Author(s): NANCY ROBINSON

Women's Political Participation in the Dominican Republic: The Case of the Mirabal Sisters
Author(s): NANCY ROBINSON
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 2/3, Unraveling Gender, Development and Civil
Society in the Caribbean (June-Sept. 2006), pp. 172-183
Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40654568 .
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172
Women's PoliticalParticipationin theDominicanRepublic:
The Case oftheMirabal Sisters
by
NANCY ROBINSON
Contraryto traditionalperceptionsof women's essentiallypassive role in Hispanic
societies,women have oftenbeen at the vanguardof popular resistanceagainstdictatorship
and militaryrule. Women have oftenplayed a pivotal role in galvanizing public opinion
and stateterror.The role of themothersof thedesapareagainstdictatorship,totalitarianism
cidos (disappeared) of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina is probably the most dramatic
example in recenttimes.
Women have sometimesachieved heroicstaturein Hispanic cultureinthestruggle
forsocial change, fromthe legendaryDolores Ibarruri(La Pasionaria) in the Spanish Civil
War,to Evita Perónas standardbearer(abanderada) of thedescamisados (shirtlessones) in
Argentina,where she is still reveredsixty-oddyears afterher death. RigobertaMenchú, a
Maya Quiche Indian leader who won theNobel Peace Prize in 1992 forherstruggleagainst
the Guatemalan military,has become an internationalsymbol of the crusade for human
rights.These women are not emptyfigures,but have become imbued with deep emotive
meaningforwomen, men and youthin theircountries,oftenservingas potentcatalystsfor
change.
Women in the Hispanic Caribbean
The Hispanic Caribbean has traditionallybeen overshadowed by the attention
bestowed on the Latin American continent,but women have also played major roles in
to rememberthattheCaribbean was thesiteof thefirst
politicalchange there.It is important
major revolutionagainst colonialism in the 19thcentury(the Haitian Revolution) and the
site of the firstsocialist revolutionof the 20th century(the Cuban Revolution) in the
WesternHemisphere.Women's traditionalroles were activelychallenged in Cuba, under
Fidel Castro,withVilma Espín, Haydée Santamaría,and Celia Sánchez servingas influential models forrevolutionaryyouth.
Less knownperhapsis thecase of Lolita Lebrón and the IndependenceMovement
of PuertoRico or thetragichistoryof the Mirabal sistersin the Dominican Republic. Lolita
Lebrón was a memberof the PuertoRican independencemovementand was jailed forher
participationin the 1954 Puerto Rican nationalistattack on the U.S. House of Representatives,in which five congressmenwere injured.Finally pardonedby PresidentJimmy
Carterin 1979, she returnedto Puerto Rico afterservingtwenty-five
years in a women's
in West Virginia.
penitentiary
The Hermanas Mirabal were assassinated by the dictatorRafael Leónidas Trujillo
and are now national heroines in the Dominican Republic, symbols of martyrdomin the
173
long struggleagainstthedictator.Theirdeaths in November 1960 constitutedthebeginning
of theend of theTrujillo dictatorshipbecause public outrageagainsthimwas so great.In an
encounterof Latin American feministsheld in 1981 in Bogotá, Colombia, the Mirabal
sisterswere chosen to representthe InternationalDay forNon-Violence against Women on
November 25 of each year, transformingthem into a continentalsymbol of women's
struggleand permanentlyaffixingthemon theconsciousness of feministthoughtand action
in Latin America. Later, in 1999, the United Nations officiallyadopted this day as the
InternationalDay forthe Eliminationof Violence Against Women.
Historical Background
The storyof the Mirabal sisters was until recentlyfairlyunknownoutside the
Dominican Republic, despite theirlegendarystatus in thatcountry.Julia Alvarez's recent
novel, In the Time of the Butterflies,has finallymade thathistoryaccessible to a wider
audience in a fictionalizedversion of theirlives, which was laterturnedinto a film.The
film, starringSalma Hayek, was produced in 2000 and universalized their story. The
Mirabais sisterswere beautiful,young women knownthroughoutthe Dominican Republic
by theircode name, "las mariposas," the butterflies,for theirhistoricrole in the undergroundresistancemovementagainstthe dictator.
Born Patria, Minerva and Maria Teresa Mirabal, they were married to men
identifiedwiththe oppositionto Trujillo and were political activistsin theirown right.On
home aftervisiting
theeveningof November25, 1960, as the Mirabal sisterswere returning
theirhusbands in jail in Puerto Plata (permission having been grantedby the authorities),
secret police ambushed theirjeep. The three women and their driver were taken out,
strangledand clubbed to death. Then, in a feeble attemptto cover up the murders,their
bodies were put back in thejeep and thrownoffa cliff. Only one sister,Bélgica Adela
Mirabal, who had notgone on the trip,survived.2
Historical research has failed to gauge the importanceof this single event in
galvanizingnationalsentimentagainst Trujillo,who was assassinated six monthslater.This
mightbe attributedto the factthatthey were seen as women who did not measure up in
importanceto otherevents,such as the OAS embargo, in determiningTrujillo's downfall.
Nor has theirlegacy been seriouslyexamined untilrecently,despite the factthattheylefta
verydeep imprinton Dominican consciousness: virtuallyall Dominican towns today have
some commemorativemarker,school or main streetbearing theirnames. On March 8,
1997, a prominent137 foot obelisk that Trujillo had built in honor of himselfwas also
transformedinto a mural of the Mirabal sisters. The Obelisk eulogizes "the struggleof
many women and men for Dominican liberty"and was painted by muralistElsa Nunez
withthe faces of these threeyoung women who now grace the main boulevard along the
seafrontof Santo Domingo. The date chosen forthe inaugurationof "Ode to Liberty"was,
fittingly,InternationalWomen's Day.
Now the Playground of the Caribbean, Once its Killing Fields
Now the playground of the Caribbean, the Dominican Republic was once its
fields.
The Mirabal sisterswere no strangersto Trujillo's notoriousjails and were
killing
174
on morethanoneoccasionfortheirpoliticalbeliefs.Itis mythesisthatwomen
imprisoned
as symbolsof nationalresistencecan becomespringboards
forovercoming
barriersto
femalepoliticalparticipation
in countries
reticent
to
a
feminist
agenda
traditionally
accept
perse. Such has beenthecase in theHispanicCaribbean,whereclass or anti-imperialist
havetakenprecedenceovergender.Thishas sometimes
beenseenas hindering
struggles
thedevelopment
of a women'smovement.Yet evidencetendsto pointin theopposite
withwomenhavingused theseopportunities
to createa "femalespace in the
direction,
innationalpolitics(Lavrin
women'sparticipation
politicallandscape"and institutionalize
1993:16).
Since 1966,forexample,all thegovernors
of Dominicanprovinceshave been
womenappointedbythepresident,
rolesin the
and womenhavecometo holdleadership
It has beenseen as somewhat"noble"on thepartof womento enter
popularmovement.
and good
natureas mothers,
hardworkers,
politics,an extensionof theirself-sacrificing
administrators
who exceed men in responsibility,
capacity.
honestyand organizational
of strongman caudillorule
Gradually,the nationhas begunto overcomethetradition
associatedwithTrujilloand the cripplinghold of personalismon Dominicanpolitical
partiesrepresented
byJuanBoschandJoaquinBalaguer,whodominated
politicsthrough
3
theendofthe20thcentury.
The Trujillo Dictatorship,1930-1961
a periodof
The Trujillodictatorship
lastedbetween1930-1961and represented
themost
Rafael
state
terror
Molina
created
and
violence.
Leónidas
unprecedented
Trujillo
called
efficient
in
America
a
network
of
informers
Latin
policeapparatus
utilizing huge
caliesanda secretintelligence
serviceknownas theSIM (Serviciode Inteligencia
Militar).
He was despisedby democratic
leadersin LatinAmericaand was behindtheJune1960
knownfor
of Venezuela..He was infamously
to killPresident
RómuloBetancourt
attempt
whose
at ColumbiaUniversity
thecase of Jesúsde Galíndez,a Spanishexile studying
dissertation
abouttheTrujilloregimecosthimhislifein 1956.
Like Somoza in Nicaragua,Trujilloranthe DominicanRepublicas a family
He controlled
businessandownedmuchofthecountry.
everyaspectof Dominicanlifewho got passportsand who
and
arrivals
the
the
radio,
mail,
departures,
press,airport
NationalGuard.UnderTrujllo,the
theU.S.-supported
didn't-androseto powerthrough
of the
Adulationof the"Benefactor
DominicanRepublicbecamea nationof sycophants.
in
York
and
New
flourished
Exile
communities
unreal
took
on
proportions.
Country"
in
its
closet.
a
victim
of
elsewhere.EveryDominicanfamilyhad
Trujillo
The Mirabal Sisters
near
of the Mirabalsisters,is a smallcommunity
Ojo de Agua, thebirthplace
in
the
Dominican
Cibao
of
the
Salcedo intheheartoftherichagricultural
Republic,
valley
and
arestillgrown.The Mirabalwerefairly
wherecoffee,
tobaccoandplantains
prosperous
The
a
store.
land
and
elite
some
a
drygoods
agricultural
representedprovincial possessing
fourdaughters
studiedat a CatholicboardingschoolinthenearbytownofLa Vega.
175
Patria,the eldest, was born February27, 1924, Dominican independence day,
is
which why she was given her name. She was marriedat age 17 to Pedro González, a
withwhom she had threechildren,the lastnamed Fidel Raúl Ernestoin honorof the
farmer,
Cuban revolutionaryleaders. Patria was the most traditionaland religiouslydevout of the
foursisters.Though never imprisonedforher political leanings,she saw both her husband
and older son jailed. It was at her home on January 10, 1960, that the 14th of June
Movementwas formallyestablished. It took its name in honor of the ill-fatedinvasion of
Dominican exiles fromCuba on June 14, 1959, all of whom were caught and slaughtered
by Trujillo. Patriaand her husband and childrenare said to have made home made bombs
on theirkitchentable utilizingmaterialsfromfirecrackers.She was 36 at the time of her
deathin 1960 (Arias 1992:4).
Following Patria in age was Bélgica Adela Mirabal, or Dédé as she was known,
themostpoliticallyuninvolvedof the sisters.In 1948, Dédé marriedto JaimeFernández,a
local businessman,with whom she had threesons. Though neverjailed by Trujillo, Dédé
was leftto raise her nieces and nephews afterherthreesisterswere killed. She still lives in
the familyhome in Ojo de Agua, near a small plaza where the remainsof the car thatwas
thrownover the mountainsidewithherdead sistersinside,are stillon display.
Maria Teresa was the youngest sister. Born in October 1935, she was 25 at the
time of her death and had one daughter,Jacqueline. She married Leandro Guzman, an
engineerand an importantleader of the 14thJuneMovement who managed to survivethe
Trujillo dictatorshipand still lives the Dominican Republic. Maria Teresa studied agronomy at the Universityof Santo Domingo and was an active participantin the underground
movement.She was jailed on two occasions with her sister,Minerva, in 1960. Her diary,
discovered years afterher death,revealed the close relationshipshe shared with Minerva,
whom she greatlyadmired(Arias 1992:4).
Minerva,born in March 1927, was consideredthe "true"revolutionaryleadership
behind the 14th of June Movement (Aquino 1996; Galván 1982; Ferreras 1978). She
spoke out boldly against the dictatorshipand was widely respectedthroughoutthe country
forher courage. By the time of her death at age 33, Minerva had achieved nationalstature
as a symbol of resistance.Overcoming her family's reluctance,Minerva enrolled in the
Universityof Santo Domingo in 1957, to studylaw. In 1955, at the age of 28, she married
Manolo Tavares Justo,also a lawyer,withwhom she had two children,Minou and Manolo,
born in 1956 and 1959. Manolo Tavares Justobecame the charismaticleader of the 14th
JuneMovement and was killed in guerrillawarfarein December 1962 in the Dominican
Republic.
Dédé, the only sisterto survive,became the surrogatemotherto her many nieces
and nephews. She faced the dauntingtask of raisingthemduringthe difficultperiodwhich
followedTrujillo's assassinationin the Dominican Republic. Popularelectionsbroughtthe
leftistleader JuanBosch intopower in 1962 to begin whatcould have usheredin a process
of democratizationin the country.However, he was allowed to govern only 7 months
beforethe militaryforcedhim out of officeand intoexile.
176
The growing chorus of voices clamoring for Juan Bosch's returnsparked the
Revolution of April 1965, led by liberal army officers.But the US was determinedto
prevent"anotherCuba" fromemergingin theCaribbean. In 1965, over 40,000 OAS troops
were dispatchedto occupy the countryto end the"Dominican Crisis", while electionswere
being organized. Sensing his opportunity,Joaquín Balaguer, Trujillo's formerpuppet
president,slipped back intothecountry,ostensiblyto visithis sick mother.He was no doubt
seen as an acceptable futurecandidateby the UnitedStates,which permittedhis returnfrom
exile in New York.
Balaguer predictablywon the 1965 elections. Dominicans still shudder when
recalling Balaguer's infamous "12 years" as presidentbetween 1966-1978, in which
tortureand disappearances were still carriedout, lendingcontinuityto the practicesof the
Trujillo regime.
Trujillo's Relationship to Women
Latin Americannovelistssuch as Gabriel García Márquez and Mario Vargas Llosa
have oftencaptureda dimension of the caudillo or Latin American dictatorin relationto
women: machismoas the necessaryunderpinningforthe cult of the leader. Trujillo was no
exception. In fact,he was probablytheexample par excellence of thistendency.
Personallyvain, Trujillo's appetiteforyoung women was legendary.Families in
the Dominican Republic used to hide theirdaughterswhen Trujillo was visitingtheirareas,
forif one of these girls was seen and caught the eye of the dictator,therewas no way of
refusingthe invitationsthatwere laterdelivered by messenger. Trujillo's long-suffering
wife turneda blind eye to the many young women who were delivered to the National
Palace on a weekly basis by "beauty scouts" or buscones, sentforthisspecificpurpose into
thecountryside.The fateof theseyoung women could be nightwiththe Generalísimoand
Benefactorof the Country,or a shortperiod as his mistress,but theywere invariablyvery
young,oftenschool girls.
Much has been writtenabout the partyto which the Mirabal familywas invitedat
Trujillo's estate in San Cristóbal,his birthplaceoutsidethecapital. There was no possibility
of "not going" when summonedto these social events.The Mirabal sisterswere extremely
attractiveyoung women and still unmarriedat the time, with the exception of Patria.
Apparently,Minerva Mirabal had alreadycaughtTrujillo's eye and theremay have been a
seduction strategyin place in extendingthe invitation.While dancing with the dictator,
Mirabal apparentlyrejectedhis advances by slapping him and the familywas forcedto beat
a hastyretreatfromthe party.
This action representeda sheer calamity forthe Mirabal family,who were subsequentlyharassed, imprisoned,and ostracized by theirneighbors.No amount of formal
apologies by Minerva's fathersent in writingcould undo the slight to the dictator's
machismo. It markeda turningpoint. Vengeance took the formof long imprisonmentfor
Minerva's father,who emerged a broken man and never regained his physical or mental
health,dying shortlyafterhis release. Minerva and her motherwere also summoned to
Santo Domingo and keptas virtualprisonersin a hoteluntilan audience was grantedby the
177
whoagainattempted
to coerceMinervaintoacceptinghis demandsin return
for
dictator,
herfather's
liberty.
Humiliation
was anotherstrategy
used againstMinervato conditionhergraduIn 1953,Trujilloblockedherenrollment
ationfromuniversity.
as a secondyearlawstudent
untilshe gave a publicspeecheulogizingthedictator.
Aftergraduating
summacumlaude
at thetopof herclass in 1957,Minervafoundthatshe couldnotpracticelaw becausethe
authorities
wouldnotgrantherlicenseto practice.By thispoint,Santo Domingo'sfour
whoalso
hundred
yearold namehadalso beenchangedto CiudadTrujillobythedictator,
of
himself
with
the
"God
and
embossed
commissioned
words
upon
largeportraits
Trujillo"
them.
Thus the psychologicalwar of fear,humiliation,
abuse and sexual harassment
used by theTrujilloregimeagainstwomenand theirfamilies,
becamean armof torture
such as the Mirabais.As in colonialtimeswhenplantation
ownersconsideredit their
as Trujillobelievethis
women
at
so
too
to
take
did
caudillos
such
will,
strongmen
privilege
their
It
constituted
a
of
manifestation
absolute
tobe an inherent
powerwhichno-one
right.
intothepoliticalrealm.
woulddarequestion.Sexualpoliticsthuscrossedthethreshold
MinervaMirabal and Trujillo
herhusbandManolo-was
Trujilloneverdoubtedfora momentthatMinerva-not
14thJuneMovement
thebrainsbehindthepro-Castro
(Aquino1996).TheheadofTrujillo's
" MinervaMirabalwas theone
Abbesoncecommented,
muchfearedsecretpolice,Johnny
who had takenthe seed of seditionto her familyand(herhusbandManuel) Tavarez
Justo...
which,spreading
(shewas) sickwithradicalLeftism,
duringthattime,droveherto
to tragedy."
herdeathandtookherfamily
Trujillohelda specialgrudgeagainstMinervaMirabalandreducedherfamilyto
ruinas he had donewithcountlessotheroppositionfamilies(Vega 1986d).As a
financial
An innocent
withtheregime,
theMirabaiswereshunned
andblacklisted.
indisfavor
family
inandtortured
withMinervacouldmeanbeingbrought
SIM
conversation
by
agents,who
inblackVolkswagenbugscalled"cepillos,"themeresightof
aroundthecountry
circulated
whichstruckterrorin the heartsof the Dominicans.The mostminuteincidentswere
Whena traveling
car salesmanpraiseda certainmodelbysaying
and reported.
overheard
thatTrujilloownedone,Minervaretorted
thatthatwas all themorereasonnotto buyone.
On anotheroccasion,herrefusalto toastto Trujillo'shealthwas also
Thiswas reported.
(Aquino 1996).
reported
byinformers
Whatbeganas Minerva'srefusalto succumbto Trujillo'sadvancesbecamea
a politicalopponent.In thecourseof the 1950's underground
relentless
needto humiliate
was dangerousbusimovements
beganto proliferate.
anti-Trujillo
Opposingthedictator
was
tortured
or
killed.
Minervawas the
whomever
was
as
ness,
caught imprisoned,
brutally
the
movement
to overthrow
firstof thesistersto becomeinvolvedin the underground
friend
of
Pericles
Franco
the
founder
of
the
She
became
a
Ornes,
government.
Popular
andwasjailed severaltimesforhispolitical
SocialistParty.He was a knownanti-Trujillista
on Minerva'sgrowinganti-Trujillo
includedleftist
activities.
Otherinfluences
sentiment
178
and illegallyintercepted
radiostationsfromCuba andVenezuelathatobjectively
literature
intheDominicanRepublic.
discussedthepoliticalsituation
The Cuban Revolutionand the 14thofJuneMovement
inCaribbeanpoliticsdueto thetriumph
CubanRevolu1959markeda watershed
tion.Afteryearsof believingthatTrujillocould neverbe toppled,thatpossibilitynow
seemedwithinreach."Educatedand well-positioned
youths,"wroteDiederich,"shamed
andchagrined
their
surrender
to
by
parents'nauseating
Trujillo,hadquietlybeguntorebel,
evenas inCuba FidelCastrocameoutofthemountains
togivetheman example(Diederich
1978:34)."The movement
and
middle
brought
together
upperclassyouthandprofessionals
whonowbelievedtheycouldreplicate
theCubanexperience
Fidel.Minerva,
byemulating
MariaTeresa,Patriaandtheirhusbandsstoodatthecenterofthegathering
storm.
Justdays afterCastro'striumphant
marchintoHavana,theidea of launchinga
nationalresistance
movement
to Trujillowas proposedat a lunchattended
byMinervaand
MariaTeresa.On January
Maria
Minerva
and
their
husbands
6, 1959,
Teresa,
excitedly
discussedtheturnofeventsatthehomeofYuyo D'AlessandroandhiswifeJosefina
Ricart.
"If inCuba ithasbeenpossibleto bringdownthedictatorship,
theninourcountry,
withso
manyanti-Trujillo
youth,we can do the same," Minervawas reportedto have argued
(Aquino 1996: 107). A planof actionwas quicklyformulated
bythosepresent,
including
JosefinaRicart,whosesister,Octavia Ricart,(thoughnotpresent),was marriedto none
otherthanRamfisTrujillo,son ofthedictator.
MariaTeresa,Minerva,theirhusbands,
and
a fewotherssubsequently
traveledthroughout
thecountry
cells
organizing
revolutionary
and locatingsitesforarmairdrops.
A plotwas devisedtoblowup Trujilloata cattlefairon January
21, 1960.Butjust
one day beforethe scheduledassassination,
the Serviciode InteligenciaMilitar(SIM)
begana massiveroundupofJune14 supporters,
amongthemtheMirabalsistersandtheir
husbands.Wroteone observer:
The movement
was thebiggestthreateverto thereto Trujillo
gime and was particularly
disconcerting
becauseof itssize andtheidentity
oftheparticipants.
The listofthosearrested
readlikea DominicanWho's
Who. Most were sons and daughtersof middleand
upperclass families,manyfromprominent
Trujillista
homes(Diederich1978:35).
of TruMassivearrestsand torture
tookplace,prompting
increasing
repudiation
jillo by all sectorsof Dominicansocietyand strongprotestsfromtheCatholicChurch.
Trujillobrokewithhis old ally,theCatholicChurch,afterthePastoralLetterof January
on VenezuelanPresiThe attempt
1960,in whichthebishopsdenouncedthedictatorship.
dentBetancourt's
hisformer
lifealso turned
countries
ally
many
againstTrujillo,including
in
theUnitedStates,whichvotedin favorof sanctionson August6, 1960,at a conference
Costa Rica. The Organization
of AmericanStates(OAS) condemnedtheactionsof the
179
Dominicangovernment
and sentrepresentatives
on a factfindingmissionvisitingthe
of
female
werefreedby Trujillo'sgovernBecause
this,many
country's
prisoners
jails.
their
Minerva
but
husbandsremainedincarcerMaria
Teresa
and
Mirabal,
ment,including
7
ated.
AssassinationoftheMirabal Sisters
ally and
Feelingbetrayedby the UnitedStatesas a staunchanti-communist
of the 14thJuneMovement,Trujillorespondeddefensively.
stunnedby the magnitude
Unableto quell internaldissidenceand slappedwithOAS sanctions,Trujillocame to
believethattheonlyway to "puta stopto it once and for"all was to eliminatethereal
theMirabalsisters.Thisis theonlywayTrujilloseemedtoexplain
sourceofhisproblems,
sincemostof themale
to himselfthecontinuing
problemshe was facingin thecountry,
wereinprison.
leadersofthe14thJuneMovement
Patriaand Minerva'shusbandsto a jail in PuertoPlataon the
Trujillotransferred
overa solitarymountain
that
northcoast
range.Then,on November2,
requiredtravelling
ofthecountry,
1960,whileon a touroftheinterior
Trujillopubliclyobservedthathe had
as
left:theCatholicChurchandtheMirabalsisters.Thiswas interpreted
onlytwoproblems
cameto
a deathsentencefortheMirabalsistersbythosewhoknewTrujillo.Manyfriends
themto be carefulandbeggedthemnottomakethetriptovisittheirhusbandsin
admonish
jail (Aquino 1966).
The Mirabalsisterswereawareofthedangerstheyfaced.Buttheyhadmadetwo
a houseandmovingto PuertoPlata to
on renting
andwereplanning
incident,
tripswithout
be closertotheirhusbands.
November25, 1960 was to be theirlasttrip.AfterleavingPuertoPlata,Patria,
Minerva,MariaTeresaand theirdriverwereovertaken
by Trujilloagentson a deserted
stretch
of road,who orderedthemto stop.Patria,seeinga truckapproach,managedto
escapeandruntothedriver.She screamedtohimthatthecaliesweregoingtokillthemand
drivertookoff.The
toldhimto contacttheMirabalfamilyin Ojo de Agua. The terrified
sistersand theirdriverwerebludgeonedovertheheadand strangled.
Theywerethenput
backintheir
jeep and pushedovera cliff.
wheretheyhadbeenstrangled
Newsof"theaccident"spreadrapidly.Fingerprints
into a hospitalin Santiagofor
visiblewhentheirbodieswerebrought
werestillreportedly
authorof thecrimewas and
autopsy.No one doubtedfora momentwho theintellectual
wildfire
the
dictator
like
(Aquino 1966; Galván 1982;
spread
against
popularindignation
Valera1984).
ConsequencesoftheMirabal Sisters9Murders
the growingpressuresagainsthis regime,which
Trujillocould not withstand
sisters'
Mirabal
the
deaths."Thecowardlykillingofthreebeautiful
intensified
after
greatly
womenin sucha mannerhad greatereffecton Dominicansthanmostof Trujillo'sother
crimes,"notedonejournalist:
180
Itdid something
to theirmachismo.TheycouldneverforgiveTrujillothiscrime.
MorethanTrujillo'sfightwiththeChurchortheUnitedStates,thefactthathe was being
isolatedbytheworldas a politicalleper,theMirabais'murder
theresolution
of
tempered
theconspirators
his
end
(Diederich1987:71-72).
plotting
Six monthslaterTrujillowas assassinatedbymilitary
leaders.Shortly
thereafter,
theMirabalsisters'assassinswerecaughtandmadeto standtrial.The Americanambassathesignificance
ofthattrialforDominicansinhisbook,
dor,JohnBartlowMartin,
captured
Overtaken
Events:
the
Dominican
Crisis
from
the
Fall ofTrujilloto theCivil War."On
by
the
trial
(June27, 1962), long-awaited beganofthemenchargedwithmurderWednesday,
the
Mirabal
sisters,and fordays Dominicanslistenedto radio and televisionsets
ing
televisedreports
wereairedofthetrialof the
(Martin1966:165)."No less thanthirty-five
sevenSIM agentslatersentenced
to20-30yearshardlaborbythecourt(Galván1982:286).
totrialforthemurders
oftheMirabalsisters,
Thoughbrought
Trujillo'shenchmen
from
the
1965
Civil
War
and
never
served
out
their
sentences.Yet a
escaped
jail during
measureofpoeticjusticemayhavebeenachievedinan interesting
turnofeventsunderthe
leftistPartidode LiberaciónDominicana(PLD) government
electedin 1996.
ChosenforVice President
oftheDominicanRepublicwas JaimeDavid Fernández
Mirabalsister,Dedé. SelectedforUnderSecretary
of
Mirabal,son of theonlysurviving
of Minerva
ForeignRelationswas his cousin,MinouTavaresMirabal,theonlydaughter
as the"revolutionary"
ofthefoursisters.Minouwas bornin
Mirabal,widelyremembered
1956,andthuswas onlyfourat thetimeofhermother'sdeath.
The ImpactoftheMirabal Sisterson Women's Participation
Therewas an extraordinary
mobilization
ofwomeninthe1965DominicanCrisis,
better
knownintheDominicanRepublicas theCivil War.Womenparticipated
forthefirst
timein significant
numbersin the 14thJuneMovementheaded by Minervaand her
forchangethattheCubanRevolution
hadawakened.
husband,inspired
bythepossibilities
Yet therewas notto be anotherCuba. ManoloTavareswas trackeddownand
killedby government
troopsalongwithmanyof his guerrillafollowers.The promiseof
was
snuffed
outbythe 1965 US/OASoccupationoftheDominican
change
revolutionary
Republic,placingJoaquínBalaguerback in power. As mentioned,
Balaguerhad beena
closeTrujillocollaborator
andwas officially
whenTrujillowas killed.Itwas only
president
in 1996thatBalaguerfinally
leftpower,bythistimeninety
yearsoldandnearlyblind.Thus
therewas neveranytruebreakwithTrujillismoin theDominicanRepublic,impedinga
muchneededcatharsis
withthepast.
Theenduring
oftheMirabalsistersintheDominicanRepublicis that
significance
have
notas "mothers
women's
ofthedisappeared"
legitimized
they
politicalparticipation
orwidows,butas politicalactivistsintheirownright.Indeed,itmightbe arguedthattheir
lives eloquentlyportraythe experienceof a new generationof young,middleclass,
LatinAmericanwomencomingofage during
theturbulent
university-educated
yearsofthe
1950's through1970's, who fervently
believedin thepossibility
of social change. The
181
CubanRevolutionprovideda criticalexamplethatit could be done and represented
an
model.
inspirational
The Dominicannationalpoet,Pedro Mir,eulogizedthe Mirabalsistersin his
poem,"Ode totheButterflies:"
WhenI heardthethreeMirabalsistershad fallen
I saidto myself:established
societyhas dies...
Cuandosupeque habíancaído las treshermanasMirabal
Me dije: la sociedadestablecidaha muerto.
The LegacyToday
TodayintheDominicanRepublic,theMirabalsistershavebecomenationalicons.
InthesmalltownofConuco,thelasthousetheylivedinhas beenconverted
intoa museum
withmemorabilia
of theirlives,photographs
and clothesof theera. AlongsidePatria's
and MariaTeresa'sembroidery
are theartifacts
of
teacupcollection,Minerva'spaintings
thesisters'murder:
theshoes,handbagsandpapers,as wellas thelongbraidofhairwhich
Dédé cutfromMariaTeresa'sheadatthemorgue.Schoolchildren
visitthehouse
regularly
and itssurrounding
buststo each of thethreeMirabal
gardens,in whichcommemorative
sistershavebeenplaced.Dédé has dedicatedherlifeto preserving
thememory
ofherslain
sisters,
setting
up theMirabalSistersFoundation.
On November25, 2000, fortyyears aftertheirdeath,the remainsof Patria,
Minervaand MariaTeresa,and thoseof Minerva'shusbandManolo,weremovedto the
museumgroundsin a ceremonyattendedby important
personagesof Dominicanlife,
President
LeonelFernández..By presidential
including
decree,theMuseumwas officially
declaredan extension
oftheNationalPantheon
ofHeroeslocatedinSantoDomingo,where
thefounding
fathers
ofthecountry
areburied.
Withinthepasttwo decades,theMirabalsistershave been fullyvindicatedfor
theirhistorical
actionsandhavebecomeimportant
rolemodelsforcitizensoftheDominican Republic.The Mirabalsistershavereceivednumerous
tributes
and memorials
posthuin the Caribbean.
mouslyfortheirstruggleagainstone of the bloodiestdictatorships
Dominicantextbooks
are no doubtmakingthenecessarychangesforteachinghistory
to
to incorporate
thisnew visionof historical
events. Interestingly,
thelast
youngstudents
name"Trujillo"has vanishedintooblivionfromtheDominicanRepublic,without
leaving
so muchas a trace.
whonowarrivebythemillionsto theDominicanRepublichave
Foreigntourists
to
to
make
trekinlandto theMirabalMuseumoverthenorthern
the
mountain
yet begin
where
the
Mirabal
sisters
were
from
their
luxurious
beach
resorts
on
thenorth
killed,
ranges
coast. Yet thecontrast
couldnotbe greater:
a country
untilthe1960's associatedwiththe
and ironfistedruleof a cruelDominicantyrant,
now transformed
intoa first
repression
class destination
forworldtourismand a countryon its way to the consolidationof
democratic
rule.Repressionas previously
practicedis a thingof thepastand themilitary
staysoutofpolitics.
182
What role would the Mirabal sistershave played in this new context,had they
survived? What lingeringsignificancedoes the storyof theirlives hold forcontemporary
Dominicans? No doubttherecognitionof theiractions and place in historystandsin lieu of
whattodaymostcertainlywould have been a U.N. -sponsoredTruthCommission sentto the
countryto restituteand dignifythe many,manyvictimsof the Trujllo dictatorship.Therein
lies theirparticularsignificanceto a nationwhich was neverable to confrontthe crimes of
its own past in the aftermathof Trujillismo,nor known truthor justice forvictims. The
Mirabal sistersto a certainextentsymbolize thisersatz restitution.
Conclusions
The role of women in the struggleagainst dictatorshipand militaryrule in Latin
America in thepost war periodhas notbeen fullyrecognizedby scholars. Standardhistories
of the Dominican Republic have failedto assess the importanceof such women as symbols
of popular resistance,testimonyto a long-standingtendencyto overlook women's significantcontributionsto nationallife.The Mirabal sisterscapturethe storyof a new generation
women in Latin America in the 1950's and 1960's deeply committed
of university-trained
to social change. Foreshadowinglatergenerationsof Latin American women who continued to oppose militaryregimes throughoutthe 1970's and 1980's, they also came to
symbolize one of the most importantof women's human rights:the rightto a life freeof
violence.
Notes
I.
See Acosta Belén 1986 on Puerto Rican women. See Hernández Medina 1995, Mota 1975, Olivier, 1975 and
Tancer 1973 on the historyof Dominican women.
2
See Arias 1992, Aquino 1996, Ferrera 1976 and Gal van 1982 forbiographical source material on the Mirabal
sisters.
3
Joaquin Balaguer and Juan Bosch were each other's nemesis, occupying opposite ends of the political spectrumand dominatingDominican politics untilthe close of the 20th century.Both were prolificwritersand
made an indelible markon Dominican literature.While Balaguer was able to occupy the presidencyagain
and again through1996, even when virtuallyblind, Bosch was frustratedin his reiterativeattemptsto do
so in 1978, 1982, 1986, 1990 and 1994.
4
See Aquino 1995, Diederich 1966,Craswaller 1996 and the works by Bernardo Vega 1986a, 1986b, 1986c,
1986d on the historyof the Trujillo dictatorship.Vega offersand invaluable collection of historicaldocumentsand correspondencetaken fromthe presidentialarchives. An August 24, 1954 CIA reportmatter-offactlynoted,"The Dominican Republic is a one-partystate and is administered,in substantialeffect,as the
privateestate of the Trujillo family."CIA August 21, 1954:5
5
In 1956 Galindez was kidnapped in New York City and flown to Santo Domingo by an American pilot, who
was also killed.
6
General JohnnyAbbes Garcia, Trujillo y Yo, cited in www.learntoequestion.com
7
Aquino 1996: 125, 128. Also imprisonedalong with Minerva and Maria Teresa Mirabal in the January1960
roundupof the 14thof JuneMovement memberswere Sina Cabral, Miriam Morales of Puerto Plata,
Dulce Tejada and Ásela Morel of Santiago and Fe Ortega of Salcedo, all professionalwomen: doctors,
lawyers and engineers.
183
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