metadata are
used widely for digitization, there is an example of two libraries just for
understanding that which type of metadata scheme they adopt and how it works.
Once Metadata standard is determined on the digital resources, the seamless
accessibility of the resources is possible. It's led to the IPR in digital resources, if
the standard of metadata is diversified, then the accessibility will be rigid. And that
rigidness led to duplication of digital resources material. The repeated duplication
of digital material costs more time and money. So, the role of metadata in digital
materials cannot be avoided. This is the finest time when we confined the uniform
metadata application in digital resources.
Keyword: Digital library, Intellectual Property Right, Metadata, Dublin core,
MARC 21, Dspace, OAI-PMH.
Introduction
Whenever the people think about the libraries they quickly assumed the traditional
libraries of simpler times, where all the works done manually and all the services
are provided by staff is time taking. They can't even imagine the present structure of
libraries, the new technologies like RFID, Automation and Digitization of material
in libraries. The automation of libraries now becomes common in India. This is the
first step to convert the traditional libraries into modern and new libraries. Library
automation decreases the work load from the library professionals. Traditional
work techniques were very time taking for both the users and as well as for the staff.
We the library professional already knows the Dr. S.R. Ranganathan fifth law is
1
2
Professional Assistant, Central Science Library, New Delhi.
Librarian, Saheed Raj Guru College, New Delhi.
50
“Library is a growing organism.” So, the libraries are always increases in every
manner such as, in a manner of users, the reading materials, staff and furniture etc,
so this is necessary to save the space in libraries. many of the libraries now using
online journals, it saves the time of the users as well as time of the library
professional also, the space is remain save, and of course, the money also.
New and better technologies are coming day by day and with the use of those new
technologies the libraries are changing. The concept of digital libraries is arising
now. All the library reading material (Books, maps, dissertation and thesis, pictures
etc) can be digitize and preserve the materials for a long time. These digitize
material easily can be access by any one from any part of the world.
Digital library
Digital libraries has not any particular definition, the information scientist and
some library association have work on the concept of digital library and give some
definition of digital libraries such as“The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) suggests one definition of digital
libraries, consisting of the elements that have been identified as common to terms
used to describe digital libraries”.
“ Amanaged collection of information, with associated services , where the
information is stored in digital formats and accessible over a network(Arms, 2000).
According to Borgman (2000) “Digital libraries are a set of electronic resources
and associated technical capabilities for creating, searching and using
information, in this sense they are an extension and enhancement of information
storage and retrieval systems that manipulate digital data in any medium and exist
in distributed networks. The content of digital libraries includes data, metadata
that describe various aspects of the data and metadata that consist of links or
relationships to other data or metadata whether internal or external to the digital
library.
Research and development in the field of digital libraries has grown significantly
over the last decade, and a large number of operational digital libraries are now in
existence. These include hybrid libraries through which users can get access to
digital information resources alongside traditional print-based information
Impact of IPR Issues in Metadata Application in Digital Scenario
51
resources. It can access all over the world, and it can be copied without error. This is
why digital libraries are coming. They address traditional problems of finding
information of delivering it to users, and of preserving it for the future. Digital
information takes less space than paper information and thus may help libraries
reduce costs. But, more important they deliver information to the user's desk.
Digital libraries are going to change the social system by which information is
collected and transferred. A digital library is not just a collection of disk drives it
will be part of a culture.
Digital libraries also can provide enhanced search and browse features and enables
documents to downloaded or cut and pasted directly into other documents. They
can provide services to support activities such as distance education (e-learning)
and e-commerce and facilitate collaborative work among people who are
geographically scattered.
Digital library is nothing but a large collection of multimedia, data that are globally
available directly or indirectly across a network. In the digital libraries we need web
sites, search tools and the user authentication.
In India the scenario of digital libraries are different they act as hybrid libraries
where one can use the library traditionally as well as in a modern way. Mostly the
libraries in India digitize the theses and dissertations because the work is original
and there is no copyright on these dissertations, so there is always a danger of
misuse of their work., the UGC notification dated 1st June 2009 mandates
submission of electronic version of theses and dissertation by the research
universities with an aim to facilitate open access to Indian theses and dissertations
to academic community worldwide. Online availability of electronic these through
centrally maintained digital repositories, not only ensure easy access and archiving
of Indian doctoral theses but will also help in raising the standard and quality of
research. This would overcome serious problem of duplication of research and poor
quality resulting from the poor visibility and the unseen factor in research output.
As per the regulation, the responsibility of hosting, maintain and making the digital
repository of Indian Electronic Theses and Dissertation accessible to all institutions
and Universities, is assigned to the INFLIBNET center.
IGNCA Library digitized Rare Books and the retroconversion of Books, Journals,
and Manuscript is also in progress. IGNCA library digitized rare books with Dublin
52
Core till now they have done 7, 71,742 pages and upgradation of Libsys to
LSPREMIA with MARC 21, finalization of MARC 21 cataloguing formats for
Books, Journals, Manuscripts, Slides and they are converting of existing data from
AACR to MARC 21.
Digital technology has some drawbacks also like anybody can copy the material
and publish the work under his name and make several copies for their own
benefits. Anybody can copied, manipulated, disseminated the material from the
websites. So, how the creator or author trust on this technologies. The answer is
libraries/institutes/centers/museums have to adopt new techniques and methods.
We already know what intellectual property is. It is that property or material which
is related to original and real work of the author or creator.to save that original work
from other people the national and International govt. granted some laws to protect
these intellectual properties , these legal laws are said Rights of Intellectual
property . We also know that the component of IPR are copyright, Patents,
Industrial Designs, Database rights, trademarks etc.
The libraries with the collaboration of other libraries or individual library are
getting digitize their materials (Thesis and Dissertations, Books, Journals, Maps,
Pictures etc.) we can also see the digitize books through Google books. The
question is how this digits material can be saved. Yes, of course, the answer is
through metadata. We will discuss in next part about metadata and how it can be
useful to protect digitize materials.
Metadata
This is major topic in library and information science because of the digitize
collection in libraries/Museums/Institutes. This term is belongs to computer
science. Here the word “meta” means about, it is described the data of other data.
Without metadata, the collection is useless in virtual world, there is no another
method to find and identify the digital objects within the collection. It provide basis
for searching from the sites.
The most common definition of the term “metadata” is data about data, information
that describe information.
53
According to Milstead and Feldman “Metadata is the term is generally applied ti
electronic resources and refers to “data” in the broadest sense, data-sets, textual
information, graphics, music, and anything else that is likely to appear
electronically.”
There are three types of metadata Administrative, Structural and Descriptive
metadata. These divisions are given by the literature on Cultural heritage metadata.
Some experts include Technical, Preservation, Rights and Use metadata as
categories on the same level as these three.
Administrative Metadata- Provides information to help manage a resource, such
as when and how it was created, file type and other technical information, and who
can access it.
Structural Metadata- Indicates how compound objects are put together, for
example, how pages are ordered to form chapters.
Descriptive Metadata- Describes a resource for purposes such as discovery and
identification. It can include elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.
Descriptive metadata used in the libraries for the retrieval and searching of the
digitised material.
Technical Metadata- Metadata related to how a system functions or metadata
behave for example Hardware and software documentation.
Preservation Metadata-Metadata related to the preservation management of
information resources.
Rights Metadata-Which deals with intellectual property right.
Use Metadata- Metadata related to the level and type of use of information
resources for example exhibit record.
Metadata Standards/Schemes that Work for Digital Collections
There are many metadata standards/schemes which are followed by many
libraries/museums/institute. Different libraries have different types of collection,
54
so according to their collection they follow different standards, which are suitable
for their collections. The metadata standards/schemes are given below.
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Name of the Metadata Standard
DC
AACR 2
EAD
TEI
METS
MODS
LOM
AGLS
ONIX
Darwin Core
CDWA LITE
CIDOC CRM
QDC
MARC/MARC 21
MARCXML
NISO Metadata for Images (MIX)
MPEG Multimedia Metadata
GILS
GEM
OAI-PMH
MARC 21 and Dublin core metadata standards/schemes are mostly adopted by the
libraries/museums/institutions. Here we will discuss about these two.
Marc 21
Machine Readable Catalogue is MARC. It is designed by the Library of congress
for the libraries so that they convert library catalogue into digitize format. MARC
21 is the new name of CAN/MARC and USMARC. The MARC 21 formats are
standards for the representation and communication of bibliographic and related
information in machine-readable form.
The record, Data content and the context designation are three types of MARC 21
elements. The content of most data elements is defined be standards outside the
formats e.g. Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Library of congress subject
headings, and National library of Medicine classification. There are some
MARC21 tags given below which are used by libraries.
55
Variable fields of MARC21
S.No.
Name of the field
MARC21 Tags
1.
Main Entry Personal Name
100
2.
Title /Statement of responsibility
245
3.
Varying form of Title
246
4.
Imprint Statement
260
5.
Collation
300
6.
Physical Medium
340
7.
Formatted control
505
8.
Note Sec(Summ)
533
9.
Note Sec
544
10.
Note Sec (language)
546
11.
Added Entries (Personal)
700
12.
Subject-added entries (Uniform
title)
630
13.
E-Sources
856
14.
MSS Accession No.
901
15.
Commentary
905
16.
Pub Detail
906
17.
Digitization
907
There is an example of MARC21 ,this is the example from the IGNCA library , they
convert their record using MARC 21. They used some identical and some different
MARC tags for monographs and manuscripts.
56
The MARC 21 tags used for the Manuscripts
S.No.
Name of the field
MARC21 tags
1.
Main entry-Personal name
100
2.
Title/Statement of responsibility
245
3.
Varying form of title
246
4.
Imprint Statement
260
5.
Collation
300
6.
Formatted Control
505
7.
Not Sec-Reproduction notes
533
8.
Not Sec-Language
546
9.
Sub-Added Entries (Uniform
title)
630
10. MSS-Accession no.
901
11. Commentary
905
12. Pub details
906
The MARC 21 tags used for the Monographs
Name of the field
MARC
21 tags
1.
ISBN
020-R
2.
Language
041
3.
DDC No.
082
4.
Main Entry-Personal name
100
5.
Uniform title
130
6.
Title/Statement of responsibility
245
7.
Varying form of title
246
8.
Edition Statement
250
9.
Imprint statement
260
S.No.
57
10. Collation
300
11. Series statement(uncontrolled)
490
12. Note Section
500
13. Note Section-Bibliography
504
14. Note Section-Content
505
15. Note Section(Sumn)
520
16. Note Section-Reproduction note
533
17. Note Sec-Language
546
18. Subject Added Entries (personal names)
600
19. Subject Added Entries (Corporate Name)
610
20. Subject Added Entries (Conference Name)
611
21. Subject Added Entries (Uniform titles)
630
22. Subject Added Topical Entries
650
23. Subject Added Entry
751
24. Added Entries Personal
700
25. Added Entries Corporate
710
26. Added Entries Conference
711
27. Uniform Titles Conference
730
28. Analytical Entries
740
29. Alternate Title
904
When we compare both the tables we see that there are some MARC 21 tags,
which are used in both commonly.
58
Catalogue Record with MARC 21
Catalogue Format
Catalogue Format
59
Variable field of MARC21
Variable Field of MARC21
Above are the examples of MARC 21 variables which are used by IGNCA library
for their digitized catalogue records.
Dublin Core
Dublin core Metadata Element set is a standard metadata schema for describing
electronic records, documents and web resources. Librarians have influences on its
initial structure most efficiently. Dublin Core is a metadata schema that arose from
an invitational workshop sponsored by the online computer library centre (OCLC)
in 1995. “Dublin refers it the location of this original meeting in Dublin, Ohio and
60
“Core” refers to that fact DC is set of metadata elements that are basic, but
expandable. DC draws upon concepts from many disciplines, including
librarianship, computer science and archive preservation. The standards and
definitions of the Dublin Core Metadata initiative with an eye interoperability.
Dublin core is a set of fifteen basic elements plus three additional elements. All
elements are both optional and repeatable. The basic Dublin Core Elements are
mentioned below, all the 15 elements of Dublin Core Categorized into Three parts
such as Content, Intellectual Property, Instantiation
Elements of DC
Content
Intellectual Property
Instantiation
Coverage
Contributor
Date
Description
Creator
Format
Type
Publisher
Identifier
Relation
Rights
Language
Source
Subject
Title
The additional Dublin Core Elements are
1. Audience
2. Provenance
3. Right holder
The INFLIBNET center digitized the universities' thesis and dissertations through
Dspace.Shodhganga is the name coined to denote digital repository of Indian
electronic thesis and dissertations set up by INFLIBNET center. Here the technical
term comes Dspace. Firstly, we understand about Dspace. Dspace is an open source
repository adopted by many institutions, Universities and museums. It is free and
easy to use that any organization can adopt it quickly and make their own digital
repository.Dspace uses internationally recognized interoperability standard,
interoperability means working together of any organization and systems, in a
manner of sharing and exchanging of data conveniently. Dspace supports “Open
61
Archive Initiative's protocol for metadata harvesting (OAI-PMH)”and uses
qualified version of Dublin core metadata standard. About the Open Archive
Initiative's protocol for metadata harvesting (OAI-PMH) standard we will discuss
in next section.
Open Archive Initiative's Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH)
The open archive initiative is an initiative to develop and promote interoperability
standards to facilitate the dissemination of web accessible content through
interoperable repositories for metadata sharing (website, http://www.
openarchives.org/). It developed because of the easy access of electronicresources
from the websites by the users.The OAI-PMH is based on client – server type
architecture. There are two categories one is “data providers”, they are the owners
of the digital resources and creators of the original metadata for these resources and
“service providers” collect metadata from multiple data providers and create valueadded services.
Here are some examplesRecord of electronic thesis(INFLIBNET @ Shodhganga)
62
Record of Electronic Thesis (INFLIBNET @ Shodhganga)
Metadata Fields Using Dublin Core
Conclusion
Here we see that the using the metadata standards, how can the organization save
and preserve their material.IGNCA Digital library provides web based mechanism
to deposit and access the same to the user community on to their desktop through
Intranet. It has already digitized about half of non-print material i.eone lacs slides
and nine thousand microfilms, audio-video and IGNCA publications.
63
IGNCA used MARC21 and Dublin core Metadata standards and for the digitization
of monographs, manuscripts, slides, rare books collection they put great efforts for
digitizing their library and INFLIBNET Centre @ Shodhganga used Dublin core
metadata standards for the digitization of thesis and dissertations.
MARC21 and Dublin core are advance and useful standards for the digitization of
any library. They will be very effective in metadata creation for non-print material
such as slides, glass plates, photographs, mask, art objects and upload audio-video
material.
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Intellectual Property Right Issues with
Special Reference to Indian Institutional
Repositories: A Study
Kankana Baishya1
Abstract
Background of the Problem: In accordance with the Open Access Scholarly
Information Sourcebook, repositories form a permanent and critically important
part of the scholarly communication process. In the face of web revolution, patron
expectation, information explosion, rising cost of scholarly publications, poor
budget and restricted access to information, libraries are imposed to have a sound
and depth archive of scholarly contents with a wider accessibility over the web.
While exploring more possibilities in IR some IPR related problems have been
identified during the tenure of the study. Sometimes researchers and authors are
reluctant to deposit their scholarly contents into the IR due to the fear of losing their
Intellectual Property right. Lack of understanding the benefits of IRs pulls
researchers back in doing so. Library officers are in the best position to interpret
legal issues of IR as IRs are hosted basically in libraries. Librarians are the main
stakeholders to make the authors, administrators and users better understand the
IPR issues related to IRs.
Keyword: Institutional Repository, self-archiving, Intellectual Property right,
License, Policy, SHERPA
Purpose of the Study: The study intends to find out the legal issues related to IRs,
the protocols to be employed while implementing IRs and to reveal the state of the
art of IPR issues in Indian IRs.
Methodology: To yield the purpose of the study mixed methodologies are being
carried out simultaneously. Firstly an attempt is made to find out the existence of
IRs in India. A comprehensive survey has been conducted over Directory of Open
Access Repository (DOAR), Registry of Open Access Repository (ROAR),
1
Assistant Librarian, National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam, Email:
baishya.kankana@gmail.com
Intellectual Property Right Issues with Special Reference
to Indian Institutional Repositories: A Study
67
Repository 66.org, and Web of Repository (http://repositories.webometrics.info/).
The existing directories may miss some of the repositories in their listings. So, a
discussion was also posted in the LIS Links (www.lislinks.com) to have public
input. Internet surfing is also done to get more links of IRs. After listing the valid
IRs in India their websites are thoroughly reviewed to get the available information
on the legal and copyright issues.
Findings: IRs can be the most effective platform to get the rapid impact on
someone's research output if the Policies and mandates are defined properly
Significance: The study depicts the scenario of IR with special insight of IPR
issues and fosters the standard of IR implementation in India.
Citation Style: American Psychological Association (APA)
Type of work: The online survey is purely primary source of information
Introduction
'Institutional repository' (IR) can be considered as the most innovative and creative
representation of Library and Information Centre through which an academic and
research institute showcases and shares its digital outputs. According to Ginsparg
(2000) “IR is the will to create a network of collections which represent the best
output of different institution in a distributed model.” Hence, in a nut shell a digital
IR is described as the concept of capturing, managing and disseminating openly
(but not necessarily free) all the digital information or knowledge assets i.e.
scholarly work of students, faculty members or staffs, administrative reports,
institute's publication, external works done on the institute, proceedings of seminar,
conference and meetings of the institute to end users both within and outside of the
institution. The paper intends to discuss how librarian and repository managers
handle the challenge of copyright issue while running an IR.
Scholarly Content Coverage of an IR
The continuum of the contents in IR varies depending upon the institutes and its
content contributors. An IR may consist of an institute's learning materials
including, classroom teaching materials, technical reports, computer programmes,
study materials, assignments, lectures, audio-visuals and multimedia presentation,
68
research materials including research products such as research paper or pre
publication drafts either post publication version and research data. Other types of
research materials include journal articles, book chapters, conference papers,
preprints, working papers, thesis/dissertations, progress/status reports, project
reports.
Benefits for Author/Researchers
IRs can be considered as a central archive of a researcher's work, the pride and
prestige of the institute they belong. The more benefits of depositing contents into
IRs are furnished below,
a) Immediate Awareness and Impact of Research: Enhance rapid
communication of individual's research. Researcher can post prepublication before the article is published. This increases the chance of
getting it cited immediately. Harvesters bring users to the publications and
therefore, publications in IR immediately get cited/identified in global
indexing and search services
b) Greater Citation Impact: Increase citation rate of the publications.
Surveys have indicated that the open online access to the literature over
Internet have appreciably higher citation rates than traditionally
published articles. (Steve Lawrence. 2001. "Online or invisible?" Nature
411 (6837):521. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/debates/eaccess/Articles/lawrence.html)
c) Useful in Claiming IPR: Establish priority to Intellectual Property Right
for researcher's scholarly work by allocating identifier.
d) Self-Archive: Due to lack of time researchers sometimes fail to get
deserving value and exposure of their research work. IR can be considered
as a mean for the long term security and accessibility of the scholarly
works.
e) Challenges to Publishers: IR is a challenge for publisher's monopoly and
thus protects authors from copyright.
f) Decreased Potential Plagiarism: Anti plagiarism softwares can trace all
the contents available in web and therefore uploading scholarly work in an
IR can decrease the potential plagiarism
69
Intellectual Property Right (IPR) and Author's Concern
Intellectual Property Right is the core issue which should be taken into
consideration while introducing an IR in a university or institute. Intellectual
property is divided into two branches namely industrial property and copyright.
Industrial property rights are the rights in patents, trademarks, trade names and
industrial designs and copy right is the right to protect intangible property i.e
intellectual creativity in literature, arts and music. Property Rights generally covers
the right over work produced and distributed both online and print version.
Sometimes IPR becomes barrier or obstacle for IRs as because authors are
concerned that they may be violating copyright agreement they have signed with
their publishers (Mark and Shearer, 2006) and as such do not have the right to
deposit in IR. Prior to the publication of journal articles, authors require to sign
copyright agreement which may vary publisher to publisher. Many publishers
permit author to make their preprints, final proof version and raw pdf version
available in an IR. Some publishers allow authors to make copies of their
publications available on a personal web site, but not in an institutional repository.
Some publishers instead ask authors to sign a non-exclusive license to allow
authors to retain copyright for self-archiving. Authors need to check out in the
agreement whether or not he is permitted to deposit his contents in a repository. If
agreement is not available, the invaluable SHERPA/RoMEO site should be
referred to find out the publisher's self- archiving policy. In case of self-archiving
book chapters, conference papers and other publication holding copyright the
concerned publishers can be contacted directly. It is important to focus that open
access is free from copyright and not impaired by author's exploitation right.
However, it is the author's decision to also make their work available for
commercial exploitation through contractual agreement (Kuhlen, 2008)
SHERPA/RoMEO-Publisher copyright policies & self-archiving
(http://www.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo.php): Provides a listing of publishers'
copyright conditions as they relate to authors archiving their work on-line.
ROMEO
Colour
Green
Publisher's Archiving policy
Publisher
(%)
34
Yellow
Can archive pre-print and post-print or
publisher's version/PDF
Can archive post-print (ie final draft postrefereeing) or publisher's version/PDF
Can archive pre-print (ie pre-refereeing)
White
Archiving not formally supported
25
Blue
34
7
Table 1 RoMEO Colours and Publisher's
70
Archiving Policies Diagram 1 RoMEO Colours and Publisher's Archiving
Policies
RoMEO is a searchable database of publisher's policies regarding the selfarchiving of journal articles on the web and in Open Access repositories, run by
SHERPA Services, at the Centre for Research Communications, University of
Nottingham. RoMEO contains publishers' general policies on self-archiving of
journal articles and certain conference series. Each entry provides a summary of the
publisher's policy, including what version of an article can be deposited, where it
can be deposited, and any conditions that are attached to that deposit. RoMEO's
own database covers over 22,000 journals. RoMEO also searches the Zetoc, DOAJ,
and Entrez databases for additional journals. RoMEO does not provide selfarchiving information on books, monographs, theses or conference papers,
however, some series titles may be covered. RoMEO lists total 1766 publishers all
over the world.
Role of Institutional Repository Manager in Relation to IPR Issues
Understanding copyright issues is a key to building a successful institutional
repository. The repository managers are usually the persons who should be
basically concerned and interpret copyright, digital right management and IPR
related issues. Institutional repository officers can deal with copyright issues by
focusing on various factors as furnished below,
Developing Repository Policies
The LEADIRS Workbook of MIT Libraries and OpenDOAR registry have defined
some policies to assist the repository administrators for formulating their own
repository policies. Following points can be highlighted out of those above
mentioned ready reference policies,
•
Content and Collection Policy: Includes how to organize collection, types,
format and forms of contents, type of content contributors, type of work
whether academic or research oriented and quality
•
Intellectual Property Right: LEADIRS Workbook of MIT Libraries states
the probable questions for IR managers framing the IPR policy eg. Must
content submitters own copyright for submitted content? What policies do
you need for author permissions and licensing terms? Do you require
71
copyright transfer for submitted items, or do you want only a non-exclusive
right to distribute the work? Who is responsible for ensuring compliance
with publisher copyright issues? At your university, who holds the
intellectual property rights for faculty research, course materials, etc.?What
are your existing intellectual property rights agreements with faculty? Who
owns the copyright to theses at your university?
•
Data Policy - For full-text and other full data items, access to full items, reuse of full items
•
Submission Policy: Eligible depositors, deposition rules, moderation,
content quality control, publishers' and funders' embargos
•
Preservation Policy: Retention period, functional preservation, file
preservation, withdrawal policy, withdrawn items, version control, closure
policy
Content Licensing
Barton and Waters (2004) suggested two kinds of licences: Deposit licence (An
agreement between the creator/copyright holder and the institution giving the
repository the right to distribute and preserve the work) and Distribution licence
(An agreement between the author/ creator or copyright holder and the end user
governing the uses that can be made of the work).
Creative Commons (https://creativecommons.org)
The initial set of Creative Commons licenses was published on December 16, 2002.
These licenses, depending on the one chosen, restrict only certain rights (or none)
of the work instead of traditional copyright, which is more restrictive. Many of the
licenses, notably all the original licenses, grant certain “baseline rights”, such as the
right to distribute the copyrighted work without changes, at no charge. Some of the
newer licenses do not grant these rights. As of February 2008, there are 43
jurisdiction-specific licenses, with 9 other jurisdictions in drafting process with
more countries joining the project. All Creative Commons licenses are free content
as defined in the above. Attribution (by), Non-Commercial (nc), No Derivative
Works or No Derivs(nd), Share Alike (sa), Sampling Plus and Noncommercial
Sampling Plus are the set of the original licenses hold by the Creative Common
Licenses.
72
Other Policy Makers
The other international policy makers like Copyright Clearance Centre
(http://www.copyright.com), Copyright Licensing Agency (http://www.cla.co.uk)
etc should also be consulted in preparing a repository. In case of Indian repositories
Indian Copyright (http://copyright.gov.in) policies should be kept in consideration.
Uploading IPR related information in an Institutional Repository webpage
The institutional repository website should provide all the following information
that may be required by depositors and users
•
Explanation of Open Access and Self-Archiving: A section of the
webpage should contain Open Access introductory page enabling researcher
to learn about self- archiving.
•
Disclaimer: This section might cover what they are permitted to do with the
content they find there. If there are any restrictions on re-use these should be
stated clearly.
•
Detailed Policy Information: All the policies (metadata, data, preservation,
privacy, metadata etc) should be clearly and thoroughly mentioned in the
repository site.
•
Copyright Information: This section may be the place to provide clear
information about author rights and how to retain the rights needed to ensure
that self-archiving and re-use of work is unhindered by publisher copyright.
A link to one (or a choice) of the available author addenda is also useful here,
along with an explanation of how they can be used by authors seeking to
retain the rights they need to provide Open Access for their work.
IPR issues in Indian Institutional repositories: A Study
On the basis of an online survey done in the month of December, 2014 a list of 54
institutional repositories has been prepared. (see table 1). Although altogether 83
IRs are collated from various IR sources, after proper verification of the urls, only
54 IR links are found valid.
Surprisingly some of the popular IR links are not functioning properly during the
survey period might be due to the down servers, reconstruction of webpages or
other reasons e.g Repository of Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology,
73
Bhagirathi of IIM, Madras and Egyankosh of IGNOU, National Centre for Radio
Astrophysics (rank holder in web of science), National Chemical Laboratory, Pune,
OpenMED@NIC (rank holder in web of Science), National Institute of
Immunology, Physical Research Laboratory, Sarder Vallav Vai National Institute of
Technology, Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara College of Engineering and
Technology, Vidya Prasarak Mandal repository etc.
Basic Information on Indian IRs
From Table 3 it is seen that out of 54 IRs, 1 IRs is of arts subject, 14 IRs are of
general subjects, 2 are from management Institute and another IR is of Information
Science subjects. Rest of the 36 IRs are of Science subjects. Again the list displays
top 4 states holding highest IRs and Karnataka state holds the 1st rank with 13 no's of
IRs.
Category
Indicators
Arts
*Location
Subject
General
Information Science
Management
Total No. of IRs
1
14
1
2
Science
36
Karnataka
13
Delhi
6
Gujarat
6
Kerala
6
74
(*Location displays holding highest nos of IRs ) Table 3 Summery of the Basic
Information of IRS Availability of IPR Information in IR Sites: Findings on
availability of IPR issues in Indian IRs have been showed by following tabular and
diagrammatic representation,
IPR Information
Not Available
Available
SHERPA/RoMEO
CC-BY-NC-SA
Number of
Repository
33
7
11
3
Percentage
(%)
61
13
20
6
Table 4: Availability of IPR Information in IRs Diagram 2: Availability of IPR
Information in IRs
From the above statistics in table 4 can be understood that majority of the IRs don't
much concerned about IPR issues which are to consider on priority basis while
planning a IR. The diagram shows that 61 % IR websites don't provide any IPR
information, 13% IRs are having their own IPR information, 20% IRs directly refer
to the SHERPA/RoMEO publishers policy and only few IRs i.e 6% are holding
Creative Common By Attribute Non Commercial Share Alike License.
Availability of policy information in IRs
There are 13 IRs sharing Disclaimer statement. Detail policies including data,
metadata, contents and preservation have been set up by 20 IRs and 25 IRs has
defined deposit policies or submission guidelines for
Policy Information
Available Not
Available
Disclaimer/policy Statement
13
24
Detailed Policy Information
20
37
Deposit Policy
25
46
Table 5: Availability of Policy information in IRs Diagram 3: Availability of Policy information in IRs
content contributors. The statistics reveals that IRs in India denotes less importance
in policy making and IPR issues. Different categories of content contributors have
come into the picture from the list. Highest 40 no. of IRs restrict submission of the
contents to their own community only. Some IRs are open to all, some are open only
for the renowned university authors, some are limited to their own publication
whereas some don't have any information about their content contributors.
75
Conclusion and suggestion
IR managers/Librarian can directly contact publishers for permission to deposit
published materials in the IR, to fill in information gaps. Publishers should be using
a standardized permission letter. IR managers should ensure that submission does
not infringe upon anyone's copyright or other intellectual property rights. Authors
can choice his own option prior to any publication i.e. retain all rights and license
publication, transfer his copyright, but retain some specified rights, transfer all
copyrights to the publisher
Librarian as a host of IR, should himself first learn copyright issues so that he can
clearly define the legal obligations in content submissions. Copyright are meant to
protect the author's scholarship but in some way it has impaired the author's right.
Therefore, it is the need of the hour to promote open access enabling to minimize
the restriction on author's own right.
Reference
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Watterworth, Melissa(2009). Planting Seeds for a Successful Institutional
Repository: Role of the Archivist as Manager, Designer, and Policymaker.
Journal of Archival Organization, 7(1/2), 24-32.
Li, Chenying & et al (2011, August). Building a sustainable institutional
repository. D-Lib Magazine, 17 (7/8). doi:10.1045/july2011-chenying
Manjunatha, K & Thandavamoorthy, K(2011, June). A study on researchers
attitude towards depositing in institutional repositories of universities in
Karnataka (India). International Journal of Library and Information Science,
3 (6), 107-115. Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/ijlis.
Barton, M. & Waters, Margaret, M(2004). Learning About Digital
Institutional Repositories Creating an Institutional Repository: LEADIRS
Workbook, 93-115. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Retrieved December, 2014 from https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/
1721.1/26698/Barton_2004_Creating.pdf?sequence=1
S. Shashi Nath, S, B, Sidhara, Joshi, C.M & et al(September, 2008).
Intellectual Property Rights: Issues for Creation of Institutional
Repository. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology,
28(5), 49-55. Retrieved December, 2014. doi: 10.14429/djlit.28.5.216
John-Okeke, Rita(2008). Developing Institutional Repositories: Considering
Copyright Issues. Journal of Applied Information Science and Technology, 2,
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11-18. Retrieved December. 2014 from http://www.jaistonline.org/Johnokeke_2k08.pdf
Cornell University ILR School, Martin P. Catherwood Library(2006). Faculty
Copyright Information - Encouraging Retention of Intellectual Property
Rights. Research on Institutional Repositories: Articles and Presentations.
Retrieved December, 2014 from http://digitalcommons.bepress.com/
repository-research/13
Mark, T. & Shearer, K. (2006). IRs: a review of content recruitment
strategies. World library and Information Congress, 72nd IFLA
GeneralConference and Council.,
Development and Analysis of Intellectual
Property Rights Using Emerging Technologies
in the Digital Age
Mr. Shyam Bihari Gupta1 and Ms. Gunjan Gupta2
Abstract
The intellectual property right and copyright cover printed matter, patents,
industrial design, trademarks, trade secrets etc. right associated with intellectual
property which gives legal protection is referred to as IPR. Paper also deal with an
intellectual property can be either artistic or commercial. The artistic works come
under the category of copyright laws, patents, trademarks, industrial design rights,
and trade secrets. Paper describe about nature & importance of IPR. Analyses
different aspects of IPR. IPR and its issues in digital era. Concludes with the
suggestion that library and information professionals have an obligatory role to
play in making aware their users about IPR.
Keywords: IPR, Copyright, Trade Marks, Patent, WSIS
Introduction
The intellectual property rights covers almost all walks of life such as agriculture,
biotechnology, industries and library sciences while the copyright mainly relates to
authors, publishers, librarians etc. The intellectual property right and copyright
cover printed matter, patents, industrial design, trademarks, trade secrets etc. right
associated with intellectual property which gives legal protection is referred to as
IPR. After the advent of printing and multimedia technology for storage and
communication, the concept of IPR/copyright has changed and become more
complex and important.
Librarians and information scientists are deeply concerned with IPR/copyright
issue as it has direct impact on their work and services such as acquisition, storage,
1
Library & Information Assistant, Intellectual Property Office, Patent Office, Ministry of Commerce
& Industry, Sector-14, Dwarka, New Delhi- 110078, Email: sbiharigupta@gmail.com
2
Assistant Librarian, Ram-Eesh Institute of Education, Greater Noida, U.P,
Email: guptagunjan404@gmail.com
78
and dissemination of information. In the recent past, the issues concerning
intellectual property right (IPR) have been debated in various meetings, seminars,
conferences and forums all over the world. In today's post information age, which
has been labeled as knowledge society, issues such as generation, valuation,
protection and exploitation of intellectual property (IP) are becoming more and
more critically important around this global village. Many countries of the world
have initiated measures to strengthen and restructure intellectual property regime
as a result of commitments made under trips by establishing intellectual property
cells to provide relevant information about IPR.
India has also initiated concerted efforts to provide IPR information at the national
level to a large section of the society participating in many bilateral arrangements or
multilateral international treaties and conventions concerning IPR.
Intellectual Property Right
The word 'property' is derived from the Latin word 'proprio' which means 'one's
own' i.e., essence of property is ownership. Intellectual Property Rights can
generally be defined as the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds.
Intellectual property rights as a collective term includes the following independent
IP rights which can be collectively used for protecting different aspects of an
inventive work for multiple protections intellectual property is unique, as it is the
fruit of personal creation and inventiveness. In the future, intellectual property
creators aim to deliver more abundant food resources, clean energy and cures for
illnesses from cancer to the common cold. The brain of human is very inventive and
is never taking rest. It continuously creates intellectual output in the form of new
designs, inventions, trademarks and other new-fangled things etc. property can be
of intangible which include intellectual property, securities, right to individual
reputation, etc. IPR is the creation of human mind. Potential efforts of human
beings lead to intellectual outcomes which in turn have considerable value in
economy. Right associated with intellectual property which gives protection is
referred to as IPR. IPR usually protects ideas or information of commercial value,
playing a crucial role in the information market. As mentioned earlier, the creators
or owners are granted certain exclusive rights over their creations or works. Such
exclusive rights are called intellectual property rights. These rights help them
benefit from their creations and also enable them to protect their work. In that way,
intellectual property is like any other real property which is financially beneficial
for the owner. The monetary benefits are said to encourage people to come up with
Development and Analysis of Intellectual Property Rights
Using Emerging Technologies in the Digital Age
79
new inventions and creations. Intellectual property rights also enable the owners or
creators to protect their work. These rights can be related to article 27 of the
universal declaration of human rights. According to this statute, "everyone has the
right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any
scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author". So, owners of
intellectual property can benefit through protection of the moral and material
interests of their creations. The term intellectual property encompasses various
types of creations of mind, like inventions. An intellectual property could be
anything like a music composition, a movie, book, painting or even a brand name.
According to the concept of intellectual property, such creations of mind are
intangible or non-monetary assets with commercial value. The owners of such nonmonetary assets (creations of mind) are assigned some exclusive rights over their
creation, so that they benefit financially. However, it is not possible to recover or
replace an intellectual property that is stolen. If stolen, the interests of the owner,
over his/her creation will get affected. So, there must be laws to protect the moral as
well as material interests of the owner over his/her intellectual property. IP law
deals with the rights assigned to owners of intellectual property.
Types of Intellectual Property Rights
Copyrights
A copyright is a right conferred on the owner of a literary or artistic work. It is an
exclusive right to control the publication, distribution and adaptation of creative
works. The right lies with the owner-cum-copyright holder for a certain period. As
the time lapses, the work can be republished or reproduced by others. usually, in
most countries the time span of a copyright extends through the entire life of the
owner and lasts up to a period of about 50 to100 (70 years in the u.s.) years after
his/her death. In case of anonymous works, the right lasts for 95 years from the date
of first publication or 120 years from the date of creation. Copyright stands for legal
right to prevent others from copying an existing work of an individual. It is such a
right exclusively given for a definite period of time to the originator (author or
creator) of intellectual work such as publication, or an article or a literary work for
sale or any other use. USA has enacted copyright law where the work of the author
does meet following three requirements.
1. The work must be original and not copied from other's work.
2. The work must be in a “tangible” form that is, either written down or record
on tape, videotape disk, CD and so on. The spoken word is no ©
80
3.
The work must be more than just on idea: an idea is not copyrightable although
a particular expression of idea is. In India, during the period of east India
Company, the copyright act 1847 was enacted. The copyright act 1847 was
followed by Indian copyright act 1914, which was influenced by British
copyright act. After independence, comprehensive copyright act was enacted
in India in 1957. The term of “copyright” holds to a period 25 years after
author's death. The Indian copyright act 1957 was amended in 1983, 1984,
1994, 1999, 2010 & 2012 some of the following amendments were
incorporated:
1. Increased term of copyright of performers from 25 to 50 years.
2. Amendment definition of literary works.
3. Meaning of copyright in respect of computer programs.
4. New provisions pertaining to power of govt. of India to apply the
provision relating to broadcasting organization and performers of
broadcasting organization.
Trademarks
A trademark is a symbol generally used to identify a particular product, which
indicates its source. A trademark can be a combination of words, phrases, symbols,
logos, designs, images, or devices, used by an individual, legal entity or business
organization to distinguish their products from others. A trademark may be
designated by the following symbols:
§
™ (for an unregistered trade mark, that is, a mark used to promote or brand
goods)?
§
(for an unregistered service mark, that is, a mark used to promote or brand
§
services)
§
® (for a registered trademark)
Once registered, trademarks are protected legally and the owners can sue persons
for unauthorized use of their trademarks.
Patents
Patents are rights related to new inventions. Such rights are conferred on persons
who invent any new machine, process, article of manufacture or composition of
matter and biological discoveries. In order to be patented, the invention should fit
into specific criteria, which may differ from country to country. In general, the
invention must be new and should be useful or can be applied in industries. The
person who receives a patent for his invention has an exclusive right to prevent
81
others from making, using, selling or distributing the patented invention without
permission. Generally, the time limit of a patent is 20 years from the date of filing
the application (for the patent).
The Importance of Intellectual Property
Almost everyone in society is a user and potential creator of intellectual property.
Its protection, through a system of national and international rules called
intellectual property rights, is necessary to provide incentives and financing for
innovation and creation, which in turn lead to economic, cultural and social
progress. Intellectual property rights add value for consumers and can provide a
guarantee of source and quality. intellectual property protection contributes to
economic growth in both developed and developing countries by stimulating
innovation, cultural diversity and technical development as part of a larger policy
framework unless governments, businesses and citizens make a coordinated effort
to uphold the intellectual property system, society will not reap its benefits.
Protection of IP
Society provides legal rights over intellectual property to encourage the production
of inventions and creative works that benefit society and to help innovators and
creators make a living from their work. It is essential to protect ip so that nobody
else can enjoy the fruits of other's efforts. The IP of a person can best be protected if
he keeps it out of the eyes and knowledge of the world. Intellectual Property Rights
are granted under the national laws of each country or region. In addition, various
international agreements on Intellectual Property Rights harmonize laws and
procedure, or allow Intellectual Property Rights to be registered at the same time in
several countries. Different types of IP – literary and artistic creations, inventions,
brand names, and designs, to name a few – are protected in different ways The
world summit on information society (WSIS) held in Geneva in December 2003
also reaffirmed that the protection of IPR is important to encourage innovation and
creativity in the information society.
IPR & Copyright in Libraries
IPR & copy right also impact libraries. Libraries are authorized to exercise special
rights in addition to fair use. Some of these are: 1) Archiving lost, stolen, damaged
or deteriorating works. 2) Making copies for library patrons. 3) Making copies for
82
other libraries patrons (inter-library loan). Now, all the libraries are providing
reprographic service to their users, especially academic, research and special
libraries. Sometime the photocopying is done not for the readers but for library
itself for fulfill the additional requirement of the library. If the books are not
available in India, would not be infringement; this protection is available for public
library librarians only. S.R. Rangnathan's laws are (books are for use, books are for
all, all books have its readers) in total contravention. A library is a place where there
should be free transfer of information and knowledge should be meant for learning
not for selling/buying purpose. But the copyright law has put these fundamental
principles of library in doubt. section 52 (a) provides a fair dealing with a literary
dramatic, musical or artistic work not being a computer program for the purpose of,
1) private use including research, 2) criticism of review but the act has not defined
the fair dealing. in the new digital era, the libraries and readers have been enjoying
with the recent technology but they have positively understand the concept of IPR
and information officers should keep themselves up to date about the IPR &
copyright act.
Conclusion
Intellectual property right in Indian scenario is less known by the people due to
extreme illiteracy in context to patent system, copyright etc .it is our duty to know
about these laws and govt. should organize such programs from time to time to
familiar the people. In India the software companies are not taking much interest to
spend the money on security option. Librarians play an important role in protecting
the rights of copyright holders, patent holders, trademarks, industrial design etc.
The librarians and information officer should keep themselves aware with latest
changes in the intellectual property right and information technology act and their
implementation. It is an obligation of the librarian to keep the user aware about
copyright. Library science curriculum should include the IPR related issues. All
these steps will be helpful to the society to protect infringement and cyber crimes.
Protection of IP resulting from exercise of human intellect has been in existence
since a long time, with the Vienna international exhibition on invention in 1873.
Since then there has been an important landmark in the IPR scenario. It is essential
to know about the laws, rules and regulations under IPR. Governments of different
countries have taken up various strategies to make their citizens aware of it.
83
References
1.
Upadhyay, Padama. Intellectual Property Right in the digital age. NACLIN
22-25th 2000. IIT Chennai. P. 260-266
2. Cambridge International Dictionary of English, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1996 P.305
3. Reader's Digest Great Dictionary of the English language, London, Reader's
Digest Association Ltd., 2001 P. 207
4. Greenlan, Raymond and Hepp, Ellen. Inline/Online fundamentals of the
Internet and the World Wide Web. New Delhi, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2002. P. 386.
5. Rajneesh De. Is India's IT act good enough in Express Computer, Aug. 20,
2001.
6. Moorthy, A. Lakshamana and Karisiddappa C.R. Electronic publishing:
impact and implications on library and information centre in Digital Libraries
edited by Malwod, N.M. New Delhi, New Age, 1996
7. Chatwal, Gagan (ed.) Dictionary of computers & Internet. Mumbai, Himalaya,
2000. P. 68.
8. Wehmeir, Sally (ed.) Oxford Advance learner's Dictionary of current English.
Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press, 2000. P. 312.
9. Suri, R.K. Diwan, Parag and Kapoor, Shammi. IT Encyclopedia: V. 9.
Information technology law. 2nd Ed. New Delhi, Pentagon Press, 2002. P. 327.
10. Ahuja, Ashish A. Chaining the Unchained books: copyright as an infringement
on the philosophy of the library science. DESIDOC Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 6
Nov. 1996. PP. 5- 10
11. Deming Zhou, Chinese copyright protection system and the challenges of
digital technology. ibid pp iv – 45-50. (9 refs).
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark
A Robust, Realistic and Rigorous Action Plan for
Ensuring Adequate Protection of
Traditional Knowledge
Rahul Bajaj1
Abstract
Indigenous communities form an indispensable component of our social ethos and
epitomize the pluralistic values that the Indian state espouses. Their artistic
creations help in the preservation and promotion of India's cultural vitality and
form the basis of their distinct social identity. Therefore, any improper
appropriation of such creations amounts to a direct attack on the specificity and
integrity of these communities. The special features and idiosyncrasies of
traditional knowledge (“TK”) necessitate the institutionalization of a sui generis
framework for its protection. This essay, which is divided into 3 sections, delineates
a cogent and comprehensive action plan for effectuating the twin goals of
adequately protecting TK while ensuring the widespread dissemination of such
knowledge for the growth of our knowledge economy. The first section analyzes
pertinent provisions and initiatives pertaining to the preservation of TK that fall
within the ambit of the existing intellectual property regime. It brings to light the
inadequacy of the existing system by highlighting its main flaws. The second
section sets out 5 foundational principles that would form the pillars upon which
the edifice of this action plan would rest. The third section expatiates upon the
modalities of a sui generis framework for the protection of TK and succinctly
discusses the methodologies that can be adopted for reconciling competing
interests.
Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Indigenous Cultural Intellectual Property
(ICIP), Indian Patents Act, Local Development, Kerala Policy for Protecting
Traditional Knowledge, Sui Generis System.
1
Dr. Ambedkar College of Law, Nagpur, rahul.bajaj1038@gmail.com
A Robust, Realistic and Rigorous Action Plan for Ensuring
Adequate Protection of Traditional Knowledge
85
Introduction
A Brief Overview of the Existing Legal Framework to Safeguard Traditional
Knowledge
Broadly speaking, TK is viewed as a subset of heritage that includes “traditionbased literary, artistic or scientific works; performances; inventions; scientific
discoveries; designs; marks, names and symbols; undisclosed information and all
other tradition-based innovations and creations resulting from intellectual activity
in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.”2 In other words, TK results
from a large array of intellectual pursuits in scientific, social, environmental and
technological contexts. Common examples of TK include use of Methi to reduce
the level of glucose in the blood or use of kala jeera to deal with hepatitis or asthma.3
At present, provisions that either overtly or covertly safeguard TK can be found
within the confines of the existing intellectual property regime itself. The Indian
state, therefore, like most other countries subscribes to the view that the existing
intellectual property regime provides indigenous communities a potent shield as
well as a sword.4 The strongest manifestation of the legislature's desire to protect
TK can be found in Section 3 (p) of the Indian Patents Act, 1970 which states that
any invention which, in effect, is TK or is an aggregation or duplication of the
properties of traditional components is not patentable. Section 10 (d) of the Act
requires an applicant to disclose the geographical source of origin of any biological
substance that is sought to be patented. This provision, along with the Geographical
Indications (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, has been designed with the
raison d'être of ensuring that due attention is paid to the peculiar features of
geographical regions, that are often inextricably intertwined with the communities
that inhabit them, while granting intellectual property protection. Another
important provision which seeks to protect traditional biological resources is Sec. 6
(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 which makes it mandatory for anyone
seeking intellectual property protection for a biological resource obtained in India
to acquire the approval of the National Biodiversity Authority. Furthermore, a
2
Daniel J. Gervais, 'Spiritual but not Intellectual? : The Protection of Sacred Intangible Traditional
Knowledge', 11 Cardozo J. Int'l & Comp. L. 467 (2003).
3
R. V. Anuradha, 'Biopiracy and Traditional Knowledge', The Hindu, 20th May, 2001, available at
http://ip.aaas.org/tekindex.nsf/2a9c4e44835b04ea85256a7200577a64/829083df1408817f85256bd70
057e296/Body/M1?OpenElement (last visited Dec. 10th, 2014).
4
Megam M. Carpenter, 'Intellectual Property and Indigenous Peoples: Adapting Copyright Law to
the Needs of a Global Community', 7 Yale Human Right and Developmental L. J. 51 (2004).
86
declaration stating that the approval has been duly obtained must be made in Form 1
of the application for the grant of a patent. Section 7 of the aforementioned Act
makes it mandatory for any person or corporate body which wishes to
commercially exploit a biological resource to obtain the explicit consent of the
concerned State Biodiversity Body (SBB). Notably, the Indian Patent Office issued
comprehensive guidelines in December 2012 which define the standards in
accordance with which patent applications pertaining to TK have to be dealt with.
They emphasize the need to grapple with such applications in accordance with
International Patent Classification (IPC) and set a relatively higher threshold of
'non-obviousness' and 'inventive step' to prevent improper commodification and
commercialization of TK.5 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights
Act, 2001 is yet another benevolent social legislation which intends to safeguard
the creations of indigenous farmers and communities by empowering local
communities to file a claim to gain recognition for their substantive contributions to
the field of agriculture. Although the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 does not explicitly
deal with the subject of TK, Section 57 of the said Act embodies the concept of
'moral rights' which enables an individual to prevent any mutilation or modification
of his work which harms his honour or reputation. Even though this remedy was not
designed to safeguard TK, it can potentially be used to prevent the representation of
traditional cultural expression in a manner inconsistent with the beliefs and values
of indigenous communities. In addition to the aforementioned legal provisions,
India has also taken some unique steps for the defensive protection of TK. This is
best exemplified by a collaborative project between the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department of Ayush called 'Traditional
Knowledge Digital Library' which bears emphasis for 3 important reasons. First,
this is a first of its kind initiative which was primarily designed to avoid costly and
protracted disputes akin to controversies associated with the grant of patents for
inventions designed to harness the power of turmeric and neem.6 Second, it is a
treasure trove of information on India's TK which has been translated into multiple
languages and is used by patent offices across the globe as 'prior art' to ensure that
they do not inadvertently end up granting patents that result in the misappropriation
of TK. Finally, reports indicate that the TKDL has allowed India to protect
5
Madhulika Vishwanathan, 'Traditional Knowledge Patent Applications: Need for Deliberation',
Spicy IP, 23rd December, 2012, available at http://spicyip.com/2012/12/guest-post-traditionalknowledge-patent.html (last visited Dec. 10th, 2014).
6
Zoya Nafis, 'Protecting Indian Traditional Knowledge as Intellectual Property', Mondaq, 6th
October, 2014, available at
http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/344510/Trade+Secrets/PROTECTING+INDIAN+TRADITIONAL
+KNOWLEDGE+AS+INTELLECTUAL+PROPERTY (last visited Dec. 10th, 2014).
87
approximately 0.226 million medicinal formulations from being wrongly patented
thus far.7 While the aforementioned measures have been able to offer some degree
of protection to the rich heritage of indigenous communities, it is submitted that
they are woefully inadequate for 3 principal reasons. First, the Indian Government
has not clearly defined and articulated the policy goals that should undergird any
system for the protection of TK thus far. In such a policy and legal vacuum,
measures to protect TK will continue to remain misguided and unimaginative steps
that may help in diffusing temporary conflicts, but would be simply untenable in the
long run. Second, these measures do not recognize the simple fact that intellectual
property law and TK are diametrically opposed to each other-- while the former is
predicated upon the grand notion of romantic individualism, the latter focuses on
communitarian creations. We can reconcile these two sets of interests only by
putting in place a robust and impartial framework within the auspices of which a
concerted effort can be made to promote the goals of both systems while
undermining the essence of neither. Finally, there is considerable ambiguity about
the level of confidentiality that is maintained by the TKDL. More than 1200
formulations that the TKDL contains are believed to be open to all.8 Lack of
confidentiality of the TKDL can exacerbate, as opposed to alleviating, the
problems of indigenous communities by paving the way for the improper use of
their sacred and secret knowledge in more innovative and, consequently, more
destructive ways. The upshot of these flaws is, as the United Nations
Environmental Programme notes, “Intellectual property rights systems either
encourage the appropriation of TK for commercial use without the fair sharing of
benefits or violate indigenous cultural precepts by encouraging the
commodification of such knowledge.”
Principles Underpinning Sui Generis System for Protection of Traditional
Knowledge
In light of the foregoing, I would like to delineate 5 cardinal principles that should
underpin a sui generis system for promoting the twin imperatives of respecting the
interests of indigenous communities and fostering the growth of our knowledge
economy. First, the sui generis legal framework must be firmly rooted in Article 29
7
World Intellectual Property Organization, 'Protecting India's Traditional Knowledge', June 2011,
available at http://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2011/03/article_0002.html (last visited Dec.
10th, 2014).
8
Prashant Reddy, 'Is the TKDL a 'Confidential Database' and is it Compliant with Indian Copyright
Law?', Spicy IP, 29th March, 2012, available at http://spicyip.com/2012/03/is-tkdl-confidentialdatabase-and-is-it.html (last visited Dec. 12th, 2014).
88
of the Indian Constitution which explicitly empowers every community to preserve
its distinctive language, script and culture. As TK would squarely fall within the
ambit of the term 'culture' in Article 29, the sui generis framework should be
designed with the primary goal of institutionalizing and statutarizing the mandate
of the suprema lex. Second, TK is a dynamic concept which is not trapped in amber
and can, therefore, mean different things to different people. Therefore, any sui
generis system for its protection should not seek to rigidly and exhaustively define
what constitutes TK; instead, it should merely delineate some of its salient features
such as its inextricable linkages with an indigenous community, its sacrosanct
nature, the unique modes of its transmission, etc. Moreover, the idea of TK must be
conceptualized through the lens of cultural relativism9 which would lend it some
much-needed flexibility to subsume within its fold the idiosyncrasies of every
community. Third, it is critical to respect the sacrosanct nature of TK and to
unequivocally recognize the fact that protecting TK does not merely mean curbing
improper misappropriation of such knowledge but also includes protecting the
essence of the knowledge. More specifically, it is necessary to accept that TK is
essential for the survival of indigenous communities and lies at the heart of their
cosmovision. The concept of collective bio-cultural heritage, which subscribes to a
holistic view of TK and recognizes its transcendental nature, should form the basis
of the sui generis system.10 Fourth, the sui generis system must be participative in
nature and must promote wide-ranging consultations amongst all stakeholders
before arriving at any conclusion. Far too often, wealthy businesses offer alluring
benefits to individuals belonging to indigenous communities and thereby elicit the
knowledge that they need for serving their own parochial interests. It would,
therefore, be apposite to emphasize the fact that no single individual has the power
to decide the fate of traditional forms of creative expression that are created,
maintained and revered by the community as a whole. Finally, even though it is
imperative that we pay heed to the emotive appeal of the plight of indigenous
communities, we cannot lose sight of the fact that a lopsided framework can stultify
the growth of our rapidly burgeoning knowledge economy by denying IP
protection for refinements to TK that substantively improve its efficacy and utility.
Therefore, any creation that fills knowledge gaps in traditional medicinal
formulations, art or culture must be adequately protected by the intellectual
property regime.
9
Sociology Central, 'Cultural Relativity', available at http://www.sociology.org.uk/p2d4.htm (last
visited Dec. 11th, 2014).
10
Information for the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 'Sui Generis Systems for
the Protection of Traditional Knowledge', 31st October, 2005, available at
http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02378.pdf (last visited Dec. 14th, 2014).
89
Contours of the Proposed Action Plan
Indigenous groups have highlighted 5 fundamental areas of concern which must be
suitably addressed for the effective protection of TK. First, Unauthorized copying
of works by other indigenous groups and communities. Second, Infringement of
copyright of individuals belonging to indigenous communities. Third,
Appropriation of indigenous themes and images, especially those of a sacred
nature. Fourth, Inappropriate representation of indigenous styles and images in a
manner inconsistent with the cosmovision of indigenous communities. Finally,
Lack of compensation to indigenous communities for the commercial benefits
derived from their creations.11 Public discourse on the protection of TK generally
revolves around 2 alternative approaches, based on 2 distinct theories. The first
approach is predicated upon the property rights theory which seeks to respect
individual skill and labour and forms the bedrock of the existing intellectual
property regime across the globe. Viewed through this lens, measures for the
protection of TK must be within the auspices of the existing intellectual property
framework and should be crafted in the form of user rights or the imposition of
stricter norms with regard to the granting of intellectual property protection in cases
where TK is involved. On the other hand, the second approach is predicated upon
the commons theory which supports communitarian ownership of resources. I have
already delineated the flaws in the former approach in section 1 of this article which
make it unsustainable in the Indian context. As regards the commons approach, it
would not be prudent to institutionalize that approach in India on account of the
problem commonly referred to as the 'tragedy of the commons' which explains how
the collective ownership of property can result in its widespread misuse in a
socially pernicious manner.12 Institutionalization of this approach may result in the
use of TK in culturally and spiritually improper contexts and would run counter to
its sacrosanct nature. As a result, we must put in place a framework that combines
the best features of both approaches and yet is competent to grapple with the
broader ramifications that issues pertaining to the use of TK entail.13 I would like to
recommend the institutionalization of a 3-tier hierarchical structure at the national,
state and local level to monitor and control the use of TK and to fashion remedies to
11
World Intellectual Property Organization, 'Roundtable on Intellectual Property and Traditional
Knowledge', WIPO/IPTK/RT/99/3, paper prepared by Michael Blakeney, October 1999, p. 4.
12
See Garret Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', 162 Science 1243-7 (1968).
13
Prakruthi P. Gowda & Ushasi Khan, 'Sacred but Vulnerable: a Critical Examination of the
Adequacy of the Current Legal Framework for Protection of Tribal Sacred Traditional Knowledge',
1 Nujs L. Rev. 119 (2008).
90
resolve all disputes pertaining to its use. The responsibilities of such a machinery
would be fivefold. First, it would be required to conduct a fact-finding exercise,
such as a census, to identify all the indigenous tribes that form a part of the Indian
diaspora.14 Subsequent to this, it would be necessary to determine what forms of
TK are linked with each of the identified communities. Second, a collective
property right must be granted to every community to maintain and control its TK.
Third, this machinery would act as a connecting link between authors, researchers
and business houses that wish to draw upon TK and the community that controls the
said knowledge. It would be tasked with the responsibility of brokering solutions
that are in consonance with the needs and aspirations of both parties. Fourth, after
such a solution is reached, it would be required to ensure that TK is not used in a
defamatory or derogatory manner and to take substantive steps to clamp down on
those who engage in such disrespectful conduct. Finally, it would be required to
work closely with the National Biodiversity Authority and stakeholders in the
Indian intellectual property regime to foster a culture of respect for TK and to lay
down the standards, best practices, etc, pertaining to the use of such knowledge. In a
country as vast and culturally diverse as India, a single body cannot be expected to
handle all disputes connected with the use of TK, so it is necessary to empower
local and state bodies to perform the first 3 of the aforementioned functions. The
body at the national level would be required to oversee the functioning of all local
and state authorities, resolve disputes whose resolution by the local and state bodies
is not to the satisfaction of both parties and broker solutions related to TK that is
owned by a community which is not confined within the geographical limits of a
single state. Let us consider one example where the interventioPn of the national
body would be required. A tribe located in the Agastyamalai forest of Western
Ghats, known as Kani, is believed to have pioneered the internationally renowned
anti-fatigue berry called Arogyapacha. However, the Kani tribe is not confined
within the state of Kerala alone; many of its members also live in Tamil Nadu. In
such a case, a national-level impartial body would be required to take cognizance of
the interests of Kanis living in both states while structuring a solution for the proper
use of their knowledge.
At this juncture, it would be apposite to mention that the state of Kerala is the first
state in India to have put in place a sui generis framework to protect TK that is based
upon the creation of a 'knowledge commons' consisting of the TK of all tribes in
14
Ibid
91
15
Kerala. Members outside indigenous communities are free to use the knowledge
for strictly non-commercial purposes and are required to deposit whatever
refinements they make to the TK in the 'knowledge commons'. However, my action
plan differs from the Kerala model for 4 important reasons. First, the Kerala model
does not contain any concrete provisions for safeguarding the confidentiality of the
TK that would form a part of the 'knowledge commons'. This not only discourages
communities from disclosing their zealously guarded knowledge but can also lead
to the misuse of the knowledge by parties that do not come within the jurisdiction of
the sui generis framework. On the contrary, confidentiality is a core principle upon
which my action plan is based in accordance with which TK would only be revealed
with the explicit consent of the concerned community. Second, an anti-industry
sentiment permeates the Kerala model which is best evidenced by the fact that any
refinement to the knowledge, howsoever significant it may be, cannot be patented.
My action plan is predicated on the belief that this is not a zero sum game, so it
would seek to reconcile both sets of interests and would, therefore, allow for the IP
protection of advancements that fill major knowledge gaps. Third, the Kerala
model subscribes to the view that 'nationalization' of TK offers a silver bullet
solution and, therefore, calls for complete state control of the 'knowledge
commons'. However, the machinery that I propose would merely act as an
intermediary between parties and would give considerable autonomy to both
parties to protect their own interests. Finally, the Kerala policy allows ministers to
act as members of the sui generis machinery and thereby paves the way for undue
political interference. On the other hand, the action plan that I suggest would give
considerable autonomy to the 3-tier machinery and would ensure that the members
of these bodies would contain an appropriate mixture of indigenous community
representatives, business representatives, scientists/ researchers and intellectual
property experts. In particular, members belonging to organizations such as Society
for Research and Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions
(SRISTI), Federation for Revitalisation of Local Health (FRLTH), M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation and National Innovations Foundation (NIF)
would form the pillars upon which the edifice of this framework would rest.
Furthermore, it is essential to clearly define the jurisdiction of each agency under
this framework. At present, some forms of TK, such as biological resources, are
protected by the existing legal framework, so it would be essential to ensure that all
cases pertaining to the use of TK are forwarded to the appropriate authority under
this framework to avoid any conflict of jurisdiction.
15
Shamnad Basheer, 'Break with Tradition', the Indian Express, 05 July, 2008, available at
http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/break-with-tradition/331482/3 (last visited Dec. 12th, 2014).
92
I am of the considered opinion that it would not be prudent to exhaustively delineate
the modalities of the solutions that these bodies would be tasked with the
responsibility of structuring. This is because of two reasons. First, the imperatives,
impediments and irreconcilable tensions that the body would be required to grapple
with would vary from case to case based on a large array of factors such as whether
the knowledge is of a sacred or profane nature, the nature of the proposed use, the
track record of both parties, etc. Second, these bodies would be required to show a
great degree of dexterity and legal ingenuity to come up with solutions in cases that
are of an intractable nature. This point can be illustrated with the help of an
influential case study. As mentioned earlier, the Kanis are believed to be the
pioneers of the Arogyapacha herb. Around 15 years ago, the Kanis, led by three of
their most influential members, entered into a settlement with scientists from the
Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) for the commercial
exploitation and refinement of a drug named Jeevani that was based on the
Arogyapachha herb in accordance with a benefit-sharing mechanism. A benefitsharing mechanism, which provides for the sharing of profits emanating from the
commercial exploitation of TK between the indigenous community and those who
use their knowledge, is often regarded as the most workable and sustainable
solution for adequately compensating indigenous communities while allowing for
the dissemination and commercialization of their knowledge. This agreement was
globally hailed as an ingenious solution for using TK; the TBGRI received the
United Nations Equator Prize in 2002 for its role in the creation of the Kerala Kani
Samudya Kshema Trust for the sharing of commercial benefits.16 However, the
benefit-sharing system did not work for long; the interests of the Kanis were largely
ignored after some initial payments. Their cherished heritage is now being
systematically plundered and variants of their herbs are being freely patented.17
Therefore, it would not be advisable to sacrifice legal ingenuity at the altar of blind
uniformity.
It would be instructive to refer to three case studies to understand what kinds of
workable solutions should be sought. First, a Suriname-based tribe called Maroon
is widely known for its ancient healing traditions. The International Cooperative
16
T Shiras Khan, 'Kani Tribals Reap Financial Benefits from Wonderdrug Jeevani', Infochange
India, October 2002, available at http://infochangeindia.org/agriculture/changemakers/kani-tribalsreap-financial-benefits-from-wonderdrug-jeevani.html (last visited Dec. 14th, 2014).
17
Roy Mathew, 'A Benefit-Sharing Model That Did not Yield Desired Results', the Hindu, 18th
October, 2012, available at http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/a-benefitsharingmodel-that-did-not-yield-desired-results/article4007676.ece (Last visited Dec. 9th, 2014).
93
Biodiversity Group (ICBG) which wanted to use these healing techniques obtained
the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) of the chieftain of the Maroons vide a letter of
intent and established a trust for the sharing of benefits with the Maroons.18
Second, a renowned pharmaceutical company in Australia called Amrad Pvt. Ltd.
was able to gain exclusive access to the plants belonging to the Aboriginal Tiwi
community by structuring an agreement with the Tiwi Land Council in accordance
with which Tiwi gets a fixed portion of the profits resulting from the sale of
products that are based on Tiwi plants.19 Finally, Shaman Pharmaceutical has
shown great ingenuity in harnessing the power of TK while respecting the wishes of
indigenous communities. In Peru, for example, they have entered into an agreement
with an indigenous federation called Consejo Aguaruna Hauambisa as per which
they are provided access to TK in return for supplying a sustainable harvest and a
revenue sharing model under the aegis of a nonprofit organization called Healing
Forest Conservancy.20
Conclusion
Countries across the globe are increasingly realizing the utility and relevance of TK
as an engine of growth and sustainable development in all sectors of the economy,
especially food, healthcare, education, agriculture and resource management. The
sui generis framework that I have proposed is a lucid synthesis of the innovative
approaches that countries like Panama, Peru, Australia, the United States and others
have adopted for harvesting the potential latent in TK and is based on the belief that
what we protect -- and how we protect it -- must reflect the diversity and values of a
21st century India. At a time when TK is being married with western scientific
developments to grapple with the most pressing problems of our times, this
framework would act as a potent tool for promoting locally based sustainable
development in accordance with a bottom-up approach. A failure to act at this
juncture would perpetuate the enslavement, extirpation and entombment of
indigenous people and would ensure that they continue to remain culturally
fragmented, economically confounded and politically sequestered.
18
Raju Narayana Swamy, 'Protection of Traditional Knowledge in the Present IPR Regime: A
Reality or A Mirage', LX Indian Journal of Public Administration 56 (2014).
19
Id at 57
20
Ibid
A Study of Intellectual Property Management in
Industries & Academics & Ways for
Collaboration in India
Shubham Srivastava1 and Pallavi Shahi2
Abstract
Intellectual property (IP) has emerged as a key driver in knowledge economy.
Firms view IP as a valuable corporate asset and a strategic business tool. The
future focus of research will be on mutual relationship with academic
institutions/university & industry cooperation. It will be how to bring together the
disciplines of IP and management & to identify the communication gaps in
academic & industries for technology sharing / mutual research etc. It will avoid
duplication of research work & will introduce Basic IP education. In Indian
contest, most companies and academic institutions under-utilize the IP system & its
potential benefit due to lack of awareness of IP system. This is attributed due to
complexity of IP system & lack of easily accessible teaching, training and/or
professional assistance. The proposed Protection and Utilization of Public funded
IP Bill pending before Parliament will imposes obligations & creates rights to
optimize the potential of public funded R&D. It will further provide incentive to
create IP and mechanism for its protection and utilization, simultaneously
enhancing awareness, greater interaction among universities, academic and
research institutions & their collaborations. This will pave the way in India like
other developed countries to avoid duplication of research work & create immense
resources through IP for social development.
Keywords : Intellectual Property, Universities, Academic, Education, Industry,
research, technology transfer, collaboration, Protection and Utilization of Public
funded IP Bill Intellectual Property.
1
Year of study – 4th year, Amity Law School, Lucknow Campus, Gomti Nagar Extension, Lucknow226010, Shubhamsrivastava1992@yahoo.com
2
Year of study – 2nd year, Amity Law School, Lucknow Campus, Gomti Nagar Extension, Lucknow226010, nidhishahi554@gmail.com
A Study of Intellectual Property Management in Industries &
Academics & Ways for Collaboration in India
95
Introduction & Significance of Intellectual Property (IP)
Intellectual property (IP) has emerged as a key driver in knowledge economy & the
firms view IP as a valuable corporate asset and a strategic business tool. Recent
research indicates that over 50% of the value of many business organizations or
assets is attributed to IP. The purpose of IP system mostly, patents are to protect and
promote the development of science & technology (S&T) and to promote the
dissemination & use of S&T. Intellectual Property means the property represented
by the product emanating from creativity of the human mind, human intellect and
creative ideas i.e. creative ideas and expressions of the human mind (intellect) that
creates commercial value. It can be an invention (Patents), Design, Trademarks,
artistic creation etc. In earlier times, physical or tangible assets like movable and
immovable properties fetched the maximum value and the owner had an exclusive
right over it. The property right, pertaining to such intangible assets, is called as
Intellectual Property. The IP is an asset and, as such, it can be bought, sold,
mortgaged, licensed, exchanged or gratuitously given away like any other form of
the property. IP facilitates exclusive right to make, use, exercise, sell or distribute an
invented article or Process in India i.e. these rights can be shared, licensed or sold.
Thus IP serves as an indicator of achievements in Research & Development
institutions and ability of individual researcher.
Significance of Intellectual Property Management (IPM) to Industries &
Academics
Intellectual Property management (IPM) has become as important as IP managers
needs decision support information related to R&D, innovation technology,
finance, industrial economics, business strategy litigation, technology analysis,
portfolio maintenance, licensing, acquisition analysis, evaluation etc. For instance,
a patent portfolio may contain a large number of patents of less quality / high quality
and on other end, a smaller number of exceedingly high quality patents, hence IP
evaluation, audit is required. In India, most companies and academic institutions
under-utilize the IP system due to lack of awareness and its usefulness due to
complexity & lack of easily accessible teaching, training and/or professional
assistance. Modern IPM provides essential tools for managing intangible assets
like Patents, Designs and Trademarks, etc. IPM allows to handling risks & an
uncertainty related to R&D and it facilitates the interaction between the public &
the private sector. Market value of any enterprise is determined by its portfolio and
optimal use of IP assets. In this competitive world, creating, protecting and
96
managing IP rights and avoiding infringement of IP rights by others are crucial task
of any firm or organization. Hence the main goal of patent management is obtaining
and maintaining patents.
IPM Identifies, Precautions to be Taken After Inventing the Technology
?
not to publish the research work anywhere before filing of patent application,
?
file provisional / complete specification in patent offices,
?
check for technical/commercial viability of inventions
?
after complete development of invention file request for examination (within
48 months),
?
get patent & maintain the enforcement of patent by paying the renewal fee,
?
commercialize the invention (make / sell / license / assign, etc.),
?
field watch (regular search of patent / non-patent documents & watch on
technological advancements)
Collaboration of Industries & Academics for IP
In competitive world, it is necessary for India to innovate & promote creativity
which needs to protect and utilize the IP created out of public funded research and
development (R&D), in which Government has invested large funds. The proposed
Protection and Utilization of Public funded IP Bill, imposes obligations & creates
rights to optimize the potential of public funded R&D & it provides incentive to
create IP and mechanism for its protection and utilization. The above bill
encourages innovation in small and medium enterprises, promotes collaboration
between Government, private enterprises and non-Government organizations &
commercialization of IP created out of public funded R&D and the culture of
innovation in the country.
At present, government funded Universities & autonomous research Institutions
cannot commercialize the fruits of their research. However, after the approval of
above bill by the Government would alter the existing IP rules by allowing
academic institutions, rather than the government, to patent publicly funded
research and would reward institutions and inventors with a share of the royalties
i.e. around 30% and licensing fees generated from the commercial products to the
inventor and commercialization of the invention. This bill will enhance awareness
of IP in universities, academic and research institutions. It will also increase the
responsibility of universities, academic and research institutions to encourage
97
students, faculty and scientists to innovate. Such innovations can be utilized for
raising financial resources of these establishments, through royalties or income.
The income from IP will promote self-reliance and will minimize dependence of
universities, academic and research institutions and other recipient organizations
for Government funding. This bill would allow government funded academic
institutions to patent their inventions & it should result in greater interaction
between Industry, Academia and Government.
Significance of Proposed Protection and Utilization of Public Funded IP Bill to
Industries & Academics
?
The above bill facilitate commercialization of IP generated out of Government
funded R&D
?
Innovations in private sector as well as in universities, academic and research
institutions that receive grants from Government will be encouraged &
increase the innovation culture in the country
?
Collaboration between Government, non-governmental organizations and
private sector will be promoted.
?
This bill mandate to constitute an IPM Committee within the organization
within 180 days of the receipt of public fund
?
This bill give guidelines to share IP of Government agencies, like Defense,
Space etc for civilian application and such a development could immensely
benefit the industry and the society.
?
Dependence of universities, academic and research institutions and other
recipient organizations for funding on the Government will be minimized as
the bill provides for utilization of a portion of royalties or income, generated
out of the public funded IP, for research and educational purposes. The Bill
provides for the utilization of public funded IP and sharing of income or royalty
earned between the IP Creator and the recipient. Not less than 30% of the
income or royalty has to be given to IP creator due to which it will give rise to
number of IP's (patents) & increase the flow of knowledge to industry.
?
The bill will also encourage research institutions to establish their own
technology licensing offices and to adopt their own policies on IPM and
technology transfer.
Scope of Research
The focus of research will be on, academic institutions/university & industry
98
cooperation such as academic exchange agreements / joint research work. Also on,
to identify the communication gaps in academic & industries for technology
sharing / mutual research etc. to avoid the duplication of research work. In India, IP
awareness is very less. Many scientists, highly educated persons don't know about
patents, hence there is urgent need to increase the awareness of IP in academic &
industries. In India there are huge research potentials, talented persons but
comparatively Indian patent filing is very less hence there is need to find out the
gaps & to identify the problems in academic & industries for filing IP's / Patents.
Methodology & Analysis of Collaboration of Industries & Academics
The expertise of central originations like CSIR/NRDC/TIFAC /NIIPM etc. to be
made available for technology transfer to university/ Institutes & Industry for
avoiding the risk of duplication of R&D and providing assistance during
development of new products. Universities/Institutes & Industries collaborate with
each other to promote the use of university research & sharing the data mutually.
Hence, infrastructure shall be provided to University/ academic Institutes for
utilization of Patent Information. Secondly, link IP cell, technology transfer
department, Patent Information, R&D etc. to academic Institutes & Industry. It is
necessary to provide technical problem & information for research by industries to
University/academic Institutes & carry out research on that & identifying solutions
to technical problem from the universities / Institutions. Thereafter patenting the
inventions & prepare the agreements on technology transfer. After that, IP
enforcement by licensing & publicly disclose will ideally avoid the duplication of
research.
IP is never given much importance in India, but after 1995 i.e. end of GATT & 2005
(India signed international agreement like TRIPS / WTO, PCT / WIPO etc &
allowed pharma product Patents after 2005, there is need in institutions &
Industries to create an independent “IP cell” to protect their IP's and increase IP
awareness culture in organization. Effective IPM can allow research institutions to
use their own research to benefit the public at large and to enter into public-private
partnerships. With the joint research consignments to work together the benefits for
Industries resulting from the universities / academic institute are, availability of the
extensive network of University / Academic Institutes , availability of University/
Academic Institutes officials, network and knowledge for technological support.
99
Statistics
Table 1: Filing of
IP in last 5-6
years* in India:
Patents application
received
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
Designs
application
received
17466
24505
28940
35218
36812
34287
TM
application received
4017
4949
5521
6402
6557
6092
Table 2: Comparison of
Patent filing in year 200809 by Indian Industries *
Indian Industries
No of
patent filed
Samsung India
205
Council of scientific &
Indusial Research
Dr Reddy’s Laboratories
BHEL
Rainbaxy Laboratories
Infosys Technologies
Avesthagen Ltd.
Tata steel
165
Cadila Healthcare Ltd.
Matrix Laboratories Ltd.
57
54
147
119
101
81
66
65
GI
application received
78996
85699
103419
123514
140172
141943
Table 3 - Comparison of
Patent filing in year
2008 09 by Indian
Academics* Indian
Academic university /
Institutes
Indian Institute of
Technology
29
16
33
37
44
40
No of
patent filed
91
Amity university
Indian Institute of Science
33
21
Central Institute for
Research on cotton
12
National Institute of
Pharmaceutical Education
& Research
8
Immunology
7
University of Delhi
7
From the above tables it is observed that, due to collaborations between universityPRO there is increase in trend in obtaining the IP, also there is increase in Patent
filing after 2005. It is expected that the joint collaboration programs on IP amongst
PRO & university will not only avoid duplication of research activities and wastage
of time, resources but also will have a strong & enhanced IP regime. Hence there is
need to manage these IP efficiently, so that technology will be fruitful & there will
be effective use of academic research work for industries and duplication of
research can be avoided. Hence IP management plays vital role in industries and
academics & thus Collaboration between Government, non-governmental
organizations and private sector, academic institutes, university shall be promoted.
100
Table 4: Comparison of
Patent filing in year 2009-10
by Indian Scientific &
Research Development
organizations * Scientific &
Research Development
organizations
No of
patent filed
CSIR
162
Defense Research &
Development organization
ICAR
Indian Space Research
Origination
Central Institute of Fishery
Technology
80
55
17
13
Pharmaceutical Education &
research
Centre for Development of
Advance computing
10
Immunology
Indian Council of Medical
Research
SAMEER
07
07
06
06
Table 5:
Comparison of
Patent filing in
year 2009-10 by
Institutes,
Academics/unive
rsity* Indian
Academic
Institutes /
university
Indian Institute of
Technology
Amity university
Indian Institute of
Science
Serum Institute of
India Limited
The Energy &
Resource institute
Institute of Life
Sciences
Dalmia Institute of
Scientific &
industrial
Research
Jadavpur
University
Krishna Institute
of Medical
Science
Manipal Institute
of Technology
No of
patent filed
109
81
45
12
07
06
04
04
04
04
Figure 1- Percentage Share of University & PRO Patenting 1980 to 2010
101
Figure 2- Percentage Sharer of University & PRO Patenting in
China & India in 2011
As per figure 1, it is observed that there was increased in the percentage of share of
total PCT application filed by University & PRO Patenting from 1980 to 2010.
Thus university& PRO collaboration increased the Patent filing.
As per figure 2, there was increase in university and PRO filings of the total patents
obtained by Indian assignees during 2011, about 22% patents were jointly owned
by industry, university or government sectors. Thus now a day's universities and
PROs have also experienced growth in licensing revenue by way of mutual
agreements.
Findings & Conclusion
This study discusses the opportunities and challenges offered by IP to foster
technology transfer from government funded research institutions. It is observed
that from various originations that, there are strong scientific capabilities but there
is no adequate Academic/university-Industry collaboration. There is a weak
industry science linkage in the country hence, there is need to develop internal IP
management capabilities, the formulation of comprehensive national IP policies,
strengthening their IP court systems and IP offices, enforcement mechanisms, etc.
The interactions shall be take place by the licensing of patents, R&D collaboration,
scientific publishing & participation of conferences etc.
In India, IP awareness is very low hence IP culture is required to an enabling
environment. Many scientists, highly skilled & technocrats educated persons don't
102
know about patents. Hence there is urgent need to increase the awareness of IP in
academic & industries. Further basic IP education can be provided at school level
and undergraduate level and form uniform IP course structure in India & increase
the IP resources. Many universities do not having technology transfer policy, IP cell
/department etc., guidelines for managing technology transfer activities. Hence
there is need to allow academic institutions, rather than the government body, to
patent publicly funded research and would reward institutions and inventors with a
share of the royalties i.e. around 30% and licensing fees generated from the
commercial products to the inventor and commercialization of the invention.
Technology transfer offices between the university & Industry and mechanisms to
enhance technology commercialization are required with financial support for
which IP bill shall be approved by the Government. Further, it is highlighted that
there may be special fee reduction for the university or students to boost the
research activity.
There are several difficulties the universities face in the implementation of
patenting and patented technology commercialization. They do not have operative
guidelines about disclosure and patenting. Increasing autonomy of institutions,
decentralizing recruiting, providing performance based incentives and
acknowledging technology transfer activities in researchers' career is essential.
There is a need to redraft the university regulations on IP. Performance incentives
for researches are needed for balancing entrepreneurial activity and scientific
achievements.
Patent plays an important role in fostering technology transfer as countries develop
their research capabilities. Technology transfer by patent licensing, collaboration
can entail cross-fertilization between academics and industry, synergies in research
and new ideas for science, avoiding wasteful duplication of efforts, and create
employment and new market opportunities for firms. Hence there is a need to have
substantial private investment in developing such a strategy.
Abbreviations
IPO- Intellectual Property office
IP- Intellectual Property
IPM- Intellectual Property Management
TM- Trademark
GI-Geographical Indications
UN-United Nation
WIPO- World Intellectual Property organization, WTO World Trade
Organization
TRIPS- Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights
GATT-General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
S&T- Science & Technology
NIIPM- National Institute for Intellectual Property Management
PRO- Public research organizations
PCT- Patent Cooperation Treaty
Reference
Internet Sites:
1. www.ipidnia.nic.in
2. www.google.com
3. www.indianpatents.org.in
4. http://spicyipindia.blogspot.com
5. www.wipo.int
6. http://www.wipo.int/academy/en/
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/
Books & Publications:
1.
Patents, TrdeMarks, Copy Right Designs & Geographical Indications –
B.L.Wadera
2. Intellectual Property Law in India - P.S.Narayana
3. WIPO Guide to Intellectual Property Worldwide
4. WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook
5. Indian patent office - Manual of Patent Practice & procedure
6. NIIPM/ IPO, India training
7. IPO, India - Annual report
8. Original Bayh-Dole Bill
9. Gearing Up For Patents - The Indian Scenario – Dr Prabuddha Ganguli
10. Proposed Protection and Utilization of Public Funded IP Bill
103
Awareness and Understanding on Intellectual
Property Rights: A Pilot Study of
Library Patrons
Bhakti S. Badigannavar 1 and P.G. Tadasad2
Abstract
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and Library Services have gained significance
over recent years. This paper examines the basic awareness on Intellectual
Property Rights of library patrons. Attempt has been made to understand the user
behavior during library usage and fair use. Study also focused on patrons need
towards understanding IPR laws in using library services without infringement.
With the advancement of technology, Intellectual Property Rights have added new
dimensions and there is a strong need for awareness and understanding on
Intellectual Property Rights for library patrons. Intellectual Property Rights Policy
regarding library services to be framed to guide the users in using library services
without infringing the IPR Laws.
Keywords: Intellectual Property Rights, Copyright, Fair use, Library Users
Awareness, Library Policy
Introduction
Library is a temple of knowledge. Advancement in technology have increased the
role of library with its diversified services to the users. Libraries will continue to
grow, only the services of library will change with the added technological
advancements and has created challenges regarding implications of Intellectual
Property Rights in Library Environment.
Intellectual Property Rights is the intangible property which consists of a bundle of
rights in relation to certain material object created by the owner. IPR includes
1
Research Scholar, Department of Library and Information Science, Karnataka State Women's
University, Jnana Shakti, Torvi, Bijapur 586108, E-mail: bhakti.shankarling@gmail.com
2
Professor and Chairman, Department of Library and Information Science,Karnataka State
Women's University,Jnana Shakti, Torvi, Bijapur 586108, E-mail: pgtadasad@gmail.com
Awareness and Understanding on Intellectual Property Rights:
A Pilot Study of Library Patrons
105
Copyright, Patents, Industrial Designs, Trademarks, Geographical Indications.
Copyright affects libraries at a very basic level as the material used by libraries is
governed by copyright provisions.1 Copyright is the form of protection provided
under various national laws to the authors of original works of authorship. It is an
unregistered right (unlike other forms of intellectual property such as patents,
trademarks). Copyright comes into effect immediately, i.e. as soon as something
that can be protected is created and 'fixed' in some way, e.g. on paper, on film, as a
sound recording etc.1 Basically copyright is the right to copy or reproduce the work
in which copyright subsists.
Section 52(1), Indian Copyright Act, 1957 provides that a fair dealing (fair use)with
any work for the following purposes does not constitute infringement: 1) private or
personal use, including research 2) criticism or review, whether of that work or of
any other work 3) reporting of current events and current affairs including the
reporting of a lecture delivered in public.2
With the advancement of technology, Intellectual Property Rights have added new
dimensions and there is a strong need for awareness and understanding on
Intellectual Property Rights for the library patrons. With the growing need, library
professionals have to gain knowledge on Intellectual Property Rights and have to
provide the proper platform to the users to access information without infringement
copyright.
Review of Literature
Madhava Menon (1996) expresses in an editorial literature that, there are many
issues which come up for consideration regarding copyright in relation to library
services. Technology is changing fast making the pre-existing law inadequate to
negotiate disputes fairly keeping public interests in focus. Ahuja(1996) discussed
that Copyright protection in relation to library serices would imply a need to
examine the kinds of infringement which may crop up in library services. Ananda
& Reddy B (1996) says that, attempts could be made to create awareness about
intellectual property rights and to alter the situations in developing countries with
international conventions and treaties, trade sanctions, contractual agreements,
better education, etc.
Agarwal (1996) discussed that in India legal position under the act is that only very
specific activities are permitted as regards libraries and library services and much
106
needs to be done in this infant area when the information and technological
revolution is on the rise as is copyright awareness. Shetttar (2010) discussed that to
keep pace with the technology law should be amended and there is a need to educate
how to handle electronic infomation and what extent is a fair use by having written
copyright policy.
Kaur (2014) expressed that, as academic librarian strive to engage themselves as
educators, teaching an understanding of plagiarism and copyright policies to
students will greatly influence academic rigor. Yaranal & Ramesha (2012) explains
the role of libraries in managing the resources and gets the maximum usage of the
resources within the limitation of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). Badigannavar
& Tadasad (2014) noted that with a paradigm shift from print resources to digital
resources, it is important to post clear guidelines on IPR and fairuse to the users of
library on website and conduct orientation programs, so that they can utilize the
resources without infringing the Intellectual Property Rights.
Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study is the know the Awareness and Understanding on the
Intellectual Property Rights of the Patrons during library usage.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To know frequency of visit to the library
To know the basic awareness on IPR
To examine the understanding by the library patron about library services
and fair use
To find out the efforts made by the Institution in using library services
without infringing the IPR Laws.
To understand the view of library patrons in regard to IPR Laws.
Research Methodology
Questionnaire method was applied to collect the relevant data for the study.
Keeping in view, the objectives of the study structured questionnaire was prepared
and personally distributed to the library patrons.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyse and interpret the data collected on
the Awareness and Understanding on the Intellectual Property Rights of the
107
Patrons. Library patrons of the National Law School of India University, Bengaluru
and Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru were involved. Questionnaire was
distributed to 40 patrons, out of which 35 were received back, with response.
Data Analysis
Altogether 40 questionnaires were distributed among the patrons, out of which 35
responses received representing 87.5% of the total questionnaires distributed.
General Information
Age-Wise Distribution of Library Patrons.
The age-wise analysis of the data indicates the use of library by the library patrons
of different age groups. It is evident from the Fig.1 that one third of library patrons
(N =11,31%) fall between the age group of Below 20 and majority of the patrons
(57%) are belonged to the age group of 21-30, whereas only 9% (N=3) of patrons
are in the age group of 31-40 and only one patron (3%) belonged to the age group of
41-50.
Figure 1: Age-wise Distribution of Library Patrons
Level of Study among Library Patrons
Fig. 2shows that, majority of library patrons 37% (N=13) were Under Graduate
followed by research students i.e. 31% (N=11), 26% (N=9) patrons of them
belonged to Post graduation. Whereas only 6% patrons belongs to other category
and Post Doctoral Students present are zero percent.
108
Figure 2: Level of Study among Library Patrons
Subject Discipline
It is evident from the Fig. 3 that, nearly half of the library
patrons 48% (N=17) are from law discipline, followed by
40% (N=14) patrons were from Engineering and
Technology, 9% of library patrons present in the study are
from science discipline and only one respondent (3%)
belonged to Management studies.
Figure 3: Subject Discipline
Frequency of Patrons Visit to Library
When the Frequency of Patrons visit to library was studied, it revealed that 54%
(N=19) visit the library daily and 12 (34%) respondents visit library twice a week,
12% (N=4) library patrons visit the library weekly.
Figure 4: Frequency of Patrons Visit to Library
Library Patrons General Awareness on IPR Laws
From the Fig. 5, it is evident that, more that half library
patrons (71%, N=25) are aware of IPR Laws and only
29% (N= 10) are unaware of IPR Laws.
Figure 5: Library Patrons General Awareness on IPR Laws
109
Library Patrons Awareness on Validity of IPR Laws after Registration
Fig.6, shows that more than half of the patrons (N=24, 69%) are unaware and only
thirty one percent (N=11) knows that, Copyright will remain valid until 60 years
after the death of author. The study also shows that, only 23% (N=8) library patrons
knows that validity of the patents after registration is 20 years.
It is also evident from the study that only 11% (N=4) library patrons are aware that,
the validity of trademark and Geographical Indications after registration is 10
years. More than half percent patrons are not aware of the validity for trademarks,
Industrial design and geographical Indication. Only seventeen percent (N=6)
library patrons knows about the validity of Industrial Designs after registration
i.e.10 years.
Figure 6: Awareness on Validity of IPR Laws after Registration
Category of Learning pattern (IPR Laws) by the Library Patron
From the Fig.7, it is found that majority of the patrons
53% (N=12) learnt IPR laws by others (general
reading), 16% (N=6) of the library patrons learnt IPR
Laws because it was included in curriculum. It also
shows that, 13% (N=5) library patrons learnt by
attending conferences/seminars/workshops, 18%
(N=7) learnt through friends whereas through library
Orientation was zero percent.
Figure 7: Learning pattern (IPR Laws) by the Library Patron
110
Understanding by the Library Patrons on Library Services and Fair use
Photocopying the Whole Book and Fairuse
Fig.8 expresses, majority of the library patrons 74% responded it's a fair use if we
photocopy the Whole Book for self study and 37% of the respondents expressed,
that distributing within the campus is fair use. Whereas one patron (3%) responded
distributing outside the institute also constitute fair use and 11% of the library
patrons expressed that they are unaware.
Figure 8: Photocopying the whole book
Photocopying the Part of the Book and Fairuse
From the Fig. 9, it is evident that majority of the patrons 77% assertively said, that
it's a fair use if we photocopy the part of the Book for self study. 57% of the patrons
says, that the photocopying the part of the Book and distributing within the
Institution is fair use. Whereas , nice percent library patrons expressed Distributing
outside the Institution is fair use and 9% responded, that they are unaware.
Figure 9: Photocopying the Part of the Book
Photocopying One Article from Journal and Fair Use
From the Fig. 10, it is found that maximum library patrons (N=26, 74%) feel, that
it's a fair use if we photocopy one article from journal for self study, 63% patrons
111
(N=22) expressed, that the photocopying one article from the journal and
distributing within the Institution is fair use. Whereas, 11% (N=4) respondents
expressed distributing outside the Institution is fair use and 9% (N=3) of the patrons
responded, that photocopying and using one article from the Journal for
commercial usage is fair use.
Figure 10: Photocopying one article from Journal
Photocopying the Whole Journal and Fair Use
From the Fig. 11, it is found that 74% (N=26) library patrons expressed, that it's a
fair use if we photocopy whole journal for self study. 31% of the patrons says, that
the photocopying the whole journal and distributing within the Institution is fair
use. Whereas two respondents (6%) expressed Distributing outside the Institution
is also fair use, and 35% responded, that they are unaware.
Figure 11: Photocopying the whole Journal
Copying the Book through Electronic Media (Scanning/ Taking Photo
Images) and Fair Use
It is found from the Fig. 12 that more than half of the library patrons (N=24, 69%)
responded that it's a fair use if we copy the book through electronic media
(scanning/ taking photo images) for self study and 46% (N=16) of library patrons
says, that copying the book through electronic media and distributing within the
Institution is fair use. Whereas, three patrons (9%) expressed Distributing outside
the Institution is fair use and 14% of patrons responded, that they are unaware, one
respondent (3%) expressed, that commercial usage is fair use.
112
Figure 12: Copying the Book through electronic media (Scanning/ taking Photo
images)
From the Fig. 13, it is observed that only 17%
(N=6) library patrons responded, that sharing the
login details with the friends who are not part of
the parent institution will constitute fair use
whereas majority of patrons 77% ( N=27)
expressed that it is not a fair use, two patrons (6%)
responded that they are unaware.
Figure 13: Sharing the Login Details
It evident from the Fig. 14 that, three fourth of the
library patrons (N=26, 74%) responded,
systematic downloading of articles from electronic
databases will constitute a fair use whereas only
17% (N=6) expressed its not a fair use and 6%
(N=3) of them said they are unaware.
Figure 14: Systematic Downloading of Articles
Fig.15 shows that majority of library patrons
(N=30,86%) expressed, it is a fair use, if we
download E-Books for self study whereas only two
patrons (6%) responded that it is not a fair use and 8%
(N=3) of the patrons said they do not know.
Figure 15: Downloading E-Book for a Self Study
It evident from the Fig. 16 that, majority of the library
patrons (N=21, 60%) responded, Downloading E-Book
and Sharing with Friends who are not part of Parent
Institution will not constitute a fair use whereas 31%
(N=11) patrons expressed its a fair use and three patrons
(6%) said they are unaware.
Figure 16: Downloading E-Book and Sharing with Friends who are not part of
113
Parent Institution
Fig.17 shows that majority of the patrons 86% (N=30)
expressed, it is not a fair use if we download E-Books
and Distribute it for commercial purpose and two
patrons (6%) responded it is a fair use, 8% (N=3) of the
patrons said they do not know.
Figure 17: Downloading E-Book and Distributing
for Commercial Purpose
From Fig. 18, it is observed that, only 12% (N=4)
library patrons read fair use guidelines before using ejournals and databases whereas three fourth of the
patrons (N=27,77%) expressed that they do not read
the guidelines, and 11% (N=4) expressed that they do
not know.
Figure 18: Fair use Guidelines
Fig.19 shows that only 17% (N=6) of the library
patrons expressed, that DRM technologies are
successful in preventing copyright infringement
whereas more than half patrons (N=19, 54%)
responded that it is not successful and 29% of the
patrons said they do not know.
Figure 19: Digital Rights Management (DRM)
5.6 Information Literacy on IPR Laws and
Library
It is found from Fig.20 that only 34% (N=12) of
the respondents expressed, their parent library
has made efforts to know users rights in using
library services without infringing IPR laws
whereas majority of the patrons (N=18, 52%) responded that there are no efforts by
their parent library and 14% (N=5) of the patrons said they do not know.
Figure 20: Information Literacy on IPR Laws by Library
From Fig. 21, it is observed that, more than half library patrons (N=20,57%)
114
expressed that there is no IPR policies whereas only
20% (N=7) library patrons have observed IPR
policies implemented in regard to library services in
their organization, 23% of the library patrons
expressed that they do not know.
Figure 21: Implementation of IPR Policy in
Library
It is evident from Fig. 22 that, nearly ninety
percent library patrons (N=31,89%) expressed
that there is a need for organizing regular training
programs / workshop to know IPR properly in
regard to Library usage and only 11% (N=4)
expressed there is no need to organize.
Figure 22: Organizing Training/ Orientation by Library on IPR Laws
From Fig. 23, it is observed that, half of the
library patrons (N=18, 51%) expressed that
Indian IPR laws are caught up with technological
developments whereas 23% (N=8) expressed
that Indian IPR laws are not caught up with
technological developments, 26% of patrons
expressed that they do not know.
Figure 23: IPR Laws and Technological Developments
From the Fig. 24, majority of the library
respondents (N=18, 51%) have expressed that there
is a clarity in IPR laws related to library usage
whereas 23% (N=8) patrons responded that, there is
no clarity and 26% (N=9) of library patrons said
they do not know regarding IPR laws related to
Library usage.
Figure 24: Clarity in IPR Laws related to Library Usage
6. Discussion and Suggestions:
In today's world information is power and being facilitator of Information, library
115
professional should be updated with the advancements of technology and its legal
know how. Updated library professional can give the proper platform to the users to
utilize the maximum resources available in the library without infringing the IPR.
During the study, it was observed that majority of the patrons know the Intellectual
Property Rights in general terms but they are unaware of the implications of the
IPR in library usage. It was also observed that, most of the respondents are unaware
of the Validity of the IPR laws after their registration. In the study it was observed
that most of the library patrons have learnt the IPR laws through general means. It
was observed that majority of non law students are more illiterate in IPR Laws.
Study on Intellectual property rights should be compulsorily introduced in all
subject discipline.
From the study it was observed that understanding by the Library Patron about
library services and fair use is not clear. There is a strong need to create awareness
on using the library services without infringing the Intellectual Property Rights. It
was found from the study that, library patrons are interested in regular training
programs/ workshop to know IPR properly in regard to library usage. IPR Policies
in regard library services is very less observed and efforts should be made to frame
IPR Policy in library in regard to library services. The American Library
Association advocates the fairuse guidelines, in the same way our library
professionals should frame the guidelines in common for Indian Academic
Libraries.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hoorebeck, M. V. (2005). Law, Libraries and Technology. Oxford: Chandos
Publishing (Oxford) Limited.
Narayana, P. (2013). Intellectual Property Rights. Kolkata: Eastern Law
House Private Ltd.
Agarwal, D. (1996, November). Libraries and Library Services under the
Indian Copyright Law. DESIDOC Bulletin of Infomation Technology, 16(6),
21-23.
Ahuja, A. A. (1996, November). Chaining the Unchained Books: Copyright as
an Infringement on the Philosophy of the Library Science. DESIDOC Bulletin
of Information Technology, 16(06), 5-10.
Ananda, T., & Reddy B, R. (1996, November). Copyright in the Information
Age: Librarian's Viewpoint. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology,
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16(6), 17-19.
Kaur, H. (2014). Academic Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement: The Need
of Intellectual Honesty. 59th ILA International Conference on Managing
Libraries in the Changing Information World: From Surviving to Thriving (pp.
587-591). Roorkee: Indian Library Association.
Madhava Menon, N. (1996). Copyright Problems in Library Services.
DESIDOC Bulletin of InformationTechnology, 16(06), 3-4.
Shetttar, I. M. (2010). Digital Age Complexity of Copyright Issues in
Libraries. ISST Journal of Advances in Librarianship, I(I), 7-10.
Yaranal, M., & Ramesha. (2012). Managing Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
in Libraries: A Practical Approaches and Solutions. International Journal of
Digital Library Services, II(3), 43-50.
Badigannavar, B. S., & Tadasad, P. (2014). Copyright and Fair use Web Post
Analysis of Engineering Colleges of Karnatak: A Pilot Study. Contemporary
Engineering College Libraries: Challenges and Prospects (pp. 37 -43). Tiptur:
Library and Information Centre, Kalpataru Institute of Technology.
http://www.ipindia.nic.in
http://copyright.gov.in/Documents/handbook.html
Fair Dealing in Copyright: Corollary of
Fundamental Rights
Dr. Vishal Mahalwar1
“The progress of arts and sciences and the robust public debate essential to an
enlightened citizenry are ill served by the constricted reading of the fair use
doctrine.”
-Justice William Brennan2
Prologue
India is one of the strongest democratic countries in the world. Some people who
are exception to the mass, mould the “law” according to their own interests. We
often talk about disorder in various government offices due to corruption. But who
is responsible for the same- system or people who are the governor of system.
Unstructured and disordered society is one of the factors for creating complexity in
the system. Participation of every member of unstructured society in the system
make it privileged. This is the peculiarity of our system. Responsibility of
deficiency in system lies in the hands of common man though powerful and
influential class of society holds the reins of society. Common man can never be
suppressed for illegitimate reasons because they are the one for whom system and
law has been enacted. “Time is a great healer”, this is what we have heard from our
elders. More than sixty seven years of independence or adoption of Constitution are
enough to heal the wounds of insecure mind. In order to strengthen democracy,
fundamental rights have been guaranteed to all citizens of India by The
Constitution of India”. According to Preamble of the Constitution prime goal of
Constitution includes JUSTICE, Social, Economic and Political; LIBERTY of
thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of
opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation, to secure to all its citizens.
In order to comply with the intended components which are supposed to be
achieved has been facilitated by the incorporation of Fundamental Rights under
1
2
Assistant Professor, National Law University, Delhi.
Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 579 (1985)
118
part III of the Constitution. With a view to achieve the fundamental rights, various
statutes have been enacted for the effective implementation of rights granted under
the Constitution of India. Intellectual property laws are also step towards
proliferation of fundamental rights. Though, intellectual property can not be
claimed as fundamental rights, still, it is corollary and essential tool for the
implementation of fundamental rights. The Constitution gives the sanction to the
Human rights by incorporating part III on Fundamental Rights. In the modern era,
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights being an international instrument
serves as mentor for all nations in context of Human Rights. Intellectual property
laws and Constitution's part III have a strong logical nexus. According to Art. 27 (2)
of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights , “ Everyone has the right to the
protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary
or artistic production of which he is the author.” Article 27 clearly saves the moral
and economic interest of the author. Further, Art. 27 (1) says that everyone has the
right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and
to share in scientific advancement and its benefits In order to provide the
Economic, Social and Cultural rights, Art. 27 has been incorporated. The Copyright
Act 1957 is also in consonance with this international instrument which elaborates
the economic and non economic rights. The basic rational behind the copyright law
is to protect the expression of thoughts which is a Human Right under the head of
Right to speech and expression recognized in the Constitution of India under Art.
19.3 Every original expression in regard to the literary, artistic, dramatic and
musical works is protected under the Copyright Act. Part III of the Constitution of
India specifies the Fundamental rights which are synonymously human rights. The
right to life and personal liberty is enumerated under Art 21 of the Indian
constitution.4 Scope of this Article has been widened by the Honorable Supreme
Court with the inclusion of various rights like right to shelter5, right to health6, right
to livelihood7, right to live with human dignity8 and so many other rights. Such
rights can be achieved with facilitation of monetary assistance. Economic position
can be strengthened by grant of economic rights which has been facilitated by the
Copyright Act under section 14. Section 14 provides various economic rights
3
Article 19, Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc: . (1) All citizens shall have the
right—
(a) to freedom of speech and expression;
4
Article 21, Protection of life and personal liberty: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal
liberty except according to procedure established by law.
5
U.P. Avas Avam Vikas Parishad v. Friends Co-operative Housing Society Ltd. AIR 1996 SC 114
6
State of Punjab v. Mahinder Singh Chawla AIR 1997 SC 1225
7
Madhu Kishwar v. State of Bihar, AIR 1996 SC 1864
8
Francis Coralie Mullin vs The Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi AIR 1981 SC 746
Fair Dealing in Copyright: Corollary of Fundamental Rights
119
which can be exploited by the author himself, by assignment or by license. Such
right, somehow, really helps to improvise economic status of the owner of the
copyright. The moment, when we talk about right to life and personal liberty, it
further includes right to live life with dignity. Art 27 of Universal Declaration of
Human Rights emphasizes on moral right of the author. Section 57 titled Author's
special right of the Copyright Act also specifies about the right to paternity and right
to integrity which are pertinent to moral right of author.9 Right to integrity
strengthens the right to live life with the dignity. Distortion, mutilation,
modification or any other work in relation to copyrighted work which would be
prejudicial to his honour or reputation shall infringe the moral right of the author.
Fair Dealing: A Social Concern
Human Right of a person never conflicts or curtails other's rights. Copyright also
follows the same principle. There must be a balance between public interest and
private interest. General Perception among people is that no one can have access to
the rights of copyright holders which have been given by virtue of Copyright Act. In
order to avoid the inaccessibility of copyrighted work, fair dealing concept has
been introduced by section 52, which creates a balance between public interest and
private interest. When, some rights conflict with another's interest then those rights
can not be pronounced or recognized as Human Rights. By the Copyright
(Amendment) Act 2012, section 31 B has been inserted in Copyright Act for the
benefit of the disabled persons.10 Provision for compulsory license has been
introduced for the benefit of disabled persons, though Art. 14 of Constitution of
India guarantees equality.11 It can be safely inferred that copyright is a corollary of
fundamental rights and supplements the fundamental right. Exercise of economic
9
Section 57,Author's special rights. (1) Independently of the author's copyright and even after the
assignment either wholly or partially of the said copyright, the author of a work shall have the right(a) to claim authorship of the work; and
(b) to restrain or claim damages in respect of any distortion, mutilation, modification or other act in
relation to the said work which is done before the expiration of the term of copyright if such distortion,
mutilation, modification or other act would be prejudicial to his honour or reputation
10
31B. (I) Any person working for the benefit of persons with disability on a profit basis or for business
may apply to the Copyright Board, in such form and manner and accompanied by such fee as may be
prescribed, for a compulsory licence to publish any work in which copyright subsists for the benefit ·of
such persons, in a case to which clause (zb) of subsection (1) of section 52 does not apply and the
Copyright Board shall dispose of such application as expeditiously as possible and endeavour shall be
made to dispose of such application within a period of two months from the date of receipt of the
application.
11
Art. 14 Right to Equality: The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal
protection of the laws within the territory of India.
120
rights of owner of copyrighted work can not be exercised by another person unless
license is granted and rights have been assigned. For dissemination of knowledge,
section 52 of Copyright Act plays a very vital role for appropriation of subject
matter of copyrighted work. Right to reproduction has been given to the owner of
copyright by the virtue of section 14 of Copyright Act. Right to reproduction
includes reproduction of copyrighted work either substantially or fully. Academic
world is the biggest exploiter of fair dealing principle. Draftsman of Indian
Copyright Act preferred to enlist the subject matter of fair dealing irrespective of
non exhaustiveness of list. As far as United State of America is concerned, they
have widened the scope of fair dealing named as fair use in American Copyright Act
1976. Basic rational behind the concept of fair dealing is to bring the statute in
consonance with socioeconomic concern of society. Rights of any person can not
be maintained or granted at the cost of suppression of any specific section of
society. Ironically, the provision which was incorporated with the view of
balancing the interest of society and interest of owner of copyrighted work has been
exploited irrespective of achieving its fundamental goal. Fair dealing has become
an ideal defense for infringement of copyrighted work. Definition of Fair dealing
has not been elaborated anywhere in the Copyright Act. Simultaneously, list of
exemptions from infringement of copyright is also a problem because of non
exhaustiveness. Fair dealing has created lot of confusion and ambiguity in the mind
of researchers that whether it is a right of users or it is defense of infringers? Fair
dealing provision is one of the provisions which converts monopoly on the
copyright into quasi- monopolistic character. In absence of exhaustiveness, Section
52 leaves enough space for judicial creativity to determine as to what to include as
subject matter of fair dealing.
Limitations and International Instrument
International conventions recognize the exceptions to infringement of copyright
under certain limited circumstances. Within these limitations, rights which are
granted to the owner of copyrighted work can be exercised by person other than
copyright holder. Prominent international instrument in the discipline of copyright
is Berne Convention which was formed in 1886. Article 9 (2) of the convention is
very relevant in this regard. According to Art.9(2),12
12
This provision was added in Stockholm in 1967
121
“It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the union to
permit the reproduction of such works in special cases, provided
that such reproduction doesn't conflict with normal exploitation
of the work and doesn't unreasonably prejudice the legitimate
interest of the author”
Article 13 of TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)13 also
provides:
Members shall confine limitations or exceptions to exclusive rights to certain
special cases which do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do
not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder.
Art.9(2) of Berne Convention is with regard to the reproduction right which refers
to “Three Step” test on exception to reproduction right. There are three conditions
on application of exceptions. Firstly, exception shall apply in special cases.
Secondly, exception must not contradict with normal exploitation of work. Thirdly,
exception must not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interest of the author.
WTO members have to comply with “three step test” mentioned in the Berne
Convention.
Fair Use or Fair Dealing
In copyright law, term “fair use” and “fair dealing” are synonymous to each other.
U.S Copyright Act 1976 enumerates word “Fair Use” rather than “Fair Dealing”.
The U.S. Act has much wider scope than section 52 of Indian Copyright Act 1957.
Section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Act 1976 states:
the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by
reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means
specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism,
comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies
for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an
13
Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights was negotiated in 1994.
TRIPS provides a minimum standard for many forms of intellectual property
122
infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made
of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be
considered
shall include (1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such
use is of a commercial nature or is for non-profit educational
purposes;
(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;
(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation
to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of
the copyrighted work.
Purpose and Character of the Use
In order to determine the “fair dealing”, one thing has to be observed that for what
purpose copyrighted work has been used. If copyrighted work has been used for the
purposes which are mentioned in section 52, then it will not be considered as
infringement of copyright. According to section 52 of the Copy right Act, private
study, research14, teaching, criticism, and review15 are such purposes which are
exempted from using copyrighted work. New jurisprudence of copyright includes
the transformative use of the copyrighted work within the ambit of definition of fair
use. “Transformative work” means conversion of existing work in to new
expression, meaning and message. Transformative use doctrine has been
propounded in U.S which really helps to figure out that whether work is fair use or
not irrespective of four determining parameter of fair Use mentioned in section 107
of Copyright Act 1976.16 Character of use of copyrighted work has to be observed to
determine fair use. Commercial use of work can not be considered as a fair use.
Owner of copyrighted work has economic rights over the work which can be
exploited by the owner except economic rights which have been assigned or
licensed to any other person. In the context of Library, copyrighted work may be
reproduced for library purpose. Thus the purpose and character of use are education
and non commercial respectively.
14
Williams & Wilkins Co v. United States 487 F2d. 1345 (1973)
See Chancellor Masters and Scholars of university of Oxford v. Narender Publishing House
2008(38) PTC (Del); V. Ramaiah v. K. Lakshmaiah (1989)PTC 137
16
See, Campbell v Acuff-Rose Music Inc 510 US 569 (1994).
15
123
Nature of the Copyrighted Work
Meaning of Fair use shall also depends upon the nature of copyrighted work. The
moment, we talk about nature of copyright work, it includes whether work is
published or unpublished and whether work is informative or creative in nature.
Unpublished and private circulation of the work pretends to be fair use. Similarly,
the work based on factual information has probability of being covered under the
definition of fair use. Only original works may be entertained as subject matter of
copyright. Those works which lack originality can not claim copyright. To
determine the nature of work, several theories have been propounded like sweat of
brow17, modicum of creativity18, merger theory etc. After the analysis of nature of
work, it becomes convenient to ascertain whether work falls with in the ambit of
fair dealing or not.
Amount and Substantiality
Third parameter to determine the fair use or fair dealing is qualitative and
quantitative. First of all, we have to see the amount which has been taken out from
the copyrighted work. Diverse views have been given by judiciary and legislature
on amount. At the first instance, amount plays an important role to figure out fair
use. When amount fails to determine the fair use, then we have to observe the
substantiality of the work copied from copyrighted work. For instance, if someone
prepares an annual report collecting certain objective facts relating to working of
marginalized group of people. Subsequently, another person copies the concluding
part of report. Even though, whole report or big amount has not been copied by the
infringer, still it shall be considered as infringement of copyright. Similarly,
Copying of big amount of work may not be considered as infringement if it is not
substantial. Section 14 of Copyright Act 1957, gives an economic right to the owner
of copyright which includes right to reproduction of substantial part thereof or
whole. It means, if some one encroaches into the rights of others it will be held to be
infringement of copyright. Taking of substantial part of copyrighted work can
17
See University of London Press Ltd. v University Tutorial Press Ltd. (1916) 2 Ch. D. 601; Eastern
Book co v. Navin J. Desai (2001)PTC 57 (Del) 94
Feist Publication Inc. v.Rural Telephone Services 499 US 340 (1991)
18
124
19
never be covered in fair use. In this regard totality of impression test and
untrained ear test20 have been laid down by the judiciary.
Effect of The Use
Effect of use of copyrighted work upon the potential market would be the most
important parameter to figure out, whether any specific use of copyrighted work is
fair or not. As already mentioned, economic and non economic rights have been
given to the owner of copyright. If some one uses copyrighted work unauthorizedly
and due to which it causes an impact on market of original copyrighted work then
such use shall not qualify to be pronounced as fair use.
Library and Fair Dealing
In above mentioned parameters, it can be said that library may make a reproduction
of copyrighted work without prior permission of owner of copyright by the virtue of
fair dealing provision. First parameter of fair dealing is purpose. Purposes
enumerated under the Act are eligible to be pronounced as fair dealing. Education,
research and teaching are few of them. Indirectly, library of any educational
institution may reproduce any copyrighted material with certain limitations. Those
libraries which are commercial in nature may not do so, but as far as non
commercial libraries are concerned much liberty has been bestowed on them.
Supreme Court of Canada has widened the meaning of research. Research which
has been done for the advice of client, giving opinion, arguing cases and preparing
brief is qualified as fair dealing despite the fact that it is for commercial profit.21
Most relevant factor is the effect of use which has to be observed by the library.
Libraries can not overlook the economic rights of owner of copyright.
Reproduction of material which may be easily available at reasonable price for
library shall not be covered under the definition of fair dealing. As far as
photocopies of copyrighted material are concerned, fair dealing shall be
determined on the basis of amount of copying and substantiality of the work.
Libraries may make reproduction of copyrighted material into electronic medium
on certain conditions.22 These Conditions are - Firstly, Library must be non
19
Civic Chandaran v. Ammini Amma 1996 PTC 670 (Ker.)
Ram Sampath v. Rajesh Roshan 2009 (40) PTC 78 (Bom.)
CCH Canadian Lid. v. Law Society of Upper Canada, 2004SCC13 [CCh].
22
Section 52 (1)(n) of The Copyright Act 1957
20
21
125
commercial public library. Secondly Library must possess non digital copy of the
work before the reproduction. Thirdly, Reproduction must have taken place with
the view of preservation of material. Another Liberty which has been given to the
librarian is to make reproduction of copyrighted material which has not been
available for sale in India.23 Librarian may make three copies of such material.24
This provision is only applicable on non commercial public library.25
Epilogue
Jurisprudence of intellectual property has been expanded by the liberal
interpretation of statutes. Fair dealing doctrine strengthens fundamental rights
enumerated under the Constitution of India. Right to equality can't be granted
unless and until equal opportunity is given to each section of society whether
belonging to High class, middle class or lower class. Rule of law enumerates equal
access to justice. Justice may not be achieved in the absence of fair dealing
provision mentioned in Copyright Act. Photocopy cases and digitization of
copyrighted book are few emerging and burning issues which are supposed to be
resolved by the Honorable judiciary in the absence of explicit provisions. Factors to
determine fair use mentioned in U.S Copyright Act are similarly adopted by Indian
judiciary in various cases. Copyright law has left a large field for the judiciary to
wider interpretation of statutes for the aggrieved one. Non exhaustiveness of list of
exceptions to infringement of copyright gives leverage to judiciary to evolve new
approaches for the society. In nutshell it can be stated that, fair dealing doctrine has
proved as a boon and worked as a tool for rendering great service to society and
welfare state. .
23
24
25
Section 52 (1)(o) of The Copyright Act 1957
Ibid
Id.
Madhu K. S1 and Gagan K2
Abstract
Fair use exceptions in copyright law facilitate the use of copyrighted works for the
purpose of research and education. These exceptions protect the academic
community from the offence of copyright infringement. Fair use exceptions are
limitations on copyright law and have helped librarians in carrying out their work
of dissemination of knowledge. This paper discusses the various theories that
support copyright protection and the need for fair use. By analysing the fair use
exceptions under Indian Copyright Act, 1957 that are relevant to libraries, this
paper takes a view that the law needs to provide better protection for libraries in
matters of fair use.
Keywords: Copyright, Fair Use, Libraries, Access, DRM.
Literature Review
Libraries act as intermediaries between the readers and book publishers. However,
both libraries and publishers look at each other with suspect when it comes to
matters of copyright (Nick Moore, 2000). Knowing about copyright and the
exceptions such as fair use are very important to librarians (Fisher, 2010). The
importance of DRM and its implications on libraries have been documented
(Denise M. Davis & Tim Lafferty, 2002). Research on copyright fair use have been
made in many ways (Anderson & Brown, 1992; Patterson, 1987). We can find some
literature on Indian copyright law and fair use (Ayush Sharma, 2009). However,
research on libraries and Indian copyright law are not found.
Origins of Copyright Protection
Having copyright over a work gives the author of the work exclusive right to deal
with that work in the present day legal systems in most of the countries today. This
1
Assistant Librarian, National Law School of India University, Bangalore,
E-mail: madhunls@gmail.com
2
UGC Junior Research Fellow, Department of Studies in Law, University of Mysore,
E-mail: gagan555@gmail.com
127
was not the case in the 17th century. In fact, most of the countries passed copyright
legislations only in the 20th century. After the invention of printing press, works of
authors were easily duplicated by the printers and the authors were not paid any
royalty, thereby depriving them of their livelihood. The British Statute of Anne
which was passed 1710 is one of the earliest known copyright legislations of the
world. It mandated that the printers to take the consent of the authors before
replicating them. This type of legal protection was later extended to other works
such as photographs, maps, sound recordings, cinematograph films etc.
Theories of Copyright
There are broadly four theories which support copyright protection. They are:
fairness theory, welfare theory, personhood theory and culture theory. Each of these
theories are examined below. Firstly, fairness theory has two constituents – labourdesert theory and equity theory. The labour-desert theory was propounded by John
Locke. Copyright is one type of intellectual property right. John Locke said that a
property can be acquired by any person who applies labour over a plot of land that is
not owned by any person. This theory has been extended to copyright and it is
argued that the author of a work applies his creative labour to produce a work and
hence shall be entitled to have exclusive ownership over it. The equity theory
argues that each contributor to a work is entitled to his share of fruits (or rewards)
and hence the author is entitled to enjoy the fruits of his work such as exclusive right
to sell the work and gain economic benefits from it (Yen, 1990).
Secondly, welfare theory is based on the Utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill. This theory argues that the law should be organised in a way
that promotes welfare of all in the society. Going by this theory, the authors create
“public goods” that are beneficial to the society and hence their welfare should be
ensured. If there are no incentives for the authors, then they will abandon their
creative endeavors and the society will be deprived of their works (Posner &
Landes, 2003).
Thirdly, personhood theory argues that by creating a work, the authors put into it
their personality into it. For instance, a painter expresses his ideas on a canvas; a
poet expresses his emotions through a poem. This theory is more supportive for the
authors when it comes to their moral rights. Some of the moral rights are - the right
of the author to be identified as the creator of the work, the right to be notified about
the work and the right of the author to withdraw his work from public (Radin, 1982)
128
Fourthly, the culture theory argues that copyright promotes culture. Music,
literature, paintings, movies and books help in shaping cultures of the people. If the
authors are not given any rights, they will hesitate to participate in the process of
contributing to the common pool of culture (Netanel, 1996).
Fair Use Doctrine
Legal scholars are of the opinion that the Intellectual Property Rights balance the
rights of various stakeholders. For example, the patent law provides the exclusive
right to inventors and also enables patients to affordable medicine by way of
compulsory licensing. The same way, in copyright law also, there are fair use
provisions. Fair use provisions are exceptions to the general rule of copyright.
While copyright provides exclusive right over the work to the author, fair use
provisions provide that in certain circumstances the exclusive right can be violated.
Copyright gives exclusive right, but it is limited to certain number of years after the
death of the author. In India, for literary works, copyright subsists for 60 years after
the death of the author. Every intellectual property right lapses after a certain
period. This is known as “sunset clause”. Every exclusive right is limited by time.
After the stipulated period, the copyrighted work goes to the public domain. It is
often argued that the inspiring ideas for the authors come from the “commons” and
hence it has to go back to the commons pool. For example: the sound recording of a
Hindustani singer will have copyright, but the singer has developed his music after
getting trained by many teachers, who in turn got trained by other teachers. Another
example would be an English professor giving a new form to Shakespeare's drama
by adapting the plot to Indian circumstances. Many of the stories we read are the
adaptation stories found in folklore.
Fair use doctrine is based on “fairness”. The relevant question to be asked is
“whether it is fair in certain circumstances to copy the works of an author without
his or her permission?” The copyright law recognises certain uses of copyrighted
works that are considered “fair” and not violative of the rights of the authors
(particularly the economic rights).
Due to the existence of fair use, it is possible to do news reporting without any
hurdles. Otherwise, there would be copyright infringement suits every time a
129
newspaper reported about a movie or a book. Without fair use, book reviews would
never be possible. Usually, every academic work discusses the existing literature in
the particular field and then proposes the new ideas. Academic works usually cite
passages from prominent works. All this would never be possible without fair use.
Libraries as Storehouse of Knowledge
Libraries were formed with a noble objective of storing books in one place and
facilitating the public to access them at reasonable costs. The American Library of
Congress after gaining the status of National Library was given a special privilege
to get copies of every book that was submitted for copyright approval. Under the
copyright laws of 1865 and 1870, deposit of books to the Library of Congress was
made mandatory to gain copyright registration. This practice was derived from the
British Statute of Anne (1710) that mandated deposit of copies to libraries in order
to get copyright protection. Libraries around the world have been doing exceptional
service to the mankind by cataloging and preserving the books and hence deserve
special privileges (Cole, 1971).
Fair Use as Backbone for Libraries
As discussed above, libraries are storehouses of knowledge and deserve special
privileges. Fair use in a way becomes the backbone of libraries. Libraries use the
information from the book cataloging. This falls under fair use exceptions. With the
advent of electronic cataloging system, some libraries even catalogue the text
found in the 'blurb' of the book. This too falls under fair use exceptions. Apart from
this, libraries also have the responsibility of producing course packs for students.
Even this falls under fair use exceptions. However, the law is still controversial in
India when it comes to the legality of course packs. This issue will be discussed in
the later part of this paper.
International Legal Regime on Fair Use
Berne Convention and TRIPS Agreement state that the copyright laws of the
Contracting Parties can have fair use exceptions. Article 13 of the TRIPS
Agreement lays down a three step test. Firstly, the exception must be special;
secondly, it must not conflict with the normal economic exploitation of the work;
thirdly, it must not unreasonably cause prejudice to the legitimate interests of the
130
rights holders. In the European Union, the Copyright Directive has provided that
the national governments can make copyright exceptions for the purpose of
scientific research, news reporting, private use, cultural / educational copying,
criticism, review and for the benefit of disabled persons.
In USA, Section 107 of 17 US Code states that the reproduction of copyrighted
works for the purpose of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including
multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research will not amount to
copyright infringement. In determining fair use, it gives four factors namely –
purpose of use, nature of copyrighted work, amount of substantiality in proportion
to the complete work and effect of use on the market value of the work. Most of the
nations have fair exceptions embodied in their copyright laws.
Fair Use in India
Fair use is entrenched in Section 52 of Indian Copyright Act, 1957. In 2012, the
most recent amendment was made to Indian Copyright Act and several changes
were brought into Section 52 as well. Fair dealing is now allowed with any work
that is not a computer program under Section 52(1)(a) for three purposes:
1. Private or personal use including research;
2. Criticism or review; and
3. Reporting current events
Discussed below are some of the provisions under Section 52 that are related to
libraries and academic research. Under Section 52(1)(i), reproduction of any work
by a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction is considered as fair use. Section
52(1)(n) gives special privilege to non-commercial public libraries to store works
in electronic medium for the purpose of preservation, if the library already
possesses a non-digital copy of the work. Section 52(1)(o) allows non-commercial
public libraries to make not more than three copies of a book, if such book is not
available for sale in India. Section 52(1)(p) states that for the purpose of research,
unpublished works kept in libraries and museums can be reproduced.
Course Packs
Course packs are compilation of course materials collected from different sources
such as books, journals and newspapers. The courses in graduate and post-graduate
level prescribe several books and journals. To make it easier for the students, some
131
institutes compile the materials in the form of course packs. These come under the
fair use exceptions. Librarians have a role to play in the course packs. Librarians
help the teachers in collecting the materials from various sources. In the United
States of America, in the case of Cambridge University Press v. Becker (ongoing
case), the judges have held that course packs made without the consent of the
authors do not infringe copyright, provided they do not go beyond the threshold
limit of 10 percent.
However in India, recently, Delhi High Court has passed an order declaring course
packs illegal. The Indian copyright law is very clear that photocopying for the
purpose of educational and research activities are permitted. It has been pointed out
that the Indian copyright law, unlike the U.S. counterpart does not prescribe a
threshold limit for fair use when it comes to educational and research purposes
(Amlan Mohanty, 2014). This is an ongoing legal battle and till the matter is settled
it will affect the academic community adversely. It is submitted that producing
course packs comes under the fair use exceptions and if the judiciary does not
uphold the spirit of our copyright law, the Parliament will have to clarify about the
legality of course packs.
Fair Use and Disabled Persons
Section 52(1)(zb) which was added by the amendment of 2012 provides that the
“adaptation, reproduction and issue of copies or communication to the public of
any work in any accessible format” to facilitate persons with disability to access the
works is not an infringement of copyright.
In June 2013, World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) passed
“Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons Who Are
Blind, Visually Impaired or Otherwise Print Disabled” which recognized the rights
of the visually impaired persons to access the books in a format they can read. The
treaty allows members to provide copyright exceptions, so that the printed books
are converted into formats that are accessible by the visually impaired (“Marrakesh
Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons Who Are Blind, Visually
Impaired or Otherwise Print Disabled,” 2013).
However, some of the foreign publishers of electronic materials are not ready to
recognize the rights of visually impaired persons under Indian Copyright Law. The
132
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions in its “Licensing
Principles (2000)” has recommended that the national law of the licensee should be
preferred as applicable for the contract (IFLA, 2004). Until other nations ratify the
Marrakesh Treaty and provide exceptions in their copyright laws for visually
disabled, these problems will persist while libraries deal with foreign publishers.
Fair Use and Digital Rights Management (DRM)
Since digital content can be replicated easily and at a lower cost, publishers have
now started relying on Digital Rights Management (DRM). The electronic
resources are now encrypted and can be controlled by the publishers as per the
terms of the license. For example, an E-book can be licensed to one single user and
the file will work only on one single device. This is markedly from the way in which
traditional printed books work. With the printed books, we usually share them with
our friends and colleagues. However, such sharing is not possible if DRM measures
are put in place (Denise M. Davis & Tim Lafferty, 2002). Several rights groups have
termed DRM as “digital restrictions management”.
Indian Copyright Act, 1957 has incorporated Section 65A which is titled
“protection against circumvention of technological measures”. Under this
provision, tampering with the DRM measures is a punishable offence. DRM
measures restrict the scope of fair use possibilities for libraries and academic
community. For example, a book though copyrighted can be photocopied fairly for
educational purposes. But, an E-book which is protected from being printed cannot
be printed unless the technological measure (such as the encryption) is
circumvented. This act becomes punishable, although it is allowed as per fair use
exceptions under Section 52.
Conclusion
Librarians have always respected the copyright laws and within the limits of law are
trying to disseminate information to the society at affordable costs. However, the
copyright law on fair use is still not favourable to the librarians. Many of the works
done in a bona fide manner for dissemination of knowledge may be categorized as
infringing copyright. It is suggested that special exceptions are to be made for
public libraries in the copyright law to facilitate better knowledge dissemination.
133
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Amlan Mohanty. (2014). Five Reasons Why Course Packs are Legal in
India. Retrieved from http://techlawtopia.com/five-reasons-why-coursepacks-are-legal-in-india/
Anderson, M. G., & Brown, P. F. (1992). Economics behind Copyright Fair
Use. Loy. U. Chi. LJ, 24, 143.
Ayush Sharma. (2009). Indian Perspective of Fair Dealing under Copyright
Law: Lex Lata or Lex Ferenda. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights, 14,
523–531.
Cole, J. Y. (1971). OF COPYRIGHT, MEN & A NATIONAL LIBRARY.
The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress, 28(2), 114–136.
Denise M. Davis, & Tim Lafferty. (2002). Digital rights management:
implications for libraries. The Bottom Line, 15(1), 18–23.
doi:10.1108/08880450210415725
Fisher, W. (2010). Copyright for Librarians. Retrieved from
http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/handle/123456789/970
IFLA. (2004). Limitations and Exceptions to Copyright and Neighbouring
Rights in the Digital Environment: An International Library Perspective.
Retrieved from http://www.ifla.org/publications/limitations-and-exceptionsto-copyright-and-neighbouring-rights-in-the-digital-environm
Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons Who
Are Blind, Visually Impaired or Otherwise Print Disabled. (2013, June 28).
Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/marrakesh/
Netanel, N. W. (1996). Copyright and a democratic civil society. Yale Law
Journal, 283–387.
Nick Moore. (2000). The Internet and the library. Library Review, 49(9),
422–428. doi:10.1108/00242530010354029
Patterson, L. (1987). Free speech, copyright, and fair use. Vand. L. Rev., 40,
1.
Posner, R. A., & Landes, W. M. (2003). The economic structure of
intellectual property law. Retrieved from
http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/books/224/
Radin, M. J. (1982). Property and personhood. Stanford Law Review,
957–1015.
Yen, A. C. (1990). Restoring the Natural Law: Copyright as Labor and
Possession. Ohio St. LJ, 51, 517.
Issues of Copyright Protection
in the Digital Era
Dr. Mohd. Asif Khan1
Abstract
Information communication and digital technologies have drastically changed the
collection of libraries, their function and method of collection, storage and
retrieval of information for user community. The digital age presents new
challenges to fundamental copyright issues that are legal corner stones of library
services, Libraries are leaders in trying to maintain a balance of power between
copyright holders and users. As a result a result it becomes necessary to
conceptualized copyright issues of digital information for information
professional. In the last few years much concrete progress has been made towards
describing and understanding the inevitable but seemingly elusive digital future.
Keywords. Digital technology, Community, Copyright issue, Library services
Introduction
Copyright has initially been formulated to grant economic right to those who have
put efforts in creative work like fine arts, writing or composing and yet balance
these individual with social interests, copyright is the legal concept that concern
right to copy. Copyright protects the labour skills and judgments that someone.
Author Artist or some creator expends in the creation of an original piece of work
whether it is a so called 'literacy work' a piece of work a painting , a photograph a
TV Programme or any other created work. Copyright is a legal protection for a
limited period against unauthorized reproduction of any published/unpublished
scientific/artistic work. With the current digital technology we can build
comprehensive collections and with digital networks we can make these available
to users all over the world. The current challenges are establishing the roles, rights
and responsibilities of our libraries and achieve providing public access to this
information. In this situation hons copyright will, if it can deal with the new world
1
Senior Library and Information Officer, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP)
18/2, Satsang Vihar Marg, Special Institutional Area, Near JNU East Gate, New Delhi-110 067
India, Email –asif.khan@nipfp.org.in
135
of electronic publishing. Electronic publishing includes not only online publishing
but also CD ROM and related technologies such as CD interactive of these two CD
ROM and related technology are much more analogous to classic publishing than
online publishing. They involve the physical transfer from the publisher to the
reader of a tangible thing on which the published work is embodied. On line
publishing is a very different of its kind. Manuscript are submitted, edited, reserved
and displayed on line. The document is available through a central file site and is
available article by article for a friend annual subscription price for subscription we
have fashioned what we think for subscriber we have fashioned what we think is an
unusually short and user- friendly license agreement. After all on line publishing
give us the opportunity to communicate things to our customers that we have never
had the opportunity to say before. In fact, when we established a licensing
agreement with a recipient of materials, we have an opportunity to educate.
Rights under Copyright
Copyright comprises of two main rights relating to economic rights, the rights of
reproduction, broadcasting, public performance, adaption, translation, public
relations, public display distribution etc.
Moral Rights:
It is author's right to object to any distortion mutation or other modification of
his/her work that might be prejudicial to his/her honors or reputation. Both sets of
right belong to the creator who can exercise them he/she can use the work
himself/herself can give permission to someone else to use the work or prohibit
someone else from using the work. The general principle is that copyrighted works
can't be used without the authorization of the owner of rights. The registration of a
work under the act is not compulsory, but once the particulars of a work are entered
in the 'Registered of Copyright' it constitutes the prima facie evidence of ownership
in the work. It is desirable to mark, print or display the copyright registration of any
work with the symbol (c) “copyright" along with copyright registration number
year of registration and the name of the owner of copyright to inform the public
about the existence car of copyright in the work and warn them from illegal use or
copying the work.
136
Types of Copyright
According to copyright design and patents Act, UK (1988) the following categories
of works are covered under copyright.
•
Literacy: songs, lyrics, manuscripts, manuals, computer programmes, web
page designs commercial documents, leaflets, newsletters article etc.
•
Dramatic: play, dance etc.
•
Musical: recording and score etc.
•
Artistic: photography, painting, sculptures, architecture, technical drawings,
diagrams, maps, logos etc.
•
Sound Recordings: may be recordings of other copyrights work eg musical
and literacy.
•
Films: documentary and feature films broadcasts and cable programmes.
•
Typographical arrangement of published editions: magazines or periodicals
etc.
•
Computer Programmes: the copyright (computer programmes/
Regulations 1992 extended the rules covering the literary works to include
computer programme.
Copyright and Internet:
Internet is well known is a threat to copyrighted material because it enables global
ubiquity of information through technologies that allow people to make perfect
copies of content as described. On the other hand the Internet enables many new
types of "infomediary" second ties content business that can create new revenue
streams for publishes. Those business are analogous to bookstores, book clubs,
clipping services or libraries in the real world, they can retcul aggregate repackage,
or redistribute content online.
Such businesses provide value by offering information in forms that consumers
find comment therefore publishes need to encourage those new types of business to
foster their growth, publishers can made it easy to do business electronically with
all publishers in the same way in other words to offer some degree of
interoperability among publishers in the online environment. It might be
technically easier to create a digital infrastructure without copyright, just throw
137
works up on the internet and let anyone get to them for any purposes, but such
system have been suggested and roundly by those who create and own works of
value, so we need to build an electronic infrastructure that works with copyright
and takes advantage of the digital environment.
Copyright- Indian Scenario
In 1914, the first copyright act was passed in India which was a copy of the British
act of 1911. It codified and consolidated the earlier acts an different work to make it
applicable to British it also abolished the common law copyright and introduced a
term of the life the author plus forty years. On 04th June 1957 the copyright Act
1957 was passed by both the houses of parliament and ratified with the assent of the
president. This act was amended in the year 1983, 1984, 1987, 1992 and both the
houses of parliament passed the last amendment on 11th and 13th may 1994. The
result was the enactment of Indian copyright act of 1957 replaced the act of 1914.
Act of 1957 came into force on 21st century 1958 with the intention to cope with the
new problems in the law of copyright created by advances in communicated
broadcasting, motion pictures litho photography microfilming, cinema, sound
recording etc. it was according to unwersal copyright convention, but at that time, it
was not well in force as most of the population was illiterate. This act covered books
periodicals, music cinematographic works and latest reprographic techniques and
computerized storage.
Copyright Act & Libraries
Authors create the thought contents of the documents while the publishers create a
market to "distribute and sell the works libraries at the one round as a social and
cultural institution acquire, process, organise, presence, disseminate and provide
access to the works of intellectual contents in order to satisfy the information
hunger of its user to the works including those that have lost market avability/out of
print and at other hand are intended to support he needs of authors/copyright
owners to obtain a fair economic return on their intellectual property. Considering
two such circumstances. IFLA on the one side support the effective enforcement of
copyright and recognize that libraries have a crucial role play in controlling as well
as facilitating access to the increasing number of local and remote electronic/digital
information resources and on the other hand maintains that overprotection of
copyright could theater democratic tradition and impact on social justice principles
by unreasonably restricting access to information and knowledge.
138
Conclusion
We tend to forget that copyright is a social contract; more than any other type of
property, it depends for its existence on the consent of all parties. Libraries and
information professional can play valuable role as the organizes and facilities of
digital property beyond the transformation of information to an electronic state,
library professionals are in best position to evaluate the value of information in any
form to an individual or to an organization a role under ably ignored now. Indeed,
this role the "Capacity to make use of information effectively" will be cruel in the
digital environment. The library and information professionals should have a four
use after deal arrangement as in the case of printed works.
References:
1.
2.
3
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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13.
Strong.W. (1999), “Copyright in a time of change”. The journal of
electronic Publishing, March, Vol. 4 issue 3.
Norman, s (1999), “Copyright in Public Library” 4th ed. London the
Library Association.
Upadhyay, Padma. (2000), “Intellectual Property Right in digital era”,
NACLIN 22-25th.IIT Chennai, pp.-260-266.
Ahuja, Ashish A (1996), “Changing the Unchainged
books: copyright
as an infrigment on the philosophy of the library science. DESIDOC
Bulletin, Vol.16, No. 6, pp.5-10.
Opperhiem, C. (2000). “Does Copyright have any future on the internet
Journal of documentation” Vol. 56(3), pp. 279,-298.
Fenner, A, Ed. (2005) “Managing Digital Resources in Libraries”, Haworth
Press, New York, Pg 2.
Drake, Mircam A. Ed. (2005). “Encyclopedia of Library and information
science, CRC Press London pp. 1679.
http:// www. elsever. (Accessed on January 2010).
http:// www.inflibnet.ac.in (Accessed on January 2010).
http:// www.10p.org (Accessed on January 2010).
http:// www. Sagepub.com (Accessed on January 2010).
http:// www.proquest com (Accessed on January 2010).
http:// www.oxford journals (Accessed on January 2010)
Nida ZainabNaqvi1 and Syed Ahtisham Raza Naqvi2
Abstract
Intellectual property rights are a bundle of exclusive rights over creations of the
mind, both artistic and commercial. The copyright laws, protect creative works
such as books, movies, music, paintings, photographs, and software and gives the
copyright holder exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such
works for a certain period of time. The purpose of this study is to explore remedies
against breach of copyrights.
Key Words: Copyright, Interlocutory Injunction, Anton Piller and John Doe Order,
ex parte
Introduction
Over the past several decades there has been an increasing awareness globally – and
within India – of the importance of 'knowledge societies' which, in contrast to
earlier industrial or agrarian societies, leverage 'information' as the key raw
material and output of a range of productive activity.3 In their eagerness to provide
the best supportive conditions to usher in this coveted knowledge society, nations
have been tightening their Intellectual Property regimes – including copyright law.
Copyright is a form of intellectual property protection granted under Indian law to
the creators of original works of authorship such as literary works (including
computer programs, tables and compilations including computer databases which
may be expressed in words, codes, schemes or in any other form, including a
machine readable medium), dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematographic
films and sound recordings.4
1
Research Scholar, Deptt of Law,JMI, New Delhi
Professional Assistant, SNCWS, JMI, New Delhi
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/front-page/blog/privacy/copyright-enforcement - accessed
on 11-12-14
4
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l195-Copyright-Law-in-India.html – accessed on 11-1214
2
3
140
In India the first Copyright Act was passed in the year 1914. At present, the
Copyright Act, 1957 governs copyright law in India. The original Act of 1957 has
been amended in the year 1983, 1984, 1992, 1994, and recently in 1999. A
copyright is an intangible property. The subject matter of copyright, the thing
protected is called a “work”. Copyright subsists throughout India in (a) original
literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works (b) cinematograph film and (c) sound
recording (Section 13). These terms are defined in the Act. Apart from these works,
no other work is entitled to copyright under the Act. Section 14 of the Act defines a
Copyright for the purposes of the Act. A Copyright means the exclusive right to do
or authorize the doing of acts in respect of a work or any substantial part thereof.5
These rights can be exercised only by the owner of copyright or by any other person
who is duly licensed in this regard by the owner of copyright. These rights include
the right of adaptation, right of reproduction, right of publication, right to make
translations, communication to public etc.6
The Copyright Act, 1957 provides copyright protection in India. It confers
copyright protection in the following two forms:
(A) Economic Rights: The copyright subsists in original literary, dramatic,
musical and artistic works; cinematographs films and sound recordings. The
authors of copyright in the aforesaid works enjoy economic rights under Section 14
of the Act. The rights are mainly, in respect of literary, dramatic and musical, other
than computer program, to reproduce the work in any material form including the
storing of it in any medium by electronic means, to issue copies of the work to the
public, to perform the work in public or communicating it to the public, to make any
cinematograph film or sound recording in respect of the work, and to make any
translation or adaptation of the work. In the case of computer program, the author
enjoys in addition to the aforesaid rights, the right to sell or give on hire, or offer for
sale or hire any copy of the computer program regardless whether such copy has
been sold or given on hire on earlier occasions.
(B) Moral Rights: Section 57 of the Act defines the two basic “moral rights” of an
author. These are:
(i)
Right of paternity, and
(ii)
Right of integrity.
5
http://www.majmudarindia.com/pdf/Law%20governing%20copyright%20in%20India.pdf –
accessed on 11-12-14
6
Supra Nt. 3
141
The right of paternity refers to a right of an author to claim authorship of work and a
right to prevent all others from claiming authorship of his work. Right of integrity
empowers the author to prevent distortion, mutilation or other alterations of his
work, or any other action in relation to said work, which would be prejudicial to his
honour or reputation. The proviso to section 57(1) provides that the author shall not
have any right to restrain or claim damages in respect of any adaptation of a
computer program to which section 52 (1)(aa) applies (i.e. reverse engineering of
the same). It must be noted that failure to display a work or to display it to the
satisfaction of the author shall not be deemed to be an infringement of the rights
conferred by this section. The legal representatives of the author may exercise the
rights conferred upon an author of a work by section 57(1), other than the right to
claim authorship of the work.
Copyright Infringement
Copyright infringement or copy right violation is the unauthorized use of material
that is covered by copyright law, in a manner that violates one of the copy right
owner's exclusive rights, such as the right to reproduce or perform the copyrighted
work, or to make derivative works. For electronic and audio visual media,
unauthorized reproduction and distribution is occasionally referred to as piracy.
The infringement of copyright takes place by reproducing the work in any material
form, issuing copies of the work to the public not being the copies already in
circulation including the work in any cinematographic film, making an adaptation
of the work, communicating the work to the public, if aware that such act shall
amount to infringement of copyright, making, selling, letting on hire, distributing,
importing or holding trade exhibits in public of the infringed work. The true test to
determine infringement is when a trader, spectator or viewer after having read or
seen both the works should get an unmistakable impression that the subsequent
work appears to be a copy of the first.7 When there is a violation or an infringement
of an intellectual property, it becomes the sole right of the Intellectual property
holder to obtain a remedy for the infringement of something that he has acquired
with a lot of hard work and tremendous efforts. Hence, it is necessary to grant
remedies to the intellectual property holders. The remedies granted to the
7
Kumar, Davey Hemi Paresh, Criminal Implications of Intellectual Property Infringement under
Indian Legislations Available
at:http://www.altacit.com/pdf/Criminalimplicationsofintellectualproperty_%20infringement.pdf –
accessed on 11-12-14
142
Intellectual Property holders are of three types: Criminal, Civil and Administrative
Remedies.
Remedies against the Infringement of Copyright
The Copyright Act provides for both civil and criminal remedies for infringement.
Section 55 provides for civil remedies and declares that, upon infringement, "the
owner of the copyright shall be entitled to all such remedies by way of injunction,
damages, and accounts and otherwise as are or may be conferred by law for the
infringement of a right." Civil suits are instituted at the appropriate district court
having jurisdiction – including where the plaintiff resides.8
Civil Remedies
The most importance civil remedy is the grant of interlocutory injunction since
most actions start with an application for some interlocutory relief and in most
cases the matter never goes beyond the interlocutory stage. The other civil remedies
include damages - actual and conversion; rendition of accounts of profits and
delivery up.9
Interlocutory Injunction
In order to secure immediate protection from a threatened infringement or from the
continuance of an infringement, a plaintiff may apply for an interlocutory
injunction pending the trial of the action or further orders. An application for such
relief is made along with the plain supported by affidavit evidence. Very often an ex
parte injunction is also sought, i.e. a temporary injunction granted for a short
period, for a week or so, before the defendant has notice of the suit or is heard. For
obtaining an interlocutory injunction the plaintiff has to establish a prima facie case
and that the balance of convenience is his favour and that if the interim order is not
granted it will cause irreparable injury to the plaintiff.10
The defendant if injured as a result of the injunction, will be entitled to
compensation by virtue of an undertaking as to the damages by the plaintiff which
8
Supra Nt. 1
http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/1825/Civil+and+Criminal+Remedies+in+Copyright+Infringement
+Part+2+Remedies – accessed on 11-12-14
10
P. Narayanan, Intellectual Property Law, Eastern Law House, 2007, p. 350
9
143
is an invariable condition of the granting of such an injunction. An interlocutory
injunction will not be granted where the defendant might suffer irreparable injury
from an injunction pending trial and the plaintiff can be protected by the defendant
being ordered to keep an account, nor will it normally be granted where a bona fide
defence of fair dealing has been pleaded, or if the plaintiff has been guilty of undue
delay in coming to the court or his conduct amounted to acquiescence in the
infringement or if there is any substantial doubt as to the plaintiff's right to succeed.
It has been held that in considering whether to grant an interlocutory injunction the
court must look at the whole case. It must have regard not only to the strength of the
defence and then decide what is best to be done.11
Damages or Accounts of Profit
There are two types of damages available to a successful plaintiff, one under
Section 55 for infringement and the other under Section 58 for conversion. The
copyright owner is entitled to treat all infringing copies of his work as if they were
his own property. He will have to take civil proceedings for the recovery of
possession thereof or in respect of conversion thereof. The plaintiff may also claim
special damages for the flagrancy of infringement. As an alternative to damages a
successful plaintiff may claim account of profits.12
Criminal Penalties
Chapter XIII (Sections 63-70) provides a range of criminal penalties for infringing
copyrights which are typically punishable with terms of imprisonment that “may
extend up to three years” along with a fine. These offences would be taken
cognizance of and tried at the court of the Metropolitan Magistrate or Judicial
Magistrate of the First class13 in the same manner as all cognizable offences in India
i.e., by following the procedures under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
Section 64 of the Copyright Act dealing with police powers was amended in 1984 to
give plenary powers to police officers, of the rank of a sub-inspector and above, to
seize without warrant all infringing copies of works “if he is satisfied” that an
offence of infringement under section 63, “has been, is being, or is likely to be,
committed”.
11
12
13
American Cyanamid v. Ethicon [1975] RPC 513 at pp. 539-542 (HL)
Supra Nt. 9
Section 70
144
14
In Girish Gandhi & Others v. Union of India, a case before the Rajasthan High
Court, the petitioner, who ran a video cassette rental business, challenged the
constitutional validity of the wide powers granted to police officers under this
section. Citing various instances of violations of privacy that the abuse of the
section could occasion, the petitioner contended: "The provisions of section 64
itself gives arbitrary and naked powers without any guidelines to the police officer
to seize any material from the shop and thus, drag the video owners to the litigation.
He has given instances in the petition that police officer usually demands for video
cassettes to be given to them free of charge for viewing it at their homes and in case,
on any reason either the video cassette is not available or it is not given free of
charge, there is likelihood that police officer shall misuse his powers and try to
seize the material for prosecution under the various provisions of the Act."
Although the High Court dismissed the petition on the grounds that it did not
disclose any actual injury to the petitioner, it upheld the constitutionality of the
section by reading the word "satisfaction" to mean that the "police officer will not
act until and unless he has got some type of information on which information he is
satisfied and his satisfaction shall be objective."
In May 2011, the Delhi High Court struck down a notification issued by the
Commissioner of Police which had instructed all subordinate functionaries of the
police to "attend to and provide assistance" whenever any complaint "in respect of
violation of the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1957" was received from three
companies: Super Cassettes Industries Limited, Phonographic Performance Ltd
and Indian Performance Right Society Ltd. This virtually amounted to the
commandeering of the criminal enforcement system by a few private owners for
their own private interests. In their suit,15 the petitioner — Event and Entertainment
Management Association — had contended that the police machinery "cannot be
made to act at the behest of certain privileged copyright owners". The court struck
down the notification as unconstitutional.
Section 65 of the Act says that any person who knowingly makes, or has in his
possession, any plate for the purpose of making infringing copies of any work in
14
AIR 1997 Raj 78 < http://indiankanoon.org/doc/661363/>: http://cis-india.org/internetgovernance/front-page/blog/privacy/copyright-enforcement accessed on 11-12-14
15
Event and Entertainment Management Association v. Union of India (Delhi HC) Order dated 2nd
May 2011 <http://courtnic.nic.in/dhcorder/dhcqrydisp_o.asp?pn=84697&yr=2011>. Harkauli, S.,
2011. HC nullifies police circular on copyright issue. The Pioneer. Available at:
http://www.dailypioneer.com/336974/HC-nullifies-police-circular-on-copyright-issue.html :
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/front-page/blog/privacy/copyright-enforcement accessed on
11-12-14
145
which Copyright subsists is punishable with imprisonment which may extends to 2
yrs. and with fine. Section 66 provides that the court trying the offence may order
that all the copies of the work which appears to be infringing copies or plates, for the
purpose of making infringing copies in possession of alleged offender, be delivered
up to the owner of the Copyright without any further proceedings, whether the
accused is convicted or not.16
Administrative Remedies
Administrative remedies consist of moving the Registrar of Copyright to ban the
import of the infringing copies into India and the delivery of infringing copies
confiscated to the owner of the copyright.
Anton Piller and John Doe Orders
Apart from the above civil, criminal and administrative remedies a plaintiff has
other remedies too, for example, Anton Piller Order and John Doe. The 'John Doe'
order is used to describe an injunction sought against a person whose identity is not
known at the time of the issuance of the order. It thus, enables an IP owner to serve
notice and take action against anyone, whose identity is unknown and found to be
infringing the IP Rights. In other words, the order does not specify any one
defendant in particular. The John Doe order allows the plaintiff's solicitor to search
the premises and deliver up evidence of infringement of the rights of the plaintiff by
the unknown Defendant (John Doe).17
The John Doe orders are descendants of the “defendant-specific” Anton Piller
injunction that originated in the 1976 decision of the English Court of Appeal in
Anton Piller KG v. Manufacturing Processes Ltd.18 In this case, the Court of Appeal
was required to Judge the legality of certain ex parte orders, being passed by lower
Courts, ordering the Defendants to allow Plaintiffs to enter the premises of the
Defendants for an inspection and removal of critical evidence which could be easily
destroyed by the Defendant, if it had a forewarning of any legal action. In this
particular case, it was the trade secrets of the Plaintiff that were being illegally
traded by the Defendant and the Plaintiff needed to search the premises of the
16
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/In_Copy.htm - accessed on 11-12-14
Devgan, Priyanka, A Comparative Case Law Analysis Of John Doe And Anton Piller Orders,
Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2224153 – Accessed on 11-12-14
18
[1976] 1 All E.R. 55(C.A.)
17
146
Defendant, without prior notice, in order to seize the material intact. If prior notice
had been issued to the Defendant, it is likely that the Defendant would have
destroyed the critical evidence in order to evade legal action.
Lord Denning, the presiding judge, explained in detail that such orders were
extraordinary, since in England the citizenry has always had the right to privacy of
their own homes and a man was often considered the king of his own home. Most
importantly, Lord Denning took the pains to clarify that these orders were not the
same as 'search warrants' and that such orders did not authorize the Plaintiff to
forcefully enter the premises of the Defendant. Keeping in mind the extraordinary
nature of remedy, Lord Denning stated in no uncertain terms that Defendants could
resist entry of the Plaintiff into premises, with the caveat that such resistance is
bound to be treated as “contempt of Court” and accordingly punished. The grant of
such orders were justified only in instances where the Plaintiffs demonstrated a
strong prima facie case of infringement and where there was the possibility of the
Defendant destroying the evidence that was required by the Plaintiff to establish its
case at trial.
19
The first such order was passed in the case of Taj Television v. Rajan Mandal
where the Plaintiffs owned an Indian sports-broadcasting channel and also the
Indian broadcasting rights for the Football World Cup organized by FIFA. The
Plaintiff had filed this law-suit against 6 known cable-operators and another 14
unknown cable-operators and had sought injunctions against not only the 20 cableoperators but also against all other un-named cable-operators who maybe violating
the broadcast rights of the Defendants. In this particular case, the Plaintiff had tried
to convince the Court that such an exceptional request had to be accepted since
sporting events like the FIFA “World Cup” are time-bound events, wherein it was
not possible to identify each and every possible infringer before approaching the
Court and that the Plaintiffs would face an irreparable loss if such orders were not
granted because cable-operators could easily destroy the infringing evidence. The
Judge convinced by the arguments of the plaintiff issued interim injunctions under
Order 39 of the CPC (i.e. prima facie case, balance of convenience and irreparable
loss proved) read along with the inherent powers of a Court under Section 151 of
the CPC, against all named and un-named Defendants, who may be violating the
broadcast reproduction rights of the Plaintiffs, under Section 37 of the Copyright
Act, 1957. In order to ensure that its orders were complied with the Judge also
19
CS (OS) No. 1072 of 2002 before the High Court of Delhi
147
appointed a judicial officer as a Commissioner with instructions to the local police
officers that they were to assist the Commissioner in seizing any broadcasting
equipment that was being used to violate the Court's order.
20
In ESPN Software India Pvt. Ltd. v. Tudu Enterprise and Others it was observed
that John Doe orders are a common feature in the courts of Canada, America,
England, and Australia and in some other countries. The judicial systems of all
these countries have basic similarity with our judicial system. Therefore looking at
the extraordinary facts and circumstances of the case in the interest of justice, the
courts in India would also be justified in passing the John Doe orders. In the absence
of a comprehensive law and lack of precedents, guidance has been taken from the
foreign courts in evaluating these orders and building a strong basis for future
reference of Indian Courts.
Justice Ms. K.B.K. Vasuki passed the first-ever 'John Doe' order (called “Ashok
Kumar” order in India) in the history of the Madras High Court. This order was
passed in the case of R. K. Production (producers of the film “3”) v. B.S.N.L & 14
other Internet Service Providers (ISPs). This order is to prevent anybody from
illegally downloading, offering to download, or selling VCDs or DVDs of the
movie. The ISP is bound by the order and has to block access to such web sites. The
order provides for speedy action against the offender rather than retort after
somebody has infringed on the rights of intellectual property owners. Such an order
binds all would-be infringers and does not necessitate a copyright owner having to
go to court for every individual infringement. The John Doe order is a bonus in the
film industry's fight against piracy. But the main bludgeon is technology, which has
the ability to monitor web sites for illegal upload of content, and to identify and take
action. Armed with a John Doe order, the petitioner will be able to immediately stop
the illegal display of copyright protected content. 'John Doe' is a general American
term used to refer to anonymous or unknown individual. This order is famous in
USA, UK and Canada but still in its promising juncture in India.21
Copyright and Information Technology Act, 2000
The following provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 are relevant to
20
21
CS (OS) No. 384 of 2011 before the High Court of Delhi
India, Chennai, March 29, 2012, Available at: – accessed on 11-12-14
148
understand the relationship between copyright protection and information
technology:
(a) Section 1(2) read with Section 75 of the Act provides for extra-territorial
application of the provisions of the Act. Thus, if a person (including a foreign
national) violates the copyright of a person by means of computer, computer
system or computer network located in India, he would be liable under the
provisions of the Act.
(b) If any person without permission of the owner or any other person who is in
charge of a computer, computer system or computer network accesses or
secures access to such computer, or downloads, copies or extracts any data,
computer data base or information from such computer, computer system or
computer network including information or data held or stored in any
removable storage medium, he shall be liable to pay damages by way of
compensation not exceeding one crore rupees to the person so affected.
(c) While adjudging the quantum of compensation, the adjudicating officer shall
have to consider the following factors:
(i) The amount of gain or unfair advantage, wherever quantifiable, made as
the result of the default;
(ii) The amount of loss caused to any person as a result of the default;
(iii) The repetitive nature of the default.
Thus, if the copyright is violated intentionally and for earning profit, the quantum
of damages will be more as compared to innocent infringement.
(d) A network service provider (ISP) will not be liable under this Act, rules or
regulations made there under for any third party information or data made
available by him if he proves that the offence or contravention was committed
without his knowledge or that he had exercised all due diligence to prevent the
commission of such offence or contravention.22
Conclusion
Intellectual property plays a significant role in an increasingly broad range of areas,
22
Supra Nt. 2
149
ranging from the internet to healthcare to nearly all aspects of science and
technology, literature and the arts. Understanding the role of intellectual property in
these areas often requires significant new research and study. Thus this is an earnest
effort to promote awareness among the people regarding the fundamental issues of
intellectual property. With the software in almost every walk of life, the demand for
protection of IP has increased. Now, there is need to strike a balance whereby online
copyright infringement is prevented without interfering with Legitimate users of
copy right work offered by digital technology and internet.
Protection of living special the traditional knowledge addresses the debatable
issues that need resolution. The tasks ahead in the knowledge economy will
demand new competencies and commitments of innovators, technocrats,
governments and members of the society.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/front-page/blog/privacy/copyrightenforcement - accessed on 11-12-14
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l195-Copyright-Law-in-India.html
– accesses on 11-12-14
http://www.majmudarindia.com/pdf/Law%20governing%20copyright%
20in%20India.pdf – accessed on 11-12-14
Kumar, Davey Hemi Paresh, Criminal Implications of Intellectual Property
Infringement under Indian Legislations Available
at:http://www.altacit.com/pdf/Criminalimplicationsofintellectualproperty_%
20infringement.pdf – accessed on 11-12-14
http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/1825/Civil+and+Criminal+Remedies+in
+Copyright+Infringement+Part+2+Remedies – accessed on 11-12-14
P. Narayanan, Intellectual Property Law, Eastern Law House, 2007, p. 350
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/In_Copy.htm - accessed on 1112-14
Devgan, Priyanka, A Comparative Case Law Analysis Of John Doe And
Anton Piller Orders, Available at:
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2224153 – Accessed on
11-12-14
India, Chennai, March 29, 2012, Available at:
http://lawquestinternational.com/blog/madras-high-court%E2%80%99sfirst-%E2%80%98john-doe%E2%80%99-order – accessed on 11-12-14
150
List of Cases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
American Cyanamid v. Ethicon, [1975] RPC 513
Anton Piller KG v. Manufacturing Processes Ltd., [1976] 1 All E.R.
55(C.A.)
ESPN Software India Pvt. Ltd. v. Tudu Enterprise and Others, CS (OS) No.
384 of 2011
Girish Gandhi & Others v. Union of India, AIR 1997 Raj 78
R. K. Production (producers of the film “3”) v. B.S.N.L & 14 other Internet
Service Providers (ISPs), Chennai, March 29, 2012
Taj Television v. Rajan Mandal, CS (OS) No. 1072 of 2002
Arihant Jain1
Abstract
Copyright law is based on the very principle of striking the balance between the
rights of the copyright owner and promoting learning among the masses. Fair use
is plays an important role to achieve this very principle of copyright law. Though
this doctrine has come under a lot of criticism recently due to the ambiguities and
problems attached to its implementation, still the role it plays cannot be
overlooked. In this research paper we understand the doctrine of fair use and
copyright protection by analyzing an ongoing case in the Delhi High Court
between a group of leading publishers and a small photocopy shop named
Rameswari photocopy service attached to Delhi University. This has generated
enormous public debate regarding the extent to which user can photocopy the work
of a copyright owner. The dispute is whether such photocopying of copyrighted
material is prejudicial to the interest of the publication house/author or is against
the larger public interest that is fundamental right to education. We also try to find
solutions to the ambiguities in the doctrine and the role Indian Reprographic Rights
Organization (IRRO) can play in dealing with unrestricted photocopying.
Keywords: Fair use, copyright, infringement, defense, photocopying, public
interest.
Introduction
Since the introduction of the Xerox copier in 1954 it has become noticeably easier
to make copies of printed material. Copyright owners are alarmed by the growth of
technology that makes the task of copying their intellectual property this easy.
There is a need to come up with an appropriate legal solutions pertaining to
mounting levels of unauthorized photocopying and turning it into a lawful activity
by restriction of access to users and remunerations to authors and publishers has
1 th
4 Year Student, BBA. LL.B. (Hons), Symbiosis Law School, NOIDA,
arihant1992@hotmail.com, 37 Jain Colony Veer Nagar Delhi, 110007.
152
been in debate since late 1960's.2 Copyright law is often deemed to be taken as a
balance between the rights conferred to copyright owners and the rights granted to
the users of copyrighted materials.3 One of the most important counterbalances to
the rights granted to owners of the copyrighted material and the right guaranteed to
the copyright's users is to make "fair use" of copyrighted material. The doctrine of
fair use is an integral part of copyright law.4 Fair use is a defence to a claim of
infringement provided in legislation of various countries when the copying is done
for purposes such as research, teaching, news reporting etc. The right of fair use
shields the public from the copyright monopoly, which at times becomes so
expansive that it obstructs the very progress of learning and knowledge. Copyright
law is, in fact, constitutionally mandated to promote knowledge acquisition and
learning.5
Copyright's fair use doctrine has long been targeted by criticism and complaint, in
recent years critics have further raised their voices and have become more
persistent, they have expressed dissatisfaction with the doctrine's ambiguity in
implementation. However, despite its importance in the copyright regime in
advancement of technology, the concept remains relatively unexplored in India.
Fair Use Doctrine
The defense of fair use originated as an equitable doctrine permitting certain uses of
literary works that copyright law would otherwise have prohibited, if prohibiting
such uses 'would stifle the very power that the law is intended to foster'6. Fair use is
an internationally derived copyright principle based on the belief that the public is
entitled to freely use portions of copyrighted materials for a variety of purposes that
may be identified by individual copyright regimes based on the assessment of
social requirement and its contribution to social good. In its most general sense, a
fair use is any copying of copyrighted material done for a limited and
2
Henry P. Tseng, 'Ethical aspects of photocopying as they pertain to the library, the user and the owner of
copyright', 72 Law Library Journal . 86 (1979).
3
Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 U.S. 151, (citing Lord Mansfield: "[We must take care to
guard against two extremes equally prejudicial; the one, that men of ability, who have employed their
time for the service of the community, may not be deprived of their just merits, and the reward of their
ingenuity and labour; the other, that the world may not be deprived of improvements, nor the progress of
the arts be retarded.].
4
The Chancellor Masters and Scholars of the University of. Oxford v. Narendra Publishing House and
Ors, [IA 9823/2005, 51/2006 and 647/2006 in CS(OS) 1656/2005].
5
Lydia Pallas Loren, “Redefining the market failure approach to fair dealing in an era of copyright
permission systems”, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Vol. 5, No. 1, (1997).
6
Harper & Row Publishers v. Nation Enterprises, 471 US 539(1985).
153
“transformative” purpose, such as to comment upon, criticize, or parody a
copyrighted work. “Fair Use” is a privilege that allows limited uses of copyrighted
materials in ways that would otherwise be an infringement of copyright. When the
use of a copyrighted work for such a purpose has been judged a “Fair Use,” it is not
an infringement of the copyright, even if the use was made without permission of
the copyright owner. India's fair dealing doctrine taken from Britain has been
perceived as having the weak imperial import. Fair dealing, as found within the
United Kingdom's copyright framework has been widely characterized as
restrictive, that includes a thoroughgoing list of outlined exceptions.7 Its United
States 'cousin', fair use, has been seen as a sturdier vehicle for users.8
Delhi University's Photocopying Case9
In the year 2012, the prestigious Delhi University and a photocopying store on its
Campus, Rameshwari Photocopying Services were accused of having infringed the
copyright laws laid down by The Copyright Act of 1975 by publishers Oxford
University Press, Cambridge University Press and Taylor & Francis.10 The
publishers have alleged that the reproduction and issuing of their publications in the
most “illegal and unauthorised manner” by the photocopiers at the instance of the
University.11 The publishers thereby initiated a suit against the University and the
photocopiers for permanent injunction, restraining infringement of copyrights,
damages, and rendition of accounts of profits. This ongoing litigation has generated
enormous public debate regarding the extent to which user can photocopy the work
of a copyright owner. The issue at hand is that Rameswari Photocopy Service
attached to Delhi University regularly compiles extracts from copyrighted books
and makes it available to students in form of a 'course pack'. Hence, the dispute is
whether such photocopying of copyrighted material is prejudicial to the interest of
the publication house/author or is against the larger public interest.
On one side are the interests of large publishers and prestigious authors who have
written these books using their intellect and on the other side is the very heart of our
7
Jayakumar Sing, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 78 (2004) 10.
Craig Carys J, 'The Changing Face of Fair Dealing in Canadian Copyright Law in Michael Geist,
ed., In the Public Interest: The Future of Canadian Copyright Law' (Irwin Law, Toronto), 2005, p. 437.
9
The Chancellor, Master and Scholars of the University of Oxford and Ors v. Rameshwari Photocopy
Services and Anr. CS (OS) 2439/2012.
10
Staff Reporter, 'Delhi University, photocopy service in the dock over piracy', The Hindu, August 14,
2012.
11
Ibid.
8
154
12
constitutional guarantee i.e. fundamental right to education for all, which the
copyright law seeks to achieve. This photocopying disseminates information,
which in many cases is unavailable to scholars and students, due to the high price of
the books. By allowing this educational photocopying, the copyright law will fulfill
one of its primary goals of access to knowledge and cultural progress. A balance
needs to be carved out that protects the interests of owner of intellectual property
and the public. The photocopying guidelines in India are yet to crystallize in some
concrete form; the reason being that the threshold level is yet to be defined either by
the legislature or by the judiciary. But the recent orders have been in favor of the
publishers and there has been temporary ban on photocopying of the books which
shows a need for a concrete grounds on which such case can decided.
Right to Photocopy for Educational Purposes under Indian Copyright Act,
1957
The Indian Copyright Act follows the notion of fair dealing. The word 'fair dealing'
has not been defined under the Indian Copyright law. The Indian judiciary has on
numerous occasions referred to the English case of Hubbard v. Vosper13 on this
matter. The following words of Lord Denning provide a pathway to understand the
concept of fair dealing:
“It is impossible to define what is "fair dealing". It must be a question of degree. You
must first consider the number and extent of the quotations and extracts.... then you
must consider the use made of them....Next, you must consider the
proportions...other considerations may come into mind also. But, after all is said….
it is a matter of impression”
Section 52 of the Copyright Act, 1957 lays down the ground on which an exception
to copyright infringement can be provided. This section provides an exhaustive list
and any use not falling within the statutory list is considered as an act of
infringement.14 The judiciary in the country has from time and again reiterated that
it is impossible to develop a 'rule of thumb' for cases of fair use as each case depends
upon in its own facts and circumstances.15 Under the Indian Copyright Act,16 there
12
Francis Coralie Mullin v. The Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi and Ors 1981, 1 SCC 608.
Hubbard v. Vosper, (1972) 1 All ER 1023
Blackwood and Sons Ltd and Others v AN Parasuram and Ors., AIR 1959 Mad 410 ¶ 84. Also see,
Vaibhavi Pandey, 'India: 'Fair Dealing In Copyrights: Is The Indian Law Competent Enough To Meet
The Current Challenges?', 13 March, 2014.
15
ESPN Stars Sports v. Global Broadcast News Ltd and Ors, 2008 (36) PTC 492(Del).
13
14
155
are only three sections dealing with fair dealing in an educational context i.e.
52(1)(a)(i), 52(1)(g) and 52(1)(h). 52(1)(g) provides that the bona fide publication
of non-copyrighted work in a collection intended for the use of educational
institution would not amount to an infringement of copyright.17 Section 52(1) (h) of
the Copyright Law, 1957 further provides that any reproduction of a literary,
musical or artistic work by the teacher or pupil in the course of instruction or in
answer to question asked in examination shall not amount to an infringement of
copyright. 52(1) (a) (i) provides with a fair dealing of literary, dramatic, musical or
artistic work for private use including research.
The above mentioned provisions will lead us to a conclusion that there is no
particular provision in our act dealing with the issue of photocopying of
copyrighted work for educational purposes. However, the right to photocopy will
undoubtedly arise from the plain interpretation of the relevant clause of Section 52.
The photocopy will fall under Section 52(1)(i), which mentions about reproduction
of any work by a teacher or a pupil in course of instruction.18
While considering what amounts to fair use certain factors are weighed in each case
to determine whether the social gain that accrues from fair use, or copyright
exceptions, are valuable enough to offset considerations of losses of the copyright
owner's potential income. To bring some objective standard two considerations
have assumed most importance:
1. The purpose and character of use.19
2. The amount and substantiality of the portion taken.20
These two grounds are of prime importance while dealing with cases relating to
copying of educational material and on theses basis a court should try to form their
opinion.
Role of Indian Reprographic Right Organization
The Indian Reprographic Rights Organization (IRRO) is a copyright society that
grants licenses to various organizations in order to enable them to copy and share
16
Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
Section 52(1) (h) Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
Section. 52(1) (i) Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
19
Supra at 14.
20
Ibid.
17
18
156
information efficiently across the organization while minimizing the risk of
copyright infringement. It actively supports a wide array of publishers, authors,
artists and visual creators and international rights holders to protect their creative
content. It grants licenses for a period of 1 year as per law. The Reprographic Right
Organization (RRO) was created with an aim to protect the creative works of rights
holders. If regulated properly, a robust and powerhouse RRO will tackle the
mentioned problem and will act as a bridge between the owner and copyright user.
The RRO Rights organization, which acts as intermediaries between the copyright
owner and the user can act as a trouble-shooter in this regard. Apart from defining
such threshold level, this organization should come into picture whenever any
photocopying is done, which is not covered within the ambit of fair dealing.
Eventually, by such intervention, a system will be created which will enable the
user to copy lawfully from copyrighted works, even if it goes outside the realm of
fair dealing. The profit derived from photocopying of copyrighted material which
is beyond fair dealing if shared with the publishers and IRRO can play a vital role in
the same. But unfortunately the IRRO in India has not been able to prove its
existence and in 2013, the Government of India refused to re-register IRRO.21
Conclusion
Photocopying of copyrighted material takes place everywhere in society and if
photocopying is left ungoverned and reproduction of copyrighted material takes
place without the consent of publisher,22 it will be prejudicial to the interest of those
all involved in publishing and printing of copyrighted material. However it is
impossible to ask permission to photocopy the material directly from publishers
from all over the world. The fair dealing reform is in the air and the application of
fair dealing pertaining to photocopy of copyrighted material is not settled despite
decades of deliberation and litigation.23
Hence, the demand is great among courts and scholars for a clear and
comprehensible approach to fair dealing. The ongoing litigation in the Delhi High
Court should be resolved by the Courts by applying its own grounds rather than
21
Shamnad Basheer, 'Breaking News: IRRO Registration Refused!'
Shafter, Robert L. 'Photocopy industry and copyright: section 108 of the bill', The Journal of Law and
Technology, Vol. 4, No. 35, 1975.
23
Stephen M. Mcjohn, 'Fair dealing and Privatization in Copyright', San Diego Law Review Vol.35 No.
61, 1998.
22
157
24
borrowing the US 'factor analysis method' , thereby creating a new regime of fair
dealing. The court in this ongoing Delhi university litigation, can define the role of
fair dealing in the scheme of copyright law, especially with respect the issue of
photocopying. Educational photocopying under the umbrella of fair dealing is no
doubt a necessity reason being that one of the challenges India faces in the
educational sector is the cost of the reading material and the Indian copyright law
has a vital role to play in overcoming this challenge. Contrary to the popular
perception, the cost of the books in India is not comparatively cheaper than other
countries.25 Keeping this background in mind, educational photocopying has an
important role to play. One of the most important ways of promoting access in the
area of education is by ensuring that copyright laws have strong exceptions and
limitations that enable the fair dealing of material for educational purposes. But
unrestricted photocopying needs to be checked as excess of everything is always
harmful, in this case the interest of right holder also needs to be paid heed to. No
person should be allowed to go on photocopying under the garb of constitutional
rights and fulfill their commercial interests.
The delineation of the role of fair dealing in the overall scheme of the copyright law
is the need of the hour. Precisely, the Indian copyright jurisprudence is awaiting its
equivalent of Folsom v. Marsh26, which will address to the basic issues of the
purpose, meaning and boundaries of fair dealing in Indian copyright law. This
ongoing Delhi university litigation can be our 'Folsom v Marsh'27, since it deals with
issue which has remained unresolved for several years in India.
24
Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken, 422 U.S. 151.
Rebecca Tushnet, 'Copy This Essay: How Fair Use Doctrine Harms Free Speech and How Copying
Serves It', 114 Yale L.J. 535-590 (2004).
26
Folsom v. Marsh, 9. F.Cas. 342 (C.C.D. Mass. 1841).
27
Ibid.
25
Photocopying of Copyrighted Works for
Educational Purposes- Issues and Concerns
Isha Wadhwa1
Abstract
Copyright law forbids the misappropriation of the copyrighted works; however, it
permits the use of copyrighted works for certain specified purposes under what has
come to referred to as 'fair use'. From a long time, the issue of unauthorized
reproduction of the copyrighted works by way of photocopying for educational
purposes has been raised at both international and national front. An attempt is
made to answer whether photocopying of copyrighted works for educational
purposes constitute fair use by analysing the cases where the courts in different
jurisdictions were confronted with the issue (more specifically, the courts in the
USA have decided various cases on this point) and by analyzing statutory
provisions in India and considering various situations like, the issue of course
packs, multiple copies by teachers for distribution in class, photocopying for
research (commercial and non-commercial purpose), photocopying for private or
personal use and photocopying of out-of-print book etc.
Keywords: Delhi University Photocopying Case, Photocopying, Educational
Exceptions
Problem of Photocopying (Reprography) 2
The unauthorized reproduction by way of photocopying for educational purposes
of limited number of copies of copyrighted works has come to present one of the
major problems in the copyright law in general and more specifically to the fair use
doctrine.3 The problem becomes more acute with the technological advancement in
1
Assistant Professor, Amity Law School, Centre II, Noida
Though the terminology used in the present work is 'photocopying', but the term is not defined in any
statute. However, the word 'reprography' which is a wider term has been defined in the Copyright Act,
1957. Section 2(x) defines the term 'reprography'; it means the making of copies of a work, by
photocopying or similar means.
3
Rosalind S. Kurz, “Addressing the reprographic revolution: Compensating Copyright Owners for mass
infringement”, 15 University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 261 (1982).
2
159
4
methods for making inexpensive photocopies which has led to more tensions
between copyright owners and users (especially students, teachers and library)5. In
India, in August 2012, in The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of
Oxford v. Rameshwari Photocopy Service,6 few publishers filed a copyright
infringement case against the photocopier who under implied or express
permission by University of Delhi was making photostatted course packs or study
materials available to students and researchers alike. The case is still pending
before the High Court of Delhi but the temporary injunction was granted by the
court whereby the defendant was restrained from making or selling course packs
and also reproducing the plaintiff's publication or substantial portion by compiling
the same either in a book form or in the form of a course pack. In addition to this,
Association of Students for Equitable Access to Knowledge has also been
impleaded as a party to the suit. This particular instance brought the educational
exceptions in India under consideration. However, the problem of reprography is
not per se new and has been a matter of debate at both international and national
level.
Guidelines and Leading Case Laws
The early fair use guidelines did not embody workable standards, but act as a basis
for the development of further guidelines. The earliest example of such a fair-use
guideline was the Gentlemen's Agreement, 1935 which has been recognised as one
of the most important landmark in the history of the fair use privilege and was a
product of long deliberations that started back in the year 1929.7 Kenneth Crews,
calls this agreement as “one of the first attempts to interpret fair use for education”
and noted that it “remained the only major copying standard for almost a quarter of
a century.”8
The agreement allowed library, archives, museum or similar institutions to make
single photographic copies of a part of a copyrighted work; however these copies
4
Frank L. Duemmler, “Library Photocopying: An International Perspective”, 26 Copyright Law Symp.
151 (1976).
5
Jane C. Ginsburg, “Reproduction of Protected Works for University Research or Teaching”, 39 Journal
Copyright Society of the USA 181 (1992).
6
CS (OS) No. 2439/2012.
7
See generally, Peter B. Hirtle, “Research Libraries, and Fair Use: The Gentlemen's Agreement of
1935”, available at: ecommons.cornell.edu/.../1/Research_Libraries_and_Fair_Use.pdf. (Visited on
November 30, 2014).
8
Kenneth Crews, Copyright, Fair Use, and The Challenge For Universities: Promoting the Progress of
Higher Education 30-31(University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 1993).
160
were not supposed to substitute the purchase of the original work and were meant
only to facilitate research. This agreement was a model of consensual voluntary
guidelines agreed to by copyright owners and users to identify the limits of fair use
and was cited by both the trial and appellate courts in Williams & Wilkins Co. v.
United States.9 In this case, the publisher of various medical journals, brought suit
against the National Library of Medicine (NLM) for making and distributing
photocopies of its journal articles in the name of interlibrary loans. The
commissioner held that the copying was beyond the scope of fair use; however on
appeal, the decision was reversed. In a review sought by the publisher before the US
Supreme Court, the decision of the appellate panel was upheld that the copying in
question was fair. This particular case is of considerable importance and had effect
on the revision of the copyright law in the year 1976.
In conjunction with the passage of the revised copyright law in the year 1976, the
best known of all the fair use guidelines emerged known as Classroom Guidelines.
The 1976 revision of the copyright law incorporated fair use doctrine in the statute
and allowed copies for teaching but within the limits of the four factors as set out
above. However, still there was uncertainty in law and the new law was open to
broad interpretation. Consequently, representatives of educators, authors and
publishers met during the years prior to passage of the 1976 Act in order to
negotiate an understanding of the new law and the product of these meetings was
the Agreement on Guidelines for Classroom Copying in Not-for-Profit Educational
Institutions. These guidelines allowed, firstly, single copies of short items, such as
an article or a chapter of a book to be made by a teacher for research or class
preparation and secondly, multiple copies for distribution (single copy per student)
subject to the limits of brevity, spontaneity and cumulative effect and copies must
include a notice of copyright.
There were certain other limitations to this like students cannot be charged more
than the actual cost, copying shall not be used to create anthologies, compilations or
collective works and the copying cannot substitute for a purchase of books etc.
Apart from the Classroom Guidelines, other guidelines also emerged like Music
Guidelines, 1976;10 and the Off-Air Videotaping Guidelines, 198111. All these
guidelines are referred to as early fair use guidelines for educational purposes.
9
487 F. 2d 1345 (1973).
These guidelines addressed the copying of music for instructional purposes.
11
These guidelines allowed a teacher, off-air recording of broadcast programming for educational
purposes like later use or performance in classroom teaching.
10
161
After a brief introspection of the fair use guidelines, it is essential to discuss various
judicial decisions on this point. The first infringement action against photocopying
for educational uses arose in Association of American Publishers v. New York
University.12 In this case, publishers brought copyright actions against two shops
that were indulged in photocopying copyrighted materials for student use. The
parties arrived at out of court settlement and the settlement included an agreement
that the shops would adhere to the Classroom Guidelines as a limit on fair use. The
dispute again arose in Basic Books Inc. v. Graphics Corporation,13 which had the
'course-packs' at issue. The publishers alleged that Kinko's had infringed copyright
in their books by making multiple copies of lengthy excerpts and compiling them
into 'course-packs' and selling the same to the students. Further, it was alleged that
Kinko operated a programme to solicit from professors the business of making and
selling copies. The court after analysing the four factors under section 107
concluded that the copying was not fair use. However, the court made it clear that
the statute and not the guidelines, is the source of the law, further guidelines would
apply to copying by an instructor or an educational institution and not by a forprofit copy shop.
In Princeton University Press v. Michigan Document Services Inc.14, again the
struggle between the meaning of fair use in general and the applicability of the
Classroom Guidelines was at issue under the circumstances similar to the Kinko's
case. The court evaluated the facts of the case in the light of the four factors and
concluded that the use was not fair and also pointed out that the guidelines state the
minimum and not the maximum standards of educational fair use and the
guidelines are not the law. However, it did not address the issue whether coursepack production may be fair use if conducted by a university or non-profit copy
shop. Similarly in, American Geophysical Union v. Texaco Inc.15, the court held that
the photocopying of eight articles from the Journal of Catalysis for use (articles
would facilitate current or future professional research) by one of Texaco's
researchers was not fair use. Though the court noted that photocopying was for
researchers own need but concluded that the ultimate purpose was to strengthen
Texaco's corporate profits. The court further clarified that its decision applied to
systematic institutional copying and not to isolated copying by the independent
12
759 F Supp. 1234.
758 F. Supp. 1522 (1991).
14
99 F. 3d 1381 (1996).
15
60 F. 3d 913 (1994).
13
162
researchers. However, in his dissenting judgment, Jacobs J., observed that the
selection by an individual scientist of the articles useful to that scientist's own
inquiries is not systematic copying, and does not become systematic because some
number of other scientists in the same institution are doing the same thing.
16
In Marcus v. Rowley, the plaintiff wrote a thirty-five page booklet on cake
decorating and used it to teach adult-education classes and sold the same to her
students with the inclusion of a proper copyright notice for two dollars. The
defendant purchased a copy of the booklet and later developed her own booklet.
The booklet so developed by the defendant contained eleven pages of the twenty
four pages directly from plaintiff's work and the same was not acknowledged. The
court ruled that the use was not fair use and applied the test of brevity, spontaneity
and cumulative effect as contained in the guidelines to reach the conclusion that it
amounts to copyright infringement. Similarly, in Bridge Publications Inc. v. Vien,17
the defendant was accused of reproducing or instructing students to reproduce
literary works and sound recordings for use in a for-profit course taught by the
defendant. The court relied on guidelines and held that the defendant's use did not
fit within the special guidelines as the defendant's copying was not limited and
spontaneous, but was extensive and methodical and consisted of copying from the
same author, time after time.
A recent case, Cambridge University Press v. Mark P. Becker,18 goes beyond
photocopying of copyrighted works and deals with uploading of excerpts from
various books on a website by a university (though website can be accessed only by
students). The complaint was filed by the plaintiffs, various publishers alleging that
the defendants, officials of Georgia State University had infringed copyrights by
allowing unlicensed portions of plaintiff's copyrighted books to be posted
electronically and made available electronically to students. The court dealt in
detail with every alleged copyright infringed work and majorly holds in favour of
the defendants. Of the ninety nine alleged infringements, only seventy five were
submitted at the start of the trial. While holding for the defendants the court
observed that only the unlicensed use of five excerpts infringed plaintiff's copyright
and except these all the alleged use was by a non profit educational institution for
the non profit educational purposes of teaching and scholarship; free copies were
16
69 F. 2d 1171.
789 F. 2d 342.
18
863 F. Supp. 2d 1190 (2012).
17
163
provided for the exclusive use of students and the portion so uploaded adhered to
the limits so prescribed. The publishers have filed an appeal against this decision
which is pending for now.19
The analysis of the case law depicts that the fair use doctrine in USA is flexible and
have adapted itself to the new situations arising out of the technological
advancement even in the area of educational reprography.
Analysing Various Situations on the Anvil of the Indian Copyright Act,
1957:
Section 52 of the Copyright Act, 1957 provides copyright exceptions or permitted
acts. The educational exceptions under this provision are as follows:
Fair dealing for research and private study:
Section 52(1) (a) (i) provides that a fair dealing with any work not being a computer
programme, shall not constitute an infringement for the purposes of private or
personal use, including research. Originally, under the 1957 Act, the exception
provided 'research and private study'; this was amended in the year 1994 to 'private
use, including research'. The object of such amendment was to avoid narrow
interpretation of the words private study. However, these words are further
substituted by the 2012 amendment to 'private or personal use, including research'.
Further there is no definition as to what constitute research under this exception.
However what needs to be ascertained is what the legislature wanted to convey by
the use of the word 'personal' and whether it includes any legal person like
organisation, institution or enterprises or merely an individual. Furthermore, it is an
established fact that research for qualifying under this exception is required to be
private research and not commercial research.20
Use of copyright material in the course of instruction:
Section 52(1) (I) provide that the reproduction of any work shall not constitute
infringement of copyright work:
19
Jennifer Howard, “Publishers and Library Groups Spar in Appeal to Ruling on Electronic Course
Reserves”, available at: http://chronicle.com/article/PublishersLibrary-Groups/136995/. (Visited on
November 30, 2014).
20
See, Rupendra Kashyap v. Jiwan Publishing House, 1996 (38) DRJ 81.
164
•
By a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction; or
•
As part of the questions to be answered in an examination; or
•
In answers to such questions.
This particular exception is the most important exception as it allows reproduction
of any work by a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction. However, no
definition has been given of 'teacher' and 'pupil' in the Act. In absence of any such
definition 'teacher' and 'pupil' may mean any person who gives and any person who
receives instructions respectively. Furthermore, it needs to be ascertained as to
what will constitute 'course of instruction' and whether in such course of
instruction, teacher is allowed to make multiple copies of a work for the purpose of
distributing it in the class. This particular aspect is not dealt in any case till now.
With regard to the other exceptions like reproduction of a work as part of the
questions in an examination and answers to such question has been explained by the
court in the case of Syndicate of Press University of Cambridge v. Kasturi Lal &
Sons.21, wherein the plaintiff who was a reputed publisher with all rights in respect
of the publication of a book, 'Advance Grammar in Use by Martin Hewings'. The
defendant published three guide books for the benefit of the students which
incorporated verbatim the literary work of the plaintiff including complete set of
exercises and the answer key to the exercise. The court held that the case was not
covered by doctrine of fair dealing under sections 52 (1) (h), 52 (1) (a) (i) and 52 (1)
(a) (ii) as the defendant's book could not be termed as questions and answers in an
examination or criticism or review of the plaintiff's book.
The analysis of various situations are necessary in reference to the provisions of the
fair dealing under the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 before arriving at any conclusion
on the problem of doctrine of fair use vis-à-vis photocopying for educational
purposes. Such situations are:
•
A researcher/student intends to use a photocopy of an article for her
private use: This particular aspect is very well covered by section
52(1)(a)(i) of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 i.e. fair dealing of a
copyrighted work for private use or research and needs no further
discussion.
21
2006 (32) PTC 487 (Del). Also see, Syndicate of the Press of the University of Cambridge v. B.D.
Bhandari, 2009 (39) PTC 642 (Del).
165
•
A student intends to get a photocopy of a book for his own use because the
book is expensive: The cost of the book cannot be a consideration under
the provisions of the act. Some may argue that photocopy of a complete
book may be justified under section 52(1)(a)(i) of the act because it is a
fair dealing for private use. Other may argue that photocopy of a
complete book cannot ever be a fair dealing because of its potential effect
on the market. This particular aspect will need due consideration of all
other aspects before arriving at any conclusion.
•
Photocopy of a book out of print for private use: This may very well be
considered as an example of private use. Though photocopying the entire
book would normally exceed the bounds of fair use/dealing but since the
book is out of print and no longer available, the copying is acceptable.
•
A teacher intends to distribute photocopy of an article in a class i.e.
multiple copying: This situation is very well covered under the statutory
fair use provisions in the USA, however, in India it is still doubtful
whether such multiple copying can be covered under any educational
exception.
But if a liberal approach is given to the exception relating to reproduction
of work by a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction and further due
consideration is given to the public interest specifically the interest of the
students in this particular situation, then it may very well be fair use
within the canons of the statutory provision.
•
Issue of course packs i.e. a teacher copies excerpts of documents,
including copyrighted text books and journals from various sources and
plans to distribute the materials to his class as a course pack: This
situation will require a complete fair use/dealing analysis and
consideration will be given to the amount and substantiality of the portion
included, its effect on the market etc. In the USA since multiple copying
for classroom use is allowed so inclusion of the excerpts in a course pack
will not change a fair use to an infringing use. However, one more
consideration crops up i.e. when the photocopy shops sells such coursepack then it is essential to look into an important facet, at what price the
166
shop is selling the course pack, whether there is a profit inclination in it or
it is merely recouping its cost.
Conclusion
Therefore, under the Indian Copyright Act, 1957, though there are various
educational exceptions but their scope is not yet clear because of very less judicial
pronouncements on the same and the views as to what situations are covered by it
may differ according to the facts and circumstances of the case. However, if the
courts give purposeful interpretation to the statutory copyright exceptions as done
in above mentioned case, then only the educational exceptions can serve its
purpose. Even the courts have time and again reiterated that section 52 must receive
a liberal interpretation and resort must be made to the principles to identify fair
use.22
Further, the existing exceptions fail to distinguish between different stages of
research and give no clear guidance as to the quantity of material that can be copied
in reliance on the exceptions. The position in USA in this regard is clear because of
the judicial pronouncements on the same and existence of fair use guidelines which
have time and again pointed out the quantity the use of which may be considered
fair. In addition to this, it cannot be simply concluded that photocopying for
educational purposes amounts to fair use in every situation and it largely depends
on the facts and circumstances of every case. Every case is to be judged on various
aspects like amount of the portion taken, its effect on the market, commercial or
non-commercial use etc.
22
Academy of General Education, Manipal v. B. Manini Mallaya, AIR 2009 SC 1982.
Role of Libraries in Leveraging and Maintaining
the Copyright Issues
Dr. Durga Prasad1 and Vijay Singh2
Abstract
Intellectual Property rights are issues gaining popularity and need to be discussed
for the sake of fairness and honesty in each type of work. Libraries are playing an
important role in maintaining these issues by protecting the authors copyright and
other publication related issues. This paper is mainly focused on different types of
Intellectual Property Right, their types, misuse by different types of users and role
of library in protecting the same. Libraries being the major resource of information
need to be more careful in controlling the copyright issues of authors and
publication. In this paper researcher would like to draw the attention on the
violation of copyright due to unawareness of users.
Keywords: Intellectual Property right, Copyright, Act, Libraries, Fair use and
Fair sale.
Introduction
The concept of copyright originated with the slogan “To every cow her calf;
therefore to every author his copy”, given by Irish King Diarmid in 6th century A.D.
However copyright evolved as a result of the invention of printing which
revolutionized the techniques of reproduction. Copyright are among the many
intellectual property protection granted under Indian law to the creators of original
work of authorship such as literary works (including computer programs, tables
and compilations including computer database which, codes schemes in any others
form, including a machine readable medium). Dramatic musical and artistic works
cinematographic films and sound recording.
1
Dr. Durga Prasad, Librarian Central Digital Library ,Shree Ganpati Institute of Technology ,
Ghaziabad, drdurgaprasad387@gmail.com, Mob: 09412511839
2
Vijay Singh, Assistant Librarian, Ansal University Gurgaon, Haryana, vijaylibrary1980@gmail.com,
168
Intellectual Property Right (IPR)
Intellectual Property Rights are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity
in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights safeguard creators
and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain
time-limited rights to control their use. Protected IP rights, like other property, can
be a matter of trade which can be owned, sold or bought. These are intangible and
non-exhausted consumption
Types / Tool of IPRs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Patents.
Copyrights and related rights.
Trademarks.
Industrial designs.
Geographical Indications.
Layout designs for integrated circuits.
Trade Secrets.
Protection of new plant variety.
Basic Principles of Copyright
1.
2.
3.
4.
Copyright vests in original work.
Copyright is negative right.
Copyright does not vest in ideas.
Copyright is a right with limitations.
•
Temporal limitations
•
Compulsory licenses
•
Permitted use or Fair use or Fair dealing doctrine
5.
•
Geographical limitations
Copyright is a bundle of rights
•
Moral rights
•
Exclusive economic right
•
Neighboring right
Role of Libraries in Leveraging and Maintaining the Copyright Issues
169
Main Features of Copyright
Monopoly Right; the copyright restricts others from using the work that has been
the creation of the author.
Multiple right; copyright is not just one right but rather a whole bunch of right
which include right of adaptation, right of reproduction, right of publication, right
to make translation, communication to public etc.
Negative Right; copyright is prohibitory in nature where in others are stopped from
copying/reproducing the work.
Libraries and Copyright Act
In the libraries providing photocopies to scholars is a common feature. If it is done
for reference and research, it is fair use and the copyright law is not violated. If it is
done for commercial purposes and result in a major loss to a publisher, it is a
violation of the copyright. Libraries will have to be careful about any such
violations taking place in their libraries.
Another issue which results in the violation of the copyright Act is to use an author's
work as one's own or copy major portion from it and use them in one's own work
without quoting the source or taking permission from the author.
In the past academia did not violate intellectual property right to a great extent.
There few cases referred to in Indian author the editorial remarks that ''our right to
physical property are as important as our rights to intellectual property. In fact,
when an intellectual experience is written down, printed and published or presented
in an artistic form, it takes the shape of a physical property though based on
intellectual experience.'' In the internet era this property is misused to a great extent.
Libraries should not be the places from where such violations should take place.
Literary Work
Meaning ad Definition of literary work. My area of discussion would be limited to
the literary work and its protection. Literary work as defined by Peterson j; reads as
“word which is expressed in print or writing, irrespective of the question whether
170
the quality or style is high. The word literary seems to be used in a sense somewhat
to the use of the question whether the quality or style is high. The word literary
seems to be used in a sense somewhat to the use of the word literature and refers to
written or printed matter.'' Literary work may include novel, poem short stories,
books on any subject, computer programmers, tables' computer databases, Song
lyrics. Section 2 (a) of the Act literary work is defined as computer programs,
tables and Compilation ,including computer database but it does not set down
which works are deemed to be library
Library Operation Involving Copyright Issues
Photocopies: Making Xerox copies of documents for wider use when additional
copies or reprints are not available.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Technology
OCR is technology that enables you to convert types of documents, such as scanned
paper documents, PDF files or image capture camera into editable and searchable
data. Using OCR converting print material into electronic from for networking. For
example, Magazine article, brochure, or PDF contract your partner sent to you by
email. Obviously, a scanner is not enough to make this information available for
editing, say in Microsoft word. All a scanner can do is create an image or a snapshot
of the document that is nothing more than a collection of black and white or color
dots known as a raster image. In order to extract and is nothing more than a
collection, camera image-only PDFS, you need OCR software that would single
out letter on the image, put them into words and then- word into sentences, thus
enabling you to access and edit the content of the original document.
Archiving
Rare books, out-of print books, unpublished manuscripts are converted into digital
format for archival purposes. Libraries the right to archive unpublished material
addresses archiving published materials. The requirements for the two kind of
materials are different; to make a copy of an unpublished work, a library's purpose
must be preservation or security and it must have a copy it has or used to have in its
collection, because the copy has been damaged, is deteriorating , lost or stolen, or
the format has become obsolete. Such published work also must be out of print.
171
Print Copies
One purpose of the archiving right is to allow libraries to make one-of-a kind and
out of print books, manuscripts and periodicals available to other libraries.
Multimedia Products: Original CR law protects print, audio and visual products
separately. All these are clubbed into single Products in multimedia and there is no
clear cut policy of CR dealing with them.
Digital Libraries: there are virtual libraries with no boundaries limiting their
collection. They span across geographical boundaries all over the world.
copyright Law, literally speaking, does not approve of this.
The Role of LIS Professionals
We do consider that research is a continuous process and everyone must have
freedom to develop from earlier thought and scientific or technological invention
or discoveries. Library and information science (LIS) professional can play an
important role in supporting the need of researchers and also in protecting the right
of copyright holders. The academic professionals should be educated in this regard.
Downloading, copying or making available copyrighted works in electronic form
have to be performed under license from copyright owner since copyright
violations lead to revenue loss of publishers and authors. Fair use generally
includes use of a copyright work for personal research, criticism or review. Keeping
in view large scale violations of copyright, LIS professional should do the
following;
•
Create awareness amongst users about copyright, IPR, patents, etc.
•
Track technological advance in particular micro fields.
•
Provide comprehensive literature searches form various databases, both
free and commercial on particular micro subjects.
•
Provide full-text of patents, etc. for R&D, study, teaching, etc.
•
Provide translation of documents to users.
•
Offer SDI service on any micro-aspect of a subject, either form global or
national resources.
•
Information about various patenting agencies in the world be given.
•
Help in finding new licenses for new technologies developed.
172
•
Help finding licensors of needed technologies.
Infect any copyright –related service to academic staff and student will help in
reducing the violations. The above service can be provided in electronic form or
hard copy form as per requirements of users. There are so many patents databases,
which are available free of charge though the internet. LIS professionals must have
information about all of them and also about commercial databases on patents etc.
First Sale
According to Russell, C. (2003)''Once a library or an individual has lawfully
acquired a copy of a work, the first sale doctrine of the copyright law (17 U.S.C
section 109) allow that the library or individual may exercise another exclusive
right of copy right –the right to distribute the copy- without permission of the
copyright infringement.'' However, the library or individual must also observe
provisions of ''fair use.''
Fair Use
The provision of RA 8293 (Philippines) Will be cited here. Comparison with
provision in other countries with provision in other countries will be made as
appropriate.5 in general, these provision are similar to those in other countries
although there be variations in certain specific applications. The fair use of a
copyrighted work for criticism, comment news reporting, teaching (including
multiple for classroom use), scholarship, research, and similar purpose is not an
infringement of copyright. Decompilation, which is understood here to be the
reproduction of the code and translation of the form of the computer program to
achieve the inter-operability of an independently created computer program with
other programs, may also constitute fair use. In determining whether the use made
of a work in any particular case is fair use, the factors to be considered shall include;
The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial
rapture or is for non- profit educational purposes; 5 Philippines. Republic Act 8293,
June 6, 1997. Part IV chapter viii sec. fair use of a copyrighted
Not Fair
•
All the articles of a conference proceeding transferred to a re-writeable
CD-ROM disk in a CD-ROM drive attached to one's computer so he can
173
keep and read them at home.
•
Transmit by computer network of the whole of an electronic publication
for the purpose of permanent local electronic storage, reading on screen,
and printing on individual request
•
To put an interesting group of journal articles up on the department web
site for his colleagues to read. He must get permission of the copyright
owner first.
•
To the article into electronic form. It needs the permission, if granted
would cover whether the library could retain a copy permanently.
•
To post part or all of an electronic publication on the department web site
for his colleagues to read. He must get permission of the copyright
owners first.
The 4- factor test for fair use
•
What is the nature of the copyrighted work? Is it fact, or is it imaginative?
If it is fact, the use principle could probably be applied.
•
Will the use of the material have impact on the potential market for the
material?
•
What is the character of the use? Is it nonprofits, educational or personal?
If your answer is yes, it could be considered fair use.
•
What is the amount and substantiality of the portion used? Is it just a small
amount relative to the whole? Is it a big portion of the work? If the answer
is yes and it is a small amount, then fair use could apply.
If the answer is yes and the creator of the work will lose money
substantially, then the Use is not fair.
The private reproduction of a published work in a single copy, where the
reproduction is made by a natural person exclusively for research and
private study, shall be permitted, without the authorization of the owner of
the copyright of the work. Copying however shall not extend to;
•
The reproduction of an entire book, or a substantial part thereof, or of a
musical work in graphic form by reprographic means.
•
A compilation of data and other materials.
•
A computer program.
•
Any work where reproduction would unreasonably prejudice the
174
legitimate interest of the author. The copying or adaptation of a computer
program is limited to the necessity for.
•
Archival purposes, and for the replacement of the lawfully owned copy of
the computer program if lost, destroyed or rendered unusable.
The guidance for “fair use” is limited content (small portion of the work),
limited time (used in a semester of the class).
•
The use of the computer program in conjunction with the computer for the
purpose, and to the extent for which the computer program has been
obtained.
Conclusion
Copyright is a serious issue for protecting IPR. There is a big market of piracy
literature today. This kind of piracy has become a major threat for the author of a
copyrighted work. As academic librarians strive to engage themselves as
educations teaching an understanding of copyright policies to students will greatly
influence rigor. Education will not only lead to a decrease in cases copyright
violations.
Reference
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Copyright and fair use in the digital age: Q&A with Peter Lyman (1995)
Educom review vol.30 no.1, January /February.
http//www.educomse.edu/pub/er/reveiew/reviewarchicles/30/32, html.
Griffith R, Miller H & O'Connell M, Ownership of intellectual property and
corporate taxation, Journal of Public Economics, 112 (2004) 12-23.
Fan JPH, Gillian S L and Yu X, Innovation or imitation? The role of
intellectual property rights protections, Journal of Multinational Financial
Management, 23 (2013) 208-234.
Russell, C. (2003) “Libraries in Today's Digital Age, The copyright
controversy, ERIC Digest.
http://www.michaellorenzen.com.eric/copyright.html.
http://www.lawphil.net/statuters/repacts/ra1997/ra_8293_ 1997.html.
http://copyright.lib.utexas.edu/1-108abc.html
http://drtc.isibang.ac.in:8080/bitstream/1849/42/2/K_copyright-bibhuti.pdf.
Digital Technology, Libraries and
Copyright Issues
Lagdhir Rabari1
Introduction
Acquisition, organization, dissemination and preservation these are the main
activities of today's library, which are being performed from manuscripts to printed
collections and same activities shifted in digital libraries also. Increasingly,
libraries are utilizing digital technology to fulfil users need and preserve library
collection for generation to generation. These contents may be or may not be
available to the public. Libraries also create, manage, host and offer digital content
services using latest technology. The digital content and digital technology raises
significant copyright issues for libraries as they acquire, host and disseminate them
for their users.
Enhanced search features, multiple access, anywhere, anytime access, huge
resources, easy access, latest, these are the silent feature of digital libraries.
Technology wise advance development took place. But same advance changes did
not happen in copyright law. Still copyright law speaks only for pint collection, no
amendment in copyright law as it would happen parallel to technology.
Until recently libraries did not worry about copyright, the rules were pretty clear
and the ways we functioned were much anticipated and approved in the copyright
laws. In the time of print and photocopy machines the rules for fair use were clear
and commonly understood. But those rules becomes absolute now. Today's library
faces many challenges in lieu of copyright laws like fair use, digital archives, ILL,
DDS, licensing, and so forth. Copyright law should not always in favour of creator,
owner; does not always restrict a patrons to access literature for knowledge and
creativity, but should help a patron's fear, provide legal guidelines, understanding
and give best solutions in the interest of owner and patrol both.
1
Head, Library and Languages Services Division, Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat
176
Digital Technology
The Digital Revolution, also called the Third Industrial Revolution, is the
change from analog, mechanical, and electronic technology to digital technology
which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and
proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the
present day Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about
by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter
half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial
Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age.
Library had adopted the digital revolution in absolute form. Library adopted digital
technology in its all from, digital contents, digital communications, digital storages
and digital processing, digital content generation and archives. Digital library,
electronic library, virtual library, library without walls these all new terms are used
for today's library. Users do not know where content is stored, or from where they
access the library resources. Library content is on cloud, in addition to physical and
paper based collection the library collections are stored in digital format.
There had been tremendous changes in the world of libraries in this age of digital
technology. The previous concept of libraries is no more as convenient and faster as
the present digital concept. Digital libraries are characterized by equitable access,
reduced barrier of distance, timeliness, shared resources and content delivery. They
can provide access to a large quantity of collection. In this digital technology any
users, at any place, at any time can access the contents of large and vast resources
Intellectual property refers the creativity of minds like inventions, literary and
artistic works includes symbols, images and names. Intellectual property is divided
in two parts.
1. Copyright
2. Industrial property
Copyright covers literary works, artistic works, films, music, dramatics works,
architectural design etc. and industrial property includes patent, trademark,
industrial design and geographical indications.
Digital Technology, Libraries and Copyright Issues
177
Intellectual property is treated like any other type of property. This intellectual
property is protected under the laws to promote creativity and inventions.
Intellectual property rights allow creators or owner to take benefits from their own
work created or generated by them. The base of this protection is mentioned in
Universal declaration of human rights also. Than after Paris convention, WIPO
Treaty, Berne convention, TRIPS these are many international conventions and
agreement regulates the intellectual propriety rights protections laws.
Copyrights
Copyright (or author's right) is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators
have over their literary and artistic works. Works covered by copyright range from
books, music, paintings, sculpture, and films, to computer programs, databases,
advertisements, maps, and technical drawings.
Copyright laws provide protections to authors, artists and other intellectual
property (copyright categories) creators to protect their literary, dramatics and
artistic creativity. Copyright protection is given only to expressions, and not to
ideas, procedures, methods of operation or mathematical concepts.
There are two types of rights under copyright law is available. One is economics
rights and second is moral rights. Under the economic rights owner to derive
financial reward from the use of his works by others and in moral rights which
protect the non-economics interest of the author. This bundle of rights can be
exploited or licensed separately or together. The copyright owners enjoy certain
basic rights under the copyright law. They hold the exclusive right to use or
authorize others to use, reproduction, broadcasting, adaption etc.
Copyright protection is obtained automatically when intellectual property takes
place. No, need of registration or other formalities to get protection under the law,
but it is advisable to register it with copyright registration office. Most countries
have system in place to allow voluntary registration. Such registration can help
while any disputes arise over the ownership or creation or financial transfer, sales
and other assignment, transfer rights.
Fair use doctrine. Copyright is not absolute; they are subject to a number of limiting
principles and exceptions. These exceptions come under the fair use doctrine of
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copyright law. Fair use is a limitation and exception to the exclusive right granted
by copyright law to the author of a creative work. Fair use is a doctrine that permits
limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights
holders. Examples of fair use include commentary, criticism, news reporting,
research, teaching, library archiving and scholarship. It provides for the legal,
unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's
work under a four-factor balancing test. The term "fair use" originated in the
United States. A similar principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law
jurisdictions. Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to
copyright. Fair use is one of the traditional safety valves intended to balance the
public's interest with the property interests of copyright holders.
Copyright is to promote creativity not for to curb creativity but the way copyright
cases happens or publishers impose restriction to access their content is look one
side development. Here the another questions arise, even original creators do not
have major role but the protection layer systems developed by the publishers for
only financial gain is under question mark.
Before the current act of Indian copyright act, 1957 the Indian copyright act, of
1914 was totally governed by imperial copyright act, 1911 which was the copy of
British copyright act, 1911. Even the current copyright act still carries the fair
dealing concept same from UK copyright act.
Copyright means the sole right to produce or reproduce the work or any substantial
form thereof in any material form whatsoever. The copyright legislation of India
confers the exclusive right upon the owner of the copyright to reproduce or
authorize reproduction of the work in any material form including the storing of it
in any medium by electronic means. The copyright law is concerned with the
negative right, preventing the copyright of physical material existing in the field of
literature and arts. Its object is to prevent the writer and the artist from unlawful
reproduction of his/her material.
The copyright 1957 defines infringement in relation to a literary, dramatic, musical
or artistic work, a reproduction thereof. Reprography that is the act of reproduction
has been defined in the act as a means the making of copies of a work, by
photocopying of similar means. The moment one places a book on the scanner for
the purpose of duplicating it, it shall be an act of reprography. For the purpose of
179
law, the scanner would then assume the status of duplicating equipment which
under the act, means any mechanical contrivance or device used or indented to be
used for making copies of any work.
The right of reproduction of the work is the exclusive prerogative of the right holder
of the copyright subsisting in the work, if any person or entity duplicates a work, it
shall be an infringement of copyright subsisting in the work and such unauthorized
duplication shall make the person/entity legally liable for infringement of
copyright law.
Now, reproduction can result in two forms – either commercial exploitation of the
work or for purposes of private non-commercial use. The act of copying or
reproducing would constitute a cases of infringement even if it is for noncommercial purposes unless specifically saved by the fair dealing clause of the
copyright statute which permits a degree of copying of work or reproduction of full
works under certain circumstances where overriding social interest are involved.
Indian Copyright law
The first copyright act was passed in 1914 in India. It was nothing but a copy of the
law from the UK copyright act, 1911 with few changes to make it applicable to the
India. The next act which is the current statue it was the copyright act, 1957 with
adopted many principles and provisions contained in the UK act of 1956. The act
also created copyright societies which collect and disburse royalties and instituted
civil and criminal penalties for infringement. The copyright act, 1957 was enacted
to amend and consolidate the law relating to copyright in India. The act has been
amended five times. Since then amended once in each year 1983, 1984, 1992, 1994
and 1999 to meet the national requirements.
Infringement and fair use provisions in Indian Copyright act, 1957
Under the India copyright act, 1957 section 52 certain acts not to be infringement of
copyright and in description it had mentioned that 52 (a) a fair dealing with a
literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works (not being a computer programme) for
the purpose of (i) private use including research, and (ii) criticism or review,
whether of that work or of any other work. (b) a fair dealing with a literary,
dramatic, musical or artistic work for the purpose of reporting current events in a
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newspaper, magazine or similar periodical, for the purpose of judicial proceeding
or for the purpose of a report of a judicial proceeding, reproduction or publications
by the secretary of either house of the legislature, exclusively for the use of the
members of that legislature, reproduction made or supplied in accordance with any
law for the time beaning enforce, reading or recitation in public for any reasonable
extract, (g) use of educational institutions, so described in the title (h) the
reproduction by a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction, as a part of
questions to be answered in an examination, (n) the publication in a newspaper,
magazine, or other periodicals of a report of a lecture delivered in public, (o) the
making of not more than three copies of a book (including a pamphlet, sheet of
music, map, chart or plan) by or under the direction of the person in charge of a
public library for the use of the library if such book is not available for sale in India.
(p) The reproduction for the purpose of research or private study, or with view to
publication, of an unpublished literary, works kept in a library, museum or other
institution to which the public has access.
Amendments made in 2012added the tem non-commercial public library before
only public library. Now public library means the library, which gets grants from
government and tax exemption.
(iii) for clause (n), the following clause shall be substituted, namely:"(n) the storing
of a work in any medium by electronic means by a non-commercial public library,
for preservation if the library already possesses a non-digital copy of the work;";
(iv) in clause (o), for the words "public library", the words, "non-commercial public
library" shall be substituted;
Explanation for the purposes of this clause, a "non-profit library or non12/ 15/2014
COPYRIGHT (AMENDMENT) ACT, 2012 profit educational institution" means
a library or educational institution which receives grants from the Government or
exempted from payment of tax under the Income tax Act, 1961.(43 of 1961)
In section 52 of the principal Act, in subsection (1),(i) for clause (a), the following
clause shall be substituted, namely:(a) a fair dealing with any work, not being a
computer programme, for the purposes of(i) private or personal use, including
research; (ii) Criticism or review, whether of that work or of any other work; (iii)
The reporting of current events and current affairs, including the reporting of a
lecture delivered in public. Explanation. The storing of any work in any electronic
181
medium for the purposes mentioned in this clause, including the incidental storage
of any computer programme which is not itself an infringing copy for the said
purposes, shall not constitute infringement of copyright.";
From the above analysis of Indian copyright rights act, 1957 and amendment 2012
it looks that the copyright law is absolutely failed to solve the digital libraries
problems. Still this copyright act, talk or define traditional libraries provisions only.
What the main issues of copyright laws in the digital age; No provision or
clarification for digital archives, confusion for inter library loan, many issues with
public domain resources archives, ownership of digital resources, doctrine of fair
dealing, digitization, No library association, copyright societies or any national
organisation is active on this. On the other side on behalf of copyright owner
publishers are so active to restrict their content from public use. They see only their
financial gain, how to restrict the others common man from this intellectual output
and increase their profit. And that is the result publishers have created one more
layer in this system called licence agreement. There is no applicability of copyright
law in the license agreement. Only those register students can access that content
then what about fair use provisions because other from general public cannot access
it. Which law is superior in this situation copyright or contract (license agreement)
imposed by the publisher. On the other side general public does not have much
awareness about the new development. Who has a time to go in court and make it
clear whether we should follow contract law or copyright law in these issues? Since
this is not well defined in copyright law itself than what we can expect from others.
Copyright Issues in Digital Age
It took 57 years' time to amend the word for fair use eligibility libraries from public
library to non-commercial public libraries. It was clear that public libraries in India
are non-for profit organisation. Other things still is unclear in this non-for profit
library term, in clarification those libraries which are getting the government grants
or excepted under the income tax act, for taxation are comes under this category.
Still this act, is not able to clear the definition of libraries those are eligible for this
fair use provision. Amendment of 2012 cleared the word public library alone but
not academic library or research libraries. Research and academic activities are
done in academic and research libraries. Other thing about those private
universities/academic institutions libraries, which neither get grants not exception
under income tax act, but the users are from public. Though public have find out
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their way, any researcher, faculty members or student is eligible under doctrine of
fair use benefits but why not clarity in act. At international level this provision is
defined with commercial and non-commercial libraries. All academic, public and
research libraries are treated as non-commercial libraries and others are
commercial.
Preservation Provision
Indian copyright law does not able to make changes according to the technology
advances. The base theory and practice of protection, and fair use doctrine is
completely changed with the development of digital technology. But still our act
define preservation, protection and fair use doctrine based on the print materials
only. If books is not available in India for sell then, library can make three copies
but it is not clear about not available in India means what? If book is not with
publisher in India but available through online distributors from abroad/online and
ready to delivery in India then, what we will say about this clause. It is extremely
impossible to define what fair dealing means. What should we can do and what not.
What with print copy and what with digital copy.
Entry of Contract Law
Copyright law is not enough to define or support the interest of the public for
research or creativity. Whereas in digital age more and more acts are taking place
which impose restriction to access literary works. Online digital contents are
offered by the publisher. In the purchase process whether it is subscription base or
perpetual access so called life time access library sign licence agreement with
publisher. Means the digital content now in the purview of contract law. All access
rights including digital preservation and use after preservation be controlled
through contract law. Earlier it was clear on inter library loan issues. Library can
land the books to nearby libraries under the boundary of fair use dealing. But in
license agreement if publisher mention the inter library loan access rights for other
users then it is ok, otherwise as per common license clauses these digital content is
for registered users of that particular institution only. You cannot give anything to
others. Even as per copyright act, under the fair dealing clause public have rights to
access for personal teaching and research purpose. But here publishers have no
concern with what copyright law say. Unless and until if Indian copyright act, will
not define these issues clearly it is going to become more complicated and the
interest of public right will be lost.
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Inter Library Loan Provision
In print collection there is a practice of inter library loan services followed by
libraries. If library does not possess the book or journal article, which need by their
users then the library can acquire or bring the books or photocopy of article from
other library for the users. These practice are followed under the provision of fair
use for purely academic and research purpose. Here it was practised easy because in
print collection after purchasing the book library get absolute ownership of that
physical copy of book to sell or pass the book to other users. There is no restriction
to pass that book to other users under inter library loan provisions. But in digital
library there is no absolute ownership over that eBook or eJournals. Also the digital
library contents are accessed under the special licence agreement and that
agreement restrict the library to pass that content to users other than register users of
that particular institution. There are some publisher give the relaxation to provide
the inter library loan services in the digital environment with some condition but
not all publishers allow this. Sometimes same publisher use double norms for two
different libraries/countries. It allows the ILL access in one county and same
publisher restrict this provision in other country. This is the very big dilemma in the
digital environment.
Digital Archives
It seems that the copyright law obstructs the purpose it was designed to promote the
science and the useful arts creativity. Copyright law hinders the advancement of
knowledge in the digital realm because it has failed to keep up the balance between
creator and users both.
One of the major obstruction here is to convert the print collection in digital format
for preservation. But the law says no during the copyright protection period. There
is a provision but with strict condition, if materials is under rare books category, not
available in market for sale in India, damaged or lost than. We see the court cases
against Google eBooks project, HathiTrust digitization project and many more in
this regards. But why such a strict restriction. Libraries are ready to promise that
their interest is only preservation. We know libraries will scan only those books
which are available in their library. Other thing except text books other books do not
come in multiple copies in library. So, it will not affect the publishers business
184
because one copy if already sold in the library, then library will not purchase
another copy or copies. There will be no effect on any type of commercial loss to
publishers in this preservation practice by library. Other side benefit to library and
library user are lot. Best solution of preservation. All qualified users of that
particular library can access it same time all, access chances will increase, no
chance of damages, lost etc. Good indexing and search from content by key words
is possible, which is good for retrieval purpose. More beneficial for research. If the
technology has provided these opportunities than why not libraries are allowed to
do it.
Also this preservation method is not violating the doctrine of fair use. Intention is
good and fair, no commercial gain, no business loss etc.
Digital Archives from Public Domain Works or Orphaned Works
The copyright term extensions have failed to “promote the progress of science,
creativity and preservation of our natural heritage in the digital time. We know the
copyright protection is for limited period and after that it becomes open for all,
comes on public domain category, no copyright at all but the corporate companies
or publishers use that public domain works and with some modifications they sell it
with copyright warning. With some modification in digital format or metadata
design they put these content under their control and it becomes their property.
Same which happen in patent with Ayurvedic medicine. Some of the
pharmaceuticals company claim for Patent on some plats, leafs, roots or like that as
an inventor of medicine. But that was already invented by Munies, ancestors, kept
open without any claim in ancient books of Ayurveda, Yogdarshan, Upanishad,
Vedic texts etc. Copyright law should define clear direction and protection for
those open source resources or public domain resources that should not come again
in fake copyright control. As an example this type of practice is followed by digital
database provider. Sometimes they put open access content from blogs or
newspapers and claim it as a copyright materials, you cannot copy from this, prior
permissions should be taken before re-generating the same, now who is copyright
owner here, the person who had written in newspaper, the publisher of newspaper,
blogs or the database owner (publisher) who has copied and put in their database.
Publisher and aggregator mixed these open access materials with their copyrighted
works to gather.
185
Sometimes contents are available as an open access or public domain but it is not
clear that, it is open only for access or library can download and put that content in
its digital archives. Even websites and blogs are open but they write copyright by so
and so. What does it means. Today's open content may become copyrighted by
tomorrow. Here the public rights or access rights and copyrights need to define in
different way. In eBooks and e Journals, Blogs there is embedded links, photos,
videos how library can treat with this digital content. These issues need to be
addressed by the copyright law.
Dark Archives
Some library staff digitized the collection but put the digital copy on dark archives,
instead of available for users. No permission from owner but purpose is purely
preservation. Copyright study group in USA were also in favour of this practice.
After digitization if copyright owner object, library need to remove it otherwise
they can keep. Copyright law can suggest some policy or ways as a preservation
solution.
Copyright Permission Mechanism
In some cases copyright status is unclear. Copyright boards, copyright societies
need more active to keep and update copyright holders' database, so if library want
to know or want to contract them, they can do it. There should be fast and effective
mechanism for library or fair use purpose beyond that fair use limit so, library can
contact easily and get benefit for the academic, research point of view.
Disabled Peoples Provision
I will mention that, is fair use will allow facilitating access by reproducing
materials for the disabled. The national federation for the blind has intervened in the
HathiTrust case and asked to be a defendant. They believe fair use for libraries is
primarily important to serve the needs of the disabled by expediting reading for the
blind. There is controversy over the scope of these provisions. Publishers always
think on doubtful towards library initiatives. And we know without certain
clarification or intervention through law this would be difficult to implement.
186
E-Reserve
The study of the any students filled with heavy casebooks, reference books,
handbooks, journals and many other literature resources. Regardless of the class,
typically professors assign same reading materials by compilation from various
materials available in the library. Publisher have objection in the practice followed
by professor in academic institutions. In April 2008, three publishers Oxford Uni.
Press, Cambridge Uni. Press and Sage publications filled a copyright infringement
law suit against Georgia state university. The suit claim ninety nine specific
instances of copyright infringement in the digitisation of the complied course pack.
Document Delivery Services (DDS)
DDS is the services offered by the libraries finding the new ways to take advantages
of digital and communication technology. The services has come to enhance the
librarian offering of “Just in time” research methods to reach out at the fingertip
research capabilities to their faculty, students and research scholars. In this services
library scan and delivery the digital copy to the users. In the traditional system there
was no much issues in this service but in digital age some publisher object this
services. Scanning the materials in such a big quantity for research work does not
allow under fair use provisions. In Indian copyright right law there is not
clarification on digital advancement issues faced by the libraries.
Acquisition of Born-Digital Content
Libraries also acquire direct digital content by subscription or perpetual purchase.
It is general practice that research journals and other digital database are accessed
on subscription model. Whereas books are purchased in perpetual access or
permanent access. Some of the traditional issues of copyright are resolved with this
direct digital access content because here the term of license agreement trump
copyright like multiple access, printing, downloading, sharing content among
peers, lost, damage etc. but there is need to negotiate license for digital content that
provide the access and rights, which users need. Recently I observed one condition
in this perpetual access for e-journal copy. In this condition publisher had written
that you have perpetual access right, which you have subscribed even after
discontinue of current subscription. But here again it was mentioned that if the
journal transferred to other publisher than you have to negotiate with that publisher.
187
What happen if we purchase lakhs of books and after some time you have to renegotiation and re-enter in agreement with other publisher and that publisher want
everything in their favour. What is the guarantee for this? Even for perpetual access
publisher charges some fees as an annual maintenance cost for archives access.
Currently they want more and more business that is why fees are in limited amount
but publisher have right to change it and definitely it will go up. When time will
come that. Copyright law need to define the issues associated with born digital
content also, this is the latest trend of libraries and it will goes beyond imagination
situation. Clear clarification, guidelines and direction is needed to deal in copyright
matters with born digital content.
In addition to above subscription and perpetual purchase model, there may be other
type of digital acquisition in which publisher deliver the eBook to library, with full
ownership right just like a print copy ownership. This content could be treated like
other collection acquired by library. There are also copyright issues associated with
the e-copy
Legal Depository Libraries
Government of India had made a legal provisions to preserve the Indian
publications in recognized public libraries. Which functions as a depository by
holding copies of all Indian publications under the statuary provisions of the
delivery of books act, 1954. But due to lack of awareness and willingness small
publishers and individual authors, institutions, societies do not follow the direction
of this act. Whereas international depository libraries like Library of Congress and
other national libraries have started to accept direct digital copies under this legal
provision. These depository libraries are open for public access and the same
copyright issues for ILL, DDS, photocopies, downloading, printing and sharing of
digital content among the groups are face by the depository libraries. The main
issue is with digitization. Preservation of original print collection in digital format
and open them for public access need more clarification and justification from
copyright point of view.
Conclusion
There are many points of discussion on these issues. Copyright owners and
Lawyers do not understand what libraries are about and what would be lost without
188
the libraries contribution to the society. Library is a fundamental part of the
pedagogical process. Effectively advocate the digital technology advancement for
future adjustment and revisions in the law that will improve access to information
and dissolve barriers currently facing by libraries and their users. Without adequate
knowledge, awareness and movement from libraries, library association and
academic community copyright issues becoming very complicated. On behalf of
the library users, general public and academic community library professionals
need to become more active and take a leadership role to define, develop, and
implement copyright law keeping the interest of both copyright owner and users in
mind, as followed internationally.
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2014
An Overview of Copyright Issues in
Digital Libraries
Nazrul Islam Azmi1
Abstract
Intellectual property of digital resources of the library is the crucial issue because
more and more of print resource of the libraries are replaced by the digital
resource. These resources are either born digital or it may be digital equivalent of
existing print resource. Moreover the digital resource has one more dimension, i.e.
accessed online or through internet. Copyright and license for access to number of
users etc are the issues arise. This paper has taken an overview of the problem of the
copyright laws of the digital contents of the modern day's libraries.
Keywords: Digital Resources; Copyright; Digitisation
Introduction
Intellectual Property and Digital Libraries
A digital library is a collection of digital objects that can include text, visual
material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats (as
opposed to print, micro form, or other media), along with means for organizing,
storing, and retrieving the files and media contained in the library collection. Due to
growing computing power and development in digital storage capacities, digital
libraries are gaining much importance in current scenario of social and professional
lives. According to WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation), Intellectual
property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic
works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce. Intellectual
property covers a wide range of branches that includes; copyright, trademarks,
trade secrets and patents. Because of complexity of the digital collections, one or
more branches of intellectual property may apply. All digital collections have had
to deal with the intellectual property issues, especially the issue of copyright. The
1
Librarian, Ramanujan College, (Delhi University), e-mail:azminazrul@gmail.com
191
digital collections poses even more challenges when it comes the intellectual
property consideration. The Copyright is a mix of two major theories; the economic
right or economic protection theory and the moral rights argument. The economic
right theory says the creativity in the society i a good thing. But to simulate that
creativity, creator needs some incentives. Such incentives may include providing
limited monopolies with an economic value, such that a author may sell or
otherwise dispose of his or her creation for monetary or other value moral right
theory asserts there is an intangible relationship between an author and that author's
creation. This relationship remains even after the sale of the physical embodiment
of the creation. Copyright and Intellectual Property Rights initially developed to
give a publisher control over right to publish (copy) a work. They were extended to
give right to authors, painters, photographers, film producers, software writers, and
many others.
Digital resources of the libraries cannot be made over restrictive through the
technology means like DRM. The provision of access of these resources by the
scholars, researchers as library exceptions and fair use must be assured. For better
literacy, economic growth and quality of life, “Access to Information” is a crucial
factor. Information hubs/houses like archives, libraries and museums, etc. have had
a fundamental role to play in the development of a democratic society by enabling
access for all members of the community to a wide range of knowledge, ideas,
opinion as well as cultural, and scientific and educational information. Libraries
provide access to digital material through a variety of legal constructs; license
agreements, exceptions under national copyright law, legal deposit, and the public
domain. Digital rights management (DRM) poses a threat. At worst, it can block
access, at best it can inhibit by making access time-consuming and costly to
arrange. Today, these institutions are crippled by a parallel harmonisation of
limitations and exceptions thrust upon them by technology (digital) that serve the
public interest, glorifying the "rights" and de-meaning "fair-use" (Hombal, 2012).
Copyright of Digital Resources of the Library
Libraries deals with the copyright laws, but in the digital environment it is not the
same. For the purpose libraries has to get the path from the case laws that court must
also evaluated for potential impact to libraries. Statutory and case law determine
the path libraries must take to accomplish their mission. Copyright law is complex
and ambiguous. It poses many challenges for librarians, but it is crucial that
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librarians have a basic understanding of the various provisions of the law in order to
make informed decisions. However, the law is only one part of the equation. The
interpretation of the law by the courts must also be constantly evaluated for
potential impact to libraries (Ferullo, 2004).
Once the library has decided to digitise the library materials, it has to deal with
various legal problems. Digital technology gives libraries an excellent opportunity
to improve their services and provides new ways of preservation and dissemination
of library collections. However, the different stages of digitization of the materials
in a library involve many copyright issues. There are legal problems and purely
practical ones such as locating the owner of copyright. Librarians need to take note
of these problems and explore possible solutions (James, 2005). In the digital
environment of the libraries, it is also felt that there should be a balance between
interest of the copyright owners and general public users. The trend towards
international harmonisation of copyright laws based on international standards set
down by the international conventions, agreements and treaties, and the use of
copyright works by libraries also advocates that libraries should keep abreast of
international copyright standards and domestic case law to ensure that their
interpretation legislation maintains a balance between the "public interest" and the
rights of copyright owners to earn a living from their works (Sheat, 2004). The way
libraries are serving to their users is changing according to the advancement of the
technology. Now it is e-books, e-journals and various other e-resources with the
print resources. Now legalities i.e. copyright are not the same as to the print
resources only. There is copyright as well as licenses for access right etc. Digital
technologies are changing the way libraries make books, articles, and other
materials available to the public. These services are clearly in demand and provide
numerous benefits to both libraries and their patrons. However, the use of digital
media such as books or articles in electronic form, e-books, and audio books may
have legal implications that are otherwise nonexistent with the use of traditional
printed materials. These legal issues can be categorized as either copyright or
contract. Librarians looks at the copyright and licensing issues that libraries must
consider when acquiring digital copies of books or making them available to the
public (Sookman, 2010). The treatment of the materials for copyright differs
considerably. Urs (2004) discusses copyright within the scholarly communication
process and the role of libraries in providing access to copyright materials in the
digital age. The argument is made that the balance of "rights" and "exceptions" that
has been maintained for 300 years needs to be reconsidered for scholarly
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communications, such as theses and dissertations, as well as for articles in
electronic journals. This type of information is fact-based, often resulting from
public funds, and is part of the intellectual heritage of academic institutions, and so
is very different from creative works within the entertainment industries. The
archival repositories are serving the user online through digitised contents. To serve
digitised resources online have the legal liabilities i.e. copyright and license to
access. These repositories have to go for very difficult process of getting copyright
before to serve the users. Archival repositories are increasingly considering mass
digitization as a means of meeting user expectations that materials be available
online, remotely. Copyright is frequently noted as a significant obstacle to these
efforts, but little empirical data exist on the copyright permissions process in
archives. Akmon (2010) reports the findings of a study of the copyright permissions
process for the Jon Cohen AIDS Research Collection at the University of Michigan.
The study found that significant time is required to contact and negotiate with rights
holders and that the biggest obstacle to getting permission is non-response. Of
those requests that get a response, the vast majority are to grant permission. While
few of the requests were met with denial, the data suggest that commercial
copyright holders are much more likely to deny permission than other types of
copyright holders. The data also show that adherence to the common policy of only
displaying online those documents with explicit permission will likely result in
substantially incomplete online collections. The reuses of the archival material
deposited with the repositories are very common. The awareness of about the
copyrighted materials of the depositories are most of the times nil. Dryden (2012)
presents the findings of an exploratory study that investigated how users of archival
material deal with the copyright-like restrictions that archives place on reuse of
their holdings. In interviews with seventeen historians and genealogists, the author
explored their awareness of copyright when reproducing archival holdings, their
reactions to rights management measures encountered, and the extent to which they
want to be educated about copyright. Although study participants are aware of
copyright issues, their knowledge is incomplete and sometimes muddled. They are
often annoyed by the controls repositories place on reuse and will ignore them.
Although some think archives should make more efforts to educate users about
copyright, others are not interested in educational efforts that will slow their
research. The academic libraries manage their digital information use through a
policy framework for the legalities. The digital resources are either born digital'' or
digitised resources. Koulouris (2012) present a policy decision tree for digital
information management in academic libraries. The decision tree is a policy guide,
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which offers alternative access and reproduction policy solutions according to the
prevailing circumstances (for example acquisition method, copyright ownership).
It refers to the digital information life cycle, focusing mostly on its creation
(digitized or born-digital), acquisition, copyright and availability. The resulting
decision tree is based on a policy model, which was initially divided into two
branches -- one for digitized and one for born-digital information. The decision tree
simplifies and unifies commonly adopted rules which were identified through a
questionnaire survey on the access and reproduction policies of 67 digital
collections in 34 multidisciplinary libraries (national, academic, public, special,
etc.) from 13 countries. The results of the decision tree are used to propose
alternative policies. There are various projects that deals with copyright
management of the content of the digital libraries Nunez, (2011) describe
ENCLAVE, a project designed to provide access for users to contents under
copyright in digital libraries. ENCLAVE exemplifies the Spanish National
Library's commitment to technology as a means to aid public access to information,
culture and education. Outline the technical requirements of the works that make up
the project are made, and the criteria and procedures are drwan for the integration of
copyright works inside the framework of the Spanish Digital Library.
Acquiring copyright permission for digitising the resources is not a very simple
process. George, (2005) have conducted a test project with the aim was to explore
the issues related to acquiring copyright permission with the goal of determining
effectiveness and efficiency using the least complex process. A random sample of
books was chosen, relevant information was recorded, request letters were sent and
tracked, and results (permission received or denied) were analyzed with respect to
publisher, publication data, time required, and issues related to the process. About
52 percent responded with a yes or no with 24 percent yes responses. Nearly 25
percent never responded, addresses were not found for about 16 percent,
approximately 7 percent were too complicated to pursue and response time
averaged about three months. Results were affected by the limited staff time
available to work on the project, the many changes in staff, and the sometimes
lengthy time between follow-ups. The low rate of positive responses indicates the
need to focus on publications and publishers most likely to provide permission:
older and out-of-print materials, non-commercial publishers, special collections,
while using designated staff and personal contact to improve effectiveness. The
academic libraries promote the use of their digital resources. The faculties and
student have the concept of using these digital resources without taking care of
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legalities. Wu, Huan-Chueh, (2010) in their study has two primary purposes: to
explore common copyright-related problems that arise when librarians promote the
use of digital library resources; and to investigate college students' misconceptions
of copyright laws that arise when the students use these resources. Four librarians in
charge of the management of digital library resources were interviewed regarding
student-users' problematic copyright-infringement behaviours that these librarians
often encountered when they promoted the use of digital library resources. Also, a
semi-structured questionnaire with nine questions about copyright-related
behaviours was developed and distributed to college students. Students needed not
only to identify whether the behaviour was acceptable, but also to explain the
reasons for their identification. A total of 109 valid sets of data were collected from
18 universities or colleges, the sets comprising responses from 48 undergraduate,
56 postgraduate, and five doctoral students. The librarian-interview results indicate
that students' problematic behaviours included systematic downloading,
distribution to unauthorized users, and going beyond the purpose and character of
academic use. The student-survey results indicate that students had four major
areas of misunderstanding about copyright laws when using digital library
resources: the digital resources should be shared; the downloaded digital resources
are all legitimately authorized and permitted; all educational use is fair use; and any
downloading is permitted as long as students are paying tuition. This study explores
students' understanding and misunderstandings that arose when students used the
school digital library resources and discusses implications of these results for
librarians and libraries with regard to the design of related instruction.
Copyright of Documents of Electronic Delivery Service
Document delivery services of digitised documents are very much different so far
the copyright is concerned. It is not easy to serve the users of electronic document
delivery of digitised materials because the legalities are cumbersome. Rosemann,
(2010) aims to describe the development and current situation of electronic
document delivery by public libraries in Germany, taking into account the impact
of the changing regulatory framework of German copyright law and the
consequences of law suits against libraries and Subito. Rosemann, (2010) describes
the current situation, i.e. the new licensing strategy of the Subito delivery service
and the national licensing strategy for electronic media of German libraries and the
German Research foundation come into focus. The negative development of
copyright law posed a new challenge for document delivery services in Germany
196
since the statutory licence in German copyright law no longer covers electronic
document delivery provided by Subito and other library document delivery
services. Licence agreements with publishers or intermediaries such as copyright
clearance centres are now necessary to allow delivery of electronic documents.
These negotiations have proven to be very complex and controversial, but now a
complicated framework of licence agreements has been concluded and will enable
German libraries to generally provide electronic documents in the future. DRMsystems, however, still are a challenge for customers and the delivery service.
Demand of delivery services has decreased and may decrease even more in the long
run due to availability and direct accessibility of electronic documents, together
with the national licensing program in Germany.
Copyright and “Fair Use”, Library “Exceptions”
To provide access to digital resources of the library is a new form of service. These
digital resources of the libraries are either borne digital or digitised resources.
Legal liabilities on these resources also differ. Some are free but needs access
permissions and some have the copyright and access right and few resources does
not have copyright but digitised in absence of original owners. People are in the
midst of a transition to digital libraries. This process is in its earliest stages, but it is
at a point where they face key structural choices that can have dramatic long-term
consequences. Those choices will influence the types of libraries that will emerge
and the extent of competition that they will see in the digital library space. As they
build and populate digital libraries, they face critical questions about how those
libraries will acquire rights to content. For current purposes, it is useful to have
three types of content in mind: 1. the public domain; 2. so-called orphan works,
meaning works in copyright where the copyright holder is unidentifiable; and 3. incopyright works where the copyright holder is known. Each of these classes poses
challenges. There are no copyright limits on the use of public domain works, but
there are substantial access issues nonetheless (Picker, 2012). The problem of
providing appropriate tagging of copyright and access right information to the
digital resources are very common. Sometimes it becomes very difficult to identify
how much portion of the digital resource comes under fair use. Schlosser, (2009)
examines the copyright statements attached to digital collections created by
members of the Digital Library Federation. A total of 786 collections at twenty-nine
institutions were examined for the presence of statements and their content
evaluated for common themes. Particular attention was paid to whether the
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institutions in question are meeting their obligation to educate users about their
rights by including information about fair use and the public domain.
Approximately half the collections surveyed had copyright statements, and those
statements were often difficult to distinguish from terms of use and were frequently
vague or misleading. The laws devised for the copyright of digital resources and
exceptions for the library are liable for the consideration to reform. Copyright
Registrar of USA Maria Pallante (2013), argued that reform of Section 108
(copyright exceptions for libraries embodied in Section 108 of the U.S. Copyright
Act,) is important for both libraries and rights holders and that libraries play a key
role within the copyright system. There are sufficient gapes in implementing the
copyright laws to the digital resources so as to tackle the 'fair use' and library
exceptions. Dames, (2005) discuss the many grey areas of copyright law and how
they apply to librarians and to digital information. Using a hypothetical scenario,
topics such as digital fair use, circumstances under which libraries may legally
copy material, what materials can and cannot be copied, what responsibilities do
librarians have when faced with a patron who makes suspicious requests, and how
database licenses may negate privileges given to libraries under copyright law are
discussed.
Copyright / Access Right of “Orphan Collection”
At the time of digitization there are many resources that doesn't have copyright
original owner so as to get the copyrights from them. These digitised resources
heavily accessed. The legality for accessing this type of digital resources is very
challenging and efforts are made to take them in legal domain. Papadopoulou,
(2012) analyzes the 'orphan' works problem of the digital libraries' perspective.
'Orphan' works, i.e. works of an unidentified -- or unlocated -- author, create a legal
uncertainty, mostly affecting the large scale users in their mass digitization
projects, that, although they need to use the works and they are willing to obtain a
license, they are unable to do so, since they do not know from where to ask it. Aim of
Papadopoulou, (2012) is to explore the controversial situation that the 'orphan'
works have created and the way that the legislation of the European Union law has
decided to deal with this by adopting the Directive 2012/28. Part one will study
why, how and when 'orphan' works entered into the modern copyright world. Part
two will look through the problems that originate from 'orphan' works: economic,
cultural, technical problems and the multi-territorial issue. Next, after analyzing
the relevant legal framework for 'orphan' works in relation to digital libraries in part
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three and touching upon the legal solutions that exist -or are proposed- to confront
this problem (part four), in part five it will be analyzed how the 'orphan' works are
treated at the European level and the Directive 2012/28 will be presented. Finally,
in the last part (part six) some tools to prevent the creation of future 'orphan' works
will be mentioned. (Papadopoulou, 2012)
Libraries, archives and other institutions have the documents to digitised and
provide online access to users to fulfil their needs. Sometimes most of the
documents known as “orphan work” have get the difficulty to make available for
the access to needy users. Fair Us and library exceptions in laws can be utilized to
access these resources by the needy users such as scholars and researchers. Many
works that libraries, archives, and historical societies would like to digitize are
"orphan works," that is, works for which the copyright holder either is unknown or
cannot be located after a diligent search. Due to copyright risk if an owner later
shows up, non-profit libraries and similar institutions have been reluctant to
digitize and make these works available, greatly limiting access to important
cultural and historical information. While a legislative fix may soon be proposed
Urban (2012) argues that legislation is not necessary to enable some uses of orphan
works by nonprofit libraries and archives. Instead, U.S. copyright law's fair use
doctrine, which allows certain unpermissioned uses of copyrighted works,
provides a partial solution. Though it is an incomplete solution, fair use has some
significant advantages over other approaches through which libraries and archives
could make publicly beneficial uses of orphan works. Under fair use, there is no
need to develop a licensing system, significantly reducing administrative and
transactional costs, and eliminating socially wasteful license fees for works that are
not on the market, and for which an owner is unlikely to exist. Second, fair use has
the flexibility to accommodate change over time as libraries and archives discover
the best ways to search for owners, preserve works, and make them available.
Finally, allowing fair use of orphans by libraries and archives helps fulfil
copyright's critical purposes of promoting the dissemination of knowledge and
supporting speech and free expression. The wider access to the books and other
materials facilitated overall development of the society. To providing the access to
information resources in digital formats is one of the necessities of the modern
society. Many efforts are undertaken worldwide. One of them is Google Books, The
mass digitization project that has enabled Google Books scan more than 20 million
books worldwide (80% from participating libraries and the rest from more than
50,000 publishers participating in the program). The Library of the Complutense
199
University of Madrid joined in 2006 and 120,574 books were scanned. These are
now available in Google, UCM's catalogue and databases, Europeana and Hathi
Trust. This has improved the dissemination and preservation of this bibliographic
heritage (Magan, 2014).
Conclusion
Digital libraries have gaining much importance since the traditional print media is
rapidly replaced by digital media due to various advantages. Intellectual Property
of digital contents requires wider consideration. Copyright is one of the branches of
Intellectual Property. Libraries provides access to digital material through variety
of legal constructs; license agreement, exceptions under national copyright law,
legal deposit, and the public domain. Interpretation of the law by the courts must
also be evaluated for potential impact to libraries. Librarian needs to take note of
locating the owner of copyright. There should be a balance between interest of
copyright owner and the general public users. The copyright within the scholarly
communication process and the role of librarian in providing access to copyright
materials in digital age is also a challenging area. Demand of Electronic Document
Delivery Serves is decreased and may decrease even more in the long run due to
availability of direct accessibility of electronic documents. Copyright statements
are often difficult to distinguish from terms of use and are frequently vague and
misleading. Allowing Fair Use of Orphan by libraries and archives helps fulfil
copyright critical purpose of promoting the dissemination of Knowledge and
supporting speech and free expression. Project like mass digitization of Google
Books has improved the dissemination and preservation of bibliographic heritage.
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Copyright in the Digital Age
Priyanka1
Abstract
The advent of digital technology has greatly accelerated the dissemination and
distribution of information with great speed and accuracy never seen before. It is
much easier to disseminate literary, artistic and scientific work to a very large
community of Internet users and users of electronic media. As we move forward into
the Digital Age, copyright issues are becoming far more complex. Several issues of
concern to liability of internet service providers and library community have been
raised and discussed. The librarians in the digital environment have the same
responsibility to collect information and help the readers by providing it even if
information is in electronic form. The role of librarian is to be protected and
enhanced. The copyright protection should be encouraging the use of information
for creativity and not for creating hurdles in the use of information. There is urgent
need to reconsider the existing copyright law to make it suitable in electronic age to
promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to
authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and
discoveries. The need for well thought out licensing strategies are required to serve
the interest of authors, publishers, and libraries.
Keyword : Copyright, Information Technology
Introduction
The Digital Age has added new challenges to copyright law enforcement. Digital
media are the building blocks of Multimedia authoring. The Internet has made the
authorship of digital media a particularly complex issue. New enforcement
techniques must be applied. Copyright laws protect original works of authorship
that are fixed in a tangible medium of expression. The basic elements are:
expression and originality. The Multimedia authors who makes an unauthorized
copy of someone else's work, or portion of someone else's work, is probably
violating the copyright owner's rights. Works of authorship include literary works
1
Assistant Professor, University Institute of Law & Management Studies (UILMS), Gurgaon
203
(including computer programs); musical works; pictorial and graphic works;
motion pictures and other audio-visual works; and sound recordings. To codify
copyright law as it applies to digital information, the Information Infrastructure
Task Force (IITF) was formed in 1993. The IITF in turn established a working
group on intellectual property right to examine the intellectual property
implications. In 1994, the group published "Green Paper," a preliminary draft
report on intellectual property right. The working group recognized the need to
review current copyright laws in light of the fact that copying and dissemination of
information are extremely easy in the digital age. At this time, copyright law is
murky in respect to Multimedia. It may be several years until legislation is passed,
and it may be impossible to enforce, particularly for Multimedia materials
distributed over the Internet. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
is a specialized United Nations agency formed to protect intellectual property
worldwide. Intellectual property consists of industrial property (trademarks,
inventions) and copyrighted works. WIPO attempts to enforce copyright laws by
cooperation between countries. More than 170 countries are currently members of
WIPO.
Cyber Law
The Parliament of India has passed the Information Technology Act-2000 which
provides the legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India. This Act has received the
assent from the President of India and has become the law of the land in India. It is
the first Cyber Law of the country. Cyber Law is a term which refers to all the legal
and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web. Anything that concerns
with or related to or emanating from any legal aspects or issues concerning any
activity of net users and others, on Internet in cyber space comes within the ambit of
cyber law.
Intellectual Property
Every human being is endowed with certain but varying degree of intellect. Each
individual is uniquely gifted. The word intellect originates from the root
“intellectus” in Latin which means the power of knowing as distinguished from the
power to feel. Man has the capacity to acquire knowledge and increase his
knowledge bank by gathering more and utilizing it as and when required
throughout his life time. An intellectual makes his living by selling the product
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intellect, which is nothing but the brain child of his original idea, creative thought,
which forms a special kind of property known as intellectual property. The
intellectual property is ownership of something intangible. A right is legally
protected interest and object of the right is the thing in which the owner has this
interest. The object in intellectual property right is immaterial property.
Intellectual Property Right (IPR)
IPR connotes the right to literary, artistic and scientific work; performances of
performing artists; phonographs and broad-cast; inventions in all fields of human
Endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks; service marks
and commercial names and designations, and all other products resulting from
intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. It is a
generic term covering patents; registered design; trademark; copyright; layout of
integrated circuits, trade secrets; geographical indicators and anti-competitive
practices in contractual licenses [1].
Copyright
Copyright protects the labor, skill and judgment of someone author, artist or some
other creator, expender in the creation of original piece of work. It may be given for
creators of literacy; dramatic; musical and other artistic work and producers of
cinematographs and sound recordings. In fact, it is a bundle of rights, including
interlay, rights of reproduction, communication to the public adaptation and
translation of work. A copyright is a set of exclusive legal rights; authors have over
their works for a limited period of time. In the United States, U.S. Copyright Office
works “To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited
times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and
discoveries”. The main objectives of copyright law are to promote the access and
the use for information and protecting the work from infringement and for
encouraging the authors for pursuit of knowledge. The library professional should
negotiate few electro copying privileges for legitimate non-commercial usage of
electronic information similar to the kind of fair use as in the case of printed
materials [2]. In the context of new information society the thrust area of economic
activity shifted to knowledge based industries and intellectual goods, described
impact of piracy of intellectual property act viz. viopiracy, geopiracy and IT
products of new information society. The developed countries demand protection
205
against piracy while developing countries feel that such protection will prevent
entry of new comers and felt that in the free flow of information IPR was hurdle to it
[3]. There is need to modify the IPR which confers exclusive right to the author to
exploit the work created by him/her for monitory gains in compensation of labor,
skill and capital investment in generating information. On the contrary, the IPR
should not give undue benefit to the author and should not allow him to make
excessive profit and should not become a barrier in the free flow of information.
The need for well thought out licensing strategies are required to serve the interest
of authors, publishers, and libraries [4].
IPR in Digital Context
The advent of digital technology has greatly accelerated the dissemination and
distribution of information with great speed and accuracy never seen before. It is
much easier to disseminate literary, artistic and scientific work to a very large
community of Internet users and users of electronic media. The issues mentioned
above are specific to the library community [5]. The libraries as a service have
allowed their users to read a document, to browse through the whole collection; to
search through the library catalogue; to supply Xerox copy for specific individual
research and education purpose; to procure photocopies of articles from other
libraries or clearing centers; to widely distribute the re-produced copies of
documents requiring public awareness and to provide inter library loan service.
Whether all these activities will continue in the digital age? If digitization is
considered as reproduction, it is clear that in digitization the initial work is merely
changed into the digital form and the process of changing is accomplished by a
machine, without any creativity. At the same time if it is considered as a translation
from one language to another, the digitization is also a change from natural
language of humans in to binary language of machine. In digitization however,
there is no creativity involved and it could be considered as an activity similar to
reprography. The copyright protects creative works. Simply transformation in to
the digital form of an original document cannot be considered as Creativity. The
transmission of information on Internet can be considered similar to broad casting
and copyright law cannot be applied. Internet transmission is global in nature. A
tangible object carrying a traditional work distributed lawfully comes under the
principle of exhaustion of distribution right. It is not appropriate to apply this right
to a work transmitted on Internet. The transmission on Internet is different from any
tangible object fixing of the work.
206
Fair Use Guidelines for Educational Multimedia
There must be credit and copyright information on all copies. The project must
include a notice that the materials are included under the fair use exemption and are
restricted from further use. The online use of a Multimedia product distributed over
the web requires that access be limited to classroom participants, and the length of
time the product remains online be limited. With restricted access the materials may
remain available for two years. On an unsecure network one can use the materials
for only 15 days. Many institutions have evolved internal policies and guidelines
based on an interpretation of the current laws to help answer questions about what
materials an instructor or student can and cannot use.
An author of Multimedia content has the same rights as those of other materials and
anyone who violates those rights is subject to penalty. What makes Multimedia
content different, especially Multimedia content distributed over the Internet - an
environment designed for information exchange - is that violating copyrights is so
very easy: text can be selected and copied, images downloaded by way of a simple
mouse-click. As a Multimedia author, one should to be concerned with establishing
and protecting ownership of his/her materials. One must take steps to ensure that
Multimedia content is not vulnerable to infringement.
Three Ways to Protect Ownership of Materials are as Follows:
Restrict Access
For distributing Multimedia material over the Internet, enable user name and
password options. To circulate a CD-ROM of Multimedia material, restrict use
to classroom participants.
Watermarking
This is particularly useful while distributing Multimedia material over the Internet.
Photoshop provides a method to register contact information with Dig marc
Corporation, the company that provides the service, and are assigned a creator ID
number. One should use Photoshop to embed the contact ID in the image. Then
when users download and open that image in Photoshop, they see an indicator that
means the image is copyrighted. To embed a watermark, one must first register with
207
Dig marc Corporation--which maintains a database of artists, designers, and
photographers and their contact information--to get a unique creator ID. Then
embed the creator ID in images, along with information such as the copyright year
or a restricted-use identifier [6].
Copyright Notice and Registration
A copyright notice informs viewers that the work is copyrighted, which would
eliminate the claim of innocent infringement in the case of copyright violation.
Registration for large Multimedia projects is a wise. To copyright your multimedia
materials, place the copyright symbol and year at the bottom of each page that
contains the copyrighted material. Copyright symbols are not required, but are
highly recommended because they are often the first line of defense against
copyright infringement. Contrary to popular belief, a "general copyright" does not
exist. To protect copyright of original material, one must contact the government
agency that handles copyrights in the country where he/she reside. In addition, one
may use Telnet to access current software program copyrights.
Conclusion
A database is normally defined as the structured storage of data in a computer
system. As election of data and arrangement of data in a structured way could be
considered as intellectual creation, database, accordingly should be protected by
copyright law. The fair use of print material by allowing reproduction in a
reasonable way for private study, research or education is well understood. But in
the context of digital information, because it is distributed to a larger community, it
is difficult to judge, comprehend “fair use”, access and control the infringement of
copyright law. It is almost impossible for a copyright owner to know which person
used his/her work. It is also impossible for the Copyright owner to give permission
to use and receive remuneration. In this context it is necessary to modify the
copyright law. The librarians in the digital environment have the same
responsibility to collect information and help the readers by giving it even if the
form is electronic information. The role of librarian is to be protected and enhanced.
The copyright protection should be encouraging the use of information for
creativity and not for creating hurdles in the use of information. The Librarians
should continue to work as catalyst for the free flow of information between the
owners of copyright and the users of the information.
208
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Srividhya, G.S. IPR issues in databases. Information Today & Tomorrow.
Vol.19: No.1, 2000.
Lakshmana Moorthy, A. and Karisiddappa, C.R. Copyright and electronic
information.
Bomanwar, V.J. Intellectual property rights and new information society.
Murthy, T.A.V. and Jain, S.P. Network access to electronic documents and its
Copyright implications to developing countries.
Deming Zhou, Chinese copyright protection system and the challenges of
digital Technology.
Lakshmana Moorthy, A. and Karisiddappa, C.R. Intellectual property rights
and virtual libraries.
Strengthening the Content Protection in
Electronic Age: Adherence to the Indian
Copyright Law
Bharat Kumar Singh1 and Shreaa Nath Singh2
Abstract
The present paper “Strengthening the Content protection in Electronic age:
Adherence to the Indian Copyright law”, talks about the mechanisms by the
adoption of which online content can be protected to a large extent from the threat
of misutilization. The digital era in which we are living is aiding people belonging
to different parts of the world to remain interconnected and an enormous amount of
information exists in the cyber space. This is subsequently making the huge
multinational companies to jump to the cyber space. Online data protection is both
a need and a necessity. In India, there exists a copyright law which works for the
safeguard of the information existing virtually and hence secures the copyright
holder. The paper drills on the protection measures that can be adopted by the
digital right holders to make their content secure from any sort of misuse. By length,
various other copyrightable objects in a website that stands as a medium of
information and exchange in electronic age have also been dealt in the paper.
Keywords: Copyright law, Misutilization, Online data protection.
Introduction to the Theme
We all have ideas and concepts and some of us do try to expand and propagate it by
publishing it online. Now it's fairly obvious that no one want their idea to be copied
by the others and hence ruin all their hard work. Now, It's a common understanding
among the IPR people that not the 'ideas 'can be protected but only the expression
and expressions can be made in different ways.1 Such expressions do attract
different protections based on their type. These assets are intangible but do enjoy
1
B.A., L.L.B. (Hons.) Student, 4th Year, National University of Study and Research in Law Ranchi,
Jharkhand, Email: kumarbharat0123@gmail.com
2
B.A., L.L.B. (Hons.) Student, 3rd Year, National University of Study and Research in Law Ranchi,
Jharkhand , Email: nathshreaa@gmail.com
210
legal protection. There are a large number of elements that exist in any website.
Counting it, may include a logo, the content and the background elements. The
website may also include the design of text and the graphics used, any type of music
and image display software used. All these elements are subjected to intellectual
property protection.2 There also includes the database rights (if any) underlying in
your website.3
Technology has brought all of us even closer. The manner we deal from day to day
has undergone rampant changes. The companies have realized that making online
presence is equally important. Day by day, brand promotions and advertisements
are reaching to its height.4 Now it has become a common man analysis to observe
the physical world moving to the virtual one. Almost all brands in order to grasp the
slightest of the opportunity besides owning their own stores also exist virtually for
example Reebok, Fastrack, VIP, Puma, etc. One furnished name among them is
Flipkart which is an 'online price comparison portal'.5 The website enables its
customers to shop online among a wide range of products.6 IRCTC online
reservation portal is another stoppage which handles online ticketing operations of
the Indian Railways.7 The website is convenient and easy to use.8
Unfortunately, there are no E-commerce dedicated laws in our country and dealt
grievances are tried under the Information Technology Act, 2000. However as the
online popularity of the work increases, the faster increasing are the risks of
copying it. As we have discussed above, the contents are not only restricted to the
words or documents that are uploaded online. Such content also includes the
photographs that are uploaded online, any sort of graphics or music videos. There
are again various hidden matters like the source code of a website, the algorithms
used, data and flow charts etc. Since the category of contents available online are
large and wide, hence the protection available to them. At present, we have in our
country a 'copyright law, a trademark law and an equally efficient 'patent law'.
These entire laws stand on the line to make the protection regime strong and
stronger. However, our discussion at the present paper would be restricted till the
ambit the copyright law allows.
What do we mean when we are Referring to the Term 'Electronic'
In reference to the topic, the term 'electronic' can be referred to that computer era
where each and every part of the globe is connected to one another by the means of
Strengthening the Content Protection in Electronic Age:
Adherence to the Indian Copyright Law
211
telecommunication technologies and network which aids towards the transmission
of data.9 This is an open network place where numerous copies of text, images,
sound and video files can be easily created and transmitted which brings a great
infringement and threat to intellectual property owners.
Online World & the Involvement of IPR System
With the expansion of internet and the remarkable spreading of information and
knowledge, the intellectual property system is being propelled towards the debate
of future online world and its stability. The maintenance of digital society is at
question since information and knowledge available online are gaining the position
of major source of value. The most common type of infringements includes
hacking of the computer systems and then illegally accessing its records. There
needs to be a great involvement of the IPR system in the e-commerce activities
which are at a great threat.10 Users may easily get victimized of the online
misrepresentation made by the hackers and the breach of Confidentiality, Privacy
and Fraud. Such e-commerce websites on one hand do try to imitate all the basic
characters of the parent domain (that may be a well repudiated e-commerce website
with a large number of customers follow-up), they also do copy all the contents of
the parent website in order to establish the best replica.
The Website and the Copyright Issue
A website may look as a singular entity however the concept is much complex as it
seems to be. A college of components are included in any website. For say, one
company may own its copyright over the images used in the website, another
company may own copyright over the design applied at one's site. Similarly, the
graphics, text designs and backgrounds may be the copyrighted work of an entirely
different individual. Hence when an individual is copying any element from a
particular website, he should be cautious enough as at the same time he would be
infringing the copyright of that person by breaching the law.
The Website Developer and the Copyright Ownership
There are instances where the website has been developed by the employees for any
third person. This is a case where basically most of the big companies outsource the
creation of their company's website to a private contractor. Normally such private
212
contractors own copyright over the website unless a contract for agreeing on a
different term has been negotiated between the parties. Where no valid agreement
has been entered, the copyright ownership of the website rests with the designer and
for the purpose of the slightest of the change in the website; the company shall have
to contact the designer.11
Website Materials Owned by Others
Currently the state of technology is such that website contents can be easily copied
and used. However such practice though easy to adopt is illegal. Using materials
without getting prior permission breaches the copyright agreements and may lead
the infringer to face dire consequences. Hence before copying any content, prior
license12 must be asked to be granted. Similarly there are various online tools
available in one's website that are basically provided to increase the website's
feasibility. A similar umbrella protection is available to such website tools.
However many a times, finding the right copyright owner is not an easy job. Hence
what most of the website developers do is that they try to initiate the developing of
the website using the materials that is already available in the public domain. For
works that are not in the public domain13, prior permission needs to be acquired.
Such information can be gathered by looking at the Collective management
organisations14 that simplifies the process of granting licence.
Method of Availing Protection: Letting People Know That the Content is
Protected
As per the assumption of many people, the website contents and materials can be
freely used. At the same time there rises the need of warning the users by the means
of any disclaimer or notification that appears on the start-up of the webpage. Such
start-up disclaimer must clearly distinguish between what matter of the website can
be further transmitted and what matter is subjected to copyright. It is equally
workable if the proper copyright © symbol is placed next to the copyrighted matter
and that will fulfil the business. Similarly, the photographs and images used in the
webpage can be 'watermarked' to let the users know that the matter is subjected to
copyright.
Strengthening the Content Protection in Electronic Age:
Adherence to the Indian Copyright Law
213
Controlling Access and Use of the Website Content
For the purpose of controlling the access of the website content for say to limit the
audience or to let an age specific population to gain access to the website, the
method of 'online agreements' is appreciated. Such agreements let the visitors to
surf through the website contents for a limited period of time. Another method is to
upload the content into several parts with sufficient details. When the user tries to
access the full content, he has to fulfil the login details.
Conclusion
A copyright exists not merely on an idea but on the expression of it. When an
individual challenges to develop a new literary work and utilizes to maintain it in
his/her personal website, the work must be secured from the threat of
misutilization. The cyberspace we are dealing with here engulfs an enormous
amount of data and proportionally is the threat of misutilization. Now a day, users
find it an easy way to utilize the work that is available online without
acknowledging the legal consequences of such attempt. It lies the prior
responsibility of the website owners to protect their content. However, there are
various methods through which user asses to the website contents can be controlled
and managed. The Indian Intellectual property system is various ways through its
wings boots the protection which one can utilize. Online data protection is both a
need and a necessity and safeguarding the information ensures the maintainability
of the right that the Indian copyright law vests in the copyright holder.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Trends in India's e-Commerce Market': Report provided by Forrestor
Research for ASSOCAM's 2nd National Conference on e-Commerce 2012
Alic, J. (1994) “Technology in the service industries” International Journal of
Technology Management, 9, 1-14
“Intellectual property in websites: ownership and protection” available at
http://www.out-law.com/page-381 accessed on 13th May, 2014
Cited from “E-Commerce Business Models”, Boriana Koleva and available at
http://www.mrl.nott.ac.uk/~bnk/Teaching/IDB/ lecture2.pdf accessed on
13th May, 2014
Cited from “The Flipkart Story” Ushamrita Choudhury, The Hindu, April 17,
214
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
2012 and available at http://www.thehindu. com/arts/magazine/
article3290735.ece accessed on 13th May, 2014
http://www.flipkart.com/ accessed on 13th May, 2014
http://www.irctc.co.in/ accessed on 13th May, 2014
Cited from “IRCTC - Atithi Devo Bhava,” Vivek Jain, Hindustan Times,
August 17, 2011 and available at http:// www.hindustantimes.com/
technology/WebService-Reviews/IRCTC-Atithi-Devo-Bhava/Article1734209.aspx accessed on 13th May, 2014
Available at http://www.internationalprivatelaw.com/files/001IN202.pdf
accessed on 13th May, 2014
Available at http://www.academia.edu/694983/E-COMMERCE_LAWS_
AND_CYBER_CRIMES accessed on 13th May, 2014
Under the copyright laws of some countries, a modified site may be considered
a “derivative work” of the original site. Derivative works can only be made
with prior permission of the copyright owner of the original work. In most
countries, you also have the obligation to respect the moral rights of an author.
A web designer has the right to have his/her name on the work (where you
changed the site, the attribution should state that the site has been changed,
unless you have obtained the designer's consent), and it is not permitted to
change the site in a way that would prejudice the designer's honor or
reputation.
A license is an agreement whereby the person who owns the IP (licensor)
authorizes another person (licensee) to make certain uses of the IP, under
certain conditions and usually in exchange for payment.
In most cases, copyright lasts for the lifetime of the author plus 50 or 70 years.
After that, the work enters the “public domain” and may be used without
authorization of the copyright owner. Some works are in the public domain
because the owner has indicated a desire to give them to the public without
copyright protection.
Collective Management Organizations (CMOs) monitor uses of works on
behalf of creators and are in charge of negotiating licenses and collecting
remuneration. There is often one CMO per type of work (such as publishing,
music, screen writing, film, television and video, visual arts) and per country.
Details of the relevant CMOs operating in your country can generally be
obtained from the national copyright office, or from your industry
associations.
Copyright in the Information Epoch:
An Overview
Sumeet Handa1
Abstract
In the present paper we are discussing about copyright in the information era. The
paper discusses Indian copyright law, International copyright law, duration of
protection, issues related to fair use, and copyright facilitators. The paper also
discusses digital technologies and copyright as well as copyright protection
technologies.
Keywords: Copyright, information, Intellectual-Capitalism, Digital Technology
Introduction
It is an epoch of knowledge explosion. With the developments in the fields of
information technology and communications, knowledge is being shared without
any limitations. It is also an era of globalization. With the emergence of new
concept of 'Intellectual Capitalism', capital is no longer in banks but in minds. The
return on intellectual capital is considerable and not measurable by any standard. It
manifests itself as tangible asset in the form of inventions, technologies, designs,
books, etc. The intellectual capital requires protection from piracy and imitation.
The Copyright Act attempted to balance the rights of authors to benefit from their
writing and stimulate creativity and the needs of the readers to have ready access to
information. [1]
Copyright came about with the invention of the printing press and with wider public
literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers'
monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century. Charles II of England was
concerned by the unregulated copying of books and passed the Licensing of the
Press Act 1662 by Act of Parliament, which established a register of licensed books
and required a copy to be deposited with the Stationers' Company, essentially
1
Dy.Librarian, THDC-Institute of Hydropower Engg. & Tech, Tehri (Uttarakhand)-249124,
Email: librarian.thdcihet@gmail.com
216
continuing the licensing of material that had long been in effect Copyright is a legal
right created by the law of a country, that grants the creator of an original work
exclusive rights to its use and distribution, usually for a limited time, with the
intention of enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a photograph or the
author of a book) to receive compensation for their intellectual effort.
Copyright law is a branch of law deals with the rights of intellectual creators like
creativity concerned primarily with mass communication. It is also concerned with
all forms and methods of public communication, not only in printed publications
but also with sound and television broadcasting, films for public exhibition in
cinemas, etc. and even computerised systems for the storage and retrieval of
information. [2]
Definitions:
According to World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), “Copyright is
defined as a legal term describing right given to creators for their literary and
artistic works. Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of any
country to the authors of “original works of authorship”, which includes literary,
dramatic, musical, artistic and certain other intellectual works.”
According to Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science
“Copyright is defined as the exclusive legal rights granted by a government to an
author, editor, compiler, composer, playwright, publisher or distributor to publish,
produce, sell or distribute copies of a literary, musical dramatic, artistic or other
work, within certain limitations ( fair use and first sale).”
According to Oxford English Dictionary “copyright is defined as the exclusive
and assignable legal right, given to the originator for a fixed number of years to
print, publish, perform, film or record literary, artistic, or musical material.”
According to Copyright Act 1968 in Australia “A simple definition of copyright
is that it is a bunch of rights in certain creative works such as text, artistic works,
music, computer programs, sound recordings and films. The rights are granted
exclusively to the copyright owner to reproduce the material, and for some
material, the right to perform or show the work to the public. Copyright owners can
prevent others from reproducing or communicating their work without their
permission or may sell these rights to someone else.”
Copyright in the Information Epoch: An Overview
217
However, copyright is the exclusive right of the author to drive economic benefits
from his own writing or artistic performance or creative work. Copyright regulation
basically protects the interests of writer or creator or performer from commercial
exploration from others.
Copyright Law
Indian Law of Copyright
The government of India has passed the international Copyright Order 1958,
according to which any work first published in any country which is a member of
Brene or Universal Copyright Convention (India participated in both the
conventions) will be accorded the same treatment as if it was published in India. As
regards the work published in a country not mentioned in the schedule to the order,
If the author of the work was a national of a universal copyright convention country,
the author will he treated as a citizen of India and he will be entitled to the benefits
of the copyright in the work.
The Copyright Act, 1957 came into effect from January 1958. This Act has been
amended five times since then, i.e., in 1983, 1984, 1992, 1994, 1999 and 2012. The
Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 is the most substantial. The main reasons for
amendments to the Copyright Act, 1957 include to bring the Act in conformity with
WCT and WPPT; to protect the Music and Film Industry and address its concerns;
to address the concerns of the physically disabled and to protect the interests of the
author of any work; Incidental changes; to remove operational facilities; and
enforcement of rights. Some of the important amendments to the Copyright Act in
2012 are extension of copyright protection in the digital environment such as
penalties for circumvention of technological protection measures and rights
management information, and liability of internet service provider and
introduction of statutory licences for cover versions and broadcasting
organizations; ensuring right to receive royalties for authors, and music composers,
exclusive economic and moral rights to performers, equal membership rights in
copyright societies for authors and other right owners and exception of copyrights
for physically disabled to access any works.[3]
218
International Copyright Law
The international Copyright Law provides protection to all creative works or
productions of the human mind in the fields of literature, art, and science regardless
of their manner or form of expression. There is no copyright of Ideas. It subsists
only in the material form in which the ideas are translated. [4]
Materials that can be Copyright Include
§
Literary works (including computer programmes);
§
Dramatic works;
§
Musical works;
§
Artistic works (including buildings);
§
Films;
§
Sound recordings;
§
Broadcasts; and
§
Published editions.
Reasons of Contravention of Copyright
Some of the important reasons for Violation of Copyright-particularly in Library
and Information centres are:
§
Shrinking (or limited) budgets.
§
Non-availability of books (out of print, ban on books, etc.)
§
Delay in supply/procurement of books/journals
§
Higher cost of books/journals (particularly foreign publications).
§
Urgent need.
§
Ignorance of Intellectual Property Rights
Berne Convention
The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, usually
known as the Berne Convention, is an international agreement governing
copyright, which was first accepted in Berne, Switzerland, in 1886. This was the
first and the prime international convention on copyright which was revised for
several times at Berlin in 1908, at Rome in1928, at Brussels in 1948, at Stockholm
in 1967, and at Paris in 1971 to meet various challenges posed by the technological
developments.
219
Universal Copyright Convention
The Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), adopted in Geneva, Switzerland, in
1952 and it was revised at Paris in the year 1971. The UCC was developed by
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The
reason for adoption of Universal Copyright Convention was that many states
including two most powerful states i.e. United States and the Society Union were
not the members of the Berne Convention. The countries were not willing to join
Berne Convention due to the reason that its level of protection was so high. The
copyright system of the United States and many Latin America countries also
differed from that of the Berne Union. The United States only provided copyright
protection for a fixed, renewable term, and required that in order for a work to be
copyrighted it must contain a copyright notice and be registered at the Copyright
Office. The Berne Convention, on the other hand, provided for copyright protection
for a single term based on the life of the author, and did not require registration or
the inclusion of a copyright notice for copyright to exist. Thus the United States
would have to make several major modifications to its copyright law in order to
become a party to it. At the time the United States was unwilling to do so. The UCC
thus permits those states which had a system of protection similar to the United
States for fixed terms at the time of signature to retain them. Eventually the United
States became willing to participate in the Berne convention, and change its
national copyright law as required. In 1989 it became a party to the Berne
Convention as a result of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988. The
UCC protest literary, scientific and artistic works, including writings, musical
dramatic and cinematographic works and paintings, engraving and sculpture. The
symbol © together with the year of publication and the name of the copyright owner
many be required by any contracting states under the Universal Copyright
Conventions satisfying all formalities which are otherwise required by the
domestic laws in such contracting states.
Silent Features of the Copyright Act 1957
a.
b.
c.
Establish a copyright office under the control of the Registrar of
Copyrights to facilitate registration of copyrights and to settle certain
kinds of disputes arising under the Act.
Some new rights also came to be recognized, with the result that some new
terms have been incorporated and defined under the Act.
Provision to the first ownership of Copyright.
220
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Term of copyright for different works.
Term of licensing of the copyright including compulsory licensing in
certain circumstances.
Broadcasting rights.
International copyright.
Definition of infringement of copyright
Author's special right.
Civil and criminal remedies against infringement.
Remedies against groundless threat of legal dealings.
Information Era and Copyright
In the information Era not only addresses the current complexities that arise with
authors and copyright laws when publishing digitally, but it also sheds light on the
present processes and procedures in place regarding copyright options for digital
publishers. This publication addresses a global viewers in the manner in which it
discusses conventional methods used in publishing before segueing into new
model and strategies for both a business and an author in this ever-expanding digital
world.
Information technologies are coming up very fast. It may be difficult to predict
about the Information technology that will come up in the future. It would be
suitable if the copyright law is modified to address the issues of protection of
exclusive rights of the creators as soon as new technology is emerged. Remedial
measures in the law with explanation in a positive manner should provide security
by broad statement, which would cover all aspects of copyright. While making the
draft during the amendment in the Act, expert opinion of the specialists in the
respective areas should be considered to accommodate implications of emerging
technologies on the Act. Information technology has created very serious problems
to the copyrighted material on one hand and provided many opportunities for its
exploitation on the other. Creators are under the grip of fear that digital world would
end the protection of their exclusive rights because everybody will copy everything
freely and there would be no more creative work. Every time information
technology comes up with methods of better reproduction, the copyists make
efforts to free-ride on the labour of others. Policy makers need to come up with
solutions to curb this practice by providing stricter measures to curb copyright
infringement and protect the rights of the creators. [5]
221
Conclusion
Information is the key to development both for individual and nation. Technology
has now opened up endless possibilities for accessing a whole range and wide
variety of information in a scale exceptional than ever before. With the knowledge
explosion the problem that is worrying scholars, researchers, educators and
consumers of modern information is the possible impact that new technologies may
have in the copyright law and consequent burdens on the information users in
developing countries. As the new technique has conquered the world of
communication, copying is becoming easier than speedier than printing. In this
technology development the authors and the creator published and preserved their
own works in digital forms. In conclusion, it may be said that much needs to be done
in this infant area when the information and technological revolution is on the rise
as is copyright awareness.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Ananda, T.B and Reddy, R.B; Copyright in the information age: Librarians
view point in DESIDOC Bulletin of information technology, vol. 16 (6), 1996;
p 17-19.
Singh, P.J. and Jaisankar, D.; Copyright and its Basic concepts in Information
Technology Tools and Techniques in social science research, vol.2, 2014; p
728-737
http://copyright.gov.in/
Jefrey v Boosey [1854] 4 HLC 815
Singh, J.P., Copyright Issues in DESIDOC Bulletin of information technology,
vol. 27 (6), 2007; p 19-30.
http://www.igi-global.com/book/authors-copyright-publishing-digitalera/90662
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright
Digital Millennium Copyright Act. 1998. USA
The Copyright Act, 1957 (with amendments). Universal Law publishing Co.
New delhi;p83.
Confronting the Plagiarism at JNU:
A Case Study
Dr. Parveen Babbar1 and Dr. P K Jain2
Abstract
Unfortunately, the academic setups are seeing extensive examples of plagiarism. In
the earlier years this was just copying from fellow students, or small-scale copying
from books, journals and other print documents. With the explosion of Internet and
electronic world of resources there has been a massive growth in verbatim copying.
With little policies and large-scale variation of the rules relating to plagiarism
across the academic institutions, and even across academic fraternity the situation
has become worse. Academically dishonest behavior, such as cheating and
plagiarism, presents a challenge to university, exacerbated by new technologies
which have increased the ease of academic dishonesty, the Central Library, JNU is
helping the University is confronting the Plagiarism. The paper discusses how the
JNU Central Library is reaching out to both faculty and students in order make the
awareness for the plagiarism and the software provided by the Central Library.
Keyword : Plagiarism
Introduction
With the increasing number of plagiarism incidents being reported and academic
dishonesty the Universities around the world and India are becoming more vigilant
and heedful. Universities facing intellectual theft and dishonesty are taking this as
serious ethical offense.
Possible factors influencing of plagiarism among student and researchers
behaviors and attitudes toward plagiarism include ignorance, lack of personal
investment in their education, situational ethics, and lack of consistent styles
among and within various disciplines. (Auer and Krupar, 2001). Plagiarism is not
1
Deputy Librarian, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, India, E-mail: parveenbabbar@gmail.com
Librarian, Institute of Economic Growth, University of Delhi Enclave, Delhi, India,
E-mail: pkjain1310@gmail.com
2
Confronting the Plagiarism at JNU: A Case Study
223
only a crime per se but in academia and industry it is an offense and cases of
plagiarism can constitute copyright infringement.
Plagiarism, is a Latin verb that means, “to kidnap" leading to stealing others' hard
work and intellectual property. In other words it is academic and public dishonesty.
The Compact Oxford English Dictionary (2009) defines plagiarism as the act of
“taking the work or idea of someone else and pass it off as one's own”.
Role of the JNU Central Library in Detecting Plagiarism
Central library, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) has been the central location
for conducting research in the university, it certainly makes sense that the librarian
has been involved in dealing with unravelling the mysteries contained within some
problematic student papers and research work of the researchers. Although
plagiarism is a serious problem, libraries and librarians can offer substantial help in
deterring and preventing plagiarism. (Zimerman, 2012) So, central library JNU
works with the liaison responsibilities with faculty in order to provide information
about website and the software to detect plagiarism. The subscription of the
software Turnitin is been provided through the Central Library as part of other
databases and Journals subscribed by the central Library, JNU over the
years.(Bruke, 2004). With the availability of full text access resources and easy
access to internet world, plagiarism is as easy as cutting and pasting from a wide
range of online sources. JNU Library see information ethics as part of their purview
and a natural extension of its traditional role as gatekeepers of information and
research. So JNU Library is assisting both students and faculty in recognizing and
combating this plague of dishonesty and sloppiness.
Turnitin Software @ JNU
JNU Library subscribes to the plagiarism software and the researcher/ students are
required to mandatory check the thesis through the software and submit
Compliance Certificate issued by the Principal concerned duly signed by both the
Research Scholar and the Research Supervisor stating that the work is free from
plagiarism and if plagiarism is proved, they are abide by the rules and regulations of
the University.
But the teachers are of opinion that research scholars have found different ways to
get around the software. The scholar get away with software as it catches certain
224
phrases and sentences that are electronically available in any publication. The
software finds the minimum repeat of such sentences exposes plagiarism. Similarly
there are several plagiarised works that are never caught simply because it is not
available online. (Vijetha, 2014)
So in view to this to make plagiarism difficult for the students the faculty should
consider “requiring topic proposals, idea outlines, multiple drafts, interim working
bibliographies and photocopies of sources” (Hinchliffe, 1998)
Initiatives taken by Central Library JNU
It is obvious that students are in great need of guidance on how to use information
ethically and legally. So Central Library JNU is taking various steps to guide the
students and researchers to orient them about the Plagarism and Citation tools.
Some of these initiatives include:
i.
Library is regularly organising seminars/conferences/ orientation/
Instructional sessions to provide direct information about plagiarism and
its consequences along with practical steps students/researchers can take
to avoid the risk of plagiarism in their research assignments.
ii. As the web-based instruction shows great prospective for actively
engaging students/ researcher in learning and understanding how to avoid
plagiarism and how to create citations. So JNU is regularly putting up the
instructions and details on the JNU Library WebPages.
iii. JNU Library is also keen to integrate tutorials on Plagiarism and Citations
into the curriculum.
iv. At the time of submission of thesis, the candidate will give a certificate on
the prescribed form that there is no plagiarism/word to word copy of
matter from any other script or document in the present thesis.
v.
For the clearance from the Library, the student/researcher have to submit
the mandatory certificate of Plagiarism check from the subscribed
software i.e. Turnitin showing the percentage of Plagiarism.
Confronting the Plagiarism at JNU: A Case Study
225
JNU Teacher Association and Plagiarism
Recently in a statement to leading newspapers JNU Teacher Association, president
Prof Arun Kumar said that "in a competitive environment where quality should be
paramount, even a single sentence of plagiarism cannot be accepted. But there are
instances where even 50% works lifted from other sources are accepted and given
grades." In a stand against the plagiarism the University and the Teacher
Association of the University wishes to deal with the wider underlying issue of
relationship between the teacher and the taught. Further Jawaharlal Nehru
University Teachers Association (JNUTA) has decided to set up a committee to
look into the issue and other broader related issues like the extent of plagiarism
being found by the plagiarism detection software provided by the library, the
impact of the use of the software on plagiarism in research work, how should the
result of the use of software be interpreted by the supervisors/teachers, what could
be an acceptable level of plagiarism, among others. (Gohain, 2014)
In the beginning of the year 2013 JNU took a lead to encounter the Plagiarism by
setting an expert panel to check plagiarism in the university, it was the first such
effort by an Indian institution. Professor Karmeshu, JNU who headed the panel,
spoke to the Telegraph Newspaper and said that plagiarism of idea, language or
content was a “prevailing practice” in academic institutions. Similarly in the
interview to Telegraph, Professor N. Raghuram a member of the JNU expert
committee, said there had been no study to suggest the percentage of research
students involved in unethical practices in Indian institutions. “But one can safely
say it is between 10 and 50 per cent.” (Mohanty, 2013)
Conclusion
The Central Library, JNU has been constantly involved in providing assistance to
the faculty, researchers and students to master the steps in the research process. In
addition to the orientation on databases and other library based tools and services
JNU Library offer regular tutorials and orientation on the Plagiarism and tools to be
used. The orientations includes research process, demonstrate how and when to cite
sources, and detailed explanation of what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid
it. The orientation also includes the features and functionalities of Turnitin.com
software that is being subscribed by the Central Library, JNU.
226
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Auer, Nicole J. and Krupar, Ellenm. (2001 Winter) Mouse Click Plagiarism:
The Role of Technology in Plagiarism and the Librarian's Role in Combating
It. Library Trends. Available at https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/
handle/2142/ 8353/librarytrendsv49i3d_opt.pdf
Bruke, Margaret (2004). Deterring Plagiarism: A New Role for Librarians.
Library Philosophy and Practice. 6(2). Available at
http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/burke.htm
Gohain, Manash Pratim (2014). JNU teachers' body to examine increased
instances of plagiarism. Times of India Newspaper, October 1, 2014
Hinchliffe, L. (1998).Cut and paste plagiarism: Preventing, detecting, and
tracking online plagiarism. Available at
http://synonymizer.com.ar/legal/cutandpaste.htm.
Maxymuk, John (2006). The persistent plague of plagiarism, The Bottom Line.
19(1), 44 - 47.
Mohanty, Basant Kumar (2013). JNU first off the blocks to check plagiarism.
The Telegraph. January 3 , 2013
Vijetha, S. N (2014). Plagiarism woes besiege JNU teachers. The Hindu
Newspaper. October 2, 2014
Zimerman, Martin (2012) "Plagiarism and international students in academic
libraries" New Library World, 113(5/6), 290 - 299
Plagiarism Detection Service: Its Benefits and
B.P. Singh, Mange Ram and Arun Kumar Satsangi
Abstract
This paper presents the practical approaches of plagiarism detection service for
researchers and academicians in electronic environment. Today, plagiarism is an
issue of research misconduct in academic and research community. Research
misconduct means plagiarism, falsification and fabrication that seriously deviates
from practices commonly accepted in the academic and research communities
generally in proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting research and
academic activities. Plagiarism is copying words/text from any kind of sources
(Internet, Books, journals, reports or other text materials) without proper citation.
Plagiarism is the act of stealing someone else's work and attempting to "pass it off"
as your own. Today, Plagiarism detection service is very popular in the form of online services offering to plagiarism detection in the works of researchers and
academicians. Present time many open source and proprietary softwares are
available to fight against plagiarism. This paper describes the practical approach
to plagiarism detection service. The paper also highlights the benefits and
challenges of plagiarism detection services in academic and research scenario.
Keywords: Plagiarism, Plagiarism deduction service, Plagiarism detection
software/tools, Plagiarism checking, Copyright.
Introduction
Nowadays rapidly increase the percentage of online published research works of
researchers and academicians on internet. It has been notice that very difficult to
find out the originality of research works because many researchers and
academicians are doing the cut-past job for best complied text materials to
1
Librarian Gr-1, Central Library, Dayalbagh Educational Instt. (Deemed University), Dayalbagh,
Agra-05, E-mail: bp.sing76@gmail.com
2
Dy. Librarian, Central Library, Dayalbagh Educational Instt. (Deemed University), Dayalbagh,
Agra-05, e-mail: mram72ster@gmail.com
3
Central Library, Dayalbagh Educational Instt. (Deemed University), Dayalbagh, Agra-05
228
publication of thesis, dissertation, reports, research papers/articles and
assignments. So, that necessity of plagiarism detection service in every university,
institution, college and research organization not to be neglected to checking the
originality of research works. Plagiarism detection service is work of plagiarism
checking by plagiarism detector software in research works and guide to researches
and academicians for avoid the plagiarism in their researches works. Plagiarism
can be defined as trying to pass out source code written by someone else as one's
own without proper citation (i.e., without indicating that which words/text are
copied from which author). Today, plagiarism is an issue of research misconduct in
academic and research community. Research misconduct means plagiarism,
falsification and fabrication that seriously deviates from practices commonly
accepted in the academic and research communities generally in proposing,
performing, reviewing, or reporting research and academic activities.
Plagiarism occurs often in research and academic environments. Present time
manual detection of plagiarism in submission of hundreds thesis, dissertations,
research papers and project reports of students and researchers is infeasible.
Therefore, plagiarism detector software have emerged that assist teachers and
librarians in detecting the presence of plagiarism. Today, many open source and
prosperity softwares (JPlag, moss, Marble, Plaggie, SIM, Turnitin and iThenticate )
are available to automatic plagiarism detection. The plagiarism detection is the
process of locating and indentifying within a particular words/text or documents
those parts which have been taken from any kind of sources without proper
references/citation. The habits of plagiarism almost find out in the poor habits and
unskilled to provide proper citation of students and researches. “The aim of
plagiarism detection services as a problem to be solved not to cover other aspects of
plagiarism, important as they are, such as surrounding ethical and moral issues”
(Hannabuss, 2001).The main objective of this paper is presents an overview of the
current state of the art in plagiarism detection service to highlight its benefits and
challenges in research and academic environments.
Definition of plagiarism:
The word plagiarize comes from the Latin plagiare and according to Oxford
English Dictionary its means to kidnap, seducing or plundering. According to the
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to “plagiarize means to steal and pass off (the
ideas or words of another) as one's own to use (another's production) without
229
crediting the source to commit literary theft to present as new and original an idea or
product derived from an existing source”. In simple word plagiarism is the act of
stealing someone else's work and attempting to pass it off as your own.
Joy and Luck (1999) define plagiarism as “unacknowledged copying of
documents or programs that can occur in many contexts: in industry a company
may seek competitive advantage; in academia academics may seek to publish their
research in advance of their colleagues”. Hannabuss (2001) defines plagiarism as
the “unauthorised use or close imitation of the ideas and language/expression of
someone else and involves representing their work as your own”. Actually
plagiarism is interlinked with intellectual property rights and copyright, both are
provide legal right to protect the ownership of texts through originality of their
contents. Today, almost plagiarism detection cases of researches and academicians
we found self-plagiarism type. The definition of self–plagiarism we use is “When
authors reuse their own previously written work or data in a new-written product
without informing the reader that this material has appeared elsewhere” ORI,
(2002). The simplest way of plagiarism is to directly copy from a source text with
minimum modifying or rewriting. This type of text reuse is common in students
plagiarism where entire text/passages are copied word to word directly from the
source.
Types of Plagiarism:
In digital environment academia and researchers are doing directly copy text from
online source and submitting research papers, thesis, dissertation and project report
with minimum rewriting. Currently, plagiarism can take several distinct forms,
including the following (Source: www.plagiarism.org ).
1.
2.
Clone: submitting another's work, word-for-word, as one's own.
CTRL-C: Contains significant portions of text from a single source without
alterations.
3. Find – Replace: Changing key words and phrases but retaining the essential
content of the source
4. Remix: Paraphrases from multiple sources, made to fit together
5. Recycle : Borrows generously from the writer's previous work without
citation. It's also known as self plagiarism.
7. Mashup: Mixes copied material from multiple sources
230
6.
Hybrid: Combines perfectly cited sources with copied passages without
citation
8. 404 Error: Includes citations to non-existent or inaccurate information about
sources.
9. Aggregator: Includes proper citation to sources but the paper contains almost
no original work.
10. Re-tweet: Includes proper citation, but relies too closely on the text's original
wording.
Why do academicians and researchers plagiarism:
Today, one of the most important reason of researchers for doing plagiarism is to
gain popularity and status. In education/academic field, students may plagiarism
to gain a qualification with higher percentage and teachers to gain popularity,
promotion and status. The following reasons are listed below to plagiarism by
researchers and academicians in digital age.
•
Easily availability of reading materials/text on the internet.
•
Study Pressure on students.
•
Disorganization of syllabus for examination.
•
Poor study habits of students and teachers.
•
Cut-and-Paste culture in research and academic community.
•
Lack of understanding of seriousness of plagiarism.
•
Lack of strict academic discipline.
•
Lack of research methods skills.
•
Lack of referencing/citation skills.
•
Workload and stressful environment.
Plagiarism Detection:
In digital environment plagiarism is a significant problem in almost universities
and research institutions. Today, the Internet and Copy-Paste work makes
plagiarism very easy and attractive for students and researches in academic and
research context. To fight against plagiarism by students and researchers in their
document almost universities/institutions used automatic plagiarism detection
software. In India INFLIBNET, UGC provide two (iThenticate and Turnitin)
231
plagiarism detection software for plagiarism checking to selected
universities/institutions for the one year. Some private universities/institutions are
subscribed own plagiarism detection software to plagiarism checking.
Plagiarism detection involves finding similarities with copied wards/text from
respective sources. In some cases, a single text is first read and certain
characteristics found which suggest plagiarism. Actually in academic and research
community, plagiarism detection is generally process of checking the originality of
work and down to the knowledge of the student's/researchers work. The following
pictures of plagiarism detected document by ithenticate and Turnitin softwares
are show below.
Fig.1 Screenshot of Plagiarism Detected Document by Ithenticate Software
Fig. 2 Screenshot of Plagiarism Detected Document by Turnitin Software
Plagiarism Detection Software's/Tools:
Today, there are many plagiarism detection softwares are available to academic and
research communities. Although plagiarism detection softwares provide a
plagiarism detection service in detecting similar or matching text between
232
documents and respective source. The following plagiarism detection (open source
and commercial) software's to plagiarism detection service in universities and
institutions are listed below and comparison of features of the selected plagiarism
detection softwares is given in table1.
S.No
Name of Software
1. Turnitin.com
2. iThenticate.com
3. Sherlock (University of Sydney)
4. CopyCatch Gold
5. Plagiserve.com
6. Eve2 Essay verification engine
7. Coursemarker
8. Damocles (Monash University)
9. EduTie
10. Glatt Plagiarism Services
11. Gotcha!
12. JPlag
13. OrCheck
14. Plague (Monash University)
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Viper
SIM
Citemaster
Visualisation and Analysis of
Similarity Tool (VAST)
WCopyfind
WordCheck
YAP (Cambridge University)
Measure of Software Similarity
(MOSS)
Website/URL
http://www.turnitin.com
http://www.ithenticate.com
http://www.cs.usyd.edu.au/~scilect/sherlock/
http://www.copycatch.freeserve.co.uk
http://www.plagiserve.com
http://www.canexus.com
http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/CourseMarker
http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~damocles
http://www.edutie.com
http://www.plagiarism.org
http://www.4pointgroup.com
http://www.jplag.de
http://cise.sbu.ac.uk/orcheck
http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/projects/
plague/software.html
http://www.scanmyessay.com
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/sim.html
http://www.citemaster.com/
http://cise.sbu.ac.uk
http://plagiarism.bloomfieldmedia.com
http://wordchecksystems.com
http://www.bio.cam.ac.uk/~mw263/YAP.html
http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~aikenn/moss.html
Table 1 Comparison of features of the selected plagiarism detection softwares
Features of plagiarism detection softwares
Supported Extendable Quality Interface Exclusion Submission
languages
of the
of code
as groups
results
of files
CodeMatch 36
N
Y
Y
Y
N
CPD
06
Y
N
Y
?
?
JPlag
06
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Marble
05
Y
Y
N
Y
?
MOSS
25
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Plaggie
01
?
?
Y
?
?
Sherlock
01
Y
N
N
N
N
SIM
07
?
Y
N
N
N
YAP
05
?
Y
N
Y
?
Turnitin
20
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
iThenticate 03
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Name of
software
Local Open
source
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
?
?
N
N
N
233
A table 1 was produced to report the features of above mentioned plagiarism
detection software in comparative format. The features can be defined by Y (Yes),
N (No) and ? (unknown) in the cases where we could not ascertain if the feature is
present, or a number in the case of supported languages.
Best Ways to Avoid Plagiarism and Reduce the Percentage of Plagiarism:
Nowadays, plagiarism is a common and significant problem of students, research
scholars and teachers due to many causes. To avoid plagiarism authors always
mind that never pass off the work of others as your own. The best ways to avoiding
plagiarism and reduce the % of plagiarism in academic and research work are
following.
•
Good writing skills.
•
Good knowledge of using research methodology.
•
The best knowledge of copyright and IPR to reuse of already published
literatures.
•
The well practice of referencing/citation manual to cite the original
source.
•
The best practice to put the copied words/text in quotation “--------”
marks.
•
Proper referencing of self-plagiarism words/text which is already
published anywhere.
•
Avoiding changing and rearranging the words of published works of
any author.
•
Sound knowledge with appropriate study of domain subject before
writing the paper.
•
Avoiding to outsourcing of academic and research works.
•
Don't use words/text from any social media website without verify its
origin
•
Using plagiarism detection software (free or paid) to originality
checking of work before it finally submission.
•
The knowledge of institutional/publishers plagiarism policy for
academic and research work of students, research scholars and teachers.
234
Benefits of Plagiarism Detection Service:
Today, in open access environment almost information resources are easily
available on internet. In academic and research universities/institutions it has
been noted that many students, researches and teachers are doing the cut-past work
to publication of research papers, thesis, dissertations and project reports. So,
plagiarism detection service is a necessary to checking of plagiarism in work of all
students, researchers and teachers. Today, the benefits of plagiarism detection
service for students, teachers and publishers are following.
Benefits for Students/Research Scholars:
It has been noted that almost students are doing cut-past work to submission their
assignments, dissertation, thesis and projects reports to respective university or
institution. So, that benefit of plagiarism detection service for students are
following
•
Proper arrangement of referencing/citation of original source.
•
Improving the quality of final submit work to attract the examiners for
better marking.
•
After first time plagiarism checking students will receive a complete
report, so that students are able to revise any sections, chapters, etc of
own work and timely submit it in confidence within limited percentage
of plagiarism.
•
Plagiarism detection service benefit to will “foster more originality in
student work, increased sharing of ideas, and better critical thinking
skills”. McGowan, (2002).
Benefits for Teachers:
When teachers are conduct research with research scholars and use that research in
the creation of own research papers, thesis, dissertations and project reports then
need to plagiarism checking. While manually it is very difficult for teachers and
professors to check work for plagiarism. Today, plagiarism check is quite easy
through automatic online software. The use of a plagiarism-detection service will
allow “teaching moments,” as you demonstrate to your students how current law
235
can put them at risk for plagiarism charges.
Benefits for publishers:
In digital era publishers of a website, blog, e-newspaper, e-journals, e-books, etc
are in a very risky position due to copyright law for plagiarism in published work.
So, that publishers need plagiarism-detection service to provide the complete and
thorough check of originality of every submission before publish it anywhere.
Challenges of plagiarism detection services:
Today, academic and research community are facing many challenges to fight
against plagiarism in digital environment. Plagiarism detection service of libraries
in universities and institutions play a important role to fight against plagiarism. The
following challenges are faced to plagiarism detection service in universities and
institution.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Lack of well plagiarism policy of university/institution to fight against
plagiarism by students and teachers.
Lack of technical and IT skills in students and teachers (especially in art
faculty) to handling of plagiarism detection software.
Fund arrangement to subscribe good plagiarism detection software.
More and more workload on teaching staffs and librarians.
Slow speed of internet connection.
Lack of referencing/citation skills in teachers, researchers and students.
Fight with self plagiarism text/chapters.
Finding suitable measures of similarity with respective source/ Selfplagiarism source.
Challenges for university/institution to provide training with enough
skills to non-IT based students, researchers and teaches for plagiarism
checking and write properly research papers, thesis, dissertations etc
without plagiarism.
Conclusions:
In this paper we have observed the problem of plagiarism and necessity of
plagiarism detection service for academic and research community. Also, we
236
suggested for best ways to avoid plagiarism in the academic and research work of
students, researchers, teachers and scientists. To fight against plagiarism in
academic and research environment plagiarism detection service is very necessary
for every university, institution and collage. In India INFLIBNET, (UGC) provided
plagiarism detection software (iThenticate & Turnitin) for plagiarism checking to
selected central universities, deemed universities for the one year. To plagiarism
check many softwares/tools are available online as open source softwares and
commercially (paid per licence). Almost plagiarism detection softwares provide
similarity % report with respective original source of submitted document after
plagiarism checked. In digital age plagiarism detection service is very beneficial
for academicians, researchers and publishers to timely submission/publication of
work (research papers, Phd. thesis, Dissertations and project reports etc) without
plagiarism. We believe that plagiarism detection service provider help to
authors/students to fight against plagiarism problems.
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Liles, Jeffrey A. and Michael E. Rozalski (2004). “It's a Matter of Style: A
Style Manual Workshops for Preventing Plagiarism.” College &
Undergraduate Libraries, 11 (2), p. 91-101.
www.ithenticate.com/static/home.html.
www.plagiarismdetect.com/
www.ephorus.de/home_en.html
www.turnitin.com/static/index.html.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism
Relevance of Copyright Laws with Special
Reference to Plagiarism: How Libraries
are Fiddling Around
Dr. Saurabh Manglik1 and Dr. (Ms.) Shiva Kanaujia Sukula2
Abstract
The copyright laws provide some teeth to the scholarly content generator in
different areas of creativity. In the library scenario and publishing world, the
plagiarism has been playing fowl and has become a thought- generated as well as
thought-provoking nuisance. This paper touches few of the introductory aspects of
copyrights before moving towards the digital medium in libraries and places
outside libraries such as websites etc. How the faculties and libraries worldwide
are preparing and combating with this well planned problem is discussed with
examples. The paper concludes with the need to organize joint ventures of teachers
and libraries.
Keywords: Copyright, WIPO, IPR, digital libraries, plagiarism, academic libraries.
Introduction
Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of
an original work exclusive right to its use and distribution, usually for a limited
time, with the intention of enabling the creator to receive compensation for their
intellectual effort. The application of copyright law to electronic resources is
receiving more attention as technologies grow in kind and complexity. The
function of copyright as a means of protection for software continues to be
questioned, and efforts to resolve this issue are further confounded by the industry's
use of patents and license agreements. The rapid growth of electronic resources has
precipitated revisions in copyright law in the past decade (Joyce L. Ogburna
(2014). The copyright law and issues of fair use in for-profit academic libraries are
1
Department of Library & Information Science, CCS University, Campus, Meerut (U.P.) – 250 004,
E-Mail: sgupta522@gmail.com
2
Dy. Librarian, Central Library, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University, Agra,
E-Mail:- shivajrf@rediffmail.com
Relevance of Copyright Laws with Special Reference to Plagiarism:
How Libraries are Fiddling Around
239
pervasive. For-profit academic institutions, libraries related to these institutions
exist in a legal gray area in terms of copyright law, specifically with regard to fair
use. The law must be more clearly defined and applied with regard to these
institutions, so that academic librarians can adequately enforce copyright laws and
fair use within the confines of the for-profit academic library scheme (Ashley
Krenelka Chasea, 2013). The reinterpretation of the copyright has been mandatory
due to development of digital media and computer network technologies. The
characteristics of copyright are as following:
i. Copyright is a form of intellectual property (as patents, trademarks and
trade secrets are), applicable to any expressible form of an idea or
information.
ii. The copyright is often shared, then percentage holders are commonly
called rights holders: legally, contractually and in associated "rights"
business functions.
iii. There are "the right to copy", “the right to be credited for the work”.
iv. Copyrights are said to be territorial that they do not extend beyond the
territory of a specific state unless that state is a party to an international
agreement. Today, however, this is less relevant since most countries are
parties to at least one such agreement.
v. The national copyright laws have been standardized through international
copyright agreements.
vi. The concept of fair use allows "fair" exceptions to the creator's exclusivity
of copyright, and giving users certain rights.
How World Intellectual Property Organization is serving IPR?
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO, 2012) is a specialized U.N.
agency to deal with Intellectual Property Rights. The term IPR refers to the
following categories of intellectual properties covered under sections
vii. 1 to 7 of Part II GATT, 1994.
viii. Section 1 deals with copyright and other related rights;
ix. Section 2 is on Trademarks Section;
x. Section 3 has the provisions for Geographical indications;
xi. Section 4 deals with Industrial Design;
xii. Section 5 has laws related to Patents (including micro organisms and
plant varieties);
xiii Section 6 has Laws for Layout design (Topographies) and
xiv Section 7 deals with Protection of undisclosed information.
240
How Libraries are Concerned with Copyright in Digital Context
With the advent of technologies and the day today mavericks, the libraries became
the hub of digital activities in terms of collection as well as information services.
Where the collection development and services emerged comfortably, the issues of
copyright violations emerged more frequently. The factors may be considered such
as easy availability, copying and the being visible and caught more easily. Digital
libraries are described in four areas (Michael Lesk (2012) :
i. Technical: technological obstacles were dominant, but they have
generally been overcome by progress in computers, networks, and
algorithms.
ii Economic: Economic issues have also faded, although “open access”
questions still bedevil us.
iii. Legal: libraries are now faced with more serious legal obstacles than first
expected; no one today can start a digital library effort without thinking
about copyright.
iv. Social issues: Social issues are likely to be the next set of challenges.
Due to flourished business and variety of information providers, the information
resources and services is now readily available online via digital libraries
furnished. The way technology enhanced storage and presentation of information,
the human interaction about the information remained no longer just text and
pictures. The multimedia formats in digital libraries enriched the user experience as
they represent a new form of information technology in context of (Hsinchun Chen,
2004):
i. Content management
ii. Service delivery
iii. Social impact matter
iv. Technological advancement
In addition, for digital library researchers there is a need to transform information
access to knowledge creation and management.
Copyright Laws for Digital and Electronic Resources
The digital medium provides myriad ways to access, copy and misuse (using
information without permission or out of permitted limit) of information. The
innovation in the library and information services has been the outcome of
implementation of technological developments. The speed at which the libraries
241
have incorporated these tools for augmenting their modernization has been a great
concern for the maintenance of copyrights of millions of authors. The publishers as
well as the policy makers have been given a task for a continuous exercise in the
perspective of copyrights. The libraries have always been busy in implementing
these policies and rules and training the users. The time to time issued guidelines
have been in vogue and in discussions of librarians as well as users. In context of
open access, Peter Suber has proposed the following definition of OA as it is today
widely understood: 'Open access (OA) literature is digital, online, free of charge,
and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions'. The formulation encapsulates
the vital distinction between the two major barriers to access and use that currently
characterize non-OA material:
i. Price and copyright. OA is 'open' and 'free' in two discrete senses.
ii. It has become known as 'gratis' ('free of charge') and 'libre' ('free of most
copyright and licensing restrictions').
The search for and re-use (including download) the content is subject to proper
attribution' (libre). The libre clause it makes possible, to which the editors object as
'serious infringement' (James Emmott, 2013). The open-access publishing is a soft
and easy platform for conducting plagiarism and reporting of the same. Plagiarism
is by no means limited to open-access journals. Plagiarism detection software
facilitates to detect pirated content but reporting also does not happen always due to
psychological reasons and professional relations. Reporting plagiarism is
accompanied with several aspects such as:
i. to help would-be whistleblowers be better prepared for making wellfounded allegations,
ii. to give whistleblowers some idea of what they can expect when reporting
plagiarism, and to give suggestions for reducing whistleblowers'
vulnerability to threats and stress (Mark Foxa & Jeffrey Beallb, 2013).
The technological protection and measures are necessary. The copyright
exceptions and limitations should be spread for awareness among users. This
awareness can function as an important balancing tool of copyright law. It is found
that copyright exceptions and limitations are on the one hand and technological
protection measures (TPMs) on the other. In context of developing countries, with
the example of Africa, a solution for mitigating the potentially detrimental impact
of TPMs on otherwise-permitted uses of copyright-protected knowledge materials
has been suggested (Tobias Schonwetter, Caroline Ncube, 2011). Moving further in
242
a little bit diverted direction, the policy-making mechanism of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on innovation and the US
practice discussed to be explored in identifying policies on online copyright
protection and innovation. The research findings provide valuable implications for
emerging economies like China (Dexin Tian, Chin-Chung Chao, 2013).
Academic Environment and dealing with Plagiarism
The Plagiarism has become a salient issue for libraries in recent years, especially
academic libraries. The three aspects identified by Michael Seadle (2011) are
handled separately even though in fact each has an influence on the other. These
interrelated aspects of preserving plagiarized works are such as (Michael Seadle,
2011):
i. collection development issues
ii. copyright problems
iii. technological requirements
The experiences and the literature reflects the need is to share with the wider
academic community an example of one tool developed locally that can be a
successful part of any institution's arsenal on the war against plagiarism. Karen
Kate Kellum, Amy E. Mark, Debra A. Riley-Huff (2011) conducted a study and
presented a method for integrating information literacy into the wider university
community. They discussed a practical, effective method for teaching students
about the ethical use of information to accentuate the demonstration of one method
of educating students on the issue of plagiarism and how information literacy
standards can be integrated into the curriculum and centralized through
administrative and faculty support. There has been emphasis on plagiarism
instruction to students' understanding of what plagiarism is and is not. To
understand and have a deep glimpse into the ethical perceptions of plagiarism
scenarios, the effect of library instruction should be tested on the levels of students'
perceptions toward plagiarism ethics before and after the instructions given. Very
recently, in a study the survey used the multidimensional ethics scale (MES)
developed by Reidenbach and Robin (common in business ethics research) and it
was found that the MES is a reliable tool to measure changes in ethical perceptions
of plagiarism. The results from the study suggest that library instruction was
effective and had a meaningful impact on students' perceptions toward plagiarism
ethics (Connie Strittmatter and Virginia K. Bratton (2014).
243
Initiatives for Reducing Plagiarism
The Plagiarism is a vexing issue for Higher Education. The faculty members as well
as libraries are planning courses irrespective of the challenges of implementation.
These courses should be designed with the aim to prevent plagiarism breaches. At
the University of Bradford library, an intensive course was designed for students
who have contravened plagiarism regulations, another course was designed to
introduce the concepts of plagiarism (Georgea, Anne Costigana & Maria O'haraa,
2013). The implementation of courseware for diminishing the plagiarism is
incomplete without the feedback and evaluation. George Germeka (2013) says that
the absence of assessment—mostly notable in the college plagiarism prevention
tutorial—reveals a severe gap in the preservation of information literary (IL)
standards set forth by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL).
The author analyzed common forms of plagiarism prevention methods, and their
ability to each produce useful assessment data, principally retained for the
academic library, is considered. In this study, the author raises awareness
concerning how infrequently and inefficiently with the help of web-based tutorials,
it is assessed that the single-most important element of online instruction—the
learning objective—is largely excluded from college library tutorial design. No
matter that students who understand plagiarism, who have high ethical views and
declare not to engage in plagiaristic behaviour are able to recognize it and avoid it in
practice. In an Irish university, a study shows that self-reported measures are not a
powerful predictor of the students' ability to recognize the practical case as an
academic breach, nor to avoid the breach through referencing. The results also
highlight the potential unsuitability of using self-reported measures to study
plagiarism, despite their widespread use (Angelica Risqueza, Michele O'Dwyera &
Ann Ledwitha (2013). Sue McGowana and Margaret Lightbodyb (2008) evaluate a
unique assignment developed to provide an understanding of plagiarism within the
direct context of their study discipline. The assignment required students to
undertake two key tasks: first, to identify and correct deliberate instances of
plagiarism in a pre-prepared essay on an accounting topic; and second, to prepare
their own correctly referenced short essay answer to a question on the same
accounting subject. The results indicated that students perceived that the
assignment had successfully enhanced their understanding of plagiarism and, at the
same time, formed an effective way for them to learn about a relevant accounting
issue. Educators should adopt a supportive approach to Motivating students to act
in a consistent, ethical manner in their academic life (Xin Guoa, (2011).
244
How librarians are accentuating the awareness!
Librarians are organising seminar to create awareness among the scholars about
this plagiarism and the consequences. These seminars as well as the workshops
should be able to introduce students to the concepts related to plagiarism, such as:
i. Types of plagiarism,
ii. Academic integrity,
iii. Paraphrasing,
iv. Common knowledge, and
v. Citations.
An experience at the University at Buffalo, creating and implementing a plagiarism
seminar has been as part of the library liaison program to the School of Public
Health and Health Professions. The librarian should examine the student
perceptions, misperceptions, and reactions to the plagiarism workshop (Michelle
L. Zafrona, 2012). At the University of South Carolina Upstate, two librarians
created a series of workshops to proactively prevent plagiarism. To reach distance
education students, online workshops were developed in Blackboard including
basic and advanced workshops for lower and upper-level courses. The results
reflect that students seem to have the most difficulty with paraphrasing, common
knowledge, and citations (Breanne A. Kirscha & Lola Bradleya (2012). Fiona J.
Newtona, Jill D. Wrightb & Joshua D. Newtona (2014) say that the Plagiarism
continues to be a concern within academic institutions. In a study, they utilized a
randomized control trial of 137 new entry tertiary students to assess the efficacy of
a scalable short training session on paraphrasing, patch writing and plagiarism.
They found out that the training significantly enhanced students' overall knowledge
about in-text referencing protocols and furthermore, this knowledge was found to
translate into applied skills, with the intervention group performing significantly
better in a practical skills application task. They also indicate the role of language
and medium and suggest that it is confidence in writing in English, not language
background per se. This aspect plays a significant role in students' practical skills in
referencing and their confidence in performing assignment preparation tasks that
can help them avoid claims of inadvertent plagiarism.
Anti-Plagiarism Software: Various Software to Check Plagiarism
Among the number of plagiarism detection software available through World Wide
245
Web, the following discussion highlights and introduces with some software to
check plagiarism:
i.
Viper:
It is free plagiarism detection software from
ScanMyEssay.com. It is good for both students and lecturers. It
provides quick, accurate scans for free.
ii. Plagiarisma. Net free paraphrasing software: Plagiarisma.Net is
an essay checker considered as an important tool for students,
teachers, scholars and professional writers. It is also a free
plagiarism detector.
iii. Checker X: Plagiarism Checker X can be used by students,
teachers, bloggers, SEO experts and website owners to check
plagiarism in their assignments, research papers, and blogs. It is a
comprehensive tool that searches the content in more than 10
billion pages. The software helps in online plagiarism checking,
cross-comparison of multiple documents, keywords searching, bulk
searching, and website scanning.
iv. Copy Cat: Copy Cat is a small program as anti-plagiarism
software. It doesn't require installation and very easy to use.
v.
Softonic: This software is able to distinguish whether copying
has been going on between different documents. It detects
copying at a fast speed.
Conclusion
The publishing industry and the academic libraries are facing dual challenges such
as how to have original content as well as responsibility of creating awareness
against plagiarism. The scholarly publications have to prove themselves of the
required quality. More and more awareness is needed to augment the antiplagiarism campaign. This campaign should be the collaboration of teaching
faculty and library staff so that the joint efforts may prove fruitful in a way to
inculcate the right method of bringing out scholarly content publication or the
future academics will incur the losses due to false scholars.
246
References
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Angelica Risqueza, Michele O'Dwyera & Ann Ledwitha (2013)“”Thou shalt
not plagiarise': from self-reported views to recognition and avoidance of
plagiarism” Volume 38, Issue 1, February 2013, pages 34-43.
Ashley Krenelka Chasea (2013) “Copyrights and Fair Use in For-Profit
Academic Libraries” Volume 54, Issue 3, July 2013, pages 220-225.
Breanne A. Kirscha & Lola Bradleya (2012) “Distance Education and
Plagiarism Prevention at the University of South Carolina Upstate” Volume 6,
Issue 2, April 2012, pages 79-99.
Connie Strittmatter and Virginia K. Bratton, Attribution (2014).
NonCommercial (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/)
Dexin Tian, Chin-Chung Chao, (2013) "Online copyright protection and
innovation: International experiences and implications to China", Journal of
Knowledge-based Innovation in China, Vol. 5 Iss: 2, pp.111 – 128.
Fiona J. Newtona, Jill D. Wrightb & Joshua D. Newtona (2014) “Skills training
to avoid inadvertent plagiarism: results from a randomised control study”
Volume 33, Issue 6, November 2014, pages 1180-1193.
Georgea, Anne Costigana & Maria O'haraa (2013) “Placing the Library at the
Heart of Plagiarism Prevention: The University of Bradford Experience”
pages 141-160 Volume 19, Issue 2, 2013
George Germeka (2013) “The Lack of Assessment in the Academic Library
Plagiarism Prevention Tutorial” Volume 19, Issue 1, January 2012, pages 1-17
Hsinchun Chen, (2004) "Digital library research in the US: an overview with a
knowledge management perspective", Program, Vol. 38 Iss: 3, pp.157 - 167
James Emmott, 2013. 'Statement on Position in Relation to Open Access',
unpaginated.
Joyce L. Ogburna (2014) “Electronic resources and copyright issues:
Consequences for libraries” Volume 14, Issue 3, July 1990, pages 257264.Karen Kate Kellum, Amy E. Mark, Debra A. Riley-Huff, (2011)
"Development, assessment and use of an on-line plagiarism tutorial", Library
Hi Tech, Vol. 29 Iss: 4, pp.641 – 654.
Mark Foxa & Jeffrey Beallb (2013). “Advice for Plagiarism Whistleblowers”
Volume 24, Issue 5, September 2014, pages 341-349.
Michael Lesk, (2012) "A personal history of digital libraries", Library Hi Tech,
Vol. 30 Iss: 4, pp.592 – 603
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plagiarized works", Library Hi Tech, Vol. 29 Iss: 4, pp.655 – 662.
247
15. Michelle L. Zafrona (2012) “Good Intentions: Providing Students with Skills
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16. Peter Suber, Open Access (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), p. 4. Available
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17. Sue McGowana & Margaret Lightbodyb (2008) “Enhancing Students'
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20. Xin Guoa. (2011) “Understanding Student Plagiarism: An Empirical Study in
Accounting Education“ Volume 20, Issue 1, February 2011, pages 17-37.
Legal publishing and Copyright protection over
Vishnu Srivastava1 and Awadhesh Kumar Patel2
Abstract
Publishing means making anything known to the public. This concept also
incorporates distribution of copies to the general public with the consent of the
author. The same is supported by the Berne Convention. Copyright is often
considered as the right of an author to control the reproduction of this intellectual
property. The Indian copyright Act 1957 clearly iterates what is to be copyrighted.
It includes original literary works, musical works, sound recordings and
cinematographic films. The main concern regarding publishing lies in the fact of
copyrighting literary works as per section 2 of the aforesaid act. The Literary work
includes computer programmes, tables and compilations including computer
databases. It includes translation of the same as well. Recent trends in legal
publishing constitute a contemporary concept. It is a viable option in maintaining
legal principles and the like in websites. This saves meeting of ever-increasing
costs of library collection, the need for expeditious research and limiting space in
libraries. Legal publisher's are increasingly adding the option to purchase
Internet based access, CD-ROMs and other electronic accesses as an option to
their print titles.
The publishers of law reports convert the text of the judgements of various High
Courts and Supreme Court into a published journal format after minor editing and
certain additions to the text including head notes, footnotes etc. The extent of
copyright protection given to the reported judgements in law reports has been a
practical issue bothering legal publisher and many times formed a matter of
litigation. The questions arise whether the contents of law journals should be
considered as an original work and copyright protection may be granted or not?
This paper covers copyright's basis as a proprietary concept and the benefits
1
2
Dy. Librarian, High Court Allahabad , email: vishnu10.hc@ gmail.com
Dy. Librarian, High Court Judges' Library, Allahabad, email: patelakp5@ gmail.com
249
granted by the same. The area where copyright works as a compensation for the
financial risks of the original author is also considered.
Keywords: Copyright, Law Reports, Legal publishing
Introduction
The decisions of the Court along with their reasons may contained in a written
judgement of the Court or may be pronounced in the Court. Most of these
judgements or decisions of the Courts are published or reported in the law journals.
The law journals containing these judgements or decisions of the Courts are called
a Law Reports.
Law Reports are significant in our legal system because the Courts refer the
principle of case precedence. Thus, law reports provide an efficient platform for
referring to the previous cases so that the decisions in past cases will be followed
and applied to decide the outcome in present cases with the motive of achieving
certainty in law. These law reports containing case laws from the most
fundamental part of the legal publishing industry. Legal publishing may be used as
a tool to convey to the world at large views, case synopsis, practice perspectives and
the whole gamut of information. Case law is the basis for understanding legislation
and making sense of law. In most European countries, case law is perceived as
public sector information and made available to all the public.
Copyright is a right given by the law to creators of literary, dramatic, musical and
artistic works and producers of chromatograph films and sound recordings. In
facts, it is a bundle or rights including rights of reproduction, communication to the
public, adaption and translation of the work. There could be slight variations in the
composition of the rights depending on the work. Copyright ensures certain
minimum safeguards of the rights of authors over their creations, thereby
protecting and rewarding creativity. The protection provided by copyright to the
efforts of writers, artists, designers, dramatists, musicians and producers of sound
recordings, film makers and computer software, which promote them to create
more and also motivates others to create.3
3
Govt. of India, Ministry of HRD. Department of Secondary and Higher Education- A Handbook of
Copyright Law, January 14, 2012
250
The copyright protection extends to derivative works that is works which are
derived from existing works. Copyright law has long recognised that it is important
that authors should be rewarded not just for creating works, but also for building
upon existing works.4 A derivative work must differ sufficiently from the original
to be regarded as a new work or must contain a substantial amount of new material.
In domain of these derivative works, on class which has ever been disputed over
copyright matters are the law reports. The judicial decisions pronounced by
various Courts are reported in form of judgements. As the Courts follow the
principle of case precedence, law reports provide an efficient way for referring to
the previous judgements so that the decisions in past cases may be followed and
applied to decide the outcome in present cases with the motive of achieving
certainty in law.
Digital Library vs. Copyright
A digital Library is a library in which collection are stored in digital forms and
accessible through electronic devices viz. Computers, Tabs, Mobile etc. The digital
content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. A
digital library is a type of information retrieval system. A potentially virtual
organization that comprehensively collects, manages and preserves for the long
depth of time rich digital content and offers to its targeted user communities
specialised functionality on that content or defined quality and according to
comprehensive codified policies.
The use of electronic legal information has become increasingly important to law
libraries as they serve the legal information needs of their users. Some libraries
hold more than hundred licenses for online legal databases for electronic
information. The law libraries spend a significant proportion of their acquisition
budgets on the purchase of electronic legal database. Generally, libraries much
purchase electronic information by negotiating license agreements with the
publishers of the information. A library will not own electronic information
outright, but instead will lease this information pursuant to the terms of the license
agreements. As information is shifted from the print to the electronic form, the
outright sale of information is becoming less common and the leasing of
information is becoming more common. The library communities response to these
4
Bentley, L & Sherman, B.- Intellectual Property Law 98-99. 3rd edition, 2009
251
developments has been the creation of principles for the licensing of electronic
resources and the drafting of standard license agreements to be used with electronic
materials.
Digital libraries are hampered by copyright law because, unlike with traditional
libraries, digital libraries do not have access to works form every time period. The
republication of material on the web and publishers who may require permission
from rights holders, and there is a conflict of interest between them and publishers
who may wish to create online versions of their acquired content for commercial
purposes. Complex intellectual property matters may become involved since
digital material is not always owned by a library.5
Copyright v Licensing
A fundamental element of copyright law is that it does not grant the author of a
literary work protection for ideas and facts. Protection is granted to creativity of
such ideas and facts by conferring an exclusive privilege to exploit such expression
for a limited time. The Law does not protect every such expression. The law
affords protection to expression that are fixed in a medium and are original.6
For many years, librarians and their representative organization have argued that
the existing exceptions for librarians and their users granted under copyright law
should be extended to cover the user of digital resources. The user of licenses and
therefore the introduction of contract law to regulate the use of digital resources,
has brought the status of existing copyright exceptions into question. Contract law
is dominated by the concept of freedom of contract, which means that the parties to
a contract are free to negotiate the terms and user of copyrighted material or even
waive the rights granted to them by copyright law. With the increasing importance
of electronic information and the growth of the size of the market for electronic
information the user of licenses has now become the principal way to purchase
access to electronic information. The key elements law librarians look for in the
licensing agreements are the price for the service and the number and type of
databases that would be included within this pricing arrangement.7 Some pushers
5
Pymm, Bob- Building collections for all time : The issue of significance. Australian Academic &
Research Libraries, 37(1) 2006: 61-73.
6
See Indian copyright Act S. 13 (1957); Copyright Act S.1(1)a (1988)UK, US Copyright Act
S.102(a) (1976)
7
Library Journal Survey: Academic Libraries : 2001- Moving from Books to Bytes, LIBR. J.
September1, 2001 p. 52-53.
252
such as Westlaw and LexisNexis do not include all databases or electronic products
offered by the publisher in one licensing agreement. This is all fair and good when
negotiations are conducted by equal parties. In the case of copyrighted material it
must be remembered that one party has an exclusive right (monopoly right) over
the material and the other party, in this case the library, requires access to the work
in order to fulfill its mission.
Protection of Law Reports under Copyright Act
The legal definition of a law report is “A serial publication which publishes,
verbatim, judgements of a court of law.”8 The purpose of a law report is to publicise
and distribute to the lawyers and judges, judgements of the courts to widen the base
of legal knowledge and to prevent two differing decision on identical facts, or two
differing legal theories on a same issue.
A court judgement is essentially the property of the people and the whole purpose of
recording a judgement is to give people the access to the interpretation of the law
that governs them. In order to claim copyright over a judgement, it would be
absolutely essential that the quantum of creativity and originality employed in the
rendition of the judgement be substantial. The initial position in India was
reflective of Britain, with Indian Courts rigidly adhering to the copyright standard
set by UK Courts and not evolving any distinct indigenous principles. This trend
gradually underwent a change as Indian law came out of the Englishman's shadow
and began to evolve laws according to changing needs and fast developing
technology.
Currently the judgement or order of a Court, tribunal is exempted from copyright
protection. Thus any person can reproduce or publish them unless such
reproduction or publication has been prohibited by the judicial authority
concerned.9 Judgements of courts published in Law Reports are collected by
Lawyers practicing in various courts. If the reporters or lawyers alongwith the
judgement also supply headnotes prepared by them as part of their report, copyright
in the headnotes will vest in them. The publishers could claim copyright in the
headnotes only if the reporters had been employed under a contract of service with
8
9
Legal Dictionary, Dulhaime.org
See Indian Copyright Act 1976, S. 52(1)
253
them or the copyright had been assigned to them or the headnotes had been
prepared by themselves or their employees.10
Creativity under the copyright broadly involves putting in skill, labour and capital
in addition to an amount of originality in a work so as to enable it to successfully
claim copyright. The said aspects required should be substantial but what is
substantial is a gray area evern for the judiciary as there seems to be no consensus
between the ratio decidendi in various judgements. It would depend on the facts
and circumstances of the each case. The position in India and United States in this
regard is similar with courts in both of countries accepting that copyright could be
extended to certain specific parts in a case reporter viz. Headnotes, editorial
comments etc. While in the United Kingdom substantial investment in obtaining,
verifying or presenting the contents of the database would decide the extent of
copyright that can be granted.
Ambiguous Journey of Judicial Precedents11
Under S. 52 (1) of the Indian Copyright Act 1957, reproduction or publication of
judgements of courts and other judicial authorities are not prohibited, as these are
not government works being dictums of the court and not published under direction
or control of court. Thus “law reporting” as derivative work entails question of
originality which is not same as novelty.
The Court have often taken heed of either the doctrine of “sweat of brow” or
“modicum of creativity” and have opined differing decisions regarding the
copyright issues in reporting of judgements and orders. One of the initial case on
the application of the two doctrines was Burlington Home Shopping Pvt. Ltd. vs.
Rajnish Chibber12 where the issue before the Court was whether compilations of list
of clients amounts to a literary work wherein the author has a copyright. The
plaintiff herein was a mail order servicing company which had prepared an online
database of the list of its customers which was copied by the defendant, who was an
employee in the company and later initiated a competing business. Afirming the
decesion of Waterlow Directors Ltd. vs. Reed Information Services Ltd.13 And
10
See Indian Copyright Act 1976, S.17
Kunika & Choudhuri, S.- Originality in Law Reporting : a Deep Seated Mystery.-ICALIRDA 2012
12
61 (1995)DLT 6
13
1992 FSR 409
11
254
14
William Hill (fotoball) Ltd. vs. Ladbroke (football) Ltd. The Court granted
copyright to the author of the compilation of the list. Upholding legal protection to
the small amount of creativity which rests with the author of compilation, the court
held that no man is entitled to steal or appropriate for himself the result of another's
brain, skill or labour even in such works.15
In the case of EBC and others vs. N.J. Desai and Anr.16 the Delhi High Court denied
protection to case notes published in law reports mandating presence of modicum
of creativity even in compilations. The applicant was a publisher engaged in the
publication of law books, which developed a legal database for finding Supreme
Court Judgements on diverse legal issues. It claimed ownership of copyright in the
headnotes, in the selection of judgments for publication, their arrangement and
copy editing whereby various inputs are provided and prayed for injunction against
the defendants who allegedly copied the headnotes and manner of presentation of
the judgements of the Court. The Court reserved its decision on the grant of
injunction by the leaned single judge who did not concur with the fact that
authorship in the judgement of Supreme Court lies with any person and accordingly
the respondents were allowed to sell their database.
In the case of Infoseek Solution vs. Kerala Law Times17, the Kerala High Court
affirmed the sweat of brow principle, where the Court was presented with the issue
of copyright over judgements of Courts. The Court held that a law report is a
composite document and its headnotes, comments, footnotes, layout and
presentation etc. and even the skill and labour involved in choosing as to whether a
judgement should be reported, lead to the reporter and publisher acquiring
copyright over such report as a composite document including the text of the
judgements as so published by the publisher.
The decision of various High Courts in this regards has projected a similar
understanding of section 13 of the Act which defines original literary work. The
case of Agarwal Publishing House vs. Board of High School and Intermediate
Education U.P.18, held that the work original used in the Act implies that the work in
14
1980 RPC 539
AIR 1971 All 182
92(2001) DLT 403
17
2006 (4) KLT 311
18
AIR 1967 All 91
15
16
255
question is not copied from some other work but should originate in the author,
being the product of his labour and skill.
In the Case of Govindan vs. Gopalkrishna19 asserted that the law reports have
copyright protection and it needs to be prtected in the modern complex society. The
head notes or the side marginal notes of a report requires spending of time and
intellectual effort and hence are subject of copyright protection. The case of D.B.
Dodak20 did not correspond to these decisions holding that judgements are in public
domain once published and no person can be granted copyright for understanding
the task of trivial changes such as correcting spelling errors, elimination, correcting
typographical errors etc. The Court specified that the persons would be five
copyright protection if the intellectual input in the creation of the headnotes could
be proved.
The Law after the Eastern Book Company
The landmark case in India in this regard was Eastern Book Co. and ors. Vs. D.B.
Modak and Anr. (2001) PTC 57 (Del), where the Supreme Court takes tentative
steps in altering the jurisprudence surrounding the concept of originality in Indian
Copyright law. Leaning towards the modicum of creativity arguments followed in
America the interpretation offered by the Court in this judgement is especially
fascinating as it shows an inclination on the part of our Judiciary to move away
from the close association that Indian copyright law shares with its English
counterpart. The basic fact situation is that the appellants are involved in the
printing and publishing of law books including law reports “SCC Weekly” Appellants alleged Respondents, proprietors of legal database entitled “The Laws”
and “Jurix”, of lifting sequencing, selection and arrangement of the cases, text of
copy-edited judgements as published in SCC, style and formatting, paragraph and
footnote numbers, cross-references etc. for incorporation in their CD product.
The court held that the copyright act does not concern with the originality of ideas
but with the expression of thought and in the case of literary work, with the
expression of thought in print or writing. The originality which is required relates
to the expression of the thought. But the act does not require that the expression
must be in an original or novel form, but the work must not be copied from another
19
20
AIR 1955 Mad 391
(2001) PTC 57 Del
256
work that it should originate from the author. As regards compilation originality is
a matter of degree depending on the amount of skill, judgment or labour that has
been involved in making the compilation. The common place matter put together
or arranged without the exercise of more than negligible work, labour and skill in
making the selection will not be entitled to copyright.21
Conclusion
Publishers of electronic law reports or legal databases have strategically employed
license agreements to sell their products. License agreements provide a continuous
revenue stream compared to one-time sale of printed materials. Publishers also
have been advocating the legal position that copyright law does not apply to digital
materials in the same way it applies to printed materials with the goal of improving
the profitability of electronic information. The library community has responded
to these developments by creating principles for the licensing of electronic
resources and drafting standard license agreements. Ownership of Intellectual
Property is one of the most confusing and emotionally charred issues of the digital
age. The issues surrounding intellectual property in the digital
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
21
Choubey, Amit- Licenses for digital Resources. - ICALIRDA 2012.
Govt. Of India, MHRD- A Handbook of Copyright Law(http://
copyright.gov.in/ documents/ handboo.html).
Henry E. Smith- Intellectual Property as Property: Delineating Entitlements in
Information, 116 Yale Law Journal 2007.
Joshi, R - Licensing for digital resources. -ICALIRDA 2012.
Kunika & Choudhuri, S - Originality in Law Reporting -ICALIRDA 2012
Mitra, D & Shukla, V - Copyright protection over reported judgements-what
qualifies as creativity by legal publishers. -ICALIRDA 2012.
Nandy, S. & Chaudhury, BR – Copyright in Web and its Pertinence. ICALIRDA 2012.
Pymm, Bob- Building collections for all time : The issue of significance.
Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 37(1) 2006: 61-73.
Story, A (2002)- Copyright, Software and Internet (http://
www.iprcommission.org).
AIR 2008 SC 809.
Provision of Copyright for Commercial Legal
Intekhab Alam1
The transition from print material to electronic has an impact on copyright laws
around the globe. The new situations invite the amendments in copyright laws. The
librarians need to understand this transformation to tackle the problems in future.
This paper is an attempt to understand the copyright laws, rights of publishers in
law reports, commercial database, and the basis of their rights in the light of
various pronouncements of the Indian Courts. The paper highlights the challenges
to protect the copyright in India due to the globalization. The paper concludes, to
protect the database, it is required on part of librarians to understand the changes
in copyrights and fair use provisions and also to take due care and diligence while
providing library services.
Keywords: Copyright, Copyright in Digital Era, Copyright of Law Reports,
Copyright of Legal Database, Copyright and Law Libraries, Copyright of SCC.
Introduction
The ability of computer to store large amounts of information for selective retrieval
has become a form of holding which replaces the books of a library. The act of
feeding a work into a computer store and the step of retrieving it, or some part of it,
are to fall within the scope of copyright. The librarians and information
professionals have an important role in protecting the rights of a copyright holder.
The librarians should keep themselves aware the latest changes in IPR, and to see
their proper implementation while purchasing the documents and their use in the
library. There is an urgent need to understand the Article 27 of Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 in true sense which reads as “Everyone has the
right to the protection of the moral and material interest resulting from any
scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author”.
1
Librarian, A.K.K. New Law Academy, Pune – 411 001, E-mail: ias.librarian@gmail.com
258
Copyright of Database
Copyright is a right to stop others from exploiting the work without the consent or
assent of the owner of the copyright. A copyright law presents a balance between
the interests and rights of the author and that of the public in protecting the public
domain, or to claim the copyright and protect it under the copyright statute. Indian
Copyright Act, 1957 (as amended time to time) protects database under the
category of literary works. As per Section 2 (o) of Indian Copyright Act “literary
work” includes computer programmes, tables and compilations including
computer databases. Today the term database constitutes data stored in World Wide
Web, CDs/DVDs, multimedia products, networks, etc.
The western societies give more emphasis on economic aspects of the copyright
issue, the eastern societies, particularly Indian society look to the moral aspects but
in India, being a member of the Berne Convention and TRIPS Agreement, the
requirement of originality in selection or arrangement of the contents of the
database is required to attract copyright protection. Furthermore, the Copyright Act
provides that copyright shall subsist in original works of author. The Laws are
different in European Union to protect the database. As industries in the global
market progressively come to rely on electronic compilation of data, calls for new
sui generis forms of legal protection for databases have grown aspace. Sui Generis
prohibits the extraction or re-utilization of nay database in which there has been a
substantial investment in obtaining, verifying or preventing the data contents and
there is no requirement of creativity or originality.
Scope of the Paper
Various commercial legal databases are available in the market, which provide
online access to the Court judgments like SCC Online, Manupatra, The Laws,
Jurix, Lexis India, Westlaw India etc. Here questions arise whether these
companies have the rights to do their business on the products of the courts? What
makes them eligible to earn profit? Here we would like to discuss the answers of
these questions in the light of various pronouncements of the Indian Courts. This
paper is an attempt to get the answers of these questions.
259
Copyright of Legal Database
A database generally refers to an aggregate of information systematically arranged
and fixed, whether on paper or in any other form such as electronic media, i.e.
stored in computer system. Merely compilation or collection of Judgments from
various courts in a systematic way is not requisite condition for claiming copyright.
The creativity the ground to get protected a database under copyright provisions.
The process of creating database involve huge capital outlays and are undertaken
solely on the prospect of generating revenue on the sale information or database
services. In order to recover investment and to avoid parasitic competition, the
database manufacturer must be able to protect his compilation efforts. In case of the
database like SCC Online the raw material “being public documents, judgments are
essentially in public domain and cannot be treated as something over which
copyright could exist”.
“… There is no copyright in the judgment of the court, unless so made by the court
itself.” The publishers like Eastern Book Company (EBC) in its product Supreme
Court Cases (SCC) is publishing judgments of the Supreme Court but after copyediting inputs, and EBC claims that for creating copy-edited version of the
judgments they employed skills, labour and capital. EBC claims that copyright
subsists in the copy-edited versions and not in the raw text of the judgments.
To obtain copyright protection for a compilation, it must exhibit some creativity or
originality in selection or arrangement of contents of the compilation. There has
been no clear pronouncement by the Indian courts on the concept of originality and
the term is not defined anywhere in the Indian Copyright Act. Typically each case is
decided on the basis of its, peculiar, 'facts and circumstances'.
The Eastern Book Company have added in the copy-edited version
(a) The cross-citation to the citation(s) already given in the original text;
(b) Added names of cases and cross-citations where only the citation of the
case is given;
(c) Added citation and cross-citations where only names of the case is given;
(d) Inserted citation in case history where only the title and year of the
impugned/earlier order is given;
(e) Presented in their own style the cases when they are cited/repeated in the
judgment;
260
(f) Provided precise references to the quoted matter in the judgment by
giving exact page and paragraph number as in the original case
source/treatise/reference material added margin headings to quoted
extracts from statutes/rules, etc., when they are missing from the original
text of the judgment;
(g) Added the number of the section/rule/article/paragraph to the extract
quoted in the original text;
(h) Added the names of judges on whose behalf opinion given by giving
expressions such as “for himself and Pathak, C.J.”, etc.;
(i) Done verification of first word of the quoted extract and supplied
emphasis on such verification;
(j) Added ellipsis “…” to indicate breaks in quoted extracts;
(k) Provided and supplied the matter inadvertently missed in quoted extracts
in the original text of the judgment;
(l) Completed/corrected the incomplete/incorrect case in terms of the
questions framed which were numbered in terms of answers to questions
framed by learned Judge;
(m) Changed the text as per corrigenda issued which has been issued upon
SCC Editor's request and suggestions;
(n) Done compressing/simplification of information relating to the case
history;
(o) Followed certain norms at SCC for giving case names;
(p) Omitted the words like “Section”, “Sec.”, “Rule”, etc. and given only the
number of the section/rule at the beginning of the quoted extract;
(q) Made margin heading and the first clause/sub-section or initial matter of
section/rule, etc. to run-on instead of being let to start from a fresh line;
(r) Done compressing of unquoted references and use of *** for parts;
(s) Replaced the series of dots in the raw text with ellipsis;
(t) Removed abbreviations such as sec., R., cl. and substituted them with full
word i.e. section, rule, clause;
(u) Added hyphenation after the section/rule numbers which have alphabets
suffixed to them;
(v) Applied indentation of quoted extracts;
(w) Removed full stops or word “No.”; and given full forms of abbreviations
to enhance readability and clarity;
(x) Capitalization and italicization is also made wherever necessary in the
raw text; and
(y) Punctuation, articles, spellings and compound words are also checked and
corrected, if required, in the original text.
261
The court viewed that the aforesaid inputs put by the EBC in the copy-edited
judgments do not touch the standard of the creativity required for the copyright.
However, the inputs put in the original text by the EBC in SCC, namely
(i) Paragraphing/para numbering;
(ii) Internal referencing;
(iii) Concurring, dissenting, partly concurring, partly dissenting,
supplementing etc.;
(iv) Editorial notes;
(v) Footnotes; and
(vi) Head notes have been recognized as minimum amount of
creativity.
On the basis of this minimum amount of creativity EBC have a copyright in the
judgments reported in SCC. But “the exercise and creation of minimum amount of
creativity has to be viewed in the context of journals to journals published by the
parties”.
Discussion
Advent of new technologies such as networks, digital libraries, electronic
publishing, software advancements, satellite communication, wireless
technologies, etc. are providing real challenges for copyright regulations and
information technology offers new ways for disseminating variety of works. The
use or misuse of the databases is easily possible through the Internet as well as other
modes of communication in this era of globalization. The situation for the
protection of database at international level is not harmonized. In India, the
databases are protected under the Copyright Act, 1957 as well as Information
Technology Act, 2000. Without additional protection for non-creative databases,
the Indian economy will suffer. Only clearly defined copyright and database rights
will cultivate a legal environment from which the investment necessary to
construct and disseminate a variety of on-line and off-line database services, so
vital to the development of electronic commerce, may flow.
262
Conclusion
In the present world of information and communication technology, frequent
amendments in existing laws and emergence of new laws prove the importance and
complexity of intellectual property rights. The present environment creates the
challenges as well as opportunities for stakeholders. The changes in copyright laws
affect the library services also directly or indirectly. The librarians need to
understand this changing landscape of copyright laws. The librarians, particularly
law librarians should keep the close watch on the copyright and information
technology and the relation of both.
Almost all the law libraries purchase access to the databases of law reports like SCC
Online, Manupatra, AIR SC database via a license. The license comes under the
contract law in which the terms and conditions are defined to access the specific
product. Although the usage of copyrighted material for the purpose of teaching
and research comes under the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, but still due
to technological advancement to reproduce or download information easily there
are chances of copyright violation in the library premises. So it is the duty of the
librarians to take due care to stop the violation of publisher's copyright and breach
of contract signed by the home institution.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Cornish, W. R. (1999). Intellectual Property: Patents, Copyright, Trade Marks
and Allied Rights (2nd ed.). Delhi: Universal Law Pub. Co.
Srivastava, P. (2008). Copyright in Academic Libraries in Digital
Environment (1st ed.). New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
Eastern Book Company and Others Vs D.B. Modak and Another, (2008) 1
SCC 1 Para 15. (The Supreme Court of India December 12, 2007).
Mishra, B. K. (2014). Copyright in Digital Era. In S. C. Roy (Ed.), Intellectual
Property Rights: A Prismatic View (pp. 40-49). New Delhi: Radha
Publications.
Ibid.
Gupta, A. (2007). Protection of Databases in India: Copyright Termination Sui
Generis Conception. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights , 12 (4), 422-427.
Ibid.
Rai, P. (2012). IPR & Copyrights: Legal Protection of Digital Content with
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
263
Special Reference to Electronic Databases. In R. Singh, S. D. Rao, P. Rai, & A.
Singh (Eds.), Access to Legal Information & Research in Digital Age (pp. 269283). New Delhi: National Law University Press.
Supra note 6.
Ibid.
M/s. Infoseek Solutions & Anr. vs. M/s. Kerala Law Times & Ors., AIR 2000
Ker 1 Para 14 (High Court of Kerala October 4, 2006).
Supra note 3, para 56.
Supra note 6.
Supra note 3, para 58 & 60.
Ibid., para 61 & 62.
Reed Elesevier India Pvt. Ltd. & Another vs. Eastern Book Company &
Others, (2014) 4 SCC J1-J10, Para 25 (Allahabad High Court April 1, 2014).
Supra note 4.
Supra note 8.
Supra note 6.
Copyright Issues in Changing
Technical World
Anubhuti Seth1 and Sahil Jaggi2
Abstract
In this paper the authors try to emphasize the significance of copyright laws in the
Libraries. The copyright laws originated somewhere around the 17th Century.
Queen Anne set a pattern for formal copyright statutes at the international level.
The Indian copyright laws came into practice with the Indian copyright act 1957,
amended five times. It is richly influenced by the British copyright act. But not many
librarians are aware of its existence and its enforcement, influence on library
collection and library services. In India the legal position under the act is that only
very specific activities are permitted as regards to libraries and library services
and much needs to be done for copyright awareness. The research for this paper
was done through a thorough literature review related to the awareness about the
copyright laws and the various exceptions and limitations in implementing them.
As the research came to a conclusion, it was found that not many people are aware
about the various IPR laws including those of copyright. But Copyright laws are an
essential part for the protection of the authenticity.
Keywords: Intellectual Property, Copyrights
Introduction
The importance of intellectual property in India is well established at all levelsstatutory, administrative and judicial. India ratified the agreement establishing the
World Trade Organisation (WTO). This Agreement, inter-alia, contains an
Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
which came into force from 1st January 1995. It lays down minimum standards for
protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights in member countries
which are required to promote effective and adequate protection of intellectual
property rights with a view to reducing distortions and impediments to
1
2
Symbiosis Law School, NOIDA, anubhuti.seth@yahoo.co.in
Symbiosis Law School, NOIDA, sahiljaggi15@gmail.com
Copyright Issues in Changing Technical World
265
international trade. The obligations under the TRIPS Agreement relate to provision
of minimum standard of protection within the member countries legal systems and
practices.
Following are the various fields and forms of Intellectual Property Rights:
1. Patents
2. Trade Marks
3. Copyrights
4. Geographical Indications
5. Industrial Designs
It can also be defined as; A right to protect the authenticity of the 'intellectual
property' which comprises all those things that come from the human intellect,
whether they are ideas, inventions, words (fact and fiction), music, theatre or art.
This would include books, periodicals, pamphlets, archives, databases (whether
online, CD-ROM or delivered by other mechanisms), material on the Internet,
individual items in a database, computer software, and even inventive pieces of
hardware that are subject to patent coverage.
Copyright
Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country, that grants the creator of an
original work exclusive rights to its use and distribution, usually for a limited time,
with the intention of enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a photograph or
the author of a book) to receive compensation for their intellectual effort. It is by far
the most important type of intellectual property that librarians, information
scientists and archivists will meet in their working lives.
India's copyright law, laid down in the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 as amended by
Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999, fully reflects the Berne Convention on
Copyrights, to which India is a party. Additionally, India is party to the Geneva
Convention for the Protection of rights of Producers of Phonograms and to the
Universal Copyright Convention. India is also an active member of the World
Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), Geneva and UNESCO.
Several measures have been adopted to strengthen and streamline the enforcement
of copyrights. These include the setting up of a Copyright Enforcement Advisory
266
Council, training programs for enforcement officers and setting up special policy
cells to deal with cases relating to infringement of copyrights.
A few of the Rules and Acts related to Copyrights are:
1. The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012
2. Copyright, Act 1957
3. Copyright Rules, 1958
4. Copyright Handbook
5. International Copyright Order, 1999
6. Copyright Piracy in India
7. Amendments in the Act
Copyright Issues
This Paper deals with a number of Copyright issues that are being faced in the
Indian IPR Laws.
I. Copyright Issues in Libraries
If looked from a wider perspective, libraries and copyright protection seem to be in
contradiction of each other. The purpose of a library is to disseminate literature
without any inhibitions while, the copyright protection laws provide to preserve the
exclusivities of the said literature. But, if their purposes are to be studied in detail, it
would be clear that the copyright laws prevent the unfair use of someone's original
work as well as unlawful gain from the same. Further the libraries aim at
distributing knowledge from this literature. Libraries in their own way, help in
preserving this literature (even beyond the term of copyright) and make it freely
accessible for bonafide and genuine purposes like simply reading or research.
Indian Copyright Act
The Indian law on copyright clearly states which of the acts are not punishable as
per infringement of Copyright.
Section 52 (0) provides for an exception for books which are not available for sale
in India:
267
“the making of not more than three copies of 2.1 Indian Copyright Act a book
(including a pamphlet, sheet of music, map, chart or plan) by or under the direction
of the person in charge of a public library for the use of the library if such books is
not available for sale in India.”
The legal position under the Act portrays the picture that only very specific
activities are permitted as regards libraries and library services. From the provision
of fair dealing, it is evident that the same is applicable as far as obtaining material
from the library is concerned.
However, not only are the enforcement and monitoring mechanisms weak and
toothless, but the provisions do not address a gamut of issues. Important among
them is that of electronic photocopying. There is only a certain extent to which
libraries allow for such photocopying in their premises. In the US, not more than
10% of a book can be photo-copied. In India public photocopying is neither
expensive nor inconvenient and even if some sort of cap is placed on the portion of
the work that can be photo-copied, the public photocopying can hardly be
monitored. In conclusion, it may be said that much needs to be done in this infant
area when the information and technological revolution is on the rise as is copyright
awareness.
Copyright Law in the Electronic Age
I.
Databases
Compilations: “A collection of individual items that may or may not in themselves
merit copyright protection.”
Under national copyright laws, databases, comprising words or numbers, are
generally considered as 'compilations'. However, this compilation only gets
protected under the national copyright laws, if it has been made with intellectual
efforts and the components have been collected, selected and arranged in such a
manner that proves its originality. There is an implication in many jurisdictions that
if the collection is totally comprehensive (in other words there was no skill in
selecting the individual items) and if there is no skill in the arrangement (no
addition of keywords or indexing terms), then such a compilation should not justify
copyright protection.3
3
OPPENHEIM, C. 1995. The Legal and Regulatory Environment for Electronic Information. Calne,
Informatics.
268
II. Copyright and the Internet
The question as to whether, E-mail messages, material loaded onto ftp (file transfer
protocol) sites or World Wide Web servers, and anything else put on the Internet are
copyright or not. It can be interpreted from the National Copyright acts that the
above mentioned are, in fact, copyright. The reason that they are widely available
for free, does not leave their authors short of the protection under the copyright acts;
Even if the authors have no problems with. Although problems only arise when
there is some monetary loss to the author due to the infringement. Therefore one
should be careful about copying such material, for example forwarding it to
someone else.
III. Electronic Copyright
•
Electro Copying: “Conversion of printed materials into machine-readable
form using document image processing and optical character recognition
(OCR) technology.”
The authors of this paper suggest that such copying should also be considered as
infringement of copyright. Since the copied document is stored in the third party's
database and then might even be distributed further.
•
Adaptation: “Scanning of material in preparation for sending down a
network is 'adaptation' of the work.”
If this adaptation is done without permission, it can be considered an infringement
to author's copyright.
•
Sending the Material via a Telecommunication Network: This also comes
under the protection of copyright, therefore it should be done with prior
authorization.
The most sorts after alternative to avoid these infringements are through site
licensing. Site license pricing is typically based on the numbers of users, although
it could be simply a fixed fee. In the case of a fee based on client numbers, the
subscriber must make an annual declaration of the numbers of terminals that have
access.
269
The response of publishers and other rights holders is bound to vary. There is little
doubt that there will be changes to the idea of 'publishing', 'journal', 'book' and
'article'. The continued existence of libraries and of publishers requires that
equitable and workable solutions be developed that protect the interests of rights
owners but also serve the needs of library staff and library users. The concern
shown by publishers towards electro copying is symptomatic of the issues.
IV. Multimedia and Copyright
Copyright law has been split in different media.
•
Written text is literary-work copyright;
•
still images are artistic-work copyright;
•
moving images are film or television copyright;
•
the spoken word is sound-recording copyright; and,
•
Musical works have their own copyright.
In multimedia, all of these different items are bundled together into a single
product. However, the arrangements and rules for availing protection and ownerships under copyright laws are not identical, thus creating various problems. The
problem is compounded by the fact that the rules differ from one country to another,
and yet multimedia, being in machine-readable form, can easily be passed from one
country to another.
The major problems with multimedia and copyright are:
1. Different Copyright Laws in Different Countries:
Not only do the laws differ, their ground rules are also varied from country to
country. For example, while in some countries the “fair dealing” (e.g.
photocopying) is permissible for genuine and legitimate purposes (e.g.
Educational purposes); there are still some countries where computer
programmes and databases are not considered to be even protected under
copyright laws.
2.
Different Rules within a Country: Even within a country, the rules on
machine-readable text, still images, moving images, sound and music may
vary. In any multimedia work, there will be many copyrights owned by
different parties (often with different priorities and needs). The terms of
protection of these rights may vary significantly. Persons wishing to copy a
270
multimedia work can never be sure they have catered for all the possible
copyrights.
3.
Different Industries with Different Financial Gains: The various
industries (publishing, computer software, film, broadcasting,
photographic) are very different in terms of the sorts of licenses they are
prepared to accept: the lifetime of licenses, the royalties paid and the
safeguards for the copyright owner differ hugely.
4.
Anonymous Owners of Multimedia Works: It is very difficult to ascertain
the true owners of multimedia works since they are widely spread and vastly
circulated. This paper suggests that there should be central rights agencies
with neutral ground rules and fair use doctrine that is empowered to act on
behalf of all multimedia copyright owners. There are clear precedents for such
agencies in the RROs that are common in North America and Europe.
Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement
Plagiarism:
“Plagiarism is the "wrongful appropriation" and "stealing and publication" of
another author's 'language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions' and the representation
of them as one's own original work.”
Although plagiarism in some contexts is considered theft or stealing, the concept
does not exist in a legal sense. Plagiarism is not mentioned in any current statute,
either criminal or civil.4 Some cases may be treated as unfair competition or a
violation of the doctrine of moral rights.5 The increased availability of intellectual
property due to a rise in technology has furthered the debate as to whether copyright
offences are criminal. In short, people are asked to use the guideline, "...if you did
not write it yourself, you must give credit."6
4
Lands, Robert (1999) Plagiarism is no Crime published by The Association of Illustrators (AOI),
December 1999. Quotation:
'Plagiarism may be a taboo in academia, but in art is almost essential.'
5
Green, Stuart P. (2002). "Plagiarism, Norms, and the Limits of Theft Law: Some Observations on
the Use of Criminal Sanctions in Enforcing Intellectual Property Rights". Hastings Law Journal 54
(1). SSRN 315562
6
Gabriel, Trip (1 August 2010). "Plagiarism Lines Blur for Students in Digital Age". The New York
Times.
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Infringement
“Copyright infringement is the use of works protected by copyright law without
permission, infringing certain exclusive rights granted to the copyright holder,
such as the right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the protected work, or
to make derivative works.”
Infringement is the primary offence under copyright law and all the remedies are
geared towards providing relief against this offence. Infringement not only
includes the commission of unauthorised act but also the permitting for any profit
the use of any place for these actions and other acts like selling, letting for hire,
distributing exhibiting for trade, or importation of infringing copies.7
Indian Copyright Act, 1957: The Indian Copyright Act, 1957 was modeled after the
British Copyright Act of 1955. The Indian legal position in this regard reflects the
British position in the CBS Songs Case8, which disallows the application of the tort
law principles of contributory and/or vicarious liability, but allows a copyright
infringement claim with respect to a breach of authorization rights.
Difference between Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement
The key difference between plagiarism and copyright infringement is that not all
plagiarisms are infringements and not all infringements are plagiarisms.
For one, a person can plagiarize almost anything, including works that are not
protected by copyright. If you were to claim to have written “Hamlet”, for example,
it would be a plagiarism but not a copyright infringement because the play is in the
public domain and is not protected by copyright.
Fair Use Doctrine and Copyright Protection
Copyright Laws are not absolute; there are several exceptions to the rules of
copyright. One of them is known as “Fair Dealings”, professed in the United
Kingdom. Similar to UK's Fair dealing rule there is a “Fair Use” Doctrine in the
7
8
Section 51 of the Copyright Act.
C.B.S. Songs Ltd. v. Amstrad Consumer Electronics Plc. [1988] AC 1013
272
United States. The Doctrine of fair use or fair dealing is an integral part of copyright
law.9 It permits reproduction of the copyrighted work or use in a manner, which, but
for the exception carved out would have amounted to infringement of copyright. It
has thus, been kept out of the mischief of the copyright law.10
Limitations on Exclusive Rights: Fair Use11
Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a
copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or
by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism,
comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use),
scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. In determining
whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be
considered shall include—
(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a
commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;
(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the
copyrighted work as a whole; and
(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the
copyrighted work.
The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such
finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.
The Defense of fair dealing is sort after in Indian Copyright Laws as well. Fair
dealing also serves as an answer to those 'fair' copyright proponents who actively
argue that copyright, not being a patent, is not an absolute right and should therefore
be balanced against user rights.12 Persons wanting the copy should make it
themselves, or someone else, such as a friend or colleague, may be authorized to
make the copy on their behalf. In many countries, librarians and information
officers are also entitled to make copies on behalf of a patron. Fair dealing applies to
9
The Chancellor Masters and Scholars of the University of Oxford v. Narendra Publishing House
and Ors, 2008 (38) PTC 385 (Del) at Para 23.
10
SK Dutt v Law Book Co and Ors, AIR 1954 All 570 at Para.
11
17 U.S. Code § 107 - Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use
12
Giuseppina D'Agostino, Healing fair dealing? A comparative copyright analysis of Canada's fair
dealing to UK fair dealing and UD fair use, McGill Law Journal, 53 (2008) 309-363.
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books, journal articles and databases equally. There is a misconception that fair
dealing does not apply to electronic databases, but in fact it takes no regard of the
medium.
Indeed, the fair dealing doctrine is 'a key part of the social bargain at the heart of
copyright law, in which as a society we concede certain limited individual property
rights to ensure the benefits of creativity to a living culture ...'13
In India, the doctrine of fair dealing is statutorily entrenched under Section 52 of the
Indian Copyright Act, 1957. The English Copyright Act, 1842 was held to be
applicable in India by the Bombay High Court in McMilla v Khan Bahadur
Shamsul Ulama Zaka, even when the Act was not made expressly applicable to
India.14
It is without dispute that both the US and the Indian legislation purport to maximize
the promotion of creativity and the dissemination of information at the same time.
Fair dealing and fair use both appear as defences to the otherwise closed monopoly
entrenched in the legislation. But the real differences between India and its US
counterparts can be traced ultimately in the policy preoccupations of their
respective courts.
Remedies against Breach of Copyrights
If copyright has been infringed, the copyright owner is entitled to commence an
action in court and various remedies may be awarded. Action must be taken within
6 years of the date the infringement took place.
Action can be taken in either the Federal Court or the Federal Magistrates Court.
Action can also be taken in State and Territory Supreme courts, and sometimes
other State courts, depending on whether or not they have the power to grant the
remedies that the copyright owner seeks.
Courts may grant “interlocutory relief” and final orders. A court may also order a
13
Association of Independent Video and Filmmakers, Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best
Practies in fair use (18 November 2005) at 1-2, online: Center for Social Media, http://
centerforsocialmedia org/files/pdf/fair_use_final.pdf
14
(1895) ILR Bom 557 in Lal, The Copyright Act, 3rd Edn (Law Publishers India, Allahbad), 1995,
p.6.
274
person who loses a case to pay another party's legal costs. An award of costs will
not, however, always cover the full amount the person who won the case has to pay
their legal representatives.
Interlocutory Relief
Interlocutory Orders are orders that are made by a court after a case has been
started but before it is finalised. Interlocutory orders are about such things as
preserving the status quo, obtaining evidence, or preventing further damage to the
claimant.
Ex Parte Orders are orders made as a result of an application made by one of the
parties, generally without the knowledge of the other party or parties. In the
context of copyright infringement, the most usual ex parte orders are:
Anton Piller orders (orders to enter premises and search and seize infringing
•
goods and related documents); and
•
Mareva injunctions (orders to prevent a defendant from disposing of assets to
defeat a judgment).
Final Orders
Final Orders are granted after the case has been heard, and put the court's decision
about the issues in dispute into effect. In deciding what remedies to grant where
infringement takes place online, a court can take likely infringements into account
as well as proved infringements if, taken together, the infringements were on a
commercial scale.
A court can award a number of different types of final orders, including:
1.
Damages
This is payment of money to compensate for the infringement. Damages are
often based on the amount that the copyright owner would have been able to
charge for the use of the material. Sometimes, a court may award additional
damages if the infringer's conduct has been “flagrant”.
2.
An account of profits
This is payment of any profits that the infringer has made from using the work.
275
Generally, a copyright owner asks for either damages or an account of profits
because a court cannot award both.
3.
Delivery up of the infringing articles
A court can also order the infringer to deliver (give) any infringing articles or
“device” used tomake the infringing articles to the copyright owner. If the
infringer is not able to do this (for example, because the articles have been
sold), he or she may be ordered to pay “conversion damages”. These damages
relate to the value of the infringing articles, but may be reduced by taking into
account costs incurred by the infringer such as manufacturing costs.
4.
An injunction
This is a court order that usually prohibits a party from doing something. In
copyright infringement cases, an injunction will usually be an order that
prohibits the infringer from continuing to infringe.
Conclusion
People think that copyright is useless and point out that digital materials are
incredibly easy to amend, and that it is incredibly difficult to prove where you got
the material from. But this paper suggests that even though it is difficult to prove
where the material has been taken from, but this is not an argument enough to strike
the copyright laws. Copyright, the bedrock for that industry, despite the criticism
that it is an ambiguous and out-of-date law, will continue. Fair dealing should be
confirmed and indeed strengthened to balance any strengthening of owners' rights.
By definition, copyright law has to balance conflicting needs and is a compromise.
Compromises rarely satisfy everyone.
What is Revealed is What Excites,
What is Concealed, will it be Forgotten?
Ishnoor Saini1 and Uday Bedi2
Abstract
Through this paper, the authors comment on the Google's book scanning case that
adds hugely to the field of copyright law. The above mentioned case is used as an
example to investigate the Fair Use doctrine and the possible outcomes of this case
are also discussed if the case were to take place in India. The jurisprudence in India
with regard to the fair use doctrine is very immature as the courts have not defined
the limits of fair use. A dispute arose in 2005 after Google initiated its Google
Books channel through which it scanned over 20 million books and put up snippets
of those books online for public to research from. A lot of those books were still
protected under copyright of the authors whose permission was not taken before
scanning them. The authors complain that the snippets provided in the google
search can be broken into by searching words using a proper technique, i.e. if
someone with the wrong intention wanted to scan an entire book, he could do so by
searching for appropriate words in the book which violates the fair use defense
taken by Google. However, there are some pages which are absolutely blacklisted
from being previewed.A settlement between the parties was rejected by the court in
2008. In 2011, the trial court decided in favour of the Authors Guild, an association
representing various authors and publishers. In appeal, the High Court decided in
favour of Google granting them the defense of fair use of the books. This paper is
divided into two broad parts. In the first, the authors look at the development of the
doctrine and suggest how it can be applied in India with certain objective
principles. The second part of the paper deals with the various reasons why
Google's scanning of the books could be deemed legitimate by comparing it to
online libraries which has become everyone's be all and end all of research.
1
Jindal Global Law School, O.P. Jindal Global University, email- 11jgls-isaini@jgu.edu.in
Jindal Global Law School, O.P. Jindal Global University, C-518, Sheikh Sarai Phase 1,
New Delhi, 110017, email- 11jgls-ubedi@jgu.edu.in
2
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Google Should Lose
There are two aspects which will be the primary focus of this part. The former deals
with an integral facet of copyright law i.e. the fair dealing doctrine; while the latter
deals with other threats/ concerns that may be posed in general if Google is given
the legal support to 'mass digitization' of books.
From the era of renaissance, when original ideas were first acknowledged, to the
birth of copyright law, which identified the authors' work to be rewarded, we have
entered the dark ages, where these laws are openly flouted. Author's rights are often
pitted against the Doctrine of fair use which is an integral part of copyright law.
Since there is no definition of this doctrine, the courts in India have interpreted it in
contradictory ways. The guiding principle on this matter is Lord Denning's decision
in Hubbard v. Vosper wherein it was decided that to determine what constitutes 'fair
dealing' is actually contingentonvarious factors, these factors may be the extent to
which quotations and extracts have been used andthe purpose and the proportions
at which it is being used. And finally when all is said and done, it must be a matter of
impression.
Article 13 of the TRIPS Agreement has a similar approach and lays down that
“members shall confine limitations to exclusive rights to certain special cases
which do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do not
unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder.”Furthermore, in
India, the courts have examined the doctrine as practiced in the US and UK and
have articulated three incontestable propositions in deciding cases related to fair
dealing. The following have been enumerated below:
The Amount and Substantiality of the DealingThe first factor is that the court has to consider the degree and proportions in which
a protected work is used. In other words, verbatim copying of the text cannot be
used as a shield undercopyright regime.This stand was further strengthened in the
case of Syndicate Press of University of Cambridge v. Kasturilal& Sons, where the
Court held that even if it is assumed that the defendants' work is for a social good,
even in such circumstances purloining of verbatim texts of protected work is not
acceptable.
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A similar approach was taken in a Canadian case of CCHwhere the Court rejected
the 'sweat of the brow' doctrine and held that a subsequent work must be different
than the original work in terms of selection and arrangement of pre- existing data.
The Indian courts have followedthis approach and also affirmed that not every
piece of work where expending of skill and resources is involved will be entitled to
copyright.This factor can be said to be based on the legal maxim 'de minimis non
curatlex' (sometimes rendered, 'the law does not concern itself with trifles') which
provides that as long as there is an insignificant amount of violation of others rights,
he/she will be insulated from liability.” Clearly, Google has failed to establish that
only an immaterial amount of work was digitized.
The defense of Fair use is conducive if it satisfies certain elementswhich include- if
that work contains a strong social message;its transformative nature, noncompeting use, and most importantly poses negligible harm to the original
author.Google contends that it has a strong drive to spread social message and
disseminate knowledgehowever, other factors have not been satisfied.
In Chancellor Masters' case, the courts deliberated on the issue of 'transformative
work' as a defense and opined that for a work to be 'transformative' the subsequent
work must be more than a mere substitute of the protected work. If the changes are
only superficial in nature and the basic character remains the same, the purpose
remains defeated and therefore no protection will be granted.
The defense of transformative work is also therefore not available to Google Books
since it is a mere substitute of the protected work.
Purpose of the UseIn Blackwood & Sons Ltd. &Ors. v. A. N.Parasuramn&Ors.,it was held that the
purposes enumerated in Section 52 of the Act are strictly inflexible and exhaustive
in nature and any form of use not protected by these grounds will be considered as
an infringement.The major purposes enumerated in the section deal with private
study, research, criticism and review.We see no reason to depart with the above
mentioned judgment as any usage of the copyrighted work that is public, will
infringe the rights of the author. Even to keep up with the changing times and
development in technology, the act cannot be amended in such a way to take away
its spirit which is to protect one's work. For example, video shooting is a lot easier
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now as compared to in 1959, yet, if one were to record an entire cricket match using
his phone, he could do that as long as the video is intended to be watched by him
privately and not broadcasted as that would violate the rights of the broadcasters.
Similarly, even now, the scanned books cannot be made open for public use just
because new technologies are in the market.
Commercial Nature of the Use
A commercial use as opposed to a non-profit use is merely “a separate factor that
tends to weigh against a finding of fair use…[and] the force of that tendency will
vary with the context.”Google Books has been established for a commercial
purpose which is clear from the fact that when settlement was sought by Google, it
agreed to pay the authors $34.5 million in addition to 63% profits that it made from
this project. Google cannot be allowed to make profits that the authors deserve.
This conduct amounts to piracy of copyrighted material which the courts must
prohibit. If Google contends that its motive is dissemination of knowledge then the
authors must be paid the royalty that they deserve.
Effect on Potential Market: Likelihood of CompetitionThe final factor is the effect on the potential market. If a protected work of an author
is being used by a rival to impart same information as the author, it is held to be
unfair. Possibility of competition is sufficient to hold infringement of copyright. In
the present case, Google contends that they are displaying nothing but snippets
therefore they are posing no threat to anybody in the market. Displaying snippets is
also causing harm to authors because it is encouraging users to go to Google for
their book search needs, rather than Amazon, who has lawfully obtained the license
to scan books. Where on one hand, users using Google might find all the text they
need, on the other hand with Amazon, they will simply be encouraged to buy the
book. Further, Google contends that the entire text is not available on the search
engine, but the fact remains that even if one page out of every ten pages is blank,
even then the items still under copyright are searchable and retrievable and a
diligent user could in theory conduct a long string of searches and end up getting
almost the entire book.
The balance of convenience is wholly against the authors as the benefits accruing to
the world are much lower than the harms caused to them. Preserving books and the
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rights of the creator of those books is far more important than other limited
interestssuch as research etc. Very often, “the term 'fair use' has been abused by
propagandists to mislead people into thinking these rights are more than they are.”
The Idea of Copyright LawAfter keeping the above considerations in mind, it is clear that Google cannot take
the defence of 'fair dealing' as it has failed to satisfy the above stated triple-test.
Now the fulcrum of focus is shifted to the implications of Google succeeding.
“When human creativity is artificially monopolized beyond reason, the very
purpose of intellectual property, to promote progress in arts and science, is
subverted.”The main idea of Copyright law that is to protect an author's work and
efforts and to promote dissemination of knowledge will be defeated as the author
will be discouraged to produce original work. Hence, this challenges the very
existence of the Copyright Act and proves it to be rather redundant. It is astounding
that Google is reaping the fruits of the authors' hard work.
It must be noted that permitting Google to scan all the books in the world is nothing
but a tip of a double-edged sword. It only goes on to show the dominance of Google
and other Silicon Valley players. Private entities such as Google should not be
allowed to make an unjustifiable use of these books for their own commercial
purposes without obtaining a license. In other words, once you give up a data scan
to another, you cannot put that digital genie back in the bottle.
Decontextualizing of TextThe manner in which Google arranges the texts is of great concern because it does
so in a manner which decontextualizes them in culturally damaging ways. The
words can easily be taken out of context and misinterpreted which could tarnish the
image of the author and the idea that he sought to portray. Further, its primary
interest in harvesting words to link to advertising permits sloppy imaging of the
books at the expense of more carefully executed efforts. Furthermore, nothing stops
Google from tampering with the scanned copies of the books, potentially allowing
it to spread wrong information.
Hence, it is a risky proposition to handover the world's knowledge to Google
without even being sure of what the outcome will be. At this juncture, it is important
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to make a comparison between Project Guttenberg and the present case. The former
provided more authoritative full text transcriptions for the Open Content Alliance;
further it sought to maintain balance between the intellectual property rights of
owners and the desires of users for access to content; whereas in the present case it
seems like Google has completely done away with addressing certain rights of the
authors. Google should obtain a license and pay a fixed royalty each year to an
agency as such as IRRO that collects payments on behalf of the authors and
publishers after all the purpose is to disseminate knowledge without hampering the
authors' rights. This proposition was affirmed in a recent decision by the Delhi High
Court in Rameshwari Photocopying case, where it opined that publishers support
fair dealing as long as it is not unlawful copying of work for mass dissemination
without procuring license and at the same time without offering the authors/
publishers their fair due. This is a sound proposition because it ensures that all
sectors of society get a fair access to knowledge and the interests of the authors/
publishers are also safe guarded.
Google Should Win
'What is revealed is what excites; what is concealed may be forgotten.' - Don Ihde
Copyright is a kind of intellectual property. The importance of copyright has
increased enormously in recent times due to the rapid technological development in
the field of printing, music, communication, entertainment and computer
industries. Copyright gives the exclusive right to the holder of the right to copy or
reproduce the work in which copyright exists. Contrary to popular belief, that
monetary gain is the primary objective of this law, it is important to note that
rewards are only ancillary to the objective, which is to come up with original works
which will help in the growth of the society as a whole. Therefore, no one should be
punished for violating a person's copyright solely on the basis of a slight monetary
loss that could occur to the copyright holder because as the legal maxim goes, de
minimis non curatlex. Since this is an age of technological development,
reproduction of original works has become extremely easy and with it comes the
problem of piracy. In light of these developments, the Copyright Act,
1957(hereinafter referred to as 'The Act') allows certain fair uses of an original
work without infringing the copyright. That fair use policy has been provided in
Section 52(1) of The Act. However, there are two pre-requisites that Google needs
to satisfy in order to successfully claim this defence of fair use. First, Google needs
to establish that they are entitled to claim this defence and second, to prove that their
use was indeed fair use. Section 52(1)(a) deals with the reproduction of literary
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works Google Books expressly does not fall under any of the above two categories,
since it is not explicitly for a private use and neither has it been made from the
intention for allowing criticism or review of the works. Therefore, Google does not
have a statutory right under The Act. Even the judgment of Madras High Court in
1959 has held that any purpose that falls beyond this section is not to be given the
protection as these are inflexible and certain. On the other hand, the obiter of one of
the recent High Court of Delhi judgments was that these conditions are not
exhaustive. The Supreme Court is yet to decide on this particular issue. There are
two ways in which how it can be argued that Google Books can be covered under
The Act. One is to challenge this particular section as archaic and demanding an
amendment while the other is to fit in Google Books within the current framework.
Coming to the analysis of the facts with the law, Section 52 of The Act has its roots
in the Copyright Act, 1911 which had the same provisions except that in the old act,
the word 'private study' was used instead of 'private use'. One would raise an
objection that these principles are archaic, hence should be done away with;
however, mere fact that a provision of a law is archaic is not grounds strong enough
to change the law when at the same time the party is not challenging the Act itself
which is equally dated. Hence stronger reasons need to be given as to why a law
should be amended. Therefore, the second approach seems to be a better solution.
Since the advent of Google Search in 1997, it has grown to become man's be all and
end all solution for all problems. Google registers over 5.5 billion searches
everyday across the globe. From finding the meaning of a word to finding scholarly
articles, from providing news to translating languages, Google does everything for
you. Smartphone industry which is one of the dominating industries in the world is
heavily reliant on Google for its services. We are so dependent on it that one of the
top searches on Google is 'What if there were no Google'! In light of the
aforementioned reliance, let us see what role does 'Google Books' play.
The following table provides a list of universities and libraries, inter alia, that have
joined Google Books Project as partners since its inception.
“Google Book Search, with the books of the University of Michigan ... takes the
corpus of human knowledge and puts it in the hands of anyone who wants it…It
can, and will, change the world, and I want the University of Michigan to be part of
it.” The dean of University of Michigan said in an event.
The following part deals with comparing 'Google Books' to a library and then
proving how it deserves the right claim fair use. This project was first named
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University
Library
Harvard University
Harvard University Library
University of Michigan
University of Michigan Library
-
New York Public Library
University of Oxford
Bodleian Library
Stanford University
Stanford University Libraries (SULAIR)
-
Bavarian State Library
Columbia University
Columbia University Library System
-
Committee on Institutional Cooperation
Complutense University of Madrid
-
Cornell University
Cornell University Library
Ghent University
Ghent University Library/Boekentoren
Keio University
Keio Media Centers (Libraries)
-
La BibliothèqueMunicipale de Lyon
-
National Library of Catalonia
Princeton University
Princeton University Library
University of California
California Digital Library
University of Lausanne
-
University of Mysore
Mysore University Library
University of Texas at Austin
University of Texas Libraries
University of Virginia
University of Virginia Library
University of Wisconsin–Madison
University of Wisconsin Libraries
'Google Books Library Project' which shows Google's intention of making an
online library. Google Books has replaced the physical library in a lot of ways as
searching on Google is far easier and saves a lot of time. The right keywords can
take you to the exact links that contain the required information, something that a
library could never do. In fact, libraries are gradually adopting the approach of
Google in developing softwares that can help locate books. A book opens up one
avenue whereas Google will provide hundreds of links on just one point. Therefore,
Google has become a more evolved or transformed library.
Google Books is different from a library in a way that it has not been made with the
intention of allowing users to read complete books. It is just to allow users to do
research and then buy those books to read them completely.
Unlike a physical library, Google Books is a lot more accessible all around the
world. Google targets the people who are not going to be always able to access all
these books from the libraries. At the same time Google Books does not allow users
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to download copyrightable books for free. Therefore, Google Books should not be
treated as a torrent website where anybody can download material for free, thereby
promoting piracy. In fact, it should be considered very similar to a Library which
provides the reader with certain portions of the books for their private use which
includes research. Google does not intend them to be used by them for commercial
purposes since Google is not selling any of the books that are scanned by it. The
possibility of a person scanning the book from the library also exists, but libraries
are not shut down based simply on this possibility. Google Books is being targeted
solely because it caters to a lot more consumers which is not a ground for copyright
infringement under The Act. Google Books project has two facets, one that
involves publishers, wherein the publishers provide Google with either printed or
scanned versions of the books which they intend to be put on the internet and
second that involves libraries providing free copies to Google to scan them. While
the former has not created controversy, the latter has. Google has not procured these
books illegally. It is scanning genuine copies which were bought by the libraries.
The sustenance of democracy hinges on free flow of information and ideas and
Google's motto is to organise entire world's information and make it universally
accessible and useful. One of the purposes of Copyright law as mentioned in the
beginning is to control piracy, if Google Books is fined, then there should be equal
measures with respect to libraries, like not allowing them to lend books to the users
for a period of time. Until that is not done, putting restrictions on Google will not
only be an arbitrary act since it has no reasonable basis, but it will also be an unequal
classification without there being any rational nexus with the object of The Act,
violating Article 14 of the Constitution. This will also become an unreasonable
restriction under article 19(1)(g) that is the restriction on the freedom of trade.
Since a golden thread runs through Articles 14, 19 and 21 connected by
reasonability, all freedoms mentioned under Article 19 are also covered under the
liberties under Article 21 which will also be infringed as a consequence. Therefore,
there is no reason why the law should treat Google any different from any other
public library.
To further elaborate on whether Google should be given the right to claim fair use, it
will be useful to look at various other jurisdictions. UK law under Section 40-43 of
Copyrights, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, clearly gives libraries the rights to
reproduce the original works or to lend the books to other libraries without
infringing on the copyrights. It is important to note here that the law on which our
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statute is based has progressed so much but our own law is yet to accommodate the
changing society. US copyright law is very liberal as it sets out only four criteria
which if passed by any sort of use by any organisation is deemed to be fair use.
Therefore, there are no restrictions as to who all can claim that right. Australia
allows reproduction of copyrighted works for the purpose of research and study.
Judiciary should adopt a slightly liberal approach to account for the technological
advancements and not treat Section 52(1)(a) as exhaustive.
Coming to the second requisite that Google needs to prove, i.e. this particular use
was fair use and not an infringement of copyright. Recent High Court of Delhi
decision has adopted the 4 pronged test under the US law to determine whether a
particular use is fair use or not. First is to look at the purpose and character of the
work, which has been explained in the analysis above that this purpose and
character of the use are covered under the act. Second, the nature of the dealing is
non-commercial, i.e. this is not a commercial venture on Google's behalf which is
clear since Google never intended to sell these books. If a venture is making profits,
it does not mean that it was intended to be a commercial venture. It is due to the
services of Google that a lot of people now are accessing those books. If any
institution is doing a public service and earning a profit, that cannot be termed as a
commercial venture.
“Google Books provides significant public benefits. It advances the progress of the
arts and sciences, while maintaining respectful consideration for the rights of
authors and other creative individuals, and without adversely impacting the rights of
copyright holders. It has become an invaluable research tool that permits students,
teachers, librarians, and others to more efficiently identify and locate books. It has
given scholars the ability, for the first time, to conduct full-text searches of tens of
millions of books. It preserves books, in particular out-of-print and old books that
have been forgotten in the bowels of libraries, and it gives them new life. It
facilitates access to books for print-disabled and remote or underserved
populations. It generates new audiences and creates new sources of income for
authors and publishers. Indeed, all society benefits.”
Third, the amount of copying should be within permissible limits. Google has
issued a statement that at any time a user will not be able to view more than 20
percent of the books that have been scanned under the publisher program and only a
few lines from those books will be available that have been procured from libraries
286
that are not in public domain. To this, the Authors Guild contended that the snippet
view that Google refers to can be broken through if the user puts in the correct
keywords. The reply to this has been very cogently described by Judge Chin in
Authors Guild v. Google in the following words:
“Nor is it likely that someone would take the time and energy to input countless
searches to try and get enough snippets to comprise an entire book. Not only is that
not possible as certain pages and snippets are blacklisted, the individual would have
to have a copy of the book in his possession already to be able to piece the different
snippets together in coherent fashion.”
Lastly, the most important contention of the authors is that their market share will
be reduced because of this project. However, no statistics show how the market
shares has gone down which makes this a mere assumption without there being any
scientific evidence to substantiate it with. In fact, one can argue that this project
gives even more recognition to various authors and books which accelerate the rate
at which these books are being sold already. To take an example, tourist places
have become more famous because now Google has made them popular. Until
these things are not publicised, there is not much recognition. To take another
related example, when Amazon started its Search inside the Book product, there
was a 9 percent increase in sales for books that were enabled with text searching.
The market for books that are not even sold in the average bookstore is larger than
the market for those that are. Google Books will promote not just the sale of one
book, but sales of books that are similar to others as people would be keen to know
more about them.
One may contend that choice is already given to the reader to read a book and decide
whether he wants to buy it or not, however, a choice is not free choice unless it is
informed. Google Books provides readers with the option of an informed choice
wherein a person can buy the exact books that he wants. For example, knowing a
religion and following it cannot be considered an exercise of free choice unless one
is aware of all religions.
Google Books therefore, passes both the pre-requisites to successfully claim the
defence of fair use. In the end, we fall back to where we started, i.e. 'What is
revealed is what excites; what is concealed may be forgotten.'
Library Services in Copyright Regime
Ms Geetali Das1
Abstract
In the present day academic scenario, the task of catering to the needs of readers
and research scholars has become very complex and challenging. Although the
photocopying facilities are commonly available in most of the libraries, it has
became a very delicate balancing act for the libraries to make any such copying
consistent with the existing copyright laws. The present paper is an attempt to
understand the scope of the libraries to provide services in consistency with the
copyright laws.
Keywords: Copyright, Indian Copyright Act.
Introduction
From ancient times libraries have been playing a pivotal role in the dissemination of
knowledge and information in human societies across the globe. However in the
ancient days creative persons like artists, musicians and writers made, compose or
wrote their work for fame and recognition rather than to earn a living. Therefore the
question of copyright never arose. The importance of copyright began to be
recognized only after the invasion of printing press which enabled reproduction of
books in large numbers. Copyright is related to creative, artistic or literally
expressions. It is the protection of the expression of an artistic idea that is fixed in
any tangible medium of expression which includes books, graphical works,
dramatic works, choreography, music, sound recordings, films, sculptures,
architectural works and computer programmes. In order to protect the labour of an
original creator for getting legitimate monetary returns, an exclusive right for
limited period is granted to the author, composer, artist or designer of the original
work. With the rapid progress in information and communication technology it has
become extremely easy to use information from various sources which has turned
the present society into knowledge based society. In the face of globalization the
law and economics of intellectual property right have greatly evolved in recent
1
Ms Geetali Das, Librarian, SBMS College, Sualkuchi, Assam, Email: dasmaral.geetali@gmail.com
288
times. However the fundamental role of the libraries in the democratization of
knowledge in human societies has placed a really challenging task before the
librarians to maintain a delicate balance between the ethos of library services and
the copyright regime.
Background of Copyright Laws
The history of copyright laws can be traced back to eighteenth century England
when Queen Anne, around 1710, set forth formal copyright statutes. United States
enacted first copyright law in 1790 followed by France in 1793. Over the years
several international copyright bodies like Berne Convention,1886, Universal
Copyright Convention,1952, Berne and Paris Convention ,1971 came into being.
For ensuring international adherence to and administrations of such conventions
several world bodies have been created like The World Intellectual Property
Organization 1967, UNESCO, and WTO etc. These organizations and signatory
countries keep these conventions and national copyright acts current through
amendments from time to time. In India the Copyright Act, 1911 of The UK was
modified by the Indian Copyright Act, 1914. Further The Copyright Act, 1957 was
enacted by the Indian parliament which has been modified five times till 1999.
Definition of Copyright
The UK Copyright, Design and Patents Act, 1988 defines that “the copyright is the
legal protection extended to the owner of the rights in an original work that he/she
has created. The owner can control the destiny of work”. Copyright comprises of
two main sets of rights viz. economic and moral. Economic rights include rights of
reproduction, broadcasting, adaptation, translation, distribution, public
performance, public display, and public recitation and so on. Moral rights includes
the creator's right to object to any distortion, mutilation or other modification to
his/her work which might prejudice his/her honour or reputation. The copyright
holders can use their works themselves, permit others to use their works or prohibit
some others from using their works.
Library Services and Copyright
In the present day information and communication technology environment,
library services in India have faced the daunting tasks of reconciling between
289
copyright laws and the rising expectation of the users for exhaustive information
and services. The US Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 1998, states that internet
service providers are not responsible for the action of those who may use this
service for downloading illegal any copyright information. Today's librarians with
digital services face problems similar to those faced by the information service
providers. It is a normal practice that publishers trace the use of their e-resources in
terms of downloads made by subscribing institutions and in case of any violation of
copyright the access is stopped for all the journals published by the some publisher.
Hence the task is increasingly challenging for the librarians to prevent the
unauthorized use of digital information. Therefore it is a safe practice to have the
user's signature on a form indicating that the copyrighted information provided by
the library is meant strictly for research or private study. Password or intellectual
properly based authentication can also serve the purpose of protecting digital
libraries.
In the above backdrop, how far the Indian Copyright Act provides for a balance
between copyright and the ever increasing demands of the users is to be carefully
examined. Section 52 of The Indian Copyright Act provides for certain acts which
are not to be considered as infringement of copyright. Among these exemptions a
few are relevant to the librarians and the library services. Infringement is the
primary offence under copyright law and all the remedies are geared up towards
providing relief against this offence. Infringement not only includes the
commission of unauthorized acts but also permission for any profit the use of any
place for these actions and other acts like selling, letting for hire, distributing,
exhibiting for trade or importation of infringing copies. However in the exemptions
provided under section 52 of this act librarian and library services find a mention.
Section 52 (1) (o) provides for an exemption to the books which are not available
for sale in India. It reads as under- “the making of not more than three copies of a
book (including a pamphlet, sheet of music, map, chart or plan) by or under the
direction of the person in charge of a public library for the use of the library if such
books are not available for sale in India.”
Thus whereas copying a book would otherwise amount to an infringement, the
provision grants a concession for books not available for sale in India. Therefore
three copies of such books can be made and kept in a public library for the use of the
library. Further Section 52 (1) (p) of the said act reads as follows- “the reproduction,
for the purpose of research or private study, or with a view to publication, of an
290
unpublished literary, dramatic or musical works kept in a library, museum or other
institution to which the public has access” However the remaining part of this
section makes it applicable only to anonymous works or to works whose copyright
have effectively expired. Since the above section only cursorily covered the library
services, another general provision that is Section 52 (1) (a) needs to be looked into,
that might have bearing on the issue. This section reads as follows- “a fair dealing
with a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work not being a computer programme
for the purpose of
1) Private use, including research;
2) Criticism of review, whether of that work or of any other work;”
However The Indian Copyright Act does not defined “fair dealing”. Therefore we
may refer to The US Copyright Act, 1976 which lists out the following points to be
considered in deciding whether use is fair1) The purpose and character of use
2) The nature of the copyright work
3) The amount and substantially of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted
work as whole
4) The effect of the use the potential market for, or value of the copyright work
Section 52(1) of Indian Copyright Act requires that such fair dealing mandates the
acknowledgement identifying the work by its title and identifying the author.
Electronic photocopying is another issue which is not directly addressed by the
Indian Copyright Act. No specific legal provision is available regarding the extent
to which librarians should allow such photocopy. In country like US not more than
10% of a book can be photocopied. However in India there is no system of
monitoring that can prevent large scale public photocopying which is neither costly
nor inconvenient. The situation is not likely to be change even if such cap is placed
on such photocopying.
Electronic reserve is another issue that is not addressed in the Indian copyright Act.
Electronic reserve means authorization to users to use information for educational
purpose. Such facility is extended by commercial vendors to not profit making
institutions like colleges and universities which are having licenses to access the
291
information by using electronic reserves. Currently enroll students, affiliating and
visiting researchers, full and part time staff, and on-site users physically present on
the institutional licensee's premises. They are permitted to use the electronic
reserve for searching, viewing, reproduction, display, downloading, printing and
performance for the following purposes1) research activities;
2) classroom or organizational instruction and related classroom or
organizational activities;
3) student assignments;
4) as part of a scholarly, cultural, educational or organizational presentation
or workshop
5) In research papers or dissertations for personal use, library deposit, or use
solely within the institution(s) with which authorize users are affiliated
etc.
In view of the above libraries should give easy-to-understand basic knowledge
about copyright and IPR laws to the users by creating and providing access to the
copyright handbook. Training should be imparted to make users more aware about
the implication of the copyright law and IPR. Some orientation programmes can be
organized by the libraries to make the users more conscious about the use of
electronic resources much more carefully and lawfully.
5. Conclusion
Libraries, being social and cultural institutions, have responsibility of making
available all types of information resources for satisfying information hunger of the
users. Librarians and information professionals are committed to support the needs
of their users to gain access to copyrighted works and the information and ideas
they contain. Simultaneously they should also support the needs of the authors and
copyright owners to obtain a fair economic return on their intellectual property.
Therefore library and information professionals should be allowed to make use of
the provisions of “Fair Use” in order to satisfy the information requirement of their
users. Institutions like IFLA supports balanced copyright laws that promote the
advancement of society as a whole by giving strong and effective protection for the
interests of rights-holders as well as reasonable access in order to encourage
creativity, innovation, research, education and learning. Even in such balanced acts
exception should be provided in public interest to those unprivileged student and
292
researchers who cannot afford expensive copyrighted works. In a nutshell a lot is
yet to be done for a acceptable legal copyright framework in the present day
academic scenario.
Reference
1.
Acheson, A and McFetridge, D. (1996). Intellectual Property Rights in a
Global Knowledge- Based Economy. In Implications of knowledge –Based
Growth for Micro- Economic polities. Edited by Howitt,P. Calgary: University
of Calgary Press,.p.239.
2. Collective Management of Copyright and Related
Rights.http://www.wipo.in/about1p/en/aboutcollective mngt.html.
3. Henry, Nicholas L. (1994). Copyright: Its adequacy in Technological
societies. Science.993.
4. Narayan, P. (1995). Copyright law, 2nd ed. Calcutta: Eastern Book House.
P-189
5. The Copyright Act 1957 as amended by the Copyright (Amendment) Act
1994 Act. P-2.
6. http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2013/02/opinion/not-dead-yet/copyright-andlibraries-help-not-dead-yet/
7. http://copyright.lib.utexas.edu/l-intro.html
8. http://www.ifla.org/copyright-tlib
9. http://library.uoregon.edu/reserves/copyrightfaq.html
10. http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/atyourdesk/docsupply/help/copyright/copybl/
Awareness of Copyright Issues among the
Academic Librarians of West Bengal: A Survey
Sutapa Chatterjee1
Abstract
Librarians have to play a very significant role of balancing between user of
information and the creator of information. They have to deal with copyright issues
in their day to day activities of library. It is expected from them they should remain
well aware of copyright related matters. This paper tries to find out academic
librarians awareness of copyright related issues. The study conducted survey
among University academic librarians of West Bengal with questioner method and
the results are analyzed to draw conclusion.
Key words: Academic Librarians, Copyright. Copyright awareness, University
Library.
Introduction
Modern age is the age of Information. Now a day, information is the most valuable
commodity. An original thought of an individual is considered as property of its
originator-- intellectual property. Like any other property, intellectual property is
also needed to be protected legally by acts, laws, treaties and pacts. But only
creation of law, and regulations are not enough to protect this intellectual property.
It requires awareness and proper practice or implementation among its
practitioners.
Librarians, being the information professionals, often deals with intellectual
property in their day to day work. They are mostly concern with collection,
management and dissemination of information. They plays a significant role by
balancing the interest of both the creator (by collection of information) and the user
(by dissemination of information).They are expected to enforce intellectual
property right or copyright regulations within their library. In such a situation, how
1
University Assistant Librarian, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata-700073, W.B,
Email ID- sutapa02chatterjee@gmail.com
294
well librarians are ready to evaluate or practice copyright issues is not known
clearly. Specially in developing countries like India, where copyright infringement
is enormous, it becomes very important to know whether librarians are sufficiently
aware/ knowledgeable about copyright issues of India.
Objectives
The purpose of this research is to find out awareness of copyright issues and
procedure used to tackle different copyright related doubts among the academic
librarians of West Bengal. In order to achieve the goal the study will precisely
attempt:
1. To know the differences of knowledge/awareness of copyright issues of
different categories of library professionals in W.B
2. To ascertain difference of knowledge of copyright issues depending on
years of experience of working in libraries.
3. To assess the differences in regard to awareness of copyright depending
on the section of the library that the librarian works in.
Methodology
In order to investigate the problem and to achieve the objective stated earlier,
document research is applied for making related and relevant literature review and
to understand librarians relevance to copyright issues. However assessment
research has been made to assess the differences of knowledge among the academic
librarians on copyright issues depending on their level of education, experience and
the departments of the library they work in.
Data is collected from all the five Universities (as per list of state universities of
U.G.C) of Kolkata, West Bengal. Schedule appropriate for collecting data by
means of survey for the said purpose is designed systematically. However
collection of data has been made through a combination of schedule and interview
method. Collected data has been subsequently analyzed and tabulated keeping in
view the objective of the study.
Data Collection
Data has been collected from all the (Seven) Universities of Kolkata (as per list of
state universities of U.G.C in Table 1.), by survey method with a schedule
Awareness of Copyright Issues among the Academic
Librarians of West Bengal: A Survey.
295
questioner ( Appendix 1). Data was collected in two ways, 1) For Universities in
and around Kolkata, the researcher personally interviewed the respondents 2) For
others, online live questioner (Google form) has been send through mail.
Total one hundred twenty five (123) questioner has been send among which
seventy three (73) has been returned back by the respondents. All the responses are
tabulated and analyzed properly two conclude the findings.
Data Analysis
In the questioner apart from four basic information e.g., i)Gender ii) Age iii) Year of
Experience and iv) Dept. of library working in], about six (6) different questions
about copyright has been asked. For all those questions two alternate answers are
given. One is right answer and the other is wrong. The respondents have to choose
among them, according to his/her best knowledge.
Among the seventy three respondents 49.31% are male and 50.68% are female
respondents.
According to educational qualification about 15.8% are Diploma/Certificate
holder, 46.01% are Bachelor degree holder, 38.19% are Master degree holder and
2.74% are Ph.D.
According to total number of year of experience as library professionals - 38.35%
are of “0-10” years of experience, 28.76% are of “ 10-20” years of experience,
39.72% are of “20-30” years of experience and about 8.21% are of “30-40” years of
experience.
The six questions asked to test the knowledge of copyright among the academic
librarians ( See Appendix 1) are of very basic type and had equal weight age.
All the seventy three responses for the six questions are analysed. According to the
objective of the study the researcher intended to found how many total number of
responded are given the right answer and how many given the wrong answer. For
clear understanding and proper description all the data are converted into
percentage of hundred.
296
Analysis for Educational Qualification
The first analysis was performed to verify the first objective that, whether academic
librarian's awareness varies with their educational qualifications. All the data are
tabulated and analyzed to draw conclusion. Among the seventy three respondents
13.6% are Diploma holders, 49.31% are Bachelor degree holders, 36.9% are
Master degree holders.
It is found from the table that for all the six questions only 20%-30% of the total
population of diploma holders has given the right answer, while for Bachelor and
Master digree holders 50%-70% has given the right answer. (Table-2)
The analysis shows that Certificate/ Diploma holders are less aware of copyright
issues, and there is no significant difference of awareness among Bachelor degree
and Master degree holders. [See table 2 and the Chart no1].
i) Analysis for Year of experience
The second analysis was performed to verify the second objective that whether
academic librarian's awareness about copyright issues varies with their year of
experience as library professionals.
It is found from the study that population of Category 1 (0-10) years of experience)
and category 2 (10-20 years of experience) are more aware then the other two
Categories. (20-30 and 30-40 years of experience) [See Table No 3 and Bar chart 2)
ii) Analysis for Department of library works in:
The third analysis was performed to verify the third objective that whether the
academic librarians' awareness about copyright issues varies with the Department
of library they mostly worked in.
The analysis shows that library professional working in Journal section, Digital
section, Rare section, and Reference sections are more aware about copyright
issues then the professional in Technical and Circulation sections. More over the
chart also shows that Digital section and Journal section library professional are
most aware of copyright issues then other four category professional. (See Table
No. 4, Chart No. 3).
297
Conclusion
From the above mentioned analysis the following conclusions can be deducted:
1) Awareness of copyright issues varies with higher educational qualifications of
Library professional.
2) Young generation of academic librarians is more aware of copyright issues
then the older generation of professionals.
3) Academic librarians working in Journal section and Digital sections are much
more aware of copyright issues than any other section librarians.
Table 1
Sl. No.
Name of the University
1
Alia University
2
Calcutta University
3
Jadavpur University
4
Presidency University
5
Rabindra Bharati University
6
W.B.University o f Juridical Science
7
W.B University of Health Science
Table 2
Q!
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
M.Lib
44
70
62
74
27
33
B.Lib
52.7
80
77.7
88.8
94
47.2
Diploma
20
30
10
20
50
10
Cat1
82.14
67.8
57.14
75
50
46.42
Cat2
95
75
75
75
35
40
Cat3
88.88
66.66
66.66
66.66
33.33
16.66
Cat4
100
71.4
85.7
85.7
42.8
14.2
Table 3
298
Table 4
Sections/quen
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Chart No. 1
Chart No. 2
Circulation
71.42
35.7
21.4
35.71
35.7
21.4
Tecnical
94.4
66.6
50
55.5
22.2
27.7
Rare
100
66.66
100
100
83.3
33.33
Journal
100
90
90
100
70
60
Reference
90.9
72.7
72.7
81.81
36.36
36.36
Digital
100
87.5
87.5
100
50
62.5
299
Chart No. 3
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11-12.
Amrita Bhattacharya1 & Banashree Hazarika2
Abstract
The internet system is spreading at a faster pace and indeed engulfing the whole of
the globe. Ideas always change one's life. We are indeed living in the patent age of
new inventions and ideas. In fact, world has been evolving and revolutionizing
itself into a much accelerating technologically advanced zone. Advent of
technology has made the world a matter of just click or one touch–the Internet.
Internet has even infringe someone's personal right. Internet, broadly the Social
Media is a term coined to depict online interaction of individual and exchange of
user information's and more so content. The very existence of social networking
applications have at times melafide intentions which merit regulation as if there is a
society, there has to be some rules and regulations need stringent enforcement. It is
true for these internet societies too. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) have well
been recognized globally as one powerful tool of fundamental legal provision. For
protecting one's rights. Broadly the major IPR issues with regards to Social Media
are Patent, Trademark, copyright, Trade secret and Defamation. One of the
basic issues in internet is determining the border between private use and public
use. The copyright law is the most potent instrument in force for tackling the IPR
issues on the internet. In Indian context copyright Act, originally enacted in 1957,
was comprehensively amended in 1994. With these amendments it has become a
forward looking piece of legislation and the general opinion is that the amended
Act is capable of facing the copyright challenges of digital technologies including
those of Internet. The IPR Act has adapted itself to the digital era. It, however,
depends on how case laws develop when IPR issues of Internet are taken to the
court. Like all copyright laws of the world. The Indian copyright Act also makes a
distinction between reproducing for public use and private use. They are Internet
challenges and IPR which are yet to earn a focused attention in resolving the issue
in all earnest endeavours because of the complex matrix involved. The fraternity of
law has a great role to play in formulating most adaptive laws in a synergic
1
2
BBA.LLB (3rd Year), Symbiosis Law School, Noida
BBA.LLB (3rd Year), Symbiosis Law School, Noida, E mail: banashree1695@gmail.com
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dimension involving rights of people, social justice and order that deserve further
research. There has been an inherent connection between Internet Challenges and
IPR issues. Social and legal due diligences are the area that need factorization
before resolving the issue in a social and legal platform. This paper making an
effort to address the perceptions through extensive literature and secondary
research work such as frame-working of the issue of concern, impact assessment
studies of social media, insight to the various provisions and issues of IPR, role of
legal fraternity and the way forward and recommendation.
Keywords: Intellectual Property Rights, Internet Challenges, Social Media,
Copyright, Patent, Trademark
Getting Started with IPR and Internet Challenges
Introduction
“Dom Cobb: What is the most resilient parasite? A bacteria? A virus? An intestinal
worm?
Arthur: Uh, what Mr. Cobb is trying to …..
Dom Cobb: An idea. Resilient, highly contagious. Once an idea has taken hold of
the brain it's almost impossible to eradicate. An idea that is fully formed, fully
understood. That sticks right in there somewhere.
Saito: For someone like you to steal?
Arthur: Yes, in dream state your conscious defenses are lowered and it makes your
thoughts vulnerable to theft. It is called extraction.” …… dialogue from the movie
Inception (2010) ( written and directed by Christopher Nolan).
It has been rightly stated in these few lines that the most highly resilient parasite is
an “idea”. It is this idea which led to evolution of human activities. An idea actually
changes one's life. We are indeed living in the patent age of new inventions and an
idea. World has been evolving. It is revolutionizing itself into a better
technologically advanced zone. With the advent of technology, the world has been a
matter of just a click/ touch. We are talking about internet connectivity. Data
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connection has enabled to shop, to study, to earn and even to get married to one
another. It has also developed various modes to read, write, to share as well as to
infringe someone's personal right. Henceforth, is the discussion of social
networking facilities. It has not only served as a great boon to connect with the
loved and lost ones but also ended up being the reason for universal pandemonium.
Social media is a term coined to depict online interaction of individual and
exchange of user content/ information. Some of the landmark social media sites
used by all of us are: Twitter (Micro blogging site), Facebook and LinkedIn (social
networking sites), Digg and Reddit (social news sites), Flicker and Youtube
(multimedia sites) watsapp, link (social networking apps) and various porn sites.
Therefore, there is an existence of a society known as networking society. People
interact, exchange, publish post and share with one another. If there is a society,
there has to be some rules and regulations. As already stated in a famous proverb,
“your rights end when my nose begins”, is true for these internet societies.
IPR is one such fundamental legal means for protecting one's rights. Broadly
classifying the major IPR issues with regard to Social media are:
• Defamation
• Patent
• Copyright
• Trademark
• Trade secret
Defamation
Background
Could any of one's content be considered defamatory to a third party? Could it be
the basis for other tortuous liability, such intentional infliction of emotional
distress, interference with advantageous economic relations, fraud or
misrepresentation?
Meaning of Defamation
As understood in legal terms, any intentional false communication, either written
or spoken that harms a person's reputation; decreases the respect, regard, or
confidence in which a person is held; or induces disparaging, hostile, or
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disagreeable opinions or feelings against a person is known as defamation.
Defamation could be civil or criminal charge. It encompasses both written
statements, known as Libel, and spoken statements, called slander. Defamation law
tries to balance competing interests. On the one hand, people should not ruin others'
lives by telling lies about them, but on the other hand, people should be able to
speak freely without fear of litigation over every insult, disagreement, or mistake.
Political and social disagreement is important in a free society, and we obviously
don't all share the same opinions or beliefs. For instance, political opponents often
reach opposite conclusions from the same facts, and editorial cartoonists often
exaggerate facts to make their point.
A typical defamation case involves a false statement made about a person and
"published" to others, resulting in harm to reputation or some other kind of damage.
Publication can mean in the traditional sense, such as via newspaper articles, or by
more limited means, such as oral communication to one or two other people.
Whether grand or small in scope, publication has occurred if the statement has been
communicated to a third party. Damage to the person who is the subject of the
statement could be in the form of loss of good reputation, loss of business, loss of
money, or even damage to health. Our increasing reliance on the Internet for even
basic communication and social networking has created a number of interesting
legal issues. In the defamation context, this includes figuring out who has harmed
us and who has read the statements. Although publication is a given if a statement
appears on the Internet, those other elements may be difficult or even impossible to
prove.
Beware of What You Post/Tweet
One should be very particular while posting online contents on various social
networking sites as they are not only instantly available to the world but also once
posted; it is incapable of 'true' deletion.
There are in numerous lawsuits alleging defamation based on online contents and
such suits are treated in the same manner as are they treated in case of normal offline
defamation. Defamation made on social networking site is an attribute to an actual
individual. Such has been a latest trend among the teenagers and some irrational
adults. The impact on the individual remains the same. The harm is already done. It
leads to emotional distress of an individual but also at times economical harm such
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loss of jobs. Incidents of “cyber-bullying” are increasing in a tremendous rate.
Facebook was recently sued by a teenager alleging that four of her former
classmates setup a group designed to ridicule and disgrace her.
Friend finder Network was sued for an allegedly false account created for Doe
online.
Such defamation has also led to suicides as well. One of the recent cases being in
India, wherein an IIM B student commits suicide upon a post mentioned on
Facebook stating that her boyfriend has dumped her.
Patent
Background
The growing importance of patents has fuelled the tremendous growth of new
patents being issued annually in the past several years and currently accelerating
even faster. Many concerns have been raised about new patent ideas such as new
business methods and other abstract concepts. Two examples of these business
method patents are the “One-Click” checkout and payment Internet technology
patented by Amazon.com, an Internet commerce company, and the “Reverse
Auction” Internet technology patented by Priceline.com, an Internet based travel
agent. Many argue that business methods are discoveries and not true inventions.
“We discover what before existed, though to us unknown; we invent what did not
exist before.” Patents have become one of the greatest competitive assets to ensure
the future of the business and as business tools to map trends and convergences,
innovates new strategies and capabilities of partners and competitors, and improve
all business units in the corporation. Patents have become critical in determining
the winners and losers in business competition.
Social networking has led to the rapid growth in the number of U.S applications in
very recent years. The patent applications have taken its rapid growth since the year
2003. At present, there are around 3500 published applications. Around 7500
applications may be enlisted on file but has not been published yet. About 400
applications have issued as patents. It is also to bring to notice that the social
networking patents are of great significance for the establishment of novice start-up
companies. However, social networking patents inhibit innovation. On June 15,
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2010, the United States Patent and Trademark Office awarded Amazon.com a
patent for a “Social Networking System” on the basis of its ownership of Plant All.
Patent and Social Networking System
The patent has depicted a Social Networking System as “a networked computer
system which provides various services for assisting users in locating and
establishing contact relationships with other users. This system has also provided a
mechanism for a user to selectively establish contact relationship with various
other users and to grant permit for such other users to view personal information of
the user. Such systems also include features for enabling users to identify contacts
of their respective contacts. Besides, the system may automatically notify users of
personal information updates so made by their respective contacts.
Specificity of Patents and Social Networking Sites
Facebook holds a patent for its News-Feed, described as a “computer implemented
method for managing information about relationships in a social network via a
social timeline.” Friendster also holds several patents, which includes one for
“social networking'. Even auction giant eBay holds a patent for “sharing shopping
information on a network-based social platform.” With the concept of patent, since
amazon has been provided with the patent of social networking, would it start suing
all other social networking sites? It would be very first time to witness such patent
related lawsuit. The one of the very famous being the situation wherein, the Yahoo
has issued Facebook, alleging for patent infringement.
Yahoo sued Facebook based on Patent Infringement
Yahoo has asserted ten patents against Facebook, dividing into five categories:
social networking, privacy, customization and messaging. Facebook, however,
apparently owns just 21 US patens, while Yahoo has more than 1,000 patents.
Yahoo had notified Facbook of the allegedly infringing patents on Feb 27, 2012,
and then filed suit after Facebook apparently refused to pay the licensing fees that
had been demanded by Yahoo. A brief on each of the ten patents being asserted
against Facebook, organized by the category divisions used in Yahoo's lawsuit:
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•
•
•
•
•
Yahoo's Social Networking Patents
Patent # 7,747,648, “world modeling using a relationship network with
communication channels to entitles”.
Yahoo's Privacy Patents
Patent # 7,269,590, “method and system for customizing views of information
associated with a social network user”.
Patent # 7,599,935, “Control for enabling a user to preview display of selected
content based on another user's authorization level”.
Yahoo's messaging patents
Patent # 7,406,501, “System and method for instant messaging using an e-mail
protocol”.
Yahoo's advertising patents
Patent # 7,668,861, “System and method to determine the validity of an
interaction on a network”.
Patent # 6,907,566, 7,100,111, 7,373,599, “Method and system for optimum
placement of advertisements on a webpage”.
Yahoo's customization patents
Patent # 7,454,509, “Online playback system with community bias”
Patent # 5,983,227, “Dynamic page generator”.
Patent issues are one such wherein; even the big fishes are having the capacities to
eat up the small fishes. Patent stealing, has been one of the biggest concern of IPR.
Copyright- An Infringement Notification
Background
It is to be kept in mind that there is always a possibility on social networking sites,
such networks provide a mechanism to notify them of infringing activities by their
users. Facebook, for example has a separate “Facebook Copyright Policy” in
addition to its Terms of Use, with explicit directions on how to report incidents of
copyright infringement and indicating that Facebook will take prompt action upon
receipt of such a report, including taking down infringing content and terminating
repeat offenders.
Copyright – The Meaning
As per the legal dictionary, copyright means a bundle of intangible rights granted
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by statute to the author or originator of certain literary or artistic productions,
whereby, for a limited period, the exclusive privilege is given to that person (or to
any person to whom he or she transfers ownership) to make copies of the same for
publication and safe.
Issues Related Copyright Infringement on Social Media
Issues are as related:
• Protected the User's Content
• Protecting the Content's of others
It is quite startling to observe that while a post is made on any social networking
site, members undoubtedly believe that their content, photos, etc are absolutely
under the control and ownership such members, but the question pours in as
whether is this really the case? Facebook in its recent Terms of Use has brought this
issue to the forefront. Facebook has deleted a sentence from the Terms stating that
its users' license grant to Facebook for user content automatically expired when the
user removed the content. Such a deletion has created a universal flux and uproar
throughout the Facebook user community that Facebook made an abrupt about
face, restoring the sentence and explaining that it never intended to change its
privacy practices.
Though this area of law is still developing, it is quite evident for those social media
companies that they could be hold accountable for the actions of their users. For
example, if a website service provides one a platform for posting defamatory or
copyright infringement, then such a company automatically opens itself to claim.
In Agence France Presse v. Morel, photograph of cluttered landscape due to an
earthquake by focusing on the Twitter TOS to find that for profit republication of
the photos by AFP was not permissible. Besides, there are such situations, wherein,
authors of various books would like the re-posting of their written paragraphs
because it only increases their popularity but also increases the number of sales of
such books. Business organizations are well quite happy to witness the re-posting
of their own product or quoting of their service theme because it increases their
profitability and popularity in the market. Social media though has been rapidly
growing over a decade, but it still remains like an embryo. It is of paramount
significance that while posting one should be immensely careful as to the content
which has been posted, because there could be serious legal ramification leading to
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copyright infringement. A cogent plan outlining a strategy, and more importantly,
specific guidelines for use, can be helpful in protecting against unwanted
situations. Social networking remains the global platform for conversing with the
desired ones. However, IPR persists in order to protect the ownership of the
contents and would always be the pioneering as the only weapon existing to bend
down the offenders. In this continuing conflict between social media and copyright
law, only time will tell. Once again, disruptive technology is caught in the middle.
Trademark
Background
A trademark is a sign or combination of signs that distinguish goods or services of
one person or enterprise from those of another. Its origin dates back to ancient
times, when craftsmen reproduced their signatures, or "marks" on their artistic or
utilitarian products.
The first trademark law in India was passed in the year 1940 and was known as the
Trade Marks Act, 1940. This law was subsequently replaced by the Trade and
Merchandise Act, 1958. Thereafter the Government of India amended this Act in
order to bring the Indian trademark law in compliance with its TRIPS obligations.
The new Act that was passed was the Trade Marks Act, 1999. This Act came into
force in the year 2003. The Trade Marks Act, 1999 and the Trade Marks Rules,
2002, presently govern the trademark law in India. Legal world has created another
weapon to protect its owners in the web of networking. Trademark is therefore any
word, name, symbol, or design, or any combination thereof, used in commerce to
identify and distinguish the goods of one manufacturer or seller from those of
another and to indicate the ownership. Trademarks are generally words, phrases,
logos and symbols used by producers to identify their goods. However, shapes,
sounds, fragrances and colours may be registered as trademark of goods and
services. There are approximately 400 million Facebook users; nearly 20 million
people use Twitter; and according to Technorati.com there are some 70 million
blogs, a number that may be doubling every six months. It is no wonder, then that
social networking and social media are the next big thing for business large and
small. Social networking is the platform for advertisements and marketing used by
human resources departments, and by job-seeker and employees. This has further
facilitated for the existence of several potential pitfalls that a company must be
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aware to evade legal difficulties. One such being the Trademark infringement issue,
i.e., the Unauthorized use of Trademark.
Unauthorized Use of Trademarks
Trademark infringement arises due to the unauthorized utilization of third party
trademarks on a social media site mostly for unfair trade practices. However, under
certain situations, such use could be permitted in the form of fair use to refer or
popularize a company or its product or service in a product review, blog, or status
posting. It is however, not permitted to use such trademarks of other to create such a
false impression of endorsement, affiliation or sponsorship. Websites, like
Facebook have now created sophisticated infringement reporting policies whereby
a trademark owner can prevent other from adopting its mark as a username.
The current procedure to report an alleged infringement is relatively easy, and the
likely result is that Facebook will remove or disable access to the content in
question. The report can only be filed by the copyright or trademark owner, or by
someone authorized to act on the owner's behalf. The owner or representative must
provide declaration”
•
•
•
That the affiant has a good faith belief that the trademark or copyright is not
authorized by the owner;
How the content infringes on the holder's copyright or trademark;
That the person making the declaration is the owner or authorized to act on
behalf of the owner of the copyright or trademark.
The alleged infringer will have the opportunity to appeal its removal, but a party
whose content infringes on another's intellectual property will fail in doing so. Such
a grievance process is common amongst social media websites; Istagram and
Twitter provide similar mechanisms for online reporting of copyright and
trademark infringement.
Trade Secrets
Background
Broadly speaking, any confidential business information which provides an
enterprise a competitive edge may be considered a trade secret. Trade secrets
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encompass manufacturing or industrial secrets and commercial secrets. The
unauthorized use of such information by persons other than the holder is regarded
as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret. Depending on the legal
system, the protection of trade secrets forms part of the general concept of
protection against unfair competition or is based on specific provisions or case law
on the protection of confidential information.The subject matter of trade secrets is
usually defined in broad terms and includes sales methods, distribution methods,
consumer profiles, advertising strategies, lists of suppliers and clients, and
manufacturing processes. While a final determination of what information
constitutes a trade secret will depend on the circumstances of each individual case,
clearly unfair practices in respect of secret information include industrial or
commercial espionage, breach of contract and breach of confidence.
Trade secrets, just as other intellectual property rights, can be extremely valuable to
a company's growth and sometimes even critical for its survival. Businesses must
ensure that they adequately protect their business processes, technical know-how
and confidential information from competitors. A trade secret may refer to a
practice, process, design, instrument or a compilation of data or information
relating to the business which is not generally known to the public and which the
owner reasonably attempts to keep secret and confidential. Such data or
information may also involve an economic interest of the owner in obtaining an
economic advantage over competitors.
What about the Person Who Re-Tweets KFC Tweets?
If it is at all for the purpose of the popularizing the market about the product or
service, then such a re-tweet of the company's tweet at times be permitted by the
company. In some of the landmark judgment of USA, which deals most of its IPR
issues on social media stated and gave judgment on whether such an act is legal or
an offence.
Ehling V.Monmouth-Ocean Hospital Service Corp., a federal court in New
jersey held that an “employee's Facebook posts were protected because she had
configured her privacy settings to restrict post to her friends”.
Maremont V Susan Fredman Design Group Ltd, a federal court of United States
of America of Illinois refused to grant summary judgment to an employer or claims
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brought to an employee alleging that it had illegally accessed her Twitter and
Facebook accounts while she was on medical leave, finding that there were factual
disputes as to whether the employer exceeded its authority in accessing those
accounts.
Legal issues aside, most employers do not want to create a culture where their
employees are constantly in fear of being monitored, which will harm morale and
decrease loyalty. This can have the alternative reactions of what the terms and
policies were enacted and intended for promoting as disgruntled or disloyal
employees are the most likely to take actions harmful to the company.
•
There is no formal registration or application procedure for tra
Conclusion
Intellectual property rights have emerged as an indispensable strategic tool in
today's knowledge economies and societies, particularly in the context of economic
globalisation. An entity's ability to compete in the global market depends to a large
extent on its capacity to generate new ideas through innovation in science and
technology. IPR, by conferring exclusive monopoly rights to its owner for a limited
duration, has emerged as a significant factor in creating incentives for innovation
and generation of economic value. An effective IPR system is also a constituent of a
reliable legal environment, which in turn becomes an important factor for decisions
on foreign investment and technology transfer. As this research work comes to an
end, we have realized that this world will be witnessing too many legal contentions
in the matter of social media and its uses. Thus, we the legal students and all those
who are disciple of law need to come up with stronger IPR equipments. Society will
evolve, with its evolution; will evolve the new pattern of criminal and civil
activities. Society has always been protected by the guardians of law. Let society be
put as the priority as well as its concern of every individual. Let IPR be such a
weapon for defending the new generation offences against this “Web-Society”.
Social networking is a great platform for connecting people but also can be a legal
landmine for the unwary. Social networking so established to maintain personal
and professional relationships which could be very productive but at the same time
one must take into the consideration of the myriad of ever-lurking legal
ramifications. Let us, fix the social world and protect it from web offences. Let's
make our IPR stronger. We will be able to fix this society in a better manner.
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Bibliography
Books
•
•
•
Ahuja V K. Law Related to Intellectual Property Rights (Lexis Nexis, First
edition, 2010)
Ahuja V K. Law Relating to IPR (Lexis Nexis, Second edition, 2013)
E. T. Lokganathan. Intellectual Property Rights (IPRS): Trips Agreement &
Indian Laws (New Century Publications, 2012)
Journal
•
•
R Saha. Management of Intellectual Property Rights in India. (Forecasting
and Assessment Council, New Delhi. Retrieved from
http://www.pfc.org.in/workshop/workshop.pdf)
Intellectual Property Rights. Entrepreneurship Development and IPR Unit.
(BITS Pillani 2007. Retrieved from
http://www.bitspilani.ac.in/uploads/Patent_ManualOct_25th_07.pdf)
Social Media and its Implications for Intellectual
Property Law the Facebook and Twitter Saga
Ayushi Dwivedi1
Abstract
Social media has revolutionised the way individuals communicate in today's world.
Social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter have experienced enormous
growth in the past five years; with Facebook growing more than five times in the
last two years to 50 million users; and Twitter currently having a user base of 13
million users in India. The advent of the Internet and the digitization of works
through these sites has made it relatively easy to infringe intellectual property
rights via infringement of copyright, trademark, patents, designs and service mark
violation, etc. These platforms are being touted as a great way to network
professionally and to generate business and could conceivably, if they wanted to,
sell all user's content to a third-party and not pay him a dime. Law enforcement
agencies are trying their level best to regulate such threats to intellectual property
rights from a new perspective. The focus of this paper is on the various legal and
liability issues that could be raised with regards to content on Twitter and
Facebook and, through relevant cases, explains the urgent need to formulate and
implement laws that define and protect Intellectual property as a response to
technological change.
Keywords: Social Media; Intellectual Property; Twitter and Facebook; Laws
Introduction
Social Networking Sites provide a virtual community for people to interact. With
the growing popularity of these sites, the volume of content has grown and has
become very personal. Clearly, many people believe that everything we do,
everything we post, everything we think in the online world is somehow protected.
However, what you may not know is that, by agreeing to these sites' Terms of
Service, you essentially permit these platforms to use whatever you publish online
1
Hidayatullah National Law University, Chhattisgarh, ayushidwivedi.hnlu@gmail.com
316
and license that material for their own commercial benefit. Furthermore, you are
not entitled to any royalties or other compensation for your efforts. On its Statement
of Rights and Responsibilities Facebook proclaims “Your privacy is very important
to us.” And that may be, but so is your content. The Information Technology Act,
2000, Copyrights Act, 1957, Patent Act, 1970 etc. try to work for this purpose in
India. Intellectual Property Rights are the legal rights which result from intellectual
activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These are time
limited rights and are being violated in a grave manner through social media,
specially the two most famous sites, Facebook and Twitter. The major Intellectual
Property Rights Issues are Copyright, Patent, Trademark, Defamation and Trade
Secret.
Copyright
There are two major issues relating to copyright in social media:
(i)Protecting the User's Content (ii) Protecting the Content of Others
(i) Protecting the User's Content: The content creator is the copyright holder of
posted material under two conditions: (a) the content is original, and (b) Content
satisfies the “threshold of originality”
Issue 1: Can a single Tweet or a Facebook status update satisfy the threshold of
originality? Maybe, but Tweets for example are limited to just 140 characters.
However, one of the world's most famous short stories (usually attributed to Ernest
Hemingway) is only 33characters:“For sale: baby shoes, never worn.
Ø
Khana Khazana is a popular show aired on Zee Network. It also has a page on
Facebook that goes by the name 'ZeeKhanaKhazana'.The page is said to be
dedicated to food, and recently it was found that they are also regularly stealing
photographs from food bloggers and websites for their features. This is a
violation to the intellectual property rights of the bloggers.
(ii) Protecting the User's Content
Twitter and the Library of Congress
On April 14, 2010, the LoC announced (via Twitter) that it would archive and make
Social Media and its Implications for Intellectual Property
Law the Facebook and Twitter Saga
317
available for research EVERY public tweet. Further, the LoC falls under the library
exception of section 108, which says: “it is not an infringement of copyright for a
library or archives, or any of its employees acting within the scope of their
employment, to reproduce no more than onecopy…of a work…if:”
(a) The reproduction/distribution is without a commercial purpose;
(b) The library is open to the public and the collections are available
(c) The notice of copyright in the original work remains intact or there's a legend
stating that it may be protected under copyright.
Twitter's Copyright Policy
“Twitter respects the intellectual property rights of applicable law and are properly
provided to us…We reserve the right to remove Content alleged to be infringing
without prior notice and at our sole discretion…”
Facebook's Copyright Policy
“We respect other people's rights, and expect you to do the same.
1. You will not post content or take any action on Facebook that infringes or
violates someone else's rights or otherwise violates the law.
2. We can remove any content or information you post on Facebook if we believe
that it violates this Statement.
3. We will provide you with tools to help you protect your intellectual property
rights. To learn more, visit our How to Report Claims of Intellectual Property
Infringement page.”
Defamation
The elements of Defamation:
1. A false statement;
2. Published to a third party without privilege or authorization
3. Least negligence;
4. Constituting defamation per se.
Ø
A New South Wales teacher was awarded just over a $100,000 after a district
court judge found false allegations had been made about her online in Twitter
violating her intellectual property rights.
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Ø
In 2009, a happily married man from Lynchburg, Va., was on his Facebook
page when a curious ad appeared, according to MSNBC.com's Redtape
Chronicles.“Hey, Peter,” the Facebook ad read, “Hot singles are waiting for
you!” Not only was Peter Smith married but the photo used in the ad was of HIS
WIFE. A third-party application had mined Facebook's data, collected a photo
of Cheryl Smith and used it in its advertising. Cheryl, who runs
culturesmithconsulting.com blogged about her experience. Facebook
eventually stopped the ad but didn't LEGALLY have to.
Ø
Is it defamation if someone shares or retweets the original tweet?
This likely depends on element whether the re-tweet or posting was negligent of the
nature of the tweet or post.
Endorsement Issues
New FTC guidelines Effective December 1, 2009 says that “endorsers” must
disclose any connections with advertisers (including on social media) which
includes Addresses, Disingenuous positive product reviews, Astroturfing and
Flogs.Therefore there exists a duty to educate paid endorsers,,celebrities,, or
giveaway recipients about the FTC guidelines. Thus, hashtags such as #spon
(sponsored), #paid (paid), #samp (sample), etc. can be used in Twitter, for example:
We love the new & improved Widgets! Only $9.99/per month at www.widgets.com
#sponsored Moreover, any material connection with advertisers/sponsors should
be clearly disclosed.
Patent
A patent is an exclusive right granted by a country to the owner of an invention to
make, use, manufacture and market the invention, provided the invention satisfies
certain conditions stipulated in the law. It's governed by the Patents Act, 1970 in
India.
Examples of Possible Public Disclosure of an Invention via Social Media are a
shared picture of the invention, a blog post or Facebook note, Facebook or Twitter
statuses (must be enabling), etc. The best solution to this is (i) Avoiding posting
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enabling disclosures through social media, (ii)Educating employees and
(iii)Monitoring and providing remedy disclosures – the 1-year clock starts ticking!
Trademarks
Through social media platforms, people are discussing, creating content about, and
interacting with brands more than ever before. This involves Trademark
Infringement, Impersonation, Parody and Name Squatting.
Trademark Infringement
Trademark infringement refers to the use of a mark that is identical or confusingly
similar to a mark owned by another party.
Twitter's Policy: “Using a company or business name, logo, or other trademarkprotected materials in a manner that may mislead or confuse others or be used for
financial gain may be considered a trademark policy violation. Accounts with clear
intent to mislead others will be suspended; even if there is not an explicit trademark
policy violation, attempts to mislead others may result in suspension.”
Ø
In the famous case of Oneok, Inc.v. Twitter, Oneok, Inc. of Oklahoma sued
Twitter for trademarkinfringement in Sept. 2009 over user account "Oneok_i"
which used the company's logo. The suit dropped the next day when Twitter
suspended account.
Ø
The case of Mattel Inc. and Others vs Jayant Agarwalla and Others (CS(O S)
344/2008) decided by the Delhi High Court on 17 September 2008 is a good
example where copies of Facebook pages were used to decide a case on
Trademark Infringement.
Impersonation
There exists a possible liability for user names that confuse others about source or
dilutes a trademark.
Twitter's Impersonation Policy
“Impersonation is pretending to be another person or entity in order to deceive.
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Impersonation is a violation of the Twitter Rules and may result in permanent
account suspension.”
Ø
In the case of Tony LaRussa v. Twitter, Tony LaRussa sued Twitter for
trademark infringement (& other claims) in May '09 over user account “Tony
LaRussa” which included LaRussa's photo. Twitter suspended the account and
the case was settled.
Username Squatting
Registering or using a user name with a bad faith intent to profit from goodwill
belonging to someone else. Facebook's Policy: “If you select a username for your
account we reserve the right to remove or reclaim it if we believe appropriate (such
as when a trademark owner complains about a username that does not closely relate
to a user's actual name).”Twitter's Policy: Username squatting is prohibited by the
Twitter Rules: “Name Squatting: You may not engage in name squatting. Accounts
that are inactive for more than 6 months may also be removed without further
notice.”
Twitter-Squatting
Many major brands are subject to brand squatting. In 2009, Michael Werch
conducted an experiment to test brand squatting via Twitter. On Dec. 1, 2009, he set
up account “@HJ_Heinz” and tweeted 175 times, gathered 367 followers and on
Dec. 14, 2009 the account changed to “@NOThj_Heinz”. Welch received an email
from Twitter: “It has come to our attention that your Twitter account, @username,
is in violation of the Twitter Rules, specifically the section on Trademark. …To
avoid confusion regarding brand and/or official affiliation with the business or
company in question, we've made the following changes to your accoun”. Damage
could have been extensive.Twitter-Squatting can be prevented by Monitoring the
brand and Preventing brand squatting by engaging with social Media.
Engaging with Social Media
In August 2008, two individuals started a Coca-Cola fan page on Facebook. In
November 2008, a new Facebook policy required all pages to be authorized by or
associated with the brand. Coca-Cola asked Facebook to let the individuals keep
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the page as long as they shared it with Coca-Cola.The Coca-Cola page now has over
5 million Members
Trade Secrets
Elements of Trade Secret Misappropriation are: 1. Existence of a valid trade secret,
2. Secret disclosed or used without consent, 3. Defendant knew, or should have
known, that the trade secret was acquired by improper means, and 4. Harm to the
owner of the trade secret. Examples of Possible Trade Secret Misappropriation via
Social Media can be A shared or posted picture of the trade secret subject matter, A
blog post or Facebook note, A video posted to YouTube or Facebook or Twitter
statuses.
Ø
Illustration: A fictional KFC employee tweeting or posting : “just ordered the
following 11 herbs and spices for delivery next Tuesday: marjoram, basil,…”
But what about a friend who re-posts or retweets the KFC tweet?
This likely depends upon element of misappropriation claim i.e. Defendant
knew, or should have known, that the trade secret was acquired by improper
means
Ø
In the case PhoneDog LLC v. Kravitz, Company PhoneDog claimed that
former employee stole trade secrets by keeping and using a Twitter account
opened while employee worked for PhoneDog. Ex-employee changed name
from @PhoneDog_Noah to @noahkravitz but continued to use the following
built up under prior name. Company argued that Twitter followers are like
customer lists. Court allowed case to go forward
Social Media Policy
Even if a company or organization doesn't use social media, your employees,
customers,, and constituents will. Therefore there is a need for a proper risk
management Strategy. Today, only 29% of companies have an official social media
policy (Source: 2009 Manpower Survey)
This requires two steps to be followed:
Step 1 – Minimize Liability by Protecting the IP of Others: Educate employees and
clients to recognize and respect the intellectual property of others and Establish and
322
enforce a social media policy that prohibits at least the following conduct like
Defamatory statements, Copyright and Trademark infringement and Endorsing
goods without revealing material connections
Step 2 – Protect YOUR IP: Educate employees and clients about social media and
intellectual property issues, Monitor your brand (including copyrights,
trademarks) Establish and enforce a social media policy that prohibits at least the
following conduct like Disclosure of proprietary or confidential information and
Misuse of Trademarks
Conclusion
Many people view social networking sites as a kind of online cocktail party where
one gets to establish contacts and raise a personal or corporate profile. But the
cocktail party metaphor isn't entirely accurate. In fact, users would be better served
if they thought of social network services in the context of a loud glass house; a
place with endless visibility. they are communications in a permanent form and
because of the way social media works and the whole point of it is to communicate
and to react and respond to other people's communications; an initial publication
can spread like wildfire and cause immense damage to somebody particularly
whereas was the case here, the statements are just simply untrue. The impact of
intellectual property on the economy is big where it affects the companies by losing
their revenue, the money paid on the intellectual property protection, damage to
brand and decrease the motivation to innovate because of potential theft, which will
decrease the economic growth, weaken the nation's competitiveness, and make it
difficult to create jobs. Also, consumers are harmed as they pay money to buy
counterfeit goods of lower quality which will cause physical harming and loss of
money. Facebook and Twitter, though the biggest platforms for such infringements,
are trying to provide various measures to avoid the same. Thus, regulative actions
taken by both the users and such sites which are backed by proper Intellectual
Property Laws in can help to use the social media in a constructive way.
References
1.
Actiance, Inc. (2014) 'White Paper on Legal Issues of Social Media: US
Edition' [online] Availableat: http://enclaveda tasolutions.com/Documents/
Actiance-Whitepaper-Social-Media-Legal-Issues-US.pdf (Accessed 29
November 2014)
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Aarora, N. (2010, September 8). Cyber imposter created fake profile of
President of India.Retrieved November 30, 2014, from
http://www.neerajaarora.com/cyber-impostercreated-fake-profile-ofpresident-of-india/
Brasser, R. (2010). The Social Networking Paradigm Shift and Internet Fraud.
Retrieved December 1, 2014, from http://thetargetedgroup.wordpress.com/
.../the-social-networkingparadigm-shift-and-internet-fraud/
Felt, A. (2007). Defacing Facebook: A Security Case Study. Retrieved
December 6, 2014,from http://www.cs.virginia.edu/..../facebook-xsscensored.pdf
Lohrmann, D. (2008, January 16). Social Networking Security Risks.
Retrieved December 3, 2014 from http://blogs.csoonline.com/social_
networking_security_risks
McIlwain, A (2013) SocialMedia Ownership: Is it a business account or
personal account? [online] Available at: http://financialsocialmedia.com/
social-media-ownership-business-account-personal-account/ (Accessed 14
December 2014)
Policy, Facebook's Privacy (n.d.). Facebook's Privacy Policy. Retrieved June
16, 2011,from https://www.facebook.com/policy.php
Singh, S. (2012, January 14) Government Nod to Prosecute Google,
Facebook, Yahoo.Retrieved January 4, 2012 from http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Government-nod-toprosecute GoogleFacebook-Yahoo/articleshow/11482173.cms
Roush, W. (2006, August 07). The Moral Panic over Social-Networking Sites.
Retrieved June 20, 2014, fromhttp://www.technologyreview.com/printer_
friendly_article.aspx?id=17266
Weekly, Computer (2011, May 13). Facebook security measures do not go far
enough. Retrieved December 2nd, 2014 from http://www.computerweekly.
com/news/1280095874/Facebook-security-measuresdo-not-go-far-enoughsay-security-experts
Mr. Ajit Kumar1 and Mrs. Rupali Kumar Madan2
Abstract
The cloud computing is internet based platform which store the data of an
individual's / organizations and allows to the users for access the data as per their
requirement based on certain terms and conditions. This paper highlights the laws
related to cloud computing in the India and United States. In India lack of dedicated
laws for the cloud computing, however the Indian Government, Department of
Electronic and Information Technology indicated that “Formulation of the cloud
policy is one of the primary steps that will facilitate large scale adoption of cloud by
government.”In United Nations several laws viz. ECPA, HITECH, FTC Fair
Information Practice even though lack of dedicated laws related to data protection
from client point of view.
Keywords: Cloud computing, India, United States, Laws, Data privacy, Security,
Cyber crime, Intellectual property rights.
Introduction
Cloud computing is a process that provides services on virtual machines that are
allocated on the top of large physical machine pool. In Cloud computing the
information is permanently stored on the internet servers and it can cache by the
users temporarily. Cloud Computing can be understood as a way to use of-site
computer processing power to replace content creation and servers that were
traditionally onsite. A Cloud is type of parallel and distributed system consisting of
a collection of inter-connected and virtualized computers that are dynamically
provisioned and presented as one or more unified computing resources(s) based on
service-level agreements established through negotiation between the service
1
Documentation Officer, National Institute of Labour Economics Research and Development (formerly
Institute of Applied Manpower Research), Planning Commission, GOI, A-7, Institutional Area, Narela,
Delhi-40. e-mail:akdoiamr@gmail.com, do.iamr@nic.in
2
Sr. Library and Information Assistant, Ministry of External Affairs Library, Patiala House, Annexe-B,
New Delhi. E-mail:art241972@yahoo.com
325
provider and consumers (Buyya and others, 2009).1 According to Srinivas (2013)
Cloud Computing is the use of computing resources (hardware and software) that
are delivered as service over a network (typically the Internet).2 In the same way
Mell and Grance, (2011) said that the Cloud computing is a model for enabling
ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of
configurable computing resources(e.g. network, servers, storage, applications, and
service) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management
effort or service provider interaction.3 According to Investopedia Cloud computing
is so named because the information being accessed is found in the "clouds", and
does not require a user to be in a specific place to gain access to it. Companies may
find that cloud computing allows them to reduce the cost of information
management, since they are not required to own their own servers and can use
capacity leased from third parties. Additionally, the cloud-like structure allows
companies to upgrade software more quickly.4 Kazia (2012) said the Cloud
computing has emerged as one of the most important technical developments in
recent times, affecting every aspect of our work and personal lives, and changing
the technological landscape. Simply put, it refers to “the sharing and storage of
computing resources in virtual data centre's owned and operated by a third party”.5
Need of Laws for Cloud Computing
Law is basically a system of rules and regulations which are enforced through
social institution to govern behaviour. The laws are varying according the
concerned topics. The law is very important aspect for running a system in easy and
smooth way. The cloud computing also needs laws for its proper applications.
There are several concerns that the users have regarding the adoption of cloud
computing. They include availability, security and privacy, support,
interoperability, and compliance. Of these, compliance is generally relevant to only
the enterprise. All of the concerns are the same ones that the users have always had
even with on-premises computers and software. To a good extent, the users become
newly conscious of the concerns, because their data, applications, and computing
resources will no longer be under their control (Kim, 2009).6The Data security is a
basic issue for the cloud computing. According to John (2011) the security controls
in cloud computing is, for the most part, no different than security controls in any IT
environment. However, because of the cloud service models employed, the
operational models, and the technologies used to enable cloud services, cloud
computing may present different risks to an organization than traditional IT
326
solutions. An orgnization's security posture is characterized by the maturity,
effectiveness, and completeness of the risk-adjusted security controls
implemented. These controls are implemented in one or more layers ranging from
the facilities (physical security), to the network infrastructure (network security), to
the IT system (system security), all the way to the information and application
(application security). Additionally, controls are implemented at the people and
process levels, such as separation of duties and change management, respectively.7
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2013) has
noticed that the rapid emergence of cloud computing has raised concerns about its
legal and regulatory implications. Issue of data protection and security are among
the concerns most frequently mentioned by potential cloud customers in both
developed and developing countries.8 The legal and regulatory landscape around
cloud computing is by no means static. There are new laws being proposed that
cloud change the responsibilities of both cloud computing tenant and providers
(Winkler, 2012).9
Literature Review
According to Solanki (2012) every new technology brings lots of advantages along
with it, and cloud computing is not an exception to it. The wide use of cloud
computing over the past few years has raised several issues. It must be understand
that the purpose of cloud computing service is to facilitate the computing needs of
hundreds and thousands organizations over a virtual computing infrastructure
located somewhere on the Internet, which is very much contradictory to the
conventional service providers. It is very important that every organization get
assured the safety and security of data as these data are hosted at outdoor server.10 In
Indian context, according to Sahoo and Jaiswal (2014) India does not have any
devoted regulatory framework to maintain the cloud computing system. The basic
for careful acceptance of cloud computing in India can be credited to jurisdictional
issues, inadequate data security, and absence of data protection laws, erasing
mechanism, lack of privacy laws poor watch over data handling, inadequate data
security, licensing and jurisdictional issues.11 The Information Technology act
2000 has prescribed due diligence requirements for various business organisations
and stakeholders. These due diligence requirements equally apply to cloud
computing service providers in India.
327
These due diligence requirements are very stringent and cloud computing
providers can find themselves in legal hassles if they ignore the same. Managing
sensitive and personal data and information in India is no more a causal approach
but is has become very stringent. With the proposal to codify law of torts in India,
more and more civil proceeding for violation of privacy rights may be initiated
against the cloud computing service providers. It would be a wise option to
establish best practices and cloud computing policy by all stakeholders in their own
larger interests.12 The Information Technology Act, 2000 has certain provisions
under Section 43, Section 43A, Section65, Section 66, Section 66C, Section 66 D,
Section 66 F and Section 79 deal with cyber crimes that could be committed in the
cloud as highlighted by Raheja.13 The Information Technology (Reasonable
security practices and procedures and sensitive personal data or, information)
Rules of 2011 were notified by the Government of India, for the protection of
sensitive personal data or, information of individuals or organizations by the entity
who possesses, deals with or, handles such data in a computer resource owned,
controlled or operated by it.14 But various provisions of the Rules are not applicable
to entities providing services under a contractual obligation with any other entity
located extraterritorially, unless such entity ensures the same level of data
protection as laid down in the Rules.15 In the United States different laws such as
USA Electronic Communication Privacy Act (ECPA), Stored Communications Act
(SCA), USA Patriot Act and FTC Fair Information Practice deal with the protection
of information. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Gramm-LeachBliley ACT (GLBA), Health Insurance Portability Act (HIPAA), Health
Information Technology for Economic and Clinicval Health (HITECH) Act,
Sarbanes Oxley, State Laws and Regulations (For Data Breach Notification) are
dealing with the Data Security and Disclosure of Breaches. For the Data
accessibility, transfer and retention The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA),
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCIDSS), FTC Fair Information
Practice are applicable. In United States NARA regulations (title 36 of the code of
federal regulations), Payment Card Industry Security Standard (PCIDSS),
Sarbanes-Oxley Act, FTC Fair Information Practice are applicable for locations of
data (AlSudiari and Vasista, 2012). 16 However, according to Raza there are six
widely applicable regulations relating to cloud computing in the United States17
such as Stored Communication Act (SCA), USA Patriot Act, The Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), US Export Control Regulations,
Federal Trade Commission Act and Communications Privacy Act of 1986
(ECPA). According to Blaisdell (2012), cloud computing technologies developed
328
around them a complex legal and regulatory environment. In the United States,
privacy and security are spread over different industry specific laws and regulations
viz. Health Insurance portability and Accountability Act (1996), The GammLeach-Bliley (GLBA), Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards and
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA).18 In addition to these laws the
FTC Red Flag Rules, responsible for prevent and manage identify theft of data
added by Harshbarger (2011).19
Scope and Limitation
This study is limited to the survey done in 2013 by BSA related Global Cloud
computing with special reference to India and United States. BSA the Software
Alliance is the leading advocate for the global software industry before
governments and in the international marketplace. It is an association of worldclass companies that invest billions of dollars annually to create software solutions
that spark the economy and improve modern life. The BSA conducted survey in
2013 related to international policy landscape for cloud computing. The survey was
done in 24 countries. For this study four basic parameters viz. Data Privacy,
Security, Cybercrime, and Intellectual Property Rights has been selected.
A Comparative Study of Indian and United States Laws Related to Cloud
Computing Based on BSA Survey on Global Cloud Computing In 2013
Parameters
India
United States
1.Data Privacy
• In India Information Technology Act was
amended in 2008 with the provision of data
protection. Under Section 72APunishment for disclosure of information
in breach of lawful contract provision
made. The Govt. of India implemented IT
(Reasonable Security Practice Data or,
Information) Rules in April 2011.
However, in August 2011 the Ministry of
Communications and Information
Technology confirmed that 'anybody
corporate providing services relating to
collection, storage, dealing or handling of
sensitive personal data or information
under contractual obligation with any legal
entity located within or outside India is
exempt from the consent requirement. 'The
Privacy laws provisions only apply to the
private sector, not to Government.
• In United States numerous privacy laws
such as The Federal Trade Commission
Act
(prohibits unfair or deceptive
practices and this requirement has been
applied to company privacy policies in
several prominent cases) , The Electronic
Communications Privacy Act (protects
consumers against interception of their
electronic communication (with numerous
exceptions)), The Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act
(HIPAA) (contains privacy rules applying
to certain categories of health and medical
research data) and The Fair Credit
Reporting Act (includes privacy rules for
credit reporting and consumer reports). In
February 2012 the White House released a
new framework for privacy protection.
Parameters
India
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United States
1. Data Privacy
• The Indian constitution does not contain
specific right to privacy, but Indian courts
have interpreted some of the other
provisions broadly, including the right to
liberty and the right to freedom of speech.
Example, Naz Foundation v Government
of NCT of Delhi WP(C) No.7455/2001 (2
July 2009).
• There is no specific right to privacy in the
US Constitution. However, various
Supreme Court cases have found that a
limited constitutional right of privacy
exists based on a combination of
provisions in the Bill of Rights and
subsequent amendments. See for example:
Katz v. US, 386 US 954 (1967).
• India is not a member of APEC.
• The patchwork of US privacy laws is
partially compatible with the APEC
privacy framework.
• Information and Technology Act 2000
provide the provision for legal recognition
of digital signature under section 5 and
publishing of information which is
obscene in electronic form under section
67. This act also provides the provision for
mandatory compensation requirement for
security breach. The Information
Technology Amendment Act 2008
introduces a new section 43A on
'Compensation for failure to protect data'.
• The Uniform Electronic Transactions
Act 1999 and The Electronic Signatures
in Global and National Commerce Act
2000 (the ESIGN Act) provides a legal
framework for recognizing electronic
signatures.
2. Security
• The Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology introduced under
IT rules 2011, which indicated the websites
to remove objectionable content, including
anything 'grossly harmful' or 'harassing'
within 36 hours of being notified.
• India is a Certificate Consuming Member
of the Common Criteria Recognition
Agreement (CCRA)
• The courts have regularly upheld the First
Amendment right to free speech in the US
Constitution and struck down laws
intended to regulate access to Internet
content. No current filtering or censorship
is in place in the US.
• The United States is the world's most
active user of security certifications for
technology products and implements the
international Common Criteria program in
the majority of domestic IT procurement
rules.
3. Cyber Crime
• The Information Technology Act 2000 was
also amended in 2008 to include a range of
new more specific cybercrime provisions
under Section 69 provides the Controller of
Certifying Authorities with the power to
intercept any information transmitted
through a computer resource, if certain
criteria are satisfied and under Section 75
of for apply this act if an offence committed
outside India.
• Although India is not a signatory to the
Convention on Cybercrime, the core
criminal provisions contained in the
Information Technology Act 2000 follow
the prohibitions contained in the
Convention closely.
• There are several relevant statutes in the
US viz. the Federal Computer Fraud and
Abuse Act (CFAA), 18 USC 1030 and
PATRIOT Act.
• US law is compatible with the Convention
on Cybercrime. The US ratified the
Convention in 2006. The law on access to
encrypted data is the subject of current
court action — US v. Fricosu, 2011.
330
Parameters
India
United States
4. Intellectual Property Rights
• India becomes a member of the TRIPS
Agreement in 1995. Indian copyright laws
not yet updated to fully comply with
TRIPS agreements. India has not signed
the WIPO copyright Treaty. India does not
have a data breach notification law in
place, although significant rules and
requirements are in place for general
s e c u r i t y, i n c l u d i n g m a n d a t o r y
compensation for security breaches that
cause loss.
• The United States become a member of
TRIPS Agreement in 1995 and signed
WIPO Copyright Treaty in 1997. The
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
implements the WIPO Copyright Treaty
provision in the US. There are numerous
but inconsistent state data breach
notification laws in place in the US.
Typically these require notification both to
an appropriate regulator (e.g., the relevant
state attorney general) and to the affected
consumers. A federal data breach
notification law is under consideration.
• Under the Copyright Act 1957 there are no
specific provisions on ISP liability,
although Section 63 makes anyone who
abets copyright infringement an offender.
This may only cover a very limited range
of circumstances for ISPs
• The Online Copyright Infringement
Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA)
creates a safe harbor for ISPs by shielding
them for certain acts of copyright
infringement, as long as they were not
aware of the infringement and they
respond promptly to take-down requests.
These provisions now form Section 512 of
the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
(DMCA), and notices are typically
referred to as DMCA Takedown Notices.
Table: Comparative table of Cloud Computing Laws in India and United States
Analysis
India is an important regional economy, with a strong interest in ICT services
development. The law in India has not entirely kept pace with developments in
cloud computing, and some gaps exist in key areas of protection. Interestingly, a
debate has begun in India about whether specific laws and regulations should be
developed to enable and facilitate cloud computing. India has not yet implemented
effective privacy legislation, and this may act as a barrier to the development and
use of cloud computing and may also inhibit cross-border data transfers and related
trade. India's cybercrime legislation and intellectual property legislation also
require updates to conform to international models. In particular, Indian law needs
to cover modern copyright issues such as rights management information and
technical protection measures. India has still not ratified the WIPO Copyright
Treaty, leaving significant gaps in copyright protection. Parliament is reviewing
amendments to the Copyright Act. Some laws and standards in India are not
technology neutral (e.g., electronic signatures), and these may be a barrier to
interoperability. Finally, the development of India's technology sectors is impeded
by low levels of broadband and personal computer penetration.20
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The United States has comprehensive and up-to-date laws in place for e-commerce,
electronic signatures, and cybercrime. The US has signed and implemented the
Convention on Cybercrime and plays a leading role in the investigation of global
cybercrime. Although no general privacy laws are in place, the US still had a busy
year in 2012 in relation to privacy protection. A new Consumer Privacy Bill of
Rights was published, and work has begun on its potential implementation through
enforceable codes of conduct. The key regulator, the Federal Trade Commission,
also had a very active year enforcing existing pectoral rules. The US approach to
interoperability improved in 2012 with new standards developed for cloud services
by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Intellectual property
protection in the United States remains mixed. The US has signed all of the relevant
international agreements, and a strong enforcement culture is in place. However,
multiple conflicting court decisions leave considerable legal uncertainty about
what constitutes an online copyright breach. The United States is an active
participant in international standards development processes and an advocate of
free trade and harmonization. Some very limited domestic preferences remain in
place for government procurement opportunities.21
Recommendation
The authors strongly recommended that the Indian government should take serious
decisions in the area of Cloud computing with special reference to its legislation.
The certain steps to be taken according the authors based on the study.
• For the Data Privacy Law – the provision may be for the Government sector
also. The India should take the membership of APEC and laws should comply
with the APEC Privacy Framework.
• For the Intellectual Property Rights- the Indian government must sign the
WIPO Copyrights Treaty. The Indian copyright laws must be updated, in view
of cloud computing.
• The Indian government should provide specific laws related to the protection
for cloud computing services in India.
However the United States governments also take the issues related to the
Cloud computing on the priority basis. The authors give some suggestion for
the improvement of present status of cloud computing in USA.
• For General security requirement for digital date hosting and cloud service
provider's comprehensive coverage should be added in US Legislation and
332
•
some code of conduct also enforced for security audit.
For Cybercrime: Access to encrypted data should be clearly defined. There
should be comprehensive coverage for extraterritorial offenses.
Conclusion
There is no dedicated legislation for cloud computing in India. As per the research
and studies of Perry4Law and Perry4Law Techno Legal Base (PTLB), cloud
computing in India is risky and India is not ready for cloud computing. In nutshell,
cloud computing in India is still not trusted. The basic reason for this condition is
absence of dedicated legal framework for cloud computing in India, missing
privacy law, absence of data protection laws in India and inadequate data
security.22The Honorable Prime Minister of India Shri Narendra Modi should take a
strong decision for the reform the IT Act 2000 with special reference to cloud
computing. Mr. Yolynd Lodo, Director, BSA said that India should look beyond the
mere consumption of cloud services to improve e-governance delivery and access
to creating a future focused policy framework that will help it derive long-term
developmental impact and economic benefits from the cloud. The Department of
Electronics and Information Technology (Deity), Government of India indicated
that the formulation of the cloud policy is one of the primary steps that will facilitate
large scale adoption of cloud by the government.23 Now, we hope the newly elected
government will take active decision for the formulation of legislation dedicated to
the cloud computing in India. The United States law does not protect the data , from
the client's point of view, the privacy of data that has been placed under the care of a
third party (in cloud services, for instance) from the government. According to the
US Justice Department, you have no constitutional rights over your data once it is
placed in the hands of an external service provider, and they can request this data
without a warrant. While there is legislation being pushed to try and change this, it
is a concern that companies must have when looking to the cloud.24
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Rules.pfd (last modified Jan. 14, 2014)
Information Technology (Reasonable security practices and procedures and
sensitive personal data or, information) Rules, 2011, Gazette of India, part II
section 3(1), R.7 (Apr. 11,2011)
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AlSudiari, A.T. and Vasista, TGK (2012). Cloud Computing and Privacy
Regulations: An Exploratory Study on Issues and Implications. Advances
Computing: An International Journal, 3(2),159-169pp.
http://cloudtweaks.com/2014/06/cloud-service-providers-law/
Blaisdel, Rock (2012) Laws and regulations governing the cloud computing
environment. http://www.enterprisecioforum.com/en/blogs/rickblaisdell/
laws-and-regulations-governing-cloud-com
Harshbarger, Jared A. (2011). Cloud computing providers and data security
law: Building trust with United States companies. http://works.bepress.com/
jared_harshbarger/1
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http://www.cioandleader.com/features/39807/modi-govt-rewrite-act-2000promote-cloud
http://www.zdnet.com/article/what-us-businesses-should-know-aboutcompliance-and-regulatory-issues-before-adopting-a-cloud-strategy
Silver Lining: Cloud Computing for
Academic Libraries
Amit Kumar Shaw1
Abstract
In traditional computing, operating system would have installed software
programs that manages computer hardware, resources and provides common
services. Resources are accessible on one network, can't be accessed by computers
outside the network, but only through the internet. Cloud computing brings the
revolutionary changes in the world of ICT because of its benefits such as reduced
cost, accessible anywhere anytime as well as its elasticity and flexibility. Cloud
computing is a new technique grown from being a promising concept to one of the
fastest growing trend in the field of IT industry more so in libraries. Cloud
computing provides us virtually unlimited and on demand computing resources to
the users connecting lots of distributed computers, rather than local computer or
remote server, while the processing of data centers would be more similar as
internet. Thus, resources would be switched on the application of need, which could
be accessed to computing and storage system as the requirement of the user. Cloud
computing is useful for library services and digital library resources to improve
information sharing capabilities, improve resource utilization and in meeting the
various demands of user communities. This paper describes what cloud computing
is for libraries and its merits, features and types to be considered before putting the
data in the cloud. And few case studies are discussed.
Keywords: Cloud computing, Resources sharing, Grid computing, IaaS, PaaS,
SaaS, Cloud computing in India
Introduction
Cloud computing is the most popular topic and recently developed so until now
there is still lack of clear and unified definition. By using virtualized computing and
storage resources and modern Web technologies, cloud computing provides
scalable, network-centric, abstracted Information Technology infrastructures,
1
Senior Assistant Librarian , The Doon School, Dehradun, Email: amitdrtc@gmail.com
336
platform, and application on demand services. These services are billed on a usage
basis. Specifically we can say, Cloud computing is the improvement of parallel
computing, distributed computing, utility computing and grid computing. There
are many varying definitions for the term cloud computing; the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) offers the following working definition: “Cloud
computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks,
servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and
released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction”. Cloud
computing defines to applications and services that run on a distributed network
using virtualized resources and accessed by common internet protocols and
networking standards. Cloud computing will help maintain the data in a proper
manner and can retrieve it from everywhere. The Gartner Group defines cloud
computing as “a style of computing in which massively scalable and elastic ITenabled capabilities are delivered as a service to external customers using Internet
technologies”. The characteristics of the Cloud computing are:
On-Demand Self-Service: The ability for an end user to sign up and receive
services without the long delays that have characterized traditional IT.
Broad Network Access: Ability to access the service via standard platforms
(desktop, laptop, Tablet, mobile etc) with via of Internet.
Resource: Resources are access across multiple customers.
Rapid Elasticity: Capability can scale to cope with demand peaks
Measured Service: Billing is metered and delivered as a utility
Models and Types of Cloud Deployment
•
Public Cloud: The public cloud is mainly for public use which will access by
everyone. It is mainly use by large organization or institution.
•
Private Cloud: It is infrastructure is operated within the organization, such the
institution who wants to share specific information within the institution.
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•
Hybrid Cloud: This type of cloud computing environment which consists of
both internal and external providers which means both private and public
clouds.
•
Community Cloud: A community cloud has been organized to serve a
common function or purpose. It may be for one university or for several
universities, but they share common concerns such as their mission, policies,
online resources, union catalogues, security, regulatory compliance needs, and
so on.
These services can be used in libraries as:
Platform
Software as a
Service (SaaS)
Platform as a
Service (PaaS)
Infrastructure as
a Service (IaaS)
Systems
Open URL resolver, Research
guides, Online reference, Server
Virtualization, Load Balance
Integrated library system,
Interlibrary loan, Copyright,
Compliance systems
Discovery systems, Digital
repository, Archives
management, Websites, Digital
storage, Institutional repository
Examples
Summon, OCLC – World
Cat Local, OSS lab,
Liblime
Polaris, Exlibris, Facebook
Platform
Amazon, Rackspace
Table 4. Services for the libraries
SaaS vs. Hosting for Libraries: What's the Difference?
SaaS: The software vendor or other provider owns the application (whether a
discovery service, link resolver, ERM, or other) and delivers it via the Internet. The
provider is responsible for maintaining the data resources and keeping them up to
date and protecting them by running backups. Libraries have the ability to
customize the application for their own use via Web-based tools and an API
(Application Programming Interface).
Hosting Model: The provider runs the application on the library's behalf, on the
provider's hardware, but doesn't take on the task of maintaining the software.
Upgrades and maintenance are up to the library. One of the key differences between
SaaS and hosting is the principle of tenancy. With SaaS, there is only one copy of
the software running, and that copy of the software accesses only one copy of the
database (the knowledgebase). Since multiple libraries share and access this one
instance of the software and knowledgebase, SaaS is considered multi-tenancy.
338
With hosting, each library maintains its own copy of the software. Since each copy
only serves one library, this is termed single-tenancy. The advantages of
SaaS/multi-tenancy are that all libraries have the shared advantages of data
aggregation, instant access to application updates, and an optimized environment.
What can Cloud Computing do for Libraries?
Ø
As the services of the libraries are changing from the manual recording to
library automation such as cataloguing, circulation, OPAC, Institutional
repository, Electronic vendors, Electronic resources management, Resolver
etc.
Ø
So the libraries got huge responsibilities for managing the university library
they are mainly searching for Computer science or Information Technology
background students compare to library science students. So, Cloud
computing can overcome these problems, but also the underlying architecture
which would minimize the cost yet efficient enough to handle large-scale data.
Ø
Because libraries widely see the transformation of user communities engaging
through Web 2.0 and user generated content.
Ø
Academic environment is where lots of computer is uses and many of them are
not in use which lead to malfunction of computer and maintenance is
complicated due lack of IT staff.
Ø
In order to manage hybrid library resources, integrating their workflow
processes is inevitable for managing library operations. A brief list of potential
areas of improvement could include:
•
Most library computer systems are built on pre-Web technology
•
Libraries store and maintain much of the same data hundreds of times in
different Desktop.
•
As libraries running independent systems, collaboration between libraries is
made difficult and expensive.
339
•
Libraries are investing initially huge investment in IT as libraries have a less
budget.
Figure 2: Academic Cloud Computing
Source: Singh Ajith and Hemalatha M. “Cloud Computing for Academic
Environment” International Journal of Information and Communication
Technology Research, 2012, 2(2), 97 – 101
340
Case Studies 1
Nucsoft OSS Labs main goal is to provide world class training and IT support
solutions for Open Source Software (OSS). They are bringing to the OSS market a
superior IT services and solutions platform. They operate under institutionalized
and continually improved processes as validated by our annual ISO 9001
certification.
At this time, they offer services and solutions for:
Ø
Koha Library System
Ø
Dspace Institutional Repository System
Ø
Moodle e-Learning Platform
OSS Labs to host its solutions on Amazon Elastic Cloud Computing (EC2) and
Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3). Its help them to provide robust open source
based solutions to demanding users. This is something new in the Indian Library
market place. Recently, some major Indian Academic Libraries adopting Koha in
Cloud computing with help from OSS Labs are:
•
North East Hill University, Shillong
•
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore
•
Goa University, Panajim
•
Indian Institute of Technology, Mandi
•
Chennai Mathematical Institute, Chennai
•
Bhavans Library, Mumbai
Figure 3: Online Catalog of Mysore University Library in Cloud it is available at:
http://www.uni-mysore.ac.in/library/index.html
341
Unique Features of Library Automation based on Cloud:
Ø
The model adopted: Centralized database with decentralized housekeeping
activities including retrospective conversion, circulation, acquisition, serials
control, etc. by all participating libraries under University of Mysore and
Open Access OPAC.
Ø
Copy cataloging facility through Z39.50 protocol facilitates other libraries
to import records to their OPACs.
Ø
Connection reliability of database is 100% without any break even for a single
minute for the last 30 months as evaluated by IR Spy
[http://irspy.indexdata.com].
Ø
Modules implemented in the main library include acquisition, OPAC,
circulation and serials control (underway).
Ø
OPAC records of all Ph.D. Thesis submitted to University of Mysore and
received in the library have been completed.
Ø
The number of hits to our OPAC has crossed 93000 in about a year.
Ø
KOHA's OPAC is very user friendly and has classic features like automatic
link to Google books, Browse shelf, pre/post search selection for limiting hits
to select participating library, various filter options, etc.
In Indian Libraries, implementation of cloud computing is started. But it can be
proven beneficial due to its cost effectiveness and effective service and thus can
help to give new outlook to Indian Libraries.
Case Studies 2
World Cat Local is a powerful library application of Cloud Computing, provided by
the OCLC. It's offering local searching, consortia searching, global searching,
federated searching etc, all comes in One Search, NOT separate searches, to offer
the OPAC of the 21st Century. There is no hardware for your library to purchase, no
software for your library to install, nor any computer system for your library to
operate a it is manage in the Cloud. World Cat Local delivered to your library from
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OCLC through the Web in a similar manner as OCLC First Search Service. OCLC
places one simple search box on your library's OPAC or anywhere on your library's
website, similar to the search box on the Google or Yahoo! with greatly increased
searching power. One search provides instant access to your library's materials digital objects, electronic materials, databases, e-journals, music, videos, audio, ebooks, maps, journals, theses and books. They are maintaining more than 1700
databases. It can't be imagine without the cloud computing in library.
Figure 4: WorldCat Local
World Cat Local is the best way to get more than 969 million items from the
world's libraries in front of your users as per June 2014:
•
Digital content: 29 million items
•
E-books: 13 million
•
Databases: 1764
•
Articles: 674 million
•
Serials: 10 million
•
Books: 221 million
Advantages of Cloud Computing
Ø
Cost reduction. Ability to increase or decrease the consumption of hardware or
software resources immediately and in some cases automatically.
Ø
Scalability. “Pay as you go” allowing a more efficient control of expenditures.
Ø
Lower investment reduced risk. Immediate access to the improvements in the
resource proposed (hardware and software) and debugging.
343
Ø
Support included. Enjoyment of the most advanced security procedures,
availability and performance of providers with experience and knowledge in
this type of service.
Ø
Greater security and accessibility. Access to resources from any geographical
point and the ability to test and evaluate resources at no cost.
Disadvantages of Cloud Computing
Ø
The concept of cloud computing also raises questions of proper access and use.
Users will want to access and use the cloud on their own terms, yet will also
want their intellectual property rights protected.
Ø
The protection of copyright in types of materials stored on and shared through
clouds has received some consideration, and cloud providers believe the
ability to trace usage will serve as a means of preventing illegal activity .
Ø
However, this does not fully consider all of the dimensions of access and usage
that are relevant to cloud computing, most significantly the issue of licensing
.The unique issues of cloud computing may ultimately illustrate that
technology has reached the point that there is serious need to rethink how
intellectual property is licensed.
Conclusion
We know that library is not only a knowledge ocean, its main goals is to provide
satisfactory services for the all the users. Cloud computing would be a developing
tendency for computing network in future, which had been widely used in many
fields. Libraries are trying to improve the services in today's information society.
Cloud computing is one of the good way for this change into the future. The cloud is
already busted we only need to get ready to welcome the showers of knowledge and
adapt it in our universities or institution in future.
Resources for Cloud Computing
Library Management Applications
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•
<http://www.librarything.com> – simple cataloging and social discovery
•
<http://www.liblime.org> – consulting and hosting for Koha open source ILS
•
<http://www.oclc.org/webscale/> – full-featured cloud-based ILS
Bibliographic Management Applications
•
<http://www.refworks.com/> – online citation management
•
<http://www.zotero.org/> – online citation management and social discovery
Office and Calendar Applications
•
<http://docxs.google.com/> – word-processing, spreadsheets, presentations,
excel, etc
•
<http://www.zoho.com/> – documents, project management, accounting etc
Multimedia Editing Applications
•
<http://www.wevideo.com> – simple online video editor
•
<http://www.screenr.com> – cloud-based screencasting
Infrastructure as a Service
•
<> – scalable computation resources
•
<http://code.google.com/appengine/> – scalable application hosting
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vergragt, Philip J. “How Technology Could Contribute to a Sustainable
World” Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006, pp. 01-26.
Velte, Anthony T. “ Cloud Computing: A Practical Approach” Delhi: Tata
Mcgraw Hill Education Pvt Ltd, 2010, p47-77
Sosinsky, Barrie. “Cloud Computing Bible” Delhi: Wiley India Pvt, 2013, p327
Shaw, Amit Kumar. “Cloud Computing for Libraries: an Economic Strategy?”
S. M. Dhawan, S Majumdar, Subhash Deshmukh (Eds.) Indo American
Books. ISBN 978-93-82661-07-8. [2nd International Conference on Academic
Libraries. Organized by GGS Indraprastha University, 12 – 15 Feb, 2013]
Goldner, Matt “Winds of Change: Libraries and Cloud Computing” USA:
OCLC Online Computer Library Center, 2013, p01-15.
Tawfeeq Nazir1
Abstract
New technologies emerging at a rapid rate, each technological advancement has a
potential of making human's lives easier. Cloud computing can be seen as a new
phenomenon which is set to revolutionize the way we use the Internet services.
Cloud computing is a set of IT services that are provided to a customer over a
network on a leased basis and with the ability to scale up or down their service
requirements. This paper discusses the role and impact of cloud computing on
library infrastructure and service delivery.
Keywords: Cloud Computing, Scalability, Infrastructure, IT.
Introduction
Cloud computing is Internet-based computing, whereby shared resources,
software, and information are provided to computers and other devices on demand
through the Internet. Cloud computing” is emerging as a relevant computing
paradigm aiming to be the technology that will mark the difference between
Web2.0 and Web3.0. Cloud Computing," to put it simply, means "Internet
Computing."
The Internet is commonly visualized as clouds; hence the term “cloud computing”
for computation done through the Internet. With Cloud Computing users can access
database resources via the Internet from anywhere, for as long as they need, without
worrying about any maintenance or management of actual resources. It advantages
to mention but a few include scalability, resilience, flexibility, efficiency and
outsourcing non-core activities.
The technology provides an innovative alternative to bricks-and-mortar schooling,
enabling personal learning, interactive learning and many-to-many learning. The
cloud also allows students to interact and collaborate with an ever-expanding circle
1
Research Scholar, Department of Library & Information Science, University of Kashmir, Jammu &
Kashmir, Email: Tawfeeq17@gmail.com
346
of their peers, regardless of geographical location. Clouds are vast resource pools
with on-demand resource allocation. The degree of on-demand can vary from
phone calls to web forms to actual APIs that directly require servers.
Cloud computing is not only available on computers via the web but on any
Internet-connected device, like the iPhone, iPod Touch, smart phones like the
Blackberry or the Palm Pre, the Chumby and the wifi-enabled, RFID-reading
rabbit, the Nabaztag. More and more content available via the web is being made
available on other devices: it's possible to listen to MP3s on a cell phone; read
Amazon Kindle books on the iPhone or iPod touch; talk over the Internet using
Skype; ask and answer reference questions via SMS (TXT messaging).
Cloud Computing In Education Institutes: Usage Models
Five different cloud usage models have been introduced to the educational
institutes:
Cloud-based storage
Cloud-based storage used to facilitate collaboration between students by allowing
them to work together on the same documents. For example cloud dip, Drop box,,
Mozy
Virtual Hands-On Laboratories (VHLS)
Used to address many of the challenges faced by educators struggling with the
desire to provide their students with realistic learning environments and protecting
production systems from undesirable and potentially illegal interference.
Software as a Service (SAAS)
Users access applications and its associated data directly from the cloud without
getting them installed on their machine using a thin client like web browsers over
the Internet. Solving many compatibility issues reducing universities' IT
complexity and cost Providing anywhere anytime access. For example Google
Apps, ZOHO projects
Platform as a Service (PAAS)
Users are provided with a container environment to run/test their software
components where all of the software required serving the users' purpose have been
already installed and configured. For example Microsoft Azure
347
(http://www.microsoft.com/windowsazure/), Google App Engine
(http://code.google.com/appengine/).
Infrastructure as a Service (IAAS)
Virtualization is used to provide computational resources to users though the user is
the one responsible for installing and configuring all needed software.
Benefits of Cloud Computing for Educational Institutions
• Universities can open their technology infrastructures to businesses and
industries for research advancements;
• The efficiencies of cloud computing can help universities keep pace with
ever-growing resource requirements and energy cost;
• The extended reach of cloud computing enables institutions to teach
students in new, different ways and help them manage projects and
massive workloads; and
• When students enter the global workforce they will better understand the
value of new technologies.
Cloud Computing and Libraries
Cloud computing helps libraries shift away from owning and operating local
servers to Web-based services. The “cloud” may now be seen as a collection of
networked features. New concept that will lead to a new implementation model
called as “cloud libraries”. Cloud computing applications empower us to use
technology without the constraints of a locally supported infrastructure, and more
in-depth information and examples of how to plunge directly into suitable projects
by taking advantage of free services offered by the top cloud services providers.
Examples include using cloud-based supplemental storage, Google's suite of apps,
Amazon's S3 and EC2 services to power your library website and Dura Cloud to
host an online library media collection.
•
With cloud computing, institutions procure IT services from remote providers
- campus constituents access these resources over the Internet. For example: Email, long considered a staple of an institution's IT operations, can be obtained
from a range of sources, and a growing number of campuses contract with
outside suppliers for this function.
348
•
•
•
•
•
•
Large university or a consortium might become a provider of cloud services.
Storage and processing needs can also be met by the cloud. Institutions pay
only for the resources used, and users can access the applications and files they
need from virtually any Internet-connected computer.
A number of universities, vendors and government organizations are investing
in research around the topic of cloud computing.
In July 2008, HP, Intel Corporation and Yahoo! Announced the creation of a
global, multi-data center, open source test bed, called Open Cirrus designed to
encourage research into all aspects of cloud computing, service and data center
management.
In July 2010, HP Labs India announced a new cloud-based technology
designed to simplify taking content and making it mobile-enabled, even from
low-end devices.
Site on Mobile, the new technology is designed for emerging markets where
people are more likely to access the internet via mobile phones rather than
computers.
Libraries cooperate with one another to buy IT equipment, bandwidth and the
services of IT professionals; libraries may soon cooperate in the building and
management of datacenters.
Cloud Computing Development at Libraries
•
Google and IBM have partnered to offer millions of dollars in resources to
universities in order to promote cloud computing projects.
•
The goal is to improve students' knowledge of parallel computing practices
and better prepare them for increasingly popular large-scale computing that
takes place in the "real world," such as search engines, social networking sites,
and scientific computational needs.
•
YAHOO has expanded its partnerships with top U.S. universities : The
University of California at Berkeley, Cornell University, University of
Massachusetts at Amherst and the Carnegie Mellon University to advance
cloud computing research through the use of Yahoo!'s cloud computing cluster
large-scale systems software.
349
•
IBM established a consortium with the European Union and universities to
research new cloud-computing models to reduce the cost of hosting and
maintaining Internet-based services.
•
The aim of the consortium is to undertake research that could lead to the
development of new computer science models that bring together managed
Internet-based services from diverse hardware and software environments in a
flexible cloud environment.
•
The Qatar Cloud Computing Initiative led by Carnegie Mellon University,
Qatar University and Texas A&M University aimed to develop cloud
computing technology and provide a platform for local organizations to test
applications in the cloud.The project, is to enable academic research projects
that require a large amount of computing power. By sharing resources through
a cloud model, academic institutions can make better use of existing resources,
and access more powerful resources for data intensive projects, in a more cost
effective manner than by deploying their own infrastructure or outsourcing
processing
•
Cloud computing adoption and usage in community colleges is gaining
popularity in higher education settings, but the costs and benefits of this tool
have gone largely unexplored.
Cloud Computing In a Small College
•
Small College Reaps Big Benefits From Cloud Computing
•
Marian College is a small Indianapolis, Ind., college, with a student body of
2,100, has dipped into cloud computing. It has virtualized its infrastructure,
made virtual servers available over the network practically on demand, and
coordinated its internal operations with an outside cloud managed by a service
provider, BlueLock.
•
Understand virtualization costs in order to analyze ROI - and prepare for how
upcoming trends will impact TCO.
•
Cloud Computing @ Libraries：Daas from Publishers & Aggregators
350
Free Cloud Storage Sites for Libraries
Cloud computing offers many interesting possibilities for libraries that may help to
reduce technology cost and increase capacity reliability, and performance for some
type of automation activities. Cloud computing has made strong inroads into other
commercial sectors and is now beginning to find more application in library
science. The cloud computing pushes hardware to more abstract levels. Most of us
are acquainted with fast computing power being delivered from systems that we
can see and touch. There are tons of free cloud storage sites out there for libraries to
use. Cloud storage helps libraries move away from managing and providing upkeep to local servers for accessing web-based services. These online applications
allow you to use technology without administering a local server, and help free up
time dedicated to technical support. This gives users a platform they can access
both inside and outside the library. Here is a breakdown of a few that are free. These
will help you manage your documents and collaborate efficiently. The site to
provide free cloud storage services are:
Google
§
5 GB of free storage
§
Suite of applications that includes docs, spreadsheets, and forms
§
Creation of online files with the availability to edit and share in real-time
§
Integrate your Gmail and Google+ accounts
Google Anywhere: web browser, iPhone, iPad, Android
Sign up: Google Drive
351
Dropbox
§
§
Store photos, docs, and videos
§
Access from a computer or mobile device
§
Availability to share all or specific documents with colleagues
Dropbox Anywhere: web browser, iPhone, iPad, Android and Blackberry
Sign up: Dropbox
SkyDrive
§
§
Sync files and download the desktop app
§
Share photos, files, and docs with colleagues who can work on them in realtime
§
Integrate Word, Excel, or PowerPoint, in your browser
Skydrive Anywhere: Available on your phone, tablet, PC, or Mac
Sign up: Skydrive
iCloud
§
§
Access to files and documents from whatever device you're on
§
Integrated into all your applications like photostream, documents, Safari,
iBooks, calendar, contacts and mail
iCloud Anywhere: iPhone, iPad, iPod touch; Mac and PC
Sign up: iCloud
Cloud Computing and It Issues
The major challenges that prevent Cloud Computing from being adopted are
recognized by organizations are as follows:
i.
Service Level agreements: Security issue has played the most important
role in hindering Cloud computing acceptance. Without doubt, putting
your data, running your software on someone else's hard disk using
someone else's CPU appears daunting to many. Well-known security
352
ii.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
issues such as data loss, phishing, botnet (running remotely on a collection
of machines)
Pose serious threats to organization's data and software. New security
challenges that require novel techniques to tackle with. For example,
hackers can use Cloud to organize botnet as Cloud often provides more
reliable infrastructure services at a relatively cheaper price for them
to start an attack.
Uptime and reliability
Cost and Affordability: Cloud consumers must consider the tradeoffs
amongst computation, communication, and integration. While migrating
to the Cloud can significantly reduce the infrastructure cost, it does raise
the cost of data communication, i.e. the cost of transferring an
organization's data to and from the public and community.
Cloud Interoperability Issue: Each cloud offering its own way on how
cloud clients/applications/users interact with the cloud, leading to the
"Hazy Cloud" phenomenon. This severely hinders the development of
cloud ecosystems by forcing vendor locking, which prohibits the ability of
users to choose from alternative vendors/offering simultaneously in order
to optimize resources at different levels within an organization.
Service Level Agreement (SLA): Although cloud consumers do not have
control over the underlying computing resources, they do need to ensure
the quality, availability, reliability, and performance of these resources
when consumers have migrated their core business functions onto their
entrusted cloud. In other words, it is vital for consumers to obtain
guarantees from providers on service delivery.
Staff knowledge: impact to staff and competency.
Conclusion
Cloud Computing has a strong and the preferred option for service and businesses
world. Even though new technology is perceived as a risk, the reality is the Cloud is
a new delivery model not new technology. Concern still lingers about who can
access the data, where it will reside, and the retention of records.
The reality is it takes catalysts to precipitate change. One catalyst we have already
encountered is the iPhone and Ipad phenomenon – we are now so used to getting
353
information at the click of a button that we want everything delivered that way.
We've been faced with incredible examples of how insecure our natural
environment against forces of nature - floods, fires, earthquakes, tsunami - putting
perspective to Microsoft, Google and the other leading Cloud providers. With all
their infrastructure and security, delivered to you via the Cloud, it's an attractive
option.
Cloud computing builds on decades of research in virtualization, distributed
computing, utility computing, more recently networking, and web software
services. It implies a service oriented architecture, reduced information technology
overhead forth end-user, great flexibility, reduced total cost of ownership, on
demand services and many other things. In today's global competitive market,
companies must innovate and get the most from its resources to succeed. Cloud
computing infrastructures are next generation platforms that can provide
tremendous value to companies of any size. They can help libraries to achieve more
efficient use of their IT hardware and software investments and provide a means to
accelerate the adoption of innovations.
Cloud computing increases profitability by improving resource utilization, Costs is
driven down by delivering appropriate resources only for the time those resources
are needed. Cloud computing has enabled teams and organizations to streamline
lengthy procurement processes.
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Fox, R. Library in the clouds. OCLC Systems & Services, 2009, 25(3), 156161.
OCLC World Share Management Services, http://www.oclc.org/webscale/
default.htm
Russell, M. (2011). Mining the Social Web: Analyzing Data from Facebook,
Twitter, LinkedIn, and Other Social Media Sites. Sebastopol: O'Reilly Media,
Inc.
Tampa Bay Library Consortium (n.p).Cloud Computing. Retrieved from
http://tblc.org/tag/cloud-computing
Envisioning the Role of Cloud Computing in
Libraries and Information Services
Dr. Priya Rai1, Akash Singh2 and Dr. Samar Iqbal Bakshi3
Abstract
Cloud computing is one of the technological buzz of today. The paper aims to
provide a brief overview of cloud computing, its definitions, concept and
characteristics. Further it discusses service models like Iaas, Paas and Saas; and
deployment models like public, private, community and hybrid cloud. Application
of this new technology in library services is explored through literature available in
the field. It is found that cloud based applications and services can be deployed in
library automation, digital library development, web-scale discovery, reference
service, resource sharing etc. It is very useful in day-to-day activities of a library.
Some cloud service providers specialized in library services are identified and
described like Polaris, Ex-Libris, Dura Cloud, OCLC, Google etc. Libraries
around the world are identified using cloud services through these service
provides. Finally advantages and disadvantages of the technology are discussed.
Keywords: Cloud Computing, Library automation, Virtualisation, Library
services, Web scale discovery, IaaS, PaaS, SaaS
Introduction
Cloud computing is currently one of the biggest buzzwords in IT industry. The IT
industry has published several white papers describing cloud computing. The main
underlying technologies behind cloud computing are virtualization technology to
provide flexible and scalable computing platforms, web service and service
oriented architectures to manage cloud services and distributed storage for backup
and world-wide data access (Hofer and Karagiannis, 2011). It allows to access
applications on cloud without installation in their personal computer to access their
1
Deputy Librarian & Head, Justice T. P.S Chawla Library, National Law University, Delhi, Sec-14
Dwarka, New Delhi-110078, Tel: 011-28035818
2
Assistant Librarian, National Law University, Delhi, Sec-14, Dwarka, New Delhi, India. Work Phone:
011-280-35-818
3
Assistant Librarian, National Law University, Delhi, Sec-14, Dwarka, New Delhi, India. Work Phone:
011-280-35-818
356
personal and useful files on any computer with internet access. This technology
allows users to access more efficient computing by centralizing storage, memory
and processing capacities. Cloud based applications are available free of cost in our
daily life like Gmail, Rediffmail, Flickr, Twitter, Facebook, etc. for exchanging
and sharing of files, photos, videos etc. Youtube and such kind of other applications
are also cloud based applications.
Cloud Computing: Definition and Concept
Cloud computing is the next evolutionary step in computing after Distributed
computing and Grid computing. The term is defined by various IT stakeholders and
scholars. However the most popular definition is provided by the US National
Institute of Standards and Technology as, “Cloud Computing is a model for
enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable
computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services)
that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or
service provider interaction” (Mell and Grance, 2011).
The Gartner Group, a leading IT stakeholder defines cloud computing as “a style of
computing in which massively scalable and elastic IT-enabled capabilities are
delivered as a service to external customers using Internet technologies” (Gartner
Group, 2009).
Another definition is “Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient ondemand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.
networks, servers, storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly
provisioned and released with minimal management efforts or service provider
interaction” (Altman and Rana, 2010).
According to Katzan cloud computing is some sort of applications, platforms,
hardware and software delivered as services over the network of internet by the
cloud providers (Katzan, 2010).
Cloud computing is a web based computing where shared resources, applications
and information are provided to the set of computers and other devices on demand
using web technology. These services are provided through a set of web enabled
applications loaded on the server with proper access rights. Implementation of
cloud computing needs combining multiple technologies, realizing virtual
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managing and scheduling of hardware. The beauty of cloud computing is that the
service provider can host your application and handle the cost of servers and
software updates.
Characteristics of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing has following characteristics.
a. No initial cost for Infrastructure
If an institution is looking to develop computer based services, cloud computing is
best solution. It involves no initial cost for infrastructure, technical manpower,
physical space etc. Cloud service provider will provide all the services without any
cost for infrastructure and initial cost.
b. Pay-per-Use
Consumption based billing is one of the best characteristics of cloud computing.
Customers need to pay only for those resources or services which are being used by
them. Usage can be monitored and controlled with some level of abstraction
providing the cloud service provider and customer with transparency.
c. Elasticity and Scalability
Modifications and enhancement is easy and fast which make this service very
scalable and elastic. Desired bandwidth, processing speed, data storage and
number of licences etc. can be acquired from the cloud service provider as per need.
d. Broad Network Access
Cloud capabilities are available over the network and accessed not only through
standard machines but also through modern day devices like i-Pads, tablets,
smartphones, laptops etc.
e. Resource Pooling
The resources available in different locations are pooled to serve multiple
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customers through cloud computing as per their demand. It saves cost and
duplication of work.
f. Virtualization
Cloud computing is a virtual phenomena. It works on internet and no resources are
visible physically.
g. Environmentally Suitable
Computing infrastructure is responsible for Green House Gas emission to a large
extent. As cloud computing is based on shared model of computing resources, it is
environmentally suitable and sustainable.
Cloud Computing Models
Cloud computing models can be categorised in two types one on the basis of service
and another on the basis of deployment (Mell, 2011).
Cloud Computing Service Models
Cloud computing services can be subscribed as following three ways.
a. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
This model of cloud computing offers virtual system to access to computer
hardware resources and the customer need not to invest in infrastructure. The
customer has to manage only operating system, applications and network
connectivity. Its examples are Amazon EC2, Windows Azure Virtual Machines
b. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Platform as a service is a type of service meant to develop a platform to build up,
install and control SaaS applications. This platform usually includes databases,
web-server, software and expansion apparatus. Control and management of
applications and softwares is the part of customer by his own.
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c. Software as a Service (SaaS)
It is a software distribution model in which applications hosted by service provider
is centrally hosted on the cloud and made available to customers over a network. It
is available via internet and can be configured remotely. The management of
patches and upgrades are handled by cloud service provider. Examples of SaaS are
content management of web services, e-mail, virtual desktop, communication,
games etc.
Cloud Computing Deployment Models
Cloud computing can be deployed to the customer in following four ways as per the
demand.
a. Public Cloud
Public cloud can be accessed by customer with an internet connection and access to
the cloud space. This enables customer to develop and use a service in the cloud
with very little financial expense compared to the capital expenditure
requirements. Its examples are Google apps, Windows Azure etc.
b. Private Cloud
A private cloud is established for a specific group or institution and limits access to
just that group. The operation may be in-house or with a third party on the premises
e.g. Institutional cloud, ebay)
c. Community Cloud
Community cloud is shared among two or more institutions that have similar cloud
requirements. This may help limit the capital expenditure costs for its
establishment as the costs are shared among the organizations. Most used service of
this type is Institutional Gmail of Google Apps.
d. Hybrid Cloud
A hybrid cloud is essentially a combination of at least two clouds, where the clouds
included are a mixture of public, private, or community. In this model clouds have
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the ability through their interfaces to allow data and/or applications to be moved
from one cloud to another e.g. Google Apps.
e. Special Purpose Cloud
Special clouds are extensions of normal cloud system to provide additional services
e.g. Google App Engine.
Library Services Through Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is used in business and industry in providing best applications in
least cost. Meanwhile education sector has also realized the need to implement
cloud based services in teaching and learning. As libraries are the heart of teaching
and learning system, therefore these are also adopting cloud computing in
providing best information services to its patrons. Following areas of library
management can be directly benefited if cloud computing is executed in libraries.
a. Library Automation
Library automation is the most important area of library management. It starts with
hardware and software purchase and then maintenance cost, which troubles
librarians most. Until now, automation in libraries is being undertaken on locally
hosted servers using different types of commercial and open-source softwares.
Now there are many vendors and third party service providers who provide services
to migrate the library to cloud with appropriate data security along with necessary
software modules to support library staff, students and faculty. Some of the cloud
based products for library are Koha, DuraSpace's DuraCloud, ExLibris' Alma,
OCLC's Web scale management services, Kuali Foundation's Kuali Open Library
Environment, Serials Solutions' Webscale Management Solution and Innovative
Interfaces Incorporation's Sierra (Breeding, 2011). Library Thing is a combination
of social networking and cloud computing. It authorizes people to contribute
information and suggestion about books and allow them to interconnect globally to
share interests. It is also available to provide web-services for libraries after paying
a nominal fee to draw on the vast database of recommendations and other users
available in Library Thing (Fox, 2009).
The libraries need not to manage the underlying cloud infrastructure including
network, servers, operating systems, storage, server, updates, backups or even
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individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited userspecific application configuration settings. In India, National Informatics Centre
under Ministry of Communication and IT, is providing cloud based services for
libraries. Libraries can host their library management software at NIC data centres
and need not to purchase server and its annual maintenance. In this way NIC works
on PaaS, IaaS and SaaS all three models of Cloud computing for libraries. Cloud
based initiatives taken for automation in university libraries include University of
Mysore. It is using cloud based library automation software KOHA and uploaded
125000 records in KOHA hosted on Amazon EC2 platform. Its OPAC is developed
for mobile and other thin devices.
b. Digital Library Development
Academic and research libraries are now actively involved in digital repository
creation using open source softwares. Most of the institutions are hosting their
repository on their local servers. This job is simplified by using cloud computing.
Digitisation can be done using SaaS model while storage can be done using IaaS
model from cloud. Libraries are bound to take care about softwares for digitisation,
editing and storage of the huge data. When data is stored in the cloud it offers
several advantages. Common data can be easily shared among services and users.
The need for local storage, maintenance, backups and fear of data loss is removed.
There are so many service providers for digital library creation using commercial as
well as open source products.
c. Web-Scale Discovery
Libraries are using federated or meta-search to collocate search results from
multiple electronic resources to one place on a single click. Web-scale discovery is
the next cloud based step towards this service. Now it is offered as cloud computing
model and has the capacity to more easily connect researchers with the library's vast
information repository including remotely hosted resources and local content.
Libraries are gradually implementing Discovery services to make it easier for users
to find information both inside and outside the libraries (Bradley, 2010). It provides
a unified platform for library users to access and search from all the library
resources to get single set of results by providing Google like environment.
EBSCO, Ex-Libris and OCLC Worldcat are the major players in web-scale
discovery vendor market.
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d. Reference Service
Reference service is the personalized service provided to the user as per his/her
demand. With the emerging technologies, the style of providing reference service
has been changed. Libraries are actively designing quick reference tools for users
like Ask a Librarian. Cloud based tools are proved as very effective for reference
services e.g. Google chat, Skype, Linked in, Facebook, Research Gate etc.
e. Resource Sharing
Another great benefit of data stored in the cloud is the opportunity for collaboration
and cooperative intelligence. Consortia in cloud are being developed to provide
unique opportunity with cloud computing, to create an online information
community network. Community cloud computing offers is taking advantage of
social media. J-Gate and B-Gate by Informatics India Pvt. Ltd. is an example of
cloud based e-journal abd e-book consortium service respectively.
f. Day-to-Day Activities
Libraries are using cloud based tools in their day-to-day activities from a long time
like Google, blogs, social networking sites, file sharing and transfer applications
etc. The power of services like Google Docs and Office 365 reduce the effort of
working jointly. Zoho.com provides a host of office software. Business software
like SAP and accounting software Tally are also available on the cloud. Dropbox
and Box.net are used for storage space on cloud, which can be accessed from
anywhere in the world. These facilities make the day-to-day activities of library
smooth.
Open Source Softwares in Cloud Computing
Open source sofwares are most useful in cloud computing. OSS can be
downloaded, customized, re-compiled and even redistributed, therefore are best
suitable for cloud applications. Open source products like Chef, Puppet, Zenoss,
Eucalyptus, Ubuntu Enterprise Cloud etc. can be used successfully on clouds.
Cloud Service Providers for Libraries
Now cloud computing is a hot cake in IT industry. Cloud based services are highly
363
cost effective, therefore a number of service providers are emerging these days.
According to Siliconindia.com the top ten providers are Amazon, Rockspace,
Microsoft, Google, Red Hat, Citrix Systems, Salesforce.com, Linode, VM Ware
and Verizon (Siliconindia.com, 2012). Cloud computing advice has given top ten
service providers as Zenith Infotech, Reliance Datacenter, Wolf Frameworks,
Orange Scape, TCS, Infosys, Cynapage India, Wipro, Netmagic Solutions.
Following is a brief description of cloud service providers, whom services can be
implemented in libraries.
a. Polaris
Polaris is a library automation system, which is based on cloud computing. Polaris
also provides standard acquisition and processing system. Also, with a Polaris ILS
Client License, the library can integrate various PC and print management systems
at no extra cost. The systems use well known standards like MARC-21 for
bibliographic data, XML, Z39.50 for information retrieval, Unicode etc.
b. Ex-Libris
Ex-Libris is providing solutions for libraries with all the software and hardware
support. It is available for all type of libraries. It has solutions for consortia and
discovery services also. Primo Central is a popular discovery service released by
Ex-Libris in 2010. Ex Libris is built on various standard and contains number of
features like compatibility with Unicode font, flexibility, migration of data,
customization etc.
c. Dura Cloud
Dura Cloud is sister concern of the Duraspace which is a collaboration of Dspace
digital library software and Fedora Commons. It provides cloud based services for
digital libraries. Dura cloud also provides open source code and the code needs to
be installed on customer's machine.
d. OCLC
OCLC is world leader in providing libraries the tools to manage and maximize use
of their electronic collection. In addition, it has also developed some cloud based
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services like WorldCat and WorldShare. WorldCat is discovery service launched in
2009. WordShare is developed with a view to enable library developers, partners
and other organizations to create, configure and share a wide range of applications
that deliver new functionality and value for libraries and their users. Fox (2009)
enumerated OCLC as a cloud computing vendor for library services. OAISTER
started by University of Michigan and managed by OCLC is trying to harvest all the
major digital repositories around the world.
e. Amazon
Amazan is providing cloud based services. Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) is a web
service that provides resizable compute capacity in the cloud.
f. Google
Google based services are most popular cloud based services used in almost all
office purposes. It includes Gmail, Google calendar, word processing, spreadsheet,
presentation software, Google Doc etc. Google App Engine is a cloud computing
platform for developing and hosting web application in Google-managed data
centres. It is free up to certain level of consumed resources. Nelson (2008) has
reported hosting of an e-library of Western State College of Colorado on Google
Application Engine. This e-library is a collection of electronic records used to
organise and manage born digital resources, such as websites, e-books, MP3s etc.
and can also serve as a metadata proxy for books, magazines, physical video and
audio resources and other physical objects. Users can access these resources
through public view of the system. Staff can administer the e-library through
Administration views. Another example of Google based cloud application in
libraries is transfer of D-space based repository services from locally hosted server
to AWS, Linode and Google App Engine (Han, 2011).
g. Dropbox
Dropbox is a file hosting service operated by Dropbox, Inc. It offers cloud storage,
file synchronization, and client software free of cost upto a certain level. Dropbox
allows users to create a special folder on each of their computers, which Dropbox
then synchronizes so that it appears to be the same folder (with the same contents)
regardless of which computer is used to view it. Files placed in this folder also are
accessible through website and mobile phone applications.
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Advantages
Following are the major advantages of cloud computing.
1.
Initially there is no need to invest on local servers and technical support.
2.
Cloud service providers are specialized in applications and services and
therefore efficiently manage upgrades and maintenance, backups, disaster
recovery, and failover functions.
3.
The resources like hardware, software and humanware can be utilized in better
way to run the programs simultaneously in cloud environment.
4.
Cloud computing offers testing of new services and upgrades by running some
applications on virtual server instead of purchasing new hardware.
5.
Cloud-computing providers, typically concerned about electricity costs, invest
in energy-efficient equipment that may help create a greener computing
environment.
Disadvantages
Like the other technology, cloud computing do also have its disadvantages, which
needs to be taken into consideration before its implementation.
1.
The data of institutions are stored in cloud server having no any clear-cut
ownership contract.
2.
Provision of contract agreement for the security and confidentiality of data
stored in cloud is not much practiced.
3.
Dependency on others is a major disadvantage of cloud based applications.
4.
Libraries may not have a good grip on their own services, if deployed through
cloud service providers.
5.
Cloud computing is not always cheaper when all factors are considered, so
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libraries should be careful to evaluate all of the costs involved, such as network
bandwidth, transition costs, and backup storage costs, when considering a
migration to the cloud.
Conclusion
Experts predict that cloud computing market in India will grow at a compound
annual growth rate of 40 percent by 2014 (Ryan et al., 2011). With the introduction
of Cloud Computing, libraries can certainly offer more effective and user-centric
services. Library professionals many a times find it difficult to manage the
technologies owing to their skill levels, lack of support from IT departments or for
not having IT facilities within the organisations. Lack of expertise in IT and budget
constraints hinders librarians to experiment with new applications for the benefit of
their users. Here cloud computing can be adopted as a less expensive option.
Mobile based applications add value to cloud based library data.
References
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2.
3.
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5.
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Altaman, J. and Rana, O. F. (Eds.); (2010). Economics of Grids, Clouds,
Systems, and Services.7th International Workshop, GECON 2010, Ischia, Italy,
August 31, 2010, Proceedings.CaRDIFF, UK: Springer
Bradley, F. (2010, May 5). Next generation catalogues, discovery interfaces
and their role in helping meet changing user needs. Available at:
http://web.fumsi.com/go/article/use/4604 (Accessed on 12 March 2013)
Breeding, M. (2011). A cloudy forecast for libraies. Computers in Libraries,
Vol. 31 No. 7, 32-34
Gartner Group (2009). Attributes of cloud computing. Available at:
http://www.gartner.com/technology/home.jsp (Accessed on 10 March 2013)
Hofer, C. N. and Karagiannis, G. (2011). Cloud computing services: taxonomy
and comparison. Journal of Internet Services Application. Vol.2, 81-94
Fox, R. (2009). Library in the clouds. OCLC systems and services. Vol. 25 No
3, 156-161
Han, Y (2011). Cloud computing: case studies and total costs of ownership.
Information Technology and Libraries, December, 198-206
Katzan, H. (2010). The Education value of cloud computing. Contemporary
Issues. Education Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, 37-42
Mell, P. And Grance, T. (2011). The NIST definition of cloud computing.
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Recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
NIST Special Publication 800-145. Available at http://csrc.nist.gov/
publications/nistpubs/800-145/SP800-145.pdf (Accessed on 08 April 2013)
Nelson, J. (2008). Catalogue in the cloud: building an eLibrary on Google's
App Engine. Colarado Libraries, Vol. 34 No 3, 32-35
Pandya, M. (2012). Cloud Computing for Libraries: A SWOT analysis. 8th
Convention Planner - 2012, 387-394
Ryan, Patrick S. et al. (2011). Regulation of the cloud in India. Journal of
Internet Law, Vol. 15, No 4, 1-17
Voorsluys, William; Broberg, James; Buyya, Rajkumar (February 2011).
Introduction to Cloud Computing. In R. Buyya, J. Broberg, A.Goscinski.
Cloud Computing: Principles and Paradigms. New York, USA: Wiley Press.
p. 1–44
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Technologies/CloudComputing/0071626948_chap01.pdf (Accessed on 07
March 2013)
http://www.siliconindia.com/ (Accessed on 07 April 2013)
Exploration of Copyright Laws in
Open Access Epoch
Akash Singh1 , Dr. Priya Rai2 and Dr. Anil Kumar Jain3
Abstract
The article briefs about the existence of copyright laws protecting the right of
literates and researchers. Open access movement was initiated to wide access of
information with a view to faster social, economical and technological development
around the world. Initiatives of number of international organizations and
academic institutions put forward facilitating open access of their research
outcomes in digital format. Creative Common licences played a vital role
supporting protection of literary work available in open access. The paper finds a
number of precedents understanding right of literary owners facilitating their
intellectual research in open access.
Keywords: Copyright; Open Access; Creative Commons
Introduction
Open Access1 (OA) is a system intended to open up library collections to users
without any restriction and assistance. It seeks to remove financial, legal and
technical barriers over the access of scholarly information through support of
information and communication technology. Alma Swan explains open access
research literature as composed of free, online copies of peer-reviewed journal
articles and conference papers as well as technical reports, theses and working
papers. In most cases there are no licensing restrictions on their use by readers.
They can therefore be used freely for research, teaching and other purposes2.
According to recommendations of Director-General in its 35st session of General
Conference by 35/Resolution 63 at UNESCO Open Access (OA) is the provision of
free access to peer-reviewed, scholarly, research information (both scientific
1
Assistant Librarian, National Law University, Delhi, Sec-14, Dwarka, New Delhi, India. Work
Phone: 011-280-35-818
2
Deputy Librarian & Head, Justice T. P.S Chawla Library, National Law University, Delhi, Sec-14
Dwarka, New Delhi-110078, Tel: 011-28035818
3
Associate Professor, Deptt. Of Library and Information Science, Vikram University, Ujjain
369
papers and research data) to all. It envisages that the rights-holder grants worldwide
irrevocable right of access to copy, use, distribute, transmit, and make derivative
works in any format for any lawful activities with proper attribution to the original
author. Through Open Access, researchers and students from around the world gain
increased access to knowledge, publications have greater visibility and readership,
and the potential impact of research is heightened.
Peter Suber says open access literature is digital, online, free of charge, and free of
most copyright and licensing restrictions. He point outs following in support of
Open Access3.
1.
Open Access is compatible with copyright, peer review, revenue (even
profit), print, preservation, prestige, quality, career-advancement,
indexing, and other features and supportive services associated with
conventional scholarly literature.
2.
The legal basis of Open Access is the consent of the copyright holder (for
newer literature) or the expiration of copyright (for older literature).
3.
The campaign for Open Access focuses on literature that authors give to
the world without expectation of payment.
4.
Many Open Access initiatives focus on publicly-funded research.
5.
Open Access literature is not free to produce or publish.
6.
Open Access is compatible with peer review, and all the major OA
initiatives for scientific and scholarly literature insist on its importance.
7.
There are two primary vehicles for delivering Open Access to research
articles, OA journals ("gold OA") and OA repositories ("green OA").
8.
Open access is not synonymous with universal access and it is a kind of
access, not a kind of business model, license, or content.
OA serves the interests of many groups and very useful in preserving and
dissemination of historical literature.
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Open Access Movement around the World
Peter Suber (2009) counts historical development of open access movement. He
finds that the year 1969 is traced as the memorable year when Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was launched by US Defense which was
milestone to invent internet technologies. National Agriculture Agency of United
States instigated AGRICultural OnLine Access (Agricola) in 1970. Michael Hart
institute Project Gutenberg in 1971 which is still a biggest project providing online
access of ebooks in public domain. The first network email was sent in 1971 by
Ray Tomlinson. The sifting of ARPANET form the NCP protocol to TCP/IP
protocol in 1983 cleared the path of airing network of network i.e. internet.
Introducing of World Wide Web by Tim Berners Lee in 1990 cleared the path of
web client and server and hyper text project. He design the first ever html based
webpage.In 1993 online book page a project of facilitating free online book was
launched by Ockerbloom. The largest ebook project i.e. Project Gutenburg was
also launched in 1994 by Gunter Hille. In the same year Social Science Research
Network (SSRN) was introduced by Wayne Marr and Michael Jensen. It was a
revolutionary age in open access movement when the Virginia University initiated
providing Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) in
1996. Brewster Kahle in 1996 initiated Internet Achieve which is now a project
under Google incorporation facilitating information in variety of formats. The year
1999 counts as a great year introducing a number of open access initiatives like
Open Archives Imitative (OAI), Open Citation Project, Electronic information for
Library Direct, BioMed Central, E-Biomed, Declaration on Science and the Use of
Scientific Knowledge and Universal Preprint Service. In 2002 E-Print was
introduced in open access which resulted launching Eprint-UK by JISC-FAIR. In
August 2002 IFLA Internet Manfesto namely freedom of access to information and
the removal of barriers to the flow of information were introduced. Montreal
Declaration in 2002 under Law Via Internet Conference resulted in Free Access to
Law Movement (FALM). Like E-Print, Open Access to D-Space was released by
MIT, USA in November 2002. Raym Crow and Howard Goldstein contributed two
business guides i.e. launching new open access journals and converting traditional
journals to open access under the Budapest Open access Initiatives in January 2003.
Lund University London introduced Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) in
February 2003 funded by Open Society Institute and SPRC. Bethesda Statement
on Open Access Publishing was further released in June 2003 supporting open
access publishing. Max Plank Society and European Cultural Heritage Online
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released Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Science and
Humanities in October 2003. United Nations World Summit on the Information
Society adopted open access to scientific information action plan and statement in
December 2003. IFLA statement on Open Access to Scholarly Literature and
Research Documentation were released in January 2004.
Open Access Movement a Flag March: Review of Previous Studies
A number of research studies have been done in past in support of open access
initiatives around the world and India. This section facilitates brief overview of
research papers published covering developmental aspects of open access
initiatives in the establishing of institutional repositories, open access journals and
gold and green open access movements.
Barbara Kirsop gives stress over publicly availability of research information
generated out of public funded institutions. The author outlines the problems facing
scholarly communication in developing countries and describes ways in which OA
can provide a solution. The author also highlights open access funder mandates,
institutional mandates and departmental mandates in Australia, Belgium, India,
Portugal, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom. The paper support and
recommend that open access must be adopted not only by major institutions of the
world but also take serious by rest of the world4. Kristin Atelman highlights the
importance of freely available articles and its impact on research activities. The
study finds that the open access improves on browsing online journals and articles
and customers relay heavily electronic research systems. The librarians should
create more understanding for implementation of institutional repositories in their
daily research work5.
Peter Suber keens to inspect the quality of open access information. Suber
examines the subtle and indirect way in which open access might affect the quality
of articles and the journals in which they appear. Suber further argues that open
access will reduce quality, and finds them confused, groundless, and self-serving.
With discussing various non-supporting issues, Suber finds a number of points
which support the quality issues while uploading and utilizing open access
information6. T B Rajashekar examines the relevance and potential of open access
publishing in developing countries like India. Open access publishing is the
provision of free online access to scholarly material also called open domain. He
further elaborates the open access initiatives in India and new technical models to
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organize open access publishing in India. The author comments that a national level
mechanism is essential to promote and coordinate open access publishing system
and to improve awareness for open access. Training for librarians is another matter
of importance for handling tools, processes and maintaining standards7.
Krishan Lal discusses about the role of free availability of scientific data,
information and knowledge in the phenomenal developments in science. Lal gives
a brief overview of various open access initiatives like Budapest Open Access
Initiative, ECHO Charter, Bethesda statement on Open Access Publishing and
Berlin Declaration. He also notices a number of international organizations
supporting open access literature dissemination viz. ICSU, UNESCO, ICSTI,
INASP, IAP, TWAS and US NAS. He explains about the Committee on Data for
Science and Technology of the International Council of Science (CODATA) and
Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) in support of open access
movement.8 Subbiah Arunachalam discusses open access movement includes
scholars and researchers willingness to share knowledge and advances in
technology which enabled opening up free access to information. He includes two
ways of achieving open access and argues that sharing knowledge and building
partnerships have been recognized as the best and most optimal means of creating
and benefiting from knowledge. He further focuses on various fronts where open
access is making good progress, and also deliberates on issues like open access
endeavours in India and sustainable development and needs to be done in India to
promote open access initiatives9.
Nikolaus Peifer in his research paper “Regularoty Aspects of Open Access”
highlights a number of suggested points to regulate and standardize open access
literature. Some points are a) how to convince contributors to uncover secrets, b)
how to convince publishers and other right holders to cooperate, c) how to
safeguard integrity and authenticity, d) how to enable access to works of known
rights holders and e) how to enable access to works of unknown rights holders10.
Sangeeta and Soubam Sophiarani provide a summary of open access initiatives in
India. They further access the importance of open access initiatives in India as a
bridge for social divides and remedy solution for the problems facing by Indian
researchers11. Manoj Kumar Sinha highlights the open access declaration and
movements in India and explains various open source software's for establishing
institutional repositories and digital libraries. He further put focus on the
recommendations of National Knowledge Commission for libraries and open
373
access and open access educational resources. Some of the national level digital
library initiatives and institutional repositories have also been listed for the benefit
of library professionals12. Alma Swan argues that the scholarship of India has a
poor visibility due to closed dissemination. However, Indian articles published in
international journals have an upper age to get noticed. He feels that open access
can help resolve the problems of maximising the visibility, and thus the uptake and
use, of Indian research outputs. According to Swan, only mandatory policies
regarding open access movement can boost the authors through self achieving of
individual's work13.
Stevan Harnad and Alma Swan advocate about the mandate for Open Access SelfArchiving in India. They also state that the rule of “Law of Karma” is at the same
road map of western's Golden Rule. The official adoption of the rule shall be one of
the strongest examples for other nations. Authors argue that India must extend its
obligation to follow such rules on governmental institutions and other agencies
funded by the Indian Government to make their research activities visible to rest of
the world14.
Development of Copyright Laws around the World
The reason to birth of copyright laws is primarily blamed to the invention of print
technology by Gutenberg in 1436. A number of printing agencies started to print
copies of books and other material at a very fast rate, which resulted in competition
in the form of unauthorized copies of books of authors in Europe. A Royal Charter
was as a pioneer step of copyright was granted to the Stationers Company to
administer a system of private registration of all published work15. Almost after
100 years, License Act was introduced and passed by the British Parliament to
prohibit the printing of any book without licensed and register with the Stationers
Company in 1662. The first two law instruments were declared as biased and
favorable to monopoly of book publishers. In 1694, the British Parliament
abolished and refused to renew the powers of Stationers Company. The first
official Copyright Law was enacted in England known as Statute of Anne in 1710
with the concept of the author of a work being the owner of its copyright, and laid
out fixed terms of protection with a compulsory deposit of copyrighted work at
specific copyright libraries16. Finally British Parliament passed its Copyright Act
in 1911 abolishing almost twenty small and big legislation passed in past.
374
The birth of copyright Law in United States of America is counted since the
Congress enacted first federal Copyright Law in 1870. A separate Copyright Office
was established in 1897 to look after copyright registration and other issues17. A
number of international instruments were nurtured to prevent creative works of the
authors or creators. The first International Convention for the Protection of
Industrial Property commonly known as Paris Convention18 was held in 1883. The
second international Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Work
popularly known as Bern Convention19 was adopted by the member countries to
protect literary work of authors in 1886 and subsequently revised at Berlin in 1908
at Rome in 1928, at Brussels in 1948, at Stockholm in 1968 and at Paris in 1971.
The next convention was adopted as Universal Copyright Convention in 1952 and
subsequently its second edition in 1971 at Paris. World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) was adopted in 1967 with the objective to preserve and
respect intellectual property throughout the world. Apart from, a number of other
related international tools were adopted i.e. International Convention for the
Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting
Organizations 1961 (Rome Convention); Convention for the Protection of
Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms,
1971 and Convention relating to the Distribution of Programme carrying Signals
transmitted by Satellite, 1974.
Copyright Laws in India
India as a hub of intellectual output is well known for its ancient manuscripts like
Manu Smriti, Vedas and Upanishads. The Nalanda University was very famous for
its library having three buildings called Ratan Sagara, Ratnaodahi and
Ratnaranjaka and it had the readership from international countries like China,
Japan, Malaysia and Myanmar20. The first law relating to Copyright was adopted
and applied in India in 1847. The Indian Copyright Act, 1847 was passed by the
Governor General of India in Council on 15th December 1847 and it came into force
till 191121. The Copyright Act passed by British Parliament in 1911 replaced all
other colonial acts applicable to all colonies of the British Government. With a view
to cope with the conditions of Indian literature, the Governor General of India
enacted Indian Copyright Act in 1914, which was an extended version of British
Copyright Act 1911. The Copyright Act 1914 came into existence till 1957. The
Indian Copyright Act 1957 was framed and adopted on the basis of international
instruments i.e. Berne Convention, 1886 and Universal Copyright Convention
375
22
1952 . The Copyright Act 1957 contains a number of leading sections like creation
of copyright office, setting up of copyright board, enlargement of the scope of
copyright; reacquire copyright, extension of right to translation and rights to Akin
to copyright. The Copyright Act, 1957 was amended several times in 1984, 1992,
1994 and 2012.
Age of Intellectual Assets under Copyright Laws
Copyright laws empower the right holders to enjoy financial and presentation
rights over the literary work, music, sound recording and other intellectual assets
but with specific period. Copyright laws of different countries speak these
privileges in little bit different manners.
United Kingdom Copyright Act 1988 says the copyright of a literary, dramtic
musical or artistic works keep enforce upto 70 years from the end of the calendar
year in which the last remaining author of the work dies. If the author is unknown,
copyright will last for 70 years from end of the calendar year in which the work was
created, although if it is made available to the public during that time, (by
publication, authorised performance, broadcast, exhibition, etc.), then the duration
will be 70 years from the end of the year that the work was first made available. The
UK copyright act also provides certain restricted acts. It is an offence to perform
any of the following acts without the consent of the owner: Copy the work. Rent,
lend or issue copies of the work to the public. Perform, broadcast or show the work
in public. Adapt the work23.
United States of America enacted first copyright law in 1787 in US Constitution
and a separate law was introduced as Copyright Act in 1790 which is lastly revised
in 1976. US Copyright act says that any work published after 1st January 1978 shall
be treated as copyrighted till 70 years after the death of author(s) or creator(s).
However the work published before 1923 shall be treated free from copyright.
Indian Copyright Act 1957 states that the term of copyright in published literary,
dramatic, musical and artistic works shall subsist within the lifetime of the
author until fifty years from the beginning of the calendar year next following the
year in which the author dies. In case of anonymous and pseudonymous works
copyright shall subsist until fifty years from the beginning of the calendar year next
following the year in which the work is first published. In the case of a record,
376
copyright shall subsist until 50 years from the beginning of the calendar year next
following the year in which the record is published. In the case of Government
work, where Government is the first owner of the copyright therein, copyright shall
subsist until 50 years from the beginning of the calendar year next following the
year in which the work is first published. In the case of a work of an international
organisation, copyright shall subsist until fifty years from the beginning of the
calendar year next following the year in which the work is first published.
Copyright Laws vs. Open Access and the Role of Creative Common Licenses
One should be very cautious while using open access literary work. It must be
clearly keep in mind that open access contains only a right to access without
monetary consideration but not without the implications of copyright laws. Open
access is a movement to motivate academic researchers, authors and scientists to
provide their research findings to general public without control of commercial
players. But it should not be contradicted with the term of public domain. Public
Domain is a term used for the literary work for which the copyright terms has
expired under the law.
A number of efforts have been taken to prevent copyright of work available in open
access. Creative Common Licence is one of the effective steps to prevent rights of
the owner or creator providing their work in open access environment for public
reference. Center for the Public Domain initiated the pioneering support to create
Creative Commons in 2001 supported by leaders, education experts, technologists,
legal scholars, investors, entrepreneurs and philanthropists. Creative Commons
introduced its first set of copyright licenses in December 2002 for public. Creative
Commons undertook a number of project on science, education and global
infrastructure for sharing culture, education, government, science, and more.
Creative Commons provides a simple, standardized way to give the public
permission to share and use your creative work as per conditions selected by the
contributor. The terms and conditions of the copyright can be altered by the owner
by himself. Internet is the biggest role player for universal access of research,
education and culture. The use of copyright licenses and tools of Creative
Commons permits the creators of creative work to mold copyright terms and
conditions according to their own discretion.
The below mentioned figures from Creative Commons cetifies the state of open
access culture around the world24.
Figure one shows that till 2006 50
million Creative Commons licensed
works were available which were
increased by 400 million till 2010
and 882 million till 2014. The
growth of creative common licensed
works is remarkable and shows the
positive interest of institutions and
organization to put their research
outcome in open access under
creative commons license work.
377
Figure 01: Creative Common Licenses
Figure 02 shows that CC Licensed
works are majorly published in
North America preceded by Europe.
The growth of CC Licensed work is
16% in Asia Pacific countries which
are not at par with rest of the world.
African continent has the least
growth of CC Licensed works in
open access.
Figure 02: Where CC licensed works
are published
Figure 03 shows that the social
networking websites like You
Tube, Wikipedia, Flickr, Plos,
Scribd., jamendo and so on are
using CC Licenses. A total of 9
million websites use creative
commons Licenses around the
world to provide open access of
videos, articles, photos, stories,
songs and other research
activities.
Figure 03: Websites Using CC Licenses
378
Figure 04 is a presentation of 14
countries around the world having
national commitments to open
education. Netherlands, USA, United
Kingdom, Scotland, South Africa,
Argentina, Mauritius, Slovenia,
Poland, Indonesia, China, India, New
Zeland and Australia are among of
Figure 04: Countries with National
these
countries. It is very surprising
Commitments to Open Education
fact that these countries provide text
books in open access environment under CC Licenses save 100 million dollars òf
students every year25.
Conclusion
Open Access no doubt is a very supporting in the development of not science and
technology but also for cultural and social development around the world. But it is
also the moral duty of the users of open access material to respect intellectual rights
of the creator of such work in any form. The war of socialist and law makers are as
old as since 1662 AD when the first copyright law was passed in England, but the
rights are still under control of commercial vendors to make easy money through
selling ideas and hard core efforts of content creators. Internet technology has
opened the ways of facilitating information at faster speed. A number of open
access initiatives have also been adopted during a number of conventions which
resulted in adoption of gold and green routes of open access and motivation of
research institutions and government organization facilitating their research
outcomes in open access. It is a very good sign to protect a right of an individual or
institution through CC Licenses along with use of their intellectual output in open
access environment.
End Notes
1
2
3
www.eprints.org/openaccess/
Alma Swan “ Open Access Scholarly Information Source Book- Open Access:
A Briefing Paper” http://www.openoasis.org/images/stories/briefing_
papers/Open_Access.pdf
Peter Suber “Open Access Overview: Focusing on open access to peerreviewed research articles and their preprints http://www.earlham.edu/~
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
379
peters/fos/overview.htm
Kirsop, Barbara, “Open access to public funded research information: The
race is on”, DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology, Vol.
28, No. 1, January 2008, pp. 41-48
Kristin Atelman, “Do Open-Access Articles Have a Greater Research
Impact?” College & Research Libraries. 65, 5 (2004): 372-382.
Suber, Pete, Open access and quality, DESIDOC Journal of Library and
Information Technology, Vol.28, No.1, January 2008, pp. 49-56.
Rajasekhar, T.B., Open access initiatives in India at Open Access and the
Public Domain in Digital Data and Information for Science: Proceedings of an
International Symposium (2004): Board on International Scientific
Organizations (BISO)
Lal, Krishan, “Open access: Major issues and global initiatives”, DESIDOC
Bulletin of Information Technology, Vol.28, No.1, January 2008, pp.67-71.
Arunachalam, Subbiah, “Open access to scientific knowledge”, DESIDOC
Journal of Library and Information Technology, Vol.28, No.1, January 2008,
pp. 7-14.
Peifer, Nikolaus, “Regulatory aspects of open access”, Journal of Intellectual
Property, Information Technology and E-Commerce Law, 2010, pp.131-137.
Keishm, Sangeeta and Sophiarani, Soubam, Open access journal and open
access initiatives in India at 6th Convention PLANNER - 2008, Nagaland
University, Nagaland, November 06-07, 2008 pp.205-216.
Sinha, Manoj Kumar, Open access, open achieves, and open library initiatives
for universal access to knowledge and information: An overview of Indian
Initiatives at 6th Convention PLANNER - 2008, Nagaland University,
Nagaland, November 06-07, 2008 pp. 305-319.
Swan, Alma, “Open access to Indian scholarship” DESIDOC Journal of
Library and Information Technology, Vol. 28, No. 1, January 2008, pp. 15-24.
Harnad, Stevan and Swan, Alma, “India, Open Access, the Law of Karma and
the Golden Rule” DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology, Vol. 28, No.
1, January 2008, pp. 35-40.
Birrell, the Law and History of Copyright in Books c. 2 (1899; 6 Holdsworth,
History of English Law 360-79 (1927)
A Brief History of Copyright at Intellectual Property Office
http://www.iprightsoffice.org/copyright_history/
US Copyright Office: A brief introduction and history
http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1a.html
380
18 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Policy
http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/trtdocs_wo020.html
19 Bern Convention
http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html
20 Patel, Jashu and Kumar, Krishan “Libraries and Librarianship in India”
Greenwood Press: USA, 2001. at p 3.
21 Indian Copyright Act, 1847, Act XX of 1847
22 Kala Thairani, “Copyright-The Indian Experience” (Allied Publishers,
1987) at p.41.
23 UK Copyright, Design and Patent Act, 1988
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/48/contents
24 https://stateof.creativecommons.org/#licenses
25 https://stateof.creativecommons.org/#licenses
Abhinav K. Mishra1 and Rupesh Chandra Madhav2
[C]reativity is impossible without a rich public domain. . . . Culture, like science
and technology, grows by accretion, each new creator building on the works of
those who came before. Overprotection stifles the very creative forces it's supposed
to nurture.
J. Alex Kozinski in White v. Samsung Electronics of America (9th Cir. 1993)
Introduction
If you have an apple and I have an apple and we exchange apples, then you and
I will still each have one apple. But if you have an idea and I have one idea and
we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas.
- George Bernard Shaw
The aforesaid statement of G.B. Shaw creates an image of sharing things we have.
But can we think same in matter of rights? Yes. The rights can be used in same way
of sharing such as if we give another person right to do something that could also
double our amount of knowledge. Knowledge is such area, where it can be applied
at full extent. But for this we will have to stop restriction of knowledge and then we
will have to provide another with a right with sufficient opportunity, to access to
that knowledge. This Idea was applied in context of software, where the big
corporations restricted the knowledge by hiding the source code of software and
not making it available to public. The idea of free software3 was originated by one
computer scientist Richard M. Stallman, who later founded the Free Software
Foundation and also GNU General Public License. The GNU GPL was written as a
replacement of present End User License Agreement (EULA) which software
companies were using for their proprietary software. The GNU GPL removed the
restriction to use the source code and thus further to improve it on the condition of
1
The Indian Law Institute, New Delhi
The Indian Law Institute, New Delhi
3
Here the term 'free' does not connote 'being priceless' but it is to denote 'freedom', which Stallman
provided through its GNU GPL license to others as freedom to use, reproduce, modify and publish. R.
M. Stallman defines frees software in his own language as:
2
382
respecting the moral rights of authors/computer programmers. Latter, on the same
the other copy-left licenses for creative works came into existence noted of which
are the, Creative Commons License and Artists' License. And the open access to
literary works is the outcome of same licenses. The digital space has made a boost
in the creative works not only physically but virtually too. The physical and as well
as digital works can be seen at growth. The reason behind it is twofold: one the ease
of using the digital products out of which as artistic or creative output can easily be
sought. Two is the ease and speed of communication among general public. The
earlier one has helped for digital contents and the other one to the conventional
work of arts. This makes the reputation of artist subject to a large number of people.
Thus in above condition, it is necessary that the authors should also have the moral
right to be identified when their works are exploited and to object to derogatory
treatment of their works.
Copyright law begins with the premise that the copyright owner has exclusive
rights to many uses of protected works like right to reproduce, distribute, make
derivative works, and publicly display or perform the work. But with the
advancement of information technology in digital form, our intellectual and
creative works are created and stored in unified digit format of 0 and 1 format and
can thereby be transferred or copied easily making duplicates. On the other hand,
ease of updating web sites by erasing, rewriting or replacing its contents, resulted in
fluid publishing, bringing collaborative authoring such as Wikipedia into its
existence while making the Internet virtually a space for open creative
collaboration which led to copy-left movement and created a question on copyright
and moral rights as well, although created a platform of information sharing in
public domain and providing access to information.
The open access is the outcome of copy-left movement. Although the copy-left's
basic and initial objective was not to support the copyright or moral rights; its initial
and basic purpose was the access to information as against excessive copyright yet
with the use of moral rights4 copy-left has rejuvenated the digital copyright.
Although the primary purpose of copy-left was not to protect the interests of
authors but of user's, yet for now copy-left appears to protect more interests of
authors than the dying digital copyright. The actual copyright laws and provisions
4
A matter of liberty, not price. To understand this concept, you should think of “free” as in “free speech”
not as in “free beer.” See “The Definition of Free Software”, GNU Operating System, available at:
http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html (last visited on: 15 April, 2014).
383
are not so much sophisticated and even sufficient to protect the author's rights in
digital space5. This may be because in digital space where the information resides in
0 and 1 binary format, the conventional copyright is like a creature of another planet
and where copy-left, unlike copyright, seem to be the creature of same planet6 and
thus even if it does not as much rights as copyright gives but actually provides better
protection in matter of enforcement. The physical example of it can be seen in the
cases of some big organizations' releasing their products under open-source/copyleft license7and big projects being open-sourced.
The scope of this research paper is to the study of concept of 'moral rights' under the
copyright law as well as in open access licenses and assessing the relationship
between the copyright and open access. While talking about the protection of moral
rights, reference will be made copy-left movement which strengthened the
copyright terms in digital space by applying the copyright terms as fall-out position
5
Professor Mira has called Reputation the Heart of Open Access, which also has almost same value in
the context of moral rights and thus copy-left and moral rights seem to have the common objective.
About the moral right and open access she writes: An overall consideration of the components of the
Creative Commons licenses suggests that, seen in context, the requirement of attribution, like the
“share-alike” and “no-derivatives” principles, aim to promote the individuals behind the creation of
works. In particular, all three principles accomplish the same goal: they affirm the author's right to
control his or her own work. Mira T. Sundara Rajan, Moral Rights: Principles, Practice and New
Technology 502 (Oxford, New Delhi, 2011).
For further discussion see Simon Stokes, Digital Copyright: Law and Practice (Hart Publication,
London 2013) Digital technology poses a number of challenges to copyright. The two most significant
aspects are first the digitisation of copyright works (so a photograph, for example, can be scanned into an
image file) and the creation of new purely digital products (such as software). Second, the growth of
networks such as the Internet which allow the rapid global transmission of digital information. (at 11).
6
One interesting argument can be given in favour of this conception is that the copy-left movement is the
brain-child of the computer scientists, programmers and software developers. One of the most
celebrated person, the founder of Free Software Foundation and GNU GPL license, Richard Stallman is
a software developer himself.
7
In early 1998, Netscape Communications Corporation to release their popular Netscape
Communicator Internet suite as free software. This code is today the basis for Mozilla Firefox and
Thunderbird. In August 1999, Sun Microsystems released the StarOffice office suite as free software
under the GNU Lesser General Public License. The free-software version was renamed OpenOffice.org.
s e e Wi k i p e d i a , “ H i s t o r y o f F r e e a n d O p e n - s o u r c e S o f t w a r e ” a v a i l a b l e a t :
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_free_and_open-source_software (accessed on 25 April, 2014). Even
the Microsoft, the arch rival of Linux operating System, In 2006, launched its CodePlex open source
code hosting site, to provide hosting for open source developers targeting Microsoft platforms. In July
2009 Microsoft even open sourced some Hyper-V-supporting patches to the Linux kernel, because they
were required to do so by the GNU General Public License, and contributed them to the mainline kernel.
See Gavin Clarke"Microsoft opened Linux-driver code after 'violating' GPL" The Register available at:
http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/07/23/microsoft_hyperv_gpl_violation/. (Retrieved on 14th April
2014) (Accessed on 25 April, 2014). “Recently Microsoft has launched a subsidiary know as Microsoft
Open Technologies Inc. with the aim of bridging the gap between proprietary Microsoft technologies
and non-Microsoft technologies by engaging with open source standards.” See Ovide, Shira "Microsoft
Dips Further into Open-Source Software" Wall Street Journal (16 April 2012) Available at:
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304432704577347783238850756.html. (Accessed
on 25 April, 2014).
384
which actually reverts back on the failure to fulfil the precondition of any copy-left
license. Thus, this paper focuses on the strengthening idea of Copyright through
open access licenses and open collaboration while moral rights being on the
frontiers. Authors argue that copy-left does not oppose copyright rather rejuvenates
it in for digital environments. Lastly, paper also makes some suggestions for
improvements for open access such as financial schemes for authors etc.
Emergence of Open Access Movement
In the olden days, the authors, poets and artists were not given of any economic
right of distribution or reproduction to have control over his work8. For their
livelihood they have to be dependent on their patrons such as King or any other big
personality, who would love and appreciate their work of arts. But they were
considered as sacrosanct of the society and dealt with very respectful manner
because of their work for which they were given due credits. Thus the whole system
was only around the attribution provided to the author because that led to his
reputation in society. The works were thought to have been incorporation of the
author's personality9.
Later, on the verge of industrial revolution in 18th century10, the copyright system
was adopted to provide authors some economic rights so that writers may earn their
livelihood out of their works. Earlier they were provided with only certain
economic rights but now copyright is a bundle of rights which includes both types;
the economic rights to exploit the work economically and moral rights to gain
reputation and its preservation thereof. Now with the transformation of knowledge
into digital space and with the burst of artistic creations, moral rights seem to have
acquired more important position digital space. By far the copyright system has
been a success in protecting the works of the authors, writers, poets, artists,
composers and with its extended wing to any kind of performers and broadcasting
8
“Payment for one's work was considered fundamentally incompatible with creativity.” Mira T. Sundara
Rajan, Moral Rights: Principles, Practice and New Technology 40 (Oxford, New Delhi, 2011). For
example, in ancient India, the Brahmin community members were only given with the work of teaching
and preaching the community and they were considered as keepers of the knowledge. The other
community members were required to provide them the life's necessities including foods and all. And
this was not like payment at all.
9
“Moral right rest on the foundation of a special relationship between author and work, a creative reality
that has little to do with law per se.” seeIbid.
10
In 1709, the Statute of Anne in England was the first copyright statute, which actually also recognized
the moral rights of publication of authors but that was only out of the economic consideration that this
right was provided to them.
385
organizations. With the advent of digital world of internet and computer, copyright
also included the computer programs/software and computer databases to its
portfolio, broadening the scope of its protection umbrella. Thus the copyright has
been always of inclusive nature. But the inclusive nature of copyright could provide
its new subjects, such as computer programs and computer databases, only the
limited protection. These new subjects were added into the portfolio of copyright to
fit into the space between the provisions or by making space for them by the
interpretation of the given definitions but the basic structure of copyright was not
made fit for them. And this led to insufficient and vague protection by copyright
system which was realized by later11. The computer software companies and big
organizations were trying to seek the stringent protection for their products. They
were trying for patents at the first place and then for copyright. But software
patents12 being detrimental to the basic features and requirements of patent
protection, was not included into per se13 but added as an exception to this which in
combination with the machine creates desired result and cannot be so separated
from the process14. The big software companies were protecting their software
issuing them under proprietary license15 and without any source code. Software was
provided in binary form or in object code without source code, which is essential to
make changes to that software. In binary form, software can be used but not
modified. To fill this black hole of knowledge universe and to provide freedom to
the users of the computer programs to modify it and to have access to knowledge
that what functions they are using on their machine, copy-left movement was
brought it, in form of licensing software to freely use with its source code.
11
The EU directives on legal protection of databases is one such example. Now if the database consists of
original contents, it would be protected under copyright law and if it lacks originality, it would be
protected under sui generis system of EU directives.
12
For software patents see generally, Wendy Seltzer, “Software Patents and/or Software Development”
78(3) Brooklyn Law Review 929 (2013).
13
Section 3(k) of Indian Patents Act, 1970 excludes from being patented: “a mathematical or business
method or a computer program per se or algorithms”.
14
“In the UK and other EU states, software “as such” cannot be patented. However, if that software is
incorporated in some invention, then it can be patent-protected. So, e.g. a machine tool controlled by
software may be patentable, in which case both the machine tool and the incorporated software are
protected.” See Naomi Korn and Charles Oppenheim, et. al. “IPR Issues and Software: A Briefing
Document” JISC 4 (Oct. 2007).
15
See Naomi Korn, Charles Oppenheim, et.al., “IPR Issues and Software: A Briefing Document” JISC
(Oct. 2007). Microsoft licensed software is a good example of software which is distributed without the
source code being made available. Generally, permission will be granted to the user via their “clickwrap” consent to terms and conditions, without which access is denied. This usually takes the form of a
dialogue box containing the terms and conditions and a choice of 'Accept' or 'Reject' interface buttons.
Other forms of agreement may include a licence on the back of box, terms and conditions on CD and/or
DVD or in rare cases, consent to a written agreement. These licenses may be supported by technological
protection measures, the circumvention of which may itself constitute an infringement of copyright in
addition to any infringement that eventually results from the circumvention. (at page no. 8)
386
Copy-Left Licenses: The Progenitor of Open Access
Etymologically, Copy-left is a play on word 'copyright'. However, the suffix 'left' is
somewhat misleading. Copy-left in not just the reversal or opposite of copyright
rather it can be said that it only reverses or opposes the excess privatization of
knowledge. In the traditional parlance, the “left” side of the political spectrum
indicates socialism, equality, and government controls and regulations as favoured
solutions to societal challenges, whereas the “right” denotes support for the free
market, competition and the private sector16. According to GNU website Copy-left:
“uses copyright law, but flips it over…instead of a means of privatizing software, it
becomes a means of keeping software free”17
Copy-left is a generic term which represents “any kind of license arrangement that
codifies and creates a license to work created by an author who wishes to allow any
member of the general public to use their work however they wish so long as the
derivative work is credited to the original author and is distributed in the same
public manner.”18 Copy-left generally refers to the application of any such 'open
access' licenses like GNU's GPL or Creative Commons' CC-BY license. The term
Copy-left has not been used by any specific kind of organization like the Free
Software by Free Software Foundation and thus it remains to be generic term.
Therefore, this can be used collectively for Open Access or Free Software
Movement and vice versa. Simply put, Open access enables the users to view and
read the works which is made public by use of such copy-left licenses. Mostly the
licenses keeps the condition to give acknowledgement to its author and some may
licenses also goes to extent to issue the modified work under the same license or
terms on which it was issued19. Thus, Open access using the copy-left licenses
makes the literary work of author in public making access to knowledge without
any restriction. However, these works cannot be used for commercial purposes or
the work cannot be modified to the name of end-user.
16
“Copyleft: Ideological Origins of the Open-Source Movement” available at:
http://certmag.com/copyleftideological- origins-of-the-opensource-movement/ (accessed on 23 April,
2014).
17
Available at: http://www.gnu.org.
18
Joh Padgett, “Copyright v. Copyleft” FireDogLake (August 1, 2009) available at:
my.firedoglake.com/finifinito/2009/08/01/copyright-vs-copyleft/ (accessed on 23 April, 2014).
19
GNU GPL and CC's 'share-alike' are two such examples of licenses, issuing further work under the
same license.
387
The Ideology behind Open Access
20
The ideology of copy-left licenses is basically the freedom from the restriction
from proprietary software makers. It was expressed by Richard Stallman as:
Proprietary software developers use copyright to take away the users' freedom; we
use copyright to guarantee their freedom. That's why we reverse the name,
changing “copyright” into “copy left.”21 While copyright law protects the rights of
the authors of the creative works by providing them some rights to control the
distribution and modification of their work, the idea of copy-left is to protect the
interest and freedom of end users. Open access licenses explicitly remove those
restrictions, which tries to trespass the freedom of end user by the authors of work
through the use of copyright licenses. Basically, started from the licensing of
software, the copy-left makes available source code in public which enables end
users to make desired modifications and thus protects freedom of end user. Another
open access license, 'The Free Art License' states the following mission statement
and basic aim of open access in its preamble as: The intention is to make work
accessible and to authorize the use of its resources by the greatest number of people:
to use it in order to increase its use, to create new conditions for creation in order to
multiply the possibilities of creation, while respecting the originators in according
them recognition and defending their moral rights [...] Knowledge and creativity
are resources which, to be true to themselves, must remain free [...] This is the basic
aim of this Free Art Licence: to promote and protect artistic practice freed from the
rules of the market economy22.
Open Access Licenses: Contracts or Licenses?
Any open access general license to the public works similar to that of contract
between the parties, 'which overrides the terms of copyright law'.23 To explain this
better, Professor Mira took the example of employment relationship contract. She
20
“More Precisely, it refers to four kinds of freedom, for the users of the software:
(1.) The freedom to run the program, for any purpose. (freedom 0)
(2.) The freedom to study how the program works and adopt it to your needs (freedom 1) Access to the
source code is the pre-condition to it.
(3.) The freedom to redistribute copies so one can help their neighbor (freedom 2)
(4.) The free to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole
community benefits (freedom 3).”
See Priti Suri & Associates, Open Source and the Law 3 (Lexis Nexis, New Delhi, 2006).
21
See http://www.gnu.org/licences/licences.html.
22
See http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en/.
23
Supra note 2, at 497.
388
said that it depends upon the individual's contractual terms of employment that to
whom the copyright would go. Generally under copyright law under work-for-hire
condition, the initial copyright in the work goes to employer. But if the contract says
otherwise then it may be in the author itself and may prevail over copyright law.
Same as in case of copy-left the contractual terms of the license makes the work
usable by general public on the precondition to respect the conditions of given
therein. Where most of the copy-left licenses, stipulates the condition to respect the
moral right of attribution of author by duly acknowledging the work of original
author. Failing to respect this condition, the copyright's provision would revert
back making that subsequent user infringer of original author's copyright. The
question of contractual liability or licensing of open access licenses was seen in the
24
case of Jacobsen v. Katzer, where interpreting the terms of license as equivalent to
the 'conditions' of contract and there for making it binding upon all those who used
the work, (not only those to whom license was issued) Judge J. S. White
commented: Thus, if the terms of the Artistic License allegedly violated are both the
covenants and conditions, they may serve to limit the scope of the license and are
governed by the copyright law. If they are merely covenants by contrast, they are
governed by copyright law.25
Enforceability of Open Access Licenses
Copyright infringement is the means of enforcing the open access licenses. They
stipulates such terms that if the conditions given are failed by any user, the
copyright which was temporarily suspended would again come back into effect and
thus the use of such work not fulfilling the conditions stipulated would lead to
infringement of the author's work under copyright regime. On this, original author
can very well enforce his rights given there under the copyright regime in general.
Open access licenses need both the contract law and copyright law both working at
the same time. The violation of contractual term would lead to copyright
infringement. Thus it can be said that copy-left or open access do not reverse the
copyright but only suspends for the interest of general public and on the violation,
reverts back the full copyright regime. Even if court fails to recognize the contract
law application in the copy-left license because the general contract needs parties to
be mutually agreed on the terms of contract, the copyright regime would still be
protecting author according to terms of the license.
24
25
535 F.3d 1373 (Fed. Cir. 2008).
Id. at 1380.
389
Moral Rights: Connecting Fabrics between Open Access and Copyright
26
Although there are several moral rights but most widely recognized moral rights
are the rights of attribution (paternity) and integrity. The attribution/paternity right
means simply that an author is unfailingly entitled to have his name associated with
his own work. According to the integrity right, the author also has the right to
demand that the artistic integrity of his work remain uncompromised by
modifications or distortions—though in most jurisdictions, the author must show
that his reputation is at stake in the matter. The essence of attribution and integrity
interests is the author's ability to respond to the mistreatment of his work by
asserting his rights in a court of law.27 “With the arrival of the information society
the question of moral rights is becoming more urgent than it was. Digital
technology is making it easier to modify works.”28 This statement clearly asserts
that explosive growth of the Internet and online services and technological tools
that allow users to access and manipulate creative works directly has resulted in
massive violation of copyright including moral right29 and also non performance of
moral right of author of work. The ability to reproduce, modify and redistribute
artworks through information technology has made it extremely difficult for
authors to monitor the use of their works and, where problems arise, to assert their
moral rights.30 In commenting on moral rights in digital age, the Thomas P. Heidi31,
26
Though there is no uniformity about types of moral rights among scholars, some of the rights
recognized as moral rights are:
- The right to Integrity (droit au respect de l'oevre)
- The right of attribution
- The right of disclosure
- The right of access to work
- The right to withdraw or retract
- The right to reply to criticism
- The right to freedom form excessive criticism
- The right to create or not to create.
27
Mira T. Sundara Rajan, “Moral Rights in the Digital Age: New Possibilities for the Democratization of
Culture” 16 (2) International Review of Law Computers & Technology 188 (2002).
28
European Commission Green Paper on Copyright and Related Rights in the Information Society
Brussels, (19.07.1995) COM (95) 382 final, on line (November 16, 2007):
http://aei.pitt.edu/1211/01/copyright_info_ society_gp_COM_95_382.pdf.
29
See also Robert C. Bird and Lucille M. Ponte, “Protecting Moral Rights in the United States and the
United Kingdom: Challenges and Opportunities under the U.K.'S New Performances Regulations”
24(214) Boston University International Law Journal 215 (2006).
30
See Abstract in Mira T. Sundara Rajan, “Moral Rights in the Digital Age: New Possibilities for the
Democratization of Culture” 16 (2) International Review of Law Computers & Technology 187–197
(2002). Though she held a clear contrast view about technological effect on the protection of moral
rights in digital age.
In spite of these difficulties, however, this paper argues that moral rights are actually growing in
390
noted that: Before the digital age, different approaches to the [moral] right, largely
corresponding to the division between civil and common law countries, did not
cause significant problems in practice. Consumers were limited in what they could
do with hard-copy goods, and as between authors and intermediaries, contractual
practice more or less addressed the situation. Now, however, the possibilities of
borderless exploitation of works, the endless ways of using digital work, and the
changes in how works are created, raise controversy about the difference in
approaches.32
Challenges to Moral rights in Digital Age
Professor Mira in her book Moral Right: Principles Practice and New Technology
lays down that in digital age doctrine of Moral right faces three kinds of
challenges.33Firstly, 'copyright law has become the primary form of the legal
regulations governing new technology.34 She took the example of computer
program and databases being protected under copyright as 'literary work'.35 With
the inclusion of these kind of new works, the traditional norms of copyright law
sometimes becomes inadequate to fulfil the needs of these type of new subjectmatters and this is especially in case of digital works such as computer programs
and computer databases. The problem of authorship and originality is the main
problem with the works related to digital space. The second challenge she stated
arises out of new creative possibilities generated by technology.36 Information
technological advancement has created various ways to easily create new copyright
and easily modify,37 adopt38 and use the existing copyrighted work.39 Third and last
importance because of new technologies. It is precisely when the capacity to manipulate works is
greatest that concerns about artistic integrity and the preservation of cultural heritage become most
pressing. This paper suggests that technological change calls for a new approach to moral rights: the
focus in the future should be on cooperative efforts between authors and their public to protect culture.
Technology has the effect of 'democratizing' the relationship between author and audience by allowing
the audience to participate more directly in the creative process with the author. Despite the potential
threat to artistic integrity, this transformation should nevertheless be embraced by authors and artists for
its positive implications for cultural vitality in the long term.
31
Thomas P. Heide, “The Moral Right of Integrity and the Global Information Infrastructure: Time for a
New Approach”, 2 U.C. Davis J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 211 (1996).
32
Supra note 2, at214.
33
Id. at 19, See further Ch. 1 Introduction: Moral Rights in the Virtual Age.
34
Ibid.
35
Section 2(o) of Copyright Act,1957 defines 'literary work' as:
“[L]iterary work includes computer programmes, tables and compilations including computer
databases.”
Similar provision has been added in UK and US law too.
36
37
Modification is directly the infringement of copyrighted work, infringing not only the moral right of
integrity as well as economic rights of author.
391
problem according to her is that 'new technologies have made it possible for
members of public to intervene in creative works in a new way, making seamless
and imperceptible changes.'40 Creative open collaborative works where the
authorship vests in the huge number of persons out in public. In these kind of works,
they can legally make seamless and substantial changes according to their choice.
For the substantial changes made, they surely are the authors but the problem
always arises about the recognition of moral right. The moral right of integrity of
earlier author when other person changes the work according to him and moral right
of paternity when considering the whole work or document. And these rights
becomes important to talk as these are the inherent rights of author and mostly
rights which are in perpetuate and can be enforced even after the term of copyright
expires. And also because it may be in question even when economic right of author
is clearly determinable or even clearly protected. What counts in digital technology
for gross infringement of moral rights of author? The speed and ease, which the
information technology particularly computers have provided, increased numbers
of infringing cases even by the novice user to that field. Sometimes the cases of
infringement even can't be counted because of its huge number. For this Heide41 has
ascertained four main trends in computer; power and speed, portability, integration
capability and user friendliness. Power and speed taking less time and where
portability, integration capability and user friendliness making number of cases
double, has make this virtual world a hell for author where even moral rights of
author is not secure. And that is where the area of digital copyright starts working
not only for protection of economic rights but also of moral rights.42 The aforesaid
challenges not only pose the problem of practical implementation of moral rights
but also show a threat to the 'culture' and 'conceptual foundation' of moral rights
doctrine among youths. Mira T. Sundara Rajan wrote very aptly saying that
combination of these two causes problem by making moral right insignificant
38
Circumventing the Rights Management Information (RMI), by the use of technology itself such as use
of hacking and cracking software, is an easy way of adopting that work and violating the moral rights of
author.
39
See Supra Note 29 at 214-15, Heide notes that: The integration of various devices, such as musical
instruments, video recorders, telephones and facsimiles, with computers is increasingly becoming
possible. Similarly, software has become easier to use, making it possible to create high quality, virtually
flawless reproductions, and to adapt and modify content to an increasing extent. The end-user is virtually
unrestrained in how she can use digitized information. She is no longer limited by the constraints of the
tangible world. For example, sampling makes it possible to modify a work, mix different works or
performances, or use small pieces of the content to create or “compose” a completely new work, perhaps
a multimedia product.
40
Supra note 2, at20.
41
Supra Note 29 at 217-18
42
For further discussion see Simon Stokes, Digital Copyright: Law and Practice (Hart Publication,
London 2005) Ch. 1 Why Digital Copyright Matters.
392
doctrine: In the current legal environment, two kinds of basic difficulties confront
authors' moral rights. First, there is the practical problem of enforcing these rights
when the author's capacity to control the use of his work is severely limited.
Second, at a deeper level, the conceptual integrity of moral rights doctrine is
threatened by the transformation of culture in the 'Information Age'. The
combination of these factors has led to a general malaise among copyright
scholars—often unexpressed but implicit in the research—and a sense that moral
rights have somehow become irrelevant.43 Copy-left or open access movement's
objective of free access to knowledge has helped creating a new way of protection
to moral rights of author in digital contents. And the importance of moral rights in
digital space has been summed up by Professor Mira44 in lines below, as; an
emphasis on moral rights may help, not only to redirect copyright reform in less
developed jurisdictions, but also, to re-establish a balance among the different
interests implicated in copyright on the international stage. In particular, moral
rights may help to build a new alternative to copyright for the Digital Age.45 Yes, the
digital contents are going away from the limited jurisdiction of copyright law and
the olden, non-economic, and basic protection of moral right is the one which can
only be used to bring all digital content into the unified auspice of copyright. But as
we know, moral right itself was not active enough and especially in different
countries' copyright law system, the open access system became the one viable
thing to complete the above said purpose and stop the copyright from dying.
Though in open access, the copyright does not come actively in front of us but the
reality is that copy-left is not opposite of copyright, its merely a word play. open
access uses the copyright as its armour and moral rights as its weapon and it
collectively fights the complexities of digital contents in digital space.
What Copy-Left has Changed?
Over the last twenty years, open access movement has taken up serious attentions
of authors in digital space and eventually been part of most of growing business
organizations and amateurs to protect their digital contents. And undoubtedly it can
be well said that open access movement has been a success in protecting digital
contents and as a grant providing their authors' attribution due to them. It's been
43
Mira T. Sundara Rajan, “Moral Rights in the Digital Age: New Possibilities for the Democratization of
Culture” 16 (2) International Review of Law Computers & Technology, 188 (2002).
Mira T. Sundara Rajan, Copyright and Creative Freedom: A Study of Post-socialist Law Reform
(Routledge, London, 2006).
45
Id. at 5.
44
393
clear that in digital contents, copyright protection or any other protection would not
be sufficiently able to trace the violation and stop infringement completely.46 Even
the most sophisticated technological measures such as Rights Management
Information (RMI)47 fell prey in the hands of hackers and crackers. The live use of
internet and PC being the part of life, the infringement could be coupled by and by
without any gain and even by the use of these mechanism the copyright protection,
including of moral rights is diluted. This incapability has started the gradual death
of copyright. “The survival of copyright is under threat.”48 The open access
movement as an add-on to copyright law49 has come to serve the both ends; the
reader end as well as author end. Since, copyright violation dilutes not only
economic rights but also moral rights of author and it is not pertinent to stop the
violation at all by means of protection or force, the open access makes the
dissemination of knowledge without any excessive protection among the public on
the condition that the attribution to its author is well provided. Thus the public,
when gets knowledge free, in turn back tries to respect the moral rights of author or
contributor.50 The reader then gets free access to information as a matter of right and
author voluntary gets recognition among public and his moral rights are protected
even in the very fragile kind of works i.e. digital contents.
46
In practice digital copyright law and a combination of technical and/or contractual steps will need to be
applied or at least considered when protecting digital content. See Simon Stokes, Digital Copyright:
Law & Practice 20 (Hart Publications, London 2013).
47
RMI is the technological measure or tool to recognize the author/ copyright holder of that digital
content. The information relating to author is written and locked up by the use of technology that it can
be well seen by anyone but can only be changed by the author or copyright holder itself.
“[d]igital copyright management systems (CMS) will enable copyright owners to enforce automatically
many of the rights afforded them by copyright law.” See Julie E. Cohen, “Lochner in Cyberspace: The
New Economic Orthodoxy of "Rights Management"” 97(2) Michigan Law Review 463 (Nov. 1998).
“Digitisation may also lead the way to new collective ways of administering rights. 'Micro payments'
and other Internet technologies could play a part in enabling proper remuneration for rights holders.” See
Simon Stokes, Digital Copyright: Law & Practice 20 (Hart Publications, London 2013).
48
49
Even the copy-left modal use the copyright protection as base. The license of copy-left makes the
condition of respecting the moral right of author to freely use the content. And if the person using the
content does not follow this condition, the content copying would cause the copyright infringement.
Thus the copy-left license may be said a combination of both copyright and contract law, where author
has contracted not to use the copyright provisions until the condition is fulfilled. Copyright owners
maintain that different rules are necessary in cyberspace because, absent technological protection, it is
so easy to make and distribute unauthorized copies of digital content. Rules that undermine their control
over their creative property, it is argued, will reduce, or even destroy, their incentives to distribute
creative works digitally.
See Julie E. Cohen, “Lochner in Cyberspace: The New Economic Orthodoxy of "Rights Management"”
97(2) Michigan Law Review 471 (Nov. 1998).
50
Professor Mira also poses two possible solutions to the threat to the survival of copyright in digital era,
first, to fight fire with fire rule i.e. using technological measures such as locks and DRM to stop the
copyright infringement but very correctly she realizes that “[n]o encryption technology is entirely
secure and code-breaking is a persistent threat.” and second is freedom of existing media. Criticizing the
lobbying of copyright excess (impliedly supporting copy-left), She writes:
394
Better Protection of Moral Rights
As a matter of fact, all open access licenses preserve moral rights to the extent they
apply. Unlike copyright, the open access licenses stipulate the provision of
explicitly recognizing the moral right of paternity, when using the work of any
author without even express consent or permission from him. Moral rights are
inalienable and rights in perpetuate. Most of the countries doesn't allow waiver of
moral rights. The open access license makes the work in public only without any
copying restriction. Professor Mira, talking about moral right's implicit recognition
in Creative Commons Licenses51 acknowledges: Creative Commons aims to
promote the dissemination of works without the restriction of copyright law. It
provides an alternative to copyright protection by proposing that authors release
their works under the terms of a license to the general public. The exact terms of the
license vary according to number of possible modals provided by Creative
Commons, and examples may be seen on the Creative Commons website.52 But,
actually any open access license, never takes away the copyright. Rather, they
impose an obligation on the user of that work to respect the moral rights of author in
case if he wishes to continue use the work without the permission. And even that
person doesn't oblige to do the same the whole copyright including the moral rights
imposes upon him. For protecting moral rights of author it's a 'double edged sword',
which in any case protects the same. Thus, open access has protected moral rights
of author firstly in a 'double edged sword' manner, making them legally liable in
either case and secondly making people liable to protect moral rights on their own
by providing them right to free access to information, where cost is only to
recognize and respect the moral rights of author, which in turn they do very happily;
and thirdly by a whole new author- user relationship.53 The Creative Commons
(CC) license, a very famous copy-left license, protects the moral rights. Reader at
A second and subtler strategy has been to raise a more abstract fight – to resist the freedom of digital
media by attempting to impose legal restrictions on the use of copyright works where technological
limits either do not exist, or can be circumvented. But here, corporate strategy has not only attempted to
hold on to existing rights. Rather, copyright industries have also attempted to expand their rights in the
digital environment- lobbying government to reform copyright reforms, and pursuing lawsuits against
group and individuals who could be held for copyright infringement.
51
See http://www.creativecommons.org/about/licenses/
52
53
As the cost of creation, distribution, storage, and processing of expression continues to fall towards
zero, there are increasing incentives to adopt open content licenses [copy-left] to facilitate wide
distribution and reuse of creative expression. Thinking of these protocols not only as reducing
transaction costs but of setting normative principles of participation assists in conceptualizing the role of
open content licenses and the continuing tensions that permeate modern copyright law.
395
54
London School of Economics and Political Science, Anne Barron acknowledges
that: Unlike copyrights, moral rights cannot be licensed away, and unless expressly
or impliedly waived, they persist even after the exchanges entered into by an author
in respect of his or her copyright (in my view, CC-BY cannot be read as impliedly
waiving these rights). Hence, for example, even when s/he licenses derivatives
under CC-BY, the moral right to object to derivatives which are derogatory
treatments of the scholar's original work remains available. Meanwhile the moral
right of attribution is always available in respect of works released under a CC-BY
license, which only reinforces that right by itself requiring attribution.55
Does Open Access License Affect Moral Rights?
The some stringent type of open access licenses such as Creative Commons' CCBY license give some scope to some practices that may affect “copyright and
academic norms, yet would likely not breach moral rights.” 56Moral rights are
inherent rights of authors which are inalienable. As it has been already discussed
that moral rights cannot be waived or 'licensed away', even when all copyrights
(economic rights) has been waived. By waiving merely all rights relating to
copyright does not render moral rights waived or even affected. No question on this
waiver is tenable. Anne Barron argues that: Certainly, CC-BY gives the legal green
light to some practices that would otherwise infringe both copyright and academic
norms, yet would likely not breach moral rights: for example, it allows an article to
be cut down for use in an anthology without the author's specific agreement to the
inclusion of the article in the collection and without his or her approval of the edits.
(This would only rarely be legally actionable as an infringement of the author's
moral rights: in law, a treatment is only derogatory if it affects the reputation of the
aggrieved author, and this can be hard to prove.) Yet under their traditional
arrangements with journal publishers, academic authors have generally been
unable to invoke copyright to prevent these acts anyway, even when – as in the
example given – they clearly do implicate copyright law.57 Even the creative
commons website accepts that: The attribution requirement contained in all of our
licenses is intended to satisfy the moral right of attribution, but it must be adhered to
54
Anne Barron, “Open access and Creative Commons licensing: copyrights, moral rights and moral
panics” available at: http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2013/10/18/open-access-creativecommons-moral-rights/.
55
Id.
56
Id.
57
Id.
396
58
whether or not the applicable jurisdiction recognizes moral rights. Ultimately it
may be held that any open access does not affect moral rights of author as these
being their basic rights. Mostly the copy-left licenses try to protect right of
attribution and sometimes in turn the right to integrity is scarified on the altar of
right to access. The fundamental license on which the entire open access licensing
system is built is an 'attribution' license. Moreover, in most countries right to
integrity needs the proof of attack on the reputation of author. Until the reputation of
author is hurt right to integrity is of no use and thus even outside open access arena,
right to attribution takes over right to integrity.
From Privatized Intellectual Property to Collaborative Intellectual Activity
Digital technology unleashed new ways for creative expressions. It's just not
limited to pen and paper or paint and brush within a room's jurisdiction. It has gone
far beyond, the pen and paper is replaced by keyboard and word processor and
brush with mouse and animation software and moreover it's not limited within a
room's jurisdiction but the sharing on the internet enables it to be across the
universe in just the matter of seconds and then any one can be either user or may
even be collaborator in that project. Internet enables more than just consuming
culture but it makes them interactively engaging in that. The internet has benefitted
both the user and the author at the same time. It provides opportunities to firstly,
small businesses & young entrepreneurs engaging authoring activities and
secondly those users who engage in such collaborative works and finally and
thirdly to the authors and creators and especially to those who want to collaborate.
But one thing can be adjudged for sure that all the authors, notwithstanding that
they like collaboration or not, want to be consulted for their work and its
derivatives. And this is where these moral rights creep in. As we have seen earlier,
the copy-left is the hero in digital space in protecting the moral rights of authors.
Moreover, collaborative intellectual activity creates a set of problems before
copyright regime because of its complexities and peculiarities. The copyright
seems to more confuse it than protect the rights in such works. For example,
Wikipedia, the great internet encyclopaedia running on the wiki engine59 and
licensed under creative commons license, uses the open collaborative platform,
58
http://creativecommons.org
"A wiki is a type of website that allows the visitors themselves to easily add, remove and otherwise edit
and change some available content, sometimes without the need for registration. This ease of interaction
and operation makes a wiki an effective tool for collaborative authoring."
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki. See also http://wiki.org and http://c2.com.
59
397
where any person may add or edit any entry. Under the terms of its license, it
protects the moral rights of author or may be collaborators, which it turns would
have been a very difficult task for copyright to provide protection to thousands of
collaborators at a time.
Open Access as a Panacea for Digital Copyright
The example of Creative Commons (CC) licenses can be taken to show the
practical protection of moral rights in digital space. It is already clear that copyright
is a tool to enforce any open accessory CC license. The basic condition of the user of
the work under this license is that 'new user must credit the creator of the original
work in his new creation'.60 The Creative Commons issues basically three types of
licenses which sometimes are subdivided into others. Each level of license is more
restrictive than the last. The basic license: attribution license needs only the
attribution to earlier author for his original work to suspend the operation of
copyright and where attribution is the basic foundation of the moral rights. Anyone
can use the work even commercially as long as he acknowledges the author's moral
right of attribution. This license represents a total rejection of copyright and
recognizes only attribution right and does not talk about integrity but the
explanation on the website of Creative Commons states that “author's moral rights
are in no way affected by the license.61 The second level of license shows the
principle of “share-alike”, which means that the work used would be issued and
shared under the same and original terms of licensing as the original one. This can
be issued for commercial as well as non-commercial uses. Professor Mira praises
this license for its “considerable restrictiveness”.62 The third one is from the family
to protect the moral right of integrity as “no-derivatives”. This 'no-derivative'
license is a type of 'moral right' license which only excludes the economic right of
author in reference to right of reproduction. But for making derivative, other person
will have to take consent of the original author of that work. This can be used to
circulate the work freely in public domain along with to maintain the attribution of
author and integrity of work. Thus the open access works for the reputation of
author. It not only protects the reputation of author through the protection of moral
rights but also promotes the reputation by the free dissemination of the work in
general public. We here live in the work where reputation does matter. The
60
Supra Note 2, at 499.
Available at: http://www.creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/3.0 (last visited on Apr. 25, 2014).
62
Supra Note 2, at 500.
61
398
YouTube as an open platform, stood out for the cause of rise of many young
professionals and some good amateurs got fame. The reputation is like an
advertisement which leads to better economic purposes.
A New Way to Copyright
The open access movement is another legal way taken to redefine the existing
copyright system for its incompatibility in digital space. Though it has been seen to
abolish the copyright or as opposite to copyright law by some persons but it's not
true, it is not even the half-truth. The reality is that the open access licenses makes
use of copyright and moral rights and makes copyright to exist in the digital world.
Sachiko Hayasi writes that By legally making use of copyright law, open access
license grants, on share and share-alike term, each person possessing the work the
following freedoms which have been traditionally protected as the exclusive rights
of the copyright holder: "1. the freedom to use and study the work, 2. the freedom to
copy and share the work with others, 3. the freedom to change the work, 4. and the
freedom to distribute changed and therefore derivative works."64 But all these
freedoms are subject to condition to protect the moral rights of original author and if
this is not fulfilled, original copyright protection would emerge taking the
copyright infringement. Copyright becomes a “fall-back position- it serves,
implicitly, to enforce” the terms of license. Open access recognizes the rights of
author explicitly moral rights and promotes the reputation and on the breach of any
conditions evolving his right of attribution or integrity, invokes the copyright
system in to action and thus paves a new way for copyright to act even into the
digital space. Open access makes copyright to work in a different manner, it does
not deactivate it rather only suspends till the breach is done. This sentence clearly
carves out the importance of open access in reinforcing the copyright in digital
space. “A closer examination of the Creative Commons reveals the presence of the
author in a new and interesting form.”65
Concluding Observations
Moral rights are the connecting fabrics between the two systems: copy-left and
63
Sachiko Hayashi, “Behind Technology: Sampling, Copyleft, Wikipedia, and Transformation of
Authorship and Culture in Digital Media” 9 Hz Journal FYLKINGEN'S NET JOURNAL available at:
http://hz-journal.org/n9/hayashi.html(accessed on 25 April, 2014).
64
65
Id at 497.
399
copyright. Open access uses the moral rights protection to protect and promote the
reputation of authors, which is the basic goal of this movement but the meantime it
is the infringement of moral rights which leads to invoke the copyright system
against the potential infringement. The basic infringement procedure is the same
but depends upon the moral rights. Most of the copyright system of the world
recognizes the moral rights, and copy-left makes them enforceable also there where
the moral rights are not duly recognized into the copyright system. Moral rights are
the conditions to use the copy-left or revert back to copyright protection and thus
open access is nothing but a switch to start copyright protection between them are
66
the moral rights. In the US court of Appeal judgement of Jacobsen v. Katzer, the
court held that the terms of the particular license in issue before it which appeared to
protect moral rights pertained to issues of attribution and other such factors.
Typically these would be understood as moral rights, not enforceable under US law.
Nonetheless, the Court chose to include those rights within the domain of copyright
protection by holding that rights of attribution serve to “drive traffic towards the
open-source incubation page and inform downstream users of the project”. This
was considered to be a “significant economic goal” of copyright law.67At the end it
would be pertinent to quote Mira T. Sundara Rajan here, who writes: [o]pen access
movements share something interesting with copyright: a moral dimension to their
views. In case of open access movements the moral argument can mean two things.
The first is a moral perspective in the largest sense of the term: many proponents of
open access believe that it is morally wrong to restrict access to a technology of
such importance to society. But secondly, open access also recognizes certain
interests that resemble, at least superficially, the moral rights of authors in the
literary and artistic context. The interests of attribution and integrity are present in
the terms of open access software, both in the Free Software Foundation's GNU
license and beyond.68
Suggestions
From the above observations, following suggestion can be drawn to strengthen and
promote the relationship of copy-left and copyright.
535 F.3d 1373 (Fed. Cir. 2008). Remanded 609 F. Supp. 2d 925, settled on 16th Feb., 2010.
Mihir Naniwaderkar, “Moral Rights and Open-Source” IP Osgood (November 2, 2008) available at:
http://www.iposgoode.ca/2008/11/moral-rights-and-open-source-mihir-naniwadekar/ (visited on: 5th
March, 2014).
68
Supra note 2 at 509.
66
67
400
1.
The open access licensing can be recognized by the copyright systems as to
provide better protection to the digital contents in digital space and copyright
would be rejuvenated. This would also lead to better enforcement of rights of
authors recognized under copy-left license as well as under copyright scheme.
The infringers then would have more surety of being caught and would try not
to violate the terms of licenses. It may provide a more legal way to authors of
opting to release their works under copy-left licenses.
2.
The uniformity among the open access licensing is necessary step to be taken
before recognizing it in the copyright system explicitly. The variety of licenses
showing variety of terms under creates a state of confusion not only among
authors but also user and law enforcers. The licensing terms of different
organizations need to be uniformed along the line through any guideline or
rules under the auspice of one universal organization or the group of countries.
3.
The international law community should come forward with any international
document in the hand to facilitate better protection of author's right, crosscountry. The international law or document will also be useful not only to bring
harmony among national laws but also to uniform the laws by acting as a guide
of uniformity in rules of licensing.
“By separating intellectual work from money, Creative Commons is therefore
not proposing anything new. How does society intend to support creation of
culture?”69 The copy-left organizations should propose a new system for
financial consideration for authors providing their works in general public in
public interest. Proposal may be given of a common fund for authors who will
take money from users as donation or other organizational activities and will
let the authors take their shares accordingly.
69
Id. at 505.
Open Access & Copyright Policies for
Publishing: A Study
Vanita Khanchandani1
The paper deals with the serial crisis and its consequences on the libraries. To
overcome the problem and to stop the monopoly of publishers, new access model of
scholarly publication has been adopted by the academia. The open access
movement has snowballed by 3Bs declarations and statements. The paper also
endeavors that the open access model has changed the concept of copyright
transfer to the publishers. In open access, authors can retain their all or some of the
rights as determined by Creative Commons License Agreement or the addendum.
Different types of licenses by Creative Commons are dealt in the paper. The paper
may be very useful in highlighting the issues involved in Open Access publishing
and also related to copyright.
Keywords: Scholarly Communication, Open Access, Copyright, Creative
Commons License Agreement, Serial crisis
Introduction
The word “Serial Crisis” has been used to highlight the budget related problems of
libraries for subscription of the on-line journals. The libraries are facing serious
budget crunch and the cost of on-line serials is increasing day by day, forcing them
to delete a number of serial titles. The contents writers for these journals are also
facing challenges as after publication of their findings in these journals, they are
forced to pay for their access and download. This “Serial crisis” has led to change
the current model of scholarly publishing and information accessibility. The
current model of publishing has divided the world into haves and have-nots. It is
based on commercial interest of publishers. Due to dwindling budgets and
increasing prices of journals, many libraries have to relinquish their subscription.
The divide and frustration in the current scholarly model has sprung up new model
for disseminating scholarly information with the help of technological
developments. The two major developments, i.e., 'open access journal model' and
'institutional repository model' has gained momentum in the current scenario.
1
Assistant Librarian, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, vanita@library.iitd.ac.in
402
These two new access models envisage not to replace the current model of
publishing but to provide complementary role in publishing and disseminating the
information among the research community (Anbu K. 2006). The new models of
publishing will definitely breakdown the monopoly of academic publishers. The
new model of scholarly publishing has also made the copyright a debatable issue
among the academia. The practice of transferring the copyright to publishers by the
authors has resulted into the accumulation of copyrights with the publishers and
thereby creating the imbalance of powers between different stakeholders such as
publishers, authors, educational institutions and research community as readers,
etc. (Hoorn and Graaf M. 2005). The new open access model of scholarly
publication will definitely provide fresh breeze and oxygen to the suffocated and
choked information.
Open Access
The open access model has snowballed by various declarations and statements. But
the three important declarations which have accelerated movement and bring it into
limelight are:
(i) Budapest Open Access Initiative Statement, 14th February, 2002;
(ii) Bethesda Statement on Open Access, 20th June 2003;
(iii) Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and
Humanities, 22nd October 2003.
The definition which has resulted from these aforesaid declarations and
statements are as follows:
An Open Access Publication is one that meets the following two conditions:
(i) The author(s) and copyright holder(s) grant(s) to all users a free,
irrevocable, worldwide, perpetual right of access to, and a license to copy,
use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and
distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible
purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship, as well as the right to
make small numbers of printed copies for their personal use.
(ii) A complete version of the work and all supplemental materials, including
a copy of the permission as stated above, in a suitable standard electronic
403
format is deposited immediately upon initial publication in at least one
online repository that is supported by an academic institution, scholarly
society, government agency, or other well-established organization that
seeks to enable open access, unrestricted distribution, interoperability,
and long-term archiving.
Thus, the two main characteristics of open access publications are:
(i) Free online;
(ii) Can be used for responsible purpose.
Driving Force for Open Access
There are two main reasons for adopting open access. These are:
(i) Serial Crisis: Research is mainly publicly funded and for accessing the
results of research it has to pay again in the form of subscription price.
Publishers for their profit earning are increasing the subscription rates
everyday and thereby enabling libraries to cut the subscription of
important research journals. To breakdown the monopoly of publishers,
many institutions have come forward to change the current traditional
model of publication.
(ii) Technological Developments: Internet and its related technologies are
also responsible for making the scholarly contents freely accessible to the
public.
Modes of Open Access
There are two important modes of providing open access scholarly publications.
These are:
(i) Self- archiving (Green road): In this, author can deposit his pre-print of the
article in the institutional repository or can archive post-print (directly
upon publication or after embargo period) such as arXiv.
(ii) Open Access Journals (Gold road): The golden road refers to change in
academic publishing: the academic journal itself is an open access peer-
404
reviewed journal. Published content is freely accessible over Internet and
the users have right to download, use and further distribute it with proper
attribution. The business model is however different here. In traditional
publishing model, it is the “end-user” that pays to access the paper. Open
access journals cost money to produce and distribute, especially since
they are peer reviewed and edited like conventional journals. Various
funding strategies are in use like, direct author fees, institutional
memberships to sponsor all or part of author fees, funding agency
payment of author fees, grants to open access publishers and institutional
subsidies.
Advantages of Open Access
There are two basic advantages of open access journals. These are:
(i) Free accessibility to scholarly content;
(ii) Wider visibility to research results.
Open Access Initiatives around the World
So many countries are participating in open access initiatives in the world. Some of
the important initiatives are as follows:
(i) SPARC (Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition): It is an
alliance of academic and research libraries, working together to make scholarly
publication one to everyone.
Figure 1: SPARC website (http://www.sparc.arl.org/)
405
(ii) OAI (Open Archives Initiatives) OAI develops interpretability standards for
effective dissemination of information.
Figure 2: OAI website (http://www.openarchives.org/)
(iii) PLoS (Public Library of Science): PLoS is an open access non-profit publisher
who wants the progress of communication in Science and Technology.
Figure 3: PLoS website (http://www.plos.org/)
(iv) DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals): It was founded in 2003 at Lund
University. It indexes all the open access journals and thereby increases their
visibility.
406
Figure 4: DOAJ website (http://doaj.org/)
(v) OpenDOAR (Directory of Open Access Repositories): It is the directory of
academic open access repositories.
Figure 5: OpenDOAR website (http://www.opendoar.org/)
Copyright and Open Access Publishing
The copyright is the legal protection extended to the author in an original work that
he/she has created (Narender Kumar 2009). It comprises two sets of rights, i.e.
moral rights and exploitation rights. Moral rights include the author's right to object
to any distortion, mutilation, or other modification of his work that might be
407
prejudicial to his honour or reputation. While exploitation rights comprises right of
reproduction, distribution, adaptation or translation. The author mainly transfers
the exploitation rights to the publisher. This means that republication,
redistribution or reuse of that publication is governed by the permission of the
publisher. In scholarly publication, the exploitation is limited to reuse for
educational purposes such as translating it into another language or reprinting the
work in books, etc.
Open Access and Author Rights
In open access publishing, authors can retain the full ownership of their work. But
with this model publishers are not comfortable. Instead, they say that authors can
retain some of their rights to archive their post-publications in their websites.
Often, publishers demand to retain the full rights of authors, but the authors can ask
to retain some of their rights by allowing the addendum. One of the important
addendum is SPARC author addendum.
Some open access publishers such as Public Library of Science (PLoS) allow
authors to retain their all rights by agreeing to license agreement dealing with how
their work will be used. One of such license agreement is by Creative Commons
Attribution License (CCAL).
Creative Commons was founded in 2001. In December 2002, Creative Commons
released its first set of copyright licenses for free to the public. Recently they have
changed their slogan from "all rights reserved" to "some rights reserved". Creative
Commons have incorporated unique three layers in their licensing agreement.
These are:
(i) Human-readable layer,
(ii) Lawyer- readable code, and
(iii) Machine-readable layer
Open Access and User Rights
Generally the articles can be made used under the doctrine of 'Fair Use' only. Any
other use requires the permission from the publisher. But in open access users can
use them, distribute or can also reproduce them under the license agreement by
Creative Commons. The six major Creative Commons licenses are based on the
following four conditions:
408
Right
Description
Attribution (BY)
Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform the work and make derivative works based
on it only if they give the author or licensor the credits in the manner specified by these.
Share Alike (SA)
Licensees may distribute derivative works only under a license identical to the license that
governs the original work.
Non-commercial
(NC)
Licensees may copy, distribute, display, an d perform the work and make derivative works based
on it only for non-commercial purposes.
No Derivative
Works (ND)
Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform only verbatim copies of the work,
not derivative works based on it.
The major Creative Commons licenses are as:
Description
Acronym
Attribution alone
BY
Attribution + No Derivatives
BY-ND
Attribution + Share Alike
BY-SA
Attribution + Non-commercial
BY-NC
Attribution + Non-commercial + No Derivatives
BY-NC-ND
Attribution + Non-commercial + Share Alike
BY-NC-SA
(i) Attribution: The work must be attributed to the author. It can be used for
commercial as well as for non-commercial purpose without permission.
Derivative works can be created without permission.
(ii) Attribution No Derivatives: The work must be attributed to the author. It can be
used for commercial as well as for non-commercial purpose without
permission. Derivative works cannot be created without permission.
(iii) Attribution Share Alike: The work must be attributed to the author. It can be
used for commercial as well as for non-commercial purpose. Derivative works
can be created without permission but they must have the same Creative
Commons license as the original work.
(iv) Attribution Non-Commercial: The work must be attributed to the author. It
cannot be used for commercial purposes without permission. Derivative works
can be created without permission.
(v) Attribution Non-commercial No Derivatives: The work must be attributed to
the author. It cannot be used for commercial purposes without permission.
Derivative works cannot be created without permission.
(vi) Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike: The work must be attributed to the
author. It cannot be used for commercial purpose without permission.
Derivative works can be created without permission but they must have the
same Creative Commons license as the original work (Bailey 2006).
409
Role of Libraries
Libraries can help in promoting open access by creating awareness among the users
regarding open access journals. Library professionals should encourage the
researchers and faculty to publish their contents in open access journals or archive
their post-prints in the institutional repositories. They should conduct information
literacy workshops pertaining to licensing and copyright issues in open access
publications.
Conclusions
The Open Access movement will definitely provide a new discourse for scholarly
publications. The users can freely use the research content funded by them with the
help of innovative technologies. Many countries across the world are participating
in the movement. Even many commercial publishers have adopted the open access
movement and metamorphosis their traditional method of publication into the open
access model of scholarly publication. They are adopting the Creative Commons
Licensing Agreement for the use of research content. Different academia has joined
the movement to make it a successful one. Definitely, the society will be able to
breathe a fresh breeze which was choked along due to close access. "Let we all
together, open up the fresh discourse."
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Anbu K., J. P. (2006). Towards a vertical portal for open access scholarly
publications. Information Studies, 27-34.
Bailey, C. W. (2006). Open Access and Libraries. Retrieved December 26,
2014, from <http://digital scholarship.org/cwb/OALibraries2.pdf>
Creative Commons. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from
<http://creativecommons.org/>
DOAJ. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from
<http://www.opendoar.org/>
Hoorn, E., & Graaf M., V. d. (2005). Towards good practices of copyright in
Open Access journals: A study among authors of articles in Open Access
journals. JISC-SURF, 1-81. Retrieved December 25, 2014, from
<https://oerknowledgecloud.org/sites/oerknowledgecloud.org/files/Towards
%20Good%20Practices%20of%20Copyright%20in%20Open%20Access%
20Journals%20-%20version%201.0new.pdf>
410
Narender Kumar. (2009). University Libraries and Copyright Laws. ICAL.
I, pp. 407-413. Delhi: Mittal Publications. Retrieved December 25, 2014,
from <http://crl.du.ac.in/ical09/papers/index_files/ical69_248_718_1_RV.pdf>
7. Open Archive Initiative. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from
<http://www.openarchives.org/>
8. OpenDOAR. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from
<http://www.opendoar.org/>
9. PLoS. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from http://www.plos.org/
10. Scholarly Communications. (n.d.). (W. U. Louis, Producer) Retrieved
December 26, 2014, from
<http://scholarlycommunications.wustl.edu/issues/openaccess.html>
11. SPARC. (n.d.). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from
<http://www.sparc.arl.org/>
6.
The Electronic Resources in Public Domain:
Sonam Singh1 and Shalender S. Chauhan2
Abstract
The open access has become the instrument to eradicate the digital divide among
the information haves and have-nots. The present study investigates the efforts of
National Law Universities in India for promoting open access initiatives. The
finding of the study reveals that there is a lot of work need to be done by national law
universities for disseminating their publications in public domain.
Keywords : Electronic Resources, Public Domain, Open Access
Introduction
Free flow of information is an essential element of information society. With the
advent of IT based services, use of information has become the reality. The
advocacy of free availability of information is also increasing and promoting the
adoption of 'open access policy' as an instrument to bridge the digital divide. The
open access movement, which promotes free access of information and scholarly
content especially public funded research, lay down the path of access and free flow
of information. The National Knowledge Commission of India and its Working
Group on Open Access and Open Educational Resources and Working Group on
Libraries have strongly recommended open access to public funded research
literature and supported establishment of open courseware repositories for country
wide dissemination of quality courseware to many cross sections of people.
The Law Schools in India are also in a process to adopt open access as an approach
towards disseminating their publications especially journals and working papers in
public domain. It may help the law graduates and law professionals to discover new
facts.
1
2
Library Assistant, Indian Law Institute, New Delhi-110001. sonam.singhshally@gmail.com
Librarian, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, 110019. shalender.chauhan@gmail.com
412
Definition
Budapest Open Access Initiative defines open access to this literature, “its free
availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy,
distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for any
other lawful purpose, without financial, legal or technical barriers other than those
inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on
reproduction and dissemination, and the only role for copyright in this domain,
should be give authors control over integrity of their work and right to be properly
acknowledged and cited”1 International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions adopted a Statement on Open Access to Scholarly Literature and
Research Documentation2 and put its efforts in the development of open access
scholarly literature. In the Glasgow Declaration3 on libraries IFLA lay down the
various principles for the widest access to information for all people.
Objectives of the Study
1.
2.
3.
To find out the open access initiatives adopted by National Law
Universities in India.
To find out number of publications especially journals in electronic
format of National Law Universities of India available in public domain.
To understand the current status of e-journals of National Law
Universities of India.
Need of the Study
In the age of information, open access of information is inevitable and becoming
instrumental to bridge the gap of information divide. Law and its allied areas are
also becoming the part of open access movement. Therefore, there is a need to
discuss about the open access initiative adopted by National Law Universities of
India.
Methodology
This study is to find out the initiative and adoption of open access policies for
disseminating the institutional publications especially journals by national law
universities in India. The information about national law universities were
collected from the website of Bar Council of India. Bar Council of India is a nodal
413
agency for promoting and maintaining standards in legal education in India.
http://www.barcouncilofindia.org/about/legal-education/national-lawuniversities-2/
Review of Literature
(Ammon J. Salter and Ben R. Martin, 2001)4 This paper critically reviewed the
economic benefits of publicly funded research. The authors believed that “the
relationship between publicly funded research and economic performance is an
important one.” The present study use the term 'economic' quite broadly and
considered direct and indirect benefits such as competencies, techniques,
instruments, network and the ability to solve complex problems. The basic
objective of government-funded research is to be economically useful and freely
available to all.
(Dawson, Diane, 2013).5 The author argued that OA is now considered to be
inevitable, with one prediction estimating that it will be the dominant model for
scholarly literature in the next decade. The author provided a ready reference to the
researchers and the librarians who are supporting the OA movement and willing to
publish their research in OA model.
(Krishan Lal, 2008)6 This paper discussed open access and its feasibility and
usability especially in the developing world. The author believed that, “free
availability of scientific data, information and knowledge has played a key role in
the phenomenal development in science.” The increasing subscription cost of
414
scholarly literature and technological advancements has played a very pivotal role
for the conceptualization of open access model of scholarly communication.
7
(Chris Awre, 2003) This paper described the advent and development of open
access movement. The author inquired various aspects pertaining to open access.
The author believed that cost of traditional publishing, increasing subscription cost
of serials and decreasing the fund of the libraries had change the dynamics of
publishing, purchasing and provides the ample place for popularizing the open
access model for scholarly communication in a changed environment. The author
also argued that the development of open access would bring radical especially in
STM field.
National Law Universities in India and Their Efforts for Promoting Open
Access
1.
National Law School of India University, Bangalore: The National
Law School of India University came into existence through a
notification under the National Law School of India University Act
(Karnataka Act 22 of 1986). It signified the culmination of efforts by the
Judiciary, the Bar Council of India, the Karnataka Bar Council, the
Bangalore University and the Government of Karnataka to reform legal
education and to establish a centre of excellence for legal education and
research in India.8 The NLIU, Bangalore has no e-resources in public
domain.
2.
The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata:
The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences was
established under the WBNUJS Act, 1999 (West Bengal Act IX of 1999)
adopted by the West Bengal Legislature in July, 1999.The University was
notified under Clause (f) of Section 2 of the UGC Act, 1956 in August
2004 and has been granted permanent affiliation by the Bar Council of
India in July 2005.9 The university is publishing the following journals
which are also available in public domain:
1. NUJS Law Review http://www.nujslawreview.org/
2. Journal of Telecommunication and Broadcasting Law
http://www.jtbl.org
3. Journal of Indian Law and Society http://jils.ac.in/
4. Asian Journal of Air and Space Law
5.
6.
7.
415
Asian Journal of Legal Education
International Journal of Law and Policy Review
http://www.ijlprnujs.com/
International Journal of Legal Studies & Research
http://www.ijlsr.in/
NUJS working paper series can also be accessed and downloaded.
1. “Prevention of loss or Decline of Vernacular and Indigenous
Languages in the Indian Sub-Continent” by Prof. (Dr.) P.
Ishwara Bhat”
2. Analysing the Status of the Surrogate Mother under the Assisted
Reproductive Technologies (Regulation) Bill 2010
3. Euthanasia Regime- A Comparative Analysis of Dutch and
Indian Positions
4. Juxtaposing Scientific Uncertainty with Legal Certainty-The
Carbon Conundrum
5. Vertical Agreements in Competition Law - Striking the Right
Balance between Regulation and Competition
6. Alternate to Alternatives - Critical Review of the Claims of
ADR.
3.
The National Law Institute University, Bhopal: The NLIU was
established in 1997 by the Act of the Rashtriya Vidhi Sansthan
Vishwavidyalaya Adhiniyam, 1997 (Madhya Pradesh act no. 41 of 1997).
The NLIU publishes three journals:
1. Indian Law Review
2. NLIU Journal of Intellectual Property Law
3. NLIU Law Review (this journal is available in public domain)
https://www.nliu.ac.in/publication/iplaw/iplaw1.html
And other publications are also available in public domain:
1. CBCL Corporate Law e-journals
https://www.nliu.ac.in/publication/others/other3.html
2. Newsletter
https://www.nliu.ac.in/publication/others/newsletter.pdf
4.
National Law University, Jodhpur: The NLUJ was established in 1999
in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The NLUJ has published following periodicals,
416
which are available in public domain with archives except Journal on
Governance:
1. NLUJ Law Review
http://www.nlujodhpur.ac.in/nluj_law_review.php
2. Trade, Law and Development: TL&D is a signatory to the
Budapest Open Access Initiative, and is also indexed on
HeinOnline and the PKP-Open Archives Harvester2 archive.
TL&D has been ranked as the best law journal in India (2012,
2011) and the tenth best law journal in the field of international
trade worldwide (2012) by the Washington and Lee University
Law Library in its annual rankings of law journals.10
http://www.tradelawdevelopment.com/index.php/tld
3. Indian Journal of Arbitration Law http://www.ijal.in/
4. Journal on Governance
5. Journal on Comparative Law and Administrative Law Quarterly
http://calq.in/content/publication
5.
NALSAR, University of Law, Hyderabad: The National Academy of
Legal Studies and Research (NALSAR) was established in 1998 by a
Statute of the State of Andhra Pradesh.11 It is considered one of the top law
schools of the country. NALSAR has adopted the policy of open access
and dedicated a particular webpage for it and stated that “the university's
effort to make knowledge accessible and to showcase scholarship of the
global south and especially the SAARC region. Towards this end, we seek
to make all of NALSAR's scholastics output freely accessible and also
have to collaborate with organization with similar goals.”12 NALSAR has
published the following periodicals:
1. NALSAR Law Review
2. Indian Journal of Intellectual Property Law
3. Environmental Law and Practice Review
4. Medical Law Journal
5. Journal of Corporate affairs and Corporate Crimes
6. NALSAR Student Law Journal
7. The Indian Journal of Constitutional Law
8. The Indian Journal of Law and Economics
9. NALSAR ADR Journal
All these journals will be available in public domain very soon (as
per the information available on university's website)
417
6.
Gujarat National Law University: Gujarat National Law University
(GNLU) is the statutory university established by the Govt. of Gujarat
under the Gujarat National Law University Act, 2003. The University is
recognized by the Bar Council of India (BCI) and University Grants
Commission (UGC) (2f & 12b). The University is also member of the
Association of Indian Universities (AIU) and the University is
functioning as nodal agency to uplift the legal education in the State of
Gujarat.13 The GNLU has the following periodicals:
1. The GNLU Law Review
2. The GNLU Journal of Law, Development and Politics
(GJLDP)
3. Developing World Review on Trade and Competition
4. Gujarat Law Journal
7.
Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur: Hidayatullah National
Law University, Raipur, established by the Government of Chattisgarh
under the Hidayatullah National University of Law, Chattisgarh, Act (Act
No.10 of 2003). HNLU has been included in the list of the Universities
maintained by the University Grants Commission under Section 2(f) of
the UGC Act, 1956 and has been declared fit to receive Central assistance
in terms of the rules framed under Section 12 (B) of the UGC Act, 1956.
The university is recognized by the Bar Council of India under section 7 of
the Advocates Act.14
8.
National University of Advanced Legal Studies, Kochi, Kerala:
The National University of Advanced Legal Studies (NUALS) was
established by Act 27 of 2005 of the Kerala State Legislature. By the same
Act, the National Institute for Advanced Legal Studies (NIALS)
established by the Bar Council of Kerala Trust in 2002 merged with the
NUALS. In 2008, an amendment streamlined the powers and functions of
the authorities of the University and ensured the active involvement of the
Government of Kerala. The University is recognized by the University
Grants Commission under section 2(f) of the UGC Act. It is also a member
of the Association of Indian Universities (AIU).15 The Centre for
Consumer Protection Law and Policy of NUALS has its own webpage
and made available the compendium 1-one day national seminar on
418
equipping consumer despite redressal agencies for the present and future
www.nulas.ac.in/web/ccplap/publications_compendium.html
9. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow,
Uttarpradesh: Dr.Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University, was
established by an Act of Govt. of Uttar Pradesh in 2005, U.P. Act No.28 of
2005 and came into being on 4th of January 2006 to meet up the new
challenges in legal field and to strengthen the vision that was given by the
establishment of first National Law School of the country. Originally
incorporated as 'Dr.Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law Institute, Uttar
Pradesh' word 'Institute' was substituted by the 'Universit' later, vide an
amendment in the Act in November 2006. This was done to give a
comprehensive national character to the Institute on lines with the other
premier National Law Universities of the Country.16 There is only one
j o u r n a l a v a i l a b l e i n p u b l i c d o m a i n i . e . We b J o u r n a l .
http://www.rmlnlu.ac.in/web_journal.html
10. Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala, Punjab: Rajiv
Gandhi National University of Law (RGNUL), Punjab, was established
by the State Legislature of Punjab by passing the Rajiv Gandhi National
University of Law, Punjab Act, 2006 (Punjab Act No. 12 of 2006). The Act
incorporated a University of Law of national stature in Punjab, thereby
fulfilling the need for a Centre of Excellence in legal education in the
modern era of globalization and liberalization. RGNUL started
functioning from its Headquarters-Mohindra Kothi, The Mall, Patiala
w.e.f. 26 May 2006. The University acquired approval of the Bar Council
of India (BCI) in July 2006. The University also got registered with the
University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi under Section 2(f) of
the University Grants Commission Act, 1956 and has been declared fit to
obtain grant from the (UGC) under Section 12-B of the UGC Act, 1956.17
The RGNUL published following journals namely:
1. RGNUL Law Review
2. RGNUL Social Sciences Review
3. RGNUL Financial & Mercantile Law Review (available in
public domain/open access environment,
www.rgnul.ac.in/rfmlawreview/index.htm )
4. Centre for Advanced Studies in Human Rights (CASIHR)
419
published a news letter namely Human Rights Communiqué
available in public domain www.rgnul.ac.in/cashir.htm
11.
Chanakya Law University, Patna: The University was established
under the Chanakya National Law University Act, 2006 (Bihar Act No.24,
2006) and included in section 2(f) & 12 (B) of the UGC Act, 1956.18 The
University published one journal namely CNLU Law Journal
12.
National Law University, Delhi: The University established by the Act
of Delhi Government, 2007. The University has various publications,
however only one publication is available in public domain. The
publications are following:
1. Digital library –Legal Education and Research
2. Current developments in Air and Space Law
3. Access to legal information and research in digital age
4. Index to India and Foreign legal Articles (Vol. I &II, 2011)
5. Documents on Universal Periodic Review Human Rights Report
India (2008-2012)
6. NLUD-Student Law Journal
7. Transformative Constitutionalism: Comparing the Apex Courts
of Brazil, India and South Africa. Download available on link
www.pulp.up.ac.za
Table 1
No. of E-resources available in public domain by NLUs
S. No.
Name of the University
1.
National Law School of India University, Bangalore
2.
10
3
4.
The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences,
Kolkata
The National Law Institute University, Bhopal
National Law University, Jodhpur
5.
6.
NALSAR, University of Law, Hyderabad
Gujarat National Law University
0
0
7.
8.
9.
Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur
National University of Advanced Legal Studies, Kochi, Kerala
Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow,
Uttarpradesh
Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala, Punjab
Chanakya Law University, Patna
Total no. of electronic resources available in public domain
0
1
1
10.
11.
12.
No. of E-resources available in
public domain
0
3
4
2
0
1
22
420
Findings
Ø
It is reflected from the study that the West Bengal National University of
Juridical Sciences, (WBNUJS), Kolkata is providing highest publication
in the form of e-resources in public domain.
Ø
National Law University, Jodhpur and National Law Institute University,
Bhopal are also on the track by providing 4 and 3 publications respectively
in the form of e-resources in public domain.
Ø
The Journal 'Trade, Law and Development' (TL&D) of National Law
University, Jodhpur is a signatory of Budapest Open Access Initiative.
Ø
NALSAR, Hyderabad is also in a process to make their publications
available in public domain.
Conclusion
It is true that information has become the driving force in 21st century and
availability of resources in electronic format especially in public domain has
become the reality of developing nation. The national law universities in India are
also exploring the possibilities for adopting open access approach for catering the
information needs of law graduates and professionals. However, these efforts are
not enough to take a leap in the open access environment. Technological
421
advancement strengthens people to access the information on a click, therefore the
national law universities need to adopt open access policies for disseminating the
research and publications of their universities in public domain. It may also help to
the people to understand the legal perspectives of various issues related to their day
to day life.
End Notes
1
Budapest Open Access Initiative http://www.budapestopenaccess
initiative.org/read Accessed on 20/11/2014
2 The IFLA Statement on Open Access to Scholarly Literature and Research
Documentation http://www.ifla.org/publications/ifla-statement-on-openaccess-to-scholarly-literature-and-research-documentation Accessed on
20/11/2014
3 The Glasgow Declaration on Libraries, Information Services and Intellectual
Freedom http://www.ifla.org/publications/the-glasgow-declaration-onlibraries-information-services-and-intellectual-freedom accessed on
20/11/2014
4 Ammon J. Salter and Ben R. Martin, The economic benefits of publicly funded
basic research: a critical review. Research Policy Vol. 30 (2001) pp. 509-532.
http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0048733300000913/1-s2.0-S0048733300000913main.pdf?_tid=0f1c8ede-e0d3-11e3-ba9100000aacb361&acdnat=1400668464_084cedd54d17607b7fcb59cad19e1f8
6 Accessed on 14/05/2014
5 Dawson, Diane. Making your publications open access: Resources to assist
researchers and Librarians. C&RL News October 2013 (473-476)
6 Krishan Lal, Open Access: Major issues and Global Initiatives. DESIDOC
Bulletin of Information Technology, Vol. 28, No.1 January 2008 pp. 67-71.
http://publications.drdo.gov.in/ojs/index.php/djlit/article/view/158/70
Accessed on 11/05/2014
7 Chris Awre, Open access and the impact on publishing and purchasing. Serials
vol. 16, no. 2, July 2003. http://uksg.metapress.com/content/ct0vrthj
6hnwja56/fulltext.pdf Accessed on 13/05/2014
8 Available at https://www.nls.ac.in/index.php?option=com_content
&view=article&id=16&Itemid=15 accessed on 08/12/2014
9 Available at http://www.nujs.edu/nujs.html accessed on 08/12/2014
10 Available at http://www.tradelawdevelopment.com/index.php/tld accessed on
07/12/2014
422
11
12
13
14
15
Available at http://www.nalsar.ac.in/about_nalsar accessed on 07/12/2014
Available at accessed on 07/12/2014
Available at http://www.gnlu.ac.in/aboutus.php accessed on 06/12/2014
Available at http://hnlu.ac.in/HNLU_New/home2/ accessed on 10/12/2014
Available at http://www.nuals.ac.in/web/about_us_overview.html Accessed
on 05/12/2014
16 Available at http://www.rmlnlu.ac.in/about_us.html Accessed on 05/12/2014
17 Available at http://rgnul.ac.in/history.htm Accessed on 02/12/2014
18 Available at http://www.cnlu.ac.in/ Accessed on 02/12/2014
Software Patent and Open Source Software: How
Big is the Door and How Wide Open?
Ravindra Chingale1
Abstract
There is always a clash between the supporter of software patent and open source
software. Open source software promoter believe that the patenting of software
hamper the growth and progress of the innovation in the software and thereby
affecting growth of the industry. In contrary to this argument the companies who
manufacture or develop software demand for the patent protection for their
intellectual property. Currently, software is not patentable instead it is protected
through copyright law. Patent protection is considered to be the stronger than
copyright. This paper aims to focus on the debate on software patent and open
source software by analysing the demand from the software industry. This study has
collected empirical data from around 150 software engineers working in small,
medium and large scale software companies about their opinion on software patent
and open source software. This research paper also highlights some landmark
cases in software patent in USA and India.
Key Words: Software Patent, Software Patent, Open Source Software etc.
Introduction
The year 2014 can be considered as most happening year in the field of software
industry and its intellectual property rights. The first instance happened in the May
2014 when the two software giants in smart phone technology, Google and Apple
settled their legal battle and decided to work together to reform patent law.2 The
second incidence took place when United States Supreme Court delivered its
judgment in Alice Corporation3 and stated that generic use of computer in software
patent is not patentable. Further, in a story published in New York Times pointed to
1
Research Scholar, National Law University Delhi, email: advchingale@gmail.com
Apple, Google settle patent battle, BUSINESS STANDARD, (May 17, 2014) available at
http://www.business-standard.com/article/international/apple-google-settle-patent-battle114051701071_1.html.
3
Alice Corporation Pty. v. CLS Bank International, U S 573_____(2014).
2
424
a Stanford University analysis which said that about US $20 billion was spent on
patent litigation and patent purchases over the past two years in the smartphone
industry alone.4 Though, internet has transformed world to make it closer with
everything possible on one click, it has posed various challenges before
governments about its policies, regulations, jurisdictions and protections.
Considering India, it has been seen exponential growth in the internet and software
industry in the beginning of 21st century. Increase in online transactions, use of
plastic money, innovative online business methods and many other creative
business solutions has promoted young mind for new vision and inventions. India
has seen tremendous growth in Indian Software Industry with significant
contribution in the GDP. Patents are supposed to protect innovation and intellectual
property and encourage the development of new ideas and products, but, in today's
technology world, patents can also be used as a weapon to hobble competitors and
innovation. It's becoming clear to many observers that the patent system needs an
overhaul for the digital age.5 The patent system should not become the hindrance in
the path of development and progress and the same is the concern of the promoter of
open source software.
India is coming up as fastest growing economy and it is expected to be the third
largest economy of the world after US and China by 2035.6 As a cost effective and
labour intensive economy, India has benefited immensely from outsourcing of
work from developed countries, and has maintained a reasonably good
manufacturing and export oriented industrial framework.7 While India is currently
amongst the most attractive destinations globally, for investments and business, it
is innovation and efficiency that shall increasingly play a key role in ensuring longterm economic survival and success. India has launched its Make in India campaign
and also come up with the draft of Intellectual Property Right Policy. In this
background it important to study what the software employee think about the
protection of their intellectual property.
Open source software is based on the concept of free availability of software where
4
Charles Duhigg and Steve Lohr, The Patent, Used as a Sword, NY Time (Feb. 19, 2014, 1:23PM),
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/08/technology/patent-wars-among-tech-giants-can-stiflecompetition.html? pagewanted=all.
5
National Post's Financial Post & FP Investing (Canada), November 6, 2012 Tuesday, National Edition.
6
Shyam Bhatia, Indian economy will overtake UK, Japan by 2035: Goldman Sachs, (May 15, 2014,
1:06 PM), http://www.rediff.com/money/2003/oct/13shyam.htm.
7
Invitation of Views on the draft National IPR Strategy as prepared by the Sectoral Innovation Council
on IPR (May 18,2014, 3:30 PM), http://dipp.nic.in/English/Discuss_paper/draftNational_IPR_
Strategy_ 26Sep2012. pdf.
Software Patent and Open Source Software:
425
the programmers from across the globe are invited to copy, share, develop and
modify the software. In the open source software the source code is made open to
the public and one is allowed to use that code under some specific licensing
agreement.8 This paper tries to find out the responses of the software engineers
about software patent and Indian Software Industry by focusing on issues of open
source software and cases laws on software patent.
Protection of Software: Patent or Copyright
Whether software or Business Method Patents can be protected by copyright or
patent is always a debatable question. Therefore, the initiative by European
Commission for Computer-Implemented Inventions Directive9 is positive step
towards minimizing the confusion. Aerotel/Macrossan,10 settles the situation by
looking at four-step test to apply in terms of patentability.11
Considering protection to software or computer implemented invention, there is
always a debate between the expression of software in terms of idea or form of
expressing the idea. Derclaye and Leistner (2011)12 in their book tried to make
distinction between ideas and expressions in computer programs. An overlap easily
occurs since a computer program, which is new, inventive and industrially
applicable, will generally be at the same time original. But the simultaneous
overlap will be reduced because the patent protects only the ideas whereas
copyright protects only the expressions. A program which would not be patentable
could, however, quite easily be copyrightable. The converse is possible but will be
rarer. Normally, the idea/expression dichotomy should ensure that apart from this
specific overlap, no other copyright creation could also be protected by a patent,
8
Why “Free Software” is better than “Open Source”, (Dec. 18, 2014, 3:30 PM) https://www.gnu.org/
philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html.
10
EC Proposal for Directive on Patentability of Computer-Implemented Inventions, available at
http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/comp/index_en.htm. (Feb. 18, 2014)
11
Aerotel Ltd.v. Telco Holdings Ltd. and Others and Patent Application by Neal William Macrossan,
[2006] E.W.C.A. (Civ.) 1371, available at http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2006/1371.html
(Feb. 18, 2014).
Aerotel/Macrossan four step test:
Step 1: Construe the claim, actually assess what the claim is saying.
Step 2: Identify the actual contribution embodied in that claim.
Step 3: Ask whether that contribution covers the excluded area.
Step 4: If it passes that test — and it can pass that test even if it partially covers the excluded area — then
assess whether the contribution is technical.
12
Derclaye and Leistner, ESTELLE DERCLAYE AND MATTHIA LEISTNER, INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY OVERLAPS: A EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE, 138 (Hart Publishing, Oxford and
Portland) 2011.
426
and vice versa, so that there should not be any overlaps, be they simultaneous,
negative or a posteriori.
Copyrights protect the form of expression and not the idea itself. For protecting
ideas or abstract intellectual property patent protection is a must. For that
companies often spend large amounts to develop special characteristics within their
products or processes. However in the matters United States in Gotschalk V.
Benson13 Supreme Court observed that, 'Phenomenon of Nature, though just
discovered, mental processes, abstract intellectual concepts are not patentable as
they are the basic tools of scientific and technological work'. In other matter also it
was observed that, 'one should look at the invention as a whole and not just at what
was novel about it'. Thus the courts are of the view that Laws of Nature, Natural
phenomenon and abstract ideas are excluded from patent protection. Therefore this
debate needs a systematic study in the field of protection of software by patents.
Open Source Software
In the report on Open Source and Commercial Software by Business Software
Alliance prepared for World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) the terms
opens source software and commercial software are defines. It says, “Open Source
is a software-licensing model where the source code of the software is typically
made available royalty-free to the users of the software, under terms allowing
redistribution, modification and addition, though often with certain restrictions.
Whereas Commercial Software is the model where the software developed by a
commercial entity is typically licensed for a fee to a customer either directly or
through channels.”14
Open Source Software allows the academia, researchers and developers across the
world to come together and share, interact and access many more resources at
minimum cost of transaction.15 The open source movement developed in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of California. General
Purpose Licence (GPL), Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) license, Mozilla
Public License are some of the examples of the movements originated in US.16
13
409 U.S. 63 (1972).
Supra note at 29.
Eric Steven Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, (Dec. 24, 2014, 3:30 P.M.),
http://www.unterstein.net/ su/docs/CathBaz.pdf.
16
Julia Sitarz, Legal Issues Affecting the Use of Open Source IT Solutions in the Enterprise (Dec. 24,
2014, 3:40 P.M.), www.wipo.int/edocs/.../wipo...ge.../wipo_smes_ge_07_www_81605.ppt.
14
15
427
Open source Software includes Free, Libre and Open source software. These terms
are more popularly known as FLOSS (Free Libre/ Open Source Software), FOSS
(Free/Open Source Software) and OSS. Traditionally software is protected by
copyright, but with the evolution of new technology and development of
technology, the present IP regime started protecting different software by various
protections such as Copyright, Patent, Trade Secrete etc. Thus the open source
technology can be interpreted by various IP laws.17
Free Software Foundation (FSF) founded by Stallman opposes the trade secret
protection as it is violation of GPL. It shows that open source and trade secret are
not compatible to each other.18 In case of copyright protection, which is not giving
free access to the public, the open source can be considered as in inverse relation
with the copyright protection. In SCO v IBM19 the issue of open source code and
proprietary code was deliberated. In this case the court held that the Linux has
infringed the code of the SCO's UNIX programme.20 In case of patent protection to
software there is strong opposition that it created patent thickets and there is strong
demand that the patent law should be revisited. However, there is huge demand
from the software industry for patent protection and the decided lawsuits indicate
that there are some beneficiaries of the patent system. Thus the different IP rights
such as copyright and patent protection of software have different aspects. Only
copyright protection will not be sufficient. The numerous patents granted in EU and
US to computer implemented invention shows that there is market demand to
broaden the scope of patent in terms of software.21
Indian and Software Patent
In India, the Patent Amendment Act, 2005 sought to introduce software patents.
The amendment proposed in the Patent Amendment Act 2005 for Clause 3(k) was,
17
Vikrant Narayan Vasudeva, Open Source Software Paradigm and Intellectual Property Rights, 17
J. INTELL. PROP. RIGHTS 511(2012) available at
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/15019/1/JIPR%2017(6)% 20511-520.pdf.
18
David S. Evans & Bernard J. Reddy, Government Preferences for Promoting Open-Source
Software: A Solution in Search Of a Problem, 9 Mich. Telecomm. Tech. L. Rev. 313 (2003),
available at http://www.mttlr.org/ volnine/evans.pdf.
19
Caldera Sys., Inc. v. Int'l Bus. Machs. Corp. (D. Utah 2003) (No. 03-CV-0294).
20
Kerry D. Goettsch, SCO Group v. IBM: The Future Of Open-Source Software, J. L. TECH &
POLICY 582(2003), available at http://jltp.uiuc.edu/recdevs/goettsch.pdf.
21
Mihai Avram, Software Legal Protection: Shaping the EU Software Patent, AMSTERDAM LAW
FORUM (2014) available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2525015 or
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2525015
428
“a computer programme per se other than its technical application to industry or a
combination with hardware; a mathematical method or a business method or
algorithms.” However, this amendment was rejected by the Indian Parliament,
which chose to retain Clause 3(k) as it is. On reviewing the Draft Patent Manual
(2008),22 we find that it seeks to make technical applications of software patentable.
The Ordinance attempted to strike a balance between the arguments for and against
software patents. But, it was not possible as the ordinance was not converted into
statutes and the changes suggested in the ordinance were taken back.
The Manual of Patent Office Practice and Procedure by the office of Controller
General of patents, Designs and Trademarks accepted on March, 2011 in its chapter
8.03.05.10 explains the guidelines for patents under section 3(k) of Indian Patent
Act. These guidelines give direction that patents cannot be granted to mathematical
methods, business methods, algorithms and only computer programmes. These
guidelines have tried to differentiate between pure software and technical
application of software. Differences are also found in the draft patent manual and
this final manual. Provision mentioned in the draft manual is not accepted. As the
Patent Act clearly says that computer software per se is not patentable, there are
differences among pro software and anti software patent supporter.
Inventive step as an important aspect of the invention. Inventive step is nothing but
a step towards the value addition which is not commonly observed in the previous
invention and can be considered as new innovation. In the Indian Patent
Amendment Act, 2005, a new section 2(1) (ja) substituted the existing definition of
'inventive step' to mean "a feature of an invention that involves technical advances
as compared to the existing knowledge or having economic significance or both
and that makes the invention not obvious to a person skilled in the art".
22
Draft Manual 4.11.10: A mathematical method is one which is carried out on numbers and provides a
result in numerical form (the mathematical method or algorithm therefore being merely an abstract
concept prescribing how to operate on the numbers) and not patentable. However, its application may
well be patentable, for example, in Vicom/Computer related invention [1987] 1 OJEPO 14 (T208/84)
the invention concerned a mathematical method for manipulating data representing an image, leading
to an enhanced digital image. Claims to a method of digitally filtering data performed on a conventional
general purpose computer were rejected, since those claims were held to define an abstract concept not
distinguished from a mathematical method. However, claims to a method of image processing which
used the mathematical method to operate on numbers representing an image can be allowed. The
reasoning was that the image processing performed was a technical (i.e. non- excluded) process which
related to technical quality of the image and that a claim directed to a technical process in which the
method used does not seek protection for the mathematical method as such. Therefore the allowable
claims as such went beyond a mathematical method. (Jan. 29, 2014, 7:12PM), http://ipindia.nic.in /ipr/
patent /Draft Patent_Manual_2008.pdf.
429
Inventive step is cardinal criteria of patentability that is of great importance for
Patent law of a country. The attempt to redefine this term is interesting to all of us. In
the original; Act of 1970 'Inventive Step' was defined to mean 'a feature that makes
the invention not obvious to a person skilled in the art'. The Explanatory note to Art.
27 (1) of the TRIPS Agreement states that 'inventive step' is synonymous with 'nonobviousness'. There are large numbers of judicial pronouncements that recognize
what constitute 'non obviousness” as a criterion of patentability. US Supreme
23
Court, in its judgment in the case of KSR International v. Teleflex stated that
inventive step is a step in applying balanced patentability criteria for granting
patents. In his opinion, Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote, “The results of ordinary
innovation are not the subject of exclusive rights under the patent laws. Were it
otherwise, patents might stifle rather than promote the progress of useful arts.”
Indian manual of Patent Practice explains about inventive steps or non obviousness
as a feature of an invention that involves technical advance as compared to existing
knowledge or having economic significance or both, making the invention non
obvious to a person skilled in art. Here definition of inventive step has been
enlarged to include economic significance of the invention apart from already
existing criteria for determining inventive step. To judge the inventive step, the
following question is to be borne in mind- “Would a non-inventive mind have
thought of the alleged invention?” If the answer is “No”, then the invention is nonobvious. For the purpose of determination of inventive step the prior art shall
include the prior publication in relevant field.
In Bishwanath Prasad Radhey Shyam v. Hindustan Metal Industries24 hon'ble
Supreme Court of India discussed about the inventive step and obviousness of the
invention. The court held that the fundamental principle of Patent Law is that a
patent is granted only for an invention which must be new and useful. That is to say,
it must have novelty and utility. It is essential for the validity of a patent that it must
be the inventor's own discovery as opposed to mere verification of what was,
already known before the date of the patent.25 The question of 'inventive steps'
involved mix question of law and fact and it has to be decided mainly on the
circumstances of the case.
23
550 U.S. 398 (2007).
AIR 1982 SC 1444.
25
Id, at 1448.
24
430
In a case M/s Aditi Manufacturing Co. v. M/S. Bharat Bhogilal Patel (2012) the
Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB) of India revoked the granted patents26
stating that it is lacking inventive step and all the claims and specification are based
on the known inventions.27 The board stated that in this invention prior arts have the
features of the invention and there is nothing new in the features that have been
claimed as new. The invention was already known and there is neither any novelty
nor any inventive step.28
In Enercon India Limited, Daman v Aloys Wobben, Germany29 Intellectual Property
Appellate Board has discussed on the invention containing the steps for controlling
the wind turbine based on the external ambient conditions by using automatic
control units like the computers. The board mentioned that the invention cannot be
treated as computer program per se or a set of rules of procedure like algorithms and
thus are not objectionable from the point of view of patentability.30 Section 3(k) of
Indian Patent Act was again discussed by Intellectual Property Appellate board in
Yahoo v. Controller and Rediff,31 and also in case of Accenture Global Service
Gmbh, Switzerland v Assistant Controller of Patents and Designs, New Delhi and
another.32
Empirical Study of Indian Software Industry
A questionnaire has been prepared to assess the impact of patent law on software
industry in India. An attempt was to see the whether the patenting of software
product helps to promote innovation in the particular software company, what types
of efforts have been made by the company/ organisation to aware the employees of
the company about the protection of the software. As software is the creation of the
26
Patent no. 189027 and 188787 were granted. The advocate of applicant referred to Sections 3(k), 3(f)
and 10(4) of the Patent Act and stated that on these grounds the grant of patent was attacked.
27
M/s Aditi Manufacturing Co. v. M/S. Bharat Bhogilal Patel, MANU/IC/0090/2012.
28
Id.
29
M.P. Nos. 8/2010, 36/2010 and 59/2010 in ORA No. 20/2009/PT/CH and ORA No. 20/2009/PT/CH
decided on 18th November 2010.
30
Id. The Judgment was delivered by Technical Member of the Intellectual Property Board S.
Chandrasekaran and In this connection the board referred to the famous Vicom case/ computer related
invention decided in EPO (1987) 1 OJEPO 14 (T208/84).
31
The Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB) decides that pure business methods are not
patentable in India as per the section 3 (k) of Indian Patent Act. Yahoo Inc. (Formerly Overture Service
Inc.) v. Assistant Controller of Patents and Designs, OA/22/2010/PT/CH decided on 8th December,
2011. (Jan.23, 2014, 2:34PM), http://www.ipab.tn.nic.in /222-2011.htm.
32
OA/22/2009/PT/DEL and Miscellaneous Petition No. 118/2012 in OA/22/2009/PT/DEL decided on
28th December 2012.
431
company it is treated as intellectual property. This intellectual property is to be
protected so as to get benefit from its commercial utilisation.
The questionnaire is divided into five parts. First covers background of the software
employee (respondents) and its organisation/ Software Company. Second part
deals with the awareness about the laws of intellectual property to the respondents
and their company. Part three deals with opinions of the respondents about the
software patenting. A likert scale has been prepared to observe the attitudes of the
respondents towards the patent and software industry, government effort to aware
small medium enterprises, open source movements, life of patent, cost of patent
system and need for introduction of patent law in engineering institutes and
colleges. Next part four elaborates on the responses over the use of patent for
commercialisation and benefit of industry and effort of organisation to aware the
employees about patent and other intellectual property rights. Part five is the last
part which summarises by handling questions relating to investment for protection
of IP rights, hurdles in patent filings, reason for use of IPR in company and overall
opinion of employees towards the impact of patent law on software industry in
India.
As the questionnaire contains non disclosure clause of the respondents and their
companies, no names are disclosed and stated here. Total about 150 responses
received from the software employees from various companies in India. As the
research aims to study the impact of patent law on software industry in India the
research targeted Indian companies or such companies where their head quarter is
situated in India. Mostly employees working in all the leading companies from
India have been approached and requested to fill the questionnaire. The effort has
been made to cover the employees working as software developer, designer,
manager, consultant, programme analyst, technical test lead, solution architect and
quality assurance engineer. While circulating a questionnaire snowball sampling
method was used. As most of the respondents rejected and declined to respond to
the questionnaire stating that the information is security related and they are not
permitted to disclose the information about the company without any permission.
Attempt has been made to get the official permission from the HR department of the
most of the companies but except a few most of the companies rejected and other
not responded back.
Online form of questionnaire was prepared and sent through an email. With the
snowball sampling the known persons working in software companies and who
432
were willing to participate in the survey were selected and requested to circulate the
questionnaire among their colleagues and other friends working in other software
companies. As the questionnaire contains questions relating to law, technology
mainly focused on software patent a target respondents were selected who are
software engineers having engineering graduation or any other equivalent
graduation which satisfies the criteria to work as a software developer in a software
company. Accordingly the respondents from educational background like Master
of Technology, Master of Business Administration, Bachelor of Technology,
Bachelor of Engineering, Master of Computer Administration, Bachelor of
Computer Administration, Master of Computer Management and Bachelor of
Science were selected. Most of the respondents are software or computer specialist
but others are specialist of other software application from other fields such as
mechanical, electrical, chemical etc. The working experience of the respondents in
the field is ranging from 1 year to 17 years. Primary information and types of
software applications: While considering the primary study about the software
industry in India the nature of the company like government, private, public
limited, non profit and other was considered to understand from which of the
companies the respondents are working. Further, the information has been sought
to understand the nature of software industry. There are different types of software
industries based on the applications. Software has become now the integrated part
of most of the industry. Many industries need software applications for effective,
efficient and smoother work and working environment. Thus it can be said that
software can be used for different industries for different types of applications. In
this questionnaire an attempt was made to understand types of applications
performed by a software company so as to analyse applications of software. Pure
software cannot be patented and always software cannot be used for the working
with the computer. However, software is generally divided into two categories
'system software' and 'application software'.33 System software performs basic
machine function necessary for all users regardless nature of their particular
problems.34 Application software deals with users particular problem.35 Some of the
companies are developing more than one software application so that the
respondents had given an option to choose more than one software application.
Many of the times the software application varies from subject matter like
mechanical, electrical, chemical, medical etc. Thus, in this question the question
33
1DAVID BENDER, COMPUTER LAW: A GUIDE TO CYBERLAW AND DATA PRIVACY
LAW, §1.05 [1] (Mathew Bender Rev. Ed.) (2009).
34
Id.
35
Id.
433
has not restricted to one particular answer, however, the respondents freely
answered to choose the applications of the companies. It was also observed that a
single companies involving a lot of variety of projects so that every employee has
chosen more than one choice. In this connection a question of type of industry
relating with the software development was asked and it was observed that most of
the companies are involved in more than one type of software development. Fig.
no. 1 shows the graphical representation of the types of software developments. It is
observed that the most of the companies are involved in the business of the
development of computer related software but other applications are also executed
by the software engineers.
Fig. No. 1: Types of Software Functionalities and Industrial Applications
76
43
42
36
28
26
14
32
32
29
26
23
13
27
16
Mechanical, business method and banking are next to the computer applications.
After that hospital, web site design, service database design, management,
electrical, security applications and electronic commerce applications are some
other software applications were performed by some of the respondent. Some
respondents are also developing civil, electronic publications and web hosting
consultancy related applications. Information Technology services, business
intelligence, retail, locomotive embedded, telecom domain, insurance, fabric,
automotive product, ERP, networking, pharmaceutical, manlog,36 healthcare and
bioinformatics are some of the other software applications performed by the
respondents.
36
Manlog is combination of two words manufacturing and logistics.
434
From the above fig. no.1 it is observed that software is not only related with the
development of compute applications but the use of computer and software is
enlarged to the different types of industries to make the human work more effective,
efficient and less time consuming. It is also observed from the above data that
software has now become part of each and every industry and there is demand of
variety of software. This software may be sometime standard; sometime tailor
made depends on the demand of specific industry or manufacturing of business
applications. Thus it can be understood that the software are not only related with
the computer to say that it is pure mathematical approach, rather it will be better to
say that the software are used with different types of technical applications to
achieve productive result. This question has been asked to determine if the
particular industry is producing or creating software which has technical
application or software is a part of a whole technical product then in that case what
steps the company is taking to protect its software which is obviously its intellectual
property.
Necessity of Protection of Software as an Inventor
In the survey all the respondents were working in software companies following
question was asked, 'Do you think protection of your software products is necessary
for you as an inventor and for your organisation as an Institution?' In response to
this question out of 150 respondents 142 said that they think it is necessary to
protect the software products developed by them or their institution, company or
organisation. 2 people were of negative opinion and 6 people did not know about
this or they don't have opinion on this question. The pie chart showing the status of
the figures is presented by Fig. No. 2.
Fig. No. 2: Necessity of Protection of Software
435
From the above figure it is observed that almost all the software engineers and
developers demand protection of software. In this survey around 95% people have
agreed for the necessity for the protection of software. Thus for the growth of the
software industry the protection of the intellectual property is necessary and it is
observed that most of the large scale and medium scale companies are actively
protecting their intellectual property.
Protection of Software
Generally software is protected as copyright, but with the growth of technology and
innovation software can be used in different types of technologies and patent
protection has been give to it. To determine whether software developers have
knowledge of protection of software a question 'how do you protect software?'
either patent or by copyright has been asked in the survey. Most of the respondents
answered that software can be protected by copyright but many more answered
both patent and copyright is necessary. Very few were said that no protection is
required. It is observed that out of 150 respondent 50 respondents were of the view
that software can be protected both by patent and copyright. It means that the dual
protection to the software is required depending on the quality of the invention and
around 33% of the respondent in favour of the dual protection to software patent.
The demand for copyright protection is also higher in number than the patent
protection. About 58 people said that they need only copyright protection and 26
people have chosen to go for exclusive patent protection. Only 10 people demanded
that they don't want any kind of protection and 6 people were reluctant to answer
anything as they have not answer the question. It has been observed with this data
that most of the software engineers, around 89%, demand some kind of protection
to their intellectual property, either it may be in terms of copyright or patent or both.
The survey has covered the people having experience of minimum of one year to
maximum of seventeen years, so mainly the respondents covered in the survey are
youth of the nation. Software industry is considered as the most creative industry
and creative industries are the engine of growth and development of the youth and
nation.37 From this study it is seen that there is majority demand of protection to the
software and it is the duty of the government to provide the protective environment
37
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), Creative industries for youth:
unleashing potential and growth (Sept. 14, 2014, 3:24PM),
http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/
Dakar/pdf/EbookCreativeIndustriesYouth.pdf.
436
through the laws, regulations and awareness about rights for the growth of the
industry.
Fig. No. 3: Protection of Software
Organisation and Active Software Protection Policy
Active software protection policy is required for the growth of the industry as the
continued growth of the overall software economy is founded on the protection of
such intellectual property rights. Without such protection, software owners lack the
incentive and legal basis for commercializing their creations, and the software
industry cannot be an engine of economic growth.38 To determine how a software
industry or organisation recognises important of the software protection a question
was asked 'Does your organisation conduct an active software protection policy?'
The responses received shows that many companies more than 60% were
considering about software protection policy. It was also found that around 1/4th of
people who have responded that they don't know about the stand of the company
about its policy of protection of intellectual property. This shows that there is still
need of awareness about the protection of Intellectual property rights and laws
among the software employees. Out of 150 respondent 96 employees know that
their company conduct active software protection policy. Very few, around 14
employees said that their company do not conduct active software protection
policy. About 40 people said that they don't know whether their company conduct
any such kind of policy or not.
38
Business Software Alliance, Open Source and Commercial Software an In-Depth Analysis of the
Issue (Sept. 14, 2014, 4:25PM),
http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/copyright/en/wipo_ip_cm_07/wipo_ip_cm_07_www _82575.pdf.
437
Fig. No. 4: Active Software Protection Policy by Organisation
Copyright Protection of Software
In case of copyright protection specific registration of copyright is not necessary.
When a person has created something it becomes his/her own copyright on the
created thing. Then the creation may be any art, architecture, literature, picture and
songs etc. Generally software is considered as the set of mathematical formula and
it is nothing but an algorithm. Software is written in different language like c, C++,
JAVA, VB, FORTRON, BASIC etc. in the form of source code and object code.
Hence this question was asked to understand how many employees know that,
when they develop or write any software, it is their creation and can be
automatically copyrightable. More half of the respondents know that they get
copyright on the creation of software. The no. of answering yes to the question is 78
out of 150. Around 37 employees did not know that software is automatically
protected by copyright. Almost 35 people said that they did not know about any
kind of protection. If we add the people who said no to the question and who said
did not know, the number goes to 72 people are still unaware about the copyright
protection of software which they do not want to do anything. If a person is self
employed software developer and he/she was not aware about the copyright
protection there might be a chance of economic loss of that person.
Fig. No. 5: Copyright Protection of Software
35, 23%
Yes
78, 52%
No
Don't Know
37, 25%
438
Major Hurdle in Filing Patent Application
An attempt was made to find out the major hurdle faced by the employees in filing
patent application. This is also one of the aspects to determine the impact of patent
law on the software industry in India. If there is not any patent application filed then
there might be a chance of reduction in growth of creativity and innovativeness. It
will also affect the overall development of the industry. In all six primary reasons
were found out after discussing with the researcher and software engineers. These
are lack of awareness, no proper guidance, no provision of patent attorney/ agents
in the industry, high fees structure of the Indian Patent Office, time consuming
procedure and costly system. The trend is shown in the following figure no. 17.
The options given to the respondents are the reasons generally faced by the
software employees in software industries. There is chance of one or more reasons
may be true so while asking this question it was not limited to only one answer. The
respondents were permitted to choose one or more options which they think fit and
proper as a reason for hurdle in patent filing. All the employee/ respondent
answered this question. Around 94 people think that lack of awareness about IP law
and policies is one of the major hurdles in filing patent applications. 84 people said
that they require proper guidance about the IP laws and filing of patent application
procedure. It is clearly seen that lack of awareness and proper guidance are two
major reasons which most of the respondent selected as a big hurdle in the filing
patent application. Next to that, 36 respondents were in favour of the time
consuming procedure. It means that the by the time the patent is granted to any
software or computer related invention the technology becomes obsolete. As the
changing nature of the software technology and its speed is tremendously vast the
technology becomes obsolete within the span of 3-4 years. The normal time for
grant of patent in Indian Patent Office is normally 3 year so some software
engineers said that the time taken for examination and grant of patent is also major
hurdle in less number of patent filing. 27 software engineers feel that no provision
of full time patent agent/ attorneys in company is major reason of filing less patent
application. 19 people observed that high fee structure of patent office is a hurdle of
filing patent application. Only 16 people out of 150 supported that patent is costly
system. Software employee from small scale companies supported to the high fees
of patent office and costly system. If India wants to promote patent filing in small
and medium enterprises they have to think over the fee structure of filing of patent.
In the amended patent rules in 2014 provides separate category for applicant of
439
patent in the form of “small entity” and less fee has been fixed which is in between
the fees for a natural person and for all persons other than natural persons (except a
small entity).39
Fig. No. 6: Hurdles in Filing Patent Application
Lack of Awareness
94
No proper guidance
86
No provision of Patent Agents/ attorneys
27
High fees by Patent Office
19
It is time consuming ( by the time patent
has been granted the technology becomes
obsolete)
36
To obtain patent is costly system
16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Software Patent and Software Industry
The nexus is found between technology and industry. Technology improves the
performance of the industry. Every industry always strives for the better and new
technology for the growth and improvement.40 Software has now become
inevitable part of each and every Industry. Thus it becomes necessary to find out
opinion of the software engineers about the relation between the software patent
and software industry. There are two opinions about the software patent and its
impact on the industry.41 Bessen, Meurer, Hunt said that software patents are not
beneficial for the growth of the software industry42 but Mann said young software
39
Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2014 (Sept. 23, 2014, 3:45PM), http://www.ipindia.nic.in/
iponew/patent_ Amendment_Rules_2014.pdf.
40
Bradford L. Smith and Susan O. Mann, Innovation and Intellectual Property Protection in the
Software Industry: An Emerging Role for Patents?, 71 The University of Chicago L. Rev. 241, 2420
(2004).
41
Bruce Abramson, Promoting Innovation in the Software Industry: A First Principles Approach to
Intellectual Property Reform, 8 B.U. J. SCI. & TECH. L. 75 (2002).
42
James Bessen & M. R. Hunt, An empirical look at software patents, 16 J. Eco. & Management
Strategy,157, 160 (2007).
440
43
patent firms will not affect from the large patent portfolio of big software firms.
The main aim of this exercise is to study about impact of patent law on software
industry in India. To understand opinion about the impact of software patent on
software industry it was asked whether patenting of software promotes innovation
in software industry as it has created greater attention of technical engineers and
academics. 44
Out of 150 respondents 49 were strongly agree and 72 were agreed that patenting of
software promotes innovation in the software industry. 17 software engineers said
that they have no any opinion and 11 were disagreed and 1 person was strongly
disagree to the statement. Thus it is observed that around 121 people think software
patent promotes innovation in software industry. The data has been compiled and
shown in the graphical format in the following figure no. 7.
Figure No. 7: Software Engineers, Software Patent and Software Industry
Strongly Agree
49
Agree
72
No Opinion
17
Disagree
11
Strongly Disagree
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Open Source and Indian Software Industry
Further, in case of open source software, supporters of Open source software
generally oppose the software patent.45 There is strong attack from such supporter
as they consider that software patent hinders the growth of software industry.46
Open source movement is very much popular in all over the world and it has also its
43
Ronald J. Mann, Do Patents Facilitate Financing in the Software Industry, 83 TEX. L. REV.
963(2004).
44
Julie E. Cohen and Mark A. Lemley, Patent Scope and Innovation in the Software Industry, 89 Cal. L.
Rev. 1,4 (2001).
45
FADI P. DEEK & JAMES A. M. MCHUGH, OPEN SOURCE: TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY,
Cambridge University Press (2008).
46
David S. Evans & Anne Layne-Farrar, Software Patents and Open Source: The Battle over Intellectual
Property Rights, 9 VA. J. L.& TECH 1, 27(2004).
441
47
existence in India. Thus to access the opinion of the stakeholders about the open
source movement in India and its effect on software industry it was asked that
whether the Open Source movement is a threat to the Indian software industry.
While answering this statement mixed reply was observed from the group of
software engineers. Most of the engineers considered that open source would not be
threat to software industry in India. 22 people were strongly disagreed and 43
people were disagreed with the statement. 39 respondents said they did not have
opinion. 7 people were strongly agreed and 39 were agreed that open source would
be threat to software industry. The bar diagram is shown as per the below figure
no. 8.
Figure No. 8: Software Engineers: Open Source and Indian Software Industry
Strongly Agree
7
Agree
39
No Opinion
39
Disagree
43
Strongly Disagree
22
0
10
20
30
40
50
Conclusion
The issue Open Source Software and Software Patent is highly debated across the
world. Both of these protection need for the benefits of the technology and industry.
The empirical data shows that there is demand from the software engineers and
developers that there should be protection to their intellectual property. Most of the
Indian Companies and software engineers are not aware about the IPR laws and
policy. Thus it is necessary that all the engineering colleges should initiate IP
helpdesk in their institutes. Except a few software giants like Infosys, TCS, Wipro
no other companies have companies have separate focused innovation department.
47
Patents as a threat to Free and Open Source Software (Sept, 30, 2014, 6:34AM),
http://www.fosspatents. com/search/label/NoSoftwarePatents.
442
For improving competitiveness and innovativeness for growth of technology there
is need to emphasis on the IP laws in small, medium and large scale industries. John
Allison and Starling Hunter48 argued that the there is very thin line in granting and
non granting software patents and to try to eliminate software patents would prove
largely futile and possibly even counterproductive. It would be futile because
skilled patent attorneys can often draft applications so as to opt out of a predefined
category, and counterproductive because of the increased transaction costs
associated with tortuous drafting.49 Thus it is not easily possible to complete ban on
the software/ Business method patent though the act denies it. Though there is
strong demand from movement of free software for not to patent software so as to
prevent the industry from further innovation and growth it is not possible to ban it
permanently. In the debate of software patent and open source software, it can be
said that both protection are required for the benefit of the industry. Without a patent
system, the software industry would have to rely on the open source movement to
provide innovation.50 Though open source cannot provide patent protection and
thereby suited for innovation it provides a good counterbalance to market dominant
companies. Open Source Software and Patenting of Software are complementary
and counterbalance to each other and it is difficult to judge how big is the door and
how wide open.
48
John R. Allison & Starling D. Hunter, On the Feasibility of Improving Patent Quality One Technology
at a Time: The Case of Business Methods, 21 BERKELEY TECH. L. J. 729, 736 (2006).
John R. Allison & Emerson H. Tiller, The Business Method Patent Myth, 18 BERKELEY TECH. L.J.
987, 1081–82 (2003).
50
Grant C. Yang, The Continuing Debate of Software Patents and The Open Source Movement, 13
TEX. INTELL. PROP. L.J. 171.
49
Online Reference Management Tools: A Comparative
Account Of Endnote, Mendeley and Zotero
Dr. Faizul Nisha,1 Dr. Samar Iqbal Bakhshi2 and V Senthil3
Abstract
Reference is a link or relationship between two objects in which one gives
acknowledgement to other. In today's world references are not limited to books and
journals but they include variety of web resources including websites, epublications, audios, videos etc. A reference management tool makes easier for
researchers not only collect and store their items, but also to organize, tag them
(add metadata), save PDFs and provides a facility to correct format for citing
references in academic and research community papers. This study tries to find out
the role of online reference management tools in research, a brief description about
Endnote, Mendley and Zotero. The study further provides a comparative account
about the three online reference management tools (Endnote, Mendley and Zotero)
on the basis of certain features.
Keywords: Reference Management Tools, Mendley, Endnote, Zotero
Introduction
Research originates from ideas that had already been brought out by someone else
and provides one step ahead what can be done further in the same area. Being a
researcher, it is imperative to be aware of the current trends going on in his/her area
of interest by acknowledging pioneer works from appropriate authentic sources
and cite them genuinely that have assisted in reproducing his/her ideas. This would
make the people reading investigator's work to identify his/her actual sources and
disclose that he/she has not pilfered others viewpoint, researcher's engrossment and
understanding of research he/she has carried out as well as quoting the work of
other researchers. If a researcher has lifted up the work/duplicated the efforts of
1
Defence Scientific Information & Documentation Centre (DESIDOC), Metcalfe House, Civil Lines,
Delhi-110054
2
National Law University Delhi, Sector-14 Dwarka, New Delhi, Email: faizul16k@gmail.com
3
Defence Scientific Information & Documentation Centre (DESIDOC), Metcalfe House, Civil Lines,
Delhi-110054
444
other researchers, it is required to mention his contribution and cite him properly
otherwise it would be an act of plagiarism. In order to arrange a complete list of
references, it is mandatory to keep correct records of books, journal articles and
other sources if somebody has recited in his work. Suppose a person had gone
through a book few months back it is quite difficult to memorise a reference for the
same and it is a tedious process as well. To avoid this practice the person has to
record and manage the reference as he/she go ahead with his learning and research.
One of the major challenges is to manage and record all references in a regulated
way. Several software tools are available nowadays that will facilitate in collecting
and maintaining references adequately and efficiently.
Online Reference Management Tools
Online reference manager tools have been recognised as one of the most
advantageous digital tools for present day researchers. They are the influential
mechanisms which guide in handling, organising and recording individual's
research specially in formatting bibliographies. Technology has altered the manner
researchers used to provide footnotes for the citations occurring in their text. Online
reference management tools cater a researcher the facility to import references
from variety of sources such as bibliographic databases, library catalogues and
websites etc. A researcher can manage or edit the references if they are available in
the system and if he can't be able to find the references online he may add them
manually. These reference management tools allow to export references into a
document, helps to create researcher's own critical abstract, links to word
processing documents and insert footnotes, endnotes, or in-text citations and also
contribute in formatting a bibliography as per the reference style/pattern of
individual's choice and re-format whenever is required.
Reference management softwares are available for recording and utilising
bibliographic references. Once a citation is being recorded, it can be reused
numerous times in producing bibliographies (lists of references in scholarly books,
articles and essays). The evolution of reference management packages has been
directed by the rapid growth of scientific literature. These software packages
consist of a database wherein complete bibliographic references can be undertaken
along with a procedure for generating selective lists of articles in the distinct
formats needed by publishers and scholarly journals. Modern reference
management packages can easily be integrated with word processors and help out
445
in creating reference lists in suitable formats whenever an article is written thereby
reducing the risk for a cited source not included in the reference list. These
softwares also have the provision for importing the details of publications from
bibliographic databases.
On contrary to a bibliographic database which lists all articles published in a
specific area, Reference management software collects a much smaller database of
the publications that are likely to be used by a specific author or group and the
database can easily be hosted on an individual's very own personal computer.
Besides managing references, most reference management softwares facilitate
searching references from online libraries which are generally based on Z39.50
protocol. Users are required to define the IP address, database name and keywords
to start a Z39.50 search. It is prompt and more coherent than a web browser.
Reference management tools assist researchers to build and organize their checklist
of references for research projects and are designed to arrange citations into certain
formats for the composition of manuscripts and bibliographies. Several search
tools impart ways to download references into reference management tools. Here
we are discussing a brief about Endnote, Mendley and Zotero.
Endnote
It is a commercial reference management tool for
managing references and bibliographies at the
time of writing articles, project reports and theses.
Endnote is developed by Thomson Reuters.
It has unlimited storage with Desktop version.
Some research databases offer export options for
specially Endnote.
(Ref: www.endnote.com)
Mendley
Mendley is free reference management and
academic social network tool which authorise a
researcher to build up and organise his library of
citations and PDFs, collaborate online with peers
and unearth the current research trends. It has
about One thousand build in citation styles.
(Ref: www.mendley.com)
446
Mendley automatically rename PDF by Journal Title, Author, Year etc. It can also
organise PDF into multiple files. It is maintained and managed by Elsevier and
provides free storage of up to 2GB of files. Mendley Desktop can support
Windows, Mac and Linux.
Zotero
(Ref: www.zotero.org)
Zotero is free of cost and uncomplicat ed research tool downloaded as
an extension of the firefox browser that helps in aggregating, constructing and
interpreting research and helps people share in different fashion. Zotero includes
the best parts of older reference management softwares i.e. the ability to store
author, title, and publication fields and to export that information as formatted
references including the best aspects of modern software and web applications,
such as the ability to organize, tag, and search in advanced ways.
Zotero collaborates smoothly with web resources and whenever it finds you of
reading a book, article, or other object on the web; it can immediately extract and
save complete bibliographic references. Zotero conveniently disseminates
information to and from other web services and applications, and it runs both as a
web service and offline on personal computers.
447
EndNote, Mendeley and Zotero: Comparison
Features
Developed By
EndNote
Thomson Routers
Mendeley
Elsevier
Year of
Development
Licence
Cost
1988
2008
Proprietary
Some cost is involved for EndNote
Proprietary
Free for basic account, some cost for
more online storage space.
Web Based
Yes, with EndNote basic account
Not primarily, but can synchronised with
an online account which is editable
Accessibility
Can be used from any computer having internet Can be used online and offline, with
access.
desktop installation required on an
individual computer for offline access.
Operating
System
Compatible with Windows and Mac Operating
System.
Compatible with Windows, Mac and
Linux Operating System
Browser
Storage
Any
Unlimited local storage (stored to individual’s
computer drives). Limited to 50,000 citations
2GB in EndNote Web.
Any
Unlimited local storage and data
synchronising; 1GB personal and 100
MB shared online space.
MS Office, Open Office, iWork Pages
Word
Processor
Compatibility
Export File BibTex, Endnote/Refer/BibIX, Medline, RIS
Formats
MS Office, Open Office, Latex
BibTex, Endnote/Refer/BibIX, Medline
and RIS, Endnote XML.
Import File
Formats
CSA, Endnote/Refer/BibIX, ISI Medline, Ovid, BibTex, Endnote/Refer/BibIX, RIS,
PubMed, RIS, SciFinder
Browse Bookmarks
Search full
text of PDFs
Attachment
Yes
Yes
Attach associated files (PDFs etc) and
Highlight and annotate PDFs.
Attach associated files (PDFs etc) and
Highlight and annotate PDFs.
APA, Chicago, Harvard, MLA.
6506+Customizable
(http://www.endnote.com/support/enstyles.asp)
APA, Chicago, Harvard, MLA.
6781 styles
(http://www.mendeley.com/citationstyles
It can import the academic databases and
search engines such as ArXiv, IEEExplore,
PubMed and any Z39.50
ArXiv, IEEExplore, PubMed
Citation
Styles
Database
Connectivity
Zotero
Centre for history and
New Media, GM
University USA
2006
AGPL
Free for basic account,
some cost for more
online storage space.
Yes, works with
Firefox browser and
can synchronised with
online account,
connectors for
Chrome and Safari
available.
Can be used on any
computer with internet
access but is currently
only available for use
in Firefox Browser.
Compatible with
Windows, Mac and
Linux Operating
System
Firefox only
Unlimited local
storage and data
synchronising; 100
MB free Zotero file
syncing.
MS Office, Open
Office, Google Docs
BibTex,
Endnote/Refer/BibIX,
Medline, RIS. Others:
RDF, TEI, Wikipedia
citation templates,
Endnote XML.
CSA,
Endnote/Refer/BibIX,
ISI Medline, MODS
XML, Ovid, PubMed,
RIS, SciFinder
Yes
Attach associated files
(PDFs etc) with option
to attach
automatically.
APA, Chicago,
Harvard, MLA.
16 installed.6000+can
be added.
ArXiv, IEEExplore,
CiteSeer and PubMed
Note: Referred (http://guides.library.utoronto.ca/content.php; http://www.imperial.ac.uk/adminservices/library/learning-support/reference-management/;
http://www.libraries.psu.edu/lls/choose_citation_mgr.html; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ websites for
making comparison among Endnote, Mendley and Zotero)
448
Conclusion
Reference management tools are quite helpful for researchers and academicians in
creating and organising their lists of references in specific formats for preparing
manuscripts and bibliographies. EndNote and Mendley are developed by two
renowned publishers; however Zotero is developed by Centre for history and New
Media, George Mason University and Cooperation for Digital Scholarship, USA.
Endnote was developed in 1988, whereas Mendley and Zotero were developed in
2008 and 2006 respectively. Almost all the citation styles are covered in all three
reference management tools; however Mendley has most number of citation styles
i.e. 6781 as compared to Endnote and Zotero. The comparison among three
reference management tools shows that Endnote is web-based with EndNote basic
account, Mendley is not primarily web-based but can be synchronised with an
online account which is editable whereas Zotero is web-based and works with
Firefox browser and can be synchronised with online account. Mobile applications
for iPad, iPhone and other smartphones are also available for Mendley and Zotero.
Multimedia information like URLs+snapshots, video, images etc. can be saved in
Mendley and Zotero, however Endnote works only for PDFs, Book chapters,
articles. Mendley is most popular reference management tool followed by Zotero
and Endnote, due to its user-friendliness.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
About Endnote. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.endnote.com/
About Mendley. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mendeley.com/
About Zotero. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.zotero.org/about/
Borchardt, Rachel. (2014). Mendeley: Special Features. Retrieved from
http://subjectguides.library.american.edu/mendeley. Last Updated: Aug 6,
2014
Comparison of reference management software. (n.d.). Retrieved December
15, 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Harvard Library: Research Guides. (2014). Reference Management for
Biologists. Retrieved from http://guides.library.harvard.edu/reftools
Imperial College London. (2013, Dec). Reference Management Software
Comparison. Retrieved from http://www.imperial.ac.uk/adminservices/library/learning-support/reference-management/
James Hardiman Library. (2014). Guide to managing references. Retrieved
from http://www.library.nuigalway.ie/support/training/usefulguides.
449
Penn State University Libraries. (2014). Choosing a citation manager.
Retrieved from http:///www.libraries.psu.edu/psul/lls/choose_citation
_mgr.html
10. Thomson Reuters Endnote. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://endnote.com/
11. University of Toronto. (2014). Citation management. Retrieved from http:
//guides.library.utoronto.ca/content.php
9.
Dspace an Open Source Dynamic
Digital Repository
Dr. Anil Kumar Jain1 and Sanjeev Kumar2
Abstract
For the past two years the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Libraries
and Hewlett-Packard Labs have been collaborating on the development of an open
source system called DSpace that functions as a repository for the digital research
and educational material produced by members of a research university or
organization. Running such an institutionally-based, multidisciplinary repository
is increasingly seen as a natural role for the libraries and archives of research and
teaching organizations. As their constituents produce increasing amounts of
original material in digital formats—much of which is never published by
traditional means—the repository becomes vital to protect the significant assets of
the institution and its faculty. The first part of this article describes the DSpace
system including its functionality and design, and its approach to various problems
in digital library and archives design. The second part discusses the
implementation of DSpace at MIT, plans for federating the system, and issues of
sustainability.
Keywords: Dspace, institutional repository, digital libraries
Dspace Definition, Features and Functionality
In March 2000, Hewlett-Packard Company (HP) awarded $1.8 million to the MIT
Libraries for 18-month collaboration to build Dspace a dynamic repository for the
intellectual output in digital formats of multi-disciplinary research organizations.
HP Labs and MIT Libraries released the system worldwide on November 4, 2002,
under the terms of the BSD open source license, one month after its introduction as
a new service of the MIT Libraries. As an open source system, Dspace is now freely
available to other institutions to run as-is, or to modify and extend as they require to
1
Associate Professor, Vikram University, Ujjain.
Librarian, G. B. Pant Engineering College, Okhla Industrial Estate, Phase III, New Delhi-110020
Sanjiv_panwar@yahoo.co.in
2
Dspace an Open Source Dynamic Digital Repository
451
meet local needs. From the outset, HP and MIT designed the system to be run by
institutions other than MIT, and to support federation among its adopters, in both
the technical and the social sense. The Dspace Federation will be explored in a later
section.
So what is Dspace? It is an attempt to address a problem that MIT faculty has been
expressing to the Libraries for the past few years. As faculty and other researchers
develop research materials and scholarly publications in increasingly complex
digital formats, there is a need to collect, preserve, index and distribute them: a
time-consuming and expensive chore for individual faculty and their departments,
labs, and centers to manage themselves. The DSpace system provides a way to
manage these research materials and publications in a professionally maintained
repository to give them greater visibility and accessibility over time.
Dspace was built breadth-first: it supports every function that a research
organization needs to run a production digital repository service, but as simply as
possible. The project focus was on building a production quality system. It
complements and was influenced by previous research in computer science and
digital library architectures. Our goals were to build a system that: would be
immediately useful at MIT, and hopefully at other institutions; could be expanded
and improved over time; and could serve as a platform for future research. With the
help of developers at other institutions that adopt DSpace under its open source
license, we will work to add features and improve the different functions of the
system as we learn what users actually want, and how to best support such complex
requirements as digital preservation and digital rights management. DSpace is
designed to make participation by depositors easy. The system's information model
is built around the idea of organizational "Communities"—natural sub-units of an
institution that have distinctive information management needs. In the case of MIT
(a large research university)
"Communities" are defined to be
the schools, departments, labs, and
centers of the Institute. Each
Community can adapt the system to
meet its particular needs and
manage the submission process
itself
Dspace Information Model
452
Metadata
Dspace uses a qualified Dublin Core metadata standard for describing items
intellectually (specifically, the Libraries Working Group Application Profile). Only
three fields are required: title, language, and submission date, all other fields are
optional. There are additional fields for document abstracts, keywords, technical
metadata and rights metadata, among others. This metadata is displayed in the item
record in Dspace, and is indexed for browsing and searching the system (within a
collection, across collections, or across Communities). For the Dissemination
Information Packages (DIPs) of the OAIS framework, the system currently exports
metadata and digital material in a custom XML schema while we work with the
METS community to develop the necessary extension schemas for the technical
and rights metadata about arbitrary digital formats.
User Interface
Dspace's current user interface is web-based. There are several interfaces: one for
submitters and others involved in the submission process, one for end-users
looking for information, and one for system administrators.
The end-user or public interface supports search and retrieval of items by browsing
or searching the metadata (all fields for now, and specific fields in the near future).
Once an item is located in the system, retrieval is accomplished by clicking a link
that causes the archived material to be downloaded to the user's web browser.
"Web-native" formats (those which will display directly in a web browser or with a
plug-in) can be viewed immediately; others must be saved to the user's local
computer and viewed with a separate program that can interpret the file (e.g., a
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, an SAS dataset, or a CAD/CAM file).
Workflow
Dspace is the first open source digital repository system to tackle the complex
problem of how to accommodate the differing submission workflows needed for a
multidisciplinary system. In other words, different Dspace Communities,
representing different schools, departments, research labs and centers, have very
different ideas of how material should be submitted to Dspace, by whom, and with
what restrictions. Who is allowed to deposit items? What type of items will they
453
deposit? Who else needs to review, enhance, or approve the submission? To what
collections can they deposit material? Who can see the items once deposited? All of
these issues are addressed by the Community representatives, working together
with the Libraries' DSpace user support staff, and are then modeled in a workflow
for each collection to enforce their decisions. The system models "e-people" who
have "roles" in the workflow of a particular Community in the context of a given
collection. Individuals from the Community are registered with DSpace, then
assigned to appropriate roles.
For example, a department may choose to have two collections: one for working
papers and another for datasets. They may then decide that any member of the
faculty can deposit items to either collection directly, and that any member of the
general public can have access to these collections. In this example the workflow is
very simple, and the only "role" is that of submitter.
In a more complex example, the same department may have a working paper
collection that requires tight editorial control by the head of the department. In this
case, they may choose to again designate all faculties as "submitters", but also
designate a small group of people as "reviewers", an administrative staff person as a
"metadata editor", and the head of the department as the final "coordinator". An
item deposited by a faculty member would then go through a process of review,
cleanup and approval before finally being deposited to the relevant DSpace
collection. Each person with a role to play in this process is notified of the new
submission, and goes to a personal workspace in the system to perform their
assigned task. Items that do not make it through the process are not archived in the
system.
Technology Platform
DSpace was developed to be open source, and in such a way that institutions and
organizations with minimal resources could run it. The system is designed to run on
the UNIX platform, and comprises other open source middleware and tools, and
programs written by the DSpace team. All original code is in the Java programming
language. Other pieces of the technology stack include a relational database
management system (PostgreSQL), a Web server and Java servlet engine (Apache
and Tomcat, both from the Apache Foundation), Jena (an RDF toolkit from HP
Labs), OAICat from OCLC, and several other useful libraries. All leveraged
components and libraries are also open source software. Libraries are bundled
454
where possible (exceptions are described in the installation instructions). The
system is available on SourceForge, linked from both the DSpace informational
web site and the HP Labs site.
While DSpace is open source and freely available, neither MIT Libraries nor HP
offer formal support for DSpace adopters. It is our assumption that institutions that
use DSpace will have resources to use the system, including adequate hardware that
runs the UNIX operating system, and a UNIX systems administrator to install and
configure the system. Most institutions using DSpace will also want the services of
a Java programmer who can localize and customize for them, or enhance it,
although this is not absolutely necessary to run the system.
As DSpace continues to be improved by staff at HP, the MIT Libraries, and other
institutions that adopt it during the coming year, MIT will take responsibility for
evaluating and reincorporating these improvements into the main open source
system available to the public. Plans for building a more sustainable open source
maintenance strategy through the DSpace Federation will be discussed later.
System Architecture
455
Dspace Technical Architecture
The DSpace architecture is a straightforward three-layer architecture, including
storage, business, and application layers, each with a documented API to allow for
future customization and enhancement. The storage layer is implemented using the
file system, as managed by PostgreSQL database tables. The business layer is
where the DSpace-specific functionality resides, including the workflow, content
management, administration, and search and browse modules. Each module has an
API to allow DSpace adopters to replace or enhance that function as desired.
Finally, the application layer covers the interfaces to the system: the web UI and
batch loader, in particular, but also the OAI support and Handle server for resolving
persistent identifiers to DSpace items. This is the layer that will get much of the
attention in future releases, as we add web services for new features (e.g., to support
interoperation with other systems) and define Federation services across the range
of institutions adopting DSpace.
Open Archives Initiative (OAI)
To further its goal of supporting interoperability with other DSpace adopters, and
with other digital repositories, preprint, and e-print servers, the system has
implemented the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAIPMH). DSpace used the OCLC OAI Cat to accomplish this, and is currently
exposing Dublin Core metadata for every item in the system. For material that is
restricted to local access, the item metadata is exposed to OAI harvesters but the
system will enforce the restriction when a user requests the associated bitstream.
DSpace at MIT has recently been added to the OAI registry, and as the system is
deployed at other institutions, we intend to investigate what added-value services
might be built on top of this promising piece of infrastructure to work across the
Federation. For example, we may examine the possibility of defining and building
preprint and e-print collections for a particular academic discipline with individual
items distributed among many institutionally-based multidisciplinary repositories,
all OAI compliant.
Persistent Identifiers (Handles)
One goal of persistent digital repositories is that it be possible to find and retrieve
deposited items far into the future. In particular, it is considered crucial that
citations to archived material, whether found in printed articles or online, remain
456
valid for long periods. To this end, DSpace chose to implement CNRI handles as the
persistent identifier associated with each item. The Handle System covers
assignment, management, and resolution of these persistent identifiers (or
"handles"). Although CNRI has not registered with the IETF for an official
namespace, handles are compliant with the IETF's Uniform Resource Name
(URN) specification.
Handle resolution can be done using a special client, or handles can be packaged in
the form of URLs and a proxy server used to resolve these into the handle form,
which is, in turn, resolved to the local system location for the item. This second
approach is the one we have taken in DSpace. The main alternative to using handles
is to use persistent URLs with HTTP redirection to allow items to move around over
time. The long-term viability of these alternatives is not yet sufficiently understood.
We plan to discuss this decision and its implications with other institutions adopting
DSpace over the coming year, to see if the DSpace Federation can support other
systems of persistent identification while supporting distributed services.
MIT Libraries' Dspace Implementation
DSpace is a system, a tool, and a platform for collecting, managing, indexing, and
distributing digital items. Exactly how it is used, for what sort of digital material, by
whom, for how long, and so on, are policy issues to be decided by each organization
adopting the system. In order to make the difference between system and policy
more transparent, and to help other institutions get started, MIT is openly sharing its
own policy decisions with regard to DSpace. It is our hope that, while we
acknowledge that our policies may not work well for other institutions, and will
certainly evolve over time, they may offer guidance to others regarding the depth
and breadth of issues that should be considered.
Collections Scope
At MIT, the original goal of DSpace was to capture the faculty's intellectual output
in digital formats: research papers, other documents, datasets, images, audio/visual
material, databases, or any other format they deem important. This goal led to two
important policies: only faculty research would be accepted (not student material,
not institutional records, and not material from non-faculty researchers without
sponsorship from faculty), and faculty would choose what would be submitted
(within certain general constraints set by the Libraries and Archives).
457
As a result of discussions with faculty, early adopter Communities, and others, the
goal is unchanged but the policies have evolved. The first change was in what could
be submitted. If a DSpace Community defines a collection that, in order to be
useful, should include material authored by non-faculty (or non-MIT faculty) then
it can be deposited by that Community as long as the necessary copyright
permissions are obtained. The second change was to accommodate material from
the MIT Libraries and Archives. We will create a Libraries and Archives
Community to hold digital collections of material such as e-theses and reformatted
images—material that is heavily used and represents valuable assets of the
institution.
Beyond faculty-authored documents and data, another category of material has
taken the spotlight for possible support by DSpace: educational material, or
"Learning Objects". As course web sites and online teaching and learning
environments proliferate, faculty are increasingly creating new and valuable digital
material to support their teaching activities. These can take the form of traditional
lecture notes, sample exams, and course calendars, but also include things like
complex simulations and visualizations, multimedia presentations, or videos of key
lectures. As a matter of local policy, the MIT Libraries will accept this type of
material and is actively collaborating with two MIT-based projects in this area: the
Open Knowledge Initiative (OKI) and Open Course Ware (OCW). For OKI,
DSpace could serve as an active repository of course "content items"—those items
of persistent, ongoing value (e.g., a physics simulation used regularly in various
courses). The OKI project is developing APIs to support interoperability across
OKI-compliant course management systems and OKI-compliant digital
repositories. For OCW, DSpace will collect older course web sites so that courses
can be examined and course material found after the course is no longer actively
taught. Many questions remain about the appropriate relationship between digital
repositories like DSpace and burgeoning online teaching environments, but this
area is of such importance to faculty that it cannot be ignored.
Faculty Engagement
There are several ways to describe the value of an institutional repository to the
faculty who will contribute material, and the administration that will support the
effort. And it is critical to explain those benefits, and to market the service, to both
constituencies.
458
As a multidisciplinary repository that represents the scholarship of MIT, DSpace at
MIT showcases the international prominence of our faculty both individually and
collectively. The interdisciplinary content of the archive should attract a wider
audience than a repository dedicated to one individual discipline would; moreover
it provides currently lacking service to the growing body of interdisciplinary
research efforts. The ability to distribute research results quickly will emphasize
the cutting-edge nature of MIT's research, and supports the mission of the Institute
to generate, disseminate, and preserve knowledge.
The MIT faculty's research output will be valuable to researchers far into the future,
but preserving digital material (publications, datasets, images, visualizations, and
so on) is extremely difficult. To ensure long-term access to this important
scholarship the MIT Libraries will manage Dspace as a preservation archive,
keeping this material accessible, and often immediately usable, far into the future.
The Libraries provide guidance in establishing new Communities, and assistance
to faculty and others in using the system. Dspace was envisioned by the MIT
Libraries as a continuation of their mission to collect, make available, and preserve
important scholarly material of all kinds, especially that of MIT's own faculty and
research community. The Libraries are working to extend their services in the
digital era, to reflect current trends in scholarly communication and education, and
to offer new means of distributing research material that are enabled by network
technology.
Over the past few years MIT has been placing new emphasis on educational
technology with initiatives such as Open Course Ware and Open Knowledge
Initiative. Faculty is investing a lot of time and effort in creating online educational
materials that are valuable assets. Dspace is collaborating with the major
educational technology initiatives at the Institute, including Open Course Ware, so
that storing, relocating, reusing and repurposing course content becomes reliable
and easy.
Faculty accustomed to finding documents online, whether published or prepublication, expect to continue to work with discipline-defined collections. Dspace
can store and deliver preprints and eprints from the host institution and could
support virtual collections from different academic disciplines by means of
federation across large numbers of participating institutions. Where disciplinary
459
archives already exist for an academic community (e.g., the arXiv system at
Cornell University) Dspace could be made to automatically submit copies of
relevant documents to these centralized archives during the local deposit process.
Transition Team and Business Plan
From the fall of 2001 until spring of 2002, the Libraries formed a Dspace Transition
Team consisting of project staff and senior library staff from key departments (e.g.,
the Archives, collection services, public services, and the systems department).
This group was charged with figuring out how to deploy Dspace as a new service of
the MIT Libraries: the necessary policies, staffing requirements, communications
strategies, management and governance structures, training plans, and operational
requirements. Participation in this group proved to be a useful vehicle for the
library staff to become more familiar with the system, and discussions of these
various issues were invaluable to the development of the production Dspace
service.
Participating in the Transition Team group were two senior business consultants
funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to write a formal
business plan for a sustainable DSpace system at MIT. Their work consisted of
compiling the results of the transition team deliberations and decisions,
incorporating the work into detailed cost information for system operation, and
outlining possible revenue options.
The major conclusion of this planning process was that Dspace at MIT would be
offered as a combination of subsidized core services (built into the Libraries'
operating budget), and cost-recovered premium services that would allow the
Libraries to meet varying unique needs for Dspace from particular Communities
(e.g., exceptional amounts of disk storage, assistance with metadata creation, or
conversion of files to supported formats). With this strategy we have insured that
Dspace is an affordable undertaking for the MIT Libraries without compromising
the service that can be offered.
Preservation
Recent discussions of digital preservation focus on at least two levels: "bit
preservation", where a digital file is carefully preserved exactly as it was created
460
without the slightest change, and what we'll refer to as "functional preservation",
where the digital file is kept useable as technology formats, media, and paradigms
evolve. In the first case, it's very unlikely that the file could still be read or processed
by software after five or ten years have passed, but we assume it's possible for
"digital archeologists" to work with the file to try to unlock its secrets many years
later, especially if they have some additional information about the format (e.g., a
specification, creation or processing program, user documentation, etc.). In the
latter case the material is always kept immediately useable (viewable, playable,
searchable, or whatever you could do with it originally). Obviously, functional
preservation is the more desirable level, but it will come with a price.
As a community, our understanding of functional digital preservation is at an
interesting juncture: we know how important the need is, we know how it can be
done at an abstract level (e.g., format migrations or complex system emulation and
so on). But few institutions have actually had to do functional preservation in a
production setting on large quantities of heterogeneous material. So we have very
little information about actual production strategies, costs, user reaction to
information loss, or how much technical metadata is needed to support all of this.
How does this all relate to Dspace? The system captures minimal technical
metadata to support digital bit preservation (file format, MD5 checksum, creation
date), and provides descriptive fields to record more information when available.
With this metadata and proper production procedures (e.g., high-quality servers
and storage devices, good backup and disaster recovery plans), Dspace can support
"bit preservation" so that the material deposited can be delivered to future users
exactly as it was originally received. For some digital formats this may be the best
option available—for example, an executable program for which no corresponding
source code was provided or a format that's so rare (or proprietary) that the Dspace
host institution has no way of knowing how to provide functional preservation.
However, functional preservation is currently a matter of institutional policy, and
will only be implemented more thoroughly in Dspace when we understand more
about the production techniques, user requirements, and cost/benefit tradeoffs. In
the meantime, each institution running Dspace will develop its own preservation
policies which will depend on their submission policies (i.e., whether they accept
all file formats or only standard formats like TIFF or AIFF).
461
MIT plans to provide functional preservation for a list of "supported" formats,
listed on the web site and shown to users during the deposit process. Supported
formats include those that are documented standards (e.g., TIFF, AIFF, XML) or
have published specifications (e.g., PDF, RIFF). The other two categories of
support for MIT's Dspace are "known" and "unsupported". "Known" formats are
those that are common enough to be familiar and usually quite popular, but which
are proprietary in that there are no published specifications on which to base
functional preservation. "Unsupported" formats are those that are either unknown
to the Libraries or are extremely rare (e.g., a compiled program, a commercial
CAD/CAM file, etc.). The reason for distinguishing between "known" and
"unsupported" is that for the former we expect to see commercial conversion
programs become available as these formats become obsolete since there are so
many files in these formats in existence with many industries dependent on them. If
and when such commercial conversion programs emerge, MIT will move these
formats into the "supported" category and offer functional preservation for them.
The Dspace Federation
Since the very beginning, the Dspace project intended to make its system open
source and to actively promote it to other institutions. Why? There are many
reasons for taking this approach:
•
Developing a critical corpus of content that represents the intellectual
output of the world's leading research universities
•
Promoting the continued development of the DSpace service through the
open source community
•
Promoting interoperability of archival repositories and long-term
preservation of scholarly work
In 2002, MIT formed collaborative partnerships with a small number of other
academic research institutions in the US, UK, and Canada, to address some specific
questions such as: what will it take to successfully deploy the system at another
institution? How much localization, how much customization, and how much time
and effort are needed? What services can be defined to leverage the digital
collections of these institutions, and how can they be implemented in Dspace?
What sort of organization will the Federation become: A consortium? A new
membership organization? An informal and loose collaboration? Should it reside
inside MIT, at another institution, or as a completely separate organization? These
462
official partners include: Cambridge University (UK), Columbia University (US),
Cornell University (US), Rochester University (US), and the Universities of Ohio
(US), Toronto (Canada), and Washington (US).
In addition to these formal collaborations, many organizations have downloaded
the Dspace system (almost 1,500 since early November) and many of these are in
the process of evaluating it for adaptability to their local requirements. Clearly
there is great need for a system like Dspace, and as we explore the definition of the
Dspace Federation over the coming year, we hope to get feedback and advice from
many of these institutions about how the system should evolve and how to make it
sustainable beyond MIT.
Conclusion
Moving forward from here, there are many, many questions remaining, but we feel
that great progress has been made, and we are eager to see how things develop. At
MIT we are very pleased and excited to have a platform to begin exploring these
issues, both within the Institute and with other institutions that want to advance the
agendas of open access to scholarly information and the management and
preservation of digital material. At HP we are excited by the role that Dspace can
play as a vehicle for exploring and developing standards, and for ongoing research
in digital asset management, archival, and preservation systems. Together we
anticipate that DSpace will play an important role in the future of academic libraries
and archives, and we look forward to productive collaboration with other
institutions in this area.
Reference
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2
3
4.
5.
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www.wikipedia.com
Shirky, C., (2005), Ontology is Overrated: Categories, Links, and
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Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR) Available
http://roar.eprints.org/index.php?action=browse
Open J-Gate Available http://www.penj-gate.com
Search Digital Libraries (SDL) Available http://drtc.isibang.ac.in/sdl
Cross Archive Search Services for Indian Repositories (CASSIR). Available
http:/casin.ncsi.iisc.ernet.in
Digital Object Identifier: An Aid for
Information Retrieval
Purbi Dey Kanungo1
Abstract
The present paper tries to study the concept of Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
which is normally seen on right hand top of many articles. Basically DOIs are used
to locate or identify the 'Objects' even after its initial location i.e. URL is changed.
The paper tries to describe the history, characteristics, process, structure and
future developments of Digital Object Identifiers.
Keywords: Digital object identifier, DOI, international DOI foundation, cross
Reference
Introduction
With the advent of technology and information explosion the market is flooded
with millions of publications which include journals, books, articles, etc. The major
problem for the user was how to retrieve the right or required data/material with
least efforts and time. Recognizing the seriousness of the problem, research has
been carried out by numerous individuals and organizations to develop a
methodology to overcome this problem. Normally users follow the URL of a
particular journal site for reading online journals and books. Unfortunately, if
somebody links to the URL of an article and the website gets reorganized, the
journal changes hands, the publishers gets bought up then the URL will no longer
work. Sometimes which shows as “404 the requested URL was not found” or
“HTTP/1.0.404 object not found” Hence, it can be said that the URL is not
permanent rather it is a locator not an identifier.
Hence, it was necessary for the scientific community to develop a system which is
permanent and helps in easy retrieval of information for the users. Some years ago,
a consortium of scientific publishers stuck their heads together in an attempt to
1
Scientist'C', DESIDOC, Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), Metcalfe
House, New Delhi- 110 054, E-mail: purbiy2k7@gmail.com
Digital Object Identifier: An Aid for Information Retrieval
465
come up with a solution for persistent links to items published online. This standard
is known as the Digital Object Identifier (DOI).
A Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is a
system to locate an object in a digital
environment like internet. DOIs are used to
reduce the search time for locating
documents as well as for managing
content, its metadata and to facilitate
linking. DOIs are useful when a user wants
to find documents or other published
articles quickly and effectively. DOIs are
often located on the upper right corner of
articles in academic journals, and in fact
the majority of DOIs registered are done
for educational articles. The only
limitation of using DOI according to the
Figure : A Snapshot of a
Journal Article to show DOI
experts is that it is not open and is controlled by the international
DOI Foundation.
Structure of Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
A Digital Object Identifier is a unique alphanumeric string that is being provided by
a registration agency (under the governing body of International DOI Foundation).
It is type of link i.e. permanently available on the top most portion of a published
article or abstract. All the DOI numbers begin with a 10 and contain a prefix and a
suffix separated by a slash (/). The prefix is a unique number of 4 or more digits
which is assigned to the organizations and the suffix is assigned by the publisher.
The DOI for a article stays the same for the lifetime however, its location and other
metadata may change. The DOI system has so been planned so that it can be used
on the internet. A DOI name is everlasting being assigned to a journal article or
book chapter to provide a permanent network link to the information available on
that particular object. While information on that particular item could be changed
with time the DOI number remains unchangeable. The DOI was concerned as a
basic structure for managing identification of content over digital networks,
recognizing the trend towards digital junction and multimedia availability, DOI is
standardized as ISO 26324.
466
History of DOI
The DOI system originated in a joint initiative of three trade association in the
publishing industry (namely International Publishers Association, International
Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers, Association of
American Publishers). Although originating in text publishing, the DOI was
concerned as a generic framework for managing identification of content over
digital networks, recognizing the trend towards digital convergence and
multimedia availability. The International DOI Foundation was created to manage
the DOI system in 1997.
From the development of IDF it has worked with the corporation for National
Research Initiatives (CNRI) as technical partners. The first application of DOI
system for electronic articles was done by CrossRef registration agency which was
launched in 2000. Since then a number of registration agencies have been
appointed.
Benefits of Using DOI
The DOI has many features and functionalities some of which are mentioned
below:
(a) Uniqueness: The numbers provided are unique in nature
(b) Permanency: The numbers provided are permanent which cannot be changed
(c) Interlinking: Interlinking of data from other sources is possible
(d) Accumulation: Adding of new features and services through management of
groups of DOI names
(e) Dynamic Updating: Updating of metadata, application and services is
possible.
Process of Registration for DOI
The publisher of a journal has to apply to the DOI Agency for the publisher ID.
Registration has a fixed cost, which may be expensive for small publishers. The
publisher assigns items IDs to objects at the appropriate level (e.g. Journal issue,
article, abstract). A file of DOIs and their associated database addresses e.g. URLs
are sent to the DOI directory for validating and storing. The publisher is charged per
DOI. CrossRef is one of the registration sites for registering DOIs. CrossRef
467
provides an easy to use HTML form for registering DOIs. There are 2 steps that are
to be followed for creating DOIs in CrossRef
Step 1: Select Data type
This can be Journal, Book, Conference proceeding, Reports, Dissertations etc.
Step 2: Identify the Journal
In this step the particular article, book etc details have to be provide which includes
title of the article, abbreviation, journal DOI, URL of journal, print and e-ISSN
number, volume and issue number of journal, issue DOI.
Finally the username and password and e-mail address have to be filled before
submitting the form. One receives 2 e-mails a submission report and a XML file.
The changes required if any van be done through the XML file. The registration
process link is www.crossref.org/webDeposit. The format for filling a form is
shown in figure 2.
Figure : Format of Form in Cross Reference
468
DOI System Components
(a) The Number Component in DOI
Each DOI has a unique number assigned to identify only one entity. The DOI syntax
comprises of prefix and suffix and forwarded by a forward slash. There is no
particular defined length for the DOI number.
DOI prefix
It is composed of a directory indicator followed by a registrant code. These 2
components are separated by a full stop. The directory indicator shall be always
“10”. The registrant code is a unique string assigned to a registrant.
Example: Title of article: Specialization in Library and Information Science
curriculum (DJLIT, Vol.34 Issue. 6, Nov 2014)
DOI: 10.14429- DOI prefix comprising of a directory indicator “10” followed
by registrant code “14429”
The registrant code can be further subdivided into sub-elements for administrative
conveniences, if required. Each sub-element of the registrant code shall be
preceded by a full stop which implies no heretical relationship. However, for any
changes as such one has to consult the ISO 26324 registration authority.
DOI suffix
The DOI suffix shall consist of a character string of any length chosen by the
registrant. Each suffix shall be unique to the prefix element that precedes it. The
suffix can be a sequential number or any other number generated by the registrant
like it can be ISBN, ISSN number also.
Example 1: 10.1342.isbn.1347-3467- DOI suffix using an ISSN number
(hypothetical)
Example 2: 10.14429/djlit.34.6.6582- DOI suffix using the journal acronym and a
period
469
(b) A resolution Service
DOI resolution is provided through 'Handle system' which is effortlessly and freely
available to any user using DOI name. Resolution redirects a user from its DOI link
to one or more pieces of typed data like URLs. To determine a DOI name, it may be
input to a DOI resolver or may be characterized as a DOI HTTP string by preceding
the DOI name by the string. The URL provides the location of the HTTP proxy
server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked
item.
Example:
DOI-10.1021/ac0354342
To convert a web address to a particular URL to the DOI becomes:
http:/dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac035342
(c) Control of DOI names
The DOI system is executed through registration agencies. However, the main
controlling authority of the DOI has been the International DOI Foundation (IDF),
Geneva. This organization also protects the Intellectual property rights related to
the DOI system. Basically IDF only acts a a central safeguarding agency, the
standardization of the system through ISO 26324.
Various Registration Offices of DOI
The various registration offices of DOI are- Airiti Inc, CrossRef, Datacite,
Entertainment Identifier Registry (EIDR), The Institute of Scientific and Technical
Information of China (ISTIC), Japan link centre (JALC) and Multilingual
European DOI Registration Agency (MEDRA).
Conclusions and Future Developments
The DOI system is a very innovative and ground-breaking system. The main need
of the system was felt when some of the traditional systems like the ISBN and ISSN
numbers also used as identifiers are not able to provide a level of individuality to all
the published information, because the basic idea is to provide a identification to
individual articles or other such publications as finding or locating information of
470
an single entity was getting absolutely impossible in this vast printing of
publications. Though DOIS cannot be called as intelligent identifiers like ISBN or
ISSN numbers because these identifier numbers have some meaning whereas the
DOI numbers does not have any significant meaning hence, they are also called as
dumb identifiers. However, they are considered as excellent concept and scheme to
locate or identify a particular document or article.
While the DOI system will help to satisfy many of the needs of the major
publishers, both in supporting commercial interactions and in protecting
intellectual property, those publishers produce only a fraction of the total material
available on the internet, since this is a very costly service and also due to its
complex upkeep requirements. Hence, it is required that the publishers need to
collaborate so as to develop a more efficient and affordable parallel system.
The DOI is currently undergoing a era of rapid progress, following the early
recognition of the principles of the system and its espousal in initial applications.
As of now, several million DOIs have been issued, with over 300 organizations
assigning DOIs. More new DOI agencies have been proposed and in the pipeline.
The advancement of DOIs hence, obvious in all aspects of the DOI system let it be
in technology, method or execution of the policies.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Paskin, N. Information identifiers. Learned publishing, April 1997, 10 (2),
136-156 (available at http://www.elsevier.ne/inca/homepage/
about/infoident/)
Bride, M. In search of unicorn: The Digital Object Identifier from a user
perspective, British National Bibliography Research Fund Report, November
1997. (Available at http:/www.bic.org.uk/unicorn2.pdf.)
Davidson, Lloyd A.; Douglas Kimberly. Digital Object Identifiers: Promise
and problems for scholarly publishing, The Socioeconomic Dimensions of
Electronic Publishing, 1998, 4(2).
Srivastava, Rochna. Managing Intellectual property in digital environment
through Digital Object Identifier DOI). DESIDOC Bulletin of Information
Technology, 2004, 24 (2), 17-21.
www.doi.org
http://www.crossref.org
Cryptography: Right to Information Vis a Vis
Right to Privacy
Navtika1 and Shuchita Agarwal2
Abstract
The notion of a right to privacy of citizens in their communications is discussed in
the context of an international movement by governments towards regulation of
cryptography, and consideration of key forfeiture systems in national cryptography
use. Data security is the science and study of methods of protecting data in
computer and communication systems from unauthorized disclosure and
modification. It has evolved rapidly since 1975. Cryptography is about
communication in the presence of an adversary. It encompasses many problems
like encryption, authentication, and key distribution to name a few.
Advanced digital technologies have made multimedia data widely available. The
basic issues pertaining to the problem of encryption has been discussed and also a
survey on image encryption techniques based on chaotic schemes has been dealt in
the present communication. Digital images are widely used in various
applications, that include military, legal and medical systems and these
applications need to control access to images and provide the means to verify
integrity of images.
Keywords- Cryptography, Privacy, Image Encryption, Chaotic Schemes.
Introduction
The word cryptography derived from Greek word kryptos which means 'hidden'
and though the graphic it mean 'writing'. Cryptography allows for the safety of
sensitive information, either to save or to communicate, and it is an indispensable
feature of any secure e-commerce, (including secure email and voice
communication).
1
2
Assistant Professor, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Email- navtika20@gmail.com
Assistant Professor, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Email- shuchitabhartiya@gmail.com
472
There are a number of cryptographic primitives' basic building blocks, such as
block ciphers, stream ciphers, and hash functions. Block ciphers may either have
one key for both encryption and decryption, in which case they're called shared key
(also secret key or symmetric), or have separate keys for encryption and decryption,
in which case they're called public key or asymmetric. A digital signature scheme is
a special type of asymmetric crypto primitive.3
Cryptography contains four main types of services related with data that is
transmitted or stored:
1.
Integrity: keep the data unaltered
2.
Confidentiality: keep the data secret.
3.
Non-repudiation: so that someone cannot deny sending the data.
4.
Authentication: be certain from where the data come.
A digital signature has much in common with an ordinary signature, except that it
works better: when properly used it is difficult to forge, and it behaves as if the
signature were scrawled over the entire document, so that any alteration to the
document would alter the signature. In contrast, ordinary signatures are notoriously
easy to forge and are affixed to just one small portion of a document.4 Taken all
together, cryptography and its uses and implementations have become essential for
mankind's technical civilization. The future promise is for the smooth functioning
of these and other services to allow individuals, businesses, and governments to
interact without fear in the new digital and online world.5
Cryptography is important for more than just privacy, however. Cryptography
protects the world's banking systems as well. Many banks and other financial in
situations conduct their business over open networks, such as the Internet. Without
the ability to protect bank transactions and communications, criminals could
interfere with the transactions and steal money without a trace.6
Cryptography stands where security engineering meets mathematics. It offers us
with the tools that underline the most modern security protocols. It is certainly the
key enabling technology for shielding distributed systems, yet it is surprisingly
tough to do right. There are a number of reasons for this, such as different
professional backgrounds (computer science versus mathematics) and different
research funding (governments have tried to promote computer security research
while suppressing cryptography).7
Cryptography: Right to Information Vis a Vis Right to Privacy
473
Aims and Objectives
I. To analysis the issue related with cryptography.
II. To discuss the provisions of cryptography with privacy.
III. To investigate the future challenges of cryptography.
IV. To investigate whether encryption could be a middle way to make a Balance
Cryptography and Privacy
The notion of a right to privacy of persons in their communications has been
communicated in the agenda of a global movement by supervisions in the course of
directive of cryptography, and observation of crucial forfeiture systems in national
cryptography use. The writers claim that the right to privacy in communication
setups is a matter of foremost significance, guaranteeing freedom of the individual
in nationally and globally. Guidelines and directives of cryptography procedure on
Internet by nationwide administration may lead to discrimination in the
citizen/government command relationship, with resultant comprising
extraordinary observation of inhabitants, disruption of transnational conversation
due to absence of persuasive cryptography (and insufficiency of regulation),
human rights exploitations by rarer democratic or non-democratic administrations,
and detaining of the radical prospective of an Internet global political arrangement.
The Internet as marketplace requires cryptography only as a means of keeping
commercial transactions safe: it is in the area of political discussion and other
public forum functions that the importance of cryptography as a social issue
becomes apparent. However, it already offers a politicised environment where
news groups and lobby groups actively inform the Internet “community”.8
This function may be seen as an important new “public good” which possesses
potential for a global public forum.9 Internet users are, in fact, highly vulnerable to
the placing of national “security” measures which may impact heavily on
individual privacy.10
Confidentiality of communications is not measured to be a human “right” in utmost
nations as, for example, it is contended in international forums literacy must be a
human “right”. The Japanese constitution is unusual in guaranteeing citizens
privacy of communications (Article 21 of the Japanese Constitution states in part
“No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of
474
communication be violated”, making Japan one of the few countries with
constitutional guarantees of privacy).11
Cryptography and Information
Cryptography allows for the protection of sensitive information, either in storage or
in communication, and is a necessary feature of any secure e-commerce or
electronic communication system (including secure email and voice
communication). In the United States, there are few restrictions on the use of
cryptography. When operating overseas, however, companies must grapple with a
bewildering array of regulations and restrictions on the use of cryptography. Some
countries restrict the import or export of cryptographic technology, others restrict
the import of encrypted data, and still others restrict or prohibit the use of
encryption within their borders. These regulations create immense difficulties for
firms attempting to operate overseas, especially where prohibitions on the use of
encryption force them to put their intellectual property at risk of compromise.
Furthermore, the United States places restrictions on the export of encryption
technology, and these restrictions can place companies operating overseas at risk of
severe penalties if cryptography systems are exported to prohibited countries or
entities.12
With the meteoric rise of the Internet and e-commerce in the 1990s came great
attention to the problems and opportunities associated with cryptography.
Throughout that decade, the United States and many foreign countries debated and
experimented with various forms of cryptography regulation, and attempts were
made at international harmonization. Since then, however, policy-making activity
around cryptography has slowed, if not halted altogether, leaving individuals and
companies to face a bewildering array of regulations—or, in many cases, to face
regulations that are extraordinarily unclear and haphazardly applied.13
Public key cryptography is an irregular preparation that exercises a duo of sources
for encryption: a public key, to encrypt data, and a corresponding private, or
undisclosed key for decryption. Frequently we mix our public key to the world
however protecting our private key confidential. Any person with a replica of our
public key can at that time, encrypt data that simply you can recite. Even peoples
you have not once met. It is computationally not possible to interpret the private key
from the public key. Any person who has a public key can encrypt information but
475
cannot decrypt it. Basically the individual who has the corresponding private key
can decrypt the Information.
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis is the skill of examine cipher text to abstract the plaintext or the key.
In other words, cryptanalysis is the contrasting of cryptography. It is the cutting of
ciphers. Accepting the procedure of code breaking is very imperative while
planning any encryption structure. The discipline of cryptography has saved the
technological detonation of the previous half of the 20th century. Current systems
require very powerful computer systems to encrypt and decrypt data. While
cryptanalysis has improved as well, some systems may exists that are unbreakable
by today's standards.14
Today's cryptanalysis is measured by the number and speed of computers available
to the code breaker. Some cryptographers believe that the National Security
Agency (NSA) of the United States has enormous, extremely powerful computers
that are entirely devoted to cryptanalysis.15
Data Encryption Cryptography is nearly communication in the existence of an
opposition. It involves many difficulties (encryption, key distribution,
authentication etc). The field of modern cryptography provides a theoretical
foundation based on which we may understand what exactly these problems are,
how to evaluate protocols that purport to solve them, and how to build protocols in
whose security we can have confidence.16 We introduce the basic issues by
discussing the problem of encryption.
Cryptography and Future Challenges
There are two categories of cryptography in this domain: cryptography which
breaks your kid sister to read your records, and cryptography which breaks major
administrations from interpreting your files. For numerous years, this class of
cryptography was the elite territory of the military. The United States' National
Security Agency (NSA), and its counterparts in the former Soviet Union, England,
France, Israel, and elsewhere, have spent billions of dollars in the very serious
game of securing their own communications while trying to break everyone else's.
Private individuals, with far less expertise and budget, have been powerless during
476
17
the last 20 years, public academic research in cryptography has exploded.
Whereas classical cryptography has been extensively used by regular people;
computer cryptography was the private domain of the world, since World War II.
Nowadays, state of heart computer cryptography is experienced separate in the
protected walls of the military. The amateur can now hire security practices that can
defend besides the most dominant adversaries' safety that may guard alongside
military agencies for ages to come.
For whatever motive, the information and communications are private and no one
else's business, to guard their personal confidentiality against these governments.
Clipper and Digital Telephony do not guard confidentiality; they force persons to
absolutely belief that the government will takes care of their secrecy.
Legal Issues
Cryptography has been of unease to intelligence assembly and law enactment
agencies for long. Secretive communications may be illegitimate or even
treasonous. Due to its simplification of confidentiality, and the lessening of privacy
connected on its prevention, cryptography is equally of substantial reputation to
civil rights supporters. Subsequently, there have been olden times of contentious
legal matters connecting cryptography, predominantly since the beginning of
economical computers has prepared widespread contact to high class cryptography
feasible.
Digital Rights Management
Cryptography is indispensable to digital rights management (DRM), a cluster of
skills for mechanically governing use of copyrighted constituent, being extensively
implemented and situated at the demand of some copyright holders. In 1998, Mr.
Clinton, President of the United States beginning 1993 to 2001, engaged the Digital
Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which proscribed all formation,
dissemination, and procedure of certain cryptanalytic processes and proficiency
(now identified or later revealed); overtly, those that could be employed to avoid
DRM technological schemes. This had a noticeable effect on the cryptography
enquiry community ever since a disagreement can be equipped that any
cryptanalytic enquiry dishonoured, or might intrude, the DMCA. Related verdicts
have consequently been endorsed in several countries and areas, embracing the
application in the EU Copyright Directive. Similar restrictions are called for by
477
arrangements contracted by World Intellectual Property Organization memberstates.Unquestionably cryptography and in a better sense, cryptology, has frisked
enormous role in the determining and development of many cultures and nations.
Whereas past may garnish an unlike image, the fact that the prime candidate often
inscribe antiquity is worth revealing. If a military has a concrete defense that was
powerful in arranging facts and figures that directed to accomplishment, how
suitable are they to divulge it in the events of the wars? As a substitute, it may seem
well to have revered heroes than to uncover the wrap and breadknife approaches
that actually led to achievement. Cryptography, by its real nature, proposes
confidentiality and no direction; henceforth, the fact that the antiquity of this
subject is small and rather unreachable is of no big amazement. Possibly it is the
situation which veiled in what is has formerly been inscribed.
Encryption: A Middle Way to Make a Balance
Encryption is the principal instrument that consents for material safety in the digital
age. In its utmost elementary form, encryption takes a note or article and scrambles
it so that merely proposed beneficiaries can interpret the subjects. An unencrypted
article: for example, an email note can be seen and understood by everybody who
accepts it; an encrypted file, on the other hand, cannot be delivered or seen by
accidental recipients, even if they have custody of the file itself. Encryption works
by taking an original, unsecured document called the clear text and using a key to
transform it into a secured document the cipher text.18
Cryptography is not fresh; in fact, encryption in modest forms has been in practise
for thousands of years. The Roman emperor Julius Caesar employed an encryption
method based on a very simple key: in his communications, he would shift each
letter in the alphabet up by three letters.19
Data Security
Data security deprived of “strong” cryptography is challenging, and United States,
working on increasing of power in the field of cryptography advancement, is
providing an instance of a nation which toughly prefers its supposed benefits as a
national government, but not completely at the cost of declining to attend to the
worries of its peoples.
478
The next technique, weak encryption, is likewise difficult. The main opposition to
this kind of encryption directive is that some encryption capable of being wrecked
by the administration is equally capable of being wrecked by any new government,
or by big companies, or planned crime, or a drug union, or even a scholar with
access to some standby computing period. Banks and similar organisations already
send huge amounts of data in encrypted form over electronic networks. Providing
the ability to decrypt such data is an open ticket to commit financial fraud, and both
weak encryption and key forfeiture encryption open electronic commerce systems
to fraud.20
“The ``quotation'' above is ordinarily called a message or plaintext in
cryptography. The cryptogram is the cipher text. The process of transforming the
plaintext into cipher text is encryption, while the reverse process of recovering the
plaintext from the cipher text is decryption. The 26 letters used for encryption and
decryption is called the key. The particular method of translating plaintext to
cipher text is called a cryptosystem”.21
It is imperative to understand that a particular key could convert an arbitrarily
lengthy portion of plaintext. Thus instead of possessing a big message undisclosed,
the practice cryptography so that one requires only retaining a short key
undisclosed. The original system of cryptography was the simple inscription of a
message, as utmost individuals could not read. Although, the very name
cryptography arises from the Greek names kryptos and graph in, which refers to
secreted and writing, respectively. Initial cryptography was exclusively concerned
with changing messages into indecipherable clusters of figures to guard the
messages during the period the message was being passed from one home to
another. In the contemporary era, cryptography has matured from simple message
privacy to comprise some stages of message truthfulness scrutiny, sender/receiver
identity verification, and digital signatures amongst other things. Certainty
cryptography and in a better sense, cryptology, has done a massive work in
determining and growth of many civilizations and cultures.
It is the preparation and study of systems for protected communication in the
existence of third parties (named opponents). Cryptography proceeding to the
modern age was efficiently identical with encryption, the alteration of data from a
legible state to ostensible nonsense. The creator of an encrypted note shared the
decoding system required to mend the original data only by proposed recipients,
479
thus preventing uninvited individuals to do the alike. Ever since World War I and
the arrival of the computer, the approaches used to carry out cryptology have turned
out to be progressively multifaceted and its application more extensive.
Conclusion
Cryptography is crucial for the secure operation of for all associations, and it is a
key to protect the privacy of individuals. Though, in reality, most of the countries
put strong limitations on the use of cryptography. Cryptology deals with a difficulty
not found in usual academic disciplines: the need for the appropriate interaction of
cryptography and cryptanalysis. All worldwide active firms must acquire steps to
ensure that they are in conformity with encryption rules in all countries where they
do trade, and at the same time must accept best practices to maximize their
information security in spite of restrictions on cryptography use.22 In such a way
Cryptography has many roles and many applications to perform.
References
1.
G. Julius Caesar & Johan F. Kennedy, “Cryptography”, available at:
https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/Papers/SE-05.pdf
2. Neal R. Wagner, “The Laws of Cryptography: Introduction”, available at:
http://www.cs.utsa.edu/~wagner/laws/introduction.html
3. Supra note 2. http://www.cs.utsa.edu/~wagner/laws/introduction.html
4. Vibjan Kolapati, “Cryptography & Security”, available at:
5. Supra note 1. G. JULIUS CAESAR
6. Jenny Shearer & Peter Gutmann, “Government, Cryptography, and the
Right To Privacy”, Journal of Universal Computer Science (J.UCS),
Volume 2, No.3, available at:
https://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/jucs96.pdf
7. Supra note 6. Jenny Shearer
8. Ibid. Jenny Shearer
9. Ibid. Jenny Shearer
10. Nathan Saper, “International Cryptography Regulation and the Global
Information Economy”, Northwestern Journal of Technology and
Intellectual Property Volume 11 | Issue 7 Article 5 (2013), available at:
http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=
1205&context=njtip
480
11.
12.
13.
14.
Ibid.By Nathan Saper*
Supra note 4. VIBJAN KOLAPATI
Ibid VIBJAN KOLAPATI
Monisha Sharma & Manoj Kumar Kowar, “Image Encryption Techniques
Using Chaotic Schemes: A Review available at:
http://www.ijest.info/docs/IJEST10-02-06-142.pdf
Supra note 4. VIBJAN KOLAPATI
D. Richard Kuhn, Vincent C. Hu, W. Timothy Polk & Shu-Jen Chang,
“Introduction to Public Key Technology and the Federal PKI Infrastructure”
available at: http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-32/sp800-32.pdf
Supra note 16.D Richard
Ibid. dr.
Ibid. dr
Supra note 10. Nathan Saper
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Research Data Management (RDM): A Systematic
Approach to Big Data Challenge in R&D
and Higher Education
Dr. Rupak Chakravarty1
Abstract
Big Data creates numerous opportunities for driving research and development,
increasing productivity and transforming public and private sector organizations.
The questions of Big Data are also being considered a very crucial aspect in
research. There are far reaching implication of Big Data on how research is being
done and how the data is being treated which is being created during and as the end
product of the research. As the quantum of research generated data increases and
takes the shape of data warehouse, the need for research data management arises.
This paper is an attempt to highlight the concept, need, importance, plans,
pertaining to Research Data Management (RDM). Good research data
management practice enables researc

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From clay Tabrets to web: Journey of Library catarogue

How to use TumbleBooks - Halifax Public Libraries

Creating the library of the future

Nurul Diana - UiTM Puncak Alam