Compiling of a Berber-French Dictionary (Figuig dialect)

LES RESSOURCES LANGAGIERES : CONSTRUCTION ET EXPLOITATION
Compiling of a Berber-French Dictionary (Figuig
dialect)
Mohamed Yeou
Department of English & LERIC, Université Chouaib Doukkali
m_yeou@yahoo.com
The paper describes the compilation of a bilingual dictionary Berber (Figuig)French both in paper and in electronic version. The dictionary is root-based and
refers to dialectal forms for comparison. The purpose of the dictionary is to
contribute to the documentation of Figuig Berber in order to provide a linguistic
resource for the Figuigui community and scholars interested in researching the
Berber language.
1. Introduction
1.1. Figuig
The Berber variety documented in this dictionary is spoken in Figuig and belongs
to the Zenati branch of the Berber language family. Figuig is a oasis situated in the
South East edge of Morocco, around 1000 km from Casablanca, and 460 km from
the Mediterranean coast. The number of permanent residents is today around 15
000. Precise estimates of the language speakers is difficult to calculate because
much of the population have emigrated away to Europe and to major Moroccan
cities. The language has recently been listed in the UNESCO Atlas of the world's
endangered languages. There is no doubt that such listing is justifiable given the
following facts:



the social and cultural context of the language has undergone great
changes, resulting in lexical attrition;
the language is used mostly by the parental generation and up;
the limited numbers of L1 resident speakers, who are constantly subject to
emigration;
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
many speakers have negative attitudes towards the language and think their
children would be better served by speaking other languages.
The present project of compiling a Berber-French dictionary is partly motivated by
the critical need for language resource materials on which language revitalization
and language standardization depend.
1.2. Review of literature
There are four major studies on the Berber of Figuig, as well as a few
shorter ones. The earliest source is a small glossary of 31 pages by Basset
(1885). However, Basset‘s work should be read with much caution. No more
major fieldwork was conducted on Figuig Berber until 1994 and 1995, when
Marteen Kossman and Fouad Saa defended their theses, respectively. Saa
(1995) studies some aspects of the phonology and verbal morphology of
Figuig Berber based on the generative framework. The thesis appendix is
very interesting as it lists the verbal paradigm of 1296 verbs, along with
their derived forms. Kossman‘s thesis, which was published as a book in
1997, gives a general description of the grammar of Figuig and provides a
144-page Berber-French glossary in the annex. This grammar is an excellent
descriptive analysis and the glossary is very helpful. The final two major
original sources are Ben-Abbas (2003) and Sahli (2008). Ben-Abbas (2003)
investigates the sociolinguistic aspects of word-borrowing between languages in
contact, mainly Arabic and French, while Sahli (2008) gives a brief grammar
sketch of the language, together with a Berber-Arabic glossary. The glossary
consists of a list of 2250 words without context, exclusively from the dialect
spoken in Ksar Laâbidate. Another important study is a collection of
folktales by Ben-Amara (2007). Ben-Amara transcribes an interesting
number of tales from Figuig, but does not translate them. He gives,
however, a list of the words used in these tales with their French gloss.
2. Printed Version of the dictionary
2.1. Compiling of the dictionary database
The dictionary database is compiled using Toolbox, a program produced by SIL
International (formerly the Summer Institute of Linguistics). Toolbox uses
MDF standard (Coward and Grimes, 2000) for lexicon structure and converts
certain files in Standard Format into RTF (to be further processed and printed with
MS-Word). Toolbox provides field lexicographers with the ability to integrate
various types of data: lexical, grammatical, semantic, etc. It has many options for
selecting, sorting, and displaying data. It is very useful for helping researchers
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generate a reversed finder list as well as analyze and interlinearize text
corpora. A sample of the printed output for a formatted dictionary and a reversed
finder list are found in the appendix.
The typical database entry has the following fields:
\lx
\se
\va
\vn
Lexeme (is the abstract consonantal root)
Subentry (derived word)
Variant form
Variant comment (shows source of variant: name of Ksar or name
of author)
\ps
Part of speech
\sn
Sense number
\rn
Reversal (this gives the French word(s) or phrase(s) desired
\dn
\sc
\ng
\sy
\an
\cf
\xv
\xn
\sd
\nt
\vr
for a reversed French-Berber finder list)
French definition
Scientific name (two-part name of a species, especially for plants)
Grammatical information (mainly for the different verb stems)
Synonym
Antonym
Cross-reference (general purpose cross-reference)
Example in Berber
Translated example in French
Semantic domain (for entering semantic fields)
General Notes (dialectal forms and language name from which the
word is borrowed; dialectal forms come from published Berber
dictionaries and glossaries)
See (this is a field which I added to cross-reference a variant item
to a main entry where fuller information is found)
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Figure 1: sample entry from the dictionary database (in Toolbox format)
A sample entry which shows how the information in database is organized (in
Toolbox format) is given in Figure 1. The \lx field shows the main form of the
lexeme, which is actually the consonantal root, and \ps gives the part of speech. \se
shows the derived words. The \xv field gives the definition of the word in French.
\xv, \xn pairs give example sentences and their French translations. \va lists variant
transcription of the item, and \vn shows which source the variant came from (name
of Ksar). The \nt field lists attested Amazigh dialectal forms.
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2.2. Amazigh Lat Keyboard
The transcription of Berber in the dictionary is based on a standardized Latin
transliteration system, as used by Berberists. However some of the symbols can
be different from what is commonly used, as shown in (1):
(1)
Our system
e
š
ţ
tš
dţ
ɣ
x
d
t
Other systems
ə
c
j
č
ǧ
ġ
ḫ
d/t
t / tˢ
IPA
ə
ʃ
ʒ
tʃ
tʒ
ɣ
χ
t
tʰ
To enter text in Berber, I do not use Windows tools such as Character map because
they can be very cumbersome. Instead, I created a keyboard layout designed to my
own specification. The virtual keyboard, called Amazigh Lat, is made for regular
writing and is compatible with Unicode fonts, such as the most recent versions of
Times New Roman (from v. 5.0) and Arial (both supplied in Windows Vista and
Windows 7). Amazigh Lat keyboard is used with Tavultesoft Keyman Desktop
program, a utility for managing keyboard input methods. Both the program and the
keyboard can be downloaded at http://www.tavultesoft.com.
2.3. Transcription approach
The transcription adopted for lexical words in the dictionary is phonetic (broad)
rather than phonological. The intent is to show phonetic aspects that characterize
Figuig variety and compare it to other Amazigh varieties. Apart from
spirantization, devoicing of some geminates is an important feature that is noted at
the phonetic level. The voiced geminates /bb, dd, dd, gg, ggʷ/ are realized as [pp,
dd, tt, kk, kkʷ] both at the lexical and morpho-phonenic level. The voiceless non
aspirated geminate [dd] (IPA [tt]) is indicated through the use of the IPA diacritic
for devoicing, the under-ring, to distinguish it from the voiceless aspirated
geminate [tt] (IPA [ttʰ]) (Yeou et al., 2011).
The phonetic approach is also motivated by the intent to record dialectal
variation inside Figuig Berber itself. For example, the data below shows that
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absence / presence of pharyngealization or aspiration in an important indicator
of dialectal variation:
(2)
Upper Figuig
ttrid
ddir
iɣ zer
tšar
dder
tter
Zenaga
ddrid
deyyer
iɣ zer
tšar
tter
tter
―thin pancakes‖
―foot of mountain‖
―river, wadi‖
―fill (up), be filled (up)‖
―live‖
―ask for charity‖
As far as the representation of morpheme boundaries is concerned, I adopt a
‗syntactic‘ approach based on the criterion of syntactic mobility (see Stroomer,
1994). Hence spaces will preferably used rather than hyphens to mark
morphological segmentation. For example, transcription type (a) will be
adopted rather than type (b):
(3)
1a. Inna yas sad isek tiddart nnes
his house‖
1b. Inna-yas sad isek tiddart-nnes
2a. ppas d mmis rahen ɣ res
see him/her‖
2b. ppa-s d mmi-s rahen ɣ r-es
―He told him that he will build
―His father and his son went to
As regards assimilation processes, I generally adopt a phonological approach:

The subjunctive and future marker ad is always transcribed as /ad/,
given that its assimilation to the following consonant is predictable: ad
tɣ er [at tɣ er] ―that she will study‖, ad nɣ er [an nɣ er] ―that we will
study‖

The prefix /t-/, which assimilates in voicing to the following consonant,
is also transcribed phonologically: tezdeɣ [dezdeɣ ] ―she lived‖, težžey
[deţţey] ―she recovered‖
However, a phonetic approach was preferred in the case where there might be
some dialectal variation, namely for the feminine morpheme suffix /-t/, the
causative prefix /s(s)-/, and the intensive form prefix /tt-/:
(4)
(5)
Loudaghir, Maïz
tadist
tamazuzt
tašemmušt
Other ksour
tadiss
tamazuss
tašemmušš
Upper Figuig
Zenaga
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―stomach‖
―late season, youngest daughter‖
―bundle, knot‖
LES RESSOURCES LANGAGIERES : CONSTRUCTION ET EXPLOITATION
(6)
sdurder
ssendew
sdurder
ssendew
―deafen‖
―cause to jump‖
Loudaghir
ttezdid
ttezluluf
Zenaga
ddezdid
ddezluluf
―become thin [intensive form]‖
―singe [intensive form]‖
2.4. The layout of the entries
The present dictionary uses a root-based approach, even if this approach has its
practical weaknesses. This approach was partly motivated by the desire to serve the
needs and interests of the academic community of linguists interested in
researching the Amazigh language, or related languages.
The layout of the entries is organized as follows:

Roots in bold capitals are arranged in the following alphabetic order. B, D,
D, F, G, H, I, K, Kʷ, L, M, N, Ɣ, R, S, S, Š, T, T, W, X, Y, Z, Ţ, Ԑ. Roots
starting with D, R and Z are, however, listed with D, R and Z, respectively

The items in a root entry are grouped according to their semantic relation.

For each root entry, simple verbs are listed first, and then the derived verbs
with the following prefixes: /s-/, /m-/, /ttw-/, for the causative, the
reciprocal and the passive, respectively. After that, verbal nouns for both
simple and derived verbs are given, and finally, nouns and adjectives.

For each verb, the first line gives the aorist as the basic form, followed by
the other forms, mainly the preterite, the negative preterite, the intensive,
and the negative intensive. The slash separates variant forms if there are
any.

For each noun or adjective we list the marker of the construct state
between parentheses: (u-), (w-), etc.
2.5. The strengths of the present dictionary
2.5.1. Exhaustiveness and volume
This dictionary project aims to develop a comprehensive dictionary of Figuig
Berber with French translation and extensive dialectal cross-references. The
present dictionary tries to avoid the following weaknesses of previous work on the
lexis of Figuig: (1) word-for-word translation; (2) lack of real uttered sentences; (3)
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limitation to one community dialect; (4) limitation to the literal dimension of
meaning
In this project, I will bring together not only an extensive compilation of words in
Figuig with authentic sample sentences and their French translations, but also
figurative and idiomatic uses of some of these words. In addition to that, some
patterns of expression like proverbs, riddles and excerpts from songs and tales are
included, because they reflect the culture of the Figuigui community more than
every other kind of linguistic unit.
The Amazigh Figuig variety is characterized by some minor dialectal variation due
to the fact that Figuig comprises seven seperate ksours or communities situated on
two levels: The upper level consists of Laâbidate (At nneţ), Loudaghir (At ɍeddi),
Oulad Slimane (At slimane), Hamam Tahtani (At wadday), Hamam Foukani (At
ɍamer) and El Maïz (At lemɍiz), and the lower level consists of Zenaga
(Iznayen). There is complete mutual intelligibility across the communities, and the
small variation that exists will be noted in the dictionary. The default dialect is
upper Figuig, namely Loudaghir, but variant forms are listed in the variant field
(\va).
2.5.2. Dialectal cross references
At the bottom of each lexical entry, the dictionary lists attested forms from
Amazigh languages or dialects given in Table (6), and whose references are given
in the bibliography. It also indicates if the meaning is different or similar to that of
Figuig. If the word is borrowed, etymological information about the source
language and the original form is given.
(7)
Mc
McS
Zen
Aha
Zenaga of Mauritania
Tahaggart
Chl
Tamazight of central Morocco
Tamazight of south central
Morocco
Tachelhit
Nig
Rif
Izn
Sen
Tarifit
Beni Iznassen
Senhaja de Srair
Mal
Nef
Ght
Tamajeq (Tawellemmet,
Tayert)
Tamasheq of Mali
Nafusi
Ghat
Ntf
Ntifa
Ghad
Ghadamès
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Kab
Che
Cha
Sns
Ace
Mzb
Oua
Tim
Kabyle
Chenoua
Tachawit or Chaoui
Beni Snous
Central Algeria
Tumzabt of Mzab
Tagargrent of Ouargla
Gourara, Touat, Tidikelt
Snd
Djr
Chn
Dw
Ght
Ghad
Siw
Sened
Djerba
Chenini
Douiret
Ghat
Ghadamès
Siwa
3. Electronic Version of the dictionary
To generate the electronic version of the database, Lexique Pro was used. Lexique
Pro is a free program developed by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). It
transforms data from a Toolbox and formats it in a dynamic viewer.
Figure 2: snapshot of the electronic version of the dictionary
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The generated interactive dictionary has the advantage of displaying the database
in a user-friendly format. The user can navigate by clicking on hyperlinks to related
entries such as synonyms, variants, cross-references, semantic categories. Figure 2
shows a snapshot of a lexical entry from the electronic version of the dictionary.
On the left we can either access the entries, the dictionary roots, by clicking on
―Figuig‖, or access the reversed French finder list by clicking on ―French‖. Both
the roots and the French words are organized in alphabetical order. Moreover, we
can also view entries by semantic domain if we click on the Category button.
Work on thematic categorization is ongoing and only the following semantic fields
have been entered so far :
 Kinship terms
 Animals
 Body Parts
 Food & Drink
 Clothing
 Agriculture & Vegetation
 Religion & Beliefs
The advantage of the electronic version generated by Lexique Pro is that it can be
distributed as a packaged setup program and can also be exported to a set of web
pages, in text, html, or xml formats.
4. Conclusion
The dictionary has been on the making for several years. We hope that it might be
completed in approximately six months. It is expected that the dictionary will have
roughly eight thousand words when completed.
5. Bibliography
Adnor, A. (2004). An Electronic Tashlhit-English dictionary (prototye). Thèse de
Doctorat d‘Etat. Rabat: Université Mohamed V.
Alojaly, G., Prasse, K.-G., Ghoubeïd A. and Ghabdouane M. (2003). Dictionnaire
touareg-français. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.
Amaniss, A. (non publié). Dictionnaire tamazight-français.
Azdoud, D. (2011). Dictionnaire berbère-français. Paris: Maison des
sciences de l'homme.
Basset, R. (1885). Notes de lexicographie berbère: dialectes des k'çours Oranais et
de Figuig. Journal Asiatique, 8/6, 302-71.
Beguinot, F. (1942). Il Berbero Nefûsi di Fassâto. Grammatica, testi raccolti dalla
viva voce, vocabolarietti. Roma: Istituto per l'Oriente.
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Ben Abbas, M. (2003). Variation et emprunts lexicaux : étude socio-linguistique
sur le parler amazigh de Figuig. Thèse de Doctorat. Fès: Université Sidi
Mohamed Ben Abdellah.
Ben Amara, H. (2006). Tanfust : Recueil de récits amazighs de Figuig. Rabat:
Publication du Ministère de la Culture et l‘IRCAM.
Bounfour, A. and Boumalek, A. (2001). Vocabulaire usuel du tachelhit. Rabat:
Centre Tarik Ibn Zyad.
Cadi, K. (1987). Système verbal rifain : forme et sens (Nord-Marocain). Paris:
SELAF.
Coward, D. F. and Grimes, C. E. (2000). Making dictionaries: a guide to
lexicography and the Multi-Dictionary Formatter, version 1.0. Waxhaw, North
Carolina: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Dallet, J.-M. (1982). Dictionnaire kabyle-français. Paris: SELAF.
Delheure, J. (1984). Dictionnaire mozabite-français. Paris: SELAF.
Delheure, J. (1987). Dictionnaire ouargli-français. Paris: SELAF.
Dray, M. (1998). Dictionnaire français-berbère. Dialecte des Ntifa. Paris:
l'Harmattan.
Destaing, E. (1914). Dictionnaire français-berbère. Paris: l'Harmattan. 2nd edition.
Destaing, E. (1938). Etude sur la tachelhit du Sous, vocabulaire français-berbère.
Paris: Leroux.
El Mountassir, A. (2003). Dictionnaire des verbes Tachelhit-Français. Paris:
L'Harmattan.
Foucauld, C. de (1951-1952). Dictionnaire touareg- français: dialecte de
l'Ahhagar. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale.
Gabsi, Z. (2003). An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern
Tunisia). PhD. Thesis. University of Western Sydney.
Heath, J. (2006). Dictionnaire touareg de Mali. Paris: Karthala
Huyghe, G. (1906). Dictionnaire français-chaouia. Alger: Lithographie Adolfe
Jourdan.
Ibañez, F. E. (1949). Diccionario rifeño-español. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios
Africanos.
Ibañez, F. E. (1959). Diccionario espanol-senhayi. Madrid: Consejo superior de
investigaciones cientificas.
Kossmann, M. G. (1997). Grammaire du berbère de Figuig (Maroc Oriental).
Louvain/Paris: Peeters.
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Kossmann, M.G. (2000). Esquisse grammaticale du rifain oriental. Paris/Louvain:
Peeters.
Kossmann, M.G. (2009). Tarifiyt Berber Vocabulary. In Haspelmath, M and
Tadmor, U. editors, World Loanword Database (WOLD), pp. 1533 entries.
München: Max Planck Digital Library.
Lanfry, J. (1968), Ghadamès: étude linguistique et ethnographique. Alger: Fichier
de documentation berbère.
Lanfry, J. (1973). Ghadamès II. Glossaire (parler des Ayt Waziten). Alger: Fichier
périodique.
Laoust, E. (1912). Etude sur le dialecte berbère du Chenoua comparé avec ceux
des Beni-Menacer et des Beni-Saleh. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Laoust, E. (1920). Mots et choses berbères : notes de linguistique et
d'ethnographie. Dialectes du Maroc. Paris: A. Challamel.
Laoust, E. (1932). Siwa: son parler. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Mammeri, M. (2003). L'Ahellil du Gourara. Paris: Éditions de la Maison des
sciences de l'homme.
Naït-Zerrad, K. (1998). Dictionnaire des racines berbères (formes attestées), I. ABԐ L. Paris-Louvain: Peeters.
Naït-Zerrad, K. (1999). Dictionnaire des racines berbères (formes attestées), II. CDEN. Paris-Louvain: Peeters.
Naït-Zerrad, K. (2002). Dictionnaire des racines berb res formes attestées
- GԐY. Paris-Louvain: Peeters.
Nehlil, -. (1909). Etude sur le dialecte de Ghat. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Provotelle, P. (1911). Etude sur la tamazir't ou zénatia de Qalaât es-Sened
(Tunisie). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Rahhou, R. (2005). Dictionnaire berbère-français (parler des Beni-Iznassen).
Thèse de Doctorat. Fès: Université Mohammed Ben Abdallah.
Renisio, A. (1932). Etude sur les dialectes berbères des Beni Iznassen, du Rif et
des Senhaja de Srair. Paris: E. Leroux.
Saa, F. (1995). Aspects de la morphologie et de la phonologie du berbère parlé
dans le ksar Zenaga à Figuig. Thèse de Doctorat. Paris: Université Paris III.
Sahli, A. (2008). Muʿjam ʿamāzīghi ʿarabiḫāss bilahajat ʿahālī fijīj Oujda:
Mat biɍ al-ɍanw r al-magh ribiya.
Serhoual, M. (2002). Dictionnaire tarifit-français et essai de lexicologie amazighe.
Thèse de Doctorat d‘Etat. Tetuan: Université Abdelmalek Essaâdi.
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Stroomer, H. (1994). Morphological segmentation in Tachelhiyt Berber (Morocco).
Études et documents berbères, 11: 91–96
Taïfi, M. (1992). Dictionnaire tamazight-français. Paris: l'Harmattan.
Taine-Cheikh, C. (2010). Dictionnaire français-zénaga (berbère de Mauritanie),
avec renvoi au classement par racines du Dictionnaire zénaga-français. Köln:
Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
Yeou, M., Kiyoshi H. and Maeda S. (2011). Articulatory and acoustic
characteristics of some geminates in Figuig Berber. Proceedings of the 9th
International Seminar on Speech Production, Montreal.
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Appendix: example of dictionary page and finder list
DN
adan (w-) n. ♦ intestins (en général), le
petit intestin. ◊ adanen n tmurt litt.
intestins de terre: lombric, ver de terre.
cf. 'adan n tmuat' (Rif): m. sn. Cf.:
tameswadant
MS
N imedren,
RN tasuft SF. Pl.: adanen. dial &
étym.: adan, adan (Chl), adan (Mc, Izn,
Rif, Sen, Cha, Che, Ace, Sns, Mzb, Oua,
Ghd, Ght, Nef), adan, aden (Snd), ădân
(Aha): boyau, intestins comme sn.
commun; dér. du v. eden (Aha): graisser,
être graissé.
tadunt (dd-/td-) n. ♦ graisse (d'origine
animale). ◊ mi dd un ul tsseh ddunt
u mu iqqar iqqar as yexx mi
un ul terxis ddunt u
mu iqqar
iqqar ammu tfuh litt. quand le chat
n'arrive pas à avoir la graisse il lui dit
"pouah!" / qu'est ce qu'elle pue!: se dit
pour qqn. qui minimise l'importance
d'une chose souhaitable, mais qu'il est
incapable de réaliser (dicton). syn.:
tilebdin L . dial & étym.: tadunt (Chl,
Ntf, Sen, Mc, Izn, Rif, Cha, Sns, Mzb,
Oua, Nef, Tim, Snd), tadunt, tadwent
(Ace), tâdent (Aha), tadent, tedent (Nig):
m. sn.
adun n. ♦ augment. du précéd.
DN
aden yuden, un (ul) yudin, ittaden, un (ul)
ittiden v. ♦ couvrir, recouvrir, couvrir de
couverture (dormeur); être couvert ◊ adn
it ammen ad ittes couvre-le d'une
couverture pour qu'il dorme. ◊ adfel qaԑ
illa yuden adrar la neige a
complètement couvert la montagne. ◊
tella tuden imma nnes an (al) ixef nnes
elle s'est couverte jusqu'à la tête. ♦ fig.
couvrir, protéger, chercher à innocenter
(coupable, accusé). ◊ ite zzbayel ppas
ittaden xfes il fait des fautes graves,
mais son père ne le dénonce pas pour le
protéger. dial & étym.: aden (Mzb, Oua,
Izn, Ace, Sns, Tim, Snd, Ghd, Nef):
couvrir et/ou pass.
ttwaden ittwaden,
un (ul) ittwaden,
ittwadan, un (ul) ittwidin v. ♦ être
couvert, recouvert ◊ tettwaden tmurt s
wedfel (udfel) la terre a été couverte de
neige. ♦ fig. être protégé, innocenté,
couvert
idan (y-) n. vb. ♦ fait de couvrir, de
recouvrir, de couvrir de couverture; ♦ fait
de chercher à innocenter.
madun (u-) n. ♦ plaque, dalle de pierre; ♦
dalle de tombeau. ◊ iԑemdan wala
imudan litt. il vaut mieux [s'appuyer sur]
une canne qu'une dalle de tombeau:
plutôt souffrir que mourir (dicton) syn.:
tadelha
L . Pl.: imadunen. dial &
étym.: madun, tmadunt (Mzb), teddenen
(Zen): mm. sn.
tmadunt n. ♦ couvercle, tout ce qui
couvre; ♦ bouchon. ◊ tmadunt n uqlil
couverle de cruche, d'une théière. ◊
tmadunt n uɣ ellay couverle de
bouilloire. ◊ tmadunt n tmermitt
couvercle de marmite. ◊ tmadunt n
qerԑet bouchon de bouteille. ◊ tmadunt
n titt litt. couvercle de l'œil: paupière
(supérieure). ◊ yuf uqlil tmadunt nnes
litt. la cruche a trouvé son couvercle: qui
se ressemble s‘assemble (dicton). Pl.:
timadunin. dial & étym.: madun (Tim),
addan (Mzb), adan, badun (Oua), amaden
(Ghd): m. sn.; madun (Izn, Rif), mudun
(Ace): couscoussier.
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LES RESSOURCES LANGAGIERES : CONSTRUCTION ET EXPLOITATION
____________________________
dent n. tiɣ mest (te-), ƔMS.
dent (de clé) n. tiswet (te-), SW.
dent (de fourche) n. qa aw (u-), QŠ
depuis prép. si, S.
dernier n. adj. ane aru (u-), R.
dernier-né n. adj. amazuz (u-), M .
derrière
prép. adv. n. deffer, DFR.
descendre v. hwa, HW;
.
v. zder, ZDR.
n. asehnennay (u-), HNY;
n. vb. hekku (u-), HW.
dessous
n. adday (w-), DY.
descente
dessèchement n. vb. asiqqur (u-), ƔR.
dessécher v. ssiqqur, ƔR.
dessécher (se) v. aden, N;
desséché
v. h i er, ŠR.
n. adj. madun (u-),
N;
adj. n. ameqqur (u-), ƔR.
destinée
n. mimun (u-), MN.
dette
n. amerwas (u-), R S.
deuil
n. anebdi (u-), NBD.
deux (fém.) n. adj. sent, SN.
deux (masc.) n. adj. senn, SN.
devancer
n. asul, SL;
devant
devenir
v. zzar, ZR.
prép. adv. n. zzat, ZT.
v. dwel, DWL;
v. dha
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