Plastic shopping bags: Options paper - EPA

Transcription

Plastic shopping bags
Options paper
Practical actions for plastic shopping bags
www.epa.nsw.gov.au
Environment Protection Authority
© 2016 State of NSW and Environment Protection Authority
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ISBN 978-1-76039-299-4
EPA 2016/0143
February 2016
Contents
1.
Executive summary ..................................................................................................................... 2
2.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 4
3.
Background .................................................................................................................................. 5
Litter .................................................................................................................................. 5
Consumption ..................................................................................................................... 8
Recycling contamination .................................................................................................. 11
4.
Australian experience with plastic shopping bags ................................................................ 12
5.
Overseas regulation of plastic shopping bags ....................................................................... 15
6.
Scope of options ........................................................................................................................ 16
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 16
Analysis of options........................................................................................................... 16
Impacts of options ........................................................................................................... 17
Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 18
7.
Options to address all objectives ............................................................................................. 19
Status quo ....................................................................................................................... 19
Ban on bags .................................................................................................................... 20
Education ........................................................................................................................ 22
Environmental warnings or labelling ................................................................................ 24
8.
Litter specific options ................................................................................................................ 26
Environmental warnings and plastic bag litter cost recovery ............................................ 26
Recycling incentive scheme ............................................................................................ 28
Bin design and litter infrastructure funding ....................................................................... 29
9.
Consumption specific options.................................................................................................. 30
Product stewardship program .......................................................................................... 30
10. Recycling contamination specific solutions ........................................................................... 32
Expand kerbside recycling for plastic bags ...................................................................... 32
Public and retailer bins for recycling bags ........................................................................ 33
11. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Plastic shopping bags: Options paper
Definitions
There are a number of different types of plastic shopping bags available. The below lists
common types of shopping bags, and these terms are used throughout this paper.
Plastic shopping bag
Plastic bag with handles to carry items.
A carry bag, the body of which comprises polymers in whole
or in part, provided by the retailer at point of sale for the
carrying or transporting of items.
HDPE bag
High density polyethylene (HDPE) bag, often less than 35
microns thick.
Commonly referred to as supermarket style bag, singlet
bag, single use plastic bag, lightweight plastic shopping
bag. Often provided at supermarkets or convenience stores,
or for takeaway food.
Boutique bag
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) bags.
Commonly referred to as heavy plastic bags or boutique
bags. Often branded and provided by department, apparel
and electronics stores.
Green bag
Re-usable ‘green’ bags.
Durable bags designed for multiple re-uses (particularly for
supermarket shopping), made of non-woven or woven
polypropylene in cross thatched pattern.
Lightweight bags
Biodegradable, oxo-degradable or compostable bags.
Often lightweight and used in replacement of HDPE
lightweight plastic bags.
Barrier bags
Smaller bags with no handles used for containing fresh
produce (e.g. meat and vegetables) and ready to eat food,
and as nappy bags.
1
1. Executive summary
This Plastic Shopping Bags Options Paper has been prepared to present the impacts of
plastic shopping bag use in Australia and NSW and to propose various options to reduce the
impacts. The intention of this paper is that multiple actions would be chosen for further
investigation and implemented concurrently. This ensures the best outcomes for the
environment and community while balancing government, council and retailer impacts.
In summary:

Plastic shopping bags are used extensively across the retail sector as they are light,
easy to use, strong, moisture resistant and relatively cheap. However, a number of
problems arise from the use of plastic shopping bags. In this paper, these problems
are identified as litter, consumption and recycling contamination.

There is a significant body of scientific evidence on the environmental impacts of
plastics, including plastic bags, on the marine environment. Plastic shopping bags
are highly visible and mobile in the environment, creating entanglement and
ingestion impacts to marine life.

A number of countries and regions have implemented measures to reduce the use
of plastic shopping bags, including bans or levies on plastic shopping bags. These
actions are often combined with educational and other complementary programs.

In order to reduce plastic bag use, the Australian Retailers Association introduced a
voluntary Plastic Shopping Bag Code of Practice, which operated between 2003
and 2005. The Code included education and commitments to make ‘green bags’
widely available in stores. The Code resulted in a reported 45% reduction in plastic
shopping bags issued by supermarkets.

Since the end of the Plastic Shopping Bag Code of Practice, it appears that the
trend of reduction in plastic shopping bag usage has reversed. There remains
significant community concern regarding the impact of plastic shopping bags, and a
number of Commonwealth Government reviews about plastic shopping bags have
been completed. South Australia, Northern Territory, Australian Capital Territory
and Tasmania have all legislated bans of plastic shopping bags (excluding
‘biodegradable’ bags) in the past six years

Recent scientific research demonstrates that biodegradable plastic shopping bags
have similar impacts on the environment and wildlife as other plastic shopping bags

Any replacement for plastic shopping bags, including paper, cotton and green bags,
each have their own environmental impacts. This includes material use, water and
energy consumption, marine impacts, greenhouse gas emissions and litter.

There are numerous options, both traditional and innovative, to address the
problems and impacts of plastic shopping bags. Additional research, assessment
and scoping is required before a final determination can be made on the feasibility
of any option.
2
Prior to proceeding with further investigation of options for either NSW or national
implementation, the following is required:

broad stakeholder engagement to assess the impacts and feasibility of the
option(s), to further learn from other Australian jurisdiction’s experience, identify any
information gaps and address any potential perverse outcomes

regulatory impact statements to assess benefits, costs and impacts on stakeholders

for any regulatory action, legal advice will be required on whether the relevant
jurisdiction has the power to implement the laws.
As with all regulatory decisions, choosing an action or group of actions depends on which
objective or problem the Government is seeking to address. The intention of this paper is
that multiple actions would be implemented concurrently to ensure the best environmental
and community outcomes, while balancing the impacts on governments, industry and
retailers.
The table below presents the options for action so that one regulatory option could be
combined with relevant incentives or barriers and as many educational programs as
appropriate.
Options to address all objectives (litter, consumption and recycling
contamination)




Status quo
Ban on bags
Education
Environmental warnings or labeling
Litter specific options



Environmental warnings and plastic bag litter cost recovery
Recycling incentive schemes
Bin design and litter infrastructure funding
Consumption specific options


Environmental warnings
Product stewardship program
Recycling contamination specific options


Expand kerbside recycling for plastic shopping bags
Public and retailer bins for recycling plastic shopping bags
3
2. Introduction
Plastic bags in all their forms are ubiquitous, provide useful packing benefits and offer a
convenient transport solution for many Australians. Plastic shopping bags are an established
part of the Australian retail experience. Plastic shopping bags are given away for free in
large numbers and are generally designed to be single use. In comparison, re-usable
alternatives such as green bags, generally come at a cost to the consumer.
In Australia, based on 2007 data, approximately 3.9 billion single use light weight plastic
shopping bags are used annually1. In 2003, 86% of Australians said they recycle or reuse
plastic bags, primarily re-using them as bin liners around their homes.2 Given population,
consumption and the end of the Australian Retailers Plastic Bag Code of Practice,3 plastic
shopping bag consumption appears to be steadily increasing.
In New South Wales, it is estimated that two billion plastic bags are consumed each year,
with only 14% being recycled4. The average useful life of a plastic bag is 12 minutes before it
is discarded, either for disposal at landfill (1.72 billion bags) or as litter.
Achim Steiner, the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP),
who advises United Nations member states like Australia, stated in 2009 that:
‘Single use plastic bags which choke marine life, should be banned or phased out
rapidly everywhere. There is simply zero justification for manufacturing them anymore,
anywhere’.
The impacts of plastic shopping bags are a significant concern to many people. The NSW
Government recognises these concerns and the growing evidence on the impacts that
plastic bags can have in the environment. As a result, the NSW Government brought the
issue before the Meeting of Environment Ministers in February 2015 to argue for a national
response. The outcome of the meeting was that NSW is to lead an investigation into options
for addressing the impacts of plastic bags. This paper presents the preliminary investigation
of the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) and outlines a diverse range of policy
options for minimising the impact of plastic bags in the environment.
1
Cain, R., Oke, M. Hyder (2008) Plastic Retail Carry Bag Use, 2006 and 2007 Consumption Hyder Consulting,
Environment Protection and Heritage Council. Page 1 Estimate that the total number of single use plastic
shopping bags (HDPE) consumed in Australia in 2007 was 3.9 billion and approximately 10% of these were
oxo-degradable HDPE bags.
2
ABS 2003, Environmental issues: people's views and practices, 4602.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS),
Canberra.
3
Australian Retailers Association (2005) Code of Practice for the Management of Plastic Bags Final Report. A
voluntary Code of Practice was agreed to by major retailers in 2002 in order to reduce plastic bag use by 50%.
The Code operated from 2003-2005 and resulted in a reduction of plastic bag use by 34%.
http://www.retail.org.au/ArticleDetails/tabid/232/ArticleID/24/Plastic-Bag-Code.aspx
4
Australian Government Department of the Environment website, http://www.environment.gov.au/node/21324,
accessed 20 October 2014
4
3. Background
This section sets out the problems with the use of plastic bags, including those identified by
the community about the impacts of plastic bags.
In this paper, we identify three major problems with the use of plastic bags:
1. Litter
Contribution to litter and the resulting impact on society and on the environment.
2. Consumption
The unnecessary consumption of plastic bags and associated waste generation.
3. Recycling contamination
Contamination of recycling streams and recyclable materials by plastic bags.
In economic terms plastic shopping bags in the environment represent a negative externality
because the full costs of plastic shopping bags, including resources, environmental,
recycling contamination, litter and landfill costs, are not carried by the person that disposes
or litters the bags. Solutions are needed to address this market failure.
The nature of these problems, the objectives to achieve in taking action, and the potential
options to address these problems are outlined in this paper.
Litter
The high mobility of plastic bag litter means that plastic bags and plastic fragments can be
carried by wind or water into our waterways and marine environments. Due to this mobility,
and the length of time it takes to degrade, plastic bags are highly visible in the environment.
This is observable in marine environments where plastic bags contribute to long-term
impacts on marine animals, ecosystems and food chains (including ingestion, entanglement
and strangulation).
Plastic bags and fragments can persist in the environment. Whole plastic bags add to the
macro litter problem in the environment. A plastic bag may also start to break down to
smaller pieces if exposed to sunlight, air, physical movement or water. The rate of
degradation depends on the environmental conditions, bag thickness, bag type, and the final
location, i.e. in soil, freshwater, marine environment or snagged on trees or fences.5 When
plastic bags break down into smaller pieces, they contribute to the accumulation of
microplastics in the environment.
Australian litter scenario
Australia wide, lightweight plastic shopping bags make up around 1.6% of litter based on the
number of items.6 It was estimated in 2002 that 50 to 80 million plastic bags were littered
each year, and 10 to 20 million are collected through clean-up activities, with 40 to 60 million
5
Verghese, K., The Sustainable Packaging Alliance Limited, 2009 Environmental impacts of shopping bags
Report for Woolworths Limited
6
Keep Australia Beautiful National Litter Index 2013/2014, http://kab.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/9980KAB-NLI-Report-2013-14-for-web.pdf
5
plastic bags permanently entering the environment each year.7 The 2008 annual estimate for
littered plastic bags was revised down to approximately 30 to 50 million plastic bags.8
Plastic waste accounts for up to 80% of all litter found in marine habitats,17 and several
studies show that marine debris are similar at the surface and at the seafloor (e.g. plastic
bags, bottles and fishing gear).9
Litter entering the marine environments of Australia has been well documented. Research
found the density of plastic in Australian waters is up to 40,000 pieces per square
kilometre.10 As plastic litter increases so does the risk of impacts to wildlife and ecosystems.
NSW litter scenario
In NSW, litter is identified as an environmental issue and a community concern. The NSW
triennial social research ‘Who Cares about the Environment?’ shows that litter and waste is
included in the seven topics people feel is the most important environmental issue needing
government action in NSW.11
The Keep Australia Beautiful National Litter Index 2013/2014 ranks plastic as the third most
littered item, and third by volume of litter. Plastics as a whole represent the greatest
proportion of the volume of litter in the NSW and the national litter stream.12 In 2006, the
Keep Australia Beautiful National Litter Index ranked plastic bags as number eighteen of
twenty of the most littered items counted in NSW.
Environmental impacts of plastics
Marine litter
Plastic at the beach and in marine environments pose risks to animals through ingestion and
entanglement.13 There is limited information about plastic bag specific impacts but evidence
shows that entanglement in and ingestion of plastic has significant impacts on marine life.
a. Entanglement
Entanglement of seabirds and marine life in plastic debris is a serious issue impacting
survival and can lead to asphyxiation and death.14 Entanglement restricts movement
impacting feeding and breeding of marine life, as well as causing injury and scar tissue
7
Nolan ITU/Hyder Consulting 2002 and 2007. Page 8. This equates to approximately 20% or less of the bags
utilised in outdoor away-from home locations being littered, with a further 1/3 of the total litter stream coming
from inadvertent litter sources through waste management activities, as data on the litter occurrence around
landfills would infer. It is assumed that the vast majority of these bags would be HDPE bags.
8
Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd, 2008 Plastic Retail Carry Bag Use 2006 and 2007 consumption. Page 26. This figure
is based on two independent methodologies which generated estimates of a similar scale, which appears to
indicate that the estimates are of an accurate scale.
9
Galgani et al., 1995; Moore and Jones, 2000; Nagelkerken et al.2001. In Ocean Conservancy Website;
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/ accessed 7 September 2015
10
Reisser J, Shaw J, Wilcox C, Hardesty BD, Proietti M, et al. 2013, ‘Marine Plastic Pollution in Waters around
Australia: Characteristics, Concentrations, and Pathways’, PLoS ONE, Vol. 8, Issue 11. Mean sea surface
plastic concentration was around 4256.4 pieces per square kilometre.
11
Office of the Environment and Heritage, 2012 2009 and 2006 Who Cares about the Environment?
12 Keep
Australia Beautiful National Litter Index 2013/2014, 2012/13
13 Hardesty,
B., Wilcox, C., Lawson,TJ., Lansdell, M., and van der Velde, T. CSIRO 2014 Understanding the
effects of marine debris on wildlife.
14
A. Carr. 1987. Impact of non-degradable marine debris on the ecology and survival outlook of sea turtles.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 18 (1987), pp. 352–356
6
impacts.15 Inquisitive and playful mammals, such as seals, are at particular risk of
entanglement in marine debris.16 17 Such impacts are thought to play a role in declining
populations of endangered and threatened species.17
b. Ingestion
Ingestion of plastic impacts marine life feeding and can lead to malnutrition or starvation
through false fullness and loss of body weight.18 For birds, this can also present as blocked
gizzards and an inability to feed chicks.19 More broadly, the ingestion of plastic can damage
internal organs, impact organ function (such as enzyme secretion) and lead to internal injury,
block the intestinal tract and lead to death.20
The digestion of ingested plastic can lead to the absorption of plastic materials, such as
plasticisers, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that
have adsorbed to the plastic in the environment. These chemicals have been shown to
impact fauna endocrine functions, which has a wide range of impacts such as, lowered
steroid hormone levels, delayed ovulation and reproductive failures, as well as impacts to
metabolism and tissue functions.
It has been shown that the ingestion of plastic can also have impacts on the long- distance
migration of sea birds.21 There is thirty years of research evidence of turtles eating plastic
shopping bags. 22 23 Plastic bags in the water look like one of turtle’s natural food sources,
jellyfish.16 24 25 Young sea turtles are particularly at risk of eating plastic shopping bags and as
a result impacting species populations.14 22 25
Twenty-six species of whales26 and manatees have also been documented with injuries and
death from blocked intestinal tracks and stomachs full of plastic packaging. 15 27 An Australian
15
D.W. Laist. 1987. Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine
environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 18 (1987), pp. 319–326.
16
R.H. Mattlin, M.W. Cawthorn 1986. Marine debris – an international problem. New Zealand Environment, 51
(1986), pp. 3–6.
17
Derraik, J. G. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin.
2002, 44 (9)
18
P.G. Ryan 1988. Effects of ingested plastic on seabird feeding: evidence from chickens. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 19 (1988), pp. 125–128. L.B. Spear, D.G. Ainley, C.A. Ribic. 1995 Incidence of plastic in seabirds from
the Tropical Pacific, 1984–91: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight.
Marine Environmental Research, 40 (1995), pp. 123–146.
19
M.Y. Azzarello, E.S. Van-Vleet. 1987. Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 37
(1987), pp. 295–303
20
E.J. Carpenter, S.J. Anderson, G.R. Harvey, H.P. Miklas, B.B. Peck.1972. Polystyrene spherules in coastal
waters. Science, 178 (1972), pp. 749–750
21
P.G. Connors, K.G. Smith 1982, Oceanic plastic particle pollution: suspected effect on fat deposition in red
phalaropes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 13 (1982), pp. 18–20
22
G. Balazs. 1984. Impact of ocean debris on marine turtles: entanglement and ingestion. R.S. Shomura, H.O.
Yoshida (Eds.), Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, 27–29 November
1984, Honolulu, US Department of Commerce (1985), pp. 387–429 NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
SWFC-54
23
CSIRO: Britta Denise Hardesty, Chris Wilcox, TJ Lawson, Matt Lansdell and Tonya van der Velde, 2014
‘Understanding the effects of marine debris on wildlife.
24
D. Gramentz. 1988. Involvement of loggerhead turtle with the plastic, metal, and hydrocarbon pollution in the
Central Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 19 (1988), pp. 11–13.
25
L. Bugoni, L. Krause, M.V. Petry. 2001. Marine debris and human impacts on sea turtles in Southern Brazil.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42 (2001), pp. 1330–1334.
26
R.W. Baird, S.K. Hooker. 2000. Ingestion of plastic and unusual prey by a juvenile Harbour Porpoise. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 40 (2000), pp. 719–720.
27
C.A. Beck, N.B. Barros. 1991. The impact of debris on the Florida manatee. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 22
(1991), pp. 508–510.
7
example of these impacts can been seen in the crocodile caught at Magnetic Island in
Queensland in October 2008. The crocodile died as a result of eating plastic bags, which
had compacted in its stomach, meaning it was unable to digest its food. Its autopsy
disclosed “25 plastic shopping and garbage bags, a plastic wine cooler bag and a rubber
float in its stomach”.28
A recent review for the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity documented over
600 species, ranging from microorganisms to whales, were affected by marine plastic waste,
largely through ingestion.29
c. Ecosystem
It has been demonstrated in a recent study of plastic bags accumulating on an intertidal
shore near Dublin, Ireland, that these bags can rapidly alter marine assemblages and the
ecosystem services they provide. The study also found that the alternatives marketed as
‘environmentally friendly’, such as degradable, bio-degradable and compostable bags have
essentially the same impacts as traditional polyethylene plastic bags in intertidal areas,
impacting ecosystem functioning and marine assemblages.30
Some marine plastics researchers have stated that degradable and other plastic shopping
bag alternatives have minimal impact on reducing entanglement and ingestion as they do
not quickly break down in a marine environment and still present as food to marine life.
Trends
A recent Australian wide marine litter survey by the CSIRO found that 75% of marine litter
items are plastics, and up to a third of the world’s turtles and 43% of seabirds have eaten
plastics.23 The same research found that 20% of wildlife entanglements are caused by
plastics.21
New Australian research suggests that 90% of all seabirds alive today have eaten plastic of
some kind.31 Researchers predict that plastic ingestion will affect 99% of the world’s seabird
species by 2050, based on current trends.32 The impacts of plastic pollution are concentrated
in areas that have high levels of plastic pollution and high levels of seabird diversity, such as
the Tasman Sea at the boundary between the south-western Pacific and Southern Oceans,
and in the south-western margin.31
Consumption
Single use items have become more prevalent in recent years as producers and retailers
respond and drive demand for convenience goods and packaging. This results in higher
consumption of single use items, product acceptance and the development of social norms,
such as the use of plastic shopping bags.
28
Queensland Government, Environment and Resource Management, Magnetic Island Crocodile Dies from
Plastic Bag Ingestion, Media Release, 2 November 2008
29
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel–GEF
(2012) Impacts of Marine Debris on Biodiversity: Current Status and Potential Solutions (Secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal), CBD Technical Series No. 67.
30
Green D, Boots, B., Blockley, DJ, Rocha, C. and Thompson, C. (2015) Impacts of discarded plastic bags on
marine assemblages and ecosystem functioning. Environmental science and technology 49, 5380-5389
31
Wilcox, C., Van Sebille E., and Hardesty B. CSIRO 2015 Threat of plastic pollution to seabirds is global,
pervasive and increasing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Page 4
32
Thiel, M,. Hinojosa, I., Vásquez, N. and Macaya, E. Floating marine debris in coastal waters of the SE Pacific
(Chile). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2003, 46 (2), 224−231 Page 225. Plastic bags by far outnumbered other items
(47.6%) followed by other plastics (34.7%). Plastic lines or other fishing related debris only made up 3.6% of
FMD [floating marine debris]. Page 229, in coastal waters of the SE-Pacific plastic bags were by far the most
abundant items.
8
Single use items can play a beneficial role, but by their nature, have a very short useful life
span. Anti-plastic bag campaigns often quote the lifespan of a plastic bag to be 12 minutes,
which considering the resources used to create and transport plastic bags, is really short.
Many Australians see plastic shopping bags as a very visible reminder of unnecessary
resource use.33
In 2004 it was estimated that over 6.9 billion new plastic shopping bags were consumed in
Australia, with six billion of these being HDPE and 900 million boutique bags.34The total
plastic used in these two forms of plastic shopping bags equates to approximately 2%
(36,850 tonnes) of total plastics produced in Australia each year. 6.67 billion, or 96%, of
those plastic bags used in Australia are estimated to be disposed of to landfill.
Based on 2007 data, approximately 3.9 billion single use lightweight plastic shopping bags
are used in Australia annually1. 2.96 billion (75%) of these are estimated to come from
supermarkets and the others from fast food restaurants, liquor outlets, convenience stores
and other retailers.2 Given population, consumption and the end of the retailer’s Plastic Bag
Code of Practice, which was designed to reduce plastic bag use, plastic bag consumption
figures are likely to have increased over time.
The recycling rate of plastics bags in NSW is only 14%.35 This means the plastics are not
being used efficiently, as bags are not entering the material re-use streams in line with the
waste hierarchy. However, 86% of Australians said they recycle or reuse plastic bags, and of
these 10% used central collection points and 88% re-use bags around their homes.2
HDPE is manufactured from ethylene, a by-product of gas and oil refining. Around 80% of
HDPE bags consumed in Australia are imported from south-east Asia, where the primary
source of polyethylene is oil. The primary hydrocarbon source for HDPE bags produced in
Australia is natural gas.36
A 2011 United Kingdom life-cycle assessment of single use and re-usable bags
demonstrated that the environmental impact from the use of all shopping bags is ‘dominated
by the resource use and production stages. Transport, secondary packaging and end-of-life
management generally have a minimal influence on their performance’. 37 There is potential
that transport of bags may play a more significant role in an Australian life-cycle
assessment. This assessment demonstrated that the reuse of HDPE and other lightweight
bags is critical to their environmental performance and that the recycling or composting of
bags generally produces only a small reduction in global warming potential and abiotic
depletion.
33
National Environment Protection Council, Hyder, 2008 Decision Regulatory Impact Statement – Investigation
of options to reduce the impacts of plastic bags
34
Smith, S. NSW Parliamentary Library Research Services. 2004. Plastic Bag Briefing Paper 5/04 NSW
Parliamentary Library Research Services
35
Australian Government Department of the Environment website, http://www.environment.gov.au/node/21324,
accessed 20 October 2014.
36
Zero Waste South Australia. O-Farrell.K. Hyder Consulting. 2009 LCA of shopping bag alternatives,
37
Environment Agency (UK) 2011. Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: a review of bags available
in 2006.
9
The table below demonstrates a key finding of the assessment, ‘whatever type of bag is
used, the key to reducing the impacts is to reuse it as many times as possible and where
reuse for shopping is not practicable, other reuse, e.g. to replace bin liners, is beneficial’.
Number of reuses required for life cycle
equivalence with a HDPE bag
Bag type
Paper bag
3
LDPE bags (boutique bags)
4
Non-woven polypropylene
(green bag)
11
Cotton bags
131
An Australian life-cycle impact assessment for four different types of bags is summarised in
the table below using a rating of one to five.36
Bag Type
Material
consumption
C02
equivalent
Energy
consumption
Water
use
Litter
marine
Impacts
Litter
aesthetics
HDPE






LDPE






Paper






Non-woven
Polypropylene
(green bag)







These studies demonstrate that while paper bags may be preferable to HDPE or LDPE
(boutique) bags from a litter perspective, their production leads to significant resource
consumption and carbon-dioxide emissions.
10
Recycling contamination
Plastic bags are recognised as one of the most common contaminants in kerbside recycling.
Material recovery and recycling facilities in NSW are not currently equipped to recycle plastic
bags from the kerbside recycling stream. Residents are actively encouraged to place plastic
bags and other soft plastics in the general waste destined for landfill.
There are retailer drop-off points at major stores in urban areas for the recycling of soft
plastics, including plastic shopping bags. Used plastic bags are collected and recycled into
plastic products such as benches, plastic timber and pipes.38
There is no literature available on the detrimental effects of plastic bags in recycling
infrastructure at material recovery facilities (MRFs), transfer stations and other facilities in
the Australian or NSW context. However, these facilities are not designed to recycle soft
plastics, suggesting plastic bags do have an impact on their operations. There is historical
and ongoing anecdotal evidence from the recycling industry that plastic bags are a major
issue for facilities. Plastic bags in kerbside recycling streams can damage sorting machinery
and cause machines to break down. For example they wrap around drive shafts and
conveyors and can cover air in-takes of engines and air extractors.
In Washington USA, the Environment Washington Research and Policy Centre has
documented the detrimental effects that mixing plastic bags with commingled recyclables
has on recycling operations. In a survey they conducted in 2012, 70% of Washington
recycling companies wanted plastic bags out of the waste stream. Some recycling plants in
Washington estimate spending 20 to 30% of their labour costs removing plastic bags from
their machinery – in the order of US$1000 per day.39 Reducing the level of plastic bag
contamination should improve the recovery of materials, particularly commingled recyclables
such as plastics, paper and cardboard.
Plastic alternatives to traditional polyethylene bags contribute to the same machine impacts
and contribute to product quality issues when recovered materials are used to make new
products. For example, recycled plastic pipe can contain holes and defects if biodegradable
plastics have entered the recycling stream.
The inclusion of biodegradable plastics in commercial composting may confuse consumers,
resulting in increased contamination rates with non-degradable types of plastic. Plastic films
can interfere with the processing of organic material by becoming entangled in shredders
and other processing equipment. Even if a bag meets the Australian Standard for
composting, if disposed into home based composting, it is highly possible that the bag will
fail to achieve the heat or moisture levels required to trigger degradation.40
38
Information on plastic bag collection points can be found at http://www.recyclingnearyou.com.au
39 Krehbiel,
Robb. Environment Washington Research and Policy Centre, 2012. A Solution not in the Bag: Why
Recycling Cannot Solve the Plastic Bag Problem in Washington.
40
Hyder Consulting 2009, LCA of Shopping Bags alternatives (prepared for Zero Waste South Australia) at p6
11
4. Australian experience with plastic shopping bags
This section sets out the Australian responses to, and the community’s concern regarding
the impacts of plastic shopping bags.
Commonwealth Government reviews
The analysis of the environmental impact of plastic bags and actions to reduce litter
consumption and environmental impacts has been conducted a number of times in Australia.
The report Plastic shopping bags- Analysis of environmental impacts and levies was
prepared for Environment Australia, Department of Environment and Heritage in 2002,41
followed by supplementary assessment reports and the 2007 consultation document
Regulatory impact statement (RIS) Investigation of options to reduce the environmental
impacts of plastic bags42.
The RIS identified that under the models assessed ‘regulatory options for a phase-out [of
plastic shopping bags] had economic costs which significantly outweighed the environmental
benefits’.43 In 2008, the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) determined
‘they would not endorse uniform regulatory action at this time to ban or place a charge on
plastic bags’43
Australian Retailers Plastic Bag Code of Practice
Major retailers agreed to a voluntary Plastic Shopping Bag Code of Practice in 2002 in order
to reduce plastic shopping bag use by 50%. The Code operated from 2003–05 and led to a
reported significant reduction of plastic bags issued by supermarkets at the time, however,
this trend is likely reversing. Further information on this Code of Practice is contained in the
Options section of this paper.
Community concerns
In the seven years since the 2008 Federal Government decision the community has
continued to have concerns about plastic shopping bags. There is increased scientific
evidence of the type and breadth of environmental impacts of plastic, particularly within the
marine environment. It has been estimated that plastic shopping bag consumption has
increased due to population growth, pervasiveness of plastic shopping bags, the end of the
Australian Retailers Plastic Bag Code of Practice and a lack of national action to address
these concerns.
Australians still feel that impacts of plastic bags require action from government. In 2005 a
Newspoll found that 81% of the Australian public support a ban. A 2008 Victorian survey
conducted as part of a plastic bag levy trial, found that 86% of surveyed customers
supported initiatives to reduce plastic bag use.44 A 2015 NSW poll found that 64% of
respondents support a total bag ban in supermarket and stores.45
41 Environment
Australia, Nolan ITU 2002 Plastic Shopping Bags – Analysis of Levies and Environmental Impacts
42
Environment Protection and Heritage Council (working party), 2008, Decision Regulatory Impact Statement
(RIS): Investigation of Options to Reduce the Impacts of Plastic Bags.
43
Website of the former Standing Council on Environment and Water (incorporating the National Environment
Protection Council http://www.scew.gov.au/resource/ephc-archive-product-stewardship
44
Australian Retailers Association, KPMG (2008) Trial of government and industry charge on plastic bags –
report of findings.
45
https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/boomerangalliance/pages/121/attachments/original/
1439341231/plastic_bag_poll.png?1439341231 Accessed 19 August 2015
12
Many of the motives for action on plastic bags that have been outlined previously remain
valid today. The issues and concerns about plastic bags include that they are:

given away for free in large numbers

designed as a single use or disposable product

not essential to product integrity

create visual and environmental litter impacts

are persistent in the environment

easily replaced by other transportation materials and methods

not currently widely accepted into the kerbside recycling system

the use and litter of plastic bags have a high level of community concern46.
In NSW the EPA, the Minister for the Environment and other members of Parliament have
received numerous form letters from the campaign run by Plastic Bag Free NSW. This
campaign calls for a ban on plastic bags within NSW. The campaign website indicates 587
emails have been sent to MPs, and 833 to the Premier.47 Plastic Bag Free NSW was one of
ten environmental organisations that delivered a petition to ban single use lightweight plastic
bags in NSW. The petition was signed by 12,472 people and supported by some
Government MPs. Supporters of this action include environmental groups and concerned
citizens:














Clean Up Australia
Take 3
Australian Seabird Rescue
Lane Cove Sustainability Action Group
Two Hands Project
Save the Styx
Tangaroa Blue Foundation
Ecodivers
Ocean Guardians
Community Environmental Network
Ocean and Coastal Care Initiative (OCCI)
Lake Macquarie Sustainable Neighbourhood Group
Positive Change for Marine Life
Leichardt City Council.
46
Environment Australia, Nolan ITU 2002 Plastic Shopping Bags – Analysis of Levies and Environmental
Impacts, p 3
47
Clean Up Australia, Plastic Bag Free NSW, http://plasticbagfreensw.squarespace.com/ Accessed 16/9/15
13
Regulatory Initiatives
Councils within NSW have also shown support for taking action on plastic bags. Four towns
in NSW have banned plastic bags in 2003 and 2004, including Huskisson, Kangaroo Valley,
Mogo and Oyster Bay.
Plastic bags have been banned in four jurisdictions in Australia: South Australia, Northern
Territory, Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania. The objectives cited for plastic bag
regulations across jurisdictions cover a variety of aspects including;

diverting more waste from landfill

reduce litter and the associated adverse impacts on marine and terrestrial
environment and aesthetics

satisfy community expectations for government intervention

address the market failure associated with plastic bag usage

use plastic bag regulation as an awareness raiser for other environmental issues

deter the use of plastic bags by consumers and

promote a shift toward the use of reusable bags by customers.
The plastic bag bans in Australia are based on the South Australian (SA) ban which was the
first State or Territory in Australia to implement a ban on plastic bags. The Plastic Shopping
Bags (Waste Avoidance) Act 2008 came into effect on the 4 May 2009 and is the main piece
of legislation that regulates this ban.
Under the Plastic Shopping Bags (Waste Avoidance) Act 2008:

a plastic shopping bag is defined as a carry bag, the body of which comprises (in
whole or part) polyethylene with a thickness of less than 35 microns, and includes
handles

exemptions include biodegradable bags (compliant with Australian Standard 47362006), and a plastic bag that constitutes, or forms an integral part of, the packaging
in which goods are sealed prior to sale

no handle barrier bags (e.g. used for fruit and vegetables) and boutique bags such
as department store bags, can still be used

a retailer commits an offence if they provide a plastic shopping bag to a customer
as a means of carrying goods purchase, or to be purchased, from a retailer.
14
5. Overseas regulation of plastic shopping bags
The impact of plastic shopping bags has received significant attention from regulators in
jurisdictions outside Australia. Governments have taken action to ban the sale of lightweight
shopping bags, or impose a charge or tax on the use of plastic shopping bags. Voluntary
measures have also been adopted to reduce plastic shopping bag use and impacts.
This includes the following:
North America
There is no national plastic bag ban or charge in USA or Canada. However, California has
passed a bill to ban single use plastic bags from 2016, and over 100 counties or
municipalities have plastic bag bans or charges.
Europe
There have been a number of initiatives in Europe to reduce plastic bag consumption,
including:

a European Commission directive requiring member states to take action to reduce
the consumption and use of plastic bags less than 50 microns thick (see further
discussion in Options section of this paper)

Denmark, Germany and Ireland have plastic bag taxes

Italy bans distribution of plastic bags that are not from biodegradable sources

Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland recently introduced a minimum charge of 5
pence for almost all single use bags (including paper and biodegradable bags)

England introduced a minimum charge of five pence for most single use plastic
bags (not paper or biodegradable bags) on 5 October 2015
15
6. Scope of options
Objectives
In section 2 of this paper, we identified litter, consumption and recycling contamination as
three major problems with the use of plastic bags.
The objectives for these options are as follows:
Objective for Litter
To reduce the environmental impacts of plastic bag litter in NSW or Australia.
Objective for Consumption
Reducing consumption and increasing re-use and recovery. Additional objectives, such as
increasing the use of re-useable bags or recycling of plastic bags, would further support this
objective.
Objective for Recycling Contamination
Eliminating or reducing the amount of plastic bag contamination in kerbside recycling bins.
Analysis of options
Sections 6 to 9 set out a range of options to address these problems. A description of each
approach, the information required to complete a full assessment of the option, and case
studies of similar actions in other jurisdictions are outlined. The options in this paper are
presented in the context that they are all focussed on changing consumer, retailer and
community behaviour.
The options are presented as follows:

Section 6 – Options to address all objectives (litter, consumption and
recycling contamination): This section sets out five options which are designed to
address all of the objectives (litter, consumption and recycling contamination).

Section 7 – Litter specific options: sets out three options which are specific to the
litter objectives.

Section 8 – Consumption specific options: sets out one option which is specific
to the consumption objectives.

Section 9 – Recycling contamination options: sets out two options which are
specific to recycling contamination.
The intention of the paper is that multiple options that could be implemented
concurrently should be considered. This approach ensures a better outcome as the
combination of actions promotes the efficient use of government resources, is
representative of the complexities of plastic bag use, addresses all identified problems,
reduces social and environment impacts of plastic bags and minimises the likelihood of
perverse outcomes.
Options are summarised in the executive summary of this paper, where one regulatory
action could be combined with appropriate incentives or barriers and as many
educational programs as appropriate.
16
Impacts of options
Each option has a range of potential impacts. However, this paper does not assess each
impact. Further analysis, after discussion with stakeholders would be required to assess
impacts that may result from implementation of any of the options.
The following general impacts need to be considered:

Any decrease in plastic shopping bag litter, disposal to landfill or contamination in
recycling bins resulting from any of these options would have financial and resource
benefit to local government, and indirectly to State and Federal Government.

Any regulatory requirements would require compliance and enforcement agencies
such as local councils and the relevant State authorities to ensure responsible
parties are fulfilling their requirements.

Government would also require resources to develop legislation, associated
assessments, working groups, consultation, implementation, education and
behaviour change campaigns. Government would also initially and continually have
to demonstrate the effectiveness of any legislative scheme.

Any restriction on availability of plastic shopping bags or requirements to label
plastic bags may lead to:
o financial impact on retailers, who may pass on costs to consumers
o disproportionate impacts on small and medium sized retailers
o reduced convenience and choice for consumers
o disproportionate impacts on a household’s primary shopper (generally women),
elderly and mobility impaired individuals
o increased purchase of bin liners
o associated demand on resources and infrastructure to manufacture alternative
carrying bags.

Any change to kerbside recycling or bin infrastructure would require introducing new
infrastructure and associated education and behaviour change campaigns.
17
Limitations
This paper presents some of the available information and evidence of the environmental
impacts of plastic shopping bag litter, consumption and contamination of kerbside recycling.
It is essential that development of any of the options presented in this paper includes
information gathering, economic and legislative assessments, social research into
behaviours and attitudes of stakeholders, and consultation with stakeholders, including
retailers and community.
With all options, there needs to be an assessment of the effectiveness of these at a State
and Commonwealth level. Specific objectives for action should be developed and
information gaps must be filled.
Each option presented in this paper includes an indication of the further information required
to complete a full assessment. Information gaps have been identified in assessment of
environmental impacts is required, such as:

current Australian and state litter data collected with transparent methodology
provided to all states and territories

information about the impacts of plastics and micro plastics on soil, land-based
plants and animals, and ecosystems

up-to-date data on Australian and state plastic bag consumption, re-use, recycling
and plastic shopping bag waste to landfill

completion of a kerbside recycling contamination assessment.
18
7. Options to address all objectives
This section outlines approaches that address all three objectives.
1. Litter: reducing the environmental and social impacts of plastic bag litter.
2. Consumption: reducing consumption of plastic bags and increasing use of reusable
alternatives.
3. Recycling contamination: eliminating or reducing the amount of plastic bag
contamination in kerbside recycling bins.
Status quo
This option is taking no additional action. It relies on the existing measures to address the
impacts of littering, unnecessary consumption and recycling contamination.
Currently the EPA and councils are taking action on littering through:
a. the NSW Government’s Waste Less, Recycle More initiative
b. the Hey Tosser! litter prevention campaign
c. introducing public reporting of littering from vehicles
d. providing training and support for council enforcement officers or rangers
e. conducting and commissioning research to gain insights into littering behaviour and
prevention actions as well as developing NSW’s first Litter Prevention Strategy.48
In September 2015, the Premier announced his priorities for NSW, including a commitment
to reduce the volume of litter by 40% by 2020.49 Initiatives under this goal could be included
as status quo. Council and EPA officers would maintain current enforcement practices, such
as issuing fines and notices for littering.
This option includes no additional action to address consumption and relies on the current
programs, run by councils to reduce plastic bag contamination in kerbside recycling bins.
It is likely that with no action the consumption of plastic shopping bags will continue to rise,
the increase of ‘environmentally friendly’ lightweight bag alternatives will continue (oxodegradable, biodegradable and compostable) and the environmental impacts from plastic
bags and recycling contamination will continue.
48
Waste Less, Recycle More initiative is a five year $465.7 million package to transform waste and recycling in
NSW. The initiative includes grant programs of $20 million for litter prevention grants and $58 million for
combating illegal dumping. These programs operate over four years and are currently in the second year of
running.
NSW launched the Hey Tosser! litter prevention campaign in 2014. This mass media campaign targets a
number of littering behaviours and the key messages were developed with councils. Campaign information and
materials are available in the EPA website at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/litter/hey-tosser.htm.
In February 2015 EPA launched a new online portal for public reporting of littering from vehicles. The EPA can
issue a penalty notice for littering from a vehicle based on the information received in reports from members of
the public who are 18 or over. Information about reporting littering, registration instructions and an animated
clip outlining the new reporting process can be seen here www.epa.nsw.gov.au/litter/from-vehicle.htm.
The EPA provides training for enforcement officers (often council rangers) and provides insights into littering
behaviours based on research commissioned by the EPA.
In addition to these actions, EPA is currently developing NSW’s first Litter Prevention Strategy. This will be
made available for public comment.
49
Baird, M. 2015. Premier’s priorities. http://www.nsw.gov.au/making-it-happen
19
Due to the growing scientific evidence we have on the impact of plastic in the environment,
and increasing levels of community concern with the expectation of action, it is unlikely that
no additional actions under this option will be publicly accepted.
Ban on bags
Four Australian jurisdictions have already introduced bans on HDPE plastic bags: South
Australia, Northern Territory, Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania.
A ban would apply to the defined plastic bag or group of bags at all retailers distributing
bags. This would include supermarkets, service stations, convenience stores, takeaway food
outlets and other retailers.
There are a number of options for the application of a ban on plastic shopping bags, as
follows:
Ban on HDPE bags
This ban option would apply to HDPE bags only. This option has been excluded from the
final list of options as it would move the impacts of plastic bags from primarily HDPE bags, to
the substituted bags, such as lightweight (recycled content degradable bags and
compostable bags) and boutique bags. Previous experience has shown that retailers will
replace HDPE bags with another alternative.
Ban on lightweight bags
This ban option includes all HDPE bags and lightweight bags, such as recycled content,
degradable and compostable bags. This ban option is expanded to include the
‘environmentally friendly’ alternatives as it has been shown that they have essentially the
same impacts on plants and animals as traditional polyethylene plastic bags.50
Ban on all handled plastic carry bags
The inclusion of a ban option including all handled plastic carry bags (HDPE, lightweight
bags and boutique bags) reflects learning from the South Australian plastic bag ban that saw
an increase in the use of boutique bag use and boutique bag litter. This ban would exclude
re-usable plastic bags such as green bags.
50
Green D, Boots, B., Blockley, DJ. Rocha, C. and Thompson, c. (2015) Impacts of discarded plastic bags on
marine assemblages and ecosystem functioning. Environmental science and technology 49, 5380-5389
20
Further information required
Before a plastic bag ban can be considered an appropriate cost benefit analysis must be
completed, with accurate costing of environmental impacts of plastic shopping bags.
Additional information would be required if a ban was considered:

cost-Benefit-Analysis

if a State ban was introduced, a Constitutional assessment is required, and
requirements of the Mutual Recognition Act 1992, including other State and
Territory approval, would need to be met

regulatory impact statement
o legal framework
o economic modelling
o predicted impacts and effectiveness

impacts of plastic bag alternatives

social research on the community’s attitudes and consultation
Example: South Australia plastic bag ban
Under the South Australian plastic shopping bag ban a plastic shopping bag is
defined as a carry bag, the body of which comprises (in whole or part) polyethylene
with a thickness of less than 35 microns, and includes handles.
Exemptions to this include biodegradable bags (and a plastic bag that constitutes,
or forms an integral part of, the packaging in which goods are sealed prior to sale.
This also means the use of no handle barrier bags (used for fruit and vegetables)
and boutique bags can still be used.
If a retailer is found guilty of providing a plastic bag under the definition, a maximum
penalty of the offence is $5,000, and if a person misrepresents the composition of a
supplied plastic shopping bag, the maximum penalty is $20,000.
The plastic bag ban in South Australia has resulted in a 45% reduction in HDPE
plastic shopping bags in the litter stream in South Australia* there has been one
breach of the ban in the first three years and research indicates that 80% of
shoppers support the ban**
*Keep Australia Beautiful National Litter Index 2011/2012
**Aspin, M. 2012 Review of the Plastic Shopping Bags (Waste Avoidance) Act 2008.
21
Education
Education campaigns can be effective when run concurrently with other tools to provide
information and change behaviour. It is well known that educational or information based
campaigns do not change behaviour without additional actions to remove barriers to
behaviour change.51 The education campaigns presented here should be considered in
addition to the regulatory, economic, incentives and barrier options in this paper. These
campaigns can be tailored to suit the objectives for each problem.
It should be noted that this option requires the consumer and industry to make a decision
based on their environmental conscience. This does not take into account other factors that
may impact choice such as physical mobility, convenience, remembering to bring a reusable
or bag alternative, cost, and personal views and beliefs.
The EPA has experience and success with the design, development and implementation of
multi media campaigns that target specific behavioural problems. Any campaigns should use
traditional and digital media, including social media and be determined by knowledge,
attitude and behavioural research.
The campaign could be targeted to locations and behaviours at the point of sale and specific
locations. Councils and government agencies could promote the campaign at information
days and events. It could be targeted at both consumers and retailers to achieve maximum
effectiveness.
Education campaigns focused on each identified problem are outlined below.
Education – Litter prevention
A behaviour change driven educational campaign specific to littering of plastic shopping
bags under the existing and highly visible Hey Tosser! program could be developed. The
aim of the campaign would be to reduce the number of plastic bags littered.
The campaign could include specific images of, and references to plastic shopping bags, not
solely HDPE or lightweight bags, in educational material. However, as the litter data
indicates there are more HDPE and lightweight bags in the NSW and Australian litter
streams, the focus would be predominantly on these bags (including bags from
supermarkets, small businesses, convenience stores and takeaway outlets).
Education – Consumption
This option is an education campaign targeting consumption of plastic bags. The aim of the
campaign would be to raise awareness of resources used to make and transport plastic
bags, as well as the very short life span of single use products. The campaign would also
promote the re-useable bags, and could encourage the re-use of plastic bags.
Education – Recycling contamination
There is still some confusion in how households and businesses should separate plastics for
recycling. By providing education to support both householders and businesses to separate
plastics for recycling, this will help boost recovery rates and overall diversion of plastics
(including plastic bags) from landfill. The education campaign could be carried out in
conjunction with an education campaign about consumption of plastic bags.
To better inform and target any future education campaigns, it would be necessary to
conduct social research on recycling practices, as attitudes to recycling and other factors
51
D McKenzie-Mohr 2014, Fostering Sustainable Behaviour – An introduction to Community-based social
marketing, New Society Publishers
22
such as demographics and cultures fluctuate over time. It is important that recycling remains
a priority in the community and education efforts need to be targeted and adjusted to adapt
to current social trends.
To determine the extent of plastic bag contamination in commingled kerbside recycling it
would be necessary to undertake further research to quantify and determine the proportion
of plastic bags in commingled recyclables and food and garden organics.
Additional information would be required if an education campaign is developed, such as:

understanding the number of types of bags littered in specific locations

complete knowledge attitudes and behaviour research

determine which platforms reach which audiences

develop the campaign strategies, planning and production

complete feasibility assessment, including urban versus regional benefits
Example: Hey Tosser! litter prevention campaign
In 2014 the NSW EPA launched the Hey Tosser! litter prevention campaign. The
campaign was developed to discourage littering, remind community about reporting
litterers and to publicise littering fines. It was designed in consultation with reference
groups and from extensive social research to determine the key messages.
Educational materials include advertisements (e.g. on bus shelters), posters,
stickers, television advertisements, digital banners and thumbnail images on social
media.
The campaign uses a range of other tools to reduce littering, including encouraging
increased reporting of littering from cars, increasing the perception of regulatory
action and providing significant funding to councils to address littering.
While the education component of the campaign has cost the NSW Government
approximately $2.7 million so far, the annual number of littered items in NSW since
commencement has decreased by 16% in comparison with the national average
reduction of 4%, (Source: Keep Australia Beautiful, National Litter Index Annual
Report 2014/15).
Example: Bankstown City Council’s Recycle Right Campaign
After testing different education strategies, Bankstown City Council ran a successful
campaign in 2010 to reduce contamination in the kerbside commingled recyclables
stream. After auditing their bins, council officers provided personalised feedback to
residents in their mailboxes, identifying the materials that were incorrectly placed in
the recycling bin. The feedback focused on simple messaging and the use of
imagery such as sad and happy faces, depending on the household’s performance.
Ongoing contamination was followed up with a written pledge to be signed by the
resident promising to place only recyclables in their yellow lid bin.
This was an innovative and successful initiative, with a reported 30% reduction in
recyclables contamination across Bankstown City Council’s local government area.
23
Environmental warnings or labelling
This option is a mandatory plastic bag labelling and or product warning to inform consumers
of plastic bags about the environmental impacts of plastic bags. Product labels and warnings
can be an effective way to provide information to the consumer on either litter, consumption,
or recycling contamination. Plastic bags would be required to have messages and images
about facts and figures relating plastic bag litter and pollution.
Product warnings are well established as an effective communications strategy for mitigating
health and environmental impacts of certain products or materials. For example, dangerous
goods labelling, safety data sheets and consumption guidelines. Environmental warnings for
packaging materials can also be seen in small ‘responsible disposal’ symbols and words on
packaging at the brand owner’s choice. For examples of environmental warnings and labels
see Figures 1 to 4.
Additional information would be required if a mandatory labelling system was developed.

scoping and feasibility assessments to determine legislative ability, design,
effectiveness and final application of the system

constitutional assessment

regulatory impact statement
o legal framework
o economic modelling
o predicted impacts and effectiveness

consultation and working groups with external and internal stakeholders

social research to determine the most effective messaging and images to be used.
24
Figure 1: Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles
Figures 2 & 3: Marine entanglement images
Figure 4: Take 3 campaign poster
25
8. Litter specific options
This section sets out options to address the objective of reducing environmental impacts of
littered plastic bags. These options are being considered separately to the previous options
as these focus solely on reducing litter and the environmental and social impacts of litter.
Environmental warnings and plastic bag litter cost recovery
This option includes mandatory plastic shopping bag labelling and a cost recovery system.
The system would require mandatory plain brand labelling of shopping bag i.e. the same
black brand or retailer name on white bag, to link the bag to retailers and striking
environmental warnings about the dangers of littered bags, similar to health warnings on
cigarette packaging. For examples of potential environmental warnings for plastic bags see
Figures 1–4.
This option would require ongoing periodic litter collections and audits. Plastic shopping
bags would be collected counted and categorised into brand or retailer categories. The
categorisation will be used to issue retailers or brand owners with clean-up costs recovered
via new fees or penalties covered by pollution of land or pollution of waters offences under
the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997.52 A national system may require
additional legislation or adoption of the program using state pollution offences.
This system allows flexibility for retailers to choose their response to the potential financial
costs, such as educating customers about plastic bag litter, choosing to stop giving out
plastic bags or charging a fee for plastic bags meaning the retailers can determine their
impacts to a degree. Retailers may choose to use adhesive labels rather than changing
manufacturer and distributor arrangements for bags.
The system may have disproportionate impacts on small and medium business, so retailers
or brand owners could be split into categories for participation or clean-up cost groups i.e.
profit based categories. Alternatively the system could be introduced in stages, starting with
the smallest or largest distributor of plastic shopping bags.
Additional information would be required if a mandatory labelling system with litter cost
recovery system was developed:
52

scoping and feasibility assessments to determine legislative scope, design,

consultation and working groups with external stakeholders

social research to determine the most effective messaging and images to be used.
Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997. Clause 42A and 120
26
Example: Cigarette health warnings and plain packaging
Health Warnings
Health warnings are required on all tobacco product packaging for retail in Australia.
The graphic health warnings provide a strong and confronting message to smokers
about the harmful health consequences of tobacco products. These graphics and
warnings are intended to increase consumer knowledge of health effects relating to
smoking, to encourage people to quit smoking.
The Department of Health and Ageing has policy responsibility for the health
warnings, while the Competition and Consumer (Tobacco) Information Standard
2011 (the Standard) is administered within the Treasury portfolio and enforced by
the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, in collaboration with the
State and Territory fair trading agencies.
Health warnings have appeared on tobacco product packaging in Australia since
1973. It started with just one health warning ‘Warning – smoking is a health hazard’,
and has since increased over time to the current layout. The current layout is a
variety of health warnings that cover 30% of the front, and 90% of the back of
cigarette packets and cartons.
Plain packaging
Since December 2012, all tobacco products within Australia must be in plain
packaging. The objective of this is to reduce the appeal to young people, increase
the noticeability of the health warnings, and to contribute to efforts to reduce
smoking rates.
Effectiveness
According to the National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2013, daily smokers
aged 14 years and over have halved from 1991 (24.3%) to 2013 (12.8%). Between
2010 and 2013, there has been a statistically significant decrease in percentage
from 15.1% to 12.8%.
Recent figures from the Australian Bureau of Statistics show that consumption of
tobacco has reached the lowest value ever recorded at $3.405 billion, compared to
$5.135 billion in 1959.
27
Recycling incentive scheme
This option is a scheme to encourage people to recycle plastic shopping bags. The scheme
could offer cards, tokens or points for the return of plastic bags for recycling at retailer
locations. Retailer participation would be determined by the number of plastic bags provided
to consumers and would be mandatory for those with higher numbers. The aim of the
scheme is to provide an incentive for people to not litter plastic shopping bags or to pick up
littered plastic shopping bags.
The scheme would include all plastic shopping bags, lightweight and boutique bags. While
lightweight plastic shopping bags are more highly represented in the litter stream it would be
more efficient to apply the incentive scheme to all plastic shopping bags to avoid increased
littering of bags not captured in the scheme.
Additional information would be required if a recycling incentive scheme system was
developed. Significant examination is required to determine the feasibility and practicality of
this option, including:

willingness to pay research

feasibility and scoping investigations

social research on behaviour and attitudes around plastic bag litter

analysis for perverse outcomes.
Example: South Australian container deposit scheme
South Australian container deposit scheme was introduced in 1977. The scheme
focuses on the ‘polluter pays’ principle. If someone discards an empty container
they lose the right to the refund and someone else would benefit by picking it up
and collecting that refund.
South Australia’s container deposit legislation is contained within Part 8 Division 2
of the Environment Protection Act 1993. The EPA is the regulator of the scheme
and ensures that the refund is made available for the person returning the empty
container to the collection depot and that the empty containers are collected for
recycling or reuse. However, the EPA has no direct involvement in the collection of
the deposits or the recycling of the material which is the responsibility of industry.
In 2013–14 nearly 583 million containers or over $58 million in refunds to the
community were returned to collection depots, representing around 45,000 tonnes
of containers that may have otherwise ended up as litter or landfill. The container
deposit scheme also provides a financial benefit to community groups, sporting
clubs and charities that collect empty containers for refund. In 2012–13 nearly $60
million was refunded to the community.
Container deposits
28
Bin design and litter infrastructure funding
This option would provide support and funding from government for improved bin and litter
infrastructure, better bins, more bins, recycling collection points, better and more litter fences
at waste and resource recovery sites to reduce these litter sources.
Better bin design can prevent wind and animals spreading litter and therefore reduce
environmental impacts of litter. There is existing bin and fence design that could be used to
reduce litter. In addition new bin and infrastructure design could be explored.
More broadly, there may also be opportunities for bin and infrastructure design to address
other problem litter items, such as cigarette butts, resulting in broader benefit to the
environment and human health.
This option could be implemented as national funding with funding rounds managed by each
state. For example, NSW could run this funding under the Waste Less Recycle More
initiative. Community, regulatory agencies and councils could nominate sites or areas that
would benefit from better infrastructure, and community, Council and facility operators could
submit applications for funding to install bins and infrastructure.
NSW EPA has experience in this type of funding program and has seen success with
reduced litter and better bin use behaviour from funded programs. This option will require
resources of government or independent body to support the program.
Additional information would be required if a funding scheme was developed:

investigation into the effectiveness to meaningfully reduce plastic shopping bag
litter, opportunities for improved bins and infrastructure and funding amounts

behaviour based research on a local level to determine the best approaches for
each site, and to identify barriers to appropriate disposal.
Example: NSW Waste Less Recycle More – Litter Prevention Grants Program
The NSW Waste Less, Recycle More provides $20 million for litter prevention. This
includes two related grant programs to target littering hotspots and the materials
that most contribute to littering in NSW. The first is Grants for Council Litter
Prevention projects, and the second for Community Litter Grants. These grants are
administered by Keep NSW Beautiful in partnership with the NSW Environment
Protection Authority (EPA).
Projects supported by the EPA's Litter Prevention Grants Program combine
enforcement, infrastructure and education. They also make use of the Hey Tosser!
creative materials and Local Litter Check resources. This funding is supported by
NSW’s first litter prevention strategy, which will set out actions and timeframes to
achieve NSW’s ambitious litter reduction targets for 2021.
Case studies of Councils' projects to prevent litter in NSW, funded by the EPA, can
be found at: NSW EPA Council Litter Prevention Grants
29
9. Consumption specific options
This section sets out potential options to address the objective of reducing consumption of
plastic bags. As with all options, there needs to be consideration of effectiveness on a state
and national basis.
Product stewardship program
A product stewardship program for plastic bags could operate either as a national program
through the Australian Packaging Covenant or under the National Environment Protection
Measure (Used Packaging). It could also be adopted as a voluntary or mandatory scheme
under the Product Stewardship Act 2011.
The Australian Packaging Covenant option would mean state and territories would have to
agree to the inclusion of plastic bags under the packaging covenant. The National
Environment Protection Measure (Used Packaging) option would require development of
national legislation, introducing state based targets in state legislation and consequences for
providers of plastic bags for not meeting targets. Either option could be staged in approach
to first address HDPE shopping bags and then expand to other bags after two years. This
option could be expanded for the inclusion of single use materials over time.
Additional information would be required if a mandatory or voluntary product stewardship
scheme was to be developed, including:

scoping and feasibility assessments to determine legislative ability, design,

consultation and working groups with external stakeholders

social research to determine the most effect messaging and images to be used.
30
Example: EU Directive to reduce the consumption of lightweight plastic
carrier bags
In April 2015 the European Commission approved a directive requiring member
states to take action to reduce the consumption and use of plastic bags less than 50
microns thick. This was done via amendment to the Packaging and Packaging
Waste Directive.
This requires member states to reduce use of plastic bags, with an initial threshold
of 90 bags per person per year by 2019, followed by 40 bags in 2025. Some
member state will meet this targets with current actions while other have more work
to do. This method is flexible and means states can choose their approach to
reduce plastic bag use. The introduction of a compulsory charge for single-use
plastic bags is popular.
Example: Industry education campaign – Plastic bag Code of Practice
(Australia)
A voluntary Code of Practice was agreed to by major retailers in 2002 in order to
reduce plastic bag use by 50%. The Code operated from 2003–05 and resulted in a
reported 45% reduction in the annualised rate of HDPE plastic bags issued by
supermarkets (Source: Australian National Retailers Association Ltd. Working
Towards Continual Environmental Improvement: Report to the Chairman
Environment Protection and Heritage Council – 22 May 2006).
Educational initiatives included commitments to make multiple use/green bags and
comprehensive customer information on these bags available in stores. It also
included offering customers easily accessible and clearly identified recycling
stations in major supermarkets and in shopping centres, targeted supermarkets,
and conducted campaigns to enlist supermarkets and small retailers to adopt the
Code.
Since 2005 and the end of the Code, the number of plastic bags has increased and
continues to rise. The results of the Code demonstrate the effectiveness of
intervention strategies (whether voluntary or mandatory) in driving behaviour
change at the point of sale.
31
10. Recycling contamination specific solutions
This section sets out potential options to address the objective to reduce the impact of
recycling contamination caused by plastic bags. With all options, there needs to be
consideration of effectiveness on a State and national basis.
Expand kerbside recycling for plastic bags
While material recycling facilities and transfer stations in NSW are not currently suitable for
recycling plastic shopping bags, there are five councils in NSW where plastic shopping bags
are accepted in the kerbside recycling bin. These are Armidale-Dumaresq, Lismore, CoomaMonaro, Inverell and Richmond.
Residents in these local government areas are encouraged to collect their plastic bags, bag
them and place them in the yellow commingled recycled bin with other recyclables. These
are then pulled out of the stream manually at waste facilities so they can be diverted and
recycled separately at facilities that are purpose-built to recycle soft plastics. Christchurch
City Council in New Zealand and some local government areas in Victoria offer the same
service. These service could be expanded across NSW with Government intervention such
as infrastructure/ operational funding for targeted education campaigns, local governments
and communities.
During a trial of kerbside recycling for plastic bags in Darebin Victoria, participant material
recycling facilities reported that the value of the collected plastic would cover the additional
sorting labour costs if the price paid for sorted flexible plastics remained above $150 to $200
a tonne53. This would make this solution highly dependent on soft plastics markets and a
purchase commitment for local government and industry.
Therefore, before this option can be considered, it would be necessary to undertake a
feasibility study of kerbside recycling of soft plastics that examines the practicability of
including this material in the commingled recyclables stream. A study and accompanying
trial would be vital in evaluating the practicality of kerbside collection of flexible plastics using
a bag for aggregation as it is done in the five NSW councils mentioned above.
The goal of this study would be to identify the quantity and quality of material collected from
households and the rate of participation. This would enable an understanding of what
households generate and will divert through the kerbside system if soft plastics were
included in the commingled recycling bins.
Any study should also include a consideration of the markets available in NSW for the sale
of recycled soft plastics and consequences on staffing and processes at material recycling
facilities.
Additional information would be required to provide a collection service using the existing
kerbside collection system:

53
feasibility study of kerbside recycling of soft plastics.
Sustainable Resource Use, 2013. Feasibility trial of kerbside recycling of consolidated flexible plastics. City of
Darebin, Victoria.
32
Example: City of Darebin, Victoria: Feasibility trial of kerbside recycling of
consolidated flexible plastics
In 2013, the City of Darebin in Victoria conducted a feasibility study of kerbside
recycling of plastic bags, conducting a trial where residents were asked to bag their
plastic bags and place them in the commingled recyclables bin. The trial was
conducted over 20 weeks during the middle of 2012 from June to October and it
included 900 households. The participant material recycling facilities placed
additional staff to pick and sort the plastic bags received at their facilities. Findings
of the study include:
1. A large number of householders are prepared to sort and present a wide range
of flexible plastic packaging through their kerbside recycling bin.
2. There were no collection impact issues identified and proper sorting at the
material recycling facilities meant there was no impact on collection contracts or
equipment.
3. There was a 90% recovery rate for flexible plastics achieved with moderate
labour involved.
4. The major challenge is to ensure a favourable market pull for mixed waste
plastics.
Public and retailer bins for recycling bags
NSW currently has practical ways to reduce the impacts of littered plastic bags in the
environment, including use of drop-off points to recycle HDPE and boutique bags that are
now available at many major stores in metropolitan areas.
Used plastic bags and other soft plastics are collected and recycled into plastic products
such as benches, plastic timber and pipes. However, there does not appear to be a culture
or social norm of returning unused plastic bags to these collection points for recycling.
Expanding this network of recycling points would provide an additional service for NSW
residents to recycle plastic bags. However, before an expansion of this network can be
considered, it would be necessary to undertake a feasibility study and social research on the
community’s awareness and use rate of this collection points.
There is no literature available on the effectiveness of this ‘take-back’ scheme in NSW,
however a similar scheme in California appears to have been minimally effective in
increasing the recycling of plastic bags, with a study estimating an increase of only 2%54.
The scheme in its current form is beneficial, even if there is a small increase in recycling
rates for plastic bags. However, it does not appear to be an effective scheme in isolation.
Keeping this scheme or expanding it should be done in conjunction with other initiatives to
keep plastic bags out of the commingled recyclables stream.
54 Huus,
K. 2008. “Battle of the Bags.” Newsweek
33
Additional information would be required to provide a collection service using the existing
kerbside collection system:

feasibility study and social research on the community’s awareness and use rate of
these collection points.
Example: Take-back bins in California
In 2006, the state of California adopted the State Law AB 2449, requiring retailers to
deploy storefront take‐back bins for plastic bag recycling.
There is some disagreement about the effectiveness of the program, however,
officials were able to estimate how AB 2449 affected the recycling rate for plastic
bags in California. They determined that the law was a failure. Even the most liberal
estimate of the program predicted that after three years of implementation, takeback bins only increased the recycling rate for plastic bags by 2%. Officials stated
that there was no noticeable change in plastic bag waste or litter as a result of the
program.
11. Summary
Objectives identified in this paper to manage the impacts of plastic shopping bags include:
1. Litter: reducing impacts of littered plastic bags and plastics in the environment.
2. Consumption: reducing consumption of plastic shopping bags, and avoiding waste
generation.
3. Contamination in Recycling: reducing impacts of plastic shopping bag contamination
in recycling.
There are a range of options, both traditional and innovative, which have been presented in
this paper. These options require additional research, assessment and scoping before a final
determination can be made on the appropriate option(s).
It is important that any option adopted accurately defines which shopping bags are included
and which retailers are affected by the proposed action, to ensure unintended loopholes,
perverse outcomes or environmental impacts do not arise. An assessment of consumer
needs and alternative options is also required to ensure an effective option is chosen. As
with all regulatory decisions, choosing an action depends on which objective or problem we
are seeking to address.
34

Plastic shopping bags: Options paper - EPA

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