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WATER RESOURCES OF THE
UPPER RÍO GUACIMAL WATERSHED:
Summary, Analysis and Recommendations
Monteverde, Costa Rica
Justin C. Welch1,2
February 2008
1. Visiting Professor, Center for Research in Environmental Contamination, University of Costa Rica, San José
2. Resident Researcher, University of Georgia Costa Rica Campus, San Luis, Monteverde
3. +506-645-80-49; fax.506-645-80-50; justin.welch.cr@gmail.com
Key Terms:
Aqueducts, Groundwater, Hydrology, Legal framework,
Management network, Population, Potable water, Sanitation, Stream quality,
Surface water, Wastewater treatment, Water consumption, Watershed
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................1
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION
Regional Overview ........................................................................................................3
Purpose of Study ............................................................................................................5
Methodology and Organization of Report .....................................................................6
2. SUMMARY OF WATER RESOURCES
Climate and Precipitation...............................................................................................9
Surface Water...............................................................................................................11
Groundwater and Soils.................................................................................................12
Land Cover...................................................................................................................12
3. LEGAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
National Framework ....................................................................................................15
Local Framework .........................................................................................................18
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction of Literature.............................................................................................23
Previous Research........................................................................................................24
MVI Digital Library Database .....................................................................................32
ii
Discussion of Literature...............................................................................................33
5. WATER USE, SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Water Use Types..........................................................................................................39
Potable Water...............................................................................................................39
Regional Socio-economics...........................................................................................44
Discussion of Data .......................................................................................................47
6. DEVELOPING EVENTS
Research Advisory Committee of Monteverde (CAIM) .............................................51
Monteverde-Gulf of Nicoya Biological Corridor ........................................................52
Adopt-A-Stream...........................................................................................................52
Bandera Azul Program.................................................................................................53
7. CONCLUSION
Conclusions..................................................................................................................54
Recommendations........................................................................................................56
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................................61
LITERATURE CITED ..................................................................................................................62
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
TABLE 1. Major Pieces of Literature by Category.......................................................................35
TABLE 2. Summary of Student Projects.......................................................................................36
TABLE 3. Average Consumption (Household and Commercial) per System: 2006 ....................44
TABLE 4. Literature Citations of Community Populations of the Monteverde Region. ..............49
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
FIGURE 1. The Monteverde Region, Pacific slope ........................................................................4
FIGURE 2. The Río Guacimal Watershed ......................................................................................7
FIGURE 3. The Upper Río Guacimal Watershed ...........................................................................7
FIGURE 4. Average Annual Precipitation of the Río Guacimal Watershed.................................10
FIGURE 5. Average Monthly Precipitation: July 2004-December 2006......................................10
FIGURE 6. Soils and Aquifers of the Río Guacimal Watershed...................................................13
FIGURE 7. Soil Uses: 2005...........................................................................................................14
FIGURE 8. Total Consumption per Year: 2003-2006...................................................................41
FIGURE 9. Annual Growth Rate of Total Water Consumption, Santa Elena Aqueduct: 20032006................................................................................................................................................42
FIGURE 10. Annual Water Use of Individual Sub-systems and Total Aqueduct System:
2003-2006 ......................................................................................................................................42
FIGURE 11. Monthly Averages: Commercial and Domestic Consumption and Visitors to the
Montverde Cloud Forest Reserve: 2003-2006...............................................................................43
FIGURE 12. Populations of EBAIS No. 8 and EBAIS No. 9 .......................................................45
FIGURE 13. Population of EBAIS No. 8 and Visitors to the Monteverde Cloud Forest
Reserve...........................................................................................................................................47
FIGURE 14. Population Growth of Local Communities Using Identifies Literature Citations....50
v
Executive Summary
Río Guacimal Watershed
The Monteverde Region, located in the Tilarán Mountain Range of northwestern Costa
Rica, is famous worldwide for its riches in unique flora and fauna. Over the past twenty years,
the active interests of scientists, conservationists and eco-tourists alike have contributed to the
protection of over 29,000 hectares (71,000 acres) of forests (Burlingame, 2000).
Ironically, this very protection has brought with it a subsequent boom in economic and
urban development related to a thriving tourism industry, creating new and complex challenges
for local communities regarding the management of natural resources. Of particular importance
are water resources, with concerns ranging from basic issues of quantity and quality to balancing
the needs of natural systems and the human population.
In an attempt to adapt to current trends and proactively plan for a more sustainable future,
the communities of Monteverde are eager to understand the current conditions of their water
resources as well as the practical alternatives available to address emerging issues. A notable
amount of research has been conducted in the upper portion of Monteverde’s principal
watershed, the Río Guacimal; though to date, much of the available information has not been
analyzed in a comprehensive manner or made accessible to the community at large.
Accordingly, this project provides the first steps in an ongoing effort to strengthen the
understanding of local water resources by providing community members, public decisionmakers and future researchers with a tangible analysis of information regarding the Río
Guacimal watershed. In addition to the synthesis of available information, which primarily
focuses on the upper watershed, other functions of the project include identifying areas of needed
research, making recommendations for improved generation and management of information as
well as proposing opportunities for community participation in long-term planning and
management of public resources.
1
Executive Summary
The following report is designed in a manner that makes the highly varied information
accessible to a diverse audience. The report can be read either as a comprehensive overview of
water-related issues in Monteverde or referenced by chapter for information regarding specific
sub-topics such regional hydrology, surface water quality, water use and the local management
framework.
This project was directly supported by the University of Costa Rica’s Institutional
Program for Integrated Environmental Management (ProGAI-CICA) and the Office of the
Rectoría as well as the University of Georgia’s Costa Rica facility in San Luis, Monteverde. A
simultaneous initiative to construct a digital library with documents concerning water resources
of Monteverde, conducted by local NGO, the Monteverde Institute, and funded by the Dr. Kiran
C. Patel Center for Global Solutions, University of South Florida, was instrumental in the
completion of this project. The literature referenced in the following report directly coincides
with materials found in the recently completed digital library, which can be accessed from the
University of South Florida’s library website (www.lib.usf.edu/mvi).
2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Regional Overview
The Monteverde Region of Costa Rica is famous worldwide for its natural riches.
Scientists and eco-tourists alike have flooded the region for the past twenty years in order to
discover the abundance of unique flora and fauna, taking advantage of the region’s more than
29,000 hectares (71,000 acres) of protected forests and abundant eco-tourism services
(Burlingame, 2000).
The term “Monteverde Region” generally refers to the various communities and sites
located around the peak of the Monteverde Mountain, which is located at the juncture of the
Alajuela, Guanacaste and Puntarenas provinces in northwestern Costa Rica. Monteverde is also
a particular community found within the 10th district of the Puntarenas Canton, just west of the
Continental Divide (Fig. 1). Although inhabited by Costa Ricans since the early 1900s, history
attributes the first intensive settlement of Monteverde to a small group of Quaker families that
arrived from the United States in 1951 (Nadkarni & Wheelwright, 2000).
Soon after settling, the Quakers opted to set aside 554 ha of forest in order to protect
valuable water springs for the community. This eventually led to the creation of the now 10,500
ha Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve (Nadkarni & Wheelwright, 2000).
From this initial
endeavor came sequential waves of conservation efforts that have helped create one of the most
prolific conservation areas in the country.
The protection of Monteverde’s forests led to the development a vigorous tourism
industry and the resultant economic and population growth now presents complex challenges for
local communities in regard to the management of water resources. These challenges range from
basic concerns over adequate management of quantity and quality to balancing the needs of
natural systems and the human population.
3
Chapter 1
Introduction
N
Figure 1. The Monteverde region, Pacific slope (MVI, 2007).
Although population and commercial growth are the visible culprits of many local waterrelated issues, they are merely common factors that occur within a larger, more complicated
context at the regional and national levels. Until 2003, the isolated mountain region was under
legal jurisdiction of the Puntarenas Municipality, located more than 40 kilometers away on the
coast, leading to insufficient legal and development oversight during the past critical 20 years
(Dallas, 2005). The relatively new municipal government of Monteverde still faces difficulties
as it must address the challenges of a highly developed community with relatively limited
resources and without a Plan Regulador (Rojas, personal com., 2007), which would provide a
clear planning framework for future development in addition to stronger legal support for
administrative decision-making.
Still further issues exist at the national level. Costa Rica’s “culture of water use” was
historically defined by insignificant use fees for a small population within a relatively wet
tropical country, none of which encourages conservation. The country now contends with
modern water resource management issues predominantly using an outdated law from 1942 (Ley
de Agua, No 276) and a labyrinth of overlapping government agency responsibilities (Astorga,
4
Chapter 1
Introduction
2003). Current fee structures for water use and other public utilities are controlled nationally by
the ARESEP agency (Solano, personal com., 2007), and often leave local water districts to
manage expensive infrastructure with minimal budgets. The lack of sufficient legal support and
the pervasive attitudes toward water use limit the ability of the national government, requiring in
many cases community-derived initiatives for addressing specific local challenges.
Purpose of Study
In an attempt to adapt to current trends, the communities of Monteverde are eager to
understand the current conditions of their water resources as well as the practical alternatives
available to resolve emerging issues. A notable amount of research has been conducted on
various aspects of local water resources (see chapter 4); though to date, there has not been an
applied synthesis which comprehensively describes current water resource conditions, use trends,
institutional management efforts and the state of scientific knowledge nor has information been
made easily accessible to the community at large.
Accordingly, this project provides the first step in an ongoing effort to strengthen the
understanding of local water resources by providing community members, public decisionmakers and future researchers with a tangible summary of the available information regarding
the Río Guacimal watershed, primarily focusing on the upper headwater section (Figs. 2 and 3).
In addition to the synthesis of information, other functions of this project include identifying
areas of needed research, making recommendations for the improved management of waterrelated information and proposing opportunities for community participation in long-term
planning and management of public resources.
5
Chapter 1
Introduction
A further goal of this report is to provide a detailed account of the materials that can be
found in the recently completed digital library collection made available as a result of
collaborative efforts between local non-profit organization, the Monteverde Institute (MVI), and
the Dr. Kiran C. Patel Center for Global Solutions, University of South Florida.
Methodology and Organization of Report
The major portion of this study reviews available literature in order to describe the known
natural and socio-economic processes influencing local water resources and to summarize any
identified issues. Maps were created from Geographic Information Systems (GIS) databases to
display key geographic and hydrologic features of the Río Guacimal watershed. Interviews of
public officials were conducted in order to describe the local management framework present.
Various institutions such as the local aqueducts and sewer authority, the regional public
clinic and the Tropical Science Center, which manages the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve,
collected primary data which were utilized for original analyses in this project. This information,
which includes water use and population and tourism data, respectively, are examined to identify
explicit spatial and temporal trends, and are evaluated based on their level of quality and utility.
This report is organized in a manner that makes the highly varied information
accessible to a diverse audience. The report can be read either as a comprehensive overview of
water-related issues, or referenced by chapter for information regarding specific sub-topics. To
begin, the following chapter generally describes biophysical characteristics of the region as well
as the surface and groundwater resources found within the Río Guacimal watershed.
Chapter three describes the management processes of governmental and private
institutions that are present in Monteverde. In addition to their individual activities, the network
6
Chapter 1
Introduction
Figure 2. The Río Guacimal watershed.
Figure 3. The Upper Río Guacimal watershed.
7
Chapter 1
Introduction
of cross-institutional interactions and the legal framework that guides them are “mapped” to
more clearly illustrate the local administrative processes and to identify potential needs for
improvement.
Chapter four includes a synthesis of the most pertinent research on local water resources.
The results of each study are summarized and critiqued within a larger framework of analysis;
that is, how the conclusions of each project fit into the larger context of Monteverde’s
environmental, legal and socio-economic reality. A summary of documents found in the new
digital library but not mentioned elsewhere in the report is also included in order to offer a more
complete record of the information available through the new database.
Chapter five presents an original analysis of local water consumption using statistics
compiled by authorities of the principal aqueduct system in Santa Elena. Results from these
analyses are compared to those of two previous investigators. Due to the major influence of
local population growth on future water planning, a review of available population statistics is
also included in this chapter.
Chapter six offers a brief discussion of activities related to water resources that are
currently developing in Montverde. The major reason for the inclusion of such information is to
document the various efforts that are currently being development by local environmental
organizations. Finally, chapter seven concludes with an overall discussion of current water
resource conditions and provides recommendations for improving their management.
8
Chapter 2
Summary of Water Resources
Climate and Precipitation
The watershed, located on the leeward slope of the continental divide, experiences an
annual wet (May-October), transitional (November-January) and dry (February-April) season
related to effects created by the location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Shifts in
the location of the ITCZ influence Central American climate patterns, most notably the creation
of the northeast trade winds. From November to April, the trade winds blow westward from the
Caribbean Ocean moving moisture offshore of the Costa Rican landmass creating a period of dry
weather.
Conversely, during the rest of the year the trade winds do not blow, allowing
convectional storms to build-up and release considerable amounts of rainfall (Clark et al., 2000).
An interesting characteristic of the Guacimal watershed, like that found in other regions
of the leeward Pacific slope, is a distinct precipitation gradient along its elevation range of 01800 meters (Fig. 4). This precipitation gradient has a major influence on the vegetation found
within the watershed area, which in turn affect soil characteristics, surface water runoff and
groundwater recharge.
Determining the amount of precipitation in the Monteverde Region is often difficult due
to significant variability in elevation and exposure to the trade winds. The longest dataset
available (“Campbell farm”) indicates that between 1956 and 1995 the average rainfall on one
farm (elevation 1460 m) was 2519 mm per year (Clark et al.). Measurements taken at different
locations by researchers between July 2004 and December 2006 show the greatest amount of
precipitation during the wet season months of June and October (Fig. 5).
Clark et al. (2000) also suggest that much of the precipitation data collected in
Monteverde via conventional methods underestimates the entire annual precipitation inputs of
9
Chapter 2
Figure 4. Average annual precipitation of the Río Guacimal watershed. (range: 1500-3500 mm)
Average Montly Precip
700
Dry Season
Wet Season
Transitional
Precipitation (mm)
600
500
400
300
200
100
y
Au
gus
t
Sep
tem
ber
Oc
tob
er
No
vem
ber
De
ce m
b er
Jul
e
Jun
y
Ma
Ap
ril
h
Ma
rc
uar
y
Feb
r
Jan
uar
y
0
Month
Figure 5. Average monthly precipitation: July 2004-December 2006. Grey bars (Guswa &
Rhodes, 2007); Open white bars (Pounds, unpublished data).
10
Chapter 2
the upper elevations which receive a significant amount of water from cloud moisture captured
by direct contact with forest vegetation and via wind-driven mist (i.e., orographic precipitation).
Clark et al. cite a study conducted between 1991 and 1992 which indicated that cloud moisture
represented 22% of the total precipitation inputs for one particular site in Monteverde.
Another critical component of the regional water cycle is evapotranspiration, which is the
process by which precipitation directly evaporates back to the atmosphere from the land surface
or is absorbed and later released by vegetation. Clark et al. (2000) suggest that forest cover type
has an important influence on this process, noting that in Monteverde, cloud forest vegetation at
higher elevations has a significant influence on the amount of moisture that is retained when
compared to the less forested areas at lower elevations.
Surface Water
The Río Guacimal watershed flows west from the continental divide to the Gulf of
Nicoya and contains an area of 18,850 ha along its approximate 37 km length. As previously
seen in Figures 2 and 3, Río Guacimal has five small headwater streams and three larger
tributaries. The headwater streams Sucia and Máquina drain the most urban communities of the
region (Santa Elena and Cerro Plano) and the Cuecha, considered the primary source of the
Guacimal, flows directly from the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. The Cambronero and
Socorro streams further down slope drain forest and pasture lands of the Monteverde and San
Luis communities. Collectively, the five headwater streams drain an area of 19.7 km2 (Rhodes et
al., in press). The three large tributaries of Río Guacimal include Ríos San Luis, Veracruz and
Acapulco, all of which drain rural areas of mixed pasture and forest lands.
11
Chapter 2
Few long-term, professional studies on water quality are available for the streams and
rivers of the upper watershed and even fewer concerning volumetric properties. What literature
is available is summarized later in chapter four.
Groundwater and Soils
Quantitative information regarding groundwater resources in the Río Guacimal watershed
is virtually non-existent. Clark et al. (2000) provide the most useful explanations of local
groundwater dynamics using generalizations from other regions in the humid tropics and
describing basic hydrologic concepts. Purely on a qualitative basis, it is widely-known that the
region is rich with groundwater springs which provide local communities with adequate potable
water. Not only are characteristics of groundwater springs not quantified, but their locations are
relatively undocumented except in cases where a legal withdrawal concession has been obtained
from the national government.
One major aquifer was identified near the coast at Chomes via GIS data (Fig. 6), though
an analysis of its utilization or characteristics was not within the scope of this study.
Monteverde’s soils, which play an important role in the quality and quantity of both surface and
groundwater resources, are broadly described by Clark et al. (2000) as highly porous and high in
volumetric moisture content and moisture conductivity. Although very generalized, Figure 6
provides the most comprehensive description of soils currently available for the entire watershed.
Land Cover
Another critical influence on water resources is vegetation, or natural land cover. The
12
Chapter 2
Figure 6. Soils and aquifers of the Río Guacimal watershed.
land cover present within a watershed plays an important role in processes such as storm water
absorption and soil protection, both of which affect the immediate and long-term flow of surface
and groundwater as well as the water quality of streams and rivers after storm events.
Few in-depth studies have been conducted on the natural land cover of the Guacimal
watershed. Some visual information has been produced for preliminary analyses of a proposed
biological corridor that pertains exactly to the Río Guacimal watershed. Figure 7 shows the
types of land cover that existed in 2005, which were principally divided between primary and
secondary forests and pasture lands. Of interest is the amount of forest cover seen in the upper
watershed where protected lands such as the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve play a critical
role in the protection of headwater streams and groundwater springs.
The only empirical study identified for the entire watershed was conducted in May 2007
(Welch2) in order to determine the land use trends on individual farms and the availability of
13
Chapter 2
Figure 7. Soil uses: 2005 (Welch, 20072; courtesy of the Tropical Science Center).
land for reforestation initiatives. Of the 8,107.3 ha of land surveyed, which represents 43% of
the total watershed area, 48.9% was in pasture. Although this figure can be roughly used to
extrapolate the total area of non-forested area within the watershed (~9,218 ha), it is not a
sensitive enough tool to determine the direct effects of land cover on discharge and water quality
at the watershed and sub-watershed levels.
A more in-depth study was conducted by Oltremari (2002) for the immediate areas
surrounding the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
Using criteria such as national legal
requirements for protecting stream and spring buffers as well as opportunities to connect forest
patches, Oltremari generated GIS map layers that indicate priority areas for reforestation.
Similarly, he proposed areas that would be best suited for future human development. This landuse planning model offers a practical tool for many different applications within the Guacimal
watershed such as urban planning within the municipal district of Montverde, establishing
priority areas for reforestation within the entire biological corridor as well as efforts to remediate
water quality issues caused by certain land uses.
14
Chapter 3
Legal Management Framework
National Framework
Costa Rican laws and their subsequent regulations address water resource management in
terms of the following general themes.
¾ Potable water supply
¾ Public and environmental health
¾ Agricultural and commercial utilization
¾ Hydro-electricity
These themes, which broadly cover quantity and quality issues related to surface and
groundwater, are managed by national agencies, municipal governments, watershed management
commissions, or as in many cases, a collaborative effort between several of them. National laws
and regulations are implemented in the form of: 1) defining specific standards, restrictions and
prohibitions for the exploitation and protection of water as well as related natural resources (e.g.,
air, vegetation and soils); 2) permitting and enforcement programs; 3) financing and fee-recovery
programs; and/or 4) research, technical analyses and public dissemination of information.
Numerous laws and regulations address water resource management in Costa Rica,
though, three key pieces of legislation, including the Leyes de Agua, Orgánica del Ambiente and
General de Salud, cover the principal issues. The Ley de Agua (No. 276, 27 August 1942)
describes the structure of water rights and charges the Ministry of Environment and Energy
(MINAE) with the ultimate responsibility of managing water resources that are under public
domain. Administratively, MINAE is divided into several departments, including water, as well
as 11 geo-political units called “national conservation areas.” Each conservation area has a
15
Chapter 3
central office which coordinates activities within the area. Some conservation areas are further
divided into districts with personnel responsible for coordinating activities within their
jurisdiction, including those related to water resource protection.
Pursuant to environmental and public health rights afforded to Costa Ricans under the
national constitution, the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente (No. 7554, 4 October 1998) broadly defines
the environmental protection measures that must be incorporated into a variety of national
regulations and policies. Some of the most straightforward requirements pertain to water quality
protection measures found in articles 64 and 65. These measures seek to maintain quality and
quantity standards that are determined by a water body’s specified use, mandating responsible
government entities to “regulate and control” the use of water resources as well as requiring
wastewater dischargers to meet their specified permit limits. Regulatory decree No. 33903MINAE-S (La Gaceta, September 2007), which is a direct extension of legislative articles 64 and
65, specifies the chemical and biological standards for defined use classes, which are assigned to
water bodies by a MINAE Technical Revision Committee. Although it is not immediately clear
if all water bodies have an assigned use class, including those of the Guacimal watershed, the
chemical and biological standards establish clear water quality goals for those that do.
The final and perhaps most appreciable legislative power is created under the Ley
General de Salud (No. 5395, 30 October 1973), which charges the Ministry of Health with
extensive responsibilities for managing water resources as related to public health.
Responsibilities include among others, defining quality standards for surface and groundwater,
granting discharge permits and monitoring potable water supply systems. Because the Ministry
of Health is directly responsible for such critical and immediate concerns that involve multiple
16
Chapter 3
sectors of society (commercial, domestic, governmental), it is typically provided with greater
executive power and resources than MINAE officials at the local level.
Another series of interrelated laws create powers and responsibilities for municipal
governments and the Costa Rican Institute for Aqueducts and Sewer (Instituto Costarricense de
Acueductos y Alcantarillados, AyA) to administer supply systems of potable water. According
to Aguilar et al. (2001), municipalities have ultimate responsibility for ensuring an adequate and
efficient supply of potable water for its citizens.
However, in cases where a municipal
government has not previously constructed and managed its own system or in cases where a
municipal government does not exist, AyA has the responsibility for the “direct administration
and operation” of aqueducts. An additional requirement for communities where both entities
operate is the creation of an administrative association which integrates local government
policies with the management of water supply systems (Aguilar et al.).
As the national entity responsible for water works, AyA is also obligated to assist rural
communities in the construction and maintainence of small aqueduct systems and, despite a
historical emphasis on water supply, are also responsible for managing wastewater via
construction of sewer and drainage systems (Dallas, 2005).
Aguilar et al. (2001) further summarize the complicated labyrinth of national laws and
rules pertaining to water resources as well as the bureaucratic entities and processes for
implementing them. To avoid redundancy, this report does not include a more in-depth review
of the national legal framework than that provided above, yielding instead to the work of Aguilar
and her colleagues, and focusing on the specific management framework in Monteverde. It
warrants mentioning here, however, that the circumstances in the upper portion of the Guacimal
watershed are a mixture of both the national framework and a distinct local history.
17
Chapter 3
Local Framework
Institutional Network
Historically a rural region, Monteverde received minimal regulatory oversight from the
Puntarenas municipal government to which it pertained until 2003 (Dallas, 2003). This minimal
involvement during the past 20 years allowed for extensive, unplanned residential and
commercial development, insufficient enforcement of construction codes (e.g., lot sizes and
septic tank standards) and a slow development of infrastructure within the upper portion of the
watershed. Responsibilities such as construction and maintenance of aqueducts, wastewater
management and the monitoring of surface water quality fell upon the small district offices of
various governmental entities where they remain today.
The management framework in the upper Guacimal watershed, which pertains to the
municipal district of Monteverde, is not centralized regardless of the requirements for municipal
governments and AyA described above. Particular obstacles to the creation of a formal planning
process include the limited experience and resources of the new government as well as the lack
of a Plan Regulador, which defines a municipality’s future development goals and the
administrative parameters for achieving them (Rojas, personal com., 2007).
Because the
municipal government has not adopted a plan thus far, a foundation for administrative planning
and implementation does not exist. As a result, the region still exhibits a loose network of
government agencies and community organizations that independently implement their
individual regulatory and programmatic responsibilities, resembling an administrative
framework of a small rural community more than what might be expected from a locale with its
own municipal government.
18
Chapter 3
Management entities present in this local network include small community aqueduct
associations, an AyA office which manages the principal aqueduct system, a district office of the
MINAE Arenal-Tilarán Conservation Area (ACAT-SINAC-MINAE), a Ministry of Agriculture
and Cattle (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, MAG) district office and a municipal
government for 10th district of the Puntarenas Canton. The responsibilities and interrelationships
of these entities are described in the following sub-sections.
Another component to the management network within the upper watershed is created by
an influential private sector. Environmental interests are actively represented by numerous
elements, including private businesses, community-member groups, non-profit organizations and
academic institutions.
Within the private sector individual organizations have undertaken
initiatives that supplement efforts of local government departments, and collectively, the
elements create a peripheral entity involved in local environmental management activities.
Although a large water-related program with long term implications has not been realized at the
regional level, the presence of these organizations represents a unique resource for improving or
supplementing local resource management compared to other communities of a similar size.
Water Quality
The MINAE office in Santa Elena has a staff of 2-3 which is responsible for investigating
and documenting grievance claims made by community members. These claims are generally
limited to issues regarding surface water contamination. Once claims have been documented,
the local MINAE officials will try to work with violators to alter illegal activities on a voluntary
basis and will follow-up as necessary with Ministry of Health officials to address unresolved
violations. These health officials visit Monteverde 1-2 times per month from the regional office
19
Chapter 3
in Miramar and are responsible for conducting permit inspections of local businesses, monitoring
the quality of drinking water systems and responding to any outstanding violations, including the
taking of punitive action (Jiménez, personal com., 2007).
The Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, which nationally plays a part in water
resource protection, has an office in Sta. Elena as well. Although once very proactive in regional
agricultural education and outreach programs, the few staff members now present at the MAG
office play a smaller role in such activities as the regional economy has shifted from agriculture
production to tourism.
The final manner in which water quality is legally managed in Montverde is via
construction permitting by the current municipal government, which is responsible for enforcing
national standards for septic tanks, domestic and commercial lot sizes, and roadside drainage
systems.
Voluntary treatment of wastewater discharges is also an important component to local
water quality management. The first large project was undertaken by the region’s principal
industrial operation, the Monteverde Cheese Factory and is discussed in detail in chapter 4. The
other private treatment facility was installed 10 years ago by Hotel El Establo in Cerro Plano.
This system, which includes both aerobic and anaerobic components, has the capacity to treat
twice the amount of wastewater that it currently receives and cost the hotel over one million
dollars (US). The system’s manager, Alfonso Calvo, noted the hotel’s justifications for the
system included both a desire for protecting the water bodies it discharges wastes to and the
economic efficiency for such a system during the peak tourism season (personal com., 2007).
Because the bacterial balance of the treatment system is sensitive to chemical inputs, an
20
Chapter 3
additional benefit is derived from the need to use non-chlorinated, biodegradable substances in
all hotel operations, including the kitchen, laundry facilities and guest rooms.
Water Quantity
Throughout Costa Rica, water withdrawals for both surface and groundwater are
controlled via concession permitting by the MINAE Department of Water in San José.
Concessions are granted based on individual environmental impact studies, which asses the
biological, chemical and physical impacts of the intended withdrawal (Welch, 20071). The use
of water from springs or small streams that occur on private lands has been particularly difficult
to govern nationally. This trend also applies to the entire Guacimal watershed, where only 33
active or “in-review” concessions were identified via GIS data from the Department of Water.
Such few concessions within a region of high agricultural activity and a population of thousands
implies that a significant number of farms, businesses and households are using undocumented
water sources.
Water use can be controlled locally by two different entities.
The first includes
community aqueduct associations, which maintain infrastructure of supply systems, meter water
use and collect tariffs. Water use is even more stringently managed within the AyA administered
system of Santa Elena. In order to make a new connection to their system, potential users must
clearly demonstrate that their proposed use will not negatively affect current users. Furthermore,
AyA maintains the right to establish and enforce water-use policies during periods of limited
supply. For example, in the dry-season months it is common for the washing of cars or wetting
of unpaved roads to be prohibited. Violators to these restrictions are subject to fines and
disconnection from the system by AyA authorities (Sandí, personal com., 2007).
21
Chapter 3
A parallel to AyA’s policy is that of construction permitting by the municipal
government. Sandí (2007) notes that in Monteverde, permission to obtain water from the public
aqueduct system or proof of an individual concession must be obtained before a construction
permit will be issued. Together, these latter two requirements provide a potent mechanism for
controlling future development in the area.
22
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Introduction of Literature
Traditionally, scientists who have worked in Monteverde have focused on the unique
flora and fauna of the cloud forest reserves (Nadkarni, 2000). Any large-scale studies regarding
water resources and their management have tended to concentrate on Caribbean-slope
watersheds which flow into Lake Arenal, Costa Rica’s largest reservoir for producing hydroelectricity (see: Bruijnzeel, 2006; Porras & Hope, 2005; Porras, Miranda & Hope, 2005).
Consequently, very little in-depth information has been generated regarding hydrologic features
of the Guacimal watershed or water quality and use within the larger, more dynamic
communities located on the Pacific slope. What is available is generally limited to annual
reports on climate data, relatively small-scale studies of headwater streams and surveys of local
sanitation issues.
The most significant hydrologic research is that of Smith College professors Andrew
Guswa and Amy Rhodes, with various student researchers, who collectively have studied various
climatic factors and streams of Montverde. Much of their work has been focused on the
production of baseline climate data via annual technical reports (Guswa & Rhodes, 2006; Guswa
& Rhodes, 2007; Johnson et al., 2005), but has also included research on orographic
precipitation, discharge characteristics of one stream and anthropogenic influences on local
stream quality.
As for social factors related to water resources, a considerable amount of baseline
information is available regarding wastewater and sanitation in the three largest communities of
the region (Monteverde community, Cerro Plano and Santa Elena). In addition to annual census
data from the Santa Elena Public Clinic, coordinated efforts between the Monteverde Institute’s
Sustainable Futures educational program, researchers from University of South Florida and
23
Chapter 4
Literature Review
former doctoral student, Stewart Dallas (Murdoch University, Western Australia), have yielded a
better understanding of: 1) local trends and perceptions of water sanitation, 2) volumetric
estimates of consumption and wastewater discharge, and 3) analyses of water quality of both
streams and aqueduct systems.
The following sub-sections provide a summary of previous research that has been
conducted by visiting researchers and university students regarding water resources of the upper
Río Guacimal watershed as well as other water-related documents that can be found in the digital
library database of the Monteverde Institute. Table 1 on page 35 groups the major pieces of
literature discussed in this chapter into general categories for quicker, easier reference by any
future literature reviews.
Previous Research
Hydrology
Using stable isotopes as indicators, Guswa et al. (2006) investigated the importance of
orographic moisture for total annual precipitation. They concluded that in Monteverde the
specific topography of a locale rather than its elevation alone plays the most significant role in
the amount of orographic deposition. As expected, they determined that wet season rainfall is
the biggest contributor to dry-season groundwater discharge. Also, because forest cover is
critically important for the capture of orographic precipitation, they argue that changes in land
use could alter the amount of dry-season deposition, thereby affecting recharge of valuable
groundwater resources.
24
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Yeung et al. (2006) recorded the relationship between precipitation and stage discharge
of the Quebrada Cuecha during different seasons of 2004, 2005 and 2006. Perhaps the most
significant findings of this study were the 7-day minimum flows for the wet season of 2004 (150
Liters/second) and the dry season of 2006 (40 L/s). This latter finding has direct implications for
the current debate surrounding a withdrawal permit that was granted to a local business group
(RUGAMECA) for the approximate amount of 30 L/s (Dallas, 2005).
Further applications of 7-day minimum flow data include the evaluation of a stream’s
capacity to assimilate pollution and minimum flow requirements of natural systems. In order to
provide sufficient understanding for any of these issues, further studies should be conducted to
compare the level of variance for discharges between years as well as to describe the chemical
and bio-physical conditions created by annual minimum flows. Although conducted over brief
periods and not published in a comprehensive form, Guswa and Rhodes and the Servicio
Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas, Riego y Avenamiento (SENARA) have provided similar
assessments of the Quebrada Cuecha’s streamflow. These results are available in the Institute’s
digital library collection.
Water Quality
Research on the quality of surface waters has been conducted by numerous researchers
with various levels of authority. Studies include work from Guswa and Rhodes, group and
individual projects of various study abroad programs and research for a doctoral thesis.
Summaries of the more robust projects are included here while metadata for the identified
student projects are summarized in Table 2 at the end of the chapter.
25
Chapter 4
Literature Review
The most comprehensive evaluation of water quality in terms of site locations, sampling
intensity and number of tested parameters is presented by Rhodes et al. (in press). Their efforts
identified specific anthropogenic effects on streams of the Upper Guacimal watershed by
comparing concentrations of geochemical parameters (e.g., anions and cations) with progressive
levels of influence from human development (i.e., stream sites above vs. below roads and
forested vs. agricultural vs. urban streams). Although not conclusive on the specific impacts
contaminants had on stream health, they clearly demonstrated that sites with greater human
development exhibited higher concentrations of pollutants than the control sites in forested areas.
In chapter four of his doctoral thesis on the use of reedbeds for domestic wastewater
treatment, Dallas (2005) presents results from a small study of water quality conducted between
January 2001 and August 2003. His methods describe a monthly monitoring effort of 10
different streams over a 32-month period; however, based on cited limitations he only presents
results for four different streams with significantly low sample sizes. For both “pristine” and
“contaminated” sites, Dallas is able to show clear contrasts between seasons. Interestingly, the
results for four of nine parameters qualified as “good” or “excellent” stream quality according to
the indices presented by MVI (2002). According to the same indices, fecal coliform counts from
all four sites exceeded standards for swimming, including those found in “pristine” areas. Dallas
attributes satisfactory results of the four parameters (BOD, pH, phosphorus and turbidity) to
beneficial effects the mountainous terrain has on drainage and stream aeration.
Perhaps most interesting is his discussion of wet and dry season results from the fecal
coliform tests. Theoretically, greywater discharge in the urban sectors should be the primary
cause of higher bacterial concentrations as it is untreated and because black water is dealt with
via septic systems. Thus, greater dilution of greywater during the wet season should result in
26
Chapter 4
Literature Review
decreased bacterial concentrations. However, Dallas’ results for both “contaminated” sites (i.e.,
urban streams) show a dramatic increase in bacterial concentrations during the wet season.
These results, in addition to elevated nitrate concentration during the same period, could be an
indication that the effectiveness of septic systems is significantly reduced during the rainy season
due to increased soil saturation and sub-surface water flow, both of which decrease the residence
time of black water in septic tank leachfields. They also support the general notion that many
septic systems in the area are not constructed or maintained properly.
Wastewater and Sanitation
Substantial information on public health and sanitation are available from the annual
census data from the Santa Elena Public Clinic (SEPC, 2006), an independent survey of more
than 500 local households (Harwood, 2002), and additional analyses conducted by Dallas (2005).
The former studies found equal results regarding the number of homes with septic tanks for
treatment of black water (98.7% and 97.5%, respectively). Harwood’s study also confirms the
popular assumption that the majority of households in Monteverde (97.8% of 512 surveyed), like
those in many rural Costa Rican communities, discharge their greywater directly to the
environment in spite of legislative restrictions prohibiting such activity.
The surveys presented in Dallas’ thesis provide useful insights into water consumption of
homes and hotels in the area (see detailed discussion in chapter 5) as well as the volume of
wastewater discharge to local streams. Dallas estimates that 644 homes discharge 365,148 L of
greywater to the environment each day based on his water-use calculations and the assumption
that 70% of household water consumption goes to greywater. This amount can be compared to
MVI (2002) estimates of 311,543 L/day for an equivalent number of houses (original figures:
27
Chapter 4
Literature Review
342 houses; 203,490 L/day). As for commercial wastewater, he suggests that local hotels often
treat their greywater by combining it with black water in septic tank systems.
Potable Water and Public Health
One study was identified regarding the potential connection between reported cases of
diarrhea in the Santa Elena Public Clinic and the quality of drinking water in three communities
of the Río Guacimal watershed (Santa Elena, San Luis and Guacimal). The researchers from
University of South Florida found: 1) the frequency of local diarrhea cases was within the
normal range found throughout Costa Rica, 2) the quality of drinking water in all three
communities was of high standards and 3) there was no clear relationship between the two
(Cambronero et al., 2003).
These conclusions come as no great surprise considering the drinking water systems for
some of the surveyed communities are treated with chlorine and all are routinely monitored by
the public health ministry and most likely meet the legal requirements for source water
protection. What’s more, the specific locations of springs and the basic geography of the
landscape lend to the protection of potable water for these mountainous communities. In Santa
Elena, the springs are located at the top of the mountain, above any source of contamination. In
San Luis, springs are located just below areas of limited agriculture and heavy forests, and are
completely outside of the sub-watershed that carries the most contaminated surface water from
Santa Elena. In Guacimal, the springs are located a good distance from potential sources of
major groundwater contamination, such as areas with high concentrations of faulty septic tanks,
and are still at a sufficient elevation to avoid mixing with the most contaminated water course,
the Río Guacimal.
28
Chapter 4
Literature Review
This study did not present surprising results due to a lack of profound consideration for
some of the basic principles of groundwater contamination (location of springs, geography,
groundwater dynamics, etc.).
However, it does raise interesting questions regarding the
vulnerability of drinking water supplies further down in the lowlands where surface and
groundwaters can more readily mix and where an accumulation of contaminants from the various
communities within the watershed is more likely to be seen. Certainly, future inquiries into the
necessity of wastewater treatment for the communities of the upper watershed should take into
account their downstream effects.
Wastewater Treatment
One of the most relevant studies regarding future wastewater management was conducted
by student participants of the 2002 Sustainable Futures program at the Monteverde Institute
(MVI, 2002).
In general, the study analyzes available technologies for treating household
wastewater by summarizing cost projections, space requirements and long-term operation
considerations. Specific criteria such as low capital and operating costs, capability to grow in
stages, overall sustainability and community participation were used as evaluation criteria. It
appears that these criteria were chosen based on fundamental values held by the group and upon
their presumed applicability to the socio-economic dynamics of Monteverde’s communities,
which on many levels appear to be rural in nature.
Given the evaluation criteria and the assumption that greywater was the most immediate
concern, the group’s conclusions and recommendations favored smaller, less sophisticated
alternatives such as facultative lagoons and constructed wetlands. Despite their assertions, the
group points out significant constraints to using such alternatives in areas like Santa Elena where
29
Chapter 4
Literature Review
wastewater treatment is most needed. Namely, land availability and affordability constrain the
practicality of these space- and environment-limited technologies. For optimal treatment, the
recommended technologies require sufficient land area (estimated 1,500-2,000 m2 per 100
m3/day) in addition to adequate environmental factors such as soil type, hydrology, slope angle,
ambient temperature and precipitation.
Even considering their recommendation of piping
wastewater to a treatment facility in a more rural area would require considerable investment for
communities within the upper watershed as land prices can be exorbitant down to the farthest
limits of San Luis, approximately 10 kilometers down slope of Santa Elena (Welch, 20072). If
piped in the other direction (northwest), the treated wastewater would be completely removed
from its watershed of origin, creating additional concerns.
The Sustainable Futures report provides valuable information for community members
and decision-makers to consider, though, it does not fully discuss Monteverde’s bio-physical and
socio-economic realities, nor does it consider some of the most important driving forces that
incite individuals and local governments to invest in wastewater treatment. Despite the presence
of unsightly pollution, strong incentives such as contamination of potable water supplies, overt
risk to public health, clear legislative and regulatory goals, and sufficient legal enforcement have
not been strongly established in Monteverde.
This scenario leaves the protection of the
community’s image (known for its conservation efforts and eco-tourism) as the major motivation
for investing in advanced treatment technologies, which at this time is a weak, voluntary
incentive.
Still further challenges exist for the group’s suggested alternatives due to Monteverde’s
bio-physical and socio-economic realities. In addition to affordability, finding a suitable location
near Santa Elena for a large treatment lagoon or wetland would be challenging due to the steep
30
Chapter 4
Literature Review
terrain and high annual rainfall, both of which decrease the efficiency of natural treatment
processes. In regards to the social and economic considerations, the group overestimates the
practicality of community participation. Because there are no strong incentives that prompt
community members to proactively deal with wastes, an issue that most people don’t think about
on a regular basis, active participation on a broad scale is probably not realistic without
additional direction and assistance from a central oversight entity.
This is confirmed by
Cavanagh (2005) who cited a follow-up study to Dallas’ (2005) doctoral experiment on
household wastewater treatment systems, finding ‘almost all of the current [reedbed sites] are not
being maintained or monitored properly’ only after being installed for a short period of time.
The final socio-economic concern is presented by the local tourism industry (see full
discussion in following chapter), which brings scores of tourists to the region annually,
consuming local water resources and producing substantial quantities of waste. This additional
pressure on public resources and infrastructure creates a disparity between the actual number of
water users and the local tax base from which funds for wastewater treatment can be generated.
The current structure for collecting local service fees and taxes does not appear to be of any
assistance for creating greater equity among water users or raising funds for additional sewerage
and wastewater treatment projects. Presently, the municipal government collects fees for trash
collection as well as property and construction taxes (Rojas, personal com., 2007). AyA only
collects water use fees that pay for personnel and maintenance of the aqueduct system (Dallas,
2005).
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the Monteverde Cheese Factory represents the
major industrial activity within the region and has operated a sizeable wastewater treatment
system since the mid-1990s. Griffith et al. (2000) describe in detail the incentives and history
31
Chapter 4
Literature Review
behind the project, which diverts thousands of liters of whey, a bi-product of cheese production,
to a nearby farm where it is fed to pigs. This system provides the simultaneous benefits of
feeding pigs that are later used for profitable meat production and significantly reducing daily
discharges to the Río Guacimal. Other production wastes are sent to a set of aerobic and
anaerobic lagoons for treatment before they are discharged to the same river.
Before instillation of the treatment system, the factory discharged thousands of liters of
production waste daily.
This created considerable negative effects on the health of the
Guacimal’s ecosystem as indicated by a marked contrast in macroinvertebrate abundance and
diversity between sites up- and downstream of the factory (Gill, 2000). Ever since the system
achieved the proper balance for optimal operation, it has been able to reduce the biological
oxygen demand of production wastes by 98.5% and ultimately discharge 96% pure water
(Griffith et al., 2000).
MVI Digital Library Database
Although not in research form, further water-related documents can be found in the
Monteverde Institute’s digital library as well as in hard copy form. In addition to those discussed
throughout this report, available documents include: brief technical reports on local populations
and stream flow; a collection of various watershed and water supply system maps; student
research reports (see Table 2); research related to water issues at the national level and to other
watersheds of the region; and an extensive collection of opinion letters, formal transmissions and
legal documents regarding the contentious RUGAMECA concession to withdrawal water from
the Quebrada Cuecha. Almost all of the documents found in the digital library are currently in
32
Chapter 4
Literature Review
English; however, the Institute has provided bilingual abstracts and keywords for all the
materials within the collection.
The Monteverde Institute’s library also maintains a hard-copy collection of the local
magazine, Agua Pura, which is published periodically by the Santa Elena AyA office and reports
on a wide range of water-related issues in the area. And lastly, reports of the Sustainable Futures
program can be found in library, many of which contain baseline data useful for water planning.
Discussion of Literature
As demonstrated in the literature review above, much remains to be known about water
resources in the Upper Guacimal watershed, and even more for the lower portions. Further
research on local hydrology would play an important role in both water and land resource
management as the two are inextricably connected. Though similar work has been conducted on
watersheds of the Caribbean, little is known about the hydrological dynamics on the Pacific
slope.
Perhaps the most immediate concern is water quality. Through previous research it is
clear that a certain level of contamination, which is directly related to human activity, is present
within the headwater streams of the upper watershed. Although the Monteverde Cheese Factory
does not currently discharge in a similar fashion, Gill (2000) presented a long-term data set that
clearly demonstrates how industrial wastes from the factory negatively affected communities of
aquatic insects.
Despite the primary focus on regional greywater treatment, Dallas (2005)
showed concerning levels of bacterial contamination in streams that may suggest insufficient
blackwater treatment via septic systems. What is not clear is the level of risk this bacterial
33
Chapter 4
Literature Review
contamination poses to human health or, if the Río Guacimal has a defined use, whether the
contamination exceeds the respective water quality standards.
What is necessary to frame future water quality management, then, is an effort to first,
define the quality objectives for the various streams and rivers within the watershed and second,
conduct a monitoring effort that compares multiple sites for similar parameters over an extended
period of time (i.e., seasonally and annually). Such an effort should evaluate health risks to both
the human population and the aquatic ecosystem.
At the moment, collective scientific, social and legal evidence suggests that the protection
of Monteverde’s image as a premier eco-tourism destination and home to an active
environmentally conscious populace is the strongest justification for considering more advanced
alternatives of wastewater treatment. Though the physical aesthetics of such a community have
important economic consequences, it is likely an insufficient incentive for considerable
wastewater treatment investments at the individual level. If contamination levels are found to
exceed mandated standards, however, then an open dialogue should be facilitated in order to
discuss the available pollution reduction alternatives at the community level and to build
consensus on how local leaders should address identified issues.
When considering the
alternatives, a robust analysis should be conducted that incorporates the principles presented by
the Sustainable Futures 2002 report as well as the values, interests and capacities of community
members, businesses and government institutions.
34
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Table 1. Major pieces of literature by category.
Subject Theme
Lietrature Reference
Specific Watershed, Subwatershed or Community
Focus
Environmental Service
Payments
Porras & Hope, 2005
Lake Arenal Watershed
Porras, Miranda & Hope,
2005
Monteverde Region
Bruijnzeel, 2006
Guswa, Rhodes & Newell,
2006
Yeung, Guswa & Rhodes,
2006
Río Chiquito Watershed
Upper Río Guacimal Watershed
Acuña, Villalobos & Ruiz,
2006
Monteverde, Cerro Plano & Santa
Elena
Bender, 2003
Fitzgerald, 2002
Cañitas and Los Llanos
Elena
Monteverde Community
Monteverde Region
Monteverde Region
Hydrology
Land Use, Socioeconomic Conditions &
Urban Development
Oltremari, 2002
Porras & Miranda, 2005
Porras, Miranda & Hope,
2005
Water
Delivery/Treatment
Infrastructure
Water Law/Policy with
Local Relevance
Water Quality:
Monitoring, Public
Health, Sanitation
Quebrada Cuecha
Dallas, 2005
Harwood, 2002
MVI, 2002
Thorstensen, 2004
Wolinsky, 1990
Monteverde Region
San Luis
Oltremari, 2002
Oltremari & González, 2001
Monteverde Region
Cavanagh, 2005
Cambronero et al., 2003
Communities in Río Guacimal
Watershed (Santa Elena, San Luis &
Guacimal)
Dallas, Scheffe & Ho, 2004
Dallas, 2005
Harwood, 2002
35
Monteverde Region
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Table 1. Major pieces of literature by category. (continued)
Water Quality:
Monitoring, Public
Health, Sanitation
(continued)
Water Quantity:
Consumption,
Production, Withdrawal
Rhodes et al., in press
SEPC, 1998-2006
Monteverde Region
Dallas, 2005
Fitzgerald, 2002
Elena
Elena
MVI, 2003
Weather/Climate Data
Clark et al., 1998
Guswa & Rhodes, 2006
Guswa & Rhodes, 2007
Johnson, Guswa & Rhodes,
2005
Monteverde
Monteverde
Monteverde
Monteverde
Table 2. Summary of student projects.
General Theme or
Parameters Analyzed
Macroinvertebrate
abundance and
diversity, velocity and
turbidity
Soils type, turbidity and
bacteria
Water Unit(s) or
Geographical
Focus
Guacimal,
Maquina, Nuevo,
Sucia
Aurthor(s)
Anderson,
K.
Title
The impact of point source
pollution from Santa Elena on a
local river
Year
1996
Institution
CIEE
Esclamado,
J.
Determining the filtration
quality of different soil types
using turbidity, bacterial content
and drainage ability for filtering
greywater
A comparative study of aquatic
macroinvertebrates in streams
draining tropical watersheds
with different land uses
High variation in impact in
point source pollution on water
quality and macroinvertebrate
communities in a tropical
highland stream
2006
UCEAP
n/a
UGA
Land use and
macroinvertebrate
abundance
Guacimal, San
Luis
n/a
CIEE
Cuecha,
Guacimal
Oversedimentation and aquatic
invertebrates in the Maquina
Creek
1996
CIEE
Macroinvertebrate
diversity, ammonia,
dissolved oxygen,
temperature, pH,
turbidity, nitrates and
phosphates
Macroinvertebrate
abundance and
sediment loading
Field, B. &
S. Marrone
Gruber, S.
Gulizia, A.
36
Monteverde Zone
Maquina
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Table 2. Summary of student projects. (continued)
Aurthor(s)
Hanna, C.
Title
The effects of pollution on the
aquatic macroinvertebrate
community
Year
2002
Institution
UCEAP
Houseworth,
B.
Low impact disturbances and
water quality on the Quebrada
Maquina
n/a
CIEE
Jacobson, L.
Coliform contamination on near
stream plants from polluted and
pristine streams, factors that
affect coliform presence on
plants, and a potential
mechanism for contamination
Water quality in the Quebrada
Maquina: Heavy metals, fecal
coliform, chloride and sulfide
levels
2006
UCEAP
n/a
CIEE
The effects of water pollution on
the abundance of Metabus
gravidus
The effects of greywater on
water quality and species
richness
Analysis of pollution in the Río
Guacimal watershed and its
effects on aquatic
macroinvertebrate fauna
2002
UCEAP
2002
UCEAP
2003
UCEAP
The effects of human-caused
disturbances on water quality
and the capability of river
ecosystems to recover from
disturbances: Using benthic
macroinvertebrates as indicators
of water quality
Discharge and drift of benthic
macroinvertebrates in a tropical
montane stream
n/a
CIEE
n/a
CIEE
Johnson, R.
Kingsley, S.
Kumar, A.
McNally, D.
& A. Setty
Miller, M.
Moore, M.
37
General Theme or
Parameters Analyzed
Macroinvertebrate
abundance and
diversity and substrate
content
Natural and
anthropogenic
disturbances,
macroinvertebrate
diversity, turbidity,
phosphate, dissolved
oxygen, nitrate, pH
and coliform bacteria
Presence of coliforms
on plant surfaces and
streams variously
affected by human
infcluence
Water Unit(s) or
Geographical
Focus
Upper Guacimal
watershed
Maquina
Alondra,
Cambronero,
Rodríguez
Anthropogenic
influence, heavy
metals, sulfide,
chloride and fecal
coliform
Polluted sites and
abundance of aquatic
insects
Collected watsewater
and presence of
insects
Macroinvertebrate
abundance,
temperature, pH, Total
Dissolved Solids,
turbidity, phosphates
and nitrates
Turbidity and
macroinvertebrate
diversity
Maquina
Behavior of benthic
macroinvertebrates to
changes in discharge
velocity
Maquina
Guacimal,
Maquina, Sucia
Monteverde Zone
Cuecha,
Guacimal,
Maquina, Sucia
Guacimal,
Maquina, San
Luis
Chapter 4
Literature Review
Table 2. Summary of student projects. (continued)
General Theme or
Parameters Analyzed
Abundance of lichens,
dissolved oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus,
pH, turbidity and
temperature
Functional feeding
groups of
macroinvertebrate and
stream location
Substrate and
macroinvertebrates
Water Unit(s) or
Geographical
Focus
Berros, Cuecha,
Maquina,
Rodriguez, Santa
Maria, Sucia
Aurthor(s)
Payne, S.
Title
Water quality and lichen
coverage in Monteverde
streams
Year
n/a
Institution
CIEE
Picetti, M.
Is the River Continuum
Concept applicable to a lower
montane stream in Monteverde,
Costa Rica?
Streambed substrates of a
dammed stream in Monteverde,
Costa Rica
Urban effluents and its effects
on the water quality of streams
in Santa Elena and Monteverde,
Costa Rica
A lesson plan on water
conservation for the Centro de
Educación Creativa
2006
UCEAP
n/a
CIEE
2001
UCEAP
Water quality and
urbanization
Monteverde Zone
n/a
CIEE
Water conservation
and educaction
Monteverde Zone
The effects of water diversion
on stream macroinvertebrates in
Monteverde, and a comparison
of cloud forest and midelevation sites
The effects of pollution on
benthic macroinvertebrate
community structure and
composition
2001
UCEAP
Monteverde,
Peñas Blancas
n/a
CIEE
Escherichia coli contamination
in greywater and river water in
The effects of decreased flow
rate in streams due to the
extraction of water for human
consumption
The effects of stream culverts
on aquatic insects in
2007
UCEAP
Macroinvertebrate
abundance and
diversity, biotic and
abiotic microhabitat
factors
Turbidity, pH, solute
concentration,
dissolved oxygen and
macroinvertebrate
family diversity
Sources and E. coli
contamination
n/a
CIEE
2001
UCEAP
Analysis of river ecotones along
a disturbance gradient
n/a
CIEE
Rancourt, J.
Ringler, A.
Sader, M.
Seruto, C.
Severino, M.
Sinclair, N.
Smith, K.
Trimlett, K.
Walsh, T.
38
Stream flow and
macroinvertebrate
abundance and
diversity
Impact of stream
culverts on
macroinvertebrate
abundanced and
diversity
Accesibility of river
sites, E. coli,
phosphate, nitrate,
dissolved oxygen, pH
and turbidity
Maquina
Maquina
San Luis
Maquina, Sucia
Monteverde Zone
Maquina
San Luis
Chapter 5
Water Use, Supply and Demand
Water Use Types
Among the 33 water use concessions identified in the Guacimal watershed, use types
included domestic and commercial water supply (communal as well as individual withdrawals)
and agricultural use (cattle and irrigation). It is likely that other use types, or at least a greater
number of similar undocumented uses, exist in the region. Potable water, which appears to be
the best documented and foremost use type in the upper watershed, remains the focus of
discussion for the remainder of this chapter. The following sub-sections generally describe the
water supply systems found in communities of the region and present original analyses of use
trends within the principal aqueduct system, utilizing data sets from AyA and other local
institutions.
Potable Water
Aqueduct Systems
According to two recent sources (Harwood, 2002; SEPC, 2006), 87.4% of homes
surveyed obtain their drinking water from one of the five community aqueduct systems found
within the region.
The smaller of these systems are found in San Luis, La Lindora and
Monteverde, the latter of which being managed by a community aqueduct association and
supplying 85 users between the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and the Quebrada Cuecha
(Solano, personal com., 2007). This system receives high quality potable water from four
springs in the reserve and in comparison to the others, has a relatively static number of users.
The systems in San Luis and La Lindora are considerably smaller and less formally managed by
members of the respective community development associations.
39
Chapter 5
The largest system of the region is managed by personnel from the AyA office in Santa
Elena. It supplies treated water to users in the communities of Cañitas, Los Llanos, Santa Elena,
Cerro Plano and the western reaches of Monteverde. The system is currently fed by a total of 14
springs, is divided into three sub-systems and can allow water to be transferred from collection
tanks at higher elevations to lower ones (Sandí, personal com., 2007). In February 2007, the
system supplied a total of 889 homes, 249 businesses and 31 government installations.
Supply of Potable Water
A major gap exists in the understanding of total water available from the Santa Elena
aqueduct, or in other words: the total production of the system’s groundwater springs. The
current AyA practice of taking one instantaneous discharge measurement (Liters/second) each
month at their springs does little to assess the actual quantity of groundwater produced
throughout the entire month. The head supervisor of the system fully understands this gap in
critical information and explained that once certain technical challenges can be overcome at the
individual sites, installing already purchased meters is a top priority (Sandí, personal com.,
2007).
Due to frequent water shortages in some communities during the dry season, and in order
to plan for future growth, a technical analysis of the aqueduct’s infrastructure was recently
conducted. The analysis (ATA, 2007) identified deficiencies in the delivery capacity of the
aqueduct, signaling that total availability of water may not be the major problem. Despite such
encouraging findings, the accuracy of the analysis may be limited due to certain assumptions and
data used in the study’s calculations. Average monthly production of the system was calculated
using the same instantaneous measurements from AyA and estimates of average use rates per
40
Chapter 5
customer were derived from aggregated commercial and domestic use data.
The former
calculation was generated using the best data available; however, the latter one can be improved
upon as it is possible to calculate individual use rates for the commercial and domestic sectors,
which exhibit very different consumption patterns. These and other issues are discussed in
greater detail below.
Water Consumption from Principal Aqueduct System
Until recently, water consumption data has not been maintained in a manner adequate for
conducting long-term sectoral, spatial or temporal comparisons. What data that are available
indicate that between 2003 and 2006, the average total consumption of the AyA system was
359,981 m3 per year with a total growth of 20.7% over the 3-year period. Figure 8 shows a
gradual increase in water use by all sectors during the same years. This period showed an
average growth of 6.5% per year for total water use, with the annual growth rate increasing at a
decreasing rate (Figure 9).
500,000
3
Volume (m )
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Total
2003
2004
2005
2006
322,269
351,825
376,877
388,952
Government
2,446
3,312
4,859
8,119
Commercial
120,051
148,455
153390
150487
Domestic
199,772
200,058
218,628
230,346
Year
Figure 8. Total consumption per year, Santa Elena aqueduct: 2003-2006.
41
Chapter 5
Annual
Growth
Rate
Annual
Growth
Rate
10.0%
9.2%
7.5%
7.1%
5.0%
3.2%
2.5%
0.0%
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
Figure 9. Annual growth rate of total water consumption, Santa Elena aqueduct: 2003-2006.
Figure 10 separates total water consumption per year by sub-system. Most notably is the
consistent growth of System 3, which supplies Cerro Plano and the western reaches of the
Monteverde community. System 2 (Santa Elena) and System 3 (Cañitas and Los Llanos) show
only slight increases between 2003 and 2005 probably due to the level of established
development in their respective locations.
376,877
400,000
Volume (m3)
322,269
388,952
351,825
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
03
20
System 1
04
20
Year
System 2
05
20
System 3
06
20
System Total
Figure 10. Annual water use of individual sub-systems and total aqueduct system: 2003-2006.
Figure 11 illustrates the seasonal variation in water use. Most notably, maximum water
use occurs during the middle of the dry season, which also coincides with the peak in local
42
Chapter 5
tourism, which is indicated by the number of monthly visitors to the Monteverde Cloud Forest
Reserve. Although household and commercial water use appear to respond similarly to tourist
numbers during the dry season, household use fluctuates less dramatically during the wet and
transitional seasons whereas commercial water use continues to fluctuate in accordance with
tourism. This further emphasizes the influence of tourism on local water use and the necessity to
incorporate tourism data into the water resource planning process.
25,000
25,000
Wet Season
Transitional
20,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
10,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
Month
Commercial Usel
Au
gu
st
Se
pt
em
be
r
Oc
to
be
r
No
ve
m
be
r
De
ce
m
be
r
Ju
ly
ne
Ju
ay
M
Ap
ril
ar
ch
M
Fe
b
nu
a
Ja
ru
ar
y
0
ry
0
Visitors
3
Volume (m )
Dry Season
Domestic Use
MVCFR Visitors
Figure 11. Monthly averages: commercial and domestic consumption and visitors to the
Montverde Cloud Forest Reserve: 2003-2006.
Between January 2003 and January 2007, the total number of users (i.e., active
connections) increased on average 7.8% per year (range: 4.3-9.9%). Using precise monthly data
from AyA’s 2006 records, Table 3 presents calculations of daily use rates per household and
commercial user, as well as per person for domestic use. Figures were generated by dividing the
total monthly volume of consumption (domestic or commercial) by the respective number of
active users and the number of days in the respective month of 2006. An average was then taken
across twelve months.
For domestic use, the daily volume per person was calculated for
43
Chapter 5
conditions of both 6 and 4.9 persons per household in order to make relevant comparisons
between the assumptions and findings of two previous studies.
Table 3. Average consumption (household and commercial) per system: 2006.
L/person/day
(6 people)
L/person/day
(4.9 people)
Monthly
Average of
Active Users
(Domestic)
122.3
119.8
123.1
121.9
149.8
146.7
150.7
149.3
295.5
161.6
405.3
862.5
Domestic
L/home/day
System 1
System 2
System 3
Total System
733.9
718.8
738.3
731.3
L/business/day
Monthly
Average of
Active Users
(Commercial)
1,250.2
1,339.5
1,726.7
1,527.3
55.1
63.7
151.5
269.9
Commercial
These results are significant as they are the most sensitive analyses presented to date and
are the only calculations available specifically concerning commercial use for the entire AyA
system. A previous survey by Dallas (2005) examined a very small sample size (9 households, 3
hotels) and the technical analysis of the AyA aqueduct system (ATA, 2007) diminished the
sensitivity of its final results by calculating use rates with combined domestic and commercial
figures. In general, the results from this study show considerably lower use rates for individuals
and households compared to both AyA assumptions regarding rural households (6 persons; 150
L/person/day or 900 L/household/day) and Dallas’ findings in local households (4.9 persons; 178
L/person/day or 805 L/household/day).
Regional Socio-economics
In terms of community water resource planning, analyses of trends in the local population
and economy are critically important. A review of the literature and un-published data revealed
an assortment of information that helps illustrate local socio-economic trends while
simultaneously stressing the need for a more integrated maintenance of statistics in the future.
Regarding population alone, the study identified 37 references for figures between 1984 and
44
Chapter 5
2006, three separate growth projections (from 3.5 to 7%), four different meanings of the term
“Monteverde”, eight instances where sources cited different values for the same year and
numerous data gaps between years (see Table 4 and Figure 14 at end of chapter for full
summary). In general, the population has grown exponentially between the earliest and latest
figures: 400 in 1984 (Porras & Miranda, 2005) and 4,600 in 2006 (Acuña et al., 2006).
Utilizing the most consistent information available, Figure 12 shows that within the six
communities of the Santa Elena Public Clinic’s jurisdiction the total population is gradually
increasing (Average 2.2% per year: 2003-2006). More specifically, the communities of the
upper watershed (Monteverde, Cerro Plano and Santa Elena), which pertain to EBAIS health
district No. 8, show a steady increase in population (Average 3.8% per year: 2003-2006) while
the smaller downstream communities of EBAIS No. 9 (San Luis, Guacimal and Santa Rosa)
exhibit a gradual decline (Average -2.5% per year: 2003-2006).
6,000
Population
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
EBAIS No. 8
2003
EBAIS No. 9
2004
2005
2006
Total
Figure 12. Populations of EBAIS No. 8 and EBAIS No. 9 (SEPC, 1999-2007). *Data were not
identified for 2002.
Although this information is useful to illustrate population trends, the fact that data are
collected by multiple institutions using various methodologies and geo-political boundaries
45
Chapter 5
creates difficulties for pin-pointing specific areas of growth as well as for accurately comparing
data between sources. One example is the recent policy of the public clinic to no longer publish
individual community statistics, opting rather to publish aggregate data for each district. In order
to more accurately predict future water demand by the local citizenry, it is reasonable to suggest
the need for more coordinated efforts of census data collection and dissemination. Ideally,
improved coordination would allow for 1) more consistent and accessible information, 2)
comparable geo-political boundaries, and 3) data sets that future research initiatives can utilize
according to their own needs.
In regards to the regional economy, three prominent industries are seen: dairy farming,
coffee production and eco-tourism; the latter of which being the fastest growing industry and
comprising 65-70% of the local economy (Cavanagh, 2005).
Eco-tourism has its roots in
Monteverde’s historic conservation movement and has incredible significance for local water
resources. The industry has grown from one small hotel in the 1950s (Burlingame, 2000) to
supporting over 45 hotels, 62 restaurants and numerous attractions according to the local
Chamber of Tourism’s 2007 records. No precise statistics have been maintained regarding the
total number of tourists that come to the area each year, though some highly varied figures have
been cited, including: 50,000 (Acuña et al., 2006); 1 million (Porras & Miranda, 2005); and
200,000 (Dallas, 2005).
Much like the irregular community population data, these
inconsistencies in tourism data make it difficult to accurately calculate current and future water
demand from the commercial sector based on the number of tourists present.
Perhaps the most useful indicator of tourist numbers available are the visitor records of
the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, the oldest and most widely-visited attraction in the
region. Figure 13 illustrates the remarkable growth of eco-tourism just within the past six years
46
Chapter 5
(5.03% annual average) as well as the contrast between the number of tourists and local citizens
(represented by EBAIS No. 8 population).
Still, these values do not account for visitation limits enacted by reserve managers or the
number of visitors that come to region but do not visit the reserve. Similar miscalculations can
occur from the Costa Rican Institute of Tourism (ICT) if data is taken from foreign customs
statistics as opposed to being collected locally. Thus, it is necessary that a central entity such as
the local Chamber of Tourism maintain more precise statistics on local tourism by accounting for
visitors to all area hotels, attractions and reserves.
80,000
70,000
Population
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
Local Population-EBAIS No. 8
Foreign Visitors-MVCFR
Costa Rican Visitors-MVCFR
Figure 13. Population of EBAIS No. 8 (SEPC, 2000-2006) and visitors to the Monteverde Cloud
Forest Reserve (CCT, 20071; CCT, 20072).
Discussion of Data
The information maintained by the AyA Santa Elena office provides a valuable tool for
understanding current water use trends and future demand, both key to long-term water planning
and management. Only short-term analyses could be conducted in this study due to limitations
47
Chapter 5
of previous data collection methods. Nevertheless, the continuance of current methodologies
will enable more sensitive analyses in the future that better describe water consumption in terms
of total volume, sub-system growth, number of active users and the rate of consumption per use
sector (public, domestic and commercial). Similar data from the smaller aqueduct systems
would be equally valuable for the communities to which they provide water.
Analyzing water use trends within a broader socio-economic context is important as it
helps identify what areas of the region and which sectors (e.g., domestic or commercial) are
growing fastest. Socio-economic data also provides a reference for comparing the legitimacy of
assumptions used by government administrators. In this case, the average population growth rate
of the three largest communities in the region (3.8% annually) closely matches the expected
growth figure used by the Costa Rican government for “rural” communities (3.5%). However,
the narrow application of this figure in Monteverde creates a disparity between the expected
population growth rate and the observed average annual growth rates of: 1) total number of
active water connections (7.8%); 2) growth in commercial demand as indicated by number of
tourists (6.5%); and 3) total water use (5.03%).
Therefore, an organized effort between government institutions and other private entities
to systematically collect and disseminate water-related statistics would facilitate more accurate
analyses of local water supply and demand as well as create a clearer foundation from which to
guide future planning and management initiatives.
48
Chapter 5
Table 4. Literature citations of community populations of the Monteverde Region. (MVMonteverde Community; CP- Cerro Plano; SE- Santa Elena; CA- Cañitas; LL- Los Llanos; LDLa Lindora; SL- San Luis)
Community
Monteverde Region
(Communities
included in estimate)
Not defined
Not defined
MV, CP, SE
Not defined
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
Not defined
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
MV, CP, SE
MV, CP, SE, CA, LL
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
Year
Estimated
Total
Population
Literature Reference
Proposed
Growth
Projection
Projected
Population for
2020
400
4,000
3,500
6,000
2,160
Chamberlain, 2000
Cavanagh, 2005
SEPC, 2000
-
-
5,953
2,994
Chacón, 2003
SEPC, 2001
-
-
3,900
3,6765,514
3,313
MVI, 2003
Bender, 2003
7%
9,500
12,295-18,743
SEPC, 2003
-
-
2004
3,595
SEPC, 2004
-
-
2005
3,630
SEPC, 2005
-
-
2006
4,600
Acuña, Villalobos &
Ruiz, 2006
SEPC, 2006
-
-
1984
1992
2000
2001
2002
2003
Not defined
MV, CP, SE: EBAIS
No. 8
Monteverde
Community
3,728
1990
2003
300
584-876
Wolinsky, 1990
Bender, 2003
7%
2,112-3,168
1986
1992
2002
2003
186
522
1,266
564-846
Bender, 2003
7%
7%
3,510
2,040-3,060
1986
1992
2002
360
1,014
2,166
Fitzgerald, 2002
Fitzgerald, 2002
Fitzgerald, 2002
5,507
2003
1,866
1,6162,424
Bender, 2003
5.9%: 20022010; 4.7%:
2011-2020
7%
7%
Cerro Plano
Santa Elena
49
5,170
5,462-8,193
Chapter 5
Table 4. Literature citations of community populations of the Monteverde Region. (continued)
Los Llanos
2002
2003
354
712-1,068
2003
-
200-300
-
2004
364
1998
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1,579
1,850
1,262
1,274
1,279
1,280
1,270
1,188
Bender, 2003
7%
7%
985
2,249-3,374
Bender, 2003
-
7%
-
632-948
-
Thorstensen, 2004
7%
1,150
-
-
Cañitas
La Lindora
San Luis
EBAIS No. 9 (San
Luis, Guacimal, Santa
Rosa)
SEPC, 1998
SEPC, 2000
SEPC, 2001
SEPC, 2002
SEPC, 2003
SEPC, 2004
SEPC, 2005
SEPC, 2006
7,000
6,000
Population
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
20
10
20
05
20
00
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
0
Year
Monteverde Region
Cerro Plano
Los Llanos
San Luis
Santa Elena
Cañitas
Expon. (Monteverde Region)
Figure 14. Population growth of local communities using identified literature citations.
50
Chapter 6
Developing Events
Monteverde is an extremely active community in terms of environmentally-related
initiatives.
A by-product of its former conservation movement is a region that boasts a
significant number of institutions that conduct scientific research, education and outreach
programs.
Because it is often difficult to maintain constant communication between the
numerous institutions regarding each new advancement, it is likely that many local
organizations, community members or new researchers in the area are unaware of the current
endeavors concerning local water resources. Accordingly, this chapter is dedicated to providing
a brief description of the various water-related efforts underway or in-development that were
identified through the duration of this project. Due to similar limitations, some initiatives may
not have been identified and are thusly omitted from this summary.
Research Advisory Committee of Monteverde (CAIM)
The Research Advisory Committee of Monteverde (CAIM) is primarily composed of
representatives from some of the largest environmental and academic institutions of the region.
The primary objectives of CAIM include managing and documenting research that is conducted
within the region and regularly disseminating information to the community.
The committee has been in existence for several years and is currently in the process of
systematizing their research management efforts. This principally involves the collection of
meta-data regarding local projects and assuring that researchers have obtained the necessary
approval from MINAE to conduct their research. One of the most important steps to making this
information available to the community at large is the development of a website. Among other
components, the website will present background information for each affiliated institution and a
database of the research conducted in the area. This will likely prove to be an important
51
Chapter 6
Developing Events
networking tool for researchers and community members regarding all sorts of themes, including
water, as well as provide a central location for disseminating up-to-date information on
environmental initiatives.
Monteverde-Gulf of Nicoya Biological Corridor
Proposals for creating a biological corridor that connects forest patches between the
mountaintops of Monteverde and the Gulf of Nicoya have been discussed since the early 1990s.
Recent interest from a company in California, USA (Planktos, Inc.) to generate carbon credits
via reforestation led to a preliminary study (Welch, 20072) of the corridor area, which pertains
specifically to the Río Guacimal watershed. Although the small-scale study aimed to produce
client-specific information for Planktos and other projects of the company have since taken
precedence, the idea remains alive and is a high priority for many local organizations.
Reforesting the corridor area would have significant influence on hydrologic patterns of the
Guacimal watershed and will remain of great interest to wildlife conservationists and
hydrologists alike as the project continues to develop.
Adopt-A-Stream
In order to provide a long-term data set on stream health and a tool for improved
community-based water management, a monthly monitoring program, “Adopt-A-Stream”, is
currently being developed among local high schools, businesses and youth organizations. The
program, organized by the author of this report with support from the University of Costa Rica,
the UCR Program for Integrated Environmental Management (ProGAI-CICA), the University of
52
Chapter 6
Developing Events
Georgia Costa Rica, the Monteverde Institute and organizers of the first Costa Rican Adopt-AStream program in Sarapiquí, will officially be launched by the Monteverde Institute in February
2008.
The program seeks to monitor physical, chemical and biological parameters of
Guacimal’s headwater streams in order to understand local stream health and to identify the most
serious pollution problems of the region. Furthermore, it will fulfill important steps that other
projects have not yet done, including the comprehensive monitoring of stream health, numerous
chemical parameters and multiple locations across an extended period time. Because the data
collection and analyses will be performed by community members, it is hoped that the
information generated will be much more accessible than research conducted by outside
investigators and more readily applied to a community dialogue on water quality management.
Bandera Azul Program
The final initiative under development, although somewhat less certain, includes efforts
from various local organizations (e.g., AyA, tourist businesses and the Monteverde Institute) to
obtain certification from the Bandera Azul program. This program, administered nationally by
several government agencies, recognizes whole communities for their efforts in local water
resource management. Program evaluation criteria include among many others, the policies and
administrative activities of local MINAE, AyA and the municipal government as well as the
quality of water supply protection and infrastructure.
A second introductory meeting in two years took place in October 2007. However, at the
conclusion of the meeting it was unclear as to what steps would be taken next or by whom in
order to further facilitate the certification process.
53
Chapter 7
Conclusion
Conclusions
It is necessary for communities to examine and understand the conditions of their water
resources in order to ensure adequate management and sustainable development.
The
Monteverde Region, which supports a thriving eco-tourism industry, is a locale in which this
theory particularly applies as it boasts a well-known history and current dependence upon a
sustainable use of the environment while also facing challenges with rapid economic and urban
development.
What’s more, the majority of the region’s communities are situated in the
headwater reaches of the Río Guacimal watershed, influencing both quantity and quality of water
for the communities located further downstream. The opportunity presented by this study to
identify and summarize the state of scientific knowledge, the current conditions of water quantity
and quality, the accessibility and value of water-related information as well as the framework for
how resources are presently managed helps create a clear starting point from which to move
forward in the future.
In addition to presenting available information, the identification of knowledge and
management gaps is also of particular value. Important areas of scientific knowledge such as
dynamics of groundwater hydrology, health and discharge capacities of local streams and
downstream impacts of pollution from upstream sources lack significant in-depth investigation.
Although some supporting data exists, further examination and direct comparisons of regional
landscape features such as soils, natural land cover and climate is necessary to understand their
influence on surface and groundwater hydrology. As for surface water quality, previous studies
provide a variety of insights on local stream health and the impacts of human development;
however, some lack specificity regarding the actual damage pollutants cause on the ecosystem
and collectively they lack continuity in terms of parameters tested and sites monitored.
54
Chapter 7
Conclusion
Results from a study that analyzed the quality of potable water systems and the number
of diarrhea cases in three communities indicated that current water quality conditions do not
present major public health risks to populations located in higher mountainous terrain. This is
probably due to the location of groundwater springs, the management of aqueduct systems and
certain hydrologic features.
Despite this hypothesis, the physical interaction of potentially
contaminated surface waters (e.g., streams or stormwater runoff) with groundwater flows (i.e.,
potable water sources) has not been shown. Furthermore, no scientific studies for the Guacimal
watershed were identified which examine the recharge patterns of groundwater springs and large
aquifers in the lowland regions where pollution from upstream communities is more likely to
infiltrate major sources of potable water.
As for potable water supply, very little is known about the discharge levels of surface
water bodies or the total production of groundwater sources. This lack of information limits the
ability of government entities to adequately facilitate sustainable water use permitting in the
present or accurately predict resource availability for the future. The absence of information also
inhibits the understanding of minimum flow requirements for stream ecosystems as well as the
ability of surface waters to assimilate human-caused pollution.
Perhaps the most significant issues facing local water management are the quality of
water-related data sets and the lack of central planning and coordination between management
institutions present within the region. Numerous studies by different sources and for various
purposes have produced a wide range of population figures. As a result, the continuity and
comparability of information necessary to make long-term growth projections (i.e., future water
demand) does not exist in the data set as whole. Similarly, comprehensive statistics have not
55
Chapter 7
Conclusion
been maintained regarding the local tourism industry, which represents a major source of
commercial water demand in the region.
It is likely the various local government entities adequately implement their water
management responsibilities according to the respective legislative and regulatory terms.
Nevertheless, purposeful coordination between representatives of the various national agencies,
the local municipal government and private scientific institutions would lead to a clear
establishment of future needs and development goals, identification of current administrative
capacities and existing challenges as well as the appropriate framework for managing and
achieving defined goals. An active dialogue between these entities would also help identify
common regulatory requirements, enable institutions to leverage limited resources and provide
opportunities to express the current interests of their respective constituencies or parent
organizations.
Considerable attention is finally being directed toward water resources of the Upper
Guacimal watershed. The programs mentioned in chapter six exemplify this growing interest as
well as other factors that will continue to influence regional water resources. Hopefully, the
wide-ranging information presented in this study lends to a better understanding of local water
resources, their current conditions, and the framework for which they are managed so that further
initiatives can continue to develop and progress in the future.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are derived from the various issues discussed throughout
this study. Though numerous and sometimes requiring extensive research investments, they
include very practical suggestions that can be implemented within the current management
56
Chapter 7
Conclusion
framework and are potentially feasible considering the technical resources provided by a unique
composition of environmental non-profit and academic institutions within the region. It is hoped
that these recommendations will lead to specific coordinated initiatives, discussion points for a
community dialogue and, in consideration of the presented literature, inform future research,
community outreach programs and future information management.
1. Very little is known about the hydrology of surface and groundwater resources of the
entire Río Guacimal watershed. A continuation of the climatic and stream flow studies
previously identified will continue to provide important baseline information for many
types of research in the Monteverde Region and should be extended to lower portions of
the watershed. Most notable, is a lack of understanding concerning the interaction of
surface water flows with groundwater resources (i.e., flows to and from watercourses and
infiltration into sub-surface layers). Empirical research on this theme, in addition to
climate, soils, geography and natural land cover, would better inform management
decisions regarding land use, wastewater treatment, public health and regional water
supply.
Results from the Guacimal watershed can also be compared with other
watersheds along the leeward Pacific slope that face similar or greater water resource
management issues.
2. In order to better understand the specific impacts of human-caused pollution on stream
health and the potential risks posed to public health, a long-term study that monitors
multiple sites, has a large sample size and consistently compares a thorough set of
parameters is necessary. Many of these aspects will be fulfilled via the pending Adopt-
57
Chapter 7
Conclusion
A-Stream program; though, there will still be an need for information regarding sites
downstream of the headwater communities and perhaps even more sensitive analyses of
certain pollutants.
3. A survey of aquatic biology along the continuum of the watershed would offer a valuable
educational tool that would be more applicable to Pacific-slope watersheds than currently
available information which tends to have greater emphasis on Caribbean watersheds.
An extensive survey of aquatic macroinvertebrates would also provide a specialized
reference tool for stream monitoring programs. Changes in macroinvertebrate diversity
and abundance, which are important indicators of stream health, can also be examined.
4. Assuming that some level of contamination will be identified via the Adopt-A-Stream
monitoring program, a community dialogue series should be facilitated in order to discuss
specific pollution reduction goals, the community’s desired methods for abating pollution
and the manner in which the various public and private entities can collaborate in
management processes. Other themes such as water use and conservation, sustainable
community development and protection of the local economy via organized natural
resource conservation can also be included in the discussions.
5. An open dialogue of pollution reduction goals will help delineate which pollution
reduction alternatives are most practical. As this pertains to wastewater treatment, it is
necessary to profoundly consider the key environmental, legal, administrative and socioeconomic factors that determine the feasibility of available options.
58
These include
Chapter 7
Conclusion
among others, land availability, cost and physical characteristics; legally mandated water
quality standards; the mechanisms and resources necessary to ensure long-term operation
of treatment systems; and a cost recovery structure that is both adequate and equitable.
Also, a candid discussion regarding the trade-offs between alternatives should be
facilitated so as not to automatically exclude potentially viable options that initially may
not appear to be desirable (e.g., costly, mechanical wastewater treatment facilities).
6. The local management framework, which includes a network of public and private
institutions, should be maximized through centralized coordination in order to ensure the
success of both regulatory and non-regulatory (e.g., social and academic) programs. The
Research Advisory Commission of Monteverde (CAIM) or a Bandera Azul planning
committee are appropriate mechanisms for facilitating such coordination. In this manner,
unnecessary repetition in research, outreach and enforcement efforts can be prevented,
resources can be shared between the various entities and the manner in which specific
sectors of the population are most effectively reached can be identified. Furthermore, the
creation of a Plan Regulador would provide a strong legal foundation from which future
efforts could be based. Drafting an official plan could also help stimulate a useful
community-wide dialogue about the future direction and development goals of the region.
7. A major necessity for future water resource planning is improved collection and
dissemination of socio-economic statistics. As for local populations, the Santa Elena
Public Clinic generates the most comprehensive data sets and can enable more sensitive
growth projections by maintaining clearly separated records for each community. This
59
Chapter 7
Conclusion
would allow distinct populations to be compared with water-use data from their
respective aqueduct sub-system. The Chamber of Tourism is the most appropriate entity
to maintain statistics on the number and nationality of tourists that visit local hotels,
forest reserves and attractions.
8. In most recent years, the AyA office in Santa Elena has maintained records of water
consumption and the number of active users per sub-system. These data are adequate for
conducting various analyses, however, additional information on water shortages (e.g.,
locations, dates, number of complaints) and the installation of meters at collection tanks
would fill much needed knowledge gaps regarding total water supply and infrastructure
delivery capacity. Furthermore, the installation of meters would enable AyA to evaluate
infrastructure capacity and to monitor for possible losses between the supply source and
customers. Such data would also inform scientific research regarding the relationship
between the local climate, landscape and groundwater production.
9. The final recommendation is for the various local agencies (e.g., AyA, MINAE,
Ministerio de Salud, Public Health Clinic, Chamber of Tourism) to continue working
with the Monteverde Institute in order to provide consistent water-related records for the
publicly-available digital library. Consistent data sets will make public decision-making
processes and future research more adequate and efficient simply due to improved
accessibility of information. The MVI website, in conjunction with the digital library
database, should also serve as an up-to-date resource for events and advancements
regarding water resources.
60
Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful to the University of Costa Rica for their support of this project
and the incredible flexibility they have allowed me in order to accomplish various initiatives
during the year. Funding from the Office of the Rectoría made this project possible. Special
thanks also go to Yamileth Astorga, Coordinator of ProGAI-CICA, for her constant positive
energy and willingness to support all aspects of my work.
I am also very appreciative of the support from the University of Georgia’s Costa Rica
campus, which provided all the technical services and assistance necessary to conduct my
research within the region.
Due to the financial and technical support from these two
universities, this project was able to produce a useful foundation of knowledge regarding water
resources of the Guacimal watershed and will propel many more initiatives in the near future.
I also would like to thank the personnel of the Monteverde Institute who were helpful
during the course of this project and continue to support common initiatives regarding water
resources in Monteverde.
Finally, I want to thank Sofía Arce Flores who has constantly assisted me with
translations to and from Spanish and always provided valuable advice and encouragement
throughout the project.
61
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