Sorona - Textile Exchange

Material Snapshot
Sorona®
Material Scenario
Woven undyed textile of 100% Sorona® triexta. Sorona is DuPont’s trade name poly(trimethylene
terephthalate (PTT) (DuPont, 2010). While PTT is considered to be a subclass of polyester, its
characteristics led the Federal Trade Commission to approve a new generic fiber name for PTT called
triexta (DuPont, n.d. (a)). Sorona is produced from corn-based 1,3-Propanediol (PDO) and either
terephthalic acid (TPA) that has been purified (PTA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and contains 37%
renewable plant-based material by weight (DuPont, n.d. (a), DuPont, 2006a). DuPont manufactures the
fiber in North Carolina and China (DuPont, 2006a).
Common Uses In Apparel And Footwear
Sorona is usually blended with a variety of natural, bio-based or synthetic fibers for apparel use
(DuPont, 2012b, p. 5). Sonora’s potential for apparel applications include active wear, casual wear, and
outerwear as well as swim and intimate apparel. Currently, it is used extensively for face fiber in carpet
(DuPont, n.d.(a)).
Alternative Textiles That May Be Substituted For Material
• Nylon • Nylon 6,6 • Polyester (PET)
Life Cycle Description
Functional Unit
1 kilogram woven Sorona fabric
System Boundary
Cradle to gate.
Allocation
Unknown1
1 A critical issue in corn-based products is whether the corn is grown for grain only, leaving most of the stover (crop
residue) remaining on the soil, or grown for both grain and stover, the latter of which could be used in a variety of biobased applications such as fuels and polymers. Loss of stover would potentially increase soil erosion and reduce soil
carbon. In a study of the corn grain and stover system, system expansion was used to isolate the impacts of the corn
stover system by subtracting the impacts of the corn grain only stem from the combined system (see Kim et. al., 2009).
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Unit Process Descriptions
Production (Raw Material Sourcing And Processing)
PDO is typically produced from petroleum derivatives, though Sorona is produced with a bio-based
PDO made from corn glucose (DuPont, 2006a). Renewable content from DuPont’s Bio-PDO™ makes
up 37% of Sorona fiber by weight (DuPont, n.d. (b)). Production capacity of Sorona is estimated to be
about 172,000 tonnes per year (Lunt, 2014, p. 35).
Conventionally grown corn is the raw material feedstock for Bio-PDO. Production of Bio-PDO occurs in
Tennessee in partnership with Tate & Lyle (DuPont, 2006a) where corn is processed at an on-site wet
mill to separate the starch from gluten by cooking, then grinding the kernels. The starch is introduced
to a genetically modified bacterium that excretes PDO in a fermentation process creating a broth
(Alles, 2010, p. 4). While this process naturally occurs in two stages, DuPont in a partnership with
Genencor International produced biocatalytic bacterium that converts glucose to PDO in a single stage
(Kurian, 2005a, p. 163). The PDO broth is distilled from the water, packaged, and shipped to Sorona
production facilities in North Carolina and Jiangsu Province, China (DuPont, 2010).
PTA is required for the production of Sorona, and may be added directly (direct esterification) or
through a reaction with DMT that produces PTA immediately before polymerization (ester exchange or
transesterification) (Giardino, 2001).
In the direct use of PTA process, p-xylene, a fossil fuel derivative, is subject to liquid-phase air
oxidation where fresh acetic acid, catalysts such as manganese or cobalt acetate and sodium bromide,
and recovered acetic acid are combined in a reactor and subjected to pressurized air (UNEP, 2001, p.
9). The oxidation process converts the crude TPA into a form that can be easily stripped of impurities
(USEPA, 1983, s.6.11.1). This directly creates PTA for the polymerization process.
In the DMT route, p-xylene and recycled p-toluic esters (PTE) are oxidized with a cobalt or manganese
salts catalyst into p-toluic acid, non-purified TPA, and mono methyl terephthalate (MMT), then
esterified with methanol to form PTE, which is reused, and DMT with methanol as a by-product (Mall,
2007, p. 444).
Sorona is produced using PDO and either DMT or PTA in a continuous polymerization process (Bhatia,
2008, p. 620). The basic method has been modified and patented by DuPont, and involves a three
vessel process (Giardino, et al., 2001). The first stage is an ester exchanger for PDO and DMT mixtures
or a direct esterification reactor that combines PDO and PTA. This is combined with a catalyst, usually
titanium. The result is heated in a flasher to remove excess PDO and increase viscosity. This produces
a low molecular weight liquid feed mixture of propylene groups and terephthalate groups which is fed
into a prepolymerizer. The final vessel is a finisher that continuously draws the prepolymer into a final
polymerizer that increases the final molecular weight (Giardino, et al., 2001). The finisher extrudes
Sorona filaments that are then turned into Sorona pellets.
Figure 1: Continuous Polymerization Process For Sorona
Source: Kurian, 2005a, p. 164
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The Sorona pellets are shipped to a yarn mill to be remelted and spun into fibers. The pellets must be
dried in a low or non-oxygenated environment (typically nitrogen-based), before undergoing a remelt
process to meet a standard purity level (Kurian, 2005b, p. 517). Sorona requires lower temperatures
and less energy for extrusion compared to many other synthetic fibers (DuPont, n.d. (b)). Triexta fibers
are typically spun on “short stack” spinning machines developed for nylon and polypropylene; other
mechanical processes, such as texturing, weaving, knitting and tufting, are similar to PET and can be
done on properly calibrated equipment (Kurian, 2005a, p. 165).
Textile/ Final Processes
Sorona may be blended into yarns using a variety of other fibers, both natural and synthetic, and then
used to make wovens, knits, circular knits, warp knits and other types of fabrics (DuPont, n.d. (b)).
Process Inputs2
Energy
Sorona combines corn-based Bio-PDO and synthetic PTA. Process energy requirements in
terms of one kg of Sorona fabric are displayed in Table 1.
Corn production is highly mechanized in planting, cultivation, and harvesting. Energy use
varies depending on tillage practices and chemical inputs. A study of corn production in
the Midwest U.S. identified a range of total fossil energy use from 2.1 to 3.3 MJ/kg corn
grain produced (Kim et al., 2009 pp. 166-167) with a calculated average of 2.7 MJ/kg corn
grain. Corn wet milling is highly energy intensive; one estimate is that corn wet milling
uses 15% of the total energy required for the food industry (Galitsky, 2003, p. 1). Bio-PDO
requires 63.9 MJ/kg Bio-PDO from cradle to gate (DuPont Tate & Lyle, n.d.).3 Cradle to gate
production of one kg of PTA requires 55 MJ (CPME, 2014, p. 19). The mass ratio of Bio-PDO
and PTA in the resulting Sorona was not identified in the literature.
Cradle to gate (Sorona pellets) manufacturing requires 83.8 MJ of non-renewable energy
for 1 kg Sorona pellet (DuPont, 2012a), which incorporates both PDO and PTA processes.
Gate to gate processes for turning pellet into unfinished woven fabric require 19.2 MJ/kg
for spinning extruded filaments, 10.8 MJ/kg for texturing polymer fibers and 229.1 MJ/kg for
weaving 70 dtex polymer (van der Velden et al., 2014, p. 351). Total cradle to gate energy
for woven Sorona is 343 MJ/kg Sorona (Appendix, Table A).
Table 1. Inputs And Outputs For 1 Kg Of Sorona
Process
Energy (MJ) per kg
Sorona fabric
Data Source
Corn to pellet (cradle to gate)
83.8
DuPont, 2012a
Pellet to yarn (gate to gate)
19.2
Van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Yarn texturizing (gate to gate)
10.8
Van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Weaving 70 dtex (gate to gate)
229.1
Van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Total Cradle to Gate
343
2 The Process Inputs and Process Outputs sections focus on the direct PTA polymerization route. Quantitative data
for process inputs and outputs is based on Sorona-specific publicly available information for PTT pellet; downstream
processes (pellet through woven fabric) are generic.
3
Cradle to gate fossil fuel based PDO is 111 MJ/kg (DuPont Tate & Lyle, n.d.).
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Water
We did not identify any Sorona-specific data for water use in the literature. Data on water
use for corn cultivation reflects many disparate estimates. USDA survey information on
U.S. corn production in 2013 identified an average of 1.1 acre-feet of irrigation water per
acre of corn equivalent to 272 L/kg corn (USDA, 2014, p. 133) based on recent yields (196
bushels/acre equivalent to 12,302 kg/ha, USDA, 2014, p. 115). Irrigation in Corn Belt states4
varies between 0.4 ac-ft/ac (OH) and 1.3 ac-ft/ac (OH) (USDA, 2014, p. 133). Mekonnen and
Hoekstra (2010, p. 815) estimated water5 use for U.S. corn crops at 522 L green water/kg
corn and 63 L blue water/kg corn, equalling 585 L total use/kg corn. Average Corn Belt
state water use is 520 L green water/kg corn and 20 L green water/kg corn. In contrast,
Dolder, (2012, p. 19) estimated total water for Nebraska corn production at 367 L/kg corn.
Water consumption can differ from water use as it is the quantity retain in the crop and
evapotranspired and do not account for efficiency losses (USDA, n.d., “Definitions”).
Literature on corn milling suggests that the majority of water consumption is used during
cultivation, with only small amounts required for processing (Wu, 2009, p.986). During
corn wet milling, water use is minimized by utilization of a countercurrent method (Galitsky,
2003, p.15). Water from each step is evaporated and reused, with fresh water only being
introduced during the final step of starch washing. Water data on Bio-PDO production are
not available.
Cradle to gate water consumption for PTA is 3.6 L/TPA; cooling water use is 67.4 L/kg PTA
(CPME, 2014, p. 20).
Sorona may be processed into yarn and textile by the same equipment utilized for
polyester (Kurian, 2005a, p. 165). Polyester spinning is measured to use 2.2 L/kg of
spun yarn (van der Velden, 2014, p.336). Weaving water use (associated with electricity
generation) is 5 L/kg 70 dtex woven (Appendix, Table B).
Chemical
Chemical inputs for corn production include fertilizers and pesticides. 2010 fertilizer
application rates on corn per acre in the U.S. averaged 64 kg of nitrogen, 27 kg of
phosphate, and 36 kg of potash (USDA, 2011, p. 2). Herbicides are used in greater
quantities than fungicides and insecticides with glyphosate isopropylamine salt and
atrazine applied at 0.5 kg per acre and acetochlor at 0.6 kg per acre (USDA, 2011, p. 2).
Wet milling of corn for Bio-PDO uses sodium metabisulfite (Na2S2O5) or sulfur dioxide
(SO2) to separate the corn constituents (Övez, 2001, p. 539; CRA, 2009, p. 2). Hydrogen
chloride (HCl) is added to adjust pH and, for some processes to modify starch, various
chemicals such as toluene, trichloroethylene, manganese or acetic acid may be used.
These are removed after processing by washing and drying (CRA, 2009, p. 4).
Production of TPA/PTA requires crude oil, which is refined into naphtha, p-xylene, a cobaltmanganese-bromide catalyst, and acetic acid (CPME, 2014, p. 6).
Other chemicals utilized for Sorona production include an organo titanium catalyst such
as tetraisopropyl titanate or tetra butoxy titanium (Kurian, 2005b, p. 512) and may include
color inhibitors such as phosphoric acid, delusterants such as titanium dioxide, dyeability
modifiers, pigments, and whiteners (Giardino, 2001).
4 Illinois 0.7, Indiana 0.5, Iowa 0.6, Kansas 1.3, Michigan 0.5, Minnesota 0.6, Missouri 0.9, Nebraska 1.0, N. Dakota 0.7,
Ohio 0.4, S. Dakota 0.7, Wisconsin 0.7
5 Green water refers to precipitation (estimated), blue water refers to irrigation with surface and groundwater. Virtual
grey water is also used in calculating water footprints (http://waterfootprint.org/en/); grey water refers to a calculation
of a virtual quantity of water required to dilute wastewater contamination levels to meet appropriate water quality standards. Farm runoff contaminated with fertilizers and pesticides will lead to increased grey water levels in agricultural
water footprint calculations.
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Physical
Inputs include corn, and petroleum to produce chemicals. Additional physical inputs are
used in the conversion of these raw materials.
Land-use Intensity
Average corn yield in the Corn Belt is 12,010 kg/ha (USDA, 2014, p. 133). Data on kg corn
required for 1 kg of Bio-PDA are not available.
Process Outputs
Co-products & By-products
Bio-PDO produced from corn has several by-products and co-products. Corn stalk, straw,
and husks are unusable by-products for producing glucose (Alles, 2010, p. 4). The germ
and corn gluten are co-products used as livestock feed. Corn oil is produced from the germ
and has high economic value (Galitsky, 2003, p. 3).
Methanol is a by-product of the transesterification process during the first stage of
producing Sorona from PDO and the PTA route (Giardino, 2001). Other reaction by-products
include small amounts of acrolein and allyl alcohol.
Solid Waste
Solid waste from corn wet milling can include particles from the cleaning process (Tate &
Lyle, n.d.). Waste from the production of the glucose for Bio-PDO is entirely used to make
co-products such as corn oil, animal feed, and corn products. Waste data for Bio-PDO
were not identified during the literature review.
Solid waste production during the total process chain of PTA totals of 0.006 kg of waste
per kg of TPA produced (CPME, 2014, p. 21).
Waste generation data for Sorona are not available.
Spinning and weaving waste is calculated to be 1.0 kg/kg 70 dtex woven (Appendix, Table
C).
Hazardous Waste/Toxicity
Human and eco-health hazards are associated with exposures to pesticides, fertilizers, and
breakdown products applied in the production of conventional corn, which may migrate
through soil, air, and water (Hill, 2006, p. 11207).
Some of the processing chemicals used in wet milling are hazardous (e.g., sulfuric acid).
Harvested corn contains some heavy metals, which are removed during the milling
process, such as arsenic and lead (CRA, 2009, p. 2). Production of bio-PDO can produce
small amounts of acrolein and allyl alcohol, which are highly toxic (Giardino, 2001).
PTA production wastes, after treatment, include 0.0017 kilograms of non-hazardous
waste, and 0.0002 kg hazardous waste per kg of TPA, as well as an additional 0.004 kg of
unspecified waste (CPME, 2014, p. 3).
Heavy metals are not present in catalysts used for the polymerization of Sorona (DuPont,
n.d. (b)). Further testing shows that Sorona is non-cytotoxic when in contact with cells and
that no inflammatory response occurs during exposure (Bhatia, 2008, p. 622). Sorona has
been tested for harmful substances and meets the EU and US requirements laid out in
REACH and CPSIA standards (DuPont, n.d. (c)).
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Wastewater
Use of pesticides on corn contributes to toxic runoff from fields that enters surface water
and aquifers (Pimentel, 1992, p. 750). Studies of river water and seawater shows some
contamination by terephthalic acid, with concentrations of 3.4 µg/l in Japanese river water,
and 0.7 µg/l in sea water samples (UNEP, 2001, p. 10). It is unclear if this is due to release of
water used in processing, emissions to air from manufacturing, or from the degradation of
various plastic products, including PET, into the environment.
Wastewater produced during the wet milling process is evaporated in the system to
avoid losing any corn co-products (Galitsky, 2003, p. 16). Condensation from evaporation
of steeping water as well as from cleaning of the evaporators are the only sources of
wastewater during the process, all other wastewaters are recycled within the system
(Övez, 2001, p. 539). Discharge may have low nitrogen and high phosphorus levels, and a
BOD/COD ratio of 0.62 (Övez, 2001, p. 544).
Production of PTA creates wastewater during the processing phase. These emissions
include biological and chemical oxygen demand, chloride ions, sodium ions, and sulphate
(CPME, 2014, p. 21).
Emissions
Corn wet milling produces particulate matter during the grain storage and handling
operations, as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and some volatile organic compounds (USEPA,
1995, s.9.9.7.3). GHG emissions for Sorona pellet total 2.2 kg CO2eq/kg. Spinning and
weaving GHG emissions are 12.1 kg CO2eq/kg 70 dtex woven Sorona (Appendix, Table A).
Cradle to gate emissions total 15 kg CO2eq/kg 70 dtex woven Sorona (Appendix, Table A).
Table 2. Inputs To And Emissions From Production Of 1 Kg Process Output
Fiber Properties
One Kg Sorona
Energy (MJ)
343 i
Water (L)
- ii
Waste (kg)
- ii
GHG Emissions (kg CO2)
15 i
Notes:
(i) See Appendix Table A
(ii) Sorona-specific data not identified in the literature
Performance And Processing
Functional Attributes And Performance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Extremely durable
Stain resistant
Blends with natural or synthetic fibers
UV resistance
Chlorine resistance
High elasticity
Soft hand
High printability and color fastness
Quick drying
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Table 3. Mechanical Attributes Of Sorona Triexta
Property
Figure
Melting temp ( C)
o
Tenacity (g/d)
228
i
4-5
i
Tensile Strain (%)
15-20
i
Tensile Strength (cN/dtex)
Water retention (%)
iv
2.8 - 3.2
0.2 - 0.3
i
Intrinsic Viscosity (dL/g)
0.88
iii
Breaking Stress (kg/cm ) *
N/A
Molecular Weight (g/mol)
76.1
2
i, ii
Breaking Strength (MPa) *
N/A
References
i Kurian, 2005a, p. 161
ii Molecular weight of PDO
iii Hsaio, 2006, p. 1009 (PTT, not Sorona specific)
iv DuPont, 2012b, p. 7
* No data found
Mechanical Attributes
Sorona is a linear crystallisable polymer with a structure featuring a “kink” that allows fabrics
to compress by twisting or bending instead of stretching (Kurian, 2005a, p. 160). No permanent
deformities occur under the allowable tensile strain of 15-20%. Compared to nylon 6 and
polypropylene, Sorona has a lower melt temperature, lower modulus, higher stretch, and exhibits
better stretch recovery (Kurian, 2005a, p. 164).
Processing Characteristics
Sorona may be blended with nearly any other fiber to produce various fabrics. It can be easily dyed
with disperse dyes at low temperatures and does not require carriers for light or dark shades or
pressurization (Kurian, 2005a, p. 161). Sorona behaves similar to other condensation polymers in a
melted state, and can be processed on existing machines with some modifications (Kurian, 2005a, p.
164).
Sorona yarns may be created from a homo filament fiber, homo staple fiber, or as an addition in a
stretch filament or staple fiber (DuPont, 2012b, p. 3).
Aesthetics
Sorona has a soft hand, and is easily dyed for vibrant colors. When combined with other fibers, it
provides stretch, softness, and resistance to chlorine and UV light (Kurian, 2005a, p. 165).
Potential Social And Ethical Concerns
Production of corn causes social concerns due to pesticide and fertilizer use. Human health effects,
as well as environmental effects including contaminated products, destruction of biodiversity, and
groundwater and surface contamination, are observed due to pesticide use in corn cultivation
(Pimentel, 1992, p. 758). Fertilizer leaching can cause environmental impacts including nitrate and
nitrite contamination in water, harm to biodiversity, and eutrophication, significantly the large “dead
zone” in the Gulf of Mexico (Hill, 2006, p. 11207).
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Though Bio-PDO is biodegradable (DuPont, 2006b), Sorona fibers cannot be composted and are not
biodegradable (DuPont, 2012a). Sorona is technically a potentially recyclable thermoplastic (it can be
melted and reformed), however, a recycling system has not yet been established for fiber in products;
DuPont has conducted research to demonstrate that Sorona carpet fibers can be separated from
backings and recycled (DuPont, n.d. (e)). Sorona fibers can persist in the environment and contribute
to plastic pollution.
Availability Of Material
A literature review did not identify information about the availability of Sorona fiber and textiles. It
is marketed and advertised by DuPont. Suppliers globally are licensed to produce and sell Sorona
yarn and DuPont provides a regional contact list (DuPont, n.d. (d)), with manufacturing of the polymer
occurring in North Carolina, USA, and China. A search of global availability finds some licensed
suppliers of yarn include Shaoxing Global Chemical Fiber Co., Ltd., Dongguan Ropetwine New Material
Co., and Shanghai Changjie Textiles Co., Ltd., among others (Alibaba, n.d.), with both yarn and fabric
offered for sale.
Availability Of Certified Materials
Sorona has received the USDA Certified Biobased Product label for Sorona polymer (USDA, n.d.,
“BioPreferred”).
Cost Of Textile
Published data on Sorona polymer or generic PTT are not readily available. PTT was considered too
costly to produce when discovered during the 1940s, due to limitations of PDO production. With
the creation of Bio-PDO, the cost of PTT was brought low enough to compete with other synthetic
polymers such as nylon. Finished yarn is offered for commercial sale at prices ranging from $4.93 8.00/kg, and fabric from $3.20 – $9.30/yard (Alibaba, n.d.). PTT in carpeting is sold at comparable
prices to nylon, estimated at $0.35-$0.60 cents more per pound than PET fibers (Herlihy, 2013).
Questions To Ask When Sourcing This Material
Q: If sourcing triexta, clarify if it is Sorona produced with Bio-PDO
Q: Has this fabric been blended with other fibers?
Q: What additives have been included in the polymer; e.g., colorants, whiteners, delusterers, etc.?
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Figure 1. System Diagram Of Sorona Triexta (Source: Alles, 2010, p. 11)
Undyed Woven Sorona Textile
Weaving
Yarn Spinning
Sorona®
Production
Bio-PDOTM
Production
Biomass To
Landfill
Purified
TPA
Electricity
Heat,
Natural
Gas
Coal For
Steam
Organic Waste
(Fuel Co-Product)
Corn Gluten Meal And
Corn Gluten Feed
Co-Products
Corn
Farming
Fertilizers
Glucose
From CWM
Coal, Natural
Gas For Steam
Misc.
Process
Chemicals
Electricity
Natural
Gas For
Steam
Electricity
Other Agronomic
Inputs
Source: Kurian, 2005a, p. 164
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Appendix
Calculations For Sorona
Table A. Energy And GHG Emissions
Sorona
MJ
CO2e
Source
Pellet subtotal
83.8
3.38
Calculation
Yarn spinning extruding polymer
19.2
0.9
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351 (synthetics)
Yarn texturing polymer fibers
10.8
0.5
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351 (synthetics)
Fiber/yarn subtotal
30.0
1.4
Calculation
Weaving (70 dtex)
229.0
10.7
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351 (synthetics)
Textile subtotal
229.0
10.7
Calculation
Cradle to gate undyed textile total energy
343
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Calculation
Table B. Water (Yarn Spinning Through Weaving)
Sorona
Units
Quantity
Source
Electricity production water
L/MJ
0.021
Plastics Europe, 2005, p. 7
Yarn spinning extrusion energy
MJ/kg
19.2
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351; yarn spinning extrusion
Yarn spinning extrusion water
L/kg
0.4032
Calculation
Yarn texturing energy
MJ/kg
10.8
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351; yarn texturing
Yarn texturing water
L/kg
0.2268
Calculation
Yarn subtotal energy
MJ/kg
30
Calculation
Yarn subtotal water
L/kg
0.63
Calculation
Weaving energy (70 dtex)
MJ/kg
229
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Weaving water
L/kg
4.809
Calculation
5.4
Calculation
Gate to gate unfinished textile total water kg/kg
Table C. Waste (Yarn Spinning Through Weaving)
Sorona
Units
Quantity
Source
Electricity production waste
kg/MJ
0.004
Plastics Europe, 2005, p. 7
Yarn Spinning extrusion energy
MJ/kg
19.2
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351; yarn spinning extrusion
Yarn Spinning extrusion waste
kg/kg
0.1
Calculation
Yarn Texturing extrusion energy
MJ/kg
10.8
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351; texturing
Yarn Texturing extrusion waste
kg/kg
0.0
Calculation
Yarn Spinning SubTotal energy
MJ/kg
30.0
Calculation
Yarn Spinning SubTotal waste
kg/kg
0.1
Calculation
Weaving energy
MJ/kg
229.0
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Weaving waste
kg/kg
0.874
Calculation
1.0
Calculation
Gate to gate unfinished textile total waste kg/kg
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References
Alibaba. (n.d.) Product search: Sorona. Retrieved from: http://www.alibaba.com/products/F0/sorona_yarn.html.
Alles, C., Ginn, J., Veith, S. (2010). GHG Inventory of Bio-Based Sorona® Polymers. Dupont. Presented at LCA X; Portland, OR.
Bhatia, S., Kurian, J. (2008). Biological Characterization of Sorona Polymer from Corn-Derived 1,3-propanediol. Biotechnology
Letters, Vol. 3, No. 4: 619:623.
Dolder, S., Hillman, A., Passinsky, V., Wooster, K. (2012). Strategic Analysis of Water Use and Risk in the Beverage Industry.
Masters Project Report, University of Michigan.
DuPont. (n.d. (a)). Triexta Fiber Classification is Generic in Name Only. Retrieved from: http://www.dupont.com/products-andservices/fabrics-fibers-nonwovens/fibers/brands/dupont-sorona/articles/triexta-generic-in-name-only.html
DuPont. (n.d. (b)). Life Cycle Assessment Validates DuPont™ Sorona® Sustainability. Retrieved from: http://www.dupont.com/
products-and-services/fabrics-fibers-nonwovens/fibers/brands/dupont-sorona/articles/sorona-life-cycle-assessment.html.
DuPont. (n.d. (c)). DuPont™ Sorona® Receives Oeko-Tex® Standard 100 Certification. Retrieved from: http://www.dupont.com/
products-and-services/fabrics-fibers-nonwovens/fibers/brands/dupont-sorona/press-releases/sorona-receives-oeko-texcertification.html.
DuPont. (n.d. (d)). Regional Contact List for Sorona®. Retrieved from: http://www.dupont.com/products-and-services/fabricsfibers-nonwovens/fibers/brands/dupont-sorona/open/regional-contact-list.html.
DuPont. (n.d. (e)). Sorona® Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from: http://www.dupont.com/products-and-services/fabricsfibers-nonwovens/fibers/brands/dupont-sorona/open/sorona-faq.html.
DuPont. (2006a). Fact Sheet: The DuPontTM Sorona® Polymer Sustainability Story. Retrieved from: www.c2es.org/docUploads/
Fact%20Sheet%20-%20Sorona%20LCA.doc.
DuPont. (2006b). Fact Sheet: The Bio-PDOTM Sustainability Story. Retrieved from: www.c2es.org/docUploads/Fact%20Sheet%20
-%20Bio-PDO%20LCA.doc.
DuPont. (2012a). Sorona Environmental Data Sheet. Retrieved from: http://www2.dupont.com/Sorona_Consumer/en_US/assets/
downloads/PS-1_Sorona_Environmental_Data.pdf.
DuPont. (2012b). Apparel made with DuPont Sorona Renewably Sourced Fiber. Retrieved from: http://www2.dupont.com/Sorona_
Consumer/en_US/assets/downloads/2012_SORONA-final.pdf.
DuPont Tate & Lyle BioProducts. (n.d.). FAQ. Retrieved from: http://www.duponttateandlyle.com/faqs.
Galitsky, C., Worrell, E., Ruth, M. (2003). Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for the Corn Wet Milling
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