Dimensions - Southern Early Childhood Association

Transcription

10495 Summer 10 Cover:Layout 1
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3:40 PM
Page 1
Volume 38, Number 2
D imensions
Spring/Summer 2010
Southern
Early Childhood
Association
of
Inside this issue:
• Social Skills
• English Language
Learners
• The South Leads
in Pre-K
• What Age Gap?
• Talk About Math
Early Childhood
7/16/10
3:40 PM
Page 2
Don’t Forget to Vote for Your 2010 SECA
President-Elect Candidates!
The Nominating Committee of the Southern Early Childhood Association has certified two President-Elect
candidates for the 2010 election that will be held in the fall. We introduced the candidates at SECA 2010 in Little
Rock, and they are:
Nancy Cheshire of West Virginia and Beverly Peden of Mississippi
We know you want to be able to make an informed decision when you vote, so we’ve included information
about each candidate below. For more information on each candidate’s unique vision for SECA, refer to the
Summer 2010 SECA Reporter or any of this year’s issues of What’s Happening at SECA, all available at
www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org. Look for ballots to arrive in your mailbox in August 2010.
Nancy Cheshire
Nancy is Early Childhood
Professor Emerita at Pierpont
Community and Technical
College in West Virginia. She
has a Master of Education
Degree with an emphasis in
Early Childhood Education
from West Virginia Wesleyan
College and completed additional graduate work at
West Virginia University.
As a Professor of Early Childhood at Pierpont, she
served as the Early Childhood Program Coordinator,
Supervisor of Early Childhood Practicum Students,
Director of the Fairmont State Laboratory Preschool,
and Advisor to the Associate of Applied Science Degree
majors and Early Childhood Occupational Development majors. In 2007, she received the Fairmont
State Paul Edwards Outstanding Teacher Award.
Prior to her role as a professor, she served as the
Executive Director of Lasting Impressions Child
Development Center, Inc., which is located at the FBI
Complex in Clarksburg, West Virginia, and received a
letter of commendation and merit award from the
United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of
Investigation in 1996.
Nancy has been a Governing Board member of the
West Virginia Association for Young Children since
1995. She served as the West Virginia representative on
the SECA Board of Directors from 1998 to 2005 and
was named SECA’s Outstanding Member in 2009. She
currently serves as co-chair of the SECA Editorial
Committee.
Beverly Peden
Beverly recently retired as
Executive Director of Crossgates Methodist Children’s
Center in Brandon, Mississippi, a position that she
held from 1993 to 2009. She
has a B.S. in Elementary
Education from Belhaven
University. In 2004, she achieved the Director’s
Credential Designation from the National Institute of
Child Care Management and completed the
Montessori Training from the Association for the
Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. She currently is an
early childhood consultant, including working with
the Mississippi State University Early Childhood
Institute to assess programs with the Early Childhood
Quality Rating Scale.
Beverly has been a member of the Mississippi Early
Childhood Association since 1988, serving as
President in 2001, and was recognized with MECA’s
highest award, the MECA Award. She currently serves
as the Mississippi Representative on the SECA Board
of Directors.
She served on Mississippi Governor Haley
Barbour’s Early Childhood Committee from 2007 to
2009 and currently serves on the Mississippi
Department of Health Advisory Council. In 2004 she
was named National Director of the Year by the
National Association of Child Care Professionals and
was recognized by the Mississippi Business Journal as
one of the 50 Leading Business Women of Mississippi.
In 2007, she received the Bettye Quinn Education
Award from Belhaven University.
Southern
Early Childhood
Association
Editor - Janet F. Brown
Cover photo by Elisabeth Nichols
Dimensions of
Early Childhood
Copyright ©2010, Southern Early Childhood
Association (SECA). Permission is not required to
excerpt or make copies of articles in Dimensions
of Early Childhood if they are distributed at no cost.
Contact the Copyright Clearance Center at (978)
750-8400 or www.copyright.com for permission
for academic photocopying (coursepackets, study
guides, etc.). Indexes for Dimensions of Early Childhood are posted on the SECA web site at
www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org. Additional
copies of Dimensions of Early Childhood may be
purchased from the SECA office by calling (800)
305-SECA. Dimensions of Early Childhood (ISSN
1068-6177) is SECA’s journal. Third Class postage
is paid at Little Rock, Arkansas. SECA does not accept responsibility for statements of facts or opinion which appear in Dimensions of Early Childhood.
Authors are encouraged to ask for a copy of
SECA’s manuscript guidelines. Submit manuscripts
that are typed and double spaced with references
in APA style. E-mail manuscripts for review to the
editor at editor@southernearlychildhood.org.
SECA serves the interests of early childhood educators concerned with child development, including
university researchers and teacher educators; early
childhood, kindergarten, and primary-grade teachers;
and early childhood program administrators and proprietors. The association has affiliates in 13 Southern
states. Non-affiliate memberships are available to anyone living outside the 13 affiliate states. For information about joining SECA, contact the executive offices
at P.O. Box 55930, Little Rock, AR 72215-5930, (800)
305-7322. Members receive a one-year subscription to Dimensions of Early Childhood and discounts
on SECA publications and conference registration
fees.
Dimensions
of Early
Childhood
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
—Refereed Articles—
3
Social Skills: Laying the Foundation for Success
Sharon A. Lynch and Cynthia G. Simpson
13
Teaching English Language Learners:
Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators
Sarah J. Shin
23
What Age Gap?
Building Intergenerational Relationships
Stephanie R. Davidson and Beverly Boals-Gilbert
30
One, Two, Buckle My Shoe:
Using Math-Mediated Language in Preschool
Loretta C. Rudd, Macy Satterwhite, and Matthew C. Lambert
—Departments—
2
President's Message
Janie Humphries
22
The South Leads in Pre-K Education
Glenda Bean
39
Southern Early Childhood Association
P.O. Box 55930
Little Rock, AR 72215-5930
(800) 305-7322
e-mail: editor@southernearlychildhood.org
Web: www.southernearlychildhood.org
Spring/Summer 2010
Book Reviews: Books for Early Childhood Educators
E. Anne Eddowes, Editor
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Volume 38, Number 2
1
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Dr. Janie Humphries
President
2310 Lily Drive
Ruston, LA 71720
Georgia Lamirand
Past President
2013 Rocky Point Drive
Edmond, OK 73003
PRESIDENT’S
MESSAGE
AFFILIATE REPRESENTATIVES
Dee Ard
1805 Townshend Trace S.W.
-AlabamaDecatur, AL 35603
Dr. Joanna Grymes
Arkansas State University
PO Box 2350
State University, AR 72467-2350
-Arkansas-
STAFF
Glenda Bean
Executive Director
As I travel around the SECA region I am excited to learn what programs the
states are providing for young children of the South. The South now has the highest
enrollment of 3- and 4-year olds in prekindergarten of any region in the country.
Even with a recession, the SECA states have been able to maintain or increase their
public prekindergarten programs in the past 2 years. Each SECA state either has a
quality rating system for early learning and care programs or is in the process of
designing a system. We are providing more and more educational and care
programs for young children in the SECA states.
In reviewing this information, I have to stop and consider: Are we providing
our children with good-quality early care and education? Providing programs is
not enough. We must work to ensure that each program is a good-quality
experience. Children do not benefit from just any type of early care and education
programs. Children benefit, grow, and prosper when they are provided high-quality
early care and education.
How do we ensure that young children in our Southern states are in goodquality programs? We provide information to legislators, state agency personnel,
and administrators about the characteristics of high-quality programs. We help
parents know and understand what good-quality programs are. We educate our
communities on what good-quality early care and education programs look like
AND what good-quality programs cost to provide. We help parents,
administrators, community leaders, and legislators understand that children start
learning before they are born. We do not have “to get them ready to learn” when
they enter school at 4 or 5 years of age. Instead, we must ensure that programs for
all ages are good quality.
High-quality programs for children from birth to 5 years have supportive
relationships and stimulating environments. They have certified teachers trained
to work with the ages they teach. Good-quality programs are funded sufficiently.
Young children have ample, interesting materials to manipulate, to explore, to
experiment with, and to use to make fun and exciting discoveries in their
environments. Good-quality programs have appropriate student-teacher ratios.
Classrooms where learning happens are not crowded.
Excellent programs intentionally plan the curriculum so that children have
time to focus on learning. They help children make connections between
materials they are using as well as more unusual connections. They encourage
children to use manipulatives and explore to develop and extend their creativity.
Megan Sullins
Executive Assistant
continued on page 40
-Florida-
Sister Roberta Bailey
PO Box 2450
Saint Leo, FL 33574-2450
-Georgia-
Terrie Buckner
655 Singley Drive
Lawrenceville, GA 31406
-Kentucky-
Katie Shaughnessy-Williams
500 Metro Street, 17th Floor CPT
Louisville, KY 40245
-Louisiana-
Cynthia Ramagos
815 Bourbon Avenue
Baton Rouge, LA 70808
-Mississippi-
Beverly Peden
21 Crossgates Drive
Brandon, MS 39042
-Oklahoma-
Susan Carrigan
2427 Foliage Drive
Ada, OK 74820-4626
-South Carolina-
Crystal Campbell
235 Woodhouse Dr.
Irmo, SC 29063
-Tennessee-
Lisa Maddox-Vinson
548 Bumpus Mills Rd.
Dover, TN 37058
-Texas-
Mary Jamsek
7603 Basil Cove
Austin, TX 78750
-Virginia-
Joyce P. Jones
802 Cub Ridge Court
Chester, VA 23836
-West Virginia-
Melanie Clark
3272 Birch River Road
Birch River, WV 26610
MEMBERS-AT-LARGE
Dr. Herman T. Knopf
Carol Montealegre
133 Old Pond Lane
1322 Castille Avenue
Columbia, SC 29212
Coral Gables, FL 33134
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Nancy Cheshire
Connie Casha
West Virginia
Tennessee
Stephen Graves
Anita McLeod
Florida
South Carolina
Jaesook Gilbert
Cynthia Simpson
Kentucky
Texas
Wilma Robles-Melendez
Florida
2
Dr. Janie Humphries
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
What strategies are most effective to help diverse groups of young children learn positive social
skills? This review suggests ways to build a foundation for children’s future success at home, in
school, and in the community.
Social Skills:
Laying the Foundation for Success
Well-informed teachers of young children recognize the
importance of children’s social development. The development of social skills lays a critical foundation for later
academic achievement as well as work-related skills
(McClelland & Morrison, 2003).
Social development is such a key issue with young
children that a number of methods to address social skills
have been advocated. Some of these methods include
• setting up classrooms to enhance social
development,
• providing play opportunities to promote social
functioning, and
• teaching social skills directly.
Teaching social skills can incorporate a number of
techniques, including direct instruction, learning from
peers, prevention of problem behaviors, and children’s
books. Many social behaviors are better learned among
peers (Ladd, 2005), so teachers of young children are in a
unique position to promote social learning in their
classrooms. The purpose of this article is to provide
teachers with several research-based strategies to promote
young children’s social skills development.
What Social Skills Are Important?
All children need to learn appropriate social skills.
Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction
with others and the environment. Some of these skills
include
• showing empathy,
• participation in group activities,
• generosity,
• helpfulness,
• communicating with others,
• negotiating, and
• problem solving.
Spring/Summer 2010
What are social skills?
Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction with others and the environment. Some of
these skills include showing empathy, participation in
group activities, generosity, helpfulness, communicating with others, negotiating, and problem solving.
Children learn these skills from the adults and children
in their environment who model and explain how to
behave in particular circumstances (Ladd, 2005). The
social skills that children learn when they are young form
the basis for subsequent relationships that they develop in
later childhood and adulthood (Ladd & Burgess, 2001;
Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996).
Because of the importance of social development in the
formative early years, all children need to learn and
practice social skills. Many children spend a significant
Sharon A. Lynch, Ed.D., is Professor, Department of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations, Sam Houston State
University, Huntsville, Texas. She is the author of Preschool
Classroom Management (2004) and has published extensively
on the subject of social skills. She has 10 years experience in
public schools, 4 years experience as an educational consultant, and 16 years in higher education where she teaches
courses in special education.
Cynthia G. Simpson, Ph.D., is Associate Professor, Department of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations, Sam
Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. She has published
numerous books and articles on the subject of preschool inclusion. Simpson has extensive experience in both private and
public schools as a classroom teacher, educational diagnostician, child care director, educational consultant, and administrator. She teaches courses in special education.
Volume 38, Number 2
3
social interaction, smooth transitions,
and social communication (McEvoy,
1990). Learning areas can be large
enough to give children the space they
need to play together, but small
enough to provide an intimate setting
for social interaction. For example, in
the housekeeping center, low dividers
enable adults to supervise children as
they play and learn. They also set clear
boundaries to provide sufficient space
for several children to play with the
sink, appliances, and table.
Toys that promote cooperative play
Elisabeth Nichols
as well as isolate play are always
Learning areas can be large enough to give children the space they need to play
available in a classroom designed to
together, but small enough to provide an intimate setting for social interaction. Select
facilitate social skill development.
toys and activities that promote cooperation, helpfulness, and generosity, rather than
Learning materials that encourage
those that are competitive.
cooperative play include pretend cars
portion of their day in child care How Can Teachers
and trucks, blocks, imaginary food
or preschool settings, so it is incumand cooking props, and puppets.
bent on teachers of young children Help?
Select toys and activities that promote
Many teachers of young children
to positively influence children’s
cooperation, helpfulness, and genare more comfortable with approaches
social development.
erosity, rather than those that are comWith the passage of the Individuals that involve setting up environments petitive (Honig & Wittmer, 1996).
With Disabilities Education Imp- to promote social growth and making
rovement Act (IDEA, 2004), there is an the most of teachable moments as
Enhance Social
increased focus on including all children they arise, while other teachers prefer
in typical classrooms (Jacobson, 2005). a more direct instructional approach Functioning Through Play
Children learn a vast array of skills
As a result, there are more children to teach specific social skills. Although
with disabilities in early childhood philosophies may vary, many experts during play opportunities. From
who work with young children with building with blocks and role playing
and primary-level classrooms.
problem behaviors advocate tech- in the dramatic play area, for instance,
niques that address specific social children develop skills such as one-toIntervention can improve
behaviors directly, while also rec- one correspondence, early writing and
social relationships.
ognizing the need to structure the reading behaviors, as well as counting
environment and take advantage of and patterning.
Some authorities contend that for situations that provide spontaneous
Play also provides a means and
young children with disabilities, social opportunities for teaching (Vaughn, opportunity for children to learn and
skills development should be the et al., 2003).
improve their social skills (Barbakoff
central goal of early childhood
& Yo, 2002). For children who are
programs (Guralnick, 1999). In Arrange the Environment
socially isolated, play offers important
addition to children with identified
occasions for social interaction and
to Promote Positive
developmental problems, there are
skill development. Children with
often other children in classrooms Social Skills
disabilities also benefit from the
who lack social skills or demonstrate
The classroom environment def- experience of playing with typicalproblem behavior, although they do initely can be structured to promote
developing peers, who provide
not have an identified disability.
4
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
suitable role models, initiate social
interactions, and maintain ongoing
communication. Additionally, free
play is an effective, spontaneous way
for children to apply social skills that
have been taught directly.
The four stages of play are marked
by different types of social interaction
in which children engage:
• onlooker,
• solitary,
• parallel, and
• cooperative play.
Each type of play elicits different
types of social interactions. Select toys
that stretch each developmental play
level to increase children’s social
learning opportunities. For example,
a well-stocked pretend play center is
filled with real objects, writing
materials, play telephones, and dressup clothing. These items foster
children’s social development as they
begin to interact with others using
social skills such as turn taking,
sharing toys, listening, and using
appropriate greetings.
The social learning that takes place
during center time activities can be
unlimited when best practices are
implemented. Engage children in
discussions and physical movement,
ask assistants or volunteers to sit with
wiggly children to help them focus,
and keep group times short. Follow
this simple guideline: Actively involved
adults lead to actively involved children.
opportunities to teach social skills
include sharing in the work of
cleaning up, thanking a classroom
visitor for bringing her dog, or
inviting a newcomer to the classroom
to join in play.
Children learn social skills
from adults and children.
When teaching young children
appropriate social behaviors, everyday
events often become teachable moments. For example, when a child
demonstrates a problem behavior,
view it as an opportunity to facilitate
social growth. When Madison, an
older toddler, grabs a new doll from
Carly and Carly cries, good teachers
recognize that these children are ready
to learn negotiation, communication,
and conflict solution skills.
Most such events also provide
opportunities for children to learn
about the feelings of others, a foundational support for social growth.
Young children are still learning to
recognize and understand the feelings
of others, so they can benefit from
specific guidance to learn to identify the
emotions of other children and adults.
With these children, the teacher can
• name feelings as other
children demonstrate them,
and
• suggest why they may feel
that way; then later
•
describe feelings observed
Build on Teachable
in additional children, and
Moments
• ask the children who are
Teachers are urged to show
having difficulty why they
children how to share and negotiate
think their peers may feel
before problem behavior occurs,
as they do.
because it is nearly impossible to teach
When teachers use classroom conchildren social skills when they are flict as an opportunity to promote
arguing or upset. Typical classroom social growth rather than to punish
Spring/Summer 2010
children, everyone involved benefits
(Stone, 1993).
Teachable moments do not
necessary revolve around negative
behaviors. Everyday events can also be
designed as proactive measures to
teach social behaviors. Teachers can
teach alternative behaviors and
prompt their use before the time
when the negative behaviors are likely
to occur.
For example, negative behaviors—
biting, pushing, screaming, or
hitting—are likely to occur during
transition times. An example of
setting up a teachable moment is to
design transition activities around
those times in the day in which
children move from one activity or
area in the classroom to another.
Effective transition activities can
include chants, games, and songs that
are designed to help bring closure to
activities as well as to assist children in
moving to and from group activities.
In addition, effective transitions help
focus children’s attention while waiting for a turn (Pica, 2003).
Prevent Inappropriate
Behavior
In addition to arranging furnishings and learning materials to
promote appropriate social interactions, classroom routines can be
structured in ways to avoid problem
behaviors to the greatest extent
possible (Warner & Lynch, 2004).
Problem behaviors have a variety of
causes and effects.
• Problem behaviors attract
teacher and peer attention.
Some children seek this
attention, even when it is
negative.
Volume 38, Number 2
5
Nancy P. Alexander
Show children how to share and negotiate before the problem behavior occurs, because it is nearly impossible to teach
children social skills when they are arguing or upset. When teaching young children appropriate social behaviors, everyday events often become teachable moments.
• Problem behaviors provide
negative role models that
other young children may
imitate.
• Problem behaviors can
create situations where
children are hurt, resulting
in a classroom where
children do not feel safe.
With individual children and even
the whole group, an observant teacher
often can predict when inappropriate
behaviors are likely to occur. There are
various ways teachers can help
children avoid negative behavior.
(Briody & McGarry, 2005). Some
effective techniques for smooth transitions are to
• provide a signal that the
activity will soon end,
• sing or chant a predictable
song or fingerplay to cue
transitions,
• set a timer, and
• alternate free play with
more structured activities.
The “plan-do-review” process
(Schweinhart & Weikart, 1999), or
posting a picture schedule, enables
children to learn the daily routine and
predict upcoming activities. As a result,
Plan for transitions. In addition children learn the social skill of
to addressing teachable moments, following group customs. This builds a
planning for transitions can avoid foundation for following routines that
problem behaviors when children children will encounter in elementary
change from one activity to the next classrooms and through-out their lives.
6
Volume 38, Number 2
Entering and leaving structured
settings such as circle time or table
tasks are difficult for some children.
When teachers maintain a fast pace,
encourage personal involvement, and
change activities every 5 to 10 minutes within the structured setting,
children are more likely to be interested and engaged.
When a child is becoming restless,
give the child a delay cue—such as
“just one minute and then we will
play outdoors,” or “after this story we
will sing a song”—depending on the
activity that is planned next (Warner
& Lynch, 2004). When children learn
to attend during group times, they are
gaining a social skill that will help
them in their classroom learning for
many years to come.
Spring/Summer 2010
Offer choices. Providing opportunities for choice is very important
when working with young children
(Ward & Dahlmeier, 2004). Even
with low-preference activities such as
naps, choice making can give children
a sense of autonomy, enabling them
to settle into a routine that otherwise
might be problematic. For example, at
rest time, a teacher might give a child
the choice of sleeping on a cot or a
rug, or of sitting quietly and playing
with a toy or reading a book.
Choices should be limited,
safe, and appropriate.
Choices should be limited, safe,
and appropriate to the child’s age and
to the activity. Choice-making helps
children adjust to the social demands
of a group setting and promotes
responsibility. Working cooperatively
within the group becomes increasingly important as children move
into intermediate grades.
Teach Social Skills
Direct instruction typically involves teaching children specific social
behaviors such as sharing, taking
turns, or asking for a toy. This method
can be used with a group of children
during circle time, or with an
individual child who has difficulty
with a specific social skill.
When social skills instruction is
targeted to the needs of children with
social difficulties such as aggression or
isolation, the intervention can
significantly improve the nature of the
child’s social relationships (Ladd,
2005; Mize & Ladd, 1990). Direct
instruction using a social skill script
usually involves these steps.
Spring/Summer 2010
1. The teacher models the
appropriate behavior.
2. The child demonstrates the
behavior with the teacher.
3. The teacher models a correct
and incorrect example of the
target social behavior.
4. The teacher asks the child to
identify the correct social
behavior.
5. The child role plays the
positive skill with another
child.
6. To promote generalization of
the social skill, the teacher
reminds the child of the skill
before the activity where it is
likely to be employed.
An example of direct instruction
using a social skill script with an older
preschool child is provided in Table 1.
Notice that with young children, a
social skill is broken down into just a
few behaviors.
Promote Peer Learning
According to social learning theory
(Bandura, 1986), individuals learn
many social behaviors by observing
others. Teachers can take advantage of
this phenomenon by grouping
children in activities to promote
appropriate social behavior. These are
just two examples.
• When a child has difficulty
with social skills, seat her
between two socially adept
Table 1. Example of direct instruction using a social script
Teacher: Let’s learn how to share. First, I look at my friend. I give
her a truck. And I say, ”Here.” Tell me, what do you do
when you share?
Child:
(teacher may need to prompt the child) I look at my friend.
I give her a truck. I say ”Here.”
Teacher: Yes, that is one way to share. Now watch me and tell me if
I share. I look at Libby. I give her the doll. And I say,
“Here.” Did I share with Libby?
Child:
Yes. You shared with Libby.
Teacher: You were really watching. Now tell me if I share this time.
(demonstrate with another toy, but grab it and say “That’s
mine.”) Did I share?
Child:
No, you grabbed the doll.
Teacher: I see that you were watching carefully. Now watch me this
time. (Demonstrate sharing a car with the child). Did I share
with you? What did I do?
Child:
You did. You gave me the car and said, “Here.”
The teacher then has the child role play the act of sharing with a
friend.
Before the children go to play in centers, remind them to remember to
share with their friends. Some teachers may want to role play again
just before center time to reinforce the skill.
Volume 38, Number 2
7
peers during circle time
and snack time.
• During playground time,
centers, and other play
activities, encourage the
children with strong social
skills to invite a child with
less mature social development to join them.
When teachers affirm appropriate
social behaviors, other children see
this happening and are more likely to
imitate behaviors that are socially
enhancing. At the same time, be
careful not make the same children
always the caretakers of less socially
adept children. One way to avoid this
is to pair the child with social
difficulties with a variety of children
rather than with the same child all of
the time.
Tell Social Stories
Originally, teachers used social
stories to assist young children with
disabilities to learn social skills. The
effectiveness of social stories with
children with disabilities is widely
documented (Sansosoti, PowellSmith, & Kinkaid, 2004). In recent
years social stories have become
increasing popular among preschool
and elementary teachers (Lynch &
Simpson, 2005).
Through the use of social stories,
teachers can address specific social
skills such as how to greet friends or
share a toy. After the target skill is
identified, the teacher, along with the
children, creates a story that demonstrates how to use that skill. Later,
the teacher reads the social story
during circle time and follows up with
interactive role playing where children
can practice the skill informally.
After the children are familiar with
the appropriate behavior, the teacher
8
Volume 38, Number 2
reminds them to use the skill
throughout the day. This technique is
highly effective for children who may
not have appropriate role models of
social behaviors at home, or may
not be able to generalize skills into
alternate environments. Very often
children independently use their newly
learned skill in various learning centers.
The process for implementing
social stories presented here has been
adapted from its original format to
assure that the activity is developmentally appropriate for typically
developing young children. When
developing the social story, Gray
(2000) recommends that the stories
follow a specific five-to-seven-sentence format.
• The first sentence (descriptive
sentence) simply describes the
appropriate behavior in social
situations.
• The following sentence
describes positive,
observable, appropriate
responses (directive sentence).
• The next sentence (perspective
sentence) helps children to
understand the viewpoint
of others as they react to a
situation. This perspective
sentence was developed by
Gray (2000) for children
with autism spectrum
disorders who may not
understand the feelings of
the teacher or peers in the situation described in the story.
For typically developing children, the teacher may want
to include a sentence that reflects a more internal locus of
control and reflects on the
child’s perspective rather than
the perspective of others.
• The next sentence is optional.
It describes a commonly
shared value or opinion.
• The last sentence reminds
children of the appropriate
behavior in the social
situation (control sentence).
The social story in Table 2 was
written to assist children who were
having difficulty in cleaning up after
center time.
For children with autism spectrum
disorders, a perspective sentence from
Gray’s framework would be included
to provide the child with insight
about the viewpoint of others. Instead
of “Tomorrow our toys will be ready
to play with again,” the sentence
might read “Our teacher is pleased
when we pick up our toys.” Because the
Table 2. Social story to assist children with clean-up time
Center Time
We like to play with toys during center time.
When it is time to clean up centers, our teacher sings the clean-up song.
Sometimes we are having fun playing and do not want to clean up.
Even when we want to keep playing, we pick up our toys.
After we clean up our toys, we can go outside to play.
Tomorrow our toys will be ready to play with again.
We feel proud when we get all of the toys picked up.
It is very important to pick up our toys and put them away neatly.
We will try to remember to pick up our toys when we hear the clean-up song.
Spring/Summer 2010
social story in Table 2 is applicable to Developmental bibliotherapy
most classrooms, and not necessarily for Reading stories to children that
children with autism, the perspective address issues that most children
sentence was adapted to provide an are likely to experience at a
particular age.
example that promotes internal locus of
control, rather than doing something
If the teacher reads When Sophie
simply to please the teacher.
Gets Angry—Really, Really Angry by
Molly Bang, there are a number of
Explore Story Books
issues that can be discussed, such as
Teachers have long used story the fact that everyone feels angry,
books to promote children’s social what makes us angry, how we know
development. Doll and Doll (1997) when we feel angry, and what we do
introduced the term developmental when we are angry.
Using children’s literature in this
bibliotherapy, which is reading stories
to children that address issues that way offers children perspectives and
most children are likely to experience options for their thoughts, feelings,
at a particular age. Many young and behaviors. As a result, children are
children are likely to experience feel- able to gain insights about, and learn
ings of anger, teasing, or bullying healthy ways to face, common
difficulties (Heath, Leavy, Young, &
during the preschool years.
Money, 2005).
When selecting picture books to
promote young children’s social development, choose books that contain
• attractive illustrations,
• interesting story content,
• situations that are
developmentally appropriate for young children, and
• appealing recurring refrains
(Nicholson & Pearson, 2003).
Young children often enjoy stories
where animals portray characters, and
this eliminates the uncertainty about
whether or not children will identify
with characters due to age, gender, or
race. Because story reading is a part of
everyday classroom activities, this
method affords a natural way to help
children to learn to deal with problem
situations and express feelings.
Some of the goals of developmental bibliotherapy include providing
Subjects & Predicates
Read stories to children that address issues that most children are likely to experience at a particular age, such as anger,
teasing, or bullying. Using children’s literature in this way offers children perspectives and options for their thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors. As a result, children are able to gain insight and learn healthy ways to face difficulties.
Spring/Summer 2010
Volume 38, Number 2
9
appropriate role models through book
characters, validating children’s feelings, giving children the vocabulary to
talk about their feelings, and
improving children’s self-esteem
(Bauer & Balius, 1995).
Assist Children Who Have
Experienced Trauma
Some children who have difficulty
with social interaction have experienced trauma, such as neglect.
These experiences have a serious
impact on young children’s developing neurological systems. These
children may experience physiologically altered states of arousal and
brain chemistry, making it difficult for
them to regulate their behaviors (Anda,
et al., 2006; Cicchetti & Toth, 2005).
Children who have experienced
trauma also may have attachment
problems that contribute to significant difficulties in relating to and
interacting with others (Lieberman,
2002). Some estimate that 35% of
children in the United States exhibit
some difficulty with attachment
(Lubit & Maldonado-Duran, 2006).
Such children need a predictable, nurturing classroom with non-punitive
caregivers who establish a safe and
rewarding environment for them.
Teachers are urged to collaborate
with specialists when children who
have experienced trauma are enrolled
in their classrooms. An extensive
discussion of children experiencing
trauma and neglect is beyond the
scope of this article, so interested
readers are encouraged to explore the
principles of the Neurosequential
Model of Therapeutics discussed by
Perry (2006). A few common
techniques are described here as an
introduction to the topic.
10
Volume 38, Number 2
Stein and Kendall (2004) provide
an intervention model for children
who have experienced psychological
trauma. Their model consists or three
components:
1. safety and stabilization,
2. symptom reduction and
memory work, and
3. teaching developmental skills.
For safety and stabilization, children
need a safe, predictable environment.
A nurturing classroom with a
predictable schedule and planned
transitions supports these children.
Firm limits and boundaries, where
children are aware of classroom
expectations, are important as well.
Stein and Kendall (2004) also
recommend that caregivers redirect
children toward more appropriate
behaviors and teach them coping
strategies. Providing a safe space in the
classroom where children can calm
down and regain composure is
helpful. This should be a comfortable
area that is not associated with
punishment or time out.
Intervention can improve
social relationships.
The second component of this
model, symptom reduction and memory
work, involves a counselor who is
trained in working with abused
and neglected children. Caregivers
can support these children by teaching them ways to calm down. A
number of methods have been
developed to teach young children to
calm themselves.
• One approach to teaching
a relaxation response is
through self-instruction by
crossing one’s arms and
repeating “control.”
• Another calming technique
is to teach children to cross
their arms pretzel fashion,
bring their arms toward
their body, and take deep
breaths (Miami Dade
County Public Schools,
2007).
• The turtle technique
(Guetzloe, 1998) is another
approach to help children
calm themselves by using
the concrete example of a
turtle. The class can
observe a real turtle or read
about a turtle in a book.
The teacher shows children
how a turtle draws in its
arms and legs when scared
or angry. Children are then
taught to imitate the turtle
by pulling their arms and
legs in close to their bodies.
They can also learn to
"turtle" while standing.
Children practice this
response and the teacher
prompts them to use it
when they are agitated.
The third component of Stein and
Kendall’s model is teaching developmental skills. They recommend
directly teaching social skills and
problem solving. The goal is to foster
social development so that children
can learn compassion, responsibility,
and concern for others.
* * *
Learning social skills during early
childhood is essential, so teachers can
employ a variety of developmentally
appropriate approaches to address
children’s individual needs. Designing
effective classroom environments, taking advantage of teachable moments,
implementing proactive approaches
when teaching social behaviors, and
giving direct social skill instruction are
Spring/Summer 2010
some of the options available to
teachers. Each of these strategies can
be implemented within any classroom
structure and is appropriate for diverse
groups of learners.
When teachers assist children to
learn the social skills that are needed
for success in their homes, schools,
and communities, they are building a
strong foundation for everyone for
many years to come.
References
Anda, R.F., Felitti, V.J., Bremner, J.D.,
Walker, J.D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B.D.,
Dube, S.R., & Giles, W.H. (2006). The
enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology
and epidemiology. European Archives of
Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256,
174-186.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of
thought and action. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall Publishing.
Barbakoff, S., & Yo, Y.P. (2002). Levels of social play: Observing and recording
preschoolers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED472748).
Bauer, M.S., & Balius, F.A. (1995). Storytelling: Integrating therapy and curriculum for children with emotional
disturbances. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(2), 24-28.
Briody, J., & McGarry, K. (2005). Using social stories to ease children’s transitions.
Young Children, 60(5), 38-40.
Doll, B., & Doll, C. (1997). Bibliotherapy
with young people: Librarians and mental
health professionals working together. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. (2005). Child
maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical
Psychology, 1, 409-438.
Gray, C. (2000). Writing social stories with
Carol Gray [Videotape and workbook].
Arlington, TX: Future Horizons.
Guetzloe, E., & Rockwell, S. (1998). Fight,
flight, or better choices: Teaching nonviolent responses to young children. Preventing School Failure, 42(4), 154-159.
Guralnick, M.J. (1999). The nature and
meaning of social integration for young
children with mild developmental delays
in inclusive settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 22, 70-86.
Spring/Summer 2010
Heath, M.A., Sheen, D., Leavy, D., Young,
E., & Money, K. (2005). Bibliotherapy:
A resource to facilitate emotional healing
and growth. School Psychology International, 26(5), 563-580.
Honig, A.S., & Wittmer, D.S. (1996).
Helping children become more prosocial: Ideas for classrooms, families,
schools, and communities. Young Children, 51(2), 62-70.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA). (2004). Public
Law 108-446, 20 U.S.C., Section 1400.
Jacobson, L. (2005). NGA Task Force endorses more inclusion for preschool. Education Week, 24(17), 5.
Ladd, G.W. (2005). Children’s peer relations
and social competence: A century of
progress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Ladd, G.B., & Burgess, K.B. (2001). Do relational risks and protective factors moderate the linkages between childhood
aggression and early psychological and
school adjustment? Child Development,
72(5), 1579-1601.
Ladd, G.W., Kochenderfer, B.J., & Coleman, C.C. (1996). Friendship quality as
a predictor of young children's early
school adjustment. Child Development,
67, 1103-1118.
Lieberman, A.F. (2002). Treatment of attachment disorders in infant psychotherapy. In J.M. Maldonado-Duran (Ed.),
Infant and toddler mental health: Models
of clinical intervention with infants and
their families (pp. 105-128). Washington,
DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Lubit, R., & Maldonado-Duran, J.M.
(2006). Childhood abuse and neglect: Reactive attachment disorder. Retrieved
September 13, 2007, from
http://www.emedicine.com/ped/
topic2646.htm.s
Lynch, S.A., & Simpson, C.G. (2005). Social stories: Tools to teach positive behaviors. Dimensions of Early Childhood,
33(2), 32-36.
McClelland, M.M., & Morrison, F.J.
(2003). The emergence of learningrelated social skills in preschool children.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly,
18(2), 206-224.
McEvoy, M.A. (1990). The organization of
caregiving environments: Critical issues
and suggestions for future research. Education and Treatment of Children, 13(4),
269-272.
Miami-Dade County Public Schools.
(2007). Prekindergarten program for children with disabilities extended school year
(ESY) activities home packet. Retrieved
November 21, 2007, from
http://prekese.dadeschools.net/docs/esy/
Behavior.pdf.
Mize, J., & Ladd, G.W. (1990). A socialcognitive learning approach to social
skill training with low-status preschool
children. Developmental Psychology, 26,
388-397.
Nicholson, J.L., & Pearson, Q.M. (2003).
Helping children cope with fears: Using
children’s literature in classroom guidance. Professional School Counseling, 7(1),
15-19.
Perry, B.D. (2006). Applying principles of
neurodevelopment to clinical work with
maltreated and traumatized children. In
N.B. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27-51).
New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Pica, R. (2003). Teachable transitions: 190
activities to move from morning circle to
the end of the day. Beltsville, MD:
Gryphon House.
Sansosoti, F., Powell-Smith, K.A., &
Kinkaid, D. (2004). A research synthesis
of social story intervention for children
with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on
Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19(4), 194-205.
Schweinhart, L.J., & Weikart, D.P. (1999).
The advantages of High/Scope: Helping
children lead successful lives. Educational
Leadership, 57(1), 76-79.
Stein, P.T., & Kendall, J.C. (2004). Psychological trauma and the developing brain:
Neurologically based interventions for troubled children. New York: Hawthorn
Press.
Stone, S.J. (1993). Taking time to teach social skills. Childhood Education, 69(4),
194-195.
Vaughn, S., Ae-Hwa, C., Morris-Sloan,
C.V., Hughes, M.J., Elbaum, B., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Social skills for young
children with disabilities. Remedial and
Special Education, 24(1), 2-15.
Ward, G., & Dahlmeier, C. (2004). Choices
and voices: A developmental view of
guided choice. Montessori Life, 16(1),
16-20.
Warner, L., & Lynch, S.A. (2004). Preschool
classroom management: 150 teacher-tested
techniques. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House.
Volume 38, Number 2
11
Put These Ideas Into Practice!
Social Skills: Laying the Foundation for Success
What are social skills?
Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction with others and the environment. Some of these skills
include showing empathy, participation in group activities, generosity, helpfulness, communicating with others,
negotiating, and problem solving.
Use Teachable Moments
• Recognize that behavior problems indicate a need for
children to learn a more effective way of interacting
• Model and teach social skills within the context of
everyday play
• Help children recognize and identify their feelings and
the feelings of others
• Smooth transition routines with songs, chants, and
games
Prevent Inappropriate Behaviors
• Based on past experience, anticipate when there
might be problems
• Instruct children in the appropriate behavior before
the problem situation occurs
• During circle time and structured settings, keep a
quick pace, involve children, and change activities
every 5 to 10 minutes
• Let children know that “they are almost finished”
when they become restless
Teach Social Skills Directly
• Use social scripts to teach
turn-taking, sharing, and other
needed skills
• Pair less mature children with
those who have stronger social
abilities
• Use social stories and story
books to teach valued social
skills
Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool.
12
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
Incorporating several forms of literacies (students’ native languages, drawing, music, and
drama) can help to accelerate primary-age children’s acquisition of English literacy. Find out
how teachers facilitate the language-learning process.
Recommendations for Early
Childhood Educators
Sarah J. Shin
“If ESL newcomer students already know how to write
in their native language, should they continue to write in
that language in the classroom?” Teachers working with
young immigrant children frequently ask that question.
Some teachers are justifiably concerned that primaryage students who continue to use their native language
skills might hamper their acquisition of English literacy.
After all, isn’t time spent in writing in the first language
time that could have been spent writing in English?
Many other teachers agree conceptually with the notion
that supporting immigrant children’s home languages and
cultures is good practice (Pattnaik, 2003; 2005). However,
with increasing pressure to help English language learners
quickly acquire academic English skills—so they can be
successful on state-mandated high-stakes tests—many
teachers wonder whether they can afford to have the
“diversion” of students’ native languages in their already
full instructional schedules.
Newcomer English learners are no longer exempt from
taking standardized tests under the No Child Left Behind
Act (2002), so there are enormous pressures to teach them
as much English as possible as soon as possible. Teachers
and schools are required to raise the test scores of their
English learners and are increasingly focusing their
instruction on the content covered by the tests (Crawford,
2004; Meier & Wood, 2004). In fact, many schools are
adopting scripted, one-size-fits-all curricular programs that
consume large amounts of instructional time, leaving less
time for best practices, including ESL and content area
instruction that is tailored to the English proficiency and
literacy levels of individual students (Wright, 2005).
This article contends that while the testing requirements
Spring/Summer 2010
may push teachers to focus only on English, incorporating
other forms of literacies—students’ native languages,
drawing, music, and drama—can help to accelerate
immigrant children’s acquisition of English literacy.
English Learner Population
Growth
In the United States, English learners are a rapidly
growing segment of the K-12 student population.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, the
number of limited-English proficient students in the
country’s schools doubled in the last decade, with more
than 5 million English learners currently enrolled in K-12
programs. In pre-kindergarten through grade 3 alone,
there are more than 2 million English learners (Abedi,
Hofstetter, & Lord, 2004).
While English learners can be found in every state,
some states have particularly high concentrations of
immigrant students. In Texas, for example, Latinos
accounted for almost half of the P-12 public school
population (46.3%) during the 2006-2007 school year,
and 16% of the total P-12 population was identified as
English language learners (Sheets, 2008).
Sarah J. Shin, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Co-Director,
M.A. Program in ESOL/Bilingual Education, Department of
Education, University of Maryland Baltimore County,
Baltimore, Maryland. Her work has appeared in the
International Journal of Bilingualism, Bilingualism: Language
and Cognition, Multilingua, TESOL Quarterly, and the
Heritage Language Journal. She serves on the editorial board of
The International Multilingual Research Journal.
Volume 38, Number 2
13
Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger
If at all possible, English learners should
first be taught to read in the language
they know best (i.e., their native
language) while learning English. This is
because it is difficult for children to read
in a language that they don’t already
speak. English-speaking children learn to
read primarily by applying phonics to arrange sounds to match words in their
speaking vocabulary.
The English learner student
population is a diverse group.
Although 80% of this group speaks
Spanish, the rest of the group
represents speakers of more than 460
languages (Hepburn, 2004). Meeting
the needs of this diverse student
population is a significant challenge
because the majority of classroom
teachers have no preparation for
teaching linguistically and culturally
diverse populations (Daniel &
Friedman, 2005; Hawkins, 2004).
Reading and Writing
in More Than One
Language
Research evidence strongly suggests
that literacy skills transfer from a
child’s first language to a second
language, and learning to read in the
first language facilitates the
development of literacy skills in
English (Cummins, 1996; Lanauze &
Snow, 1989). Evaluations of various
14
Volume 38, Number 2
bilingual education programs show
that instructional programs that allow
immigrant children to develop their
native language to high levels of
proficiency while learning English are
more effective than English-only
programs (Garcia, 2005; Ramirez,
1992; Slavin & Cheung, 2004;
Thomas & Collier, 2002). On the
whole, reinforcing children’s conceptual base in the native language
provides a foundation for long-term
growth in English academic skills
(August & Hakuta, 1997; August &
Shanahan, 2006).
If at all possible, English learners
should first be taught to read in the
language they know best (their native
language) while learning English. This
is because it is difficult for children to
read in a language that they don’t
already speak.
Literacy skills transfer from
a child’s first language to a
second language.
English-speaking children learn to
read primarily by applying phonics to
arrange sounds to match words in
their speaking vocabulary. For
example, an English-speaking child
who comes across the word crow may
initially read it as /kraw/ by assuming
that it is similar to other words with
the same spelling pattern (e.g., brow,
cow, how, now, wow). However, an
English-speaking child knows that the
word cannot be pronounced /kraw/
because she sees the accompanying
picture of a black bird, which she
knows is pronounced /krow/. She
then makes the connection that there
is another set of words in English with
the -ow spelling pattern that is
pronounced /ow/ (e.g., low, mow, row,
tow, throw). By using her knowledge
of the oral language, the Englishspeaking child arrives at the correct
pronunciation and meaning of the word.
However, a young English language
learner who does not know what a
crow is called in English may think
/kraw/ sounds fine since he does not
know what the bird is called in
English. This is why phonics and
sight-word instruction for English
learners should be based on words
that students have encountered many
times. However, if the child already
knows Spanish and sees the word
cuervo (crow in Spanish) printed with
a picture of a crow, he may recognize
and pronounce it correctly as /'kwerβo/.
Children who are literate in
Spanish have already grasped two key
principles: the alphabetic principle
and phonemic awareness.
•The alphabetic principle is
the knowledge that letters
represent sounds. This refers
to the knowledge that the “c”
in cuervo stands for the
sound /k/, the “u” stands for
the sound /w/, and so on.
•Phonemic awareness is the
knowledge that spoken words
are composed of a sequence
of separable phonemes. Thus,
the word /'kwer o/ has six
distinct phonemes, /k/, /w/,
/e/, /r/, /β /, and /o/. A
Spanish-speaking child who
has can apply these principles
in Spanish might be better
prepared to read English
than a child who is puzzling
over what word is formed
out of the sounds /k/, /r/,
/o/, and /w/.
What can early childhood teachers
do to help English learners develop
native language literacy? The surest
way is for teachers to draw on the
Spring/Summer 2010
expertise of those who are already
literate in those languages—parents,
grandparents, siblings, and other
relatives. Teachers can encourage
families to read to children in the
home language and teach their
children to read and write in that
language (Hepburn, 2004; Shin,
2005). Teachers can also urge families
to enroll their children in weekend
heritage language programs in the
community.
If the school has family/community
liaisons who speak students’ native
languages, teachers may enlist their
help in educating families about the
How can early childhood
teachers help English
learners develop native
language literacy?
◆ Encourage family members to
read to children in the home
language and teach their
children to read and write in
that language.
◆ Urge families to enroll their
children in the community’s
weekend heritage language
programs.
◆ Enlist the help of family/
community liaisons
who speak students’ native
languages.
◆ Integrate diverse language
materials in the classroom.
◆ Group English learners and
English speakers together to
investigate topics of mutual
interest.
◆ Share children’s books in
students’ native languages.
English learners can play the
role of experts in pronunciation
and vocabulary.
◆ Display classroom signs and
messages in various
languages.
◆ Learn to say and write simple
greetings and phrases such
as “Hello” and “Thank you” in
each language.
Spring/Summer 2010
importance of developing first language literacy skills
while learning English.
In addition, community liaisons may
be able to help teachers
to secure bilingual
children’s books for
classroom use.
Furthermore,
teachers can foster
multilingual sensitivity of all students
by integrating diverse
language materials What can early childhood teachers do to help English learners
in their daily teaching develop native language literacy? The surest way is for teachers
practices. For example, to draw on the expertise of those who are already literate in
English learners and those languages—parents, grandparents, siblings, and
English speakers can relatives. Teachers can encourage families to read books in the
be grouped together home language and teach their children to read and write in
that language.
to investigate the
writing conventions of English you” in each language. This sends a
language learners’ native languages. strong signal to immigrant students
Students can find out whether a that their languages and cultures are
language is alphabetic (e.g., English, not simply tolerated in school but are
Spanish, Korean), syllabic (e.g., actively valued (Shin, 2007). As
Japanese), or logographic (e.g., students realize that their teachers are
Chinese), and whether it is written language learners, too, and make lots
from left to right, from right to left, of errors in learning how to say simple
things, children are likely to have
or top to bottom (Crystal, 1997).
Children’s books in students’ more positive views of their own
native languages may also be shared. English language learning efforts.
This activity is a great multilingual
lesson for all students, and is Developing Oral
especially empowering for English
learners who play the role of experts Proficiency in English
As teachers encourage immigrant
on pronunciation and vocabulary, for
example. This technique is very children to develop native language
appropriate for students in the early literacy skills through home- and
elementary grades whose reading community-based efforts, they can
also create a classroom environment
skills are rapidly developing.
In addition, teachers can display in which English learners can best
classroom signs and messages in acquire spoken English, which is
various languages, and learn to say critical for their acquisition of literacy
and write simple greetings and skills. Mainstream teachers and
phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank English-speaking peers play a vital role
Volume 38, Number 2
15
in helping immigrant children
develop oral proficiency in English by
modeling academically and socially
appropriate language use in various
school contexts. In general, wellinformed teachers provide plenty of
opportunities for English learners to
hear comprehensible English, and to
read, write, and speak English in a
meaningful way (Garcia, 2005).
Teachers can make their English more
comprehensible by
•adjusting their speech (slowing down, paraphrasing, giving examples, and asking
questions),
•using somewhat exaggerated
gestures and facial expressions,
•pointing to pictures or
showing objects when
explaining concepts.
To promote social interaction,
teachers can use a variety of grouping
configurations, including whole class,
small groups, and pairs to provide
students with frequent opportunities
to talk with one other and receive help
if necessary (Echevarria, Vogt, &
Short, 2004).
For non-English speaking newcomers, teachers may arrange group
activities that encourage nonverbal
participation. For example, if a group
is working on a mural, the newcomer
might draw or color a picture while
other group members may do the
bulk of the writing. This way, the
English learner contributes actively to
the group project while interacting
through context-specific oral English.
Most English learners go through
a period of silence in the classroom
(Igoa, 1995). The length of silent
period varies from child to child—it
may range from a few weeks to several
months depending on the language
proficiency and personality of the
16
Volume 38, Number 2
child. While there is a great deal of
individual variation in how quickly
English learners start speaking in
English, remember that children are
more likely to speak when the talk is
meaningful and useful.
First, read the poem aloud, modeling
not only pronunciation but also
dramatic stress and intonation. Then
students read the poem chorally and
act it out in pairs or groups.
A great example of a multilingual
variation is including diverse language
translations of songs in English that
Poetry and songs facilitate
are familiar to children. Teachers can
oral language development.
play a recording or have a bilingual
assistant or volunteer sing the song
One way to make classroom talk while the children sing along with the
meaningful is to encourage informal help of a phonetic transcription. This
collaboration in activity centers by enables students to appreciate the
offering various games, interactive sounds and rhythm of another
learning tools, and props. Activity language sung to a familiar tune.
centers enable children to perform
hands-on tasks in small groups and Scaffold Reading
develop functional language in a lowstress environment, both of which are Instruction for English
conducive to language acquisition for Learners
learners of all ages (Krashen, 1982).
Like English-speaking children,
Poetry and songs are a great way to English learners benefit from a printfacilitate oral language development rich environment that provides a large
of English learners (Peregoy & Boyle, number of different reading ex2001; Weed & Ford, 1999). Provide periences—reading aloud, shared
song lyrics and poems accompanied reading of predictable big books, as
by pictures for students to keep in well as guided and independent
their personal poetry and song books. reading. Expose English learners of all
Figure 1. Sample content web to organize what students are learning
Spring/Summer 2010
Ways to Scaffold Reading
Instruction for English
Learners
◆ Establish a print-rich environment
with many different reading
experiences—reading aloud,
shared reading of predictable
big books, as well as guided
and independent reading.
◆ Provide a wide range of children’s
literature including alphabet
books, picture books, pattern
books, concept books, bilingual
books, multicultural books, and
fairy tales, as well as teacherand student-written and
illustrated books. Read them
more than once.
◆ When reading aloud to students,
facilitate comprehension by
stopping at various points in the
book to discuss an illustration or
to review the plot. Ask
comprehension questions. Ask
students to predict what might
happen next in the story. Tell
stories with puppets.
◆ Pre-teach key vocabulary by
selecting words that are critical
for understanding the text.
Provide a variety of tools such as
word walls, personal dictionaries,
and mnemonic strategies to help
students recognize and use the
words.
◆ Teach vocabulary in thematic sets.
For example, if the word aunt
appears in a text, teach thematically related words such as
uncle, cousin, nephew, niece,
brother, and sister.
◆ Offer repeated exposure to print
during regular learning events
such as morning message, circle
time, journal time, and writing
workshop.
◆ Select books about experiences
that are familiar to children. This
helps to activate students’ prior
knowledge about a given topic
before the text is introduced.
◆ Choose bilingual books and
books in English that are translated into other languages to boost
reading comprehension.
◆ Use graphic organizers before
and after reading. Webs help
readers organize information
when the text contains many
details.
Spring/Summer 2010
ages to a wide range of children’s
literature including alphabet books,
picture books, pattern books, concept
books, bilingual books, multicultural
books, and fairy tales, as well as
teacher- and student-written and
illustrated books.
When reading aloud to students,
teachers can facilitate comprehension
by stopping at various points in the
book to discuss an illustration or to
review the plot. Teachers may also ask
comprehension questions and ask
students to predict what might
happen next in the story. Use puppets
to encourage children to focus and for
dramatic effects.
English learners usually need more
time to formulate their responses
orally in English, so wait longer before
prompting them to answer a question.
On occasion, English speakers might
offer their answers first as a way to
model the language and format of
acceptable responses for English
learners. In addition, repeated
exposure to a text is always helpful to
English learners, so multiple readings
are encouraged.
There are several ways to scaffold
reading instruction for English
learners. One way is to pre-teach key
vocabulary by selecting words that are
critical for understanding the text.
Provide a variety of tools such as word
walls, personal dictionaries, and
mnemonic strategies to help students
to recognize and use the words
(Echevarria et al., 2004).
English learners particularly benefit
from learning vocabulary in thematic
sets. For example, if the word aunt
appears in a text, teach thematically
related words such as uncle, cousin,
nephew, niece, brother, and sister
because they are often used together.
English learners also acquire basic
vocabulary through repeated exposure
to print during regular learning events
such as morning message, circle time,
journal time, and writing workshop
(Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). These
maintain the same predictable structure and provide repetition of
familiar language that is conducive to
vocabulary learning.
To make reading meaningful, select
books about experiences that are
familiar to children. This helps to
activate students’ prior knowledge
about a given topic before the text is
introduced. Multicultural literature
that is written by and about members
of specific ethnic groups can offer
stories and feelings that are engaging and directly accessible to
immigrant children.
In addition, bilingual books and
books in English that are translated
into other languages can boost reading
comprehension because they help
students transfer their understanding
of the content from one language into
another. For example, Shel Silverstein’s
The Giving Tree has been translated
into more than 30 different languages.
The different translations can be used
in group or whole-class reading so
children of different language
backgrounds can appreciate their
peers’ as well as their own language(s)
while learning English.
Graphic organizers used before and
after reading are useful for introducing
specific vocabulary and activating
students’ prior knowledge. Creating
content webs (see Figure 1) helps
readers organize information when
the text contains many details.
Teachers stimulate students’ interest
and teach new vocabulary as they
construct the web with students,
using key words and connecting
Volume 38, Number 2
17
text into English
with the help of a
bilingual classmate
or an instructional
assistant.
If a child speaks
some English but is
not able to write it,
suggest that the
student dictate the
story to an adult or
older student. The
teacher can share
the dictation with
the student to help
the child make the
connection between
speech and print.
Have the student
copy the text (as a
way of getting
In addition to encouraging children to express their ideas in
further practice with
their native languages as well as in English, enhance the
teaching of writing by incorporating non-textual media
writing and spelling)
such as drawing or sculpture, music, and drama to facilitate
and illustrate the
literacy acquisition.
story. Then the
student can read
students’ prior experiences to them.
After reading the text, students can the story aloud for classmates.
In addition to encouraging children
add information to the web and go
back to the text to add or clarify to express their ideas in their native
important details. Graphic organizers languages as well as in English,
such as webs, charts, and personal enhance the teaching of writing by
dictionaries can help English language incorporating non-textual media such
as drawing or sculpture, music, and
learners at all levels.
drama to facilitate literacy acquisition.
The following steps, suggested by
Incorporate Multiple
Weed & Ford (1999), enable English
Modes of Literacy in
learners to respond to literature
through multiple modes of literacy
Writing
If newcomers already know how to including art and oral discussion:
•read and/or hear a story
read and write in their native
•think and draw (or craft or
languages, teachers are urged to allow
sculpt)
them to write in that language first as
•discuss
drawing in a group (in
a way of getting their ideas recorded
the native language and Enon paper (Igoa, 1995; Weed & Ford,
glish)
1999). After children have had the
•draft (in the native language
opportunity to write down some
and English)
of their ideas, they can translate the
18
Volume 38, Number 2
•conference and revise (in English)
•present and publish (in English)
What is useful about this process is
that it allows English learners to first
respond to text by thinking about
representing visually what they
understood from it before doing any
writing. Children then discuss their
drawings, puppets, or other 3-D
representations in small groups of
classmates who speak the same first
language so that discussion in both
the children’s native language and in
English can take place.
Children then write one or two
sentences about their representational
work based on feedback from the
group (in the native language and
English). They write a first draft (in
the native language and English)
based on the sentences generated from
their group discussion. Students then
conference with a peer or the teacher,
revise their drafts, and present the
final art and writing in English. They
might read their materials by
alternating readers, act out their ideas
in a short play, or present their writing
in a newscast script format, for
example. These steps help reduce
English learners’ anxiety about writing
by providing students with ample
opportunities to think, create, talk,
listen, rewrite, and present.
Write interactive dialogue
journals.
One of the best ways to help
English learners to write in English is
an interactive dialogue journal, a
written conversation between teacher
and student (Peyton & Staton, 1993).
A sample dialogue journal is shown
in Figure 2.
Spring/Summer 2010
Usually, a student writes on a topic
that is either self-selected or teachergenerated, to which the teacher
responds in writing with a comment
or question that invites further
conversation. In their responses,
teachers do not correct language errors
explicitly, but model written language
conventions by incorporating and
expanding on the student’s writing.
Done regularly, the dialogue journal
encourages English learners to
practice writing in English without
overly worrying about mistakes, and
to learn new vocabulary, grammar,
spelling, and idioms that are the basis
for further literacy development.
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997).
Improving schooling for language-minority
children: A research agenda. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006).
Developing literacy in second language
learners: Report of the National Literacy
Panel on language-minority children and
youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English
learners: Language diversity in the classroom (5th edition). Los Angeles, CA:
Bilingual Educational Services.
Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities:
Education for empowerment in a diverse
society. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Daniel, J., & Friedman, S. (2005, November). Preparing teachers to work with
culturally and linguistically diverse children. Beyond the Journal: Young Children
on the Web, 1-7.
Echevarria, J.M., Vogt, M.J., & Short, D.J.
(2004). Making content comprehensible
for English learners: The SIOP Model
(2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
* * *
In this era of high-stakes testing,
teachers are under enormous pressures
to ensure that English learners’ make
adequate yearly progress in English
language proficiency and academic
content knowledge. Because English
learners are tested in English, many
teachers believe that teaching mainly
in English is the only way to help
them learn English quickly.
However, English language learners
who are already proficient in another
language should not have to leave
their language at the door before
entering school. Just as art, music, and
drama are alternative means of
expressing one’s meanings and can
contribute to developing literacy skills
in English, immigrant children’s native
languages are a valuable resource and
can facilitate acquisition of English if
they are actively validated and used.
References
Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C.H., & Lord, C.
(2004). Assessment accommodations for
English-language learners: Implications
for policy-based empirical research. Review of Educational Research, 74(1): 1–28.
Spring/Summer 2010
Figure 2: Sample dialogue journal showing an exchange between
student and teacher
Volume 38, Number 2
19
Garcia, E. (2005). Teaching and learning in
two languages: Bilingualism and schooling
in the United States. New York: Teachers’
College Press.
Hawkins, M. (2004). Researching English
language and literacy development in
hools. Educational Researcher, 33(3): 14-25.
Hepburn, K.S. (2004). Building culturally
and linguistically competent services to support young children, their families, and
school readiness—A report to Annie E.
Casey Foundation. Baltimore, MD:
Annie E. Casey Foundation.
Igoa, C. (1995). The world of the immigrant
child. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in
second language acquisition. London:
Pergamon.
Lanauze, M., & Snow, C. (1989). The relation between first- and second-language
writing skills: Evidence from Puerto
Rican elementary school children in
bilingual programs. Linguistics and Education, 1, 323-339.
Meier, D., & Wood, G. (Eds.). (2004).
Many children left behind: How the No
Child Left Behind Act is damaging our
children and our schools. Boston: Beacon
Press.
No Child Left Behind Act. (2002). Public
Law No. 107-110.
Pattnaik, J. (2003). Multicultural literacy
starts at home: Supporting parental involvement in multicultural education.
Childhood Education, 80(1), 18-24.
Pattnaik, J. (2005). Issues of language maintenance and education of aboriginal children in India: An interview with Ajit K.
Mohanty, internationally acclaimed Indian linguist. Childhood Education,
81(6), 360-364.
Peregoy, S.F., & Boyle, O.F. (2001). Reading, writing & learning in ESL: A resource
book for K-12 teachers (3rd ed.). New
York: Longman.
Peyton, J.K., & Staton, J. (1993). Dialogue
journals in the multilingual classroom:
Building language fluency and writing
skills through written interaction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Ramirez, J.D. (1992). Executive summary.
Bilingual Research Journal 16(1/2): 1-62.
Sheets, R.H. (2008). English language
learner population in Texas. Paper presented at the Annual AERA Conference.
New York City, March 2008.
Shin, S.J. (2005). Developing in two languages: Korean children in America.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Shin, S.J. (2007). For immigrant students,
the ESOL glass is half-full. Essential
Teacher, 4(4), 17-19.
Slavin, R.E., & Cheung, A. (2004). How do
English language learners learn to read?
Educational Leadership, 61(6): 52-57.
Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V.P. (2002). A
national study of school effectiveness for
language minority students’ long-term
academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA:
Center for Research on Education,
Diversity, and Excellence.
Weed, K.Z., & Ford, M.A. (1999). Achieving literacy through multiple meaning
systems. In Reading and writing in more
than one language: Lessons for teachers, E.
Franklin (Ed.), pp. 65-80. Alexandria,
VA: TESOL.
Wright, W.E. (2005). English language
learners left behind in Arizona: The nullification of accommodations in the intersection of federal and state language
and assessment policies. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(1), 1-30.
For more information on early literacy...
Sharing Books Together:
Promoting Emergent Literacy Through Reading
Aloud and Home-School Partnerships
By Kathleen A. Martin
and L. Kay Emfinger
How can early
childhood educators
encourage families to
read and enjoy books
together?
Start a classroom lending library! Boost
children’s early literacy experiences with the
practical ideas offered by two experienced
educators. (94 pp) ISBN# 978-0-942388-33-6
$15.95 SECA Member / $17.95 non-member
Available at www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org
or by calling 1-800-305-7322.
© 2008 by the Southern Early Childhood Association
20
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators
Sarah J. Shin
English Language Learners…
• transfer skills from their first language to the second language.
• are more comfortable in classrooms that actively celebrate their languages and cultures.
• typically go through a period of silence. They are more likely to speak if conversations are meaningful and useful.
Help English learners develop literacy
• Incorporate diverse language materials: books, signs, messages.
• Read children’s books in students’ native languages.
• Learn to say and write phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank you” in each language.
• Group English learners and English speakers together.
• Encourage English learners to read in their native language.
Scaffold reading instruction for English learners
• Establish a print-rich environment, including morning message, circle time, journal time, and writing workshop.
• Select books about familiar experiences. Include teacher- and student-written and illustrated books.
• Read bilingual books and books in English that are translated into other languages.
• Offer reading aloud, and predictable big books, as well as guided and independent reading.
• Tell stories with puppets. Use poetry and music. Incorporate drama and drawing.
• When reading aloud, stop to discuss an illustration or the plot. Ask comprehension questions. Ask students to predict what
might happen next. Give English learners more time to answer.
• Create content webs before and after reading.
What
What can
can families
families do?
do?
• Read to children in their home language.
• Teach children to read and write in their home language.
• Enroll their children in local heritage language programs.
Spring/Summer 2010
Volume 38, Number 2
21
The South Leads in Pre-K Education
Glenda Bean, SECA Executive Director
In March 2010, the Southern Education
Foundation published an update to a report
“Publicly supported,
published in 2007, Pre-Kindergarten in the
pre-kindergarten of quality is the one area where
South: Preserving the Region’s Comparative
Southern states are in the vanguard of progressive reform in
Advantage in Education. The update notes
the nation... All our children deserve to have access to quality
that the South continues to lead the
pre-kindergarten services and bright futures.”
nation in 2010 in only one area of public
Southern Education Foundation,
education: pre-kindergarten.
www.sefatl.org
The South has the highest enrollment of 3- and
4-year-old children in early education programs of any
region in the country. The report also notes that, during most SECA states meet between 8 and 10 of the quality
the last 2 years, despite a severe recession, Southern states standards set by the National Institute for Early Education
have maintained enrollment in public pre-K programs.
Research, Texas only meets 4 of those standards and
Seven SECA states are in the top 10 states for pre-K Mississippi hasn’t yet created a state-funded pre-K program.
enrollment of 4-year-old children. In 2009:
Our “Southern issues–primarily poverty and lack of
• Oklahoma was #1 at 71%.
education–will continue to be with us until we can assure
• Florida was #2 at 67%.
that young children are supported to develop and thrive
• Georgia was #3 at 53%.
within our region, which has so many positive things to
• West Virginia was #5 at 51%.
offer. Our commitment to pre-K is one of those things and
• Texas was #7 at 45%.
we’ve remained steadfast even during severe economic times.
• Arkansas was #8 at 44%.
Let us all be a Voice for Southern Children. We are
• South Carolina was #10 at 38%.
proud
of where we are, but we’re certainly not at the end
The SECA states of Kentucky (#4) and West Virginia
(#5) were in the top five states in the percentage of 3-year- of the road to assure that good-quality early childhood
programs are available to all children in the South.
olds served.
These accomplishments are a long
way from 1948 when the first
Nashville Council for the Education of
Children Under Six met in a church in
Nashville, Tennessee, and the stage was
set for the creation of SACUS/SECA.
In 1948, only about 4% of children
attended nursery school and today we
have a SECA state, Oklahoma, with
71% of its 4-year-olds enrolled in what
was once called nursery school.
Although we can pat ourselves on
our backs about expanding “access” to
pre-K for so many children in the
South, we’ve still got work to do to
ensure that it’s of high quality. While
22
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
How can early childhood leaders work for more caring communities? This article outlines
the potential of building reciprocal relationships among the young and the young at heart.
What Age Gap? Building
Intergenerational Relationships
Stephanie R. Davidson and Beverly Boals-Gilbert
Few people are willing to admit that senior adults and
young children share many common characteristics,
including
• changes in development,
• need for companionship, and
• the desire to be understood.
These two groups are connected mostly through direct
interaction with middle-aged adults. Even so, the leading
advocacy group for seniors observed that “we tend to
segregate our communities by age, which allows each
generation to see itself as a separate entity rather than an
integral part of a larger community” (American
Association of Retired Persons ([AARP], 1996, p. 7).
One very practical way to build a greater sense of
community—and reach people across the human age
span—is to develop and become active in intergenerational
programs. Intergenerational programming has been
defined as the purposeful bringing together of different
generations in ongoing mutually beneficial activities
designed to achieve specified program goals (Generations
United, 2007).
Intergenerational programs can successfully bridge the
perceived generation gap between the young and the
young at heart. These programs enhance the lives of both
young children and senior adults by providing unique
opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more
culturally conscious and sensitive citizens. The Foster
Grandparent Program, established in 1963, was one of the
first systematically planned intergenerational programs in
the United States. Older adults were employed to work
with children and youth considered to be at risk (Larkin &
Newman, 1997).
Dr. William Thomas founded the Eden Alternative
program, now located in more than 200 long-term care
facilities in Alabama, Indiana, Missouri, Nebraska, and
Texas. The program is designed to combat what Thomas
Spring/Summer 2010
called the three most prevalent problems in nursing
homes: feelings of loneliness, helplessness, and boredom.
Thomas has described the intergenerational approach as
“a holistic approach to care, a creation of a human habit
where people thrive, grow, and flourish, rather than wither,
decay, and die” (Clark, Allison, & Gilbert, 1995, p. 18).
What are intergenerational programs?
In intergenerational programs, different generations
are purposefully brought together in ongoing
mutually beneficial activities designed to achieve
specified program goals. These programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap
between the young and the young at heart. They
enhance the lives of both young children and senior
adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate
diversity and develop more culturally conscious and
sensitive citizens.
Settings for Intergenerational
Programs
Intergenerational relationships can blossom through
interactions in a variety of different types of settings.
Senior Care Homes. During holidays, for special
events, and often on a regular basis, senior care homes
welcome young visitors. Some senior care homes provide
child care on site for staff. In either type of situation, young
children can have regular opportunities to visit senior
adults in their residences, individually or in small groups.
Stephanie R. Davidson, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor of
Elementary and Early Childhood Education at Jackson State
University, Jackson, Mississippi.
Beverly Boals-Gilbert, Ph.D., is Professor of Early Childhood Education at Arkansas State University, Jonesboro.
Volume 38, Number 2
23
When children visit seniors, they
enjoy each other’s companionship and
typically entertain each other with
shared activities such as singing,
playing games, or reading stories.
With an adult’s guidance, young
children taking part in intergenerational programs can gain a
sense of the value of community
service. Their presence and actions in
the senior care home are welcomed
and necessary for the happiness,
fulfillment, and care of senior adults.
Early Childhood Settings. Another example of an intergenerational
setting is where senior adults visit (or
volunteer with) young children in an
early childhood facility such as a child
care center, Head Start program,
family care home, or public school
classroom. Young children are likely
to view the seniors as welcome
visitors. Children look forward to the
visits daily, weekly, or monthly.
When seniors visit early childhood
facilities, children might share the
process of discovery, such as science
experiments with sinking and floating, with seniors. Sometimes children
orally or in writing tell seniors about
their learning experiences. Cooking
together, story-telling, and joint art
projects are among the possible
exchanges that captivate children and
older adults. Children learn how to host
guests and help them feel comfortable.
For the senior adults, the change of
scenery outside of senior care homes,
or their own homes, is welcome
recreation. The seniors may also gain
a sense of community service and
continue to feel important in the lives
of others.
Shared Facilities. In other situations, both the young children and
the seniors receive care under the same
roof, and in many instances, in the
24
Volume 38, Number 2
Intergenerational programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap
between the young and the young at heart. These programs enhance the lives of
both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens.
same room, such as in community
centers. This arrangement offers the
same benefits as the other settings.
Regardless of the setting, if the
interactions are regularly scheduled
and planned for the benefit of all
involved, two additional benefits can
be realized.
• When children and seniors are
often present in each other’s
lives, they may begin to take
on the roles of surrogate
grandchildren and surrogate
grandparents. This is one of
the more nurturing benefits.
Young children may be experiencing the loss of a
Spring/Summer 2010
grandparent through death or
distance, and senior adults
may be missing frequent contact with their grandchildren.
• Through the continual presence of the senior adults,
young children (and perhaps
their families as well) come to
understand and appreciate senior adults as people. Young
children’s exposure to senior
adults through participation in
intergenerational programs can
help to minimize any fear that
they may have of older people and teach them that aging
is a normal part of the life
cycle (Penn State College of
Agricultural Sciences, 2003).
Intergenerational
Relationships and
Human Development
Both young children and senior
adults are experiencing a variety of
changes in their development. Each
Through the continual presence of the senior adults, young children (and perhaps their
families as well) come to understand and appreciate senior adults as people.
Spring/Summer 2010
person’s life stages are formed by social
influences interacting with a physically and psychologically maturing
organism (ReVille, 1989). Positive
intergenerational contact may be an
especially important facet for supporting mental health, including emotional,
social, and spiritual growth.
Senior adults and young
children share many
characteristics.
Erikson (1950) identified eight
stages of psychosocial development
across the age span. The first three
stages—trust vs. mistrust, autonomy
vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs.
guilt—emerge in early childhood.
Interestingly, these stages seem to link
well with seniors and their changing
life stages.
• Young children and seniors
can become more trusting of
each other, and other generations, through regular, satisfying contact.
• Children are seeking to establish their own autonomy,
and senior adults are seeking
to maintain theirs. For young
children this is a time to exert
and foster their new-found
sense of independence. They
are learning to maneuver and
operate on their own. For the
first time, toddlers are experiencing some control over
their world and they enjoy
the effects of asserting themselves (Graves, Gargiuloa, &
Sluder, 1996).
• Young children are branching
out, taking more initiative,
and have lively imaginations.
Their energy and curiosity
may well delight seniors who
Volume 38, Number 2
25
can then feel freer to express
their own interests more fully.
Autonomy: the quality or state of being
self-governing; a self-governing state;
self-directing freedom and especially
moral independence (Webster, 1983,
p. 118).
For senior adults who are a part of
an intergenerational relationship,
spending time with young children is
a value-added experience. According
to Graves and Larkin (2006), for
senior adults, serving in the role of
teacher, guide, and caregiver for the
younger generation contributes positively toward the feeling of spiritual
autonomy and leads into the feeling
of integrity (a developmental stage of
later adulthood). For senior adults
who may be facing the decline of
physical and sometimes mental
health, interacting with young children can foster a sense of utility, respect, and individual importance.
part, regardless of their skills or
mobility. By engaging in simple
recreation activities, relationships and
trust are built.
Education. Young children and
older adults can informally or
formally exchange knowledge and
skills. This is one of the most valuable
mutually beneficial aspects of
intergenerational relationships. Senior
adults are able to pass wisdom from
their life experiences to the children.
They can share nursery rhymes,
traditional games, skills such as sewing
or carpentry, and vivid memories. At
the same time, young children can aid
the senior adults by supporting their
new skills (technology) and sharing
information about what they are
learning. This situation is a win-win
for everyone.
Focus on recreation,
education, and personal
development.
Programming
Considerations
Personal development. Each group
involved in intergenerational experiences shares skills and insights that lead
Shared Activities
to the development of better people.
What types of activities are especially Senior adults can model skills such as
suitable in intergenerational programs? sharing, self-control, and friendly
Five categories of intergenerational interactions. Senior adults benefit from
activities—recreation, education, health social interactions with young children,
promotion, public service, and personal through which they often realize greater
development—were recommended by self-esteem as well as happiness. Both
Ames and Youatt (1994). Foster (1997) children and the adults gain new
noted that recreation, education, and perspectives and topics for conversation.
personal development are most relevant
to preschool intergenerational programs. Arrangements
Recreation. Young children and
A number of considerations are
senior adults can interact in a fun and essential to develop a successful
leisurely way, often without any program, including
structured goals. Balls, hoops, musical
• staff preparation,
instruments, scarves, and similar
• scheduling, and
props can encourage everyone to take
• recruitment of volunteers.
26
Volume 38, Number 2
Staff preparation. All staff, from
both the early childhood program and
any senior residences, will benefit
from knowledge about developmental
stages of children and senior adults,
daily routines, and the characteristics
of good-quality care for both young
children and adults.
Individuals who interact with
young children and senior adults will
come to understand that these
populations have unique as well as
shared characteristics. The type of care
they receive and the interactions in
which they take part are pivotal to
their lifespan development. Liaisons,
preferably one from each age group,
can help communicate with young
children and senior adults about their
differences and similarities. The
message for both groups is that
differences are to be celebrated. Each
has something to share that adds to
the other group’s realm of knowledge.
Schedules. Routine is essential to
the success of intergenerational programs. Change and the unexpected
are two elements that have the most
potential to disrupt stability and calm
of both age groups. Plan schedules,
develop smooth transitions, and be
prepared to make the most of unexpected situations. Developmentally
appropriate practices—for children
and older adults—apply to all
activities, communications, standards
of care, and environments.
Volunteers. Intergenerational programs thrive through the work of
volunteers—both to become senior
participants as well as to assist with
transportation, supervision, and other
details. The coordinator of one afterschool program stated that the paid
staff runs the program but the
volunteers provide the magic
(Grossman & Furano, 1999).
Spring/Summer 2010
Positive intergenerational contact may be an especially important facet for
supporting mental health, including emotional, social, and spiritual growth.
Both young children and senior adults are experiencing a variety of changes
in their development.
Intergenerational Books for Young Children
Bunting, E. (2000). Can You Do This, Old Badger? New York: Harcourt.
Bunting, E. (1994). Sunshine Home. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Buscgalia, L. (1982). The Fall of Freddie the Leaf. New York: Holt.
Cannon, J. (1996). Verdi. New York: Harcourt.
Combs, A. (1987). How Old Is Old? New York: Penguin.
Cooney, B. (1985). Miss Rumphius. New York: Penguin.
Creech, S. (2003). Granny Torrelli Makes Soup. New York: Colter.
DePaola, T. (1973). Nana Upstairs & Nana Downstairs. New York: Putman.
DePaola, T. (1981). Now One Foot, Now the Other. New York: Putnam.
Dorros, A. (1997). Abuela. New York: Penguin.
Flowndy, V. (1985). The Patchwork Quilt. New York: Dial.
Fox, M. (1991). Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge. LaJolla: Kane/Miller.
Fox, M. (1994). Tough Boris. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Gilman, P. (1993). Something for Nothing. New York: Scholastic.
Greenfield, E. (1988). Grandpa’s Face. New York: Putnam & Grosset.
Hoffman, M. (1991). Amazing Grace. New York: Dial.
Johnston, T. (1996). Grandpa’s Song. New York: Penguin.
Miles, M. (1971). Annie and the Old One. Boston: Atlantic-Little, Brown.
Polacco, P. (1992). Chicken Sunday. New York: Philomel.
Polacco, P. (1994). Mrs. Katz and Tush. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell.
Quigley, M. (2007). Granddad’s Fishing Buddy. New York: Dial.
Schachner, J. (2003). The Grannyman. New York: Penguin.
Say, A. (1995). The Stranger in the Mirror. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Stanley, D. (1997). Rumpelstiltskin’s Daughter. New York: Morrow.
Taulbert, C. (1999). Little Cliff and the Porch People. New York: Dial.
Viorst, J. (1971). The Tenth Good Thing About Barney. New York: Antheneum.
Williams, B. (1991). Kevin’s Grandma. New York: Penguin.
Wood, A. (1984). The Napping House. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Zolotow, C. (1974). My Grandson Lew. New York: Harpercollins.
Spring/Summer 2010
Before recruiting senior volunteers
in the community, either in residences
or those living independently, plan
how to address topics such as
accessibility, transportation, languages, dietary requirements, scheduling,
and health issues. Make sure that
program and/or state licensing standards are met to assure the health and
safety of all involved in the intergenerational program.
Recruiting senior volunteers may be
a challenge for intergenerational
programs that are not based in a senior
care home. Good places to recruit
senior adults are senior centers,
community-service groups such as
United Way, faith-based organizations,
with newspaper ads, and through
personal contacts.
* * *
Intergenerational programs are a
very important resource in the
development of cohesive communities.
Senior adults and their life experiences
are very beneficial to young children
and their development into tomorrow’s
leaders. Intergenerational programs
• expose young children to
more diverse people,
• help young children to appreciate and respect senior
adults,
• support children’s social,
emotional, cognitive, and
physical development,
• applaud the contributions of
senior adults within their
communities,
• offer care and opportunities
for growth,
• validate the importance of all
stages of life, and
• bridge the gap between the
young and the young at heart.
Volume 38, Number 2
27
References
American Association of Retired Persons
(AARP). (1996). Becoming a school partner: A guide for organizing intergenerational partnerships in schools.
Washington, DC: Author.
Ames, B., & Youatt, J. (1994). Intergenerational education and service programming: A model for selection and
evaluation of services. Educational
Gerontology, 20(3), 755-762.
Clark, M.J., Allison, L., & Gilbert, I.
(1995). Young and old together: Intergenerational care comes of age. ECN
Journal of Professional Development, 6(3),
16-20.
Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society.
New York: Norton.
Foster, K. (1997). Intergenerational programming: The impact on children and
elders. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 418806). Retrieved
from http://www.eric.ed.gov/
Generations United. (2008). Generations
United fact sheet: The benefits of intergenerational programs. Retrieved from
http://www.gu.org/documents/A0/IG_B
enefits_2007.pdf
Graves, S.B., Garguila, R.M., & Sluder,
L.C. (1996). Young children: An introduction to early childhood education. Minneapolis/St. Paul: West.
Graves, S.B., & Larkin, E. (2006). Lessons
from Erikson. Journal of Intergenerational
Relationships, 4(2), 61-71.
Grossman, J., & Furano, K. (1999). Making
the most of volunteers. Law and Contemporary Problems, 62(4), 199-218.
Larkin, E., & Newman, S. (1997). Intergenerational studies: A multi-disciplinary
field. In Brabazon, K., & Disch, R.
(Eds.), Intergenerational approaches in
aging: Implications for education, policy,
and practice (pp. 5-16). Binghamton,NY:
Haworth.
Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences.
(2003). Developing an intergenerational
program in your early childhood care and
education center: A guidebook for early
childhood practitioners. University Park:
The Pennsylvania State University.
Reville, S. (1989). Young adulthood to old
age: Looking at intergenerational possi-
bilities from a human development perspective. Journal of Children in Contemporary Society, 20(3), 45-53.
Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary.
(1983). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster.
Selected Resource Agencies and Organizations for
Intergenerational Programs
AARP
www.aarp.org
Dedicated to enhancing quality of life for all in the aging process. Leads positive social
change and provides members with information, advocacy, and service.
Center for Intergenerational Learning
http://templecil.org
Located at Temple University, dedicated to strengthening communities by bringing
generations together.
Experience Corps
www.experiencecorps.org
Americans older than 55 years tutor and mentor children in urban public schools across
the country.
Generations Incorporated
www.generationsinc.org
Nonprofit organization committed to intergenerational awareness through clubs, afterschool activities, and other programs.
Generations Together
www.gt.pitt.edu
Promotes intergenerational activity as a positive force in society, as a professional field,
and as a rewarding area of academic inquiry. A program of the University of Pittsburgh.
Generations United
www.gu.org
Provides resources and networking for organizations promoting intergenerational strategies, programs, and policies.
Intergenerational Programs and Aging
http://intergenerational.cas.psu.edu
Program developed at The Pennsylvania State University aims to increase cooperation,
interaction, or exchange between any two generations.
Rainbow Bridge
www.rainbowb.org
Facilitates the matching of volunteers, including youth, adults, and families, who become
companions, advocates, and families for nursing home elders who have little or no visitation.
Thank You Reviewers!
Connie Casha
Vicki Folds
Stephen Graves
Jill O. Hatch
Miriam McCaleb
Yanhui Pang
Christine A. Reddick
Mari Riojas-Cortez
Jean M. Shaw
Marie Sloane
SECA expresses its appreciation to these
content experts who reviewed the articles that
appear in this issue of Dimensions of Early
Childhood.
Early childhood professionals who are interested in becoming SECA volunteer manuscript reviewers are
encouraged to complete the Reviewer Application at SouthernEarlyChildhood.org.
28
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
What Age Gap? Building Intergenerational Relationships
Stephanie R. Davidson
?
What are intergenerational programs?
In intergenerational programs, different generations are purposefully brought together in ongoing mutually beneficial activities
designed to achieve specified program goals. These programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap between
the young and the young at heart. They enhance the lives of both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens.
Settings for intergenerational programs
Senior adults and young children share
many common characteristics, including
Intergenerational relationships can blossom through interactions in
• senior care homes
• early childhood settings
• shared facilities
• changes in development,
• need for companionship, and
• the desire to be understood.
Changing life stages link young children and seniors
• Young children and seniors can become more trusting of each other, and other generations, through
regular, satisfying contact.
• Children are seeking to establish their own autonomy, and senior adults are seeking to maintain
theirs. For young children this is a time to exert and foster their new-found sense of independence.
• Young children are branching out, taking more initiative, and have lively imaginations. Their energy
and curiosity may well delight seniors who can then feel freer to express their own interests more fully.
Shared activities in intergenerational programs
Recreation. Young children and senior adults
can interact in a fun and leisurely way, often
without any structured goals. Balls, hoops,
musical instruments, scarves, and similar props
can encourage everyone to take part, regardless of their skills or mobility.
Education. Senior adults pass wisdom from
their life experiences to children. They can share
nursery rhymes, traditional games, hands-on
skills, and vivid memories. Young children can
aid senior adults by supporting their new skills
(technology) and sharing information about
what they are learning. This situation is a
win-win for everyone.
Personal development. Senior adults can
model skills such as sharing, self-control, and
friendly interactions. Senior adults often
realize greater self-esteem as well as happiness. Both children and the adults gain new
perspectives and topics for conversation.
Spring/Summer 2010
Volume 38, Number 2
29
What can early childhood teachers plan to do and say to enhance children’s
understanding of age-appropriate math concepts? Educators can apply these practical
ideas during everyday learning experiences.
Using Math-Mediated Language
in Preschool
In typical early childhood programs, several groups of
young children and adults are often engaged in daily
What is math-mediated language?
learning experiences such as these.
Mathematical Mediated Language (MML) is a
A group of four children is constructing a dinosaur
teaching technique designed to enhance children’s
habitat with unit blocks while a teacher sits nearby.
learning. Teachers who use MML engage in informal,
Three children are pouring brightly colored sand
intentional dialogues with children about mathematics
into and out of different containers in a sand table.
concepts that apply to the activity in which they are
Two preschoolers are rolling and cutting modeling
engaged.
clay on trays. At a small table, an adult prepares
snack. Four children are cutting paper and gluing
their pieces into collages on recycled boxes they had
Loretta C. Rudd, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor of Educapainted. Three others are playing with dolls in the
tional Psychology, College of Education, Texas Tech University,
pretend play area.
An observer might notice that most of the talking was
among children, although now and then the adults asked
a question or made a comment about what the children
were doing. While the children were actively engaged in
learning opportunities prepared for them by devoted early
educators, there seemed to be a missing element—
intentional teacher conversations that enable children to
think more deeply about the meaning of their learning
experiences. This article focuses on ways teachers can
increase the use of math-mediated language to enhance
learning in early childhood classrooms.
What Is Math-Mediated Language?
Mathematical Mediated Language (MML) is a teaching
technique designed to enhance children’s learning.
Teachers who use MML engage in a dialogue with children
about mathematics concepts that apply to the activity in
which they are engaged. This dialogue links “conceptually
related linguistic and mathematical knowledge” (Moseley,
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Volume 38, Number 2
Lubbock. She taught in early childhood for 12 years before earning a doctorate in Educational Psychology. She has conducted
several experimental studies in early childhood centers on the
influence of teacher language on children’s understanding of
mathematics and other subjects.
Macy Satterwhite, M.Ed., is a doctoral student in Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education at Texas Tech
University. She is an elementary school administrator and a former classroom teacher. She frequently presents teacher professional development workshops on interacting with young
children. She has been involved in several research studies in
early childhood centers investigating the effect of teacher behaviors on children’s understanding of basic concepts.
Matthew C. Lambert, M.Ed., is a doctoral student in Educational Psychology in the College of Education at Texas Tech
University. He has extensive experience as a behavioral analyst in
early childhood settings. He has been involved in several applied
research studies in early childhood centers investigating child
developmental outcomes as a result of the classroom arrangements and teacher behaviors.
Spring/Summer 2010
Table 1. Recommendations to improve mathematics education
In high-quality mathematics education for 3- to 6-year-old children,
teachers and other key professionals should
1. Enhance children’s natural interest in mathematics and their disposition to use it to
make sense of their physical and social worlds
2. Build on children’s experience and knowledge, including their family, linguistic,
cultural, and community backgrounds; their individual approaches to learning; and
their informal knowledge
3. Base mathematics curriculum and teaching practices on knowledge of young
children’s cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social-emotional development
4. Use curriculum and teaching practices that strengthen children’s problem-solving
and reasoning processes as well as representing, communicating, and connecting
mathematical ideas
5. Ensure that the curriculum is coherent and compatible with known relationships
and sequences of important mathematical ideas
6. Provide for children’s deep and sustained interaction with key mathematical ideas
7. Integrate mathematics with other activities and other activities with mathematics
8. Provide ample time, materials, and teacher support for children to engage in play, a
context in which they explore and manipulate mathematical ideas with keen interest
9. Actively introduce mathematical concepts, methods, and language through a range
of appropriate experiences and teaching strategies
10. Support children’s learning by thoughtfully and continually assessing all children’s
mathematical knowledge, skills, and strategies (NCTM & NAEYC, 2002, p. 4).
2005, p. 385). In other words,
teachers recognize opportunities to
use language related to mathematical
concepts during children’s play. For
example, a teacher might point out
the shapes of unit blocks as a child
Spring/Summer 2010
conversations using language to help
children further their development of
mathematical concepts.
In addition to recognizing the
importance of language as a tool for
teaching mathematics, teachers can
plan experiences that connect new
mathematical terms or phrases to ideas
children already know (Rubenstein &
Thompson, 2002). When teachers
focus on the language of math and
present mathematical concepts in fun,
engaging ways, children are motivated
to learn concepts beyond what has
been traditionally expected of their
age (Kamii & Anderson, 2003).
Introduce more complex
counting strategies.
A joint position statement from the
National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (NCTM) and the
National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC) points
out that “high-quality, challenging,
and accessible mathematics education…is a vital foundation for
future mathematics learning” (NCTM
& NAEYC, 2002, p. 1). The position
statement recommendations, summarized in Table 1, are intended to
improve classroom practice in order to
meet state and program standards, as
well as to inform policy makers. This
article offers specific examples of using
informal, math-mediated language in
preschool classrooms.
stacks them or discuss the length and Ways to Implement
thickness of clay a child is rolling.
Math-Mediated
Skilled teachers recognize the
importance of language as a tool for Language
The math concepts focused on here
teaching mathematics (Whiten &
Whiten, 2003). They shape and guide are based on those described in Young
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31
Table 2. Mathematics Content Areas, Skills, and Samples of Math-Mediated Language
Content Area
Examples of Children’s
Math Skills
Examples of “Teacher Talk”
(Math-Mediated Language)
Number
Count in order
Match one number to one object
Label how many objects
Model counting: “1, 2, 3, …”
Skip count “2, 4, 6, …”
Ask “How many…?”
Spatial Relations
Describe object locations with spatial
words (prepositions)
Create opportunities for children to identify the location of
objects or their bodies by using spatial words such as in, on,
under, behind.
Recognize and label measurable
attributes of objects
Compare size, length, weight, and other measures. “Three
chairs fit at the writing table. Only 2 chairs fit at the
computer table. Which table is longer? Let’s measure to see.”
Point out “The red car reached the bottom of the ramp
first. It is faster than the orange car!”
Recognize, name, and/or match 2-D
and 3-D shapes
Use shapes to create designs
Introduce and label a wide variety of shapes. “Look, this
puzzle shape has three corners and three sides. It is a triangle.”
“Another word for ball is sphere.”
Help children construct shapes in art or other play activities. “You cut
a paper square (4 equal sides and 4 corners). If you cut it
diagonally, what shapes will you have? (2 triangles, each with 3
sides and 3 corners)”
Ask “Show me another way to arrange these parquetry blocks in a
design.”
Measurement
Geometry
Operations
Seriation
Patterns
Display and Analyze
Data
Add or subtract using counting-based
strategies
Order events or objects
Provide opportunities for children to count using ordinal
numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd). Order events by time and objects by size.
“Today we will go outside first. Second, we will get on the bus.
Third we will go to the park to eat lunch.”
Notice, name, and copy simple
repeating patterns
Provide opportunities to identify patterns (color, shape, size,
auditory) in nature and in everyday life. “A bee has a pattern. Who
can see it? A bee has black, yellow, black, yellow stripes on its body!
What other animals do you know that have patterns? How could
you paint those patterns?” “Let’s clap, loud, soft, soft, loud. Now
let’s clap loud, soft, soft, loud again. We made a sound pattern!”
Sort objects, then count and compare
the groups formed
Help make simple graphs
Children and Mathematics (Copley,
2000). They are presented in an order
that generally indicates increasingly
difficult levels of thinking. Therefore,
the categories at the end of the list
require more complex thinking than
those at the beginning. While Copley
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Volume 38, Number 2
Ask “How many are left?” or “How many all together?”
Demonstrate how to add to or “take away” objects. Say, “You have 2
blocks. If you want 5 blocks, how many more do you need?” OR,
“You have 5 blocks. If you give 3 to your friend, how many will
you have left?”
Provide opportunities for children to sort, count, and then graph
their findings. “Here is the bar graph we made to show what we
found out when we chose our favorite colors. Let’s count. There are
6 red, 1 purple, 5 black, and 7 blue. Which column has the most
votes? Which is our group’s least favorite color?”
identified these categories before
NCTM and NAEYC published their
joint position statement, the categories
are a useful tool for implementing
many of the recommendations made
in the joint statement.
Examples of how teachers can
include these concepts in everyday
talk with children are found both in
the discussion here and in Table 2.
Mastery of each of these skills is
important for children to continue to
succeed in school and in life.
Spring/Summer 2010
Number
Early childhood teachers frequently
hear children using numbers. Children
typically begin by counting out how
many fingers represent their ages.
Soon, they can count how many beads
they placed on strings or how many
children are sitting at their table. Young
children learn to count objects in order
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and to match one
number with one item only once (oneto-one correspondence). Counting first
to 10, and then to 20, is a major
accomplishment for young children.
As children become skilled with
simple counting, teachers are urged to
introduce more complex counting
strategies. For example, instead of
counting objects by one, teachers can
model how to count by twos or threes.
If children are playing with large
cardboard blocks, a teacher might
hand one of them two blocks at a
time, saying, “2, 4, 6” and so on.
These early “skip counting”
experiences enable children to more
easily understand multiplication
activities in later grades. Children can
also begin to see that groups of two or
three objects can be counted to make
sets and then that the sets can be
added to find “how many in all.”
Spatial Relations
Another frequently used math
category in early childhood settings is
spatial relations. Early childhood
teachers frequently ask children to put
toys on the shelves, crayons in their
boxes, and trays under their science
experiments. Other prepositions include over, between, beside, around,
and similar higher-level verbal descriptions of spatial relations.
Well-informed teachers of young
children plan to use these higher-level
forms of language to identify spatial
relations when children play with
blocks, in the dramatic play area, on the
playground, and anywhere else that
Photo by Subjects & Predicates
Skilled teachers recognize the importance of language as a tool for teaching mathematics. They shape and guide conversations using
language to help children further their development of mathematical concepts.
Spring/Summer 2010
Volume 38, Number 2
33
children are learning. This way, children
naturally become aware of spatial
relations and build their vocabularies.
For example, a teacher could
intentionally incorporate higher-level
spatial relations words by describing
what children typically do while
playing with blocks. Often children
put blocks over each other, between two
other shapes, beside each other, or
under other blocks or objects. The
teacher simply describes the location of
the blocks, perhaps pointing out their
shapes at the same time. “Elena, I see
that you fit four little triangle blocks on
top of the long block under them.” By
making this natural observation, the
teacher employs several of the
recommendations in the NCTM and
NAEYC joint position statement.
Measurement
Young children are naturally
inquisitive about relative sizes. They
often notice, “My tower is taller than
yours.” They are proud that “I’m older
than you are!” “My truck goes faster
than your train.” Children’s desire to
measure and compare is facilitated
when early childhood teachers plan to
include objects of varying sizes,
lengths, weights, and speeds in the
learning environment and then provide
the language associated with
measurement.
A teacher might sit with a group of
children rolling clay into different
lengths. First, invite children to
comment on the lengths and masses
(shorter, heavier) of their clay forms.
“Which roll do you think is the
longest, Raoul? Which ball is
the lightest?”
Carry the experience a step further
by using measurement tools. Improvised tools such as pieces of yarn
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Volume 38, Number 2
Plan to use higher-level language to identify spatial relations when children play with
blocks, in the dramatic play area, on the playground, and anywhere else that children
are learning. This way, children naturally become aware of spatial relations and build
their vocabularies.
and even fingers can be used to
compare lengths. “Chianna’s roll is as
long as three markers.” Introduce
standardized tools (in both metric and
U.S. measures) such as rulers and
scales. Measure, record, and compare
the findings.
To extend the learning even further,
a teacher might join the children in
creating rolls and then forming the
Spring/Summer 2010
Good-quality early learning environments have plenty of geometrical objects—both flat (2-dimensional shapes) and solid
(3-dimensional forms)—in a variety of aesthetically pleasing textures such as wood, fabric, rubber, and paper, as well
as plastic.
rolls into balls. Ask children questions
about the mass of clay as it changes
shape, such as “Which shape do you
think has more clay—the long, skinny
roll you made first or the small ball
when you smushed it together?”
Thinking about these changes helps
children to begin to understand
higher-level developmental tasks such
as the conservation of mass and weight
(Piaget, 1977).
natural propensity for identifying
shapes seems to be even greater! Even
2-year-olds start to recognize shapes
and can begin to sort by these
attributes. Therefore, good-quality
early learning environments have
plenty of geometrical objects—both
flat (2-dimensional shapes) and solid
(3-dimensional forms)—in a variety
of aesthetically pleasing textures such
as wood, fabric, rubber, and paper, as
well as plastic.
Simply naming shapes—starting
Geometry
with
squares, triangles, and circles—
Although most young children are
interested in measurement, their is just the beginning of young
Spring/Summer 2010
children’s geometry explorations.
Provide young children opportunities
to explore more complex ideas about
geometric shapes, such as their
properties of corners, sides, size, and
how two or more shapes are similar
or different. When teachers plan
opportunities for young children to
handle and discuss these properties,
children develop skills that form the
basis for understanding even more
complex mathematical concepts.
Children who are cutting paper
might be joined by a teacher who
plans to comment on the shapes they
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35
make. If children are already familiar
with squares and rectangles, for example, a teacher might comment on or
show the children what happens when
a square is cut in half diagonally (two
triangles) or if it is cut horizontally or
vertically the result is two rectangles.
Another creative way to explore
geometric shapes is during snack and
lunch times. Children can use plastic
knives to cut cheese, fruit, and whole
wheat bread into geometric shapes. As
children make their shapes, discuss
each shape’s corners, sides, curves, and
other attributes. Again, by planning
to infuse math-mediated language
into children’s natural explorations,
teachers meet several of the NCTM
and NAEYC recommendations.
Operations
Understanding basic mathematical
operations seems to come naturally to
most children. They soon grasp the
idea that more objects can be added to
a group of items (or some taken away
from it) to create an even bigger (or
smaller) group. When they use
concrete objects, such as toy animals,
little vehicles, or raisins, young children
soon are able to add and subtract—to
express the sum or difference by using
a mathematical operation.
Use concrete objects to
add and subtract.
Teachers can make the most of
naturally occurring opportunities to
infuse the language of mathematical
operations into children’s everyday
play. For example, if children are
making paper bag puppets, ask them
how many pieces of yarn each of them
needs. If KellyAnne asks for five, count
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Volume 38, Number 2
out two or three. Then ask, “How
many more do I need to give you five
in all?” This kind of exchange can be
adapted to almost every activity in the
classroom many times a day.
Seriation
Placing things in sequence—
ordering objects by size or events by
time—is a complex task for young
children. Those who have opportunities to do so will enhance their
mathematical development in significant ways.
Young children seem to enjoy
comparing objects on the basis of size.
Children in one group of 4-year-olds
placed their shoes in order by length.
They even stacked the shoes that were
the same size so there would be no
confusion about which ones where
bigger than the previous ones. In a
multi-age prekindergarten/kindergarten
class, small groups of children ordered
colored paper squares from lightest to
darkest. Their teacher recorded their
thinking as they negotiated the
placement of the pieces. JeVaughn
said “Yellow is like sunshine. It’s
bright and you can color on yellow
paper. It’s lighter than purple. You
can’t draw on purple paper very well.”
When children are engaged in
ordering, teachers provide the mathmediated language appropriate to the
activity. For instance, when children
are ordering shoes by size, a teacher
might ask “What if I move this shoe
over here? Would your shoes still be in
order from shortest to longest?” Or a
teacher could say, “You are laying your
shoes out in a row. I wonder how you
decided which shoes would go where?”
Questions like these enable children to
verbalize their thinking processes.
Ordinal numbers (first, second,
third) are typically used to describe
classroom events. “Jaycee and Orel
asked to be first to experiment with
weights on the new balance scale. The
second children to have a turn are
Bryanna and Joseph.” With such
personal connections, children soon
grasp how seriation affects their
everyday lives.
Patterns
Children experience a wide variety
of patterns in their daily lives,
including
• daily schedules (wake up, get
dressed, eat breakfast, brush
teeth, pick up school bag…)
• auditory patterns (songs, poetry, and stories with repetitive phrases: “Run, run, run
as fast as you can; you can’t
catch me, I’m the gingerbread
man!”)
• visual patterns in clothing
and nature (zebra stripes)
Young children also benefit from
opportunities to create, repeat, and
extend patterns in a variety of
modalities. Teachers can plan activities
and the environment to meet these
goals. Use examples of patterns, and
even demonstrate the patterning
process. “Let’s make a pattern with the
dishes in the pretend play area. What
shall we start with? What comes
next?… Let’s review your pattern:
Plate, cup, spoon, plate, cup, spoon.”
Children who are cutting paper
might create visual patterns by using
different colored strips to make paper
chains. They might paint stripes on a
paper-maché tiger. Children can repeat
or make auditory patterns by clapping,
singing, or drumming a sound pattern.
Children might sit at a table by
alternating boy, boy, girl, boy, boy, girl.
Spring/Summer 2010
Children who can recognize
patterns are better able to make
generalizations about number combinations, counting, and problem
solving (McClain & Cobb, 1999), all
skills they will use in algebra and other
more advanced learning experiences.
Display and Analyze Data
bicycles did we see? Why do you think
there were so many more cars?”
* * *
Young children are capable of
understanding far more complex
mathematical concepts than adults
believe them to be (Ginsberg, Inoue,
& Seo, 1999). Early childhood
teachers can dramatically increase the
use of math-mediated language by
seeking professional development
(such as reading this article) and
coaching on these strategies (Rudd,
Lambert, Satterwhite, & Smith,
2009). Teachers who explicitly plan
for opportunities to infuse mathmediated language into children’s
everyday play activities will give them
the opportunity to flourish in
mathematics!
Graphical displays are both fun and
informative for young children.
Graphical displays are characterized by
• sorting objects,
• counting objects, and
• comparing groups
using simple visual representations
such as bar graphs (Rudd, Lambert,
Satterwhite, & Zaier, 2008). Graphs
visually represent data, so they are yet
another concrete method to compare
things such as frequencies or numbers.
Graphs in early childhood classrooms References
can be both interactive and engaging. Copley, J.V. (2000). The young child and
Graphs can be both
interactive and engaging.
For example, children might first
search for and collect multiple
pictures of vehicles (school bus, car,
truck, bicycle) that they expect to see
on a walk in the neighborhood. Place
the pictures in a bag. On the walk,
children call out or point to the
vehicles they see. As the children
name the vehicles, one of them puts a
picture of that vehicle into another
bag. When the group returns,
children count how many of each
vehicle that they saw. Then the
children place their pictures in parallel
rows to construct a bar graph. This
graph compares the number of each
vehicle the children saw during the
walk. “We saw 21 cars. How many
Spring/Summer 2010
mathematics. Reston, VA: National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics;
Washington, DC: National Association
for the Education of Young Children.
Ginsburg, H.P., Inoue, N., & Seo, K.H.
(1999). Young children doing mathematics: Observations of everyday activities. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics.
Kamii, C., & Anderson, C. (2003). Multiplication games: How we made and used
them. Teaching Children Mathematics,
10(3): 135-141.
McClain, K., & Cobb, P. (1999). Supporting students’ ways of reasoning about
patterns and partitions. In J.V. Copley
(Ed.), Mathematics in the early years (pp.
112-18). Reston, VA: National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics; Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Moseley, B. (2005). Pre-service early childhood educator’s perceptions of math-mediated language. Early Childhood and
Development, 16(3): 385-396.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics & National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2002). Early
childhood mathematics: Promoting good
beginnings. Retrieved from
http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/p
df/psmath.pdf
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of
thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures. New York: Viking Press.
Rubenstein., R.N., & Thompson, D.R.
(2002). Understanding and supporting
children’s mathematical vocabulary development. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9(2): 107-112.
Rudd, L.C., Lambert, M.C., Satterwhite,
M., & Smith, C.H. (2009). Professional
development + coaching = enhanced
teaching: Increasing usage of math mediated language in preschool classrooms,
Early Childhood Education Journal,
37(1), 63-69.
Rudd, L.C., Lambert, M.C., Satterwhite,
M., & Zaier, A. (2008). Mathematical
language in early childhood settings:
What really counts? Early Childhood Education Journal, 36(1): 75-80.
Whitin, D. J., & Whitin, P. (2003). Talk
counts. Discussing graphs with young
children. Teaching Children Mathematics,
10(3): 142-149.
In Memoriam
Alma May Scarborough,
a founding member of
the Southern Association on Children Under
Six (now SECA) died
June 7, 2010, at the age of 97 in Nashville,
Tennessee. She served as Vice-President of
the organization in 1973-74 under President Betty Pagan (AR) and in 1974-75
under President Jeannette Watson (TX).
Alma May was instrumental in producing
the SACUS/SECA history, The First Forty
Years, by holding two work sessions at her
home in Tennessee.
In July 1955, Alma May was named Editor
of Preschool Materials for the Baptist Sunday School Board, where she worked in editorial positions for 23 years. She also edited
several magazines, led many preschool conferences, and wrote numerous preschool
songs and articles for parents and teachers.
She authored two books—I Help Too and
Sing Me a Bible Song. She enjoyed her
church, her family, and the many friends
she made over her lifetime. She loved to
share her time and possessions—always
with a joyful smile!
Volume 38, Number 2
37
Using Math-Mediated Language in Preschool
What is
math-mediated
language?
With Mathematical Mediated Language (MML), teachers use informal,
intentional dialogues with children about math concepts.
orld
W
e
h
t
f
o
e
Mak e Sens
What to say to highlight math ideas
These math concepts, listed by increasing levels of complexity, meet
most state and program standards.
Math
Concepts
Examples of “Teacher Talk”
(Math-Mediated Language)
Number
Model counting: “1, 2, 3, …”
Skip count “2, 4, 6, …”
Ask “How many…?”
Spatial Relations
Locate objects with spatial words such as in, on,
under, behind.
Measurement
Compare size, length, weight, and other measures.
“Which is longer? Your red paper strip or the blue
one?”
1. Build on children’s math-related interests, experiences, and
knowledge—ATMs and money, cell phones, cost of items,
their heights and ages.
2. Provide intriguing math tools and materials: unit and table
blocks, puzzles, measuring devices, music, graphs and charts,
natural objects to order and sort.
3. Use descriptive words to compare, count, and locate objects.
“Ariel is reading inside the tent.”
4. Help children solve everyday problems with math. “How many
more spoons do we need so we can eat our applesauce?”
Geometry
Name and describe 2-D and 3-D shapes. “This
puzzle shape has three corners and three sides. It is
a triangle.” “Another word for ball is sphere.”
Operations
Solve problems. Ask “How many are left?” or
“How many all together?”
Seriation
Count using ordinal numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd).
Order events by time. “First, we put on our coats.
Then we walk out the door. What happens next?”
Sort objects by size or weight. “Which seed is the
smallest? Which seed is biggest?”
For more information
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics & National Association
for the Education of Young Children. (2002). Early childhood
mathematics: Promoting good beginnings. Retrieved from
http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/pdf/psmath.pdf
Patterns
Identify patterns in nature. “The swirls go round
and round on the shell.”
Create patterns. “Let’s clap, loud, soft, soft, loud.
We made a sound pattern!”
Display and
Analyze Data
Make and record children’s choices. Sort, count,
and then graph children’s findings. “Three children
have pet fish. Six of you have dogs. Four have cats.
Let’s show that information on a bar graph.”
With
MATH!
38
Volume 38, Number 2
Spring/Summer 2010
Book Reviews
Books for Early Childhood Educators
by E. Anne Eddowes, Editor
Successful Inclusion Strategies for
Early Childhood Teachers by Cynthia
G. Simpson and Laverne Warner.
Waco, TX: Prufrock Press, 2010. 230
pp., $24.95.
Cynthia Simpson entered higher
education in Early Childhood
Education with 16 years of publicand private-sector experience as a
preschool teacher, educational diagnostician, and administrator. She is an
educational consultant in the areas of
assessment and inclusive practices as
well as an Associate Professor in the
College of Education at Sam Houston
State University. Laverne Warner, a
teacher, author, consultant, and advocate for young children, is Professor
Emerita at Sam Houston University.
During her 9 years of teaching in
Texas, Indiana, and Vermont, plus 32
years as a teacher educator, she has
specialized in children’s growth and
the development of appropriate early
childhood curricula.
Simpson and Warner approach
inclusion from the perspective of diagnostic categories rather than functional goals as is more usual in writings
about inclusion in early childhood.
Their book begins with two clear and
succinct chapters that review the laws
affecting inclusion and the purpose and
function of inclusive classrooms. Best
or recommended practices for inclusion
are highlighted in bullet points to be
elaborated upon in later chapters.
The subsequent eight chapters
address the most common types of
Spring/Summer 2010
disabling conditions that make
inclusive practices necessary in order
to provide a free and appropriate
public education for all children:
autism spectrum disorders, attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/
ADHD), speech and language impairment, hearing impairment, orthopedic impairment, visual impairment,
developmental delay, and traumatic
brain injury.
Each chapter begins with a vignette
that highlights characteristics of children with this impairment. For example,
the chapter on hearing impairment
features Keisha, who appears to ignore
verbal advances from others, watches
carefully where she is going, smiles but
does not respond verbally, and does not
seem distracted by the noise of classroom conversations. Following the
vignette, each chapter provides an overview of the impairment, a section about
what teachers need to know about the
disability, inclusive learning strategies
that will help the child, how to apply
the suggested strategies, a section about
safety for children with the disorder,
and a list of professional and parentoriented associations with addresses to
find more about the disability.
The final two chapters address ways
to adapt classroom materials to meet
the needs of all learners, and collaborating with families of children in
inclusive classrooms. Following Chapter 12, there is a reasonably comprehensive Glossary of Terms, which
features easily understandable def-
initions. After the Reference section
there are three appendices: the DEC
Position Statement on Developmental
Delay, the DEC and NAEYC Joint
Position Statement on Inclusion, and
Annotated Web Resources.
This would be an excellent book to
introduce non-special educators to
inclusive classrooms. It is extremely well
organized and written, and it covers the
essence of the content of more than one
introductory course in disabilities and
how to address them. The only concern
is how well teachers are prepared to
generalize or transfer knowledge from a
chapter on one disability to practice in
another disability where similar strategies could be useful. Although the
book does a reasonable job of this, its
compartmentalization by disability
category may cause inclusion novices to
miss opportunities to address several
disabilities with one type of intervention or inclusive practice.
—Carole S. Campbell
Higher Ground Educational
Consulting
Green Valley, AZ
Many Languages, One Classroom:
Teaching Dual and English Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth.
Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House,
2009. 96 pp., $12.95.
An increasing number of preschool
children in the United States come
from homes where English is not the
dominant language. These children are
learning English as they continue to
Volume 38, Number 2
39
learn in their home language. This new
book fills a gap for teachers who have
children in their classrooms with
language differences. Nemeth has been
a teacher and teacher educator for 25
years, with a focus on first and secondlanguage development.
There are many concrete and highly
practical suggestions in the book. It
begins with an Introduction, in which
there is a comprehensive examination
of current language acquisition approaches. It also covers necessary
terminology. Both Bilingual Education
and English as a Second Language
(ESL) are included. A continuum is
described from a fully bilingual
program with emphasis on the nonEnglish language, to fully English with
few supports for the home language. It
emphasizes the need for getting the
parents involved.
The nine chapters cover different
aspects of the early childhood program.
The first chapter suggests activities to
use in large group sessions, such as
circle or group times. The remainder of
the chapters each include information
for a specific learning area: dramatic
play, outdoor play, library/reading,
manipulatives, writing, science, blocks,
and mealtime.
Each chapter begins with a list of
things to think about related to the
topic. Following that is a section of
ideas for what to include in the
classroom environment. For example,
in the chapter about the dramatic play
area, there is a list of items to include
such as authentic clothing from
different countries, empty containers
from ethnic food stores in the area,
maps, menus, books, and other items
to assure cultural authenticity in
everyday play.
For each classroom learning area
there are activities for language enhancement and links to learning standards in math, science, social relationships and self-regulation, language arts
and literacy, and visual and performing
arts. In the chapter on the block area,
there is an activity in which unit blocks
can be used to introduce measurement
with children who speak different
languages. Each chapter has a wealth of
ideas for a variety of activities on the
chapter topic. The chapters include ways
to work with families and classroom
technology tips. Each chapter ends with
questions for teacher reflection.
This book is a wonderful, inexpensive resource filled with information and ideas for a variety of
creative activities. It is an excellent
resource for any teacher who has
children with language differences in
the classroom. The activities are
equally as good for English-only
classrooms. All children should be
aware of other cultures in our increasingly global world.
—E. Anne Eddowes
Tucson, AZ
President’s Message continued from page 2
They help children learn: What are all
the things I can learn about and do
with modeling compound? With
blocks? With picture books?
Good-quality programs pay as
much attention to the social/
emotional development of children
as their cognitive development.
They explore, discuss, and encourage
children to express their emotions in
appropriate ways. Early care teachers
realize that young children do not
have exceptional control of their
emotions. Well-prepared adults know
that they must teach, model, and
mentor young children while they are
learning appropriate ways to express
and demonstrate their emotions and
grow socially.
40
Volume 38, Number 2
The best programs supply as
many wonderful outlets for using
and developing gross motor skills as
they do for developing and using
fine motor skills. Good-quality
programs realize that recess, outdoor
play, and outdoor learning time allow
children to learn and grow cognitively
and socially/emotionally as well as
physically—if children have suitable
materials and equipment to use and if
children are supervised and mentored
(but not directed) every minute.
Are we as SECA members helping
our neighborhoods, communities, leaders, colleagues, and families provide
and promote the high-quality programs our young children should have?
Contributions to
the Division for
Development
West Virginia Association for
Young Children
Arkansas Early Childhood
Association
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
Memorials In Honor of:
Helen Lawler (mother of
Dr. Dianne Lawler-Prince)
by Dr. Milly Cowles
David Hunter, Rick Staudt,
Georgette Davis and
Dan Reinstein
by Dr. Pam Schiller
Spring/Summer 2010
7/16/10
3:40 PM
Page 3
7/16/10
3:40 PM
Page 4
NON-PROFIT
ORGANIZATION
U.S. POSTAGE
PAID
Little Rock, AR 72201
Permit No. 2470
P.O. Box 55930 • Little Rock, AR 72215-5930
Toll Free: 800-305-7322 • www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org
.org
d
o
o
h
d
l
i
h
C
y
l
nEar
r
e
h
t
u
o
S
.
w
w
to w
n
o
o
S
g
n
i
m
o
C
Beginning in the Fall of 2010, the SECA website will feature an entire
section featuring Spanish-language materials. By posting these
materials online, we will be providing a convenient source of
valuable information that all Spanish-speaking early childhood
professionals–whether SECA members or not–can access
at will.
Materials for this new portion of our website
are currently in development and will be
published by October 1, 2010. After the initial
launch of the program, we will continue to
add materials as they are produced. We will
announce the availability of new and updated
materials as they are added to the site.
We hope that by offering these practical
tips in a bilingual format, we will be
better able to provide support to the
South’s ever-growing community of
Hispanic early childhood professionals
and parents.

Dimensions - Southern Early Childhood Association

Transcription

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