pdf - Publications

Emerging animal and plant
industries
Their value to Australia
by
Max Foster and the Agricultural Commodities Section, ABARES
September 2014
RIRDC Publication No 14/069
RIRDC Project No PRJ-008496
© Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation 2013
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-1-74254-685-8
ISSN 1440-6845
Emerging animal and plant industries—their value to Australia
Publication No. 14/069
Project No. PRJ-008496
The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion
and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in
this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.
While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct,
the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.
The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the
authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability
to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or
omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the
part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors.
The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication.
This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are
reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights
should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on 02 6271 4165.
Researcher contact details
Agricultural Commodities Section
ABARES
PO Box 1563 Canberra 2601
Phone: +61 2 6272 2010
Fax: +61 2 6272 2040
Email: info.abares@daff.gov.au
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.
RIRDC contact details
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 2, 15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6271 4100
Fax: 02 6271 4199
Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au.
Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Electronically published by RIRDC in September 2014
Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra at www.rirdc.gov.au or phone 1300 634 313
ii
Foreword
New and emerging industries need readily accessible information about farm production, processing
and marketing techniques. Information about the nature of the international and domestic markets that
each emerging industry will be supplying is often neglected.
This report identifies a broad range of new and emerging industries in Australia, at various stages in
their development cycles. It also points to a number of industries that were classified as new and
emerging over the past decade, but are now in decline or—in some cases—have ceased to exist. It is
inevitable that some new industries will not become successful and sustainable in the long run.
This is the third edition of Emerging animal and plant industries—their value to Australia, all of which
have been funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. The first edition
was published in 2005 and the second edition in 2009. The 2014 edition has been extended to include
information about international markets for new industries that are prospective in Australia, but where
there are not yet commercial producers; for example, the guar and stevia industries.
This report is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 2000 research publications and it forms
part of our R&D program, which aims to facilitate the development of new and developing plant and
animal industries that have commercial potential for Australia.
Most of RIRDC’s publications are available for viewing, free downloading or purchasing online at
www.rirdc.gov.au. Purchases can also be made by phoning 1300 634 313.
Craig Burns
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
iii
Abbreviations
kg
kilogram = 2.20462 pounds
t
tonne = 1000 kilograms
kt
kilotonne = 1000 tonnes
Mt
megatonne = 1 000 000 tonnes
L
litre
kL
kilolitre = 1000 litres
ML
megalitre = 1 000 000 litres
GL
gigalitre = 1 000 000 000 litres
ha
hectare
A$
dollar (Australian)
$m
million dollars (Australian)
$b
billion dollars (Australian)
US$
dollar (United States)
US$m
million dollars (United States)
US$b
billion dollars (United States)
cif
cost, insurance and freight
EVAO
estimated value of agricultural operations
fas
free alongside ship
fob
free on board
GDP
gross domestic product
na
not available
nc
not calculated
nec
not elsewhere classified
nes
not elsewhere specified
p
provisional
ABARES
Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences
ABS
Australian Bureau of Statistics
DAFF
Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
RIRDC
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
WTO
World Trade Organization
UNCTAD
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
Small discrepancies in totals are generally caused by rounding.
0 is used to denote nil or a negligible amount.
iv
Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... iii
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................ iv
Overview.............................................................................................................................................. xiv
Method of analysis .......................................................................................................................... xiv
Valuing production..................................................................................................................... xiv
Data sources ................................................................................................................................ xv
Key findings .................................................................................................................................... xvi
Emerging livestock industries .............................................................................................................. 1
Alpacas ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Buffaloes ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Camels ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Dairy sheep ....................................................................................................................................... 11
Deer .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Emus ................................................................................................................................................. 17
Game birds ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Game pigs ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Goats................................................................................................................................................. 24
Meat goats ................................................................................................................................... 25
Cashmere ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Mohair ......................................................................................................................................... 29
Dairy goats .................................................................................................................................. 31
Kangaroos and wallabies .................................................................................................................. 33
Kangaroos ................................................................................................................................... 33
Wallabies ..................................................................................................................................... 35
Ostriches ........................................................................................................................................... 36
Possums ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Rabbits, farmed ................................................................................................................................ 41
Aquaculture and fisheries ................................................................................................................. 43
Carp ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Crocodiles ................................................................................................................................... 46
Freshwater crayfish ..................................................................................................................... 49
Mulloway .................................................................................................................................... 51
Murray cod .................................................................................................................................. 53
Seaweed....................................................................................................................................... 54
Emerging plant industries .................................................................................................................. 59
Asian vegetables ............................................................................................................................... 60
Wombok (Chinese cabbage) ....................................................................................................... 62
Bitter melon................................................................................................................................. 63
Japanese pumpkin ....................................................................................................................... 64
Okra ............................................................................................................................................. 64
Snake bean .................................................................................................................................. 65
Taro (large corm) ........................................................................................................................ 66
Wasabi ......................................................................................................................................... 67
Australian native foods..................................................................................................................... 68
Bush tomato ................................................................................................................................ 71
Davidson plum ............................................................................................................................ 71
Kakadu plum ............................................................................................................................... 71
v
Lemon myrtle .............................................................................................................................. 72
Mountain pepper ......................................................................................................................... 72
Native limes ................................................................................................................................ 72
Quandong .................................................................................................................................... 73
Riberry......................................................................................................................................... 73
Wattleseed ................................................................................................................................... 73
Cocoa................................................................................................................................................ 74
Coffee ............................................................................................................................................... 77
Culinary herbs .................................................................................................................................. 80
Dates ................................................................................................................................................. 82
Essential oils ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Boronia oil................................................................................................................................... 87
Eucalyptus oil .............................................................................................................................. 88
Lavender oil ................................................................................................................................ 89
Peppermint oil ............................................................................................................................. 91
Sandalwood ................................................................................................................................. 94
Tea tree oil................................................................................................................................... 97
Grains, seeds and plant fibre ............................................................................................................ 99
Chia ............................................................................................................................................. 99
Guar seed................................................................................................................................... 100
Industrial hemp.......................................................................................................................... 102
Quinoa ....................................................................................................................................... 104
Olives ............................................................................................................................................. 105
Spices ............................................................................................................................................. 110
Coriander seed ........................................................................................................................... 114
Ginger........................................................................................................................................ 115
Saffron ....................................................................................................................................... 117
Stevia ......................................................................................................................................... 118
Tea .................................................................................................................................................. 120
Overview ................................................................................................................................... 120
World tea market ....................................................................................................................... 120
Australian tea consumption ....................................................................................................... 121
Black tea .................................................................................................................................... 122
Japanese green tea ..................................................................................................................... 123
Tree nuts ......................................................................................................................................... 125
World tree nut market ............................................................................................................... 125
Hazelnuts ................................................................................................................................... 128
Walnuts ..................................................................................................................................... 130
Tropical exotic fruit ........................................................................................................................ 134
Durian........................................................................................................................................ 136
Jackfruit ..................................................................................................................................... 137
Longan....................................................................................................................................... 139
Lychees ..................................................................................................................................... 140
Mangosteen ............................................................................................................................... 142
Papaya and pawpaw .................................................................................................................. 143
Pitaya (dragon fruit) .................................................................................................................. 145
Rambutan .................................................................................................................................. 146
Truffles ........................................................................................................................................... 147
Wildflowers and native plants ........................................................................................................ 151
Appendixes ......................................................................................................................................... 157
Appendix A: Value of Australian farm and fisheries production and exports ............................... 157
Appendix B: Levies applicable to emerging industries in Australia .............................................. 161
References .......................................................................................................................................... 163
vi
Tables
Table 1:
Emerging industries in Australia: value of production, exports and imports ................... xvi
Table 2:
Alpacas: product supply, disposal and value, Australia ...................................................... 5
Table 3:
Buffaloes: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................. 7
Table 4:
Camels: supply, disposal and value, Australia .................................................................. 10
Table 5:
Sheep milk and cheese: key characteristics of the world market ...................................... 11
Table 6:
Sheep milk: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 12
Table 7:
Deer products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ........................................................ 16
Table 8:
Emu products: supply disposal and value, Australia ......................................................... 18
Table 9:
Game birds: key characteristics of the world market ........................................................ 20
Table 10:
Game birds: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 21
Table 11:
Game birds (other than duck and turkey): Australian production, 2001–02 and 2011–12 22
Table 12:
Game pig meat: supply, disposal and value, Australia ...................................................... 23
Table 13:
Goat products: key characteristics of the world market .................................................... 25
Table 14:
Goat products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ........................................................ 26
Table 15:
Cashmere: key characteristics of the world market ........................................................... 27
Table 16:
Cashmere: supply, disposal and value, Australia .............................................................. 28
Table 17:
Mohair: supply, disposal and value, Australia................................................................... 30
Table 18:
Goat milk products: supply, disposal and value, licensed dairy farms, Australia ............. 32
Table 19:
Kangaroo products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................ 34
Table 20:
Wallaby products: supply, disposal and value, Tasmania ................................................. 36
Table 21:
Ostrich products: supply, disposal and value, Australia .................................................... 38
Table 22:
Possum products: supply, disposal and value, Tasmania .................................................. 41
Table 23:
Rabbit meat: key characteristics of the world market........................................................ 42
Table 24:
Rabbit products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ..................................................... 43
Table 25:
Carp: supply, disposal and value, Australia....................................................................... 46
Table 26:
Crocodilian products: world trade in skins and meat a...................................................... 48
Table 27:
Crocodile products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................ 49
Table 28:
Freshwater crayfish: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................... 51
vii
Table 29:
Seaweed: key characteristics of the world market ............................................................. 54
Table 30:
Seaweed products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................. 56
Table 31:
Selected Asian vegetables: average prices, Sydney wholesale market ............................. 61
Table 32:
Wombok (Chinese cabbage): supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................. 63
Table 33:
Bitter melon: supply and value, Northern Territory .......................................................... 64
Table 34:
Okra: supply and value, Northern Territory ...................................................................... 65
Table 35:
Snake bean: supply, disposal and value, Northern Territory ............................................. 65
Table 36:
Major Australian native foods from plants ........................................................................ 69
Table 37:
Selected Australian native foods: production, prices and value of production ................. 70
Table 38:
Cocoa beans (raw and roasted): key characteristics of the world market .......................... 74
Table 39:
Cocoa products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ..................................................... 76
Table 40:
Coffee: key characteristics of the world market ................................................................ 77
Table 41:
Coffee: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................... 79
Table 42:
Culinary herbs: supply, disposal and value, Australia ....................................................... 80
Table 43:
Culinary herbs: prices, fresh product, Melbourne wholesale market ................................ 81
Table 44:
Dates: key characteristics of the world market .................................................................. 82
Table 45:
Dates: supply, disposal and value, Australia ..................................................................... 83
Table 46:
Essential oils: characteristics of world trade ..................................................................... 84
Table 47:
Essential oils: Australian exports and imports, by type ..................................................... 86
Table 48:
Boronia oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 87
Table 49:
Eucalyptus oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia ....................................................... 89
Table 50:
Lavender oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia .......................................................... 91
Table 51:
Peppermint oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia ....................................................... 93
Table 52:
Sandalwood products: supply, disposal and value in Australia ......................................... 97
Table 53:
Tea tree oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 99
Table 54:
Guar seed products: supply, disposal and value, Australia.............................................. 102
Table 55:
Industrial hemp: key characteristics of the world market ................................................ 103
Table 56:
Olive products: key characteristics of the world market ................................................. 106
Table 57:
Olive products: supply, disposal and value, Australia ..................................................... 108
Table 58:
Spices: characteristics of world trade .............................................................................. 110
viii
Table 59:
Spices: exports and imports, Australia ............................................................................ 113
Table 60:
Coriander seed: supply, disposal and value, Australia .................................................... 115
Table 61:
Ginger: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................. 116
Table 62:
Saffron: key characteristics of the world market ............................................................. 117
Table 63:
Saffron: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................ 118
Table 64:
Tea: key characteristics of the world market ................................................................... 121
Table 65:
Tea: supply, disposal and value, Australia ...................................................................... 123
Table 66:
Japanese green tea: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................... 125
Table 67:
Tree nuts: prices, Melbourne wholesale market .............................................................. 127
Table 68:
Hazelnuts: key characteristics of the world market ......................................................... 128
Table 69:
Hazelnuts: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 130
Table 70:
Walnuts: key characteristics of the world market............................................................ 131
Table 71:
Walnuts: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................... 133
Table 72:
Selected tropical exotic fruit: average prices, Sydney wholesale market ........................ 134
Table 73:
Durian: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................. 137
Table 74:
Jackfruit: supply, disposal and value, Australia .............................................................. 138
Table 75:
Longan: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................ 140
Table 76:
Lychee: supply, disposal and value, Australia................................................................. 141
Table 77:
Mangosteen: supply, disposal and value, Australia ......................................................... 143
Table 78:
Papaya: supply, disposal and value, Australia ................................................................. 145
Table 79:
Rambutan: supply, disposal and value, Australia ............................................................ 147
Table 80:
Truffles: key characteristics of European Union trade .................................................... 148
Table 81:
Truffles: supply, disposal and value in Australia ............................................................ 150
Table 82:
Wildflowers: Australian species ...................................................................................... 153
Table 83:
Wildflowers: supply, disposal and value, Australia ........................................................ 155
Table A1: Gross value of Australian livestock production............................................................... 157
Table A2: Gross value of Australian fisheries products a ................................................................ 158
Table A3: Gross value of Australian crop production ...................................................................... 159
Table A4: Value of exports of crops and crop products ................................................................... 160
ix
Figures
Figure 1:
Emerging industries in Australia: growth in the value of production and trade between
2006–07 and 2011–12, by sector, Australia ..................................................................... xix
Figure 2:
Livestock: value of production, Australia, by sector, 2011–12 ........................................... 1
Figure 3:
Emerging animal industries: number of process plants, by species, Australia .................... 3
Figure 4:
Alpacas: meat and fibre production and farmgate prices, Peru ........................................... 4
Figure 5:
Alpaca tops: exports and export prices, Peru....................................................................... 4
Figure 6:
Alpacas: offer prices, Australian Alpaca Fleece Limited, by fleece type, 2010–11 and
2011–12 a ............................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 7:
Buffaloes: live exports from Northern Territory, by destination ......................................... 8
Figure 8:
Camels: world production and trade .................................................................................... 9
Figure 9:
Roquefort cheese: exports and export prices, France ........................................................ 12
Figure 10: Traditional sheep milk cheeses: imports and import prices, Australia .............................. 13
Figure 11: Venison: New Zealand exports and export prices a .......................................................... 14
Figure 12: Emu meat: Australian production, exports and export prices ............................................ 18
Figure 13: Game birds and chicken: world production for food a ...................................................... 19
Figure 14: Game birds: world meat imports and import prices .......................................................... 20
Figure 15: Game bird meat: exports and export prices, Australia a .................................................... 23
Figure 16: Game pig meat and offal: European Union imports and import price by source .............. 24
Figure 17: Live goats: exports and export prices, Australia ............................................................... 26
Figure 18: Goat meat: exports and export prices, Australia ................................................................ 27
Figure 19: Cashmere: Chinese production, exports and export prices ................................................ 28
Figure 20: Mohair: world production and South African average auction prices ............................... 30
Figure 21: Goat milk (whole, fresh): world production and producer price in France ....................... 32
Figure 22: Kangaroo meat: exports and export prices, Australia ........................................................ 35
Figure 23: Ostrich: slaughterings and returns, South Africa ............................................................... 37
Figure 24: Ostrich meat: production, exports and export prices, Australia ........................................ 38
Figure 25: Brushtail possums: commercial harvest and quota in Tasmania ....................................... 40
Figure 26: Rabbit meat: world production, exports and export prices ................................................ 42
x
Figure 27: Aquaculture: value of production, by sector, 2011–12...................................................... 44
Figure 28: Carp: European Union imports and import prices ............................................................. 45
Figure 29: Carp: production and unit values, Victorian and South Australian waters ........................ 46
Figure 30: Crocodilians: world exports of crocodilian skins, by species a ......................................... 47
Figure 31: Freshwater crayfish: world production and producer prices ............................................. 50
Figure 32: Freshwater crayfish: production and producer prices, Australia ....................................... 51
Figure 33: Wild catch mulloway: production and prices, South Australia ......................................... 52
Figure 34: Farmed mulloway: production and prices, New South Wales........................................... 53
Figure 35: Murray cod: aquaculture production and prices, New South Wales ................................. 54
Figure 36: Seaweed: world production, imports and import prices .................................................... 55
Figure 37: Alginic acid: trade and prices, Australia............................................................................ 57
Figure 38: Horticulture: value of production, Australia, by sector, 2011–12 ..................................... 59
Figure 39: Asian vegetables (fresh and dried): value of Australian exports to Asia, by region ......... 62
Figure 40: Wombok (Chinese cabbage): production, exports and export prices, Australia................ 63
Figure 41: Japanese pumpkin: Japanese imports from Australia ........................................................ 64
Figure 42: Okra and taro: world production ....................................................................................... 65
Figure 43: Taro: world exports and export prices ............................................................................... 66
Figure 44: Taro: imports and import prices from Fiji, Australia ........................................................ 67
Figure 45: Wasabi: production, Japan, 2010 ....................................................................................... 68
Figure 46: Selected Australian native foods: value of production, around 2011 ................................ 70
Figure 47: Cocoa products: composition of the value of world exports ............................................. 75
Figure 48: Cocoa beans: world production, imports and import price................................................ 75
Figure 49: Coffee beans: world production and indicator prices ........................................................ 78
Figure 50: Culinary herbs: gross value of Australian production of herbs, 2010–11, by state ........... 80
Figure 51: Culinary herbs (dried): imports and import prices, Australia ............................................ 81
Figure 52: Dates: world production, exports and export prices .......................................................... 82
Figure 53: Essential oils: composition of world trade value a ............................................................ 85
Figure 54: Eucalyptus oil: Australian exports and export prices ........................................................ 89
Figure 55: Lavender oil: production and prices, France ..................................................................... 90
Figure 56: Peppermint oil: production and grower prices, United States.............................................. 92
xi
Figure 57: P eppermint oil: world exports and export prices .............................................................. 92
Figure 58: Peppermint oil: Australian exports, imports and prices..................................................... 93
Figure 59: Sandalwood oil: import and export volumes and prices, India.......................................... 94
Figure 60: Sandalwood: imports of wood and wood powder, Taiwan ............................................... 95
Figure 61: Sandalwood: production and payments to harvesters, Western Australia ......................... 96
Figure 62: Tea tree oil: production and farmgate returns, Australia ................................................... 98
Figure 63: Chia: production and returns to growers, Mexico ........................................................... 100
Figure 64: Guar gum powder: world exports and export prices ....................................................... 101
Figure 65: Guar seed: Indian production and US import prices ....................................................... 101
Figure 66: Industrial hemp products: exports and export prices, Canada ......................................... 103
Figure 67: Quinoa: world production, exports and export prices ..................................................... 105
Figure 68: Olive products: imports and import prices, Australia ...................................................... 109
Figure 69: Olive products: exports and export prices, Australia....................................................... 109
Figure 70: Spices: value of world trade ............................................................................................ 110
Figure 71: Value of imports and exports, Australia .......................................................................... 112
Figure 72: Coriander seed: world exports and export prices ............................................................ 114
Figure 73: Saffron: production and producer prices, Spain .............................................................. 117
Figure 74: Glycosides: import value, Australia ................................................................................ 120
Figure 75: Tea: world production, exports and export prices ........................................................... 121
Figure 76: Tea: value of grocery sales in Australia, by type, 2011–12............................................. 122
Figure 77: Japanese green tea: production and producer prices, Japan............................................. 124
Figure 78: Tree nuts: value of world imports, by type a ................................................................... 126
Figure 79: Tree nuts: country shares of the total value of world trade a ........................................... 126
Figure 80: Tree nuts: value composition of trade, Australia a .......................................................... 127
Figure 81: Hazelnuts (in shell): production and prices, United States .............................................. 128
Figure 82: Hazelnuts: world imports and import prices .................................................................... 129
Figure 83: Walnuts (in shell): production and grower prices, California ......................................... 132
Figure 84: Walnuts: world imports and import prices ...................................................................... 132
Figure 85: Selected tropical exotic fruit: production, Thailand ........................................................ 135
Figure 86: Durian: world exports and export prices ......................................................................... 136
xii
Figure 87: Jackfruit: exports and export prices, Thailand ................................................................. 138
Figure 88: Longan: production, exports and export prices, Thailand ............................................... 139
Figure 89: Lychee: production, exports and export prices, Thailand ................................................ 141
Figure 90: Mangosteen: production, exports and export prices, Thailand ........................................ 142
Figure 91: Papaya: world exports and export prices ......................................................................... 144
Figure 92: Rambutan: production, exports and export prices, Thailand ........................................... 146
Figure 93: Truffles: production and prices, monthly, France ........................................................... 148
Figure 94: Cut flowers and foliage: value of world imports ............................................................. 152
Figure 95: Wildflowers: flower and seed harvest from native environments of south-west Western
Australia........................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 96: Wildflowers: value of exports, Australia ......................................................................... 156
xiii
Overview
An increasingly diverse range of plant and animal commodities are produced in Australia. While the
key characteristics of mainstream agricultural production in Australia are well-documented, there is
relatively little public information for a large number of emerging agricultural products.
Public information on emerging agricultural industries is important. New and emerging industries have
a key role in giving growers the ability to spread risk through diversification. They can also confer
regional distinctiveness—such as tropical fruits in Far North Queensland or truffles in Tasmania and
south-west Western Australia.
The lack of reliable statistics about emerging industries can hamper their development. The
availability of information can significantly influence the availability of commercial funds because
lenders and potential investors require access to reliable statistics. Only when statistics exist can
effective policies be developed for emerging agricultural industries, such as in targeting research and
development activities.
Official statistics produced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics are an important source of
information but do not cover all agricultural commodities produced in Australia. While there are other
sources of information on emerging industries, it is often difficult to access this information and to
establish comparable, robust statistics on the industries.
Many of the emerging industries in Australia produce a diverse range of products. For example, goats
can produce meat, fibres, milk, leather and a range of other by-products. RIRDC classifies around 80
different agricultural commodities as coming from emerging industries. Information on these emerging
agricultural industries and new products from existing industries is highly valued by the industry,
traders and consumers in Australia and overseas. Around 50 per cent of the value of emerging
livestock products comes from export sales.
The purpose of this project is to help address the gap in public information available on new and
emerging industries. This publication is an update of a previous report published by RIRDC in January
2009 (Foster 2009), with additional sections on carp, chia, cocoa, dates, guar, industrial hemp,
mulloway, Murray cod, quinoa, saffron, seaweed and stevia.
In this report, a set of supply and utilisation tables is presented for a selected group of agricultural
industries in Australia that are defined as ‘emerging’ by RIRDC, taking into account that each of these
industries may produce a number of different products. Information is also provided on the nature of
the international market for these commodities.
Method of analysis
Valuing production
The method of calculation of the gross value of commodities produced is that used by the Australian
Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (see ABS 2012c) and is the value placed on recorded production at the
wholesale prices realised in the market place. In general, the market place is the metropolitan market
in each state. In cases where commodities are consumed locally, or where they become raw material
for a secondary industry, these points are assumed to be the market place.
A feature of many emerging animal industries is that they are in the process of building up flock or
herd numbers. At this stage of industry development, there is usually little production that requires
slaughter of animals (for example, meat and hides) and very strong intra-industry trade with breeding
livestock. This trade is traditionally not considered as part of the value of the industry for estimation
purposes so is not included in this analysis, but it is an important element for existing practitioners.
xiv
In many cases an industry’s value of production will be less than the value of the industry’s exports.
This is because there is substantial value added through processing before products are exported. For
example, the tanning process with animal skins adds considerable value.
Data sources
The ABS is a key source of Australian information for this project, particularly for trade data. The
approach in this report is to exclude re-exports and re-imports when reporting Australian trade data.
Another highly useful source of information for a number of commodities is the Levies Revenue
Service (LRS), an organisation within the Australian Government Department of Agriculture. The
LRS is responsible for collecting and distributing levies to the various statutory research and
development corporations, statutory marketing authorities, Animal Health Australia and the National
Residue Survey. LRS is also responsible for distributing the Australian Government’s matching levy
for research and development contributions. The LRS collects levies from over 60 industries. The
natures of levies being applied on the products from emerging industries are outlined in Appendix B.
More information on the LRS and levy arrangements is available at www.daff.gov.au/agriculturefood/levies.
State departments responsible for agriculture and key industry representative bodies are the other key
sources of information in Australia. The Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and
Fisheries is particularly useful because many of its activities are oriented toward emerging industries.
Knowledge of the supply chain for each commodity helps identify where to gather statistics for that
industry. For example, the marketing systems for the goat fibre industries (mohair and cashmere) are
centralised, which makes gathering production statistics reasonably straightforward. The meat
processing industry has readily identifiable points for gathering data because meat must be processed
through a limited number of licensed processing establishments. There are regulatory bodies in each
state that collect statistics on animal slaughter numbers for monitoring purposes.
For plant-based industries, information can be collected from the major markets for fruit, vegetables
and flowers in each of the mainland state capital cities—that is, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth
and Adelaide. A reporting service for these markets is provided by the Ausmarket Consultants group
(www.ausmarket.com.au).
The FAOSTAT database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
(faostat.fao.org) was the primary source of international information on production for many emerging
industries. The United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (Comtrade) was the primary
source for trade data. The European Commission’s EUROSTAT database provided some additional
trade information for products that were not provided by FAOSTAT—for example, carp, game pigs
and game birds. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) also has some useful world
supply and disposal data for agricultural commodities—for example, tree nuts.
Trade data for many countries are available online, usually maintained by each country’s customs
service or government trade agency. These data usually have more commodity detail than the
Comtrade database—country databases usually report trade code data to eight digits for exports and
ten digits for imports, whereas Comtrade only reports trade codes to six digits.
Where no FAO or USDA data are available, knowledge of the supply chain can help identify
international sources of information. For example, South Africa is the main world producer and
exporter of mohair; an industry body in that country—Mohair South Africa—gathers a range of
statistics on the world mohair industry. The annual report of Klein Karoo International Ltd, the world’s
key marketer of ostrich products, provides information on production and prices of ostrich products.
Industry participants, particularly industry associations, were indispensible sources of information in
Australia. These information sources are acknowledged throughout the report.
xv
Key findings
Together the selected emerging industries had an estimated gross value of production of $912 million,
equivalent to 1.9 per cent of the total value of Australian farm production in 2011–12. They earned
estimated export revenue of $491 million in 2011–12, or 1.3 per cent of total farm and fisheries export
revenue. Australian imports of products within the selected new and emerging industries totalled
$1.24 billion in 2011–12.
The selected livestock industries had an estimated gross value of production of $322 million in 2011–
12, and they earned export revenue of around $201 million (Table 1). The biggest of these industries
were the game bird, meat goat and kangaroo industries, together accounting for 85 per cent of the total
value of emerging livestock production and nearly 90 per cent of the total value of emerging livestock
exports. Except for the dairy goat and deer industries, emerging animal industries face little
competition from imports. The total value of imports of similar products to those produced by
Australia’s emerging animal industries is less than $13 million, mainly from goat cheese. The main
meat imports were venison from New Zealand, but the value of these imports had fallen from $2.8
million in 2006–07 to $0.6 million in 2011–12.
Table 1: Emerging industries in Australia: value of production, exports and imports, by
industry
Gross value
Exports
Imports
2006–07
2011–12 a
2006–07
2011–12
2006–07
2011–12
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
Alpacas
1 245
2 625
16
0
468
60
Buffaloes
5 077
3 071
4 923
729
–
–
Camels
1 483
1 288
0
0
–
–
Dairy sheep
4 000
5 550
na
na
732
551
Deer
3 047
1 659
3 251
1 985
2 814
633
Emus
1 256
561
1 032
641
–
–
120 000
165 000
7 891
6 224
–
–
9 615
6 694
12 275
8 477
–
–
57 208
81 137
88 748
127 046
264
6
103
72
83
11
0
0
Livestock
Game birds
Game pigs
Goats
– meat goats
– cashmere
– mohair
2 398
1 450
1 875
1 395
–
–
– dairy goats
6 000
11 025
na
na
4 814
11 500
54 073
28 646
99 223
46 553
–
–
Ostriches
2 364
324
1 833
601
–
–
Possums
39
65
0
65
–
–
Rabbits, farmed
2 599
3 181
18
34
4
6
Total, livestock
273 629
321 966
224 814
200 680
9 096
12 756
Kangaroos and wallabies
Aquaculture
Carp
1 447
585
0
68
–
–
10 179
51 859
10 139
15 048
–
–
4 251
3 996
–
–
–
–
Mulloway, farmed
107
488
–
–
–
–
Murray cod
331
291
–
0
0
Crocodile
Freshwater crayfish
xvi
Gross value
Exports
Imports
2006–07
2011–12 a
2006–07
2011–12
2006–07
2011–12
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
3 000
2 500
2 978
2 213
18 858
23 284
19 315
59 719
13 117
17 329
18 858
23 284
b
b
1 500
129
–
–
4 100
1 100
–
–
–
–
b
b
468
0
–
–
– okra
1 129
1 300
–
–
–
–
– snake bean
1 400
1 000
–
–
–
–
– taro (large corm)
3 500
5 000
–
–
4 574
2 984
68
240
–
–
–
–
66 803
76 860
na
na
na
na
252
540
–
–
–
–
90
90
–
–
–
–
– lemon myrtle
4 200
15 000
–
–
na
na
– native limes
750
575
–
–
–
–
– quandong
252
180
–
–
–
–
50
100
–
–
–
–
216
150
–
–
–
–
Cocoa
–
1 250
4 281
7 603
157 675
197 903
Coffee
7 780
11 376
113 758
168 688
302 607
596 118
18 863
46 000
na
na
3 184
4 297
–
–
101
380
9 379
14 969
Seaweed
Total, aquaculture
Plant
Asian vegetables
– wombok (Chinese cabbage)
– bitter melon
– Japanese pumpkin
– wasabi
– other Asian vegetables
Australian native foods
– bush tomato
– Davidson plum
– riberry
– wattleseed
Culinary herbs
Dates
Essential oils
– boronia
488
780
–
–
–
–
1 100
1 260
1 915
4 458
na
na
– lavender
466
1 313
392
190
na
na
– peppermint
187
750
390
343
1 479
1 165
– sandalwood
9 906
14 740
23 144
21 636
–
–
11 021
12 132
11 458
na
na
2 600
3 000
–
–
–
–
– eucalyptus
– tea tree
Grains and seeds
– chia
– guar seed
0
0
310
614
11 334
46 384
80
300
0
0
15
160
0
160
0
19
na
2 650
64 060
169 300
17 048
20 412
281 181
158 514
991
1 400
1 759
646
461
404
– ginger
22 726
21 442
13 874
8 566
3 164
3 989
– saffron
50
150
11
148
538
1 165
– industrial hemp
– quinoa
Olives
Spices
– coriander seed
xvii
Gross value
– stevia
Exports
Imports
2006–07
2011–12 a
2006–07
2011–12
2006–07
2011–12
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
$’000
0
0
0
0
0
na
1 808
1 984
2 484
3 436
88 948
87 959
0
819
725
2 614
8 652
10 355
389
708
692
414
15 717
19 283
5 561
37 334
74
11 150
27 333
41 949
64
480
0
–
236
4
Tea
– black tea
– Japanese green tea
Tree nuts
– hazelnuts
– walnuts
Tropical exotic fruit
– durian
– jackfruit
1 102
7 240
–
–
0
5
– longan
1 100
12 500
–
–
–
–
– lychees
13 378
15 177
9 418
–
149
48
950
1 924
68
67
419
982
– papaya and pawpaw
17 370
22 625
18
10
918
590
– pitaya (dragon fruit)
416
2 250
–
–
–
–
– rambutan
1 204
3 760
–
–
–
–
Truffles
1 640
5 152
204
–
438
–
– mangosteen
Wildflowers and native plants
40 000
30 000
20 975
6 778
–
–
Total, plant
308 110
530 361
215 201
272 894
918 695
1 199 564
All industries
600 054
912 046
453 132
490 903
946 649
1 235 604
a 2011–12, or latest available data. b Included in ‘other Asian vegetables’. na Not available.
The gross value of selected aquaculture industries in 2011–12 was $59.7 million, up from
$19.3 million in 2006–07 (Table 1). The crocodile industry accounted for the bulk of the value of
production and exports. Australia imported seaweed products valued at $23.3 million, but the value of
seaweed product exports (excluding beta-carotene for which data were not available) was only $2.2
million.
The gross value of production of the selected emerging plant industries in 2011–12 was an estimated
$530 million, up from $308 million in 2006–07 (Table 1). This was largely contributed by the more
mature emerging industries—that is, olives, Asian vegetables and tropical exotic fruit (mainly papaya
and lychee). Many of the emerging plant industries are export-oriented, with total exports of
$273 million in 2011–12 compared with $215 million in 2006–07.
Most of the emerging plant industries face strong competition from imports, particularly the cocoa,
coffee, olive and tea industries. The total value of these plant product imports was nearly $1.2 billion
in 2011–12, up from $919 million in 2006–07. For seasonal products such as tropical fruits and green
tea the Australian industry’s niche appears to lie with supplying fresh product outside the main
production periods of the main exporting countries that have substantially lower production costs.
Percentage changes in the value of production, exports and imports between 2006–07 and 2011–12 for
the emerging livestock, fisheries and plant industries are compared with Australian totals in Figure 1.
The emerging livestock sector had lower growth rates for each of these measures than the total
Australian livestock sector, mainly because of the loss of access to the Russian Federation market for
kangaroo meat and contractions of the deer, emu and ostrich industries. The emerging fisheries sector
had higher growth rates for gross value and value of exports than the Australian fisheries industry as a
xviii
whole, mainly because of strong growth in the farmed crocodile industry, but also higher growth in
import value. The value of production of the emerging plant industries as a whole grew faster than the
total plant industry in Australia over this period, but export value growth was slower.
250
200
150
100
50
% 0
-50
gross value
exports
imports
livestock industries
gross value
exports
imports
gross value
aquaculture and fisheries
new and emerging industries
exports
imports
plant industries
all industries
Figure 1: Emerging industries in Australia: growth in the value of production and trade between
2006–07 and 2011–12, by sector, Australia
xix
Emerging livestock industries
The emerging livestock industries in Australia produce a range of products, including meat, milk,
fibre, skins and oil and fat. The estimated annual average value in Australia of the emerging livestock
industries examined in this report was around $270 million in 2011–12. This compares with the
average annual value of Australian livestock products in 2011–12 of $21.2 billion (Figure 2). More
information on the production and exports of Australia’s animal-based agricultural industries is given
in Appendix A.
Total value of livestock production: $21 224m
poultry, $2078m
sheepmeat, $383m
lamb, $1950m
other livestock
products, $796m
pigs, $934m
Live exports
wool, $2857m
milk, $3986m
cattle, $651m
sheep, $345m
cattle and calves,
$7244m
Data source: ABARES (2013)
Figure 2: Livestock: value of production, Australia, by sector, 2011–12
Around 40 per cent of the total value of Australia’s emerging animal industries is based on harvesting
wild resources—kangaroos, wallabies, wild pigs, feral goats, camels and possums. The value of these
industries to Australia is greater than the value of their products because the culling of wild
populations helps to reduce adverse impacts on agricultural production systems and damage to the
environment. Wild pigs cause damage to riverine environments, while feral goats and camels damage
sensitive rangeland and desert environments.
Another 6 per cent of the total value of Australia’s emerging animal industries is based on farming
native Australian animals, including crocodiles and emus.
Wild harvesting or farming of Australia’s native animals is subject to strict conservation management
plans. These management plans are consistent with Australia’s obligations under the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which aims to ensure
that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
Farming of introduced animals—alpacas, buffaloes, deer, goats, ostriches and rabbits—makes up
around one-half of the total value of Australia’s emerging animal industries. The opportunity for rabbit
farming has largely emerged since 1996, when the industry based on harvesting wild rabbits at the
time collapsed following the release of rabbit calicivirus in Australia.
Some of the farmers in emerging animal industries appear to be attempting to diversify their
production away from more traditional agricultural products. There is also a strong lifestyle element to
many of the emerging livestock industries, with production occurring on hobby farms. Early entrants
1
to emerging animal industries have often benefited from supplying the lucrative market for breeding
stock that characterises emerging animal industries in their early stages of development.
The growth of some emerging animal industries is a response to Australia’s changing ethnic
composition, to increasing awareness of healthy products and to changes in tastes and preferences as a
result of growing incomes. The changing ethnic composition is influencing consumer preferences in
the wider population, leading to increased demand for products like goat meat and milk from goats and
sheep.
Growing incomes mean increasing demand for more distinctive and healthier products. All of the
emerging animal industries produce meat that easily meets the distinctive quality criteria. Most of the
meats are claimed to be healthier than traditional meats because they have lower fat contents.
Increasing domestic demand for dairy products from buffaloes, goats and sheep reflect the influence of
Australia’s changing population and preferences.
Leather is an important product of most emerging animal industries. In particular, the distinctive
characteristics of leather from crocodiles, kangaroos and ostriches mean these leathers earn premium
prices in world leather markets.
The oil from emus and the velvet from deer have niches in the health products market.
The emerging livestock industries are generally highly export-oriented, with more than half of all
products exported. The degree of export means that trade barriers are important issues for emerging
animal industries.
An important factor facilitating exports of emerging industry meat is Australia’s relatively disease free
status compared with many other countries, maintained through Australia’s strict quarantine
arrangements. In recent years incidents of avian influenza in South Africa have severely disrupted
South African exports of ostrich meat to its traditional markets in Europe, creating export opportunities
for the Australian ostrich industry.
While live exports account for 7.5 per cent of the total value of Australia’s emerging animal industries,
there is considerable value-adding through processing. Based on an update of data originally reported
in Wondu Business and Technology Services (2007), there were more than 180 abattoirs and
processing plants (many handling a number of species) servicing Australia’s emerging animal
industries (Figure 3). Wondu Business and Technology Services reported costs for processing of
emerging animals of around $40 million a year. Around 30 of the abattoirs identified were licensed to
export (export accredited), 20 had halal certification, 2 had kosher certification and 12 had organic
certification. There are currently no export abattoirs for alpaca, buffalo or possum. The last export
abattoir for buffaloes in the Northern Territory closed in 2004, which posed a problem for the buffalo
industry, but a new export accredited abattoir may open in the Territory in the future.
2
Bird
Other
farmed
Wild Inland
livestock harvest fisheries
yabby
redclaw
marron
crocodile
carp
wallaby
possum
game pig
kangaroo
camel
rabbit
horse
goat
deer
buffalo
alpaca
turkey
spatchcock
quail
pigeon
pheasant
partridge
ostrich
guinea fowl
goose
emu
duck
no. 0
5
10
domestic only
15
20
25
export accredited
Data sources: ABARES; Wondu Business and Technology Services (2007)
Figure 3: Emerging animal industries: number of process plants, by species, Australia
Alpacas
Alpacas are native to South America and were initially imported to Australia from Peru, Bolivia, Chile
and North America. There are two main alpaca types: Huacaya, making up around 90 per cent of the
world population of alpacas, and Suri. With tight restrictions on the export of alpacas from South
America, there is still a worldwide shortage of good alpaca breeding stock.
Alpacas are a source of fibre, meat and leather. Alpaca fibre is soft, light, warm and comfortable when
worn next to the skin. Its qualities and limited supply put it in the luxury fibre category. It is processed
into a range of high-quality garments—suits, jackets, skirts, sweaters, scarves and headwear—and
homewares such as rugs, blankets and continental quilts (as filling). Alpaca fibre comes in a range of
natural colours, including white, silver, many shades of grey and fawn, chocolate brown and jet black.
In South America, alpaca farming is concentrated in the Altiplano—the high altitude regions of
southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. Alpacas not only battle a harsh climate—burning sun by day,
freezing conditions at night—but also receive few of the benefits of modern animal husbandry
(Australian Alpaca Association 2002). Peru has approximately 2.5 million alpacas, Bolivia around
500 000 and there are some 50 000 in Chile and Argentina combined. Alpacas have flourished in
countries such as Australia, Canada, France, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, the United
Kingdom and the United States under more temperate climates than their homelands and with more
sophisticated animal husbandry techniques.
Both alpaca meat and fibre production in Peru have been increasing steadily over the past decade
(Figure 4). Peru produced 11 648 tonnes of alpaca meat and 4917 tonnes of alpaca fibre in 2012.
3
12
9
8
6
4
3
2012
kt 0
2002
2003
2004
meat production
2005
2006
2007
fibre production
2008
2009
2010
meat price (right axis)
2011
2012
0 US$/kg
fibre price (right axis)
Data source: Ministerio de Agricultura, Peru (2012)
Figure 4: Alpacas: meat and fibre production and farmgate prices, Peru
Prices for alpaca fibre generally differ according to fibre diameter, length and colour—fine, longer and
white types command the highest price. Alpaca fibre tends to coarsen as animals age.
Export prices of alpaca tops (scoured and combed fibre) from Peru have increased steadily since 2005,
reflecting increased demand for exotic fibres (Figure 5). The main export destinations in 2012 for
alpaca tops from Peru were China (45 per cent of the total value of exports), Italy (37 per cent), Japan
(6 per cent), the United Kingdom (4 per cent), the Republic of Korea (3 per cent) and Taiwan (2 per
cent). The total value of Peruvian alpaca tops exports in 2012 was US$30.4 million. In 2011, alpaca
products valued at US$87 million were exported from Peru in the form of yarn (US$38 million),
woven cloth (US$5 million), knitwear (US$32 million), woven garments ($7 million) and accessories
(US$5 million) (COMEXPERU 2013).
kt
4
20
3
15
2
10
1
5
0
0 US$/kg
2012
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
exports
2006
2007
2008
2009
export price (right scale)
Data sources: AgrodataPeru (2012); COMEXPERU (2013)
Figure 5: Alpaca tops: exports and export prices, Peru
4
2010
2011
2012
Australian alpaca industry
The Australian alpaca industry was established in the late 1980s and the registered flock size has
grown to around 132 000 in 2011–12, more than 90 per cent of which are the Huacaya alpaca type
(Table 2). Reflecting that the Australian industry is in a herd building phase, there has been little meat
production to date and a substantial trade in breeding stock. An estimated 188 tonnes of alpaca fibre
with a gross value of $2.6 million was produced in Australia in 2011–12. These production and gross
value estimates were based on a number of assumptions. First, it is assumed that the population of
alpacas in Australia is double the registered number of alpacas. Second, the average fleece weight was
assumed to be 2.5 kilograms and, based on McGregor (2006), the proportions of saddle, neck and
skirtings were 56 per cent, 16 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. The average fibre diameter was
assumed to be 23.5 micron with a standard deviation of 4.3 micron, based on test results reported by
Australian Alpaca Fibre Testing (2012).
Table 2: Alpacas: product supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
’000
72
84
100
100
122
134
132
– volume
tonnes
82
102
125
129
163
184
188
– gross value
$’000
778
1 245
1 496
1 419
1 708
2 149
2 625
$/kg
9.47
12.24
12.00
11.00
10.50
11.70
14.00
tonnes
na
3
na
na
na
na
4
– volume
tonnes
11.0
2.7
13.5
21.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
– value
$’000
125
16
96
333
0
0
0
$/kg
11.29
5.97
7.09
15.29
na
na
na
40
24
54
7
0
4
Production
Registered alpaca numbers
at 30 June
Fibre production
– unit gross value
Meat production a
Exports
Fibre, not carded or combed
– unit value
Imports, fine animal hair, Peru, carded or combed
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
85
468
265
704
68
0
60
$/kg
11.59
11.73
11.06
12.93
10.41
na
13.67
– unit value
7
a Dressed weight. na Not available. – Negligible.
Sources: AAFL (2011); ABARES; ABS (2013); Australian Alpaca Association (2012)
Until recently, the main marketer of alpaca fibre in Australia was Australian Alpaca Fleece Limited
(AAFL), a company established in March 2004. AAFL collects and classes alpaca fleeces before
selling them to strategic partners who market their products nationally and internationally. AAFL
replaced the Australian Alpaca Cooperative, which was established in 1995 under the Cooperatives
Act 1995. In 2008 Grupo Inca—one of the largest processors of alpaca and other fibres in Peru—
became the largest individual shareholder in AAFL with a holding of 28.7 per cent (AAFL 2013). A
number of other major marketers of alpaca fibre now operate in Australia, including Cashmere
Connections, Alpaca Ultrafine Bale and Alpaca Ultimate. A simple average of prices offered by these
organisations was used as the unit gross value of production of alpaca fibre.
AAFL purchase prices for the various types of alpaca in 2010–11 and 2011–12 are shown in Figure 6.
Alpaca fibre prices decline as fibre coarsens and there is a substantial discount for coloured fibre
compared with white fibre. Most of the fibre with commercial value is contained in the so-called
saddle of the alpaca; the neck and leg fibre contains a lot of coarse guard hair. The saddle makes up
approximately 56 per cent of the total fleece weight, neck fibre 16 per cent and skirtings 28 per cent
(McGregor 2006).
5
4
3
2
1
$/kg
0
x-fine (73% of fleece <22
micron)
white, 2011–12 b
fine (57% of fleece <22
micron)
white, 2010–11 b
medium (11% of fleece
<22 micron)
coloured, 2011–12
adult (2% of fleece <22
micron)
coloured, 2010–11
a Based on whole shorn fleece, including neck and pieces, GST excluded. b Including light fawn 'near-white'.
Data source: AAFL (2011)
Figure 6: Alpacas: offer prices, Australian Alpaca Fleece Limited, by fleece type, 2010–11 and
2011–12 a
Prices are very high for suitable breeding alpacas in Australia, reflecting the herd building phase of the
Australian industry and the worldwide scarcity of breeding stock, but are expected to decline as the
herd builds. The average price received for elite stud alpacas at the Australian Alpaca Association’s
National Show and Sale in October 2006 was $40 000, with a top price of $124 000 for a male alpaca.
At the National Show and Sale in October 2012, the average auction price was only $19 083, with a
top price of $61 000.
Further information about alpacas
 Alpha Tops Group (www.alphatops.com)—monthly prices for alpaca fibre, by broad category.
 Australian Alpaca Association (www.alpaca.asn.au)—information from the industry representative
body in Australia, including an online magazine Alpacas Australia (subscription required).
 Australian Alpaca Fleece Limited (www.australianalpacafleece.com.au)—information on the
marketing of alpaca products.
 International Alpaca Association (www.aia.org.pe)—information on alpacas, mainly in Peru,
including some Peruvian export data.
 The Schneider Group (www.gschneider.com/brochure/specialfibres.php)—prices and other market
information for alpaca fibre.
Buffaloes
Buffaloes are used as draught animals in poorer countries, particularly in Asia. Buffalo meat is used
for human and pet food and buffalo hides are a valuable co-product of meat production. Buffaloes are
an important source of milk in some countries, accounting for 13 per cent of world milk production
over the three years to 2010. Mozzarella cheese was originally made from buffalo milk.
India is the main exporter of buffalo meat, with average exports of 527 000 tonnes in the three years to
2010 (FAO Statistics Division 2013). Over the same period, an average 32 000 live buffaloes a year
were also exported, mainly from India and Nepal.
6
There are three broad types of domesticated buffalo:
 the River type—the milking animal of the Indian subcontinent
 the Swamp type—widely used in South-East Asia as a draught animal
 the Mediterranean type—used for both draught and dairy purposes (Australian Buffalo Industry
Council 2011).
Australian buffalo industry
Buffalo were introduced to the Northern Territory in the early 19th century. A large feral buffalo
population soon became established, peaking in the 1980s at around 350 000 head, before strict disease
eradication measures against bovine tuberculosis in the early 1990s. The buffalo population in the
Northern Territory was declared free of bovine tuberculosis in 1997.
It is estimated that there is currently a feral buffalo population in the Northern Territory of around
150 000 head (DSEWPaC 2011a) and a domesticated herd of around 9500 head on 12 farms. There are
also very small buffalo herds in all the other states. Throughout Australia in 2011-12, there were 65
farms with an estimated total of around 12 000 buffaloes.
The buffalo herd in the Northern Territory is made up mainly of the originally introduced Swamp type.
River buffalo were imported in the mid-1990s and have been crossed with Swamp buffalo to produce
faster growing animals. Most of the Riverine buffalo in Australia are located on five buffalo dairy
enterprises in Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory.
Buffalo meat is claimed to be leaner and lower in cholesterol than beef (Lemcke et al. 2006). To assist
marketing, the Australian buffalo industry has introduced a label called TenderBuff™ for buffalo meat
that meets its specified quality standards for the restaurant trade.
The gross value of the Australian buffalo industry in 2011–12 was around $3.2 million, which mainly
comprised of milk and meat production, and live exports from the Northern Territory (Table 3). Live
buffalo exports from Australia were down sharply in 2011–12, largely because live cattle exports were
suspended by the Australian Government for a period.
The closure of the only export accredited buffalo abattoir in the Northern Territory in 2003 has meant
no Territory buffalo slaughter for export since. However, construction commenced in late 2012 on a
new export abattoir near Darwin with the capacity to process 200 000 cattle a year.
Table 3: Buffaloes: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Meat production
Farms
no.
67
65
Buffaloes
no.
13 559
12 000
Slaughterings
no.
365
228
80
146
136
236
171
Average slaughter weight
kg/head
112
112
112
112
112
112
112
Meat production
tonnes
41
26
9
16
15
26
19
Gross value, meat a
$’000
4 028
5 077
3 682
3 326
3 163
1 874
841
Milk production
Farms
no.
Milk production
kl
Gross value, milk
$’000
5
847
2 330
Total gross value
3 171
Exports, live
Volume
no.
4 707
6 564
4 786
4 213
3 741
2 166
1 003
Value
$’000
3 766
4 923
3 628
3 226
3 063
1 706
729
7
Unit value
$/head
800
750
758
766
819
788
727
a Includes value of live exports.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Barry Lemcke (pers. comm., 15 February 2013); Lemcke & Suarez (2010); Levies Revenue
Service (2012)
The main markets for live exports of Australian buffalo are Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia (Figure 7).
Indonesia emerged as a major export market, following the signing of an animal health protocol with
Australia in October 2005. A factor in the increased demand for live buffalo exports in the mid-2000s
was buffalo herd rebuilding after the Asian tsunami of late 2004. More recently (2013/14 and figures
not yet available) Vietnam has opened as an important live export destination
7500
5000
2500
head
0
2002–03
2005–06
Brunei
2008–09
Indonesia
Malaysia
2011–12
Other
Data source: Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (2012b)
Figure 7: Buffaloes: live exports from Northern Territory, by destination
Buffalo milk production was estimated at nearly 850 000 litres in 2011–12, with a gross value of
$2.3 million.
Further information about buffaloes

Pastoral Market Update
(www.nt.gov.au/d/publications/index.cfm?fj=Pastoral%20Market%20Update%20Newsletter)—
live exports of buffaloes via Darwin port.

Australian Buffalo Industry Council (www.buffaloaustralia.org)— information about the buffalo
industry in each Australian state and territory.
Camels
The two species of camel are the dromedary or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) with a single
hump and the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) with two humps. Camels are used in many parts of
the world, mainly as a beast of burden and as a source of milk and dung. Camels are also slaughtered
for meat for human consumption and pet food. Other camel products include leather, camel wool and
camel oil. There is also a camel racing industry.
World camel slaughter has grown at around 2 per cent a year over the past 10 years, to reach a record
1.91 million head in 2011 (Figure 8). Annual world trade of live camels averaged around 230 000 head
in the five years to 2010, while recorded world trade in camel meat averaged slightly less than
8
450 tonnes (carcass weight). Saudi Arabia accounted for over 40 per cent of the world’s live camel
imports over this period; the other major importers were Egypt (22 per cent), Qatar (20 per cent) and
United Arab Emirates (16 per cent). The main suppliers of live camels to the world trade were Djibouti
(22 per cent), Saudi Arabia (22 per cent), former Sudan (19 per cent) and United Arab Emirates (14
per cent).
World import prices for live camels have fluctuated around US$380 a head in real terms over the 10
years to 2010 (Figure 8).
2000
1600
1500
1200
1000
800
500
400
'000
head 0
2012
1991
1996
slaughter
2001
live imports
2006
2011
0 US$/head
live import price (right axis)
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 8: Camels: world production and trade
Australian camel industry
The Australian camel industry is largely based on feral dromedary camels harvested in the arid central
regions of Australia. Australia’s feral camel population was believed to be as large as 1 million head in
2010 and doubling every nine years (Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council 2010).
Around 45 per cent of feral camels are located in Western Australia, 27 per cent in the Northern
Territory, 18 per cent in South Australia and 10 per cent in Queensland.
Feral camels cause environmental damage and economic losses to agricultural producers and
communities in central Australia. The National Feral Camel Action Plan was announced in November
2010, aimed at removing 670 000 camels over the first four years of the plan and another 500 000
camels in the following four years, to reduce the density of feral camels to less than 0.1 animal per
square kilometre over their range.
Australian slaughtering of camels were estimated at around 2750 head in 2011–12, made up of 55 per
cent for human consumption (domestic and export) and around 45 per cent for pet food (Table 4). Live
export of camels peaked at 415 head in 2001–02, declining to only 36 head in 2012. The estimated
gross value of the Australian camel industry in 2011–12 was around $1.3 million.
Slaughter of camels for human consumption began in Alice Springs in the 1980s. Warfield and Tume
(2000) identified annual camel meat production of 35–50 tonnes in the late 1990s, which was sold in
South Australia and the Northern Territory through supermarket chains.
Australian exports of camel meat have been growing in recent years. Australian exports of camel meat
(fresh, chilled or frozen meat and edible meat offal) were 1136 tonnes in 2012 (the only year for which
data are available), with an export value of $4.84 million (ABS 2013). The main export markets for
Australian camel meat in 2012 were Morocco (960 tonnes), the United States (169 tonnes), Qatar (3.5
9
tonnes) and Hong Kong (1.1 tonnes). There are export accredited abattoirs at Peterborough in South
Australia and Caboolture in Queensland.
Table 4: Camels: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Slaughterings
– human consumption
no.
198
390
1 500
– pet food
no.
4 000
4 000
1 250
450
Meat production
– human consumption
tonnes
65
129
– pet food
tonnes
1 200
1 200
375
Gross value
$’000
1 532
1 483
1 288
68
343
Exports
Live a
– volume
no.
0
0
0
0
36
– value
$’000
49
245
0
0
0
0
45
– unit value
$/hd
715
715
na
na
na
na
1 246
Meat
– volume
tonnes
1 136
– value
$’000
4 836
– unit value
$/hd
4.26
a Via Darwin port only, before 2011–12.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (2012b)
The Northern Territory traditionally supplies most of Australia’s live camel exports. However, there
appears to have been no live camel exports from the Northern Territory since 2006–07. In the four
years to 2006–07, shipments of live camels from the Northern Territory were made to Malaysia
(68 per cent of total numbers) and Brunei (32 per cent) (Northern Territory Department of Primary
Industry and Fisheries 2012b). There were also exports of live camels to Saudi Arabia before 2003.
Zeng and McGregor (2008) identified that around 3600–4600 camels a year were used as pet food at
average prices of $187–$225 a camel. However, a scientific study published in March 2011 (Fitzgerald
et al. 2011) that associated some dog deaths to a diet of camel meat has sharply reduced demand for
camels for pet food.
Australia also exports camel wool, though it has not been possible to find statistics on these exports.
Mongolia produced 1100 tonnes of camel wool in 2010 from a herd of 255 000 camels (National
Statistical Office of Mongolia 2012). Adult camels in Mongolia produce around 3.5 kilograms of fine
wool a year and 1.5 kilograms of coarse wool (UNIDO 2011).
Further information about camels

Australian Camel Industry Association Inc (www.australiancamelindustry.com.au)—a range of
information including trading specifications for live camels and camel meat, and a code of practice
for the welfare and husbandry of camels.

Australian Feral Camel Management Project (www.feralcamels.com.au)—information on the
distribution and management of feral camels in Australia.

FAO’s online database (faostat.fao.org)—a range of data by country, including camel numbers and
meat production; volume and value of trade (live and meat); and camel milk production.
10

Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Pastoral Market Update
(www.nt.gov.au/d/publications/index.cfm?fj=Pastoral%20Market%20Update%20Newsletter)—
monthly live exports of camels via Darwin port.
Dairy sheep
Milk from sheep is an important dairy product in many countries. Apart from being consumed as milk,
sheep milk is processed into yoghurts and specialty cheese.
A cheese made exclusively from sheep milk is Roquefort, a blue cheese traditionally produced in
France. The name ‘Roquefort’ has protected designation of origin status under the laws of the
European Union. This means the only cheese that may bear that name is made from ewe’s milk from
the Lacaune breed of sheep, produced in the Roquefort region and aged in the natural Cambalou caves
of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon. Roquefort accounted for 35 per cent of the cheese made from sheep milk in
France in 2011 (FranceAgriMer 2012c).
Feta cheese is also traditionally made from sheep milk in some regions. Another sheep milk cheese is
romano pecorino from Italy.
Annual world production of sheep milk averaged 9.5 million tonnes in the three years to 2011,
equivalent to around 1.3 per cent of annual world production of all milk types, while cheese
production averaged 656 000 tonnes (Table 5). The main producers of sheep milk and cheese are
China and countries in Europe and the Middle East. Around 8 per cent of world sheep cheese
production enters world trade.
Table 5: Sheep milk and cheese: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries volume shares (average, three years to 2011)
9 526 kt
na
China (17%), Turkey (9%), Greece (8%), Syria (7%), Romania (7%),
Somalia (6%), Spain (6%), Iran (5%), Italy (5%), France (3%)
656 kt
na
Greece (19%), China (16%), Syria (9%), Italy (9%), Spain (8%), France
(8%), Turkey (4%), Romania (4%), Iran (3%)
54 kt
US$423
million
Production
Milk
Cheese
World trade
Cheese
Exporters: Italy (44%), France (21%), Bulgaria (13%), Luxembourg (10%),
Greece (5%)
Importers: United States (51%), Germany (14%), United Kingdom (8%),
Luxembourg (6%), Spain (4%), Sweden (3%), Netherlands (3%), France
(2%)
a Annual average, three years to 2011.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
French exports of Roquefort cheese grew steadily to 3858 tonnes in 2006 but have eased to around
3500 tonnes in recent years (Figure 9).
11
4000
24
3000
18
2000
12
1000
6
tonnes 0
0
1997
2002
2007
2012
exports
export price (right axis)
2012
US$/kg
Data source: European Commission (2013)
Figure 9: Roquefort cheese: exports and export prices, France
Australian dairy sheep industry
There were 13 commercial dairy sheep farms in Australia, with an estimated flock size in 2011–12 of
5500 sheep (Table 6). One of these farms only produced sheep milk for soap. The main sheep breeds
used for milking are Awassi and East Friesian.
Estimated production of sheep milk in Australia in 2011–12 was around 550 000 litres, with the
Victorian farm (Meredith Dairy) accounting for around 40 per cent of the total. Unlike cows’ milk in
Australia that is delivered to central processors, sheep milk is usually processed on farm. The
estimated gross value of sheep milk products at the farm gate was around $5.5 million in 2011–12.
Around 60 per cent of Australian sheep milk production is used to make yoghurts, and the rest for
cheese. No data are available for sheep milk used to produce soap. The Meredith Dairy produces a
blue sheep milk cheese with Roquefort characteristics—a white mould ripened cheese of a Camembert
style—and also uses sheep milk (along with goat milk) in its feta cheese.
Table 6: Sheep milk: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Commercial farms
no.
8
13
Dairy sheep
no.
4 000
5 500
Milk
’000 litres
500
550
Gross value a
$’000
4 000
5 500
Cheese imports
Feta b
– volume
tonnes
3 296
2 783
3 030
3 042
2 922
2 696
2 104
– value
$’000
16 530
16 697
19 746
23 495
18 836
17 537
15 218
– unit value
$/kg
5.01
6.00
6.52
7.72
6.45
6.51
7.23
39
30
26
19
23
24
25
Roquefort, from France
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
973
732
643
576
615
595
551
24.97
24.03
24.37
30.30
26.89
24.36
22.02
12
a Value at the farm gate of milk, yoghurt and cheese produced on the farm. b May also be made from cow, goat and other
milk.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Dairy Authority of South Australia (2012); Dairy Food Safety Victoria (2012); New South
Wales Food Authority (2012); Stubbs & Abud (2009)
Australia imports small quantities of Roquefort cheese from France at prices of $22–$30 a kilogram in
recent years (Table 6). Import prices for Roquefort cheese were relatively high in real terms in the
2000s but have declined in recent years (Figure 10). There are also substantial Australian imports of
feta cheese made from cow, goat and other milk types.
tonnes
3500
35
3000
30
2500
25
2000
20
1500
15
1000
10
500
5
0
1991–92
0
1996–97
2001–02
2006–07
2011–12
Roquefort imports, from France
feta imports
Roquefort import price, from France (right axis)
feta import price (right axis)
2011-12
$/kg
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 10: Traditional sheep milk cheeses: imports and import prices, Australia
Further information about sheep milk

Australian Specialist Cheesemakers’ Association (www.australiancheese.org).

Dairy Industry Association of Australia (www.diaa.asn.au).

Meredith Dairy (meredithdairy.com)—operates one of the largest sheep dairies in Australia.
Deer
Deer are species in the family Cervidae, mainly white tailed deer (Odecoileus virginianus), mule deer
(Odocoilus hermonius), elk/wapiti (Cervus canadiensis), moose (Alces alces), reindeer/caribou
(Rangifer tarandus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), rusa/sambar (Rusa
timorensis) and chital (Axis axis).
Approximately two million deer are farmed worldwide, more than half of which are in New Zealand.
There are also large farmed herds in the United States (270 000 in 2007, according to USDA 2013a),
Europe (around 200 000 in 2012, according to Federation of European Deer Farmers Associations
2013) and Australia (around 45 000 in 2010–11, according to ABS 2012a). Deer products are also
widely sourced from wild herds in Europe (particularly Russia) and North America.
The main products from deer farming are venison and velvet antler, the immature antler that is widely
used in traditional Asian (particularly Chinese) medicine. Velvet is cut from live deer under
anaesthetic. Other parts of deer are also used in traditional Asian medicine, including the pizzle, tail,
sinews, heart and blood.
13
Hunters pay to hunt deer in enclosed parks or hunting preserves. In the United States, around one-third
of the nearly 8000 deer farming operations in 2007 were run either partly or wholly as hunting
preserves and there is a large breeding industry to supply the hunting preserves (Anderson et al. 2007).
Deer urine as a hunting attractant is a significant output of the US farmed deer industry.
New Zealand deer industry
New Zealand is the largest producer of farmed deer in the world, with around 3800 farms in 2010–11
carrying 1.06 million deer, down from 1.76 million deer in 2004. New Zealand accounts for more than
half of the world’s farmed deer.
In 2011–12 New Zealand exported 15 271 tonnes of venison, 179 tonnes of velvet, 239 000 square
metres of leather and 187 000 deer hides (Deer Industry New Zealand 2013). The total value of
exports of deer products in 2011–12 was NZ$268 million, of which venison made up 77 per cent,
velvet 10 per cent, leather 7 per cent, hides 2 per cent and other coproducts (pizzles, sinews and tails)
7 per cent.
A surge in New Zealand deer production in the first half of the 2000s pushed New Zealand venison
exports to record levels but put strong downward pressure on venison export prices (Figure 11).
However, lower New Zealand venison production since then has resulted in some recovery in venison
prices. In 2011–12 Germany accounted for 34 per cent of New Zealand’s venison exports, the
Netherlands 11 per cent, the United States 9 per cent, Belgium 9 per cent, Finland 8 per cent and
Switzerland 5 per cent, with the rest of Europe accounting for most of the remainder (Statistics New
Zealand 2013).
40
20
30
15
20
10
10
5
kt 0
0
1999–2000
2002–03
exports
2005–06
2008–09
2011–12
2011–12
NZ$/kg
export price (right axis)
a October-September years.
Data sources: Deer Industry New Zealand (2013); Statistics New Zealand (2013)
Figure 11: Venison: New Zealand exports and export prices
Deer velvet prices, as indicated by New Zealand unit export returns, have also improved since 2004–
05 in response to lower production in New Zealand. China accounted for 70 per cent of New Zealand’s
velvet exports in 2011–12, with the other main markets being Republic of Korea (23 per cent) and
Hong Kong (4 per cent) (Statistics New Zealand 2013).
Australian deer industry
In 2010–11 there were 1436 farms carrying deer in Australia, with a total of 45 073 deer (ABS 2012a).
There are deer herds in every state; Queensland, Victoria and New South Wales account for more than
70 per cent of deer on farms (ABS 2012a). The composition of the Australia deer herd in 2010 was
14
approximately 48 per cent red deer, 44 per cent fallow deer, 3 per cent rusa/sambar, 4 per cent chital
and 1 per cent elk/wapiti (Shapiro 2010).
Slaughterings of deer in Australia in 2011–12 were estimated at 5784 head (Table 7), only 12 per cent
of the record level of 2002–03. The combination of extended drought and lower prices in recent years
for both venison and deer velvet have resulted in deer farmers leaving the industry. The gross value of
the Australian deer industry was estimated to be around $1.7 million in 2011–12, with meat production
accounting for more than half of the total.
Deer in Australia are usually sold direct to processors. A processor will purchase animals direct from
the farmer and arrange the transport, slaughtering, boning, packaging and marketing. Around 85 per
cent of all venison produced in Australia is exported, principally to Europe.
The Australian deer industry faces competition in the domestic market from New Zealand venison.
However, according to Statistics New Zealand (2013), New Zealand exports of venison (including
offal) to Australia were only 25 tonnes in 2011–12 with a value converted to Australian dollars of
$633 000 (Table 7). New Zealand venison exports to Australia peaked at 1 624 tonnes in 2005–06
when the New Zealand industry was looking for new markets because of increased production.
Australian velvet is sold through pooling arrangements or at the farm gate. The main pooling
arrangement is operated by Deer Horn and Co-Products Pty Ltd, a wholly owned company of the Deer
Industry Association of Australia, the Australian deer industry’s peak body. The main export markets
for Australian deer velvet are Hong Kong, China, the Republic of Korea and Taiwan.
15
Table 7: Deer products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
25 762
15 989
15 556
13 383
11 101
6 888
5 784
VENISON
Production
Slaughterings
no.
Volume
tonnes a
901
616
576
498
410
289
223
Gross value
$’000
2 188
1 662
1 723
1 998
1 599
1 146
949
Unit value
$/kg
2.43
2.70
2.99
4.01
3.90
3.97
4.25
– volume
no.
801
404
682
90
0
0
0
– value
$’000
70
39
73
13
0
0
0
– unit value
$/head
87.48
97.2
107.7
144.4
na
na
na
Exports
Live deer
Venison
– volume
tonnes
765
523
490
423
349
245
190
– value
$’000
2 232
1 695
1 758
2 038
1 631
1 169
968
– unit value
$/kg
2.92
3.24
3.59
4.81
4.68
4.76
5.10
13 351
16 989
14 916
15 577
4 054
5 615
4 415
Hides, leather
– volume
no.
– value
$’000
349
390
333
437
180
142
264
– unit value
$/kg
26.18
22.95
22.33
28.03
44.39
25.31
59.71
Total export value
$’000
2 652
2 125
2 164
2 487
1 811
1 311
1 231
54
32
19
22
25
Imports of venison (including offal) from New Zealand
Volume
tonnes
1 624
840
Value
$’000
4 476
2 814
683
414
588
579
633
Unit value
$/kg
2.76
3.35
12.63
13.02
30.57
26.68
25.49
35 884
20 877
12 296
17 663
13 779
14 020
12 089
ANTLER VELVET
Production
Volume
kg
Gross value
$’000
Unit value
$/kg
567
1 385
726
798
844
758
710
15.80
66.33
59.06
45.17
61.28
54.10
58.77
16 215
20 361
3 255
14 556
11 266
13 260
11 577
599
1 504
209
713
757
784
754
Exports
Volume
kg
Value
$’000
Unit value
$/kg
36.94
73.88
64.35
48.98
67.22
59.09
65.11
Gross value
$’000
2 755
3 047
2 449
2 796
2 444
1 904
1 659
Total export value
$’000
3 251
3 629
2 374
3 200
2 569
2 094
1 985
ALL DEER PRODUCTS
a Hot carcass weight.
Sources: ABARES; Levies Revenue Service (2012); Statistics New Zealand (2013)
Further information about deer

Deer Industry Association of Australia (www.deerfarming.com.au)—production and marketing
information for deer in Australia.

Deer Industry New Zealand (www.deernz.org.nz)—information on production and prices for deer
products in New Zealand.
16
Emus
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), a native of Australia, is the world’s second largest living bird
(only the ostrich is larger). An adult emu can weigh over 50 kilograms.
Commercial farming of emus began in Western Australia in 1987 and has spread to all other mainland
states. Wild harvesting of emus is prohibited in all states and emu farmers must be licensed. In 2001
there were around 145 establishments producing emus in Australia, but this declined to less than 30 in
2012.
There are emu industries in other countries, most notably the United States and Canada. The United
States had around 48 000 farmed emus in 2002, but the number dropped to 28 000 by 2007, mostly in
Texas, California and Alabama (USDA 2013a). Canada had nearly 60 000 farmed emus and rheas on
910 farms in 1996 but the number fell to only around 4000 on 182 farms in 2006 (Statistics Canada
2008).
The main products from emus are meat, oil and skins for leather. Emu meat is low in fat and
cholesterol and high in protein. Emu oil, rendered from emu fat, is sold as an oil to relieve joint pain,
soft tissue injury and dermatitis, as well as a base for a range of cosmetics (O’Malley & Snowden
1999). Body and leg skin is used to make high-quality leather.
The average meat yield from an emu is 12 kilograms and the oil yield is 6 litres. Based on a model
emu farming operation in Australia, Hassall & Associates (2000) found that oil would make up around
45 per cent of the total revenue from such an operation; meat, 42 per cent; hides, 8 per cent; leg skin,3
per cent; and trim, 2 per cent.
Emu oil is exported to a number of countries, including the United States. However, it has not been
possible to locate reliable data for Australian emu oil production and exports. To estimate the value of
Australian emu production, assumptions have been made about the volume of emu oil produced and
exported. It is assumed that each emu slaughtered produces 6 litres of oil and that 80 per cent of
Australian production is exported.
A similar estimate was made for emu skins where no reliable data are available. There is only limited
demand for Australian emu leather in international markets, though MacNamara and colleagues (2003)
highlight the potential in the US and Chinese markets if improvements can be made in the tanning
process. It is assumed that one-third of emu skins from slaughtered birds are used; that the domestic
price for raw, salted skins is $66 a skin; and that 50 per cent of all skins produced are exported in raw,
salted form.
Emu production in Australia declined substantially from the peak of 21 000 birds slaughtered in 1996,
to only 3108 in 2011–12 (Table 8). The value of emu production was estimated to be $561 000 in
2011–12.
17
Table 8: Emu products: supply disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
4 173
7 002
5 344
3 395
2 253
2 650
3 108
84.0
64.1
40.7
27.0
31.8
37.3
Production
Slaughterings
no.
Meat production a
tonnes
50.1
Oil production
kL
25.0
42.0
32.1
20.4
13.5
15.9
18.6
Gross value
$’000
829
1256
926
533
359
495
561
Exports
Meat and edible offal
– volume
tonnes
9.6
18.3
20.9
7.1
7.0
9.7
13.4
– value
$’000
111.1
180.5
194.0
55.0
55.9
101.7
133.4
– unit value
$/kg
11.61
9.86
9.29
7.79
8.02
10.53
9.96
20.0
33.6
25.7
16.3
10.8
12.7
14.9
Oil
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
485
813
621
394
262
308
361
35.00
45.00
52.00
55.00
56.00
57.00
58.00
Hides and leather
– volume
no.
689
1155
882
560
372
437
513
– value
$’000
23
38
29
18
12
14
17
– unit value
$/skin
33.00
33.00
33.00
33.00
33.00
33.00
33.00
Total export value
$’000
619
1 032
844
468
330
424
511
a Based on a dressed weight of 12 kilograms a bird.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
tonnes
100
20
75
15
50
10
25
5
0
0
2002–03
2005–06
production
exports
2008–09
export price (right axis)
2011–12
$/kg
2011–12
Data sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Figure 12: Emu meat: Australian production, exports and export prices
Further information about emus

Emu Web Australia (www.emuindustry.asn.au), website of the Emu Industry Federation of
Australia, the industry representative body.

American Emu Association (aea-emu.org)—information about emu products and the farmed emu
industry in the United States.
18
Game birds
Birds usually referred to as game birds include turkey (Meleagris gallopavo; Meleagris ocellata),
goose (Anser cygnoides), duck (Anas domesticus; Cairina moschata; Anas platyrhynchos), pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus), plover, quail, grouse, partridge, guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), spatchcock
and squab (young pigeon, Columbia livia domestia). They have been traditionally harvested from the
wild but most game birds now consumed are raised on farms.
Annual world production of meat from game birds averaged 11.8 million tonnes in the three years to
2010 and consisted mostly of meat from turkeys, ducks, geese and guinea fowl (Figure 13). This puts
game bird production at around one-sixth the size of world chicken meat production. The United
States produces nearly half of the world’s turkey meat and China accounts for around two-thirds of
world duck meat production (Table 9).
goose and guinea fowl,
2.4 Mt
duck, 3.9 Mt
other bird, 0.1 Mt
turkey, 5.5 Mt
chicken, 83.2 Mt
a Annual average, three years to 2010.
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 13: Game birds and chicken: world production for food
World imports of game bird meat grew strongly during the 1990s but have levelled off at around
1.5 million tonnes over the past decade (Figure 14). At the same time, unit export returns for game bird
have trended upward in real terms.
19
Table 9: Game birds: key characteristics of the world market
Item
Volume a
Value a
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2010)
Turkey
5 467 kt
na
United States (49%), Germany (8%), Brazil (8%), France (8%), Italy (6%),
United Kingdom (3%), Canada (3%)
Duck
3 906 kt
na
China (67%), France (7%), Malaysia (3%), Myanmar (2%), Thailand (2%),
Vietnam (2%)
Goose and guinea
fowl
2 425 kt
na
China (95%), Egypt (1%), Poland (1%), Hungary (1%)
Turkey meat
876 kt
US$2 237
million
Exporters: United States (28%), France (13%), Brazil (12%), Germany (8%),
Poland (8%), Italy (6%), Hungary (4%), Netherlands (4%), United Kingdom
(3%)
Importers: Mexico (19%), Germany (10%), Russian Federation (5%),
Austria (5%), Benin (4%), Belgium (4%), China (4%), Netherlands (3%),
Saudi Arabia (3%), South Africa (3%), France (3%), Spain (3%), United
Kingdom (4%)
Duck, goose and
guinea fowl meat
255 kt
US$1 111
million
Exporters: France (19%), China (16%), Hungary (16%), Germany (10%),
Poland (8%), Netherlands (6%), Brazil (5%), Bulgaria (4%), United States
(3%), United Kingdom (3%)
Importers: Hong Kong (20%), Germany (19%), France (8%), United
Kingdom (6%), Qatar (6%), Spain (4%), Austria (3%), Denmark (3%)
Production
World trade
a Annual average, three years to 2010.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
1200
8
900
6
600
4
300
2
kt
2012
0
1991
1996
2001
imports, turkey
import price, turkey (right axis)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
2006
imports, other game bird
2011
0 US$kg
import price, other game bird (right axis)
Figure 14: Game birds: world meat imports and import prices
Australian game bird industry
There are game bird industries in all states in Australia; the main producing states are New South
Wales and Victoria. Turkey and duck accounted for around 90 per cent of the value of production of
the game bird industry in 2011–12 (Table 10), equivalent to around 10 per cent of the total gross value
of poultry meat production in Australia. Other game bird production contributed 6 per cent of the total
value of the industry.
An estimated 7 million ducks with a gross value of $81 million were processed in Australia in 2011–
12. The number of ducks processed in Australia has been growing at around 5 per cent a year over the
20
10 years to 2011–12. This reflects the growing Chinese population in Australia, who are traditionally
consumers of duck meat. The Australian market is dominated by two large Australian-owned
processing companies—Pepe’s Ducks Pty Ltd, processing over 70 000 ducks a week, and Luv-a-Duck
Limited, located in the Wimmera district of Victoria and processing around 60 000 ducks a week.
These companies also raise ducks and contract other growers to supply ducks for processing. Most
ducks are raised in barns, but not in cages. Ducks raised using free range methods attract price
premiums.
An estimated 3.3 million turkeys were processed in Australia in 2011–12 with a gross value of
$82 million. There are around 20 turkey growers in Australia, but the industry is dominated by two
large producers and processors that are also Australia’s largest producers of chicken meat—Inghams
Enterprises (recently sold to overseas interests) and Steggles Pty Limited. Both companies also
contract other growers to supply turkeys for processing.
Table 10: Game birds: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
– slaughterings
’000
5 195
5 408
6 117
6 315
6 448
7 608
7 054
– production a
tonnes
11 828
11 647
13 620
16 005
– gross value
$’000
29869
46 584
82 484
81 235
Production
Ducks and drakes
Turkeys
– slaughterings
’000
3 761
3 477
3 544
3 262
– production a
tonnes
23 895
23 176
20 851
23 039
– gross value
$’000
64 716
65 277
67 135
81 904
– slaughterings
’000
7 034
7 297
5 827
8 425
– production a
tonnes
9 004
8 825
3 557
4 912
– gross value
$’000
9 520
8 137
4 928
9 460
Total gross value
$’000
104 105
119 999
154 547
172 599
– volume
tonnes
5 999
7 084
5 953
5 034
3 499
2 783
4 545
– value
$’000
5 500
6 754
6 488
5 342
4 868
4 056
5 666
– unit value
$/kg
0.92
0.95
1.09
1.06
1.39
1.46
1.25
– volume
tonnes
161
293
296
303
260
500
318
– value
$’000
718
1 137
1 721
1 582
1 569
1 368
558
– unit value
$/kg
4.44
3.88
5.82
5.23
6.03
2.73
1.76
Total export value
$’000
6 217
7 891
8 209
6 924
6 437
5 424
6 224
Other fowls
Exports
Turkey
Other game birds
a Dressed weight of whole birds, pieces and giblets.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012b, 2013, unpublished data)
A breakdown of game birds other than duck and turkey processed in Australia in 2001–02 and 2011–
12 is shown in Table 11. The quail, squab and guinea fowl industries are the largest of the ‘other game
birds’ category. While the throughput of most of these industries has declined, the value of their retail
sales has increased substantially.
21
Table 11: Game birds (other than duck and turkey): Australian production, 2001–02 and 2011–
12
Species
Processed
Meat, dressed weight
Retail value
’000
tonnes
$’000
2001–02
6 500
1 560
14 000
2011–12
6 500
1 560
35 642
2001–02
680
238
6 800
2011–12
323
140
12 396
2001–02
60
72
1 260
2011–12
20
24
480
2001–02
40
48
6 200
2011–12
35
42
1 428
2001–02
18
19
300
2011–12
18
19
440
2001–02
5
16
400
2011–12
5
16
731
2001–02
7 303
1 953
28 960
2011–12
6 978
1 801
51 116
Quail
Squab
Pheasant
Guinea fowl
Partridge
Goose
Total
Sources: ABARES; Leech et al. (2003)
Around 10 per cent of Australia’s game bird meat is exported and this is mainly turkey meat (Figure
15). Unit export returns in real terms for turkey meat have trended downward. While there has been
substantial growth in Australian exports of game bird meat since 1990, the small size of the Australian
industry makes it difficult to compete on price with the major world producers (Leech et al. 2003).
22
kt
8
12
6
9
4
6
2
3
0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
2006–07
2011–12
exports, turkey
exports, other game bird
export price, turkey (right axis)
export price, other game bird (right axis)
2011–12
$/kg
a Meat and offal, including preserved meat.
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 15: Game bird meat: exports and export prices, Australia
Further information about game birds

Australasian Turkey Federation (www.turkeyfed.com.au)—includes a newsletter.

PoultryHub (www.poultryhub.org)—website maintained by the (Australian) Poultry Cooperative
Research Centre, and includes information about the various game bird species.

Scott, P, Turner, A, Bibby, S & Chamings, A 2009, Structure and dynamics of Australia’s
commercial poultry and ratite industries, report prepared for the Australian Government
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra,
daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1132793/structure-poultry-ratite-ind.pdf (pdf 1590 kb).
Game pigs
The game pig industry in Australia is based on harvesting the feral pig (Sus scrofa) populations that
have established since European settlement. Game pigs are usually shot in the wild; very small
numbers are trapped and slaughtered at abattoirs.
An estimated 23.5 million feral pigs are spread across all of the sparsely populated areas of Australia
except the arid inland (DSEWPaC 2011c). Populations are most dense in wetlands and seasonally
inundated floodplains. Feral pigs cause considerable environmental damage through destroying
vegetation, competing with native wildlife for food sources, and wallowing and rooting practices that
lead to soil erosion.
Australian game pig production can vary considerably from year to year because of seasonal
conditions. Feral pig numbers have exploded in recent years in response to favourable seasonal
conditions in Australia’s eastern states after a sequence of droughts (Table 12).
Table 12: Game pig meat: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Kill
’000
119.3
165.3
150.1
92.0
100.7
108.5
112.4
Volume
tonnes
1 491
2 066
1 876
1 150
1 259
1 356
1 405
Gross value
$’000
9 764
12 738
12 188
9 059
6 702
7 866
8 697
Production
Exports
23
Volume
tonnes
1 471
2 046
1 856
1 130
1 239
1 336
1 385
Value
$’000
12 211
15 676
14 897
10 785
8 345
9 723
10 650
Unit value
$/kg
8.30
7.66
8.03
9.55
6.74
7.28
7.69
Sources: ABARES; Levies Revenue Service (2012)
There is only a very small domestic demand for game pig meat. The main export markets for
Australian game pig meat are in the European Union, particularly Germany, France and the
Netherlands.
There are no statistics for game pig meat exports in ABS (2013) but some idea of Australian exports
and export prices can be gained from import statistics from the European Commission (2013) that have
a ‘non-domestic’ (wild) swine category. EU imports of Australian game pig peaked in 1999 but
reached very low levels in 2009 and 2010 (Figure 16). Australia’s main competitor in the European
game pig market is the United States. Together, Australia and the United States accounted for 96 per
cent of the total volume of EU game pig imports in the three years to 2011.
Unit import prices for the EU market for Australian game pig meat reached the highest level on record
in real terms in 2011 (Figure 16). Australia’s average export return for game pig meat is more than
twice that for farmed pig meat.
6000
9
4000
6
2000
3
tonnes
Tonnes0
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
imports, Australia
imports, other countries a
2012
2012
US$/t
US$/t
import price, Australia
a Excludes intra European Union trade.
Data source: European Commission (2013)
Figure 16: Game pig meat and offal: European Union imports and import price by source
Australian game pig meat cannot be exported to Canada, the United States and the Republic of Korea
because these countries require an ante-mortem examination that is not possible with pigs shot in the
wild.
Goats
Goats are hardy and versatile animals producing meat, milk, fibre (cashmere and mohair) and skins.
They adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions and are easily integrated into wheat and sheep farms
or grazing enterprises in most agricultural areas in Australia.
There are a number of goat-based industries in Australia with different degrees of specialisation in
these products. These can be broadly categorised as meat goats, cashmere goats, angora (mohair
producing) goats and dairy goats.
24
Meat goats
Annual world production of goat meat is around 4.3 million tonnes, less than 1 per cent of which
enters world trade (Table 13). Annual world trade in live goats averaged US$110 million in the three
years to 2011, while the goat meat trade was valued at US$84 million. Islamic countries are the main
importers of live goats; live imports enable these countries to satisfy requirements for halal slaughter.
The United States is the main importer of goat meat.
Table 13: Goat products: key characteristics of the world market
Item
Volume a
Value a
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2012)
4 345 kt
na
China (43%), India (12%), Pakistan (9%), former Sudan (4%), Nigeria (3%),
Bangladesh (3%), Nigeria (3%)
Live b
na
US$110
million
Exporters: Syria (44%), Australia (16%), Somalia (11%), Iran (10%), United
Arab Emirates (5%)
Importers: Saudi Arabia (37%), Oman (20%), Bahrain (10%), Jordan (9%),
Yemen (7%), Malaysia (3%)
Meat
25 kt
US$84
million
Exporters: Australia (48%), China (11%), France (8%), New Zealand (8%),
Ethiopia (7%), Spain (4%), India (3%), Brazil (3%)
Importers: United States (37%), Saudi Arabia (10%), Hong Kong (10%), Italy
(6%), France (5%), Canada (5%), Qatar (4%), Portugal (3%)
Production
Meat
World trade
a Annual average, three years to 2005. b Trade shares are based on trade value because quantity data appear unreliable.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Australian meat goat industry
Around 90 per cent of Australia’s meat production is derived from rangeland type goats, mainly from
feral populations. There are at least 2.6 million feral goats in Australia but the populations vary widely
according to the availability of water and feed in the rangelands (DSEWPaC 2011b). Goat meat is also
a by-product of specialist goat milk, mohair and cashmere production. Specialist meat production
breeds other than rangeland goats are being increasingly used—mainly the Boer goat but also Kalahari
red goats.
Around 1.78 million goats were slaughtered in Australia in 2011–12 and there were live exports of
around 71 900 goats (Table 14). Apparent domestic consumption of goat is currently around 1500
tonnes a year—and is growing due to changes in the ethnic composition of the Australian
population—but more than 95 per cent of Australian goat meat production is exported. Small
quantities of goat meat are imported.
Australian exports of live goats fluctuate according to seasonal conditions, particularly those in the
pastoral zones of Australia ( Figure 17). Almost all live exports of goats from Australia are air
freighted. Australia is the world’s second largest exporter of live goats, with the main markets being
Malaysia (87 per cent of total Australian live goat exports in the three years to 2011–12) and
Singapore (10 per cent). Average export prices for live goats have levelled off at around $135 a head
in 2011-12 dollars over the past five years.
25
Table 14: Goat products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Slaughterings
’000
1 336
1 350
1 189
1 363
1 803
1 819
1 781
Average slaughter weight
kg
15.0
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
Meat
tonnes
20 047
20 588
18 312
21 131
27 943
28 200
27 600
Value of production
$’000
49 947
57 208
44 596
45 938
75 942
100 194
81 137
Production
Exports
Live goats
– volume
’000
43.8
75.3
78.2
87.5
95.3
68.3
71.9
– value
$’000
5 452
9 857
9 946
10 378
10 956
9 672
9 654
– unit value
$/head
124.58
130.82
127.15
118.60
114.96
141.64
134.27
– volume
tonnes
21 730
17 997
15 721
20 223
27 363
26 686
26 729
– value
$’000
82 116
76 790
55 188
71 629
104 051
124 486
113 606
– unit value
$/kg
3.78
4.27
3.51
3.54
3.80
4.66
4.25
Meat
Hides
– volume
tonnes
239
340
402
239
262
865
1 060
– value
$’000
1 133
1 792
1 581
1 090
645
2 729
3 784
– unit value
$/kg
4.74
5.27
3.93
4.56
2.47
3.16
3.57
na
na
na
Leather
– volume
tonnes
na
na
na
na
– value
$’000
348
310
36
96
1
9
3
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Total export value
$’000
89 049
88 748
66 752
83 193
115 653
136 895
127 046
– volume
tonnes
22.5
55.5
0.0
163.5
29.8
26.0
0.5
– value
$’000
113
264
0
872
138
116
6
– unit value
$/kg
5.02
4.75
na
5.33
4.63
4.45
12.83
Imports
Meat
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012c, 2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012); Meat & Livestock Australia (2013)
'000
head
150
250
120
200
90
150
60
100
30
50
0
1991–92
0
1996–97
2001–02
exports
2006–07
export price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 17: Live goats: exports and export prices, Australia
26
2011–12
2011–12
$/head
Australian exports of goat meat have increased strongly over the past decade, although exports were
down from 2005 to 2008 ( Figure 18). The main export markets for Australian goat meat in the three
years to 2011–12 were the United States (53 per cent of total Australian exports), Taiwan (28 per
cent), Canada (6 per cent), Trinidad and Tobago (7 per cent), and Jamaica (4 per cent).
kt
30
6
20
4
10
2
0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
exports
2006–07
2011–12
2011–12
$/kg
export price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 18: Goat meat: exports and export prices, Australia
Further information about goat meat

Goat Industry Council of Australia (www.gica.com.au), peak industry body.

Meat & Livestock Australia (www.mla.com.au)—a range of information including the Goats on
the Move newsletter.

National over the hooks goat report (www.mla.com.au/prices-and-markets/)—weekly information
on goat meat prices and goat slaughterings in eastern Australia, provided by the National
Livestock Reporting Service.
Cashmere
Cashmere goats produce down—the cashmere fibre—under longer coarser hair. Cashmere needs
special processing; the raw fibre must be dehaired to separate the fine soft cashmere from the largely
worthless hair.
Cashmere is mainly produced in the cold and arid regions of central Asia. World production of raw
(unseparated) cashmere was estimated to average 20 000 tonnes over the three years to 2011. The main
cashmere producing countries were China (18 500 tonnes) and Mongolia (6300 tonnes) (Table 15).
There is a strong upward trend in Chinese cashmere production ( Figure 19).
China mostly trades unspun cashmere in unprocessed (not carded or combed) form to wealthy
countries that spin it into garments (Table 15). Increasingly China is processing its own raw cashmere
into garments before export.
Table 15: Cashmere: key characteristics of the world market
Item
Production
Volume a
Value a
20 kt
na
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2010)
China (75%), Mongolia (18%), Iran (5%)
World trade
27
Cashmere, not carded or
combed
7.2 kt
US$308
million
Exporters: China (63%), Iran (8%), Afghanistan (7%), Mongolia
(5%), United Kingdom (5%)
Importers: Italy (40%), United Kingdom (26%), Belgium (11%),
Japan (7%), Germany (3%)
Cashmere, carded or
combed
0.5 kt
US$32
million
Exporters: China (68%), United Kingdom (12%), Italy (7%),
Mongolia (3%)
Importers: Italy (44%), Republic of Korea (15%), Japan (9%),
Hong Kong (9%)
a Average, three years to 2011.
Sources: ABARES; National Bureau of Statistics of China (2012); National Statistical Office of Mongolia (2012); United
Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Chinese export prices of cashmere in 2012 US dollars have been broadly in the range of US$60–100 a
kilogram in recent years ( Figure 19).
kt
20
120
15
90
10
60
5
30
0
0
1991
1996
2001
2006
production
exports
Data source: National Bureau of Statistics of China (2012)
2011
2012
US$/kg
export price (right axis)
Figure 19: Cashmere: Chinese production, exports and export prices
Australian cashmere industry
The Australian cashmere industry began in the 1970s and expanded during the 1980s with support
from international processors (McGregor 2002).
In 2012 there were around 10 000 cashmere goats in Australia, down from 13 000 in 2006. Australian
production of cashmere (hair in) was around 3 tonnes in 2012—a gross value of $88 000 (Table 16).
Table 16: Cashmere: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
4.5
4.0
3.0
Production
– hair in
tonnes
– dehaired
tonnes
1.6
1.4
1.0
Gross value of fibre
production
$’000
103
87
88
tonnes
0.0
0.0
Exports
Not carded or combed
– volume
28
46.7
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
– value
$’000
0
0
601
0
12
0
11
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
12.86
na
37.48
na
na
0.0
2.9
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
83
40
0
0
0
0
Carded or combed
– volume
tonnes
– value
$
– unit value
$/kg
na
28.96
63.24
na
na
na
na
Total export value
$’000
0
83
641
0
12
0
11
– volume
tonnes
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
Imports
Not carded or combed
15
10
0
5
2
0
0
50.34
44.28
na
27.96
76.76
na
na
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.0
Carded or combed
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
0
0
0
0
18
33
0
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
na
81.43
109.44
na
Total import value
$’000
15
10
0
5
20
33
0
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
In the period 1985 to 2004, the Australian Cashmere Marketing Corporation, an industry owned
organisation, marketed up to 90 per cent of the Australian cashmere clip on behalf of growers. Most of
the Australian clip is now delivered by growers directly to a cashmere processor located at Bacchus
Marsh in Victoria.
Further information about cashmere

Alpha Tops Group (www.alphatops.com)—monthly prices for cashmere, by broad category.

The Schneider Group (www.gschneider.com)—market reports, latest market indicator prices
(China, Mongolia and Iran) and monthly Chinese cashmere exports.
Mohair
Mohair is a wool-like fibre produced as fleece from angora goats. Mohair becomes coarser as a goat
gets older. ‘Kid’ mohair starts at an average fibre diameter of 23 microns and is typically used in
knitwear. ‘Young goat’ (intermediate diameter) mohair is used in suiting material and ‘Adult goat’
mohair—the coarsest, ranging up to 36 micron—is typically used in coats and rugs.
World mohair market
World mohair production peaked in the late 1980s at more than 25 000 tonnes but has since declined
to 4500 tonnes in 2012 ( Figure 20). The decline mainly reflects increased competition from
manufactured fibres and the removal of subsidies on mohair production in the United States. The
world mohair market is increasingly dominated by South Africa.
In 2010 South African production represented 48 per cent of the world total; Lesotho, 16 per cent;
Argentina, 15 per cent; the United States, 10 per cent; Australia, 4 per cent; and Turkey, 3 per cent
(Mohair South Africa 2011).
In 2010 South Africa exported 4320 tonnes of mohair, of which 36 per cent went to Italy; China, 31
per cent; the United Kingdom, 16 per cent; Taiwan, 7 per cent; and Japan, 4 per cent (Mohair South
Africa 2011). Strong adult fibre made up 47 per cent of the South African mohair clip in 2010; young
goat fibre a further 20 per cent; kid, 18 per cent; and fine adult fibre, 15 per cent (Mohair South Africa
2011).
29
With reduced world mohair supplies, world mohair prices in constant US dollar terms have increased
in recent years but are still lower than in the early 1980s ( Figure 20).
kt
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
1982
1987
1992
production, rest of world
1997
2002
production, South Africa
2007
2012
2012
US$/kg
average auction price, South Africa (right axis)
Data sources: ABARES; Mohair South Africa (2011)
Figure 20: Mohair: world production and South African average auction prices
Australian mohair industry
Australian mohair production peaked at around 1200 tonnes in 1989 but has declined substantially
since then (Mohair South Africa 2011). Mohair production in Australia was estimated to be 137 tonnes
in 2011–12, with a gross value of $1.45 million (Table 17).
Table 17: Mohair: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume
tonnes
247.1
206.5
209.9
145.2
191.7
134.8
136.7
Gross value
$’000
3 453
2 398
1 936
1 140
2 007
1 626
1 450
Unit gross value a
$/kg
13.97
11.61
9.22
7.85
10.47
12.06
10.59
Volume
tonnes
191.8
153.4
148.0
141.8
117.8
160.4
102.8
Value
$’000
2 888
1 875
1 561
1 521
1 341
2 047
1 395
Unit value
$/kg
15.06
12.22
10.55
10.73
11.38
12.76
13.56
Exports, fine animal hair
a Average auction price.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Mohair in Australia is generally sold by auction or private treaty through brokers. In past years
Australia has processed around 40 per cent of its mohair into garments and homewares, but most of
Australian mohair production is now exported to South Africa for processing.
Key participants in the Australian mohair industry are:

Mohair Australia Limited, the peak industry organisation for mohair fibre and the angora goat
industry in Australia

Australian Mohair Marketing Organisation (Narrandera, New South Wales), marketer of the bulk
of the Australian mohair clip.
30
Australian mohair is also exported but is aggregated with other fine animal fibre in recorded trade
statistics. The fine animal hair exports reported in Table 17 are likely to be largely made up of mohair,
but may include other fibres such as alpaca or camel. Australia also appears to import mohair. South
African exports of mohair to Australia are shown in Mohair South Africa (2011) as 11.8 tonnes in
2001, 10.2 tonnes in 2003, 7 tonnes in 2004 and 5 tonnes in 2005.
Further information about mohair

Alpha Tops Group (www.alphatops.com)—monthly prices for mohair, by broad category.

Mohair South Africa website (www.mohair.co.za)—auction market reports for South Africa and
statistics on production consumption and exports of mohair by key producing country.

Mohair Australia Limited website (www.mohair.org.au)—industry data for Australia, including
detailed auction and private treaty sales reports and husbandry hints. Access to the Australian herd
book and other information is password protected for members only.

Australian Mohair Marketing Organisation (www.ausmohair.com.au)—auction results for mohair
in Australia.
Dairy goats
Goat milk is an important source of nutrients in many countries. World production of goat milk has
been increasing steadily and averaged 16.6 million tonnes a year in the three years to 2011, equivalent
to 2.3 per cent of total world production of all milk types ( Figure 21). The main goat milk producers
are India (28 per cent of world production in the three years to 2011), Bangladesh (15 per cent), former
Sudan (9 per cent), Pakistan (5 per cent), Mali (4 per cent), France (4 per cent) and Spain (3 per cent).
Roughly 20 per cent of world production of goat milk gets made into cheese. World goat cheese
production averaged 475 000 tonnes in the three years to 2011 and has been growing at around 1.2 per
cent a year over the past 20 years (FAO Statistics Division 2013). The largest producers of goat cheese
are the former Sudan (23 per cent of world production in the three years to 2011), France (19 per cent),
Greece (10 per cent), Spain (9 per cent), Iran (8 per cent), Mexico (4 per cent) and Tajikistan (3 per
cent).
Producer prices for goat milk in France, a producer of high-quality goat cheese, have risen strongly
over the past decade ( Figure 21).
31
18
1.2
12
0.8
6
0.4
2012
Mt 0
1991
1996
production, milk, world
2001
production, cheese, world
2006
2011
0 US$/kg
producer price, milk, France (right axis)
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 21: Goat milk (whole, fresh): world production and producer price in France
Cheese types traditionally made from goat milk (chevre cheese) include feta (also traditionally made
from sheep milk) and kasseri (also made from sheep milk).
Australian dairy goat milk market
Details of the market for Australian dairy goat products are provided in Stubbs and Abud (2009).
Australia has six recognised dairy goat breeds—Saanen, Toggenburg, British Alpine, Anglo Nubian,
Australian Brown and Australian Melaan. Saanen is the most common.
There are believed to be around 55 000 dairy goats in Australia in 2012, producing milk for home
consumption and commercial production of drinking milk, cheese and yoghurt. This report deals only
with dairy goat farms that are licensed to produce milk for food consumption. Some dairy goat farms,
usually small, also produce goat milk to make products such as goat milk soap. The size of this
component of the Australian goat milk industry could not be determined.
In the licensed dairy sector the estimated number of goats milked in Australia in 2011–12 was around
15 750 head on 63 farms, producing nearly 8 million litres of milk. The gross value of licensed goat
milk production in 2011–12 was estimated to be $11 million (Table 18). The average price of goat
milk at the farm gate in 2011–12 in Australia was $1.40 a litre, compared with $0.42 a litre for milk
from cows. Estimated state shares of this production were Victoria, 35 per cent; Queensland, 25 per
cent; South Australia, 15 per cent; New South Wales, 15 per cent; Western Australia, 5 per cent; and
Tasmania, 5 per cent.
Cheese production accounts for around 60 per cent of domestic goat milk production, with a further
35 per cent consumed as whole milk or yoghurts. The remainder is processed into powder and tablets.
Australia is importing increasing quantities of chevre and other cheese types that have traditionally
been made from goat milk (Table 18). However, feta and kasseri are also traditionally made from
sheep milk and increasingly from cow milk.
Table 18: Goat milk products: supply, disposal and value, licensed dairy farms, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Farms
no.
Goats
head
65
63
12 000
15 750
32
Milk production
’000 litres
5 581
6 000
7 875
Gross value
$’000
5 302
6 000
11 025
Farmgate price
$/litre
0.95
1.00
1.40
Cheese produced wholly from goat milk a
– volume
tonnes
300
436
821
753
755
867
1 053
– value
$’000
3 447
4 814
9 442
9 866
9 663
10 137
11 500
– unit value
$/kg
11.47
11.04
11.50
13.10
12.79
11.69
10.92
– volume
tonnes
3 296
2 783
3 030
3 042
2 922
2 696
2 104
– value
$’000
16 530
16 697
19 746
23 495
18 836
17 537
15 218
– unit value
$/kg
5.01
6.00
6.52
7.72
6.45
6.51
7.23
96
135
124
173
68
97
44
Feta
Kasseri
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
871
1 350
1 279
2 230
700
867
377
– unit value
$/kg
9.12
10.04
10.28
12.88
10.30
8.94
8.57
Total cheese
imports
$’000
20 847
22 861
30 467
35 591
29 199
28 540
27 096
a Excluding feta and kasseri. It is not clear how much goat milk is contained in feta and kasseri.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Dairy Authority of South Australia (2012); Dairy Food Safety Victoria (2012); New South
Wales Food Authority (2012); Stubbs & Abud (2009)
Goat milk sells for much higher retail prices than cow milk. In 2012 the chilled goat milk price in
Australia’s major supermarkets averaged $4.60 a litre, compared with the chilled cow milk price for
the supermarkets’ own brands of $1 a litre. The price of goat milk powder in supermarkets was around
$22 a kilogram, compared with $6–8 a kilogram for cow skim milk powder.
Further information about dairy goats

Dairy Goat Society of Australia (dairygoats.org.au), including the Australian Goat World
magazine (free to members).

Dairy Goat Society of Australia, Victorian Branch (home.vicnet.net.au/~goats/dgsavictoria/).
Kangaroos and wallabies
The Australian kangaroo and wallaby industry is based on shooters harvesting kangaroos from the
wild. The industry has developed over the past 30 years from one based on pest control to one where
greater use is made of the harvested kangaroos for meat for human consumption and pet food.
Kangaroo skins are also an important product of the harvesting.
Kangaroos are only harvested on mainland Australia and wallabies are only harvested in Tasmania.
Kangaroos
Kangaroo production operates under a quota system administered by the state and federal
governments. Commercial harvesting is currently allowed for only four of the 55 species of kangaroos
in Australia. The quotas in each state are generally set annually at 10–20 per cent of the estimated
population for each of the permitted species. Kangaroo populations vary substantially from year to
year depending on seasonal conditions. Quotas declined in the middle of the last decade, but were
raised substantially in 2011–12 when good seasonal conditions led to a rapid increase in kangaroo
populations.
33
The industry is highly regulated, and all ‘harvesters’ must be accredited and licensed by State
agencies, and must operate under strict hygiene and animal welfare Codes of Practice. Kangaroos
processed for human consumption must be taken by appropriately licensed harvesters, delivered to
dedicated and licensed human consumption field chillers, and processed only in premises registered to
produce food for human-consumption (either for domestic or various export markets).
The total commercial harvest was around 1.8 million kangaroos in 2011–12, less than one-third of the
quota, with a gross value of around $28.6 million (Table 19). Production and prices were down
considerably from the mid-2000s because of the Russian Federation’s withdrawal from the kangaroo
meat market in 2009. Before that the Russian Federation accounted for more than 70 per cent of
Australian kangaroo meat exports. The gross value is a measure of the total amount paid to kangaroo
shooters at the meat processing plant gates.
Table 19: Kangaroo products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
’000
3 809
3 641
3 765
4 264
4 141
3 870
5 408
– human consumption
’000
1 294
1 344
1 410
1 323
903
768
1 026
– pet food
’000
1 799
1 358
949
878
767
662
442
– skins only
’000
339
315
315
315
315
315
300
– total
’000
3 431
3 017
2 674
2 516
1 985
1 752
1 768
Gross value
$’000
59 843
54 073
35 665
45 232
25 765
27 869
28 646
– human consumption
tonnes
15 567
16 176
16 968
15 920
10 863
9 237
12 350
– pet food
tonnes
21 648
16 344
11 419
10 572
9 238
8 052
5 320
– total
tonnes
37 215
32 520
28 387
26 492
20 101
17 290
17 670
– volume
tonnes
11 445
13 788
12 289
8 873
3 907
2 983
4 525
– value
$’000
36 631
47 202
39 576
34 609
15 448
12 225
20 381
– unit value
$/kg
3.20
3.42
3.22
3.90
3.95
4.10
4.50
– volume
tonnes
607
585
327
405
213
133
328
– value
$’000
841
915
478
628
384
330
462
– unit value
$/kg
1.39
1.56
1.46
1.55
1.80
2.48
1.41
– volume
’000
2 691
2 505
2 524
1 895
1 535
1 372
1 827
– value
$’000
55 486
51 106
49 313
42 435
27 766
23 538
25 710
– unit value
$/hide
20.62
20.40
19.53
22.39
18.09
17.15
14.07
Total export value
$’000
92 958
99 223
89 367
77 672
43 599
36 093
46 553
Production
Harvest quotas a
Harvest
Meat
Exports
Meat
Pet food
Hides, skins, leather
a Calendar year; for example, quota in 2011–12 refers to quota for 2012. Includes sustainable quotas and special quotas.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); DSEWPaC (2012); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Kangaroo meat exports for human consumption grew strongly until loss of access to the Russian
Federation market ( Figure 22). There are signs of the Russian Federation market for kangaroo meat
re-establishing with one Australian processor of kangaroo meat resuming sales to that market in late
2012 after satisfying market access requirements. Kangaroo meat is mainly used in sausage making in
the Russian Federation and is lower in quality and price than the prime cuts traded with countries such
as France and Germany (Humphries 2005). Steaks and other prime cuts typically make up only about
34
15 per cent of the total dressed weight of a kangaroo and, depending on the cut, command price
premiums of $5–10 a kilogram over other kangaroo meat.
The major export destinations for kangaroo meat in 2011–12 were South Africa (28 per cent of total
exports), Germany (19 per cent), the Netherlands (17 per cent), Papua New Guinea (14 per cent) and
Belgium (11 per cent). South Africa and Papua New Guinea import lower quality kangaroo meat.
There is growing demand for higher quality cuts of kangaroo meat in western Europe, where kangaroo
is considered a game meat.
Kangaroo hides, skins and leather are now the largest component of the kangaroo export industry, with
exports totalling $25.7million in 2011–12. There are only very limited country details available for
these exports because of confidentiality requirements. The export market for pet food was worth
$462 000 in 2011–12, with the major markets being Indonesia and New Zealand.
kt
15
5
12
4
9
3
6
2
3
1
0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
exports, meat
export price, meat (right axis)
2006–07
2011–12
2011–12
$/kg
exports, pet food
export price, pet food (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 22: Kangaroo meat: exports and export prices, Australia
Wallabies
Commercial harvesting of wallabies is undertaken on Flinders Island and King Island, which are both
part of Tasmania. The species harvested are Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) on Flinders
Island and King Island, and Tasmanian pademelon (Thylogale billardierii) on Flinders Island. Under
Commonwealth legislation (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999) exports
of wallaby products are allowed only if there is a formal management plan agreed between the federal
and state government aimed at ensuring the sustainability of the harvest.
Agreed quotas and numbers of wallabies harvested since 2005–06 under various management plans
are shown in Table 20. Numbers harvested have always been considerably less than the quotas. The
last management plan for wallabies in Tasmania expired after 2009–10.
Even without an agreed management plan between the state and federal governments, the Tasmanian
Government allows harvesting of wallabies for disposal on the domestic market, provided the
harvesting is within sustainable levels. Tasmanian production of wallaby meat was estimated to be
around 29 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of $250 000.
35
Table 20: Wallaby products: supply, disposal and value, Tasmania
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
31 000
25 000
0
25 000
10 000
0
0
Production
Harvest quotas
– Bennett's wallaby
no.
– Tasmania pademelon
no.
3 750
2 000
0
1 000
0
0
0
Total
no.
34 750
27 000
0
26 000
10 000
0
0
– Bennett’s wallaby
no.
8 874
10 180
0
6 360
na
na
na
– Tasmanian pademelon
no.
180
0
0
0
na
na
na
Total
no.
9 054
10 180
0
6 360
9 223
9 500
10 000
Meat
tonnes
20.9
23.7
20.7
22.1
22.1
27.7
28.6
Gross value
$’000
226
255
0
129
231
238
250
– volume
tonnes
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
– value
$’000
59
0
0
0
0
0
0
– unit value
$/kg
12.76
na
na
Na
na
na
na
Harvest
Exports
Meat
Hides, skins, leather
– volume
pieces
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
– value
$’000
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
0.03
Na
na
na
na
Total export value
$’000
59
0
6
0
0
0
0
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); DSEWPaC (2012); Forest Practices Authority (2012); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Further information about kangaroos and wallabies

Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities
(www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/wildlife-trade/wild-harvest/index.html)—information on
the kangaroo industry, including quotas and numbers harvested.

Kangaroo Industry Association of Australia (www.kangaroo-industry.asn.au).
Ostriches
The ostrich (Struthio camelus) is a flightless bird of the ratite family that is native to Africa. Ostrich
are farmed in more than 20 countries for their meat, skin (leather), oil and feathers. Ostrich meat is a
red meat that is low in cholesterol and calories and is almost fat free. Ostrich leather is durable with a
distinctive quill pattern and is one of the most expensive leathers in the world. A range of cosmetic
products, including soap, massage oils and hair products, use ostrich oil as the major active ingredient.
Ostrich oil is claimed to be a natural moisturiser because of its excellent penetration and emollient
properties when applied to the skin (Australian Ostrich Association 2001). Ostrich feathers are used
extensively in feather dusters (because of their antistatic properties) and in the fashion and flower
industries (Stables 2011).
There were 193 000 commercial slaughterings of ostriches in South Africa in 2011–12, down from
352 000 in 2001–02 ( Figure 23). The production decline reflects outbreaks of avian influenza in
ostrich flocks in South Africa in 2004 and 2011. There are also smaller commercial ostrich flocks in
China, Canada, the United States, Pakistan and Australia, but these have also been declining in recent
years with the exception of Pakistan.
36
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
'000 0
head
2011-12
2001–02
2003–04
slaughterings
2005–06
2007–08
2009–10
2011–12
value of products per ostrich (right axis)
0 US$/head
Data sources: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of South Africa (2012); Klein Karoo
International Limited (2012)
Figure 23: Ostrich: slaughterings and returns, South Africa
Most ostriches in South Africa go to slaughter at 10–14 months of age, producing around 27 kilograms
of meat, 4.2 square metres of leather and 1 kilogram of feathers.
Klein Karoo International Limited, a cooperative that had statutory controls over the marketing of
South African ostrich products until 1993, still accounts for around 65 per cent of world trade in
ostrich products.
Based on data in Klein Karoo International Limited (2012), the value to producers of a slaughter
ostrich in South Africa in the three years to 2011–12 was broken up as approximately 63 per cent
meat, 27 per cent leather, 8 per cent feathers and 4 per cent other products. Ostrich oil or fat apparently
has little value.
Annual exports of ostrich meat from South Africa averaged around 6200 tonnes in the three years to
2010, almost all of which went to the European Union and Switzerland (Department of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of South Africa 2011). However, an outbreak of avian influenza in
South Africa in August 2004 resulted in a ban by the European Union on imports of South African
ostrich meat and eggs. The ban was lifted in late 2005 but re-implemented in April 2011 after a further
outbreak of avian influenza.
In 2007, 640 tonnes of ostrich feathers were sold by ostrich growers in South Africa at an average
price per kilogram equivalent of US$11.09 or $A20.38 (Statistics South Africa 2009).
Australian ostrich industry
The gross value of ostrich production in Australia was an estimated $324 000 in 2011–12, based on
slaughterings of 1001 ostriches (Table 21). Most ostrich meat and skins are exported. The total value
of exports of ostrich and ostrich products in 2011–12 was $641 000.
37
Table 21: Ostrich products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
8 124
6 973
4 165
1 685
1 361
1 576
1 001
Production
Slaughterings
no.
Meat production
tonnes
227
195
117
47
38
44
28
Gross value
$’000
3 339
2 364
868
299
318
1 009
324
0
8
0
210
0
0
315
Exports
Live ostriches
– volume
no.
– value
$’000
0
25
0
19
0
0
24
– unit value
$/head
na
3 075.00
na
88.18
na
na
74.92
Meat and edible offal
– volume
tonnes
150
118
102
78
46
37
29
– value
$’000
1 969
1 400
783
798
579
717
462
– unit value
$/kg
13.17
11.90
7.67
10.25
12.50
19.12
15.92
12 269
8 667
21 017
6 000
6 000
2 364
5 999
Hides and leather
– volume
pieces
– value
$’000
856
409
814
20
18
213
156
– unit value
$/piece
69.78
47.17
38.74
3.25
3.00
90.22
21.61
Total export value
$’000
2 826
1 833
1 597
836
597
930
641
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Export prices for Australian ostrich meat have improved since 2007–08 but exports have declined to
low levels ( Figure 24). The market access problems facing South African ostrich meat in Europe
because of avian influenza outbreaks contributed to stronger export prices for Australian ostrich meat.
Australian exports of ostrich meat and edible offal averaged $586 000 a year in the three years to
2011–12 (Table 21). Export markets for ostrich meat were the United States (46 per cent of total
volume), Canada (48 per cent) and Japan (6 per cent). Over the same period, the value of ostrich skin
exports averaged $129 000 a year; the export markets were Thailand (65 per cent of total volume) and
the Republic of Korea (35 per cent).
tonnes
1000
25
800
20
600
15
400
10
200
5
0
0
2002–03
2005–06
production
2008–09
exports
export price (right axis)
Data sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Figure 24: Ostrich meat: production, exports and export prices, Australia
38
2011–12
2011–12
$/kg
Further information about ostriches

Klein Karoo International Limited (www.kleinkaroo.com), a cooperative that controls around
65 per cent of world trade in ostrich products.

South African Ostrich Business Chamber (www.ostrichsa.co.za)—information about the South
African ostrich industry.

World Ostrich Association (www.world-ostrich.org)—range of information on the world ostrich
industry including details of industry standards for ostrich products.

American Ostrich Association (www.ostriches.org)—information on the US industry and ostrich
husbandry and products.
Possums
An industry based on harvesting brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecular (Kerr)) from the wild has
been operating in Tasmania since the early days of European settlement. Possum harvesting is
currently not allowed in any other Australian states or territories.
There is also wild harvesting of brushtail possums for commercial purposes in New Zealand, where
the brushtail possum was introduced from Australia in the mid-19th century and its possum population
has now grown to pest proportions. New Zealand’s possum industry is largely based on fur production.
Possum fur, which typically has a fibre diameter of around 16.5 micron and other desirable properties,
is in growing demand for blending with wool. Around 1.7 million possums are harvested annually for
this purpose (New Zealand Department of Conservation 2012). Prices for possum fur increased to
around NZ$150 a kilogram in 2012, compared with around NZ$100 a kilogram in 2009. It takes 18 to
20 possums to produce 1 kilogram of possum fur. Around 40 per cent of New Zealand possum fur is
exported to China.
There has been resurgence in the world export market for raw and tanned animal fur skins over the
past decade. The value of world exports was US$5.6 billion in 2011, 48 per cent higher than in 2007
(United Nations Statistics Division 2013). The main importers were Hong Kong (40 per cent of the
total value of world imports in the five years to 2011), China (13 per cent), Italy (6 per cent), Denmark
(6 per cent), Greece (5 per cent) and Finland (5 per cent).
Tasmanian possum industry
In Tasmania, harvesting for commercial purposes under permit is a component of the government
arrangements for the control of the brushtail possum population that at one stage also included a
bounty paid on skins and carcasses. Control measures are necessary because the establishment of
crops, orchards and vineyards has seen brushtail possum numbers increase greatly (Tasmanian Parks
and Wildlife Service 1999).
Initially the Tasmanian possum industry was largely based on fur production. At its postwar peak in
1979 the industry harvested around 300 000 possums, but the industry nearly disappeared in the mid1990s after the collapse of the world market for animal furs ( Figure 25). A quota was first set in 1983
at 250 000 possums a year to ensure the brushtail possum did not become an endangered species
through overexploitation (see Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service 1999). The quota includes
possums harvested under commercial permits and shot or poisoned under crop protection permits.
Before the quota, the season was simply closed for commercial harvest when populations were
assessed to be under threat of overexploitation.
The industry was re-established in 1995, mainly based on meat production. Its main outlet was the
Chinese market, where possum is a close substitute in appearance and taste for a local delicacy, the
civet cat (Paguma larvata). However, the civet cat was identified as a carrier of the Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) virus with the outbreak of this disease in China in late 2002. In 2004
39
the Chinese Government banned the consumption of civet cat. This severely affected demand for
possum meat in the Chinese market and the Tasmanian commercial possum harvest fell again to low
levels after reaching production of around 55 000 possums in 2000.
Under Commonwealth legislation (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999)
possum products can only be exported from Tasmania if an agreed wildlife management plan is in
place between the state and federal governments. An agreed plan for brushtail possums expired on
31 December 2004; a new plan was not approved until October 2010 and did not come into effect until
1 March 2011 (see Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and the Environment, Tasmania
2010). The Tasmanian Government allowed commercial wild harvesting for domestic disposal in the
period between the management plans, where possums were causing damage to crops. Only small
numbers of possums were harvested in this period.
300
200
100
'000
0
1952
1962
1972
1982
harvest
1992
2002
2012
quota
Data sources: Forest Practices Authority (2012); Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service (1999)
Figure 25: Brushtail possums: commercial harvest and quota in Tasmania
In 2011–12, the first full year of the current plan, 3949 possums were harvested, with a gross value of
$49 000 (Table 22). Possum fur skins exported from Tasmania in 2011–12 numbered 670, and 536
possums were exported for meat (Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment,
Tasmania 2012).
40
Table 22: Possum products: supply, disposal and value, Tasmania
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Harvest quota
no.
0
0
0
0
0
20 022
54 372
Harvest
no.
14 497
4 832
1 558
4 680
1 375
4 379
3 949
Meat
tonnes
1.1
0.9
0.4
0.6
0.8
8.8
7.9
Gross value
$’000
145
39
12
37
11
42
49
– volume
tonnes
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.1
– value
$’000
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
Na
na
na
10.00
2 955
0
0
0
0
491
670
Exports
Meat
Fur skins
– volume
no.
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
Total export value
$’000
22
0
0
0
0
29
54
7.54
na
na
Na
na
60.00
80.00
22
0
0
0
0
29
65
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Tasmania (2012); Forest
Practices Authority (2012)
Further information about possums

Lenah Game Meats (www.lenah.com.au)—possum fibre prices.

Forest Practices Authority (2012)
(www.fpa.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/82872/State_of_the_forests_Tasmania_2012_rep
ort.pdf)—information (including statistics) on possum populations and the commercial and noncommercial harvest.
Rabbits, farmed
Rabbits are mainly produced intensively in feedlot type farms but are also shot or trapped in the wild.
The main product is meat, although rabbit underfur is also used extensively to make felt for hats.
World production of rabbit meat is currently around 1.6 million tonnes and has grown at around 3 per
cent a year over the 10 years to 2010. The main producers are China, Venezuela and countries in the
European Union (Table 23).
Only 2–3 per cent of rabbit meat production enters world trade (Table 23). The main exporters of
rabbit meat are China, Argentina and countries of the European Union. European countries are the
main importers of rabbit meat. There is only a very small international trade in rabbit fur skins and
tanned rabbit skins. Average world export prices for rabbit meat have increased over the past decade (
Figure 26).
41
Table 23: Rabbit meat: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2010)
Production
1 623 kt
na
China (39%), Italy (15%), Venezuela (15%), Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea (8%), Spain (4%), France (3%), Germany (2%)
World trade
39.8 kt
US$206
million
Exporters: China (24%), France (17%), Belgium (14%), Hungary (11%), Spain
(9%), Argentina (7%), Italy (6%), Netherlands (4%)
Importers: Germany (18%), Belgium (16%), Italy (13%), France (10%),
Russian Federation (8%), Portugal (6%), Switzerland (5%), Netherlands (5%)
a Average, three years to 2010.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
2000
8
1500
6
1000
4
500
2
ktKt 0
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
production
exports
export price (right scale)
producer price, meat, France (right axis)
2012
2012
0US$/K
g
US$/kg
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 26: Rabbit meat: world production, exports and export prices
Australian farmed rabbit industry
Australia’s farmed rabbit industry was established after the wild harvest industry collapsed as a result
of the deliberate introduction into Australia of rabbit calicivirus in 1996. The industry’s establishment
was enabled by the removal of state bans on rabbit farming in all states but Queensland and the
Northern Territory. There are now rabbit farms in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and
Western Australia.
Australian production of rabbit meat in 2011–12 was 265 tonnes, down from 325 tonnes in 2006–07
(Table 24). In the initial stages of the farmed rabbit industry, meat production was contributed by
many small producers but there has been a trend to fewer, much larger farms. Foster (1999) estimated
that there were 115 rabbit farms in Australia in 1998–99 with an average of 57 breeding does each. By
2006–07 the number of farms had contracted to 44, but with an average size of 237 breeding does.
Only around 22 rabbit farms operated in Australia in 2011–12 (although anecdotally, numbers in 2013
may be considerably less again). A number of large-scale rabbit farms have closed in New South
Wales in recent years, due to disease problems and cost pressures. The first commercial rabbit farm in
Australia, operating at Baldivis in Western Australia since 1988, continues to thrive, turning off 650–
750 rabbits a week.
At this stage of its development, the industry is oriented toward supplying the domestic market that
offers wholesale prices of over $20 a kilogram, compared with international prices of around $5–6 a
kilogram. There have been small quantities of rabbit meat exported from Australia, including
1.1 tonnes in 2011–12, but it is not clear whether this is game (wild) rabbit meat or farmed rabbit meat.
42
In the five years before the release of rabbit calicivirus, Australian exports of game rabbit meat
averaged more than 500 tonnes a year, with a peak of 1081 tonnes in 1990–91.
Table 24: Rabbit products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Number of farms
no.
na
44
22
Average size (breeding does)
no.
na
237
300
Slaughter
’000
191
236
182
Farmgate price
$/rabbit
9.76
11.00
12.00
Gross value
$’000
1 860
2 599
3 181
Carcass weight
kg a
1.39
1.38
1.3
Meat
Tonnes
264
325
265
– volume
Tonnes
0.2
2.5
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
Exports
Meat
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
1.1
2
18
2
1
2
1
34
13.69
7.46
12.57
14.00
11.18
12.68
30.20
Skins, fur skins
– volume
no.
0
0
0
2593
0
0
0
– value
$’000
0
0
0
2.6
0
0
0
– unit value
$/skin
na
na
na
1.00
na
na
na
Total export value
$’000
2.4
18.3
2.2
4.1
2.5
1.3
33.6
– volume
no.
297
7
42
0
94
190
735
– value
$’000
16
4
16
0
4
9
7
– unit value
$/skin
53.29
506.00
371.86
na
48.03
48.66
8.90
Imports
Skins, fur skins
a Dressed weight. The dress out proportion with rabbits is assumed to be 50 per cent.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Primesafe (2012); Western Australian Meat Industry Authority (2012)
The collapse of the Australian wild rabbit industry meant that rabbit fur skins had to be imported to
meet demand from the makers of felt hats (Table 24). There were some initial problems with using fur
skins from the Australia farmed rabbit industry because of the fattiness of the skins, but these
problems now appear to have been overcome. The price for farmed rabbit fur skins in 2011–12
averaged $7 a kilogram, or around $0.70 a skin.
Further information about farmed rabbits

Farmed Rabbit Industry of Australia (no website), industry representative body in Australia—
provides a newsletter.

World Rabbit Science Association (world-rabbit-science.com)—information on all aspects of
rabbit production, including proceedings of recent conferences.
Aquaculture and fisheries
World aquaculture is a rapidly growing part of world fish production at a time when world capture
production of fish has levelled off. Aquaculture has grown from a share of 21 per cent of world fish
production in 1995, to 40 per cent in 2010 (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department 2012).
43
Freshwater aquaculture provided 58 per cent of world aquaculture by value in 2010, while marine and
brackish water aquaculture provided 29 per cent and 13 per cent, respectively.
The total value of production of the Australian aquaculture industry was $948 million in 2011–12.
Marine aquaculture accounted for the bulk of the value of Australia aquaculture production—mainly
salmonids, tuna, pearl and edible oysters and prawns ( Figure 27).
finfish
crustaceans
molluscs
Total value: $948m
other
mussels
abalone
pearl oysters
edible oysters
other
freshwater crustaceans
prawn
other
silver perch
barramundi
tuna
salmonids
$m
0
100
200
300
400
500
Data source: Skirtun et al. (2012)
Figure 27: Aquaculture: value of production, by sector, 2011–12
The emerging fisheries and aquaculture industries examined in this report are carp, crocodile,
freshwater crustaceans, mulloway, Murray cod and seaweed.
Further information about fisheries and aquaculture

Australian aquaculture (www.aquaculture.org.au), website of the National Aquaculture Council—
information on the Australian aquaculture industry.

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (2012) (www.fao.org/fishery/sofia/en).

Skirtun et al. (2012).
Carp
Carp (Cyprinus carpio or common carp) is a freshwater fish that is native to the inland river systems of
Asia but has spread to many other areas of the world, where it is usually considered an invasive pest.
World carp production (capture and aquaculture of silver, bighead, grass and common species of carp)
was estimated to be 24 million tonnes in 2010 or 72 per cent of world production of freshwater fish
(FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department 2012). Around 80 per cent of world carp production
came from aquaculture, making it the world’s most important farmed fish. Common carp accounted
for around 10 per cent of world production of freshwater fish in 2010.
Only a very small part of carp production enters world trade. The European Union imported
958 tonnes of live carp and 1324 tonnes of frozen carp fillets in 2011 ( Figure 28).
44
2500
10
2000
8
1500
6
1000
4
500
2
0
0
tonnes
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
live
frozen
import price, frozen (right axis)
2012
€/kg
fresh or chilled
import price, live (right axis)
Data source: European Commission (2013)
Figure 28: Carp: European Union imports and import prices
Australian carp industry
Carp were introduced to Australia in the mid-1800s but widespread distribution in eastern Australian
waterways began in the 1960s. Carp are now the most abundant large freshwater fish in the Murray–
Darling Basin. More limited populations occur in Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania.
Invasive Animals CRC (2012) advances the idea that carp may not be the cause of environmental
damage in Australia, as widely assumed. Rather, they say, the carp proliferation may be a symptom of
the poor health of inland waters that has resulted from other causes. However, large populations of
carp make it difficult to restore these systems to a healthy state.
There are minor recreational fisheries for carp in Australia and an emerging commercial fishery. The
commercial industry employs electrofishing and seine and gill nets.
The domestic market for carp includes fresh table fish, rock lobster bait, pet food, raw ingredients for
fertiliser and stock feed, and dried and smoked products. There is also an export industry based on carp
fillets and trunks and carp products, such as roe, skins and livers. The main manufacturer in Australia
of fertiliser from carp, Charlie Carp Limited, uses 150–200 tonnes of carp a year in its Deniliquin
plant. K & C Fisheries is the main exporter of carp products. It harvests carp from the Gippsland Lakes
of Victoria for export and for lobster bait. However, the carp catch in the Gippsland Lakes has
declined from a peak of 658 tonnes in 1998–99 to only 61 tonnes in 2010–11 (Department of Primary
Industries, Victoria 2011).
Estimated Australian carp production was 710 tonnes in 2011, with a gross value of $585 000 (Table
25). Carp production in Victoria and South Australia has been much lower over the past 10 years than
in the 1990s, although average prices have been higher in real terms ( Figure 29). Data are not
available for New South Wales. The average price paid for carp has fluctuated around $1 a kilogram
over the past 10 years. Much higher prices are paid for carp suitable for human consumption than for
carp used for lobster bait and to make fertiliser.
Small quantities of live carp and carp fillets were exported from Australia in 2012 (Table 25).
45
1500
3
1000
2
500
1
tonnes
2011-12
0
1990–91
1995–96
2000–01
2005–06
2010–11
production, South Australia
production, Victoria
unit value, South Australia (right scale)
unit value, Victoria (right scale)
0 $/kg
Data sources: Department of Primary Industries, Victoria (2011); Knight & Tsolos (2012)
Figure 29: Carp: production and unit values, Victorian and South Australian waters
Table 25: Carp: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Production
Volume
Tonnes
1 183
710
Gross value
$’000
1 447
585
Exports
Live
– volume
no.
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
501
0
0
0
0
0
12 345
18
0
0
0
0
0
44
35.41
na
na
na
na
na
3.60
Fillets, fresh and frozen
– volume
Tonnes
na
na
na
na
na
na
2.2
– value
$’000
na
na
na
na
na
na
23
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
na
na
na
10.57
Total export value
$’000
na
na
na
na
na
na
68
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Crocodiles
Skins are the main product from crocodiles; meat, feet, teeth and skulls are by-products (Northern
Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries 2012c). In Australia, tourism is an important
activity for many crocodile enterprises, accounting for an estimated 30 per cent of total revenue of
these enterprises in 2001 (Wondu Holdings 2002). Because of its attractive appearance, suppleness and
durability, saltwater crocodiles skin produces a premium leather that is used in high quality fashion
products such as belts, handbags, wallets and clothing. Crocodile meat is a succulent white meat that is
low in fat and high in protein.
On average, 1.19 million crocodilians (caimans, crocodiles and alligators) were harvested annually
worldwide in the three years to 2010 (Caldwell 2012). Caiman species native to South America made
up around 44 per cent of the total harvest ( Figure 30). Colombia accounted for 42 per cent of the total
46
harvest, the United States 26 per cent, Cambodia 6 per cent and Zimbabwe 5 per cent. Australian
production represented slightly more than 1 per cent of the world total.
Other
New Guinea crocodile
Siamese crocodile
Estuarine crocodile
Nile crocodile
American alligator
Spectacled caiman
'000 0
200
400
600
a Average, three years to 2010.
Data source: Caldwell (2012)
Figure 30: Crocodilians: world exports of crocodilian skins, by species a
Trade in crocodilians is subject to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), to which Australia is a signatory along with around 177 other
countries (as at June 2013). CITES permits are required in Australia for crocodile products exported
to, or imported from, other countries.
World trade in crocodilian meat and skins is summarised in Table 26. Most meat comes from
crocodylus species. Alligator, caiman and Crocodylus niloticus species provide most of the skins.
47
Table 26: Crocodilian products: world trade in skins and meat a
Genus
Volume
Main exporters
Main importers
United States (99%)
Hong Kong (91%), Canada (8%)
–
–
Meat (tonnes)
Alligator
70
Caiman
negligible
Crocodylus niloticus
455
Zimbabwe (52%), South Africa
(27%), Belgium (10%), Zambia (9%),
Switzerland (1%)
Hong Kong (56%), Switzerland (13%),
Belgium (15%), China (5%), Netherlands
(7%), Germany (3%)
Crocodylus porosus
29
Australia (64%), Papua New Guinea
(17%), Indonesia (15%), Thailand
(2%), Malaysia (2%)
Japan (48%), United States (6%), New
Zealand (6%), Malaysia (11%), Taiwan
(2%), Hong Kong (8%)
Other Crocodylus
262
Thailand (99%), Vietnam (1%)
Hong Kong (92%), China (6%)
Alligators
232
United States (99%)
Tunisia (28%), France (13%), Mauritius
(9%), Hong Kong (7%), Switzerland (6%),
China (6%), Singapore (9%), Madagascar
(4%)
Caiman
575
Colombia (92%), Bolivia (6%), Brazil
(1%)
Mexico (23%), Thailand (11%), United
States (12%), Singapore (12%), Hong
Kong (12%), Republic of Korea (7%),
Taiwan (4%), China (6%)
Crocodylus niloticus
160
Zimbabwe (48%), South Africa
(24%), Zambia (20%), Kenya (3%),
Malawi (1%), Botswana (1%),
Tanzania (1%)
Singapore (29%), Vietnam (9%), China
(10%), France (9%), Thailand (4%),
Belgium (3%), Italy (7%), Hong Kong
(3%)
Crocodylus porosus
52
Australia (56%), Papua New Guinea
(27%), Indonesia (10%), Thailand
(4%), Malaysia (2%)
Australia (47%), Singapore (25%), France
(16%), Malaysia (2%), Republic of Korea
(1%), China (1%), Italy (1%)
Other Crocodylus
89
Thailand (35%), Singapore (16%),
Papua New Guinea (20%), Indonesia
(10%), Japan (5%), Vietnam (8%),
China (3%), Colombia (1%)
Japan (39%), Singapore (24%), Thailand
(7%), China (9%), Vietnam (4%), Italy
(4%), France (4%), Hong Kong (3%)
Skins and pieces (’000)
a Average, three years to 2010.
Source: Caldwell (2012); CITES (2013)
Australian crocodile industry
There are a total of 14 commercial crocodile farms in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Western
Australia. In the Northern Territory, there are seven farms in total comprised of two hatcheries, four
production only farms and one production and tourism farm. In Queensland, there are six farms in total
comprised of two production and tourism farms and three production only farms. There is one
production and tourism farm in Western Australia.
The crocodile industry in the Northern Territory and Western Australia involves captive breeding and
regulated harvesting of eggs and live crocodiles from the wild. With the latest management plan for
saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory, which runs from 2009 to 2014, the ceilings for
harvestings from the wild were initially 50 000 eggs, 500 hatchlings, 400 juveniles and 500 adults, but
the ceiling for eggs is to be increased in stages to 70 000 eggs by 2014 (Leach et al. 2009). Crocodile
farming in Queensland involves captive breeding and raising of crocodiles sourced from the Northern
Territory; harvesting from the wild is not allowed.
Farmed crocodiles are usually harvested between two and four years of age when belly skin width
measures at least 35 centimetres (Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
2012c).
The total value of Australian crocodile product exports in 2011–12 was $15 million, 98 per cent of
which was skins (Table 27). Prices for saltwater crocodile skins have increased strongly in recent years
48
due to demand from European fashion houses. Over the three years to 2011–12 the main export
markets for Australia’s crocodile skins were Singapore (69 per cent), France (26 per cent), Japan (2
per cent) and Italy (2 per cent). The main export markets for Australian crocodile meat were Japan (69
per cent), Malaysia (11 per cent), New Zealand (9 per cent), the United States (6 per cent) and Canada
(3 per cent).
Table 27: Crocodile products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Meat
Tonnes
Skins
no.
Gross value
$’000
114
116
204
210
151
257
243
22 780
23 278
40 761
41 907
30 288
51 370
48 532
6 786
10 179
19 032
19 281
16 912
28 759
51 859
Exports
Raw hides and tanned skins, freshwater crocodiles
– volume
no.
0
3
961
0
0
0
516
– value
$’000
0
4
405
0
0
0
312
– unit value
$/skin
na
1 337.67
421.78
na
na
na
na
Raw hides and tanned skins, saltwater crocodiles
– volume
no.
20 041
20 479
28 319
37 278
50 773
51 387
36 044
– value
$’000
6 633
9 950
12 437
15 316
14 786
22 075
14 413
–unit value
$/skin
330.99
485.89
439.16
410.86
291.22
429.59
399.87
– volume
Pieces
162
88
0
2
427
215
3
– value
$’000
10
8
0
2
84
29
3
–unit value
$/skin
61.42
85.40
na
1 089.00
196.84
136.05
933.33
– volume
Tonnes
13.8
12.6
4.3
12.1
12.5
21.1
25.9
– value
$’000
265
177
96
108
146
257
321
– unit value
$/kg
19.16
14.03
22.53
8.92
11.65
12.16
12.36
Total export value
$’000
6 908
10 139
12 938
15 426
15 016
22 362
15 048
Leather
Meat and edible offal
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Further information about crocodiles

Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
(www.nt.gov.au/dpifm/Primary_Industry/index.cfm)—a range of information about crocodile
farming in the Northern Territory.

FAO’s online database (faostat.fao.org)—data by country for crocodile and alligator production.
Freshwater crayfish
Recorded world production of freshwater crayfish is growing rapidly, reaching a record 1.68 million
tonnes in 2010 (FAO Statistics Division 2013) ( Figure 31). The main producing countries in 2010
were China (91 per cent of world production), the United States (3 per cent), Bangladesh (2.1 per
cent), India (1.6 per cent) and Thailand (1.5 per cent). Recorded world exports in 2010 were 32 900
tonnes, valued at US$167 million.
49
1800
9
1200
6
600
3
kt
2012
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
production
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
0 US$/kg
producer price (right scale)
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 31: Freshwater crayfish: world production and producer prices
A number of freshwater crayfish species are farmed in Australia, mainly:

marron (Cherax tenuimanus), a very large freshwater crayfish native to the river systems of the
high rainfall areas of Western Australia

redclaw (Cherax quadricarinatus), a freshwater crayfish native to the turbid slow moving rivers of
northern Australia that can tolerate a broad range of environmental conditions

yabby (mainly Cherax destructor and Cherax albidus), a semiaquatic freshwater crayfish
indigenous to the inland waters and some coastal drainage areas of central and eastern Australia,
but introduced to Western Australia around 1932.
Marron have also been introduced to South Africa but only around 2 tonnes is produced annually
(FAO Statistics Division 2013). There is also production of redclaw in New Caledonia, Mexico and
South America, but Australia accounts for around 90 per cent of world production.
Australian freshwater crayfish industry
Marron is the largest freshwater crayfish farmed in Australia and earns considerably higher prices than
yabbies and redclaw ( Figure 32). Marron and redclaw are usually farmed in purpose-built dams, while
yabbies are mostly raised in existing farm dams. Marron accounted for only 27 per cent of Australian
freshwater crayfish production in the three years to 2011–12 but 40 per cent of the total value, while
yabbies and redclaw accounted for 38 per cent and 36 per cent of Australian production, respectively.
In 2009–10 there were 407 licences for production of freshwater crayfish in Australia, less than half
the level in 2005–06 (Table 28).
A production advantage Australia enjoys compared with other countries is a relatively disease free
environment In the three years to 2010–11 Western Australia (producing marron and yabbies)
accounted for 46 per cent of Australian freshwater crayfish production; Queensland (producing
redclaw), 36 per cent; South Australia (marron and yabbies), 10 per cent; New South Wales (yabbies),
7 per cent; and Victoria (yabbies), 1 per cent (Skirtun et al. 2012).
50
Table 28: Freshwater crayfish: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2004–05
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
Production
No. of licences
– marron
no.
290
279
80
25
34
18
na
– redclaw
no.
233
317
240
201
241
239
na
– yabbies
no.
316
287
240
200
182
150
na
– total
no.
839
883
560
426
457
407
na
Quantity
– marron
tonnes
77
64
88
73
76
77
88
– redclaw
tonnes
99
105
100
67
68
57
52
– yabbies
tonnes
120
91
116
84
60
59
42
– total
tonnes
296
261
304
224
204
193
181
– marron
$’000
2 072
1 637
2 215
2 091
2 040
2 094
2 451
– redclaw
$’000
1 282
1 300
1 450
1 097
1 121
956
908
– yabbies
$’000
1 866
1 314
1 753
1 351
1 019
1 059
637
– total
$’000
5 220
4 251
5 418
4 539
4 180
4 109
3 996
Gross value
Source: Skirtun et al. (2012)
In the early 2000s roughly 20–25 per cent of Australian freshwater crayfish production was exported,
mainly to Europe and north Asia. However, exports have declined as production has declined. An
estimated 14 per cent of total redclaw production was exported in 2005–06 (Lobegeiger & Wingfield
2007), but this proportion was only 1 per cent in 2009–10 (Wingfield & Willett 2012). An export
accredited marron processing plant was built at Manjimup in Western Australia in 2006.
tonnes
400
60
300
45
200
30
100
15
0
0
1995–96
2000–01
2005–06
2010–11
yabby production
marron production
redclaw production
yabby price (right scale)
marron price (right scale)
redclaw price (right scale)
2011–12
$/kg
Data source: Skirtun et al. (2012)
Figure 32: Freshwater crayfish: production and producer prices, Australia
Mulloway
Mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus) is a coastal fish mostly found in countries bordering the Indian
Ocean, including Australia and those of the Indian subcontinent and the southern region of Africa.
51
There are small wild catch mulloway fisheries in Australia—for example in the Coorong, the estuary
at the mouth of Murray River in South Australia. South Australian production has declined
substantially in recent years and was only 22 tonnes in 2010–11 ( Figure 33).
tonnes
50
10
40
8
30
6
20
4
10
2
0
0
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
production
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$/kg
unit value (right axis)
Data source: Knight & Tsolos (2012)
Figure 33: Wild catch mulloway: production and prices, South Australia
Mulloway were first bred in captivity in Australia in 1992. Guy and Cowden (2012) list the
characteristics of mulloway that make them suitable for farming as: quick growth and high feed
conversion rates; accepting of artificial food; highly fecund; tolerant of a wide range of water salinity,
oxygen and temperature levels; not cannibalistic; and can be grown at high stocking rates. These
characteristics indicate potential for farming in on-land saline ponds or tanks, including those parts of
inland Australia where saline water is plentiful.
Until recently virtually all commercial farmed mulloway production in Australia came from sea cage
systems, but a pond-based mulloway farm was started in 2008 at Yamba, on the north coast of New
South Wales, employing a disused prawn farm. Research is continuing into that system.
Farmed production of mulloway reached 48.7 tonnes in New South Wales in 2011–12, with a gross
value of $488 000. Farmed mulloway production increased when pond-based mulloway production
commenced at Yamba in 2008 and this appears to have caused an initial sharp decline in farmed
mulloway prices ( Figure 34). However, farmed mulloway prices rebounded as wider markets were
found for the new production.
52
75
15
50
10
25
5
tonnes 0
0
2001–02
2003–04
2005–06
2007–08
production
2009–10
2011–12
2011-12
$/kg
price (right axis)
Data source: Department of Primary Industry, New South Wales (2012)
Figure 34: Farmed mulloway: production and prices, New South Wales
Further information about mulloway

Guy & Cowden (2012) (rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/11-178).
Murray cod
Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii peelii) is a native Australian freshwater fish found in the Murray–
Darling river system of eastern Australia. It is predatory and the largest freshwater native fish in
Australia. The Murray cod is a premium priced fish with characteristics that make it suitable for
aquaculture (Love & Langenkamp 2003).
In the past there have been large commercial harvests of Murray cod from the wild. However, as a
result of declining wild stocks, the last wild harvest fishery was closed in the South Australian section
of the Murray River in July 2003. The Murray cod industry in Australia is now based on aquaculture,
with hatcheries supplying juveniles to restock river systems and to aquaculture farms for grow out.
Murray cod production varies according to the availability of irrigation water and was very low in the
period around 2010 due to low stored water levels in the Murray–Darling river system. Aquaculture
production of Murray cod in New South Wales was 14.1 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of
$291 000. Sydney market prices for Murray cod have varied around $20 a kilogram in 2011-12 dollars
over the past decade ( Figure 35).
53
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
2011–12
tonnes 0
1999–2000
2001–02
2003–04
2005–06
production
2007–08
2009–10
2011–12
0 $/kg
price (right axis)
Data source: Department of Primary Industry, New South Wales (2012)
Figure 35: Murray cod: aquaculture production and prices, New South Wales
Seaweed
Seaweed describes a range of marine algae. Seaweeds can be further categorised as red, brown and
green types.
Seaweed is part of the traditional diet of many coastal peoples throughout the world, particularly in
north Asia. Alginate, agar and carrageenan extracted from seaweed are used by the food industry
because of their gelling, water-retention and emulsifying properties. A range of other compounds are
extracted from seaweed, including fucoidan compounds (used as dietary supplements and
pharmaceuticals) and beta carotene (used as a food supplement, colouring agent and in
pharmaceuticals). Seaweed is also widely used as fertiliser, animal feed and as ornamental plants in
aquariums.
Seaweeds are mainly foraged from the wild but are also increasingly farmed. World seaweed
production averaged 16.2 million tonnes in the three years to 2011 (Table 29). Red seaweeds made up
55 per cent of world production and brown seaweeds 45 per cent; commercial production of green
seaweeds was negligible. China produces nearly half of the world’s seaweed; Indonesia and the
Philippines are the other main producers.
Table 29: Seaweed: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Production
16 232 kt
na
World trade
362 kt
US$692
million
Key countries volume shares (average, three years to 2011)
China (48%), Indonesia (24%), Philippines (11%), Republic of Korea (5%),
Japan (3%), Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (3%), Chile (2%)
Exporters: Indonesia (28%), Chile (17%), China (13%), Iceland (7%),
Philippines (7%), Peru (5%) and Ireland (4%)
Importers: China (40%), Japan (15%), United States (8%), Ireland (6%),
France (5%) and Republic of Korea (4%).
a Annual average, three years to 2011.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Around 2 per cent of world seaweed production enters world trade before substantial processing.
Countries in north Asia account for around 60 per cent of world seaweed imports. Indonesia, Chile and
China account for around 60 per cent of world exports.
54
World production of seaweed has grown at 8.4 per cent a year since 2000. Average world import
prices of seaweed have eased in recent years from the high levels of 2008 and 2009 ( Figure 36).
20000
3
15000
2
10000
1
5000
kt
0
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
production
2004
2005
2006
imports
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
US$/kg
import price (right axis)
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 36: Seaweed: world production, imports and import prices
Australian seaweed industry
There are a number of industries in Australia based on harvesting wild seaweed or cultivating algae.
According to Lee (2010) the main industries are:

alginate production on King Island, by Kelp Industries Pty Ltd, based mainly on harvesting
stormcast bull kelp (Durvillea pototorum)

fertiliser and animal feed production at various coastal locations in Australia, based on wild
harvesting of bull kelp (Durvillea sp.)

production of fucoidan compounds in Tasmania, by Marinova Pty Ltd, based on farming a brown
seaweed, Undaria pinnatifida, a species introduced to Australia

beta-carotenoids and shrimp production, based on cultivating the micro-algae Dunaliella salina in
open-air ponds in inland regions with highly saline water, mainly in Western Australia (Hutt
Lagoon and Karratha) and South Australia (near Whyalla).
Australia imported seaweed products (seaweed, agar and alginic acid) valued at $23.3 million in 2011–
12 and exported seaweed products with a value of $2.2 million (excluding beta-carotene for which no
data are available) (Table 30).
55
Table 30: Seaweed products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2 406
2 223
1 922
1 606
1 900
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume, dry
– cast kelp, King Island
tonnes
Gross value
– cast kelp, King Island
$’000
950
Exports
Seaweed a
– volume
tonnes
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
– value
$’000
4 482
2 290
2 191
2 073
2 272
3 558
2 057
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
4.3
135.2
180.1
63.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
Agar
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
1 050
545
648
360
15
8
6
– unit value
$/kg
245.89
4.03
3.60
5.70
77.01
154.31
39.33
Alginic acid
– volume
tonnes
49.6
11.4
8.9
2.4
8.3
77.5
7.2
– value
$’000
138
142
33
26
160
292
150
– unit value
$/kg
2.78
12.53
3.69
10.98
19.14
3.76
20.79
Total export value
$’000
5 670
2 978
2 872
2 459
2 447
3 858
2 213
– volume
tonnes
3 325
5 316
4 106
5 036
4 481
6 307
7 840
– value
$’000
11 139
14 210
12 897
17 165
15 413
17 331
17 347
– unit value
$/kg
3.35
2.67
3.14
3.41
3.44
2.75
2.21
– volume
tonnes
59.2
55.9
48.1
96.8
74.4
36.0
39.1
– value
$’000
772
816
1 040
1 190
1 121
923
972
– unit value
$/kg
12.98
14.61
21.61
12.30
15.07
25.68
24.83
– volume
tonnes
460.9
372.8
291.3
338.4
361.1
371.6
403.2
– value
$’000
4 258
3 831
3 195
4 726
5 068
5 025
4 966
– unit value
$/kg
9.24
10.28
10.97
13.97
14.04
13.52
12.32
Total import value
$’000
16 169
18 858
17 132
23 081
21 603
23 279
23 284
Imports
Seaweed a
Agar
Alginic acid
a Edible and not edible.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); FAO Statistics Division (2013)
The bull kelp industry is a source of alginate (alginic acid). World alginate production was estimated
to be 26 500 tonnes in 2009 and sold at an average price of around US$12 a kilogram (Bixler & Porse
2011).
Production of cast kelp on King Island was 1900 tonnes, dry basis, in 2009–10 (DSEWPaC 2011d),
with an estimated gross value of $950 000. Most bull kelp is dried and pulverised on King Island then
shipped elsewhere for the alginate extraction process. Dried bulk kelp contains 30–50 per cent
alginate. Significant quantities of King Island bull kelp are also used to produce fertiliser for plants.
Collectors of kelp on King Island must be licensed and can only collect kelp that has become detached
by water movement (storm cast) in a prescribed harvest season. There are 80–100 collectors of kelp on
King Island and one licensed processor. The harvest is restricted to a maximum of 50 per cent of
available cast material at each harvesting site.
56
Australian exports of alginate have declined to low levels, compared with the 1990s ( Figure 37).
Imports of alginate have fluctuated around 300 tonnes over the past decade. Import prices have been
generally declining over the past 20 years.
900
30
600
20
300
10
2011–12
tonnes 0
1991–92
1996–97
exports
imports
2001–02
export price (right axis)
2006–07
0 $/kg
2011–12
import price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 37: Alginic acid: trade and prices, Australia
Marinova Pty Ltd extracts fucoidan compounds from around 300 tonnes of seaweed a year gathered
from the coastline of Tasmania. It also sources seaweed from Canada, Patagonia and some South
Pacific islands. The fucoidan compounds are used to make a range of nutraceutical, skin care and
pharmaceutical products. Around 280 tonnes of nutrient-rich solid material left over after extraction is
sold as potting mix. The company employed 15 persons in 2011 and had annual sales of around $5
million (Marinova Pty Ltd 2011).
Inland farming of seaweed in Australia is based on microalgae (mainly Dunaliella salina) that thrive in
highly saline water. The advantages of inland farming of microalgae in Australia are low cost land and
brine and a 9 month growth season (Borowitzka 1990).
The farming of microalgae at Hutt Lagoon in Western Australia is undertaken by the multinational
company BASF. The company also has a processing facility in Melbourne. The farming produces
natural carotenoids (mainly beta-carotene, but also alpha-catotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and
cryptoxanthin) and shrimp and algae biomass for feed use in aquaculture. Most of the world’s betacarotene is synthesized. Prices received for natural beta-carotene are around three times that of the
synthesized product. The operation in Australia (including the processing plant) had an annual sales
turnover of $83.7 million in 2009.
Another more recent microalgae farming development is a pilot production plant near Karratha in
Western Australia, owned by Aurora Algae. This plant produces 12–15 tonnes of algal biomass a
month from six 4000 square metre ponds, using waste carbon dioxide from nearby industrial producers
as a feedstock. The algae biomass is used to produce nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and renewable
energy. Aurora Algae has plans to increase production capacity at Karratha to 600 tonnes of algae
biomass a month, based on 100 hectares of ponds, with construction starting in 2014.
57
Further information about seaweed

Lee (2010) (rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/10-164).

The seaweed site: information on marine algae (www.seaweed.ie)—a range of information on
types of seaweed and the nature of markets for seaweed products.
58
Emerging plant industries
The emerging plant industries in Australia are largely horticultural industries rather than broadacre
cropping industries. The estimated value in Australia of emerging plant industries reported in this
compendium was $530 million in 2011–12. This compares with a total value of horticultural industries
in Australia in 2011–12 of $9.2 billion ( Figure 38).
Total value of production: $9 155m
cut flowers, $300m
cultivated turf, $300m
nursery, $900m
Other horticulture,
$92m
fruit excl. grapes,
$2811m
tree nuts, $320m
grapes, $1023m
vegetables, $3409m
Data source: ABARES (2013)
Figure 38: Horticulture: value of production, Australia, by sector, 2011–12
A number of Australia’s emerging plant industries are based on using Australian native plants. The
industries include foods, such as macadamias and bush tomatoes; native flowers, such as kangaroo
paws and waxflowers; and essential oils, such as boronia and sandalwood. In 2011–12 these industries
contributed 27 per cent of the total value of the plant-based emerging industries reported in this
compendium.
Like the emerging animal industries discussed earlier, production of some new crops is based on
farmers wanting to diversify their production away from more traditional agricultural products. For
example, in Queensland, growth in production of emerging tropical fruits appears to be related to a
shift away from production of tobacco and sugar cane. Similarly, there is an important lifestyle
element to some emerging plant industries, with hobby farms being important sources of products such
as essential oils, olives and tree nuts.
As discussed earlier for the emerging animal industries, Australia’s emerging plant industries are
benefiting from income growth that is leading to demand for products that are more distinctive or
having health benefits. This demand means, for example, that Australia’s emerging coffee industry can
produce for premium-paying niche markets, despite having higher production costs than other coffee
producing countries. Growing demand for emerging industry products, such as natural pyrethrum and
essential oils, reflects a shift in consumer preferences toward natural products. Demand for tree nuts
and green tea is being boosted by perceptions of their healthiness.
Innovation has been an important reason for the successful emergence of most plant industries. For
example, a viable coffee industry in Australia was virtually enabled by the development of mechanical
harvesting.
Australia faces considerable higher production costs for many emerging plant products compared with
its competitors in other countries. For seasonal products such as tropical fruits, green tea and truffles,
59
Australia’s niche appears to be in supplying fresh products outside the production periods of the main
world producers.
Unlike emerging animal industries, many of the emerging plant industries face strong competition
from imports in the Australian domestic market. For example, the emerging tropical fruit industry is
facing increased imports from Thailand, which has gained access to the Australian market with a
number of tropical fruits.
There are environmental benefits associated with many emerging plant industries. For example, the oil
mallee and sandalwood industries control salinity, preserve biodiversity and reduce greenhouse
emissions.
Some new and emerging industries are not covered in this compendium. A more complete range of
new crops industries in Australia is described by Salvin et al. (2004).
Asian vegetables
More than 70 types of Asian vegetables are grown in Australia. Many of these vegetables have other
common names and there is still confusion among consumers about names. The main Asian vegetable
types and their prices in the Sydney produce market are shown in Table 31.
Production of Asian vegetables in Australia grew strongly throughout the 1990s. By 2001 the
estimated wholesale value of the total Australian market for Asian vegetables was $136 million
(Hassall & Associates 2003), up from an estimated $60 million in 1993–94 (Lee 1995). The estimated
number of growers in 2000–01 was 1675.
There were 405 establishments in Australia in 2005–06 planting 1114 hectares to Asian vegetables,
with an output of 17 266 tonnes (ABS 2012a). This puts the value of the Asian vegetable industry in
Australia in 2005–06 at about $48 million. However, the ABS categorisation does not appear to
include vegetables such as Japanese pumpkin, okra and taro. Including the other Asian vegetable types
and using the prices for Asian vegetables reported in Table 31, the gross value of the Asian vegetable
industry in Australia in 2005–06 is estimated at $57 million.
The gross value of production of Asian vegetables in Australia in 2011–12 is estimated to be around
$85 million. The industry is mostly oriented toward the domestic market.
60
Table 31: Selected Asian vegetables: average prices, Sydney wholesale market
Type and variety
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Bamboo shoot
$/kg
5.03
5.18
4.83
4.87
5.58
4.42
5.39
Bitter melon
$/kg
2.17
2.67
2.71
2.44
2.70
2.96
2.88
– hairy
$/kg
1.69
1.73
1.51
1.47
1.66
2.25
1.83
– long
$/kg
1.99
1.82
1.79
2.06
1.87
2.72
2.33
– buk choy
$/bunch
0.63
0.60
0.66
0.60
0.61
0.69
0.79
– choi sum
$/bunch
0.66
0.62
0.67
0.59
0.60
0.67
0.84
– drumstick
$/kg
4.29
4.80
7.05
0.00
5.39
6.00
5.59
– gai choy
$/bunch
0.76
0.75
0.71
0.73
0.72
0.81
0.92
– gai lum
$/bunch
0.78
0.75
0.72
0.74
0.72
0.85
0.95
Kangkung
$/kg
4.41
5.31
4.91
2.44
4.56
4.00
3.76
– angled
$/kg
2.13
2.42
2.47
2.35
2.11
2.39
2.80
– round
$/kg
1.85
2.25
0.00
0.00
1.77
2.23
2.04
Okra
$/kg
5.20
5.39
6.00
5.14
5.33
5.97
5.96
Snake bean
$/kg
1.16
1.34
1.24
1.10
1.16
1.16
1.35
Taro
$/kg
3.30
3.55
4.15
3.91
4.87
4.24
4.53
Winged bean
$/kg
7.85
6.81
0.00
0.00
13.94
12.78
8.25
Winter melon
$/kg
0.87
1.36
1.57
0.89
1.18
1.93
1.91
Wombok, Chinese cabbage
$/carton
15.95
11.96
14.31
13.24
13.89
15.15
12.97
Yambean
$/kg
3.51
3.98
4.03
4.67
5.21
4.79
5.03
Chinese melon
Chinese vegetable
Luffa
Source: Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
The value of Australian exports of fresh and processed Asian vegetables to the main Asian markets has
declined steadily from a peak around 2000 ( Figure 39). Apart from strongly growing domestic
demand, the steady appreciation of the Australian dollar over the past decade has been a factor in the
decline of export markets in Asia for Asian vegetables grown in Australia. For example, Australian
exports of wombok (Chinese cabbage) declined from a high of 6800 tonnes in 2001–02 to only 80
tonnes in 2011–12.
61
200
150
100
50
2011-12
$m
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
South Asia
South-East Asia
2006–07
2011–12
North Asia
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 39: Asian vegetables (fresh and dried): value of Australian exports to Asia, by region
The diffuse nature of the Asian vegetable industry makes it difficult to source comprehensive data.
The remainder of this chapter is a compilation of the data that are publicly available. A more complete
statistical snapshot would require a survey of industry participants, which was beyond the scope of this
project.
Further information about Asian vegetables

Asian and world foods newsletter (www.rirdc.gov.au), a publication funded by RIRDC to maintain
and strengthen knowledge among Australia’s Asian and world food producers.

Lee (2011) (rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/10-211).

Hassall & Associates (2003) (www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFO/02-168.pdf)—provides profiles of
the Asian vegetable industries in each state and territory, and a long list of industry contacts.

The ‘Asian vegetables’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 15–105
(rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125)—provides information on Asian brassicas, bitter melon,
burdock, Chinese water chestnut, culinary bamboo shoots, long white radish, edamame, Japanese
ginger, Japanese taro, kabocha, lotus, luffa, Asian melon, snake bean, taro (large corm) and
wasabi.
Wombok (Chinese cabbage)
Wombok (Brassica rapa var pekinensis), also known as Chinese cabbage, is the most frequently eaten
vegetable in Asia and one of the most commonly consumed Asian vegetables in Australia (Clarke
2004). It is closely related to buk choy. Wombok is commonly eaten as a freshly cooked vegetable, for
example in stir fry dishes, and is often further processed as a brined product or used in pickles such as
kim-chi. Suited to temperate regions, it is grown in all Australian states but mainly in south-east
Queensland and Western Australia.
Australian wombok production has been oriented toward the export market but there is growing
demand in the domestic market.
Australian production of wombok is estimated to be around 11 000 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross
value of $9.3 million (Table 32).
62
Table 32: Wombok (Chinese cabbage): supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume
tonnes
10 000
11 000
Gross value
$’000
7 900
9 300
Exports
Volume
tonnes
2 508
1 286
467
500
339
233
80
Value
$’000
2 585
1 500
488
569
417
308
129
Unit value
$/kg
1.03
1.17
1.05
1.14
1.23
1.32
1.63
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Australian exports of wombok grew strongly in the late 1980s and early 1990s but declined to around
80 tonnes in 2011–12, though export prices have improved in recent years ( Figure 40).
The export markets for Australian wombok in recent years were Singapore (63 per cent of the total
volume of Australian exports in the three years to 2011–12), Papua New Guinea (15 per cent) and
Indonesia (10 per cent). Queensland supplied nearly two-thirds of Australian wombok exports in the
three years to 2011–12, while Western Australia and Victoria supplied 23 per cent and 12 per cent,
respectively.
20000
2
15000
2
10000
1
5000
1
tonnes
0
0
1991–92
1996–97
production
2001–02
exports
2006–07
2011–12
$/kg
2011–12
export price
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 40: Wombok (Chinese cabbage): production, exports and export prices, Australia
Bitter melon
The fruit, leaves and flowers of the bitter melon (Momordica charantia) are consumed in many Asian
and Indian foods. Australian bitter melon production occurs mainly in the Northern Territory (Table
33) but also in northern Western Australia and the Northern Rivers district of New South Wales.
Bitter melon production in the Northern Territory was around 200 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross
value of around $1.1 million (Table 33). Production is sold throughout Australia. Sydney prices for
bitter melon are shown in Table 31.
63
Table 33: Bitter melon: supply and value, Northern Territory
Unit
2005
2006
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
tonnes
1 610
818
180
537
537
553
200
Gross value
$’000
4 025
4 100
1 000
2 800
2 760
2 840
1 100
Unit value
$/kg
2.50
5.01
5.56
5.21
5.14
5.14
2.88
Sources: ABARES; Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (2012a)
Japanese pumpkin
There are two types of Japanese pumpkin: Cucurbita maxima (commonly called kabocha) and
Cucurbita moschata (Morgan & Midmore 2003). Japanese pumpkin is mainly grown commercially in
New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania.
Japanese pumpkin is widely consumed in Australia and is also exported, particularly to Japan.
However, because of quarantine restrictions against fruit fly, only pumpkins from Tasmania can be
exported to Japan. Australian exports of pumpkins to Japan have declined sharply over the past
decade, despite improving prices in real terms ( Figure 41). In volume terms, the Australian share of
the total Japanese import market for pumpkins has averaged less than 1 per cent in the three years to
2011, a market dominated by New Zealand (62 per cent) and Mexico (35 per cent).
3000
1800
2000
1200
1000
600
tonnes
2012
0
1992
1997
imports
2002
2007
2012
0 $A/t
import price (right scale)
Data source: Ministry of Finance, Japan (2013)
Figure 41: Japanese pumpkin: Japanese imports from Australia
Okra
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is grown in the world’s tropical and warm temperate regions for its
fibrous fruit.
World okra production has increased steadily over the past decade to reach 7.8 million tonnes in 2011
( Figure 42). The main okra producing countries are India (68 per cent of total world production in the
three years to 2010), Nigeria (14 per cent), former Sudan (4 per cent) and Iraq (2 per cent).
64
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Mt 0
1996
2001
2006
okra
2011
taro
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 42: Okra and taro: world production
Northern Territory okra production was 200 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of $1.3 million
(Table 34). All Northern Territory okra is sold on the domestic market. Sydney market prices for okra
are shown in Table 31.
Table 34: Okra: supply and value, Northern Territory
Unit
2005
2006
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume
tonnes
900
31
24
276
276
284
200
Gross value
$’000
2 160
1 129
2 300
4 000
4 000
4 100
1 300
Unit value
$/kg
2.40
3.56
8.09
14.49
14.51
14.44
6.50
Sources: ABARES; Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (2012a)
Snake bean
Snake/yardlong beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis)—also known as dau gok in Chinese
and dâu que in Vietnamese—are an annual plant producing a pod that is olive green, round, up to
90 centimetres long and very thin. They are grown in frost-free areas of Australia, either as a dwarf
bush or climbing plant.
Snake beans are produced mainly in the Northern Territory, but also in northern Western Australia and
northern Queensland. Northern Territory snake beans production was 201 tonnes in 2011–12, with a
gross value of $1 million (Table 35). Production is sold on the domestic market and there are no
imports. Sydney market prices are shown in Table 31.
Table 35: Snake bean: supply, disposal and value, Northern Territory
Unit
2005
2006
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume
tonnes
690
300
244
537
537
553
201
Gross value
$’000
3 105
1 400
2 700
2 800
2 800
2 900
1 000
Unit value
$/kg
4.50
4.67
11.07
5.21
5.21
5.24
4.98
Sources: ABARES; Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (2012a)
65
Taro (large corm)
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a perennial herbaceous plant grown throughout the humid tropics and
parts of the subtropics, mainly for its starchy underground tuber. The leaves and stems are also edible.
There are large and small corm forms of taro; the small corm form known as Japanese taro is not
covered in this compendium.
Taro is an important food crop in less-developed countries, particularly in Africa and the South Pacific
islands. World taro production was 9.5 million tonnes in the three years to 2011, well down on the
record 12.1 million tonnes produced in 2008. The main taro producers are Nigeria (36 per cent share in
the three years to 2010), China (17 per cent), Ghana (15 per cent) and Cameroon (14 per cent).
Only 1–2 per cent of world taro production enters world trade. World exports of taro peaked in 2005
and world taro export prices have been increasing in recent years as world exports have declined (
Figure 43).
180
1500
120
1000
60
500
kt 0
0
1995
2000
exports
2005
export price (right axis)
2010
2012
$/t
Data source: FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 43: Taro: world exports and export prices
China is the main exporter of taro, with a share of 84 per cent in the three years to 2010 (FAO
Statistics Division 2013). The other main exporters are Fiji (8 per cent) and the United States (6 per
cent). There is probably a considerable trade in taro not recorded in official statistics, particularly
between countries in Africa.
Australian taro industry
Taro has been produced in Australia for many years and production has grown over the past decade.
The main producing regions in Australia are on the wet tropical coast of north Queensland, with other
producing areas in the Northern Territory, central and southern Queensland, and northern New South
Wales (Daniells et al. 2009).
According to Lemin (2006) there were around 150 taro growers in Australia in 2006 producing around
1000 tonnes a year, worth a gross value of $3.5 million. This production is consumed on the domestic
market. Daniells et al. (2009) put annual Australian production at 1000–1500 tonnes.
Australian taro production in 2011–12 is estimated to have been 1100 tonnes, with a gross value of
around $5 million, up from an estimated $3.5 million in 2006–07. The Sydney wholesale market price
for taro was $4.53 a kilogram in 2011–12, compared with $3.55 a kilogram in 2006–07 (Sydney
Market Reporting Service 2012).
66
Australia imports more than 2000 tonnes of taro a year from Fiji ( Figure 44). Imports of taro (called
dalo in Fiji) from Fiji grew strongly in the 1990s but have levelled off in recent years and import
prices have fallen. These import prices are low compared with domestic prices (see Table 31).
2500
2.5
2000
2.0
1500
1.5
1000
1.0
500
0.5
tonnes
2011–12
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
imports
2006–07
2011–12
0.0 $/kg
import price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 44: Taro: imports and import prices from Fiji, Australia
According to Lemin (2006) sustained expansion of the Australian taro industry is constrained by a lack
of mechanisation of production, harvesting and handling. Lemin highlighted the potential for
mechanisation to reduce production costs by as much as 50 per cent, making Australian taro more
competitive with imports and in export markets.
Further information about taro

Taro chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, publication no. 04/125, pp. 90–7.

Taro Growers Australia (www.tarogrowers.vze.com)—includes an industry newsletter Taro
Topics.
Wasabi
Wasabi (Wasabia japonica syn. Eutrema japonica) is a spicy vegetable used in Japanese cuisine. More
recently it has found widespread appeal in western cuisine due to its unique flavour. Wasabi can be
kept fresh for around two weeks after harvesting.
The stems, flowers, leaf stalks (petioles) and leaves of the wasabi plant are consumed.
Wasabi is a cool climate crop, tolerating air temperatures ranging from mild frosts to 30 degrees
Celsius (Sparrow 2004). This often means it must be grown in shaded conditions provided by trees or
shade cloth. Wasabi can be grown in soil (under shade), hydroponically, or in clean running streams
with gravel beds. Water grown wasabi is considered to be of superior quality and commands much
higher prices than soil grown wasabi.
The main producers of wasabi are Japan and Taiwan, although the unique environmental requirements
of wasabi growing and shortages of cultivable land limit production in these countries to 880 hectares
and 400 hectares, respectively (Savage n.d.). Japan produced 807 tonnes of wasabi root and 2626
tonnes of leaf-stalk in 2010 ( Figure 45). The bulk of Japanese wasabi root production in 2010 was
67
cultivated in water. Emerging producers include the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Colombia and
Canada (around Vancouver on the Pacific coast).
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
tonnes 0
root
leaf-stalk
cultivated in water
Data source: Statistics Bureau, Japan (2012)
cultivated in soil
Figure 45: Wasabi: production, Japan, 2010
Australian wasabi industry
Commercial quantities of soil grown wasabi have been available from Tasmania since 2000, supplying
the Sydney, Melbourne and Hobart markets (Sparrow 2009). The first water grown wasabi farm was
established in Tasmania in 2004 but ceased production in 2006. There were 20 growers of wasabi in
Australia, mostly in Tasmania but also Victoria, growing 0.15 hectares of hydroponic and soil
cultivated wasabi.
Farmgate prices in 2011–12 were around $200 a kilogram for wasabi stems and $35 a kilogram for
wasabi leaves. With total Australian wasabi production of around 1.5 tonnes of stems and 1.5 tonnes
of leaves, the gross value of the Australian wasabi industry in 2011–12 was around $240 000.
Australian wasabi yields are still low compared with those achieved in Japan, so there is considerable
scope for increased production through improved cultivation practices.
The main wasabi producer in Australia is Shima Wasabi Tasmania, which was formed by four
Tasmanian wasabi growers in 2007. The production system is based on hydroponics. Their production
in 2011–12 was around 100 kilograms a month of leaf stalk.
Further information about wasabi

Shima Wasabi Tasmania (www.shimawasabi.com.au), the main Australian wasabi producer.
Australian native foods
A range of native Australian plants are used as foods. Some of the main products from these plants are
listed in Table 36. Australian native animals foods—emu, crocodile, kangaroo and possum—are
discussed earlier in this report.
Perceptions of the healthiness of Australian native foods are part of their attractiveness to consumers.
Konczak et al. (2009) provides a summary of the levels of health beneficial constituents and the
antioxidant capacities of commercially significant native fruits, herbs and spices.
68
Table 36: Major Australian native foods from plants
Common name
Botanical name
Some Indigenous names (tribe or
region)
Main use
Anise myrtle
Syzygium anisatum
Bush tomato
Solanum centrale
akatyerr (Arrernte tribe),
kampurarrpa (Pitjantjatjara), kati
kati (Anangu Uluru) and yakajirri
(Walpiri)
Berry fruit, dried as flavour additive,
fresh sales
Davidson plum
Davidsonia jerseyana
orray (Queensland).
Fruit used directly, preserved
Desert lime
Citrus glauca
Fruit sold fresh or frozen, or made
into jam and marmalade
Dorrigo pepper
Tasmannia stipitata
Green leaf pepper
Finger lime
Citrus australasica
Illawarra plum
Podocarpus elatus
daalgaal (Barron River, Queensland)
gidneywallum (Gubbi Gubbi,
Queensland)
Fruit used directly
Kakadu plum
Terminalia
ferdinandiana
gubinge (Broome region), murunga
(East Arnhem lands)
Fruit used for food and
pharmaceutical applications
Lemon aspen
Acronychia acidula
Flavour additive
Lemon myrtle
Backhousia citriodora
Fresh or dried herb, teas, oil
Mountain pepper
Tasmannia lanceolata
Tree berries dried as black pepper
substitute, leaf as fresh or dried herb
Muntries
Kunzea pomifera
Fruit berries fresh and processed
Native currants
Coprosmanitida
Fruit used directly, dried
Quandong
Santalum acuminatum
Riberry
Syzygium luehmannii
Fruit used directly and in processing
Round lime
Citrus australis
Fruit used directly, frozen
Sandalwood nuts
Santalum spicatum
Nuts consumed directly or crushed
for oil
Warrigal greens
Tetragonia
tetragoniodes
Salad leaf vegetable, pesto, sauce
Wattleseed
Acacia spp
Leaf for spice, oil
Fruit used directly, frozen
goorti (Narungga tribe, wanga
(Noongar))
ariepe (Arrernte tribe), ganabargu
(Warlpiri ), ngatunpa (Pitjatjantjara),
and pulkuru (Pintupi)
Fruit used mainly in dried halved
form
Roasted seed used directly and
milled into flour
Sources: Abbott (1983); CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems (2007); Merne Altyerre-ipenhe (Food from the Creation time)
Reference Group, Douglas & Walsh (2011)
Clarke (2012) reports the results of a stocktake of the Australian native food industry in 2011 (Table
37). Clarke estimated the total gross value of production of a selected range of Australian native foods
around 2011 at nearly $18 million (Table 37). Lemon myrtle leaf made up the bulk of the total gross
value of production ( Figure 46). Foster (2009) estimated the value of production of Australian native
plant foods in 2006–07 to be $6.8 million for a less complete range of Australian native foods.
69
Table 37: Selected Australian native foods: production, prices and value of production, around
2011 a
Volume (t)
Gross value
($’000)
Unit gross value
($/kg)
Growth prospects
Anise myrtle, leaf
8
290
36
Stable
Bush tomato
15
540
36
Modest growth
Davidson plum
9
90
10
Modest growth
Kakadu plum
12
240
20
Stable
Lemon aspen
4
50
14
Stable
838
15 000
18
Stable
– leaf
3
180
60
Modest growth
– berry
4
360
90
Modest growth
– total
7
540
77
Muntries
8
160
20
Stable
– desert lime
13
225
18
Strong growth
– finger lime
10
350
35
Strong growth
Lemon myrtle, leaf
Mountain pepper
Native limes
– round lime
0
0
0
– total
23
575
26
Quandong
6
180
30
Stable
Riberry
5
100
22
Strong growth
Wattleseed
6
150
25
Modest growth
939
17 915
Total
–
a Where Clarke (2012) reported only a range for production or value, the midpoint of the range is shown.
Sources: ABARES; Clarke (2012)
16
12
8
4
mountain pepper
wattleseed
riberry
quandong
round
finger
desert
muntries
berry
leaf
lemon myrtle
lemon aspen
kakadu plum
davidson plum
bush tomato
0
anise myrtle
$m
native lime
Data sources: ABARES; Clarke (2012)
Figure 46: Selected Australian native foods: value of production, around 2011
An important component of the Australian native food industries are Indigenous Australians. The
knowledge of the food and medicinal value of native plants is derived from Indigenous Australians,
who do much of the commercial harvesting of bush tomatoes, Kakadu plums and wattleseed.
70
There are a number of brands of native foods based on partnerships with Indigenous (and nonIndigenous) partners (Robins 2007).
There are a number of other related initiatives to advance the development of Australia’s native food
industries by involving Indigenous communities. One arrangement is the Coles Indigenous Food Fund
(CIFF), established around 10 years ago by the Coles supermarket chain in partnership with the
suppliers of particular brands of native food products that sourced their native food inputs from
Indigenous communities or businesses. Funding comes from a contribution of the sale of each unit of
particular brands of native food product sold by Coles, with Coles providing 10 cents and the suppliers
of the native food products providing further amounts. CIFF is used for funding specific projects that
assist Indigenous communities or businesses who are, or who wish to become, part of the native foods
industry supply chain. CIFF has supported several research and development initiatives of the
Australian Native Food Industry where direct indigenous benefits are realised.
Bush tomato
The bush tomato (Solanum centrale) is native to central areas of Australia with an annual rainfall of
150–300 millimetres (Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia). The Aboriginal
names for the bush tomato vary according to tribe and include ‘akatjera’ (Arrernte tribe),
‘kampurarrpa’ (Pitjantjatjara) and ‘kati kati’ (Anangu Uluru) (CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems 2007).
The intense flavour of the bush tomato means it is largely used as food flavouring, sauce or in
chutneys.
The commercial harvest of bush tomatoes is gathered from the wild and increasingly from commercial
plantings. Morse (2005) puts the annual bush harvest of bush tomatoes by Aboriginal communities in
central Australia at 2–5 tonnes, with a return to gatherers of $12 a kilogram.
Clarke (2012) estimated Australian production of bush tomatoes to be around 15 tonnes in 2011, with
a gross value of around $540 000.
Davidson plum
There are two species of Davidson plum: Davidsonia jerseyana, a threatened species that is native to
northern New South Wales; and Davidsonia pruriens, which is native to north-east Queensland. The
fruit is bright burgundy in colour, sour plum-like in taste and varies in diameter from 2 to 5
centimetres. The fruit is eaten fresh or is preserved.
Davidson plum is produced in small-scale orchards in northern New South Wales and Queensland.
Clarke (2012) estimated Australian production of Davidson plum to be around 8–10 tonnes in 2010
with a gross value of around $90 000.
Kakadu plum
Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) is native to the Kimberly region of Western Australia and
the Northern Territory. The fruit is a traditional source of food and medicine for Indigenous people in
northern Australia. The fruit has very high vitamin C and dietary fibre content. The fruit is sold fresh
or in powdered or frozen puree form.
Most of Australian production of Kakadu plum comes from a wild harvest, but there is also production
from a few small orchards. Wild harvesters must have government permits.
Clarke (2012) estimated Australian production of Kakadu plum to be 12 tonnes in 2011 with a gross
value of around $240 000.
Well-established processors of Kakadu plum products in Australia include Coradji Pty Ltd, Loving
Earth, Robins Foods Pty Ltd (‘Outback Spirit’ brand) and Wild Harvest NT.
71
Lemon myrtle
Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) is a tree that is native to the subtropical rainforests of
Queensland. The leaves have a high content of citral that gives a distinctive lemon-lime fragrance. The
leaves are dried or processed to extract an essential oil. The dried leaves are used as a tea, potpourri or
spice; the essential oil is used as a food and beverage flavouring, air freshener, disinfectant and in a
range of body care products.
Since the early 1990s around 1.4 million lemon myrtle trees have been established in plantations in
Australia, mainly in Queensland but also in northern New South Wales. The trees are formed into
hedges that can be mechanically harvested.
The leading producer of lemon myrtle is Australian Native Lemon Myrtle Ltd, which manages 1.2
million trees in an organically certified production system.
Clarke (2012) estimated farmgate Australian production of lemon myrtle leaf in 2011 to be 575–1100
tonnes and of lemon myrtle oil to be 3–8 tonnes, with a gross value of $7–23 million. The farmgate
price for lemon myrtle leaf has declined sharply as production has increased.
Clarke (2012) says that 90 per cent of oil production is exported, mainly to the United States and the
European Union. According to Biosecurity Australia, 57.4 tonnes of organically certified lemon myrtle
oil were exported from Australia to the European Union in 2011, virtually all to Germany (Ian Lyall
[Biosecurity Australia] pers. comm., 28 September 2012).
Mountain pepper
Mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata) is a shrub that grows up to 10 metres in height and found in
temperate rain forest from Tasmania through to northern New South Wales. Its leaves and berries have
a spicy taste and aroma that makes them useful as food flavouring, in either fresh, crushed or milled
forms. The berries also add a plum colouring to food.
Most mountain pepper leaves and berries are harvested from the wild but there are also small
plantations (Clarke 2012).
According to Clarke (2012), mountain pepper production in Australia in 2011 was around 3 tonnes of
dry leaf and 4 tonnes of dried berries, with a combined gross value of $540 000. Farm gate prices in
2011 were $40–80 a kilogram for dried and milled leaf and $60–120 a kilogram for fresh and dried
berries. Around 40 per cent of leaf production and 60 per cent of berry production was exported.
Native limes
There are seven native limes in Australia but the three that are used as bushfoods are:
 desert lime (Citrus glauca, previously called Eremocitrus glauca) is a tree that is native to the near
desert west of Queensland and New South Wales
 finger lime (Citrus australasica)—native to the subtropical rainforests of northern New South
Wales and southern Queensland
 round lime (Citrus australis)—native to the rainforests of south-east Queensland.
A plantation near Roma in Queensland, operated by Australian Desert Limes, has 11 000 grafted
desert lime trees that are trickle irrigated. A grafted desert lime tree begins fruiting after three years
and, at maturity, can yield up to 30 kilograms of fruit annually under favourable conditions.
Clarke (2012) estimated Australian production of desert limes to be 13 tonnes in 2011 with a gross
value of around $225 000.
According to Clarke (2012) Australian production of finger limes was an estimated 10 tonnes in 2011
with a gross value of around $350 000. Finger lime prices in the Sydney market have declined from
72
around $21 a kilogram in 2006–07 to only $11 a kilogram in 2011–12 (Sydney Market Reporting
Service 2012).
Quandong
Quandong trees (Santalum acuminatum) occur naturally in the southern half of Australia but mostly in
Western Australia and South Australia. The quandong tree is parasitic on other trees; plantings in
orchards require companion plantings. The companion plantings may also be productive, such as
acacias that produce wattleseeds.
The quandong fruit is generally bright red in colour and contains a large stone that accounts for around
50 per cent of the total weight of the fruit in the wild but less than this in irrigated orchard plantings.
The somewhat tart fruit is very high in vitamin C and is a traditional food of Indigenous Australians. It
is eaten fresh or made into a range of food products, particularly preserves.
Australian quandong production is sourced from wild harvest (particularly by Indigenous Australians)
and from orchards. In 2001 there were around 26 000 quandong trees in orchards; the plantings were
largely irrigated (Lethbridge 2004). Each irrigated quandong tree was expected to, at maturity, produce
3 to 5 kilograms of fruit a year, equivalent to 0.75 to 1.2 kilograms of dried flesh.
However, difficulties in managing quandongs have seen many orchards no longer maintained; as few
as three orchards with a total of around 2000 trees were still operating in 2006. It is uneconomic for
the orchards to supply quandongs to the fresh market and instead they do their own processing.
According to Clarke (2012), estimated Australian quandong production was 6 tonnes in 2010, with a
gross value of $180 000. All of this production came from orchards; there was virtually no wild
harvesting of quandongs (Clarke 2012).
Riberry
Riberry is an elliptical fruit around 13 millimetres long that comes from a medium-sized rainforest tree
(Syzygium luehmannii) naturally found from northern New South Wales to tropical Queensland.
Riberry usually ripens from December to February.
The fruit tastes similar to a cranberry, with a hint of cloves. The fruit is eaten fresh or dried or is made
into jams, sauces and syrups. The main producer in Australia is Galeru Pty Ltd, a partnership of
growers with plantations in the hinterland of the Sunshine Coast of Queensland and around Coffs
Harbour in northern New South Wales.
Australian riberry production was estimated to be 5 tonnes in 2010, with a gross value of around
$100 000 (Clarke 2012). The riberry industry was assessed by Clarke (2012) to have strong growth
prospects.
Wattleseed
Acacia species are numerous and widely located throughout Australia. Many acacia species produce
seeds that are edible though there are some species with toxic seeds. Wattleseeds are eaten whole or
ground into a flour. Wattleseeds are high in protein and rate low on the glycaemic index, making them
useful in diabetic and other specialty diets (CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems 2007). The main edible
wattleseed in Australia comes from Acacia victoriae. Aboriginal names for wattleseed include ‘ariepe’
(Arrernte), ‘ganabargu’ (Warlpiri), ‘ngatunpa’ (Pitjatjantjara), and ‘pulkuru’ (Pintupi).
The commercial harvest of wattleseed is mainly gathered from the wild but there is also some
production from plantations. Morse (2005) puts the annual bush harvest of wattleseed by Aboriginal
communities in central Australia at 3–6 tonnes, with a return to gatherers of $10 a kilogram.
73
Australian wattleseed production was estimated to be 4–8 tonnes in 2010, made up of 1–4 tonnes of
wild harvest and 3–4 tonnes of cultivated production (Clarke 2012). The estimated farmgate value was
between $100 000 and $200 000 (Clarke 2012).
Further information about Australian native foods

Clarke (2012), Australian native food industry stocktake (www.anfil.org.au/wpcontent/uploads//12-0661.pdf)—a RIRDC report detailing the production, prices and value of
production for a wide range of Australian native foods.

Australian Native Food Industry Limited (www.anfil.org.au), the peak national body of the
Australian native food industry—provides a range of information, including the ANFIL Bulletin.

The ‘Native Foods’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 337–84
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Cocoa
Cocoa beans are the seed of the cocao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small tree that is native to the
tropical areas of Central and South America. The beans are used to make cocoa powder, cocoa butter
(40–50 per cent of the bean), paste and chocolate. Cocoa butter is used as a food and in cosmetics. The
husks, skins and fibres of the cocoa bean are used as animal feed and fertiliser.
The main cocoa bean producers are located in the tropical regions of Africa (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana,
Nigeria and Cameroon), Asia (Indonesia) and Central and South America (Brazil and Ecuador) (Table
38).
Table 38: Cocoa beans (raw and roasted): key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries shares of volume
Production
4 218 kt
na
Cote d’Ivoire (30%), Indonesia (19%), Ghana (16%), Nigeria (9%), Cameroon
(6%), Brazil (5%), Ecuador (3%)
World trade
2 949 kt
US$8.4
billion
Exporters: Cote d’Ivoire (31%), Ghana (20%), Indonesia (16%), Nigeria
(8%), Cameroon (7%), Togo (3%), Ecuador (3%)
Importers: Netherlands (20%), United States (14%), Malaysia (12%),
Germany (12%), Belgium (6%), France (5%), United Kingdom (4%), Spain
(3%)
a Average three years to 2010.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Cocoa is one of the world’s most internationally traded agricultural commodities, with more than
70 per cent of world cocoa bean production entering world trade. The value of world trade of raw and
roasted beans averaged US$8.4 billion a year in the three years to 2010. The main producers are also
the main exporters of cocoa beans, particularly Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and Indonesia. Importers of raw
and roasted cocoa beans are mainly wealthy countries, such as the Netherlands and the United States,
that manufacture value-added products, particularly chocolate, that enter world trade ( Figure 47).
74
husks, skins, fibres,
US$0.0b
paste, US$2.3b
powder, US$2.1b
butter, US$4.2b
chocolate, US$17.5b
beans, raw and roasted,
US$8.4b
a Average, 2008 to 2010.
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 47: Cocoa products: composition of the value of world exports
World prices for cocoa beans in real terms eased in recent years from their highs in the late 2000s (
Figure 48).
Mt
8
4000
6
3000
4
2000
2
1000
0
0 US$/t
2012
1992
1997
production
2002
exports
2007
2012
indicator price a (right axis)
a International Cocoa Organization cash price, cif United States and European ports.
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); International Cocoa Organization (2013); United Nations Statistics
Division (2013)
Figure 48: Cocoa beans: world production, imports and import price
Australian cocoa industry
The Australian cocoa industry is in its very early stages with only five producers, which are all located
in the Mossman region of Far North Queensland. Several growers are now establishing plantations and
small processing plants in the Tully region of Far North Queensland. Production of raw beans was
estimated to be 100 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of $1.25 million (Table 39).
The value of Australian imports of early stage cocoa products (beans, husks, butter, paste and powder)
averaged more than $220 million a year in the three years to 2011–12.
75
Table 39: Cocoa products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
5
Area
ha
15
Volume
tonnes
100
Gross value
$’000
1 250
Exports
Cocoa bean, shells, husks
– volume
tonnes
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
– value
$’000
0
0
32
2
1
0
42
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
27.23
5.31
24.08
na
12.10
0
0
0
1
2
2
14
Cocoa bean, raw or roasted
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
0
4
0
14
25
15
56
– unit value
$/kg
na
24.04
na
12.85
13.07
9.35
3.94
Cocoa powder a
– volume
tonnes
548
875
1 212
1 200
1 022
1 602
1 454
– value
$’000
2 181
3 635
5 425
5 821
5 717
7 599
7 233
– unit value
$/kg
3.98
4.15
4.48
4.85
5.59
4.74
4.97
26
103
2
0
20
86
54
Cocoa butter
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
126
642
10
6
59
503
272
– unit value
$/kg
4.83
6.25
6.45
14.00
2.92
5.86
5.03
41
0
0
5
0
0
0
Cocoa paste b
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
57
0
0
31
0
0
0
– unit value
$/kg
1.40
na
na
5.95
18.60
na
na
Total export value
$’000
2 364
4 281
5 466
5 873
5 802
8 118
7 603
Imports
Cocoa bean, shells, husks
– volume
tonnes
4
1
26
7
38
38
8
– value
$’000
31
12
15
23
69
74
68
– unit value
$/kg
8.81
13.06
0.58
3.31
1.84
1.92
8.01
– volume
tonnes
166
179
128
178
149
208
262
– value
$’000
633
937
723
1 182
891
1 345
1 459
– unit value
$/kg
3.82
5.22
5.67
6.65
5.97
6.46
5.58
Cocoa bean, raw or roasted
Cocoa powder a
– volume
tonnes
11 795
11 903
11 957
12 151
13 687
13 718
14 527
– value
$’000
23 324
21 066
20 525
26 603
40 608
56 318
69 331
– unit value
$/kg
1.98
1.77
1.72
2.19
2.97
4.11
4.77
Cocoa butter
– volume
tonnes
21 798
15 533
15 595
13 892
13 706
16 621
15 103
– value
$’000
102 688
81 752
93 473
115 268
103 801
96 054
55 200
– unit value
$/kg
4.71
5.26
5.99
8.30
7.57
5.78
3.65
7 890
16 197
16 288
15 965
15 077
17 641
15 513
Cocoa paste b
– volume
tonnes
76
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
Total import value
$’000
23 927
53 908
55 316
77 299
74 693
89 349
71 845
3.03
3.33
3.40
4.84
4.95
5.06
4.63
150 602
157 675
170 052
220 375
220 063
243 140
197 903
a Pure and containing sugar. b Includes defatted.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Further information about cocoa

International Cocoa Organization (www.icco.org)—a wide range of information about the world
cocoa market, statistics on prices, production and trade.
Coffee
The two most important types of coffee grown commercially are Coffea arabica (arabica coffee),
accounting for around 63 per cent of world production, and Coffea canephora (robusta coffee).
Another type that is grown on a much smaller scale is Coffea liberica (Liberian coffee and excelsa
coffee).
Arabica coffee is produced in more temperate and elevated regions than robusta coffee (Table 40).
Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia and Colombia are the largest producers and exporters of green coffee
beans. Countries in North America and Europe have strong export industries based on blending and
roasting imported green coffee beans. Total world trade in coffee products averaged US$29.4 billion in
the three years to 2011, around two-thirds of which was trade in green beans.
Table 40: Coffee: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key country shares of volume
Production, green beans
Arabica
4 972 kt
na
Brazil (46%), Colombia (10%), Ethiopia (7%), Mexico (5%),
Guatemala (5%), Peru (5%), Honduras (4%), Nicaragua (2%),
El Salvador (2%), Costa Rica (2%), India (2%), Indonesia (2%)
Robusta
3 140 kt
na
Vietnam (34%), Brazil (24%), Indonesia (16%), India (6%), Uganda
(5%), Cote d’Ivoire (4%), Malaysia (2%), Thailand (2%), Cameroon
(1%), Madagascar (1%), Togo (1%), Laos (1%), Guinea (1%),
Tanzania (1%), Philippines (1%), Ecuador (1%)
6 042 kt
US$19 632
million
Exporters: Brazil (28%), Vietnam (18%), Colombia (8%), Indonesia
(7%), Peru (4%), Honduras (4%), Guatemala (4%), Germany (3%),
India (3%), Ethiopia (3%), Uganda (3%)
Importers: United States (22%), Germany (18%), Italy (8%), Japan
(7%), Belgium (5%), France (4%), Spain (3%)
Coffee, roasted
729 kt
US$5 799
million
Exporters: Germany (21%), Italy (13%), United States (11%),
Netherlands (7%), Belgium (6%), Switzerland (5%), Poland (5%),
Canada (4%), Sweden (3%)
Importers: France (13%), Canada (10%), United States (9%),
Germany (8%), United Kingdom (5%), Netherlands (4%), Poland
(4%), Slovakia (3%), Austria (3%), Belgium (3%), Czech Republic
(3%)
Coffee, dry and
concentrated
428 kt
US$3 959
million
Exporters: Brazil (17%), Germany (12%), Spain (7%), India (6%),
Indonesia (6%), France (5%), Ecuador (4%), Netherlands (4%),
Colombia (4%), Mexico (4%), Switzerland (4%), United Kingdom
(4%), Malaysia (3%), United States (3%)
Importers: Russian Federation (12%), United States (9%),
Philippines (6%), Germany (6%), United Kingdom (6%), Ukraine
(6%), Poland (5%), Japan (4%), France (3%), Australia (3%)
World trade
Coffee, green
a Average three years to 2011.
Sources: United Nations Statistics Division (2013); USDA (2013a)
77
A niche market for decaffeinated coffee has arisen from health concerns over caffeine consumption.
Coffee is usually decaffeinated through a chemical process, though some coffee varieties are naturally
low in caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee makes up around 3 per cent of world trade in green beans and
around 7 per cent of world trade in roasted beans (United Nations Statistics Division 2013).
Mild arabica types command price premiums in world markets compared with robusta types ( Figure
49).
Mt
6
300
4
200
2
100
0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
2006–07
2011–12
robusta production
arabica production
price, Brazilian type (right axis)
price, Colombian mild arabicas (right axis)
price, other mild arabicas (right axis)
price, robustas (right axis)
2011–12
USc/lb
Data sources: International Coffee Organization (2013); USDA (2013a)
Figure 49: Coffee beans: world production and indicator prices
Australian coffee industry
The advent of machine harvesting techniques has enabled the re-establishment of the Australian coffee
industry through reducing labour costs, a key barrier to its competitiveness (Drinnan & Peasley 1997).
Australia has the advantage of being free from the main diseases and pests that affect many of the
world’s coffee producing regions. Australian coffee is also relatively low in caffeine, which can be an
advantage in some markets. However, land with suitable climate conditions, particularly freedom from
frosts, limits the extent to which coffee can be grown in Australia.
The Australian coffee industry is located in north-eastern New South Wales and in Queensland (Table
41). In 2011–12 there were around 520 hectares of coffee planted in Australia, producing 1040 tonnes
of dry green beans. The main coffee producing areas were in northern Queensland, but subtropical
regions in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland now account for nearly 60 per cent of
Australian coffee bean production.
The Australian coffee industry virtually grows only the high-quality arabica coffee beans used in the
specialty or ‘roast and ground’ market. Premium prices have been consistently paid for Australian
arabica beans.
Australia imported coffee in various forms worth $596 million in 2011–12 (Table 41). Australia also
exported coffee products valued at $169 million in 2011–12, but a large part of the export industry is
based on the processing of imported coffee beans. Australian export prices for green coffee beans were
more than double those for imported green beans in 2011–12.
78
Table 41: Coffee: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
149
155
Area
ha
590
520
Production, dry green beans
tonnes
Yield
t/ha
763
973
1 040
1.29
1.65
2.00
Gross value
$’000
5 140
7 780
11 376
– volume
tonnes
447
410
306
148
107
173
134
– value
$’000
2 589
2 819
1 687
1 245
1 038
1 321
1 259
– unit value
$/kg
5.79
6.88
5.52
8.43
9.70
7.64
9.41
590
Exports
Coffee, green
Coffee, roasted
– volume
tonnes
1 536
1 816
1 484
910
1 060
1 059
1 003
– value
$’000
13 532
15 219
13 605
10 403
9 966
9 935
10 765
– unit value
$/kg
8.81
8.38
9.16
11.43
9.40
9.38
10.74
Coffee, dry or concentrated
– volume
tonnes
9 071
8 327
7 158
8 847
10 223
8 958
9 818
– value
$’000
83 119
95 720
97 376
134 523
140 856
139 802
156 664
– unit value
$/kg
9.16
11.49
13.60
15.21
13.78
15.61
15.96
Total export value
$’000
99 240
113 758
112 667
146 171
151 860
151 058
168 688
Imports
Coffee, green
– volume
tonnes
49 462
55 534
542 39
54 561
63 515
64 905
67 742
– value
$’000
119 103
149 032
161 492
190 803
193 196
260 940
306 793
– unit value
$/kg
2.41
2.68
2.98
3.50
3.04
4.02
4.53
Coffee, roasted
– volume
tonnes
4 282
4 995
5 492
6 497
5 156
4 264
7 723
– value
$’000
45 112
57 856
63 830
83 304
69 973
79 768
132 661
– unit value
$/kg
10.54
11.58
11.62
12.82
13.57
18.71
17.18
– volume
tonnes
9 071
8 327
7 158
8 847
10 223
8 958
9 818
– value
$’000
83 119
95 720
97 376
134 523
140 856
139 802
156 664
– unit value
$/kg
Total import value
$’000
Coffee, dry or concentrated
9.16
11.49
13.60
15.21
13.78
15.61
15.96
247 335
302 607
322 697
408 630
404 025
480 510
596 118
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Given the constraints on suitable land, only small increases in coffee plantings in Australia are likely
in the future.
Further information about coffee

Australian Subtropical Coffee Association (www.astca.org).

AustralAsian Specialty Coffee Association (www.aasca.com)—information on the coffee supply
chain and coffee consumption in Australia.

International Coffee Organization (www.ico.org)—comprehensive market information on coffee.

NYSE Liffe (globalderivatives.nyx.com/nyse-liffe)—coffee (robusta) futures prices, London.
79

IntercontinentalExchange Inc (www.theice.com)—coffee (arabica) futures prices.

The ‘Coffee’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 280–88
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Culinary herbs
The market for culinary herbs is a growing one in Australia, fuelled by changes to traditional eating
patterns and assisted by innovative packaging and processing (Parker 2004). Hayes (2012) attributes
recent growth in the fresh cut culinary herb industry to the increased popularity of television cooking
shows. In response, Australian supermarkets have broadened their offered range of fresh cut herbs and
refrigerated wet packs (fresh herb pastes).
According to ABS (2012a, 2012c), there were 430 establishments producing herbs in Australia in
2010–11, with estimated production of around 7361 tonnes and a gross value of $46 million (Table
42). The industry has grown since 2005–06, when production was 4947 tonnes with a gross value of
$18.9 million. Queensland accounts for 58 per cent of Australian herb production ( Figure 50).
Western Australia,
$0.7m
South Australia, $1.2m
Tasmania, $0.2m
Northern Territory,
$0.2m
New South Wales,
$4.4m
Victoria, $12.6m
Queensland, $26.7m
Data source: ABS (2012c)
Figure 50: Culinary herbs: gross value of Australian production of herbs, 2010–11, by state
Table 42: Culinary herbs: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Establishments
no.
553
430
Area
hectares
1 049
509
Volume
tonnes
4 947
7 361
Value
$’000
18 863
46 000
Volume
tonnes
1 381
1 534
2 030
1 689
1 969
1 781
1 163
Value
$’000
4 394
5 184
4 985
4 915
5 220
6 618
4 297
Unit value
$/kg
3.18
3.38
2.46
2.91
2.65
3.72
3.70
Imports, dried herbs
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012ac, 2013)
80
Average prices for most fresh culinary herbs in the Melbourne market were relatively stable over the
seven years to 2011–12 (Table 43).
Table 43: Culinary herbs: prices, fresh product, Melbourne wholesale market
Item
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Basil
bunch
1.63
1.87
2.10
1.99
1.96
2.00
2.05
Chervil
bunch
1.74
1.66
1.70
1.81
1.75
1.87
1.84
Chives
bunch
1.65
1.72
1.70
1.60
1.76
1.84
1.78
Coriander
bunch
1.10
1.32
1.42
1.29
1.19
1.43
1.17
Dill
bunch
1.18
1.32
1.52
1.61
1.49
1.65
1.33
Mint
bunch
1.66
1.64
1.55
1.45
1.60
1.59
1.62
Oregano
bunch
1.62
1.76
1.66
1.66
1.54
1.81
1.84
Parsley, continental
deck
7.69
8.03
9.04
10.48
10.44
12.15
10.94
Parsley, English
deck
7.65
8.01
8.00
8.86
10.69
12.92
11.78
Rosemary
deck
1.58
1.60
1.57
1.49
1.50
1.50
1.49
Sage
bunch
1.66
1.67
1.75
2.02
1.66
1.94
1.97
Tarragon
bunch
1.69
2.09
1.93
1.95
1.60
1.79
1.90
Thyme
bunch
1.66
1.65
1.58
1.50
1.50
1.53
1.55
Source: Datafresh Market Reporting Service (2012)
It is difficult to import fresh herbs into Australia because of strict quarantine requirements. Australian
imports of dried herbs reached record levels of over 2000 tonnes in 2007–08, but have been declining
since then ( Figure 51). Australia also imports dried herbs for use in perfumery and medicines. No data
on Australian exports of herbs are available.
2500
7
6
2000
5
1500
4
3
1000
2
500
1
2011–12
tonnes 0
1991–92
Data source: ABS (2013)
1996–97
2001–02
imports
2006–07
import price (right axis)
Figure 51: Culinary herbs (dried): imports and import prices, Australia
Further information about culinary herbs

Australian Herb and Spice Industry Association (www.ahsia.org.au).
81
2011–12
0 $/kg

The ‘Culinary herbs’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 234–44
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Dates
Dates are the edible fruit of the date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera) that has been domestically
cultivated for more than 5000 years. Most dates are consumed in ripe (rutab) or cured (tamar) form but
fresh (khalaal) dates are also widely consumed, particularly in countries in the Middle East.
Annual world production of dates averaged around 7.3 million tonnes in the three years to 2010. The
main producers are countries in the Middle East and along the north African coast (Table 44).
Annual world imports of dates averaged 713 000 tonnes in the three years to 2010, with a value of
around US$750 million. Export prices declined in the 1990s as world production and exports
increased, but have trended upward over the past six years.
Table 44: Dates: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2010)
Production
7 302 kt
na
Egypt (18%), Iran (14%), Saudi Arabia (14%), United Arab Emirates (10%),
Algeria (9%), Pakistan (7%), Iraq (7%); Sudan (former) (5%)
World trade
713 kt
US$751
million
Exporters: Iraq (29%), Iran (17%), Pakistan (15%), Tunisia (10%), Saudi
Arabia (7%), United Arab Emirates (7%), Algeria (3%)
Importers: India (37%), United Arab Emirates (11%), Morocco (7%), Syria
(4%), France (4%), Yemen (3%), Russian Federation (3%)
a Average three years to 2010.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
World date prices have grown strongly in recent years ( Figure 52). Dates are differentiated in world
markets according to the many different varieties that are grown. For example, Medjool dates that
originated in Morocco, but are now widely grown in the United States, command price premiums in
world markets.
8000
4
6000
3
4000
2
2000
1
kt
2012
0
1991
1996
production
2001
exports
2006
export price (right axis)
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 52: Dates: world production, exports and export prices
82
2011
0 US$/kg
Australian date industry
Dates have been grown in Australia for more than 120 years (Reilly et al. 2010). However, there were
only 23 growers in 2011–12 (ABS 2012a). Commercial date production in Australia was only
13.1 tonnes in 2010-11 (Table 45). Australia imported nearly 7400 tonnes of dates in 2011–12 and
exported around 144 tonnes (probably mostly repackaged imports).
Table 45: Dates: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Trees, year end
’000
12.5
23
Volume
tonnes
13.1
Gross value
$’000
Exports, fresh and dried
Volume
tonnes
27.7
38.2
97.5
62.5
55.3
66.9
143.8
Value
$’000
76
101
200
167
176
215
380
Unit value
$/kg
2.76
2.64
2.05
2.68
3.18
3.21
2.64
Imports, fresh and dried
Volume
tonnes
5 447.3
5 139.8
7 221.7
5 048.9
4 246.3
5 745.3
7 381.3
Value
$’000
8 991
9 379
12 602
9 517
9 320
12 800
14 969
Unit value
$/kg
1.65
1.82
1.74
1.88
2.19
2.23
2.03
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Further information about dates

Reilly et al. 2010 (https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/10-174).
Essential oils
There are many different essential oils, which are used in a range of ways, including in perfumes,
cosmetics, therapeutic goods and insecticides.
World trade in essential oils, terpenic by-products and resinoids was worth an average US$2.7 billion a
year in the three years to 2010, of which Australia supplied US$39 million (United Nations Statistics
Division 2013). Terpenes are the volatile organic compounds extracted from essential oils and
generally associated with the characteristic fragrances of those oils. The composition of world trade in
essential oils is outlined in Table 46. In value terms, terpenic by-products and lemon, orange and
peppermint oils are the most traded worldwide ( Figure 53).
83
Table 46: Essential oils: characteristics of world trade
Volume a
Value a
Main exporters (share of total
export value)
Main importers (share of total import
value)
Lemon
13.1 kt
US$320
million
Argentina (35%), United States (18%),
Italy (11%), Switzerland (5%), United
Kingdom (4%), Germany (4%),
Mexico (4%), France (3%), Canada
(3%), Spain (2%)
United States (30%), United Kingdom
(15%), China (10%), Japan (9%),
Switzerland (5%), France (5%),
Germany (4%), Ireland (3%), Canada
(3%), Brazil (2%)
Orange
50.9 kt
US$205
million
Brazil (40%), United States (21%),
Germany (7%), United Kingdom
(5%), Italy (4%), Switzerland (3%),
France (3%), Belize (2%), Mexico
(2%), Netherlands (2%)
United States (22%), Japan (10%),
Germany (8%), United Kingdom (7%),
France (6%), China (5%), Ireland (5%),
Switzerland (4%), Canada (3%),
Netherlands (3%)
Other citrus
8.9 kt
US$202
million
Italy (19%), United States (17%),
Mexico (17%), Brazil (7%), United
Kingdom (6%), Germany (5%),
France (4%), Switzerland (4%), Peru
(3%), Argentina (2%)
United States (25%), France (9%),
United Kingdom (8%), Japan (7%),
Germany (7%), Switzerland (5%), China
(3%), Singapore (3%), Ireland (3%),
Italy (3%)
Peppermint
7.2 kt
US$184
million
United States (49%), India (27%),
China (6%), United Kingdom (5%),
France (3%), Germany (3%), Hong
Kong (1%), Singapore (1%), Australia
(1%), Netherlands (1%)
Singapore (14%), United Kingdom
(13%), United States (9%), Germany
(8%), Japan (6%), Belgium (4%), China
(4%), France (4%), Mexico (3%), Hong
Kong (3%)
Other mint
7.8 kt
US$165
million
India (48%), United States (21%),
China (11%), Singapore (3%), France
(3%), Canada (3%), Germany (2%),
Paraguay (2%), United Kingdom
(1%), Mexico (1%)
United States (33%), China (9%),
Germany (7%), Japan (7%), United
Kingdom (7%), Brazil (6%), France
(5%), Mexico (4%), Belgium (3%),
Guatemala (2%)
Other
essential oils
35.3 kt
US$951
million
France (17%), Indonesia (13%), China
(12%), United States (6%), India (5%),
United Kingdom (4%), Spain (4%),
Germany (3%), Switzerland (3%),
Australia (3%)
United States (17%), France (14%),
Germany (8%), Switzerland (7%),
United Kingdom (7%), Singapore (4%),
Spain (4%), Japan (4%), India (3%),
Netherlands (3%)
Terpenic byproducts,
concentrates
79.1 kt
US$522
million
India (24%), United States (12%),
China (11%), Germany (8%), Ireland
(6%), France (6%), Spain (4%),
United Kingdom (4%), Brazil (4%),
Switzerland (2%)
United States (14%), France (10%),
Germany (7%), India (6%), United
Kingdom (6%), Japan (4%), Spain (4%),
Singapore (4%), China (3%), Republic
of Korea (3%)
Resinoids
14.3 kt
US$66
million
France (28%), India (14%), United
States (11%), Spain (8%), United
Kingdom (6%), Germany (5%), Italy
(3%), Australia (3%), Japan (3%),
China (3%)
Singapore (9%), Canada (8%), United
States (8%), Spain (5%), India (5%),
United Kingdom (5%), Germany (5%),
France (5%), Hong Kong (4%),
Netherlands (4%)
Citrus
Mint
a Annual average, three years to 2010.
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Essential oils are part of a world flavour and fragrance industry that had an estimated sales turnover in
2011 of US$21.8 billion (Leffingwell & Associates 2012). The key players in this industry are the
large multinational companies Givaudan, Firmenich, IFF, Symrise, Takasago, MANE SA, Sensient
Flavors, T. Hasegawa, Frutarom and Robertet SA. The industry is characterised by highly
sophisticated laboratories investigating new natural and synthetic flavours and fragrances. Many
artificial substitutes for natural essentials oils have been developed and are widely used. The total
value of world exports of essential oils, perfumes and toilet waters was US$16.3 billion in 2011
(United Nations Statistics Division 2013).
84
resinoids
concentrates
mints
other essential oils
other
peppermint
citrus
other
lemon
orange
0
US$m
200
400
600
Australia
rest of world
800
1000
1200
a Annual average, three years to 2010.
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 53: Essential oils: composition of world trade value a
Australia is an importer and exporter of essential oils, but the value of exports is higher than the value
of imports (Table 47). Tea tree and eucalyptus oil exports are the largest in value terms.
85
Table 47: Essential oils: Australian exports and imports, by type
Volume
Value
Unit value
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
tonnes
tonnes
tonnes
$’000
$’000
$’000
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
Exports
Bergamot
0.3
0.5
0.3
6
10
16
20.71
20.01
51.89
113.6
225.1
148.7
3 511
6 071
4 458
30.91
26.97
29.98
Geranium
0.4
14.7
11.1
35
390
356
98.27
26.59
31.94
Jasmin
0.0
0.3
0.2
2
35
31
100.55
116.65
127.40
Lavender/lavandin
7.3
7.8
2.1
495
700
190
68.04
90.19
88.30
Lemon
3.6
12.7
1.9
140
154
121
38.71
12.12
65.40
Lime
0.0
0.0
na
6
3
na
124.17
73.42
na
Orange
19.2
10.6
22.1
159
136
183
8.30
12.78
8.29
Other citrus
23.3
11.3
2.1
1 145
454
157
49.08
40.36
74.32
Eucalyptus
Other mint
Other a
Peppermint
0.4
0.6
1.9
29
13
91
78.71
20.94
47.39
528.5
399.0
141.6
16 668
13 120
7 851
31.54
26.88
37.58
9.7
72.2
21.7
157
612
343
16.15
8.47
15.77
Tea tree
na
na
249.5
na
na
8 071
na
na
32.35
Vetiver
1.8
0.1
1.8
564
25
1 003
306.62
233.04
553.87
Concentrates
na
na
na
20 862
26 406
22 195
na
na
na
321.7
49.3
20.9
523
137
300
1.62
2.77
14.35
na
na
na
44 301
45 873
42 833
na
na
na
Bergamot
1.6
3.6
1.0
110
166
60
68.54
46.71
58.56
Geranium
2.2
2.8
1.6
280
477
232
129.69
171.30
144.65
Jasmin
0.5
0.6
1.0
73
94
56
145.90
162.35
55.34
Resinoids
Total exports
Imports
Lavender/lavandin
Lemon
Lime
Orange
Other citrus
Other mint
50.0
37.9
20.6
3 098
2 001
1 219
61.96
52.75
59.08
103.8
43.3
67.9
2 538
1 366
1 508
24.46
31.52
22.20
45.3
16.6
20.3
726
642
348
16.02
38.72
17.14
481.2
476.1
513.4
1 659
1 859
3 165
3.45
3.90
6.16
40.9
124.2
96.3
625
1 157
1 684
15.27
9.31
17.47
32.6
27.2
31.0
1 180
962
1 112
36.19
35.40
35.91
842.2
862.3
1 612.3
12 674
16 851
17 341
15.05
19.54
10.76
40.3
41.3
30.3
1 578
1 537
1 165
39.20
37.20
38.42
0.3
0.2
0.1
34
69
5
134.09
423.23
108.74
na
na
na
4 709
5 238
7 620
na
na
na
Resinoids
3.6
1.7
1.0
244
179
102
68.10
104.67
104.94
Total imports
na
na
na
29 527
32 598
35 617
na
na
na
Other
Peppermint
Vetiver
Concentrates
a Included tea tree oil until January 2011. na Not available.
Source: ABS (2013)
In this chapter, information is provided on Australia’s most important essential oils in terms of value—
boronia, eucalyptus, lavender, peppermint, sandalwood and tea tree oils.
Further information about essential oils

The Essential Oil Producers Association of Australia (eopaa.com.au)—information about the
Australian essential oils industry.
86

The International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEAT) (www.ifeat.org)—
information on the world essential oils industry, particularly through the proceedings of the annual
IFEAT conference.

The ‘Essential oils’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 105–64
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125)—includes sections on boronia, chamomile,
eucalyptus, fennel, lavender, mint, parsley, sandalwood and tea tree oils.
Boronia oil
Boronia oil is a fragrant oil produced from the flowers of a perennial shrub endemic to Australia
(usually Boronia megastigma (Nees)). The shrubs flower in spring. The oil is extracted using a solvent
process and is further refined into either a waxy solid (a ‘concrete’) or a liquid (an ‘absolute’). Boronia
oil is used in perfumery and as food flavouring.
Traditionally boronia oil has been produced from flowers picked in the wild, but most boronia oil is
now produced from plantations using selected clones and mechanical harvesting. The commercial life
of a planting is around 15 years. The plantations are located mainly in Tasmania—in the north and on
the east coast. In recent years, wild picking of boronia in Western Australia has been almost eliminated
because of the possibility of disease being spread by pickers.
There are currently 4 separate plantations, all in Tasmania, down from 13 in 2006–07. The total
commercial plantings are likely to be around 30 hectares (Table 48). A mature plantation yields around
2 tonnes of flowers a hectare. Australian production of boronia flowers was estimated to be 60 tonnes
in 2011–12, with a gross value of $780 000.
Table 48: Boronia oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2006–07
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
13
4
Area
hectares
44
30
Yield
t/hectare
1
2
Volume
– flowers
44
60
– absolute
kg
111
151
Farmgate price, flowers
$/t
11 000
13 000
Gross value
$’000
488
780
Volume
kg
100
na
Value
$’000
464
853
Exports a
a Estimated by ABARES.
Source: Robert McEldowney [Essential Oils of Tasmania] pers. comm. 13 February 2013
All but a small part of Australian production of boronia concrete and absolute is exported, mainly to
Europe and the United States. The industry in Tasmania has been smoothing exports in recent years
through releases from its stockholdings.
The main player in the boronia industry is Essential Oils of Tasmania, which processes boronia
flowers from its own plantation and from the other Tasmanian growers. Essential Oils of Tasmania
also processes other essential oils and plant extracts including peppermint, fennel, parsley (herb and
seed), lavender, blackcurrant bud and mountain pepper leaf (gathered from wild stands of the native
plant Tasmannia lanceolata).
87
Eucalyptus oil
Eucalyptus oil is extracted by steam distillation from the leaves of a number of types of eucalypt trees,
including blue mallee gums (Eucalyptus polybractea), narrow-leaved peppermint gum (Eucalyptus
radiata var. Australiana) and Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus). In recent decades countries
such as Spain, Portugal, India and China have taken over a eucalyptus oil market that once only
Australia supplied (Abbott 2004). China is now the world’s largest eucalyptus oil producer, accounting
for around half of world output. Most of these countries are using the Tasmanian blue gum as the
source of their oil.
The main component of eucalyptus oil is 1,8-Cineole, which makes up to 95 per cent of the oil content
for mallee types and 60–70 per cent for blue gum types (Barton 1998).
The main uses of eucalyptus oil are as a medicine, usually to be externally applied or inhaled. For
example, it may be used to treat muscle soreness, arthritis and coughs and cold. It is also used in
confectionery, as a disinfectant or fragrance, and Barton (1998) identified a number of potential
industrial uses of eucalyptus oil, particularly as a solvent. Barton acknowledges that large-scale
penetration in these markets would require prices around half of those currently prevailing for
eucalyptus oil, but says this could be possible with large-scale production technologies.
Apart from their oil producing qualities, eucalypts of this type are also grown to combat salinity,
preserve wildlife diversity and to contain greenhouse gases through carbon sequestration. World
consumption of crude eucalyptus oil is estimated to be about 3000 tonnes a year, with an ex-distillery
value of around US$15 million (Abbott 2004; Davis & Bartle 2004).
Australian eucalyptus oil industry
Australian eucalyptus oil production was around 120 tonnes a year in 2011-12 (Table 49),
considerably less than the 1000 tonnes a year that was produced in the 1940s (Abbott 2004).
Two companies dominate the Australian eucalyptus oil market: G.R. Davis Pty Ltd in Sydney, and
Felton Grimwade & Bosisto’s Pty Ltd in Melbourne. The main areas harvested in Australia are around
Bendigo in Victoria, and West Wyalong in New South Wales. The harvesting process is a mechanical
one in which each tree is cut off at the ground, then mulched. The trees regenerate from the stump and
can be harvested every two years when they are 1–2 metres tall.
Much of the harvest in Victoria is from public land; a royalty is paid to the Victorian Government for
harvesting rights. There are holding licenses for around 12 000 hectares in central Victoria but only
around 800 hectares is harvested every year. Increasingly there are private plantations of oil mallees.
For example, in a program initiated by a Western Australian Government with the aid of funds from
the Australian Government, oil-producing eucalypts (mainly blue mallee) have been planted on 14 000
hectares in the wheatbelt of Western Australia, mostly integrated with existing farm activities. The
broad aim of this program is to address environmental degradation issues, particularly salinity and
greenhouse gases, through profitable growing of mallee trees. Apart from eucalyptus oil, the intended
outputs from the trees are activated carbon, charcoal and fuel for electricity generation. The program
target is plantings of 500 million mallee trees by 2025. Potential annual output from these plantings
would be 35 000 tonnes of eucalyptus oil and 75 megawatts of electricity (Oil Mallee Project 2004). A
small demonstration plant for integrated production of bioenergy with eucalyptus oil was
commissioned in Narrogin in 2006. At this stage only small amounts of eucalyptus oil are produced in
the eastern wheatbelt of Western Australia, by Kalannie Distillers Pty Ltd.
Eucalyptus oil production was estimated to be 120 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of $1.26
million, based on a return to growers of $10.50 a kilogram for oil derived from their eucalyptus trees
(Table 49).
Most of Australian production is exported. Australian eucalyptus oil exports have fluctuated around
100 tonnes a year over the past 20 years but increased sharply to 225 tonnes in 2010–11 ( Figure 54).
88
Much of the increase is due to re-exporting eucalyptus oil imported from China (Richard Davis [G.R.
Davis Pty Ltd] pers. comm. 7 February 2013). Australian export returns have generally been
increasing over the past 15 years. The major export markets for Australian eucalyptus oil are the
United States (18 per cent of total exports in the three years to 2011–12), New Zealand (18 per cent),
Thailand (15 per cent), Hong Kong (8 per cent), Canada (8 per cent) and Malaysia (5 per cent).
Table 49: Eucalyptus oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Volume
tonnes
125
103
120
Value
$’000
1 250
1 100
1 260
Volume
tonnes
127.0
82.6
76.2
51.4
113.6
225.1
148.7
Value
$’000
2 283
1 915
2 354
2 230
3 511
6 071
4 458
Unit value
$/kg
17.97
23.19
30.88
43.39
30.91
26.97
29.98
Exports
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Richard Davis [G.R. Davis Pty Ltd] pers. comm. 7 February 2013
250
50
200
40
150
30
100
20
50
10
tonnes 0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
exports
2006–07
0
2011–12
2011–12
$/kg
export price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 54: Eucalyptus oil: Australian exports and export prices
Further information about eucalyptus oil

Oil Mallee Project (www.oilmallee.org.au)—information on the economics of oil mallee growing.

The ‘Eucalyptus oil’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 124–30
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Lavender oil
Lavender oil is an essential oil used mainly in the fragrance, perfume and aromatherapy industries. It is
derived from plants of the genus Lavandula by steam distillation of the flowers. There are several
types of lavender oil. The mostly highly priced product comes from Lavandula angustifolia. Lavandin,
the essential oil of the hybrid lavender plant Lavandula hybrida which has a much higher oil yield than
true lavender, is considered to be of inferior quality because of a distinct camphor scent. Lavender is
also widely used as fresh or dried flowers.
89
World lavender oil production has declined steadily from 225 tonnes in 2005 to only 90 tonnes in
2012, due to an insect-borne bacterial disease that is affecting the lavender industry in France. Bulgaria
overtook France as the largest producer of lavender oil in 2012. Together Bulgaria and France account
for 85 per cent of world lavender production. French distillers buy much of Bulgaria’s lavender oil
production.
France produced around 52 tonnes of lavender oil in 2012, down from 90 tonnes in 2005 ( Figure 55).
Lavender oil prices in France have increased substantially over the past five years, in response to the
lower French production and despite increasing production in Bulgaria. Lavandin oil production in
France fluctuated around 1070 tonnes in the five years to 2012. Average lavandin oil prices in France
were only around 20 per cent of average lavender oil prices over this period, reflecting the lower
quality of lavandin oil.
100
160
75
120
50
80
25
40
2012
tonnes 0
2002
2003
2004
2005
production
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 US$/kg
average price, distillery gate (right scale)
Data source: FranceAgriMer (2012a)
Figure 55: Lavender oil: production and prices, France
Data on world trade in lavender and lavandin oil have not been available since 2006. The largest
exporter in 2006 was France, with a share in the total value of world trade of 63 per cent; the other
main exporters were Bulgaria (6 per cent), Spain (6 per cent), the United Kingdom (4 per cent) and the
United States (4 per cent). In recent years Bulgaria has markedly increased its share of world exports
and it is probably now rivalling France. The main importers in 2006 in terms of value were the United
States (19 per cent), Germany (11 per cent), the United Kingdom (11 per cent), Switzerland (10 per
cent), France (6 per cent) and Japan (5 per cent).
Australian lavender oil industry
The Australian lavender industry consists of many small producers but relatively few commercial
farms. Australia’s largest grower is the Bridestowe Estate in northern Tasmania, which produces
around 5 tonnes a hectare a year of lavender flowers from 45 hectares of plantings. Around 70 per cent
of Bridestowe flower production is distilled to produce around 1.5 tonnes of lavender oil, with most of
the remaining flower production being marketed as sundried flowers.
Australian lavender oil production is estimated at 3.5 tonnes in 2011–12, with a gross value of
$1.3 million (Table 50). There were probably another 1–2 tonnes of lavandin oil and 5–10 tonnes of
dried flower production (bunches and stripped flowers).
Prices for good-quality Australian lavender oil in bulk were around $400 a kilogram in 2011–12,
which is well above the price for lavender oil in France.
90
Table 50: Lavender oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production, oil
Lavender/lavandin oil
tonnes
na
2.5
3.5
Gross value
$’000
na
466
1 313
Volume
tonnes
66.4
11.1
Value
$’000
1 248
392
301
336
495
700
190
Unit value
$/kg
18.79
35.26
28.81
57.45
68.04
90.19
88.30
Exports
10.4
5.9
7.3
7.8
2.1
Imports
Volume
tonnes
41.9
47.5
48.6
36.0
50.0
37.9
20.6
Value
$’000
1 336
1 387
2 069
1 912
3 098
2 001
1 219
Unit value
$/kg
31.89
29.18
42.56
53.05
61.96
52.75
59.08
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
The industry is oriented toward the domestic market. There were Australian lavender/lavandin oil
exports of 2.1 tonnes in 2011–12 (Table 50) and lavender/lavandin oil imports of 20.6 tonnes in 2011–
12, with a value of $1.2 million.
Further information about lavender oil

Lavender Australia (www.lavenderaustralia.com)—information on the Australian lavender
industry, including a magazine Lavender Australia.

The Australian Lavender Growers’ Association (www.talga.com)—information from an industry
organisation representing around 500 lavender growers in Australia.

The ‘Lavender oil’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 136–40
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).

FranceAgriMer (www.franceagrimer.fr)—occasional information about lavender/lavandin
production in France.

Comité des Plantes à Perfume Aromatiques et Médicinales (www.cpparm.org)—statistics and
information about the promotion and regulation of lavender/lavandin production in France.
Peppermint oil
Peppermint oil is extracted from the leaves of the perennial plant Mentha piperita. It is mainly used as
a flavouring, particularly in confectionery (mainly chewing gum) and toothpaste, but also in cosmetics
and for medicinal purposes and aroma therapy.
The United States is the main producer of peppermint oil in the world. US peppermint oil production
has been fairly steady at around 3000 tonnes over the past five years but prices received by growers
have increased sharply ( Figure 56).
91
7500
60
5000
40
2500
20
tonnes
0
0
1997
2002
production
2007
grower price (right axis)
2012
2012
US$/kg
Data source: USDA (2013c)
Figure 56: Peppermint oil: production and grower prices, United States
The United States accounts for more than half of world trade in peppermint oil, with India and
Thailand the other major exporters. World export prices for peppermint oil have risen sharply in recent
years ( Figure 57).
kt
12
40
9
30
6
20
3
10
0
0 US$/kg
2012
1991
1996
2001
exports
2006
2011
export price (right axis)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 57: Peppermint oil: world exports and export prices
Australian peppermint oil industry
In Australia, peppermint is a perennial crop that is planted in autumn, has its major growth flush in
spring and is harvested in late summer after it has dried off. The Australian industry was originally
established in Tasmania and is now also located in north-east Victoria.
92
There appears to be only two major growers of peppermint in Australia in 2011–12, producing around
15 tonnes of peppermint oil annually (Table 51). Based on returns to US mint growers in 2012, the
value of this production would be around $750 000.
Table 51: Peppermint oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
10
13
136
140
10
10
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production, oil
Growers
no.
2
Area
hectares
Volume, oil
tonnes
Farmgate price
$/kg
33
18
50
Gross value
$’000
332
187
750
15
Exports
Volume
tonnes
4.9
16.3
12.4
30.8
9.7
72.2
21.7
Value
$’000
213
390
310
786
157
612
343
Unit value
$/kg
43.76
23.98
25.01
25.48
16.15
8.47
15.77
Imports
Volume
tonnes
48.7
50.8
44.4
42.7
40.3
41.3
30.3
Value
$’000
1 328
1 479
1 204
1 420
1 578
1 537
1 165
Unit value
$/kg
27.26
29.13
27.15
33.22
39.20
37.20
38.42
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Australia exported 21.7 tonnes of peppermint oil in 2011–12, valued at $343 000 (Table 51).
Australian import and export prices for peppermint oil have generally been declining over the past 20
years ( Figure 58).The main export markets for Australian peppermint oil were Hong Kong (44 per
cent of total Australian exports in the three years to 2011–12), Taiwan (18 per cent), Indonesia (12 per
cent), Malaysia (11 per cent) and Singapore (10 per cent).
100
100
75
75
50
50
25
25
tonnes 0
0
1991–92
exports
1996–97
imports
2001–02
2006–07
export price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 58: Peppermint oil: Australian exports, imports and prices
93
2011–12
import price (right axis)
2011–12
$/kg
Sandalwood
Sandalwood has been a valuable traded commodity for thousands of years. Sandalwood oil is typically
extracted from the heartwood or roots of sandalwood trees that are at least 30 to 40 years old. The oil
is used in perfumes, cosmetics and therapeutic goods. The wood has a variety of uses including
furniture, turned or carved woodworks, and incense and joss sticks.
There are a number of commercially exploited species of sandalwood throughout the world. The most
commercially important is Santalum album, believed to have originated in Indonesia and East Timor,
but which is now also established in India and Sri Lanka. In Australia, there is Santalum spicatum,
which is endemic in Western Australia and South Australia, and Santalum lanceolatum, which grows
mostly in Queensland. Santalum austrocaledonicum is found mostly in islands of the Pacific, such as
New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Santalum ellipticum (Hawaii), Santalum yasi (Fiji and Tonga), Santalum
macgregorii, Santalum papuanum (Papua New Guinea), and Santalum insulare (French Polynesia) are
other species.
Other non-Santalaceae species pass to varying degrees as sandalwood in world trade. These include
Amyris balsamifera (West Indian sandalwood), which grows in the West Indies and Central and South
America, and Osyris lanceolata (African sandalwood), which is found in east African countries such
as Kenya and Zimbabwe.
Australia appears to supply around half of world sandalwood exports, with Indonesia, East Timor and
India the other main exporters. The main importers of sandalwood are Taiwan, China and India, and
the main importers of sandalwood oil are the United States and France. There is also demand from
north Asia and the Middle East.
Sandalwood has been overexploited in India and Indonesia. The Indian Government has responded by
limiting exports of sandalwood and sandalwood oil to an annual quota. Indian exports of sandalwood
oil have been declining and were only 1.1 tonnes in 2011–12 ( Figure 59).
75
900
50
600
25
300
2011–12
tonnes 0
1996–97
exports
2001–02
imports
2006–07
export price (right axis)
2011–12
import price (right axis)
0 US$/kg
Data source: Department of Commerce, India (2012)
Figure 59: Sandalwood oil: import and export volumes and prices, India
Taiwan is the main importer of sandalwood in wood and powder form and the main destination for
sandalwood from Australia. Taiwan’s imports of sawn sandalwood have fluctuated over the past
decade at an average import price that has varied around US$2000 a tonne ( Figure 60).
94
6000
3000
4000
2000
2000
1000
tonnes
2012
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
wood, chips and rough sawn
2006
powder, oil extracted
2007
2008
powder
2009
2010
2011
0 US$/t
import price, rough sawn wood (right axis)
Data source: Directorate General of Customs, Taiwan (2012)
Figure 60: Sandalwood: imports of wood and wood powder, Taiwan
Australian sandalwood industry
The sandalwood industry was established in the 1850s in Western Australia. Virtually all of
Australia’s current sandalwood production comes from the native tree Santalum spicatum, which is
found throughout much of the lower half of Western Australia. Significant sandalwood production also
comes from the Australian native species Santalum lanceolatum in Queensland.
Sandalwood trees were extensively harvested in Western Australia during the clearing of land for
agricultural enterprises. Near the height of this clearing process in 1924–25, 6600 tonnes of
sandalwood was exported (Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics 1926).
Under the Sandalwood Act 1929 in Western Australia, sandalwood is a resource managed on state
government owned (Crown) land by a government agency, the Forest Products Commission of
Western Australia. Sandalwood is harvested both green and dead (including roots and bark). A
maximum sustainable harvest has been set each year since 2001–02 of 1500 tonnes of green wood and
1500 tonnes of dead wood. Ten per cent of these quotas are allocated to sandalwood harvest from
privately owned land. Harvesters on Crown land are contracted by the Forest Products Commission
and are required to plant sandalwood seeds whenever they remove a sandalwood tree. Illegal
harvesting of sandalwood does occur; 170 tonnes of sandalwood was seized by police in Western
Australia in 2011 and 2012.
Total legal harvesting of sandalwood (green, dead and roots) in Western Australia averaged 2829
tonnes a year in the three years to 2011–12 ( Figure 61). Processing and marketing of all Crown land
sandalwood is done by Wescorp Holdings Ltd, a private company that was awarded the contract
through a public tender process. Wescorp’s contract runs to 2016 to supply a Western Australian oil
distiller (Mount Romance Australia Pty Ltd) with 550 tonnes of green sandalwood a year.
The commission also has arrangements to encourage Western Australian farmers to re-establish
sandalwood trees on their farms (Forest Products Commission 2007). Apart from providing income
sources for farmers and regional communities, the plantings also help to control salinity and
waterlogging, sequester carbon, and enhance native flora and fauna ecosystems. There are now more
than 15 000 hectares of plantations of Santalum spicatum throughout Western Australia. Because the
sandalwood tree is parasitic, it must be planted with other trees, for example acacia varieties.
95
3000
9000
2000
6000
1000
3000
tonnes 0
0
1999–00
2001–02
green wood a
2003–04
2005–06
dead wood
roots
2007–08
2009–10
2011–12
2011–12
$/t
payments to harvesters b (right axis)
a Includes 3rd grade green wood. b Payments by the Forest Products Commission to contractors for harvesting,
delivery, regeneration and associated research.
Data source: Forest Products Commission (2012)
Figure 61: Sandalwood: production and payments to harvesters, Western Australia
Around 130 tonnes of Santalum lanceolatum was harvested in Queensland in 2011–12, the smallest
harvest since 2006–07 (Table 52). Sandalwood harvesting in Queensland is regulated by the state
government and the annual production quota is around 550 tonnes.
There were around 8250 hectares planted to Santalum album in commercial plantations in Australia in
mid-2012. Most of the plantings are in the Kununurra region of north-west Australia, but there are
smaller and more recent plantings in Queensland and the Northern Territory. The first large-scale
commercial plantings of Santalum album in Australia were in 1999, implying first substantial
harvestings around 2013 or 2014.
The estimated supply and disposal of Australian sandalwood is shown in Table 52. Australia’s
sandalwood harvest in 2011–12 was 2944 tonnes, of which around 500 tonnes was consumed
domestically, producing around 15.7 tonnes of sandalwood oil (Table 52). Average payments to
sandalwood harvesters by the Forest Products Commission were slightly more than $5000 a tonne,
with payments varying according to quality. The estimated gross value of production of sandalwood in
Australia in 2011–12 was around $14.7 million.
The estimated value of Australian exports of sandalwood products in 2011–12 was $21.6 million
(Table 52). Around 60 per cent of Australian sandalwood exports are to Taiwan (Forest Products
Commission 2012). Australia supplied 43 per cent of Taiwan’s sandalwood imports and Tanzania and
Indonesia supplied 20 per cent and 12 per cent, respectively (Directorate General of Customs, Taiwan
2012).
96
Table 52: Sandalwood products: supply, disposal and value in Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Wood, Western Australia
tonnes
2 512
2 369
2 269
2 601
2 857
2 864
2 814
– green
tonnes
1 521
1 419
1 326
1 678
1 714
1 621
1 433
– dead
tonnes
726
758
729
666
873
963
1 179
– roots
tonnes
228
192
214
258
269
230
202
– bark
tonnes
38
0
0
0
0
50
0
Wood, Queensland
tonnes
132
118
190
274
167
209
130
Total, wood
tonnes
2 644
2 486
2 459
2 875
3 024
3 073
2 944
Sandalwood oil
tonnes
14.0
14.0
12.0
10.6
19.2
19.6
15.7
Payments to harvesters a
$/t
4 160
3 984
7 549
4 242
5 579
5 794
5 006
Gross value of production
$’000
10 999
9 906
18 560
12 196
16 870
17 806
14 740
– volume
tonnes
1 944
1 786
1 909
2 395
2 114
2 143
2 210
– value
$’000
17 030
13 544
18 730
13 208
15 332
16 142
14 385
– unit value
$/t
8 760
7 582
9 814
5 514
7 253
7 532
6 508
Exports
Wood
Oil
– volume
tonnes
12
12
11
10
18
19
15
– value
$’000
9 600
9 600
5 775
5 117
8 673
8 920
7 252
– unit value
$/kg
800
800
1 050
1 066
953
959
988
Total export value
$’000
26 630
23 144
24 505
18 325
24 005
25 063
21 636
a Payments by the Forest Products Commission to contractors for harvesting, delivery, regeneration and associated research.
Source: ABARES; DAFF Queensland (2012); Forest Products Commission (2012); TFS Corporation (2012a)
Further information about sandalwood oil

Australian Sandalwood Network and Forest Products Commission Western Australia (2008)
(www.fpc.wa.gov.au/content_migration/_assets/documents/plantations/industry_plans/sandalwood
_idp.pdf).

The ‘Sandalwood oil’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 153–57
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).

Australian Sandalwood Network (sandalwood.org.au)—information on growing and marketing
sandalwood, including a regular free newsletter The Australian Sandalwooder.

Forest Products Commission of Western Australia (www.fpc.wa.gov.au).

Wescorp (www.wescorp.com.au), the main marketer of sandalwood in Western Australia.
Tea tree oil
Tea tree oil is extracted from the leaves of the Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) by steam
distillation. Reflecting its antifungal, anti-inflammatory and antibiotic qualities, the oil is used in a
range of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, toiletries, household products and industrial products (solvents
and disinfectants). The residue after distillation is sold as mulch.
The tea tree is native to northern coastal New South Wales and is also grown commercially in the
Atherton Tablelands region of Queensland. Many coastal regions of northern Australia are potential
growing regions for this tree. However, there is increasing competition in world markets from tea tree
oil produced in China, Indonesia, Kenya and South Africa.
97
Australian tea tree oil industry
Australian production of tea tree oils was estimated to be around 400 tonnes in 2012, with a gross
value of $12.1 million (Table 53). Tea tree oil production in Australia grew strongly throughout the
1990s, peaking at 625 tonnes in 1999–2000, but then declined in response to lower prices ( Figure 62).
Two large tea tree plantations exited the industry around 2007.
The farmgate price in Australia for tea tree oil averaged $30.33 a kilogram in 2012. This is
substantially below the 2008–09 price of nearly $53 a kilogram (in 2011-12 dollars), but higher than
the very low prices of the early 2000s ( Figure 62).
750
60
500
40
250
20
2011–12
tonnes 0
1999–00
2001–02
2003–04
2005–06
production
2007–08
2009-10
2010
2011-12
2012
0 $/kg
return, farm gate (right axis)
Data source: Tony Larkman [Australian Tea Tree Industry Association] pers. comm., 7 February 2013
Figure 62: Tea tree oil: production and farmgate returns, Australia
Data for Australian exports of tea tree oil have only been available since January 2011; previously tea
tree oil export data were included in an ‘Other essential oils’ category and were probably the dominant
component of that category. Australian exports of tea tree oil were 373 tonnes in 2012, with a total
value of around $11.5 million (Table 53). The main export destinations for Australian tea tree oil in
2012 were the United States (50 per cent), New Zealand (11 per cent), Germany (8 per cent), the
United Kingdom (7 per cent), Hong Kong (5 per cent), Canada (3 per cent) and Taiwan (3 per cent).
However, it is believed the exports to New Zealand were mostly soap, gel and shampoo containing tea
tree oil, rather than tea tree oil (Tony Larkman [Australian Tea Tree Industry Association], pers.
Comm., 11 July 2013).
98
Table 53: Tea tree oil: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2010
2011
2012
Production
Growers
no.
100
Volume
tonnes
Farmgate price
$/kg
18.58
29.08
43.83
49
37.17
33.50
30.33
Value
$’000
6 614
11 021
18 628
20 923
18 994
13 467
12 132
– volume
tonnes
na
na
na
na
na
190
373
– value
$’000
na
na
na
na
na
6 452
11 458
– unit value
$/kg
na
na
na
na
na
33.89
30.70
356
379
90
425
427
511
402
400
Exports
Tea tree a
Other essential oils
– volume
tonnes
673
623
518
364
549
111
268
– value
$’000
20 225
22 571
20 979
15 744
18 670
5 008
11 012
– unit value
$/kg
30.07
36.22
40.49
43.28
33.99
45.20
41.16
a Data only available since January 2011.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Tony Larkman [Australian Tea Tree Industry Association] pers. comm., 7 February 2013
Further information about tea tree oil

Australian Tea Tree Industry Association (www.teatree.org.au)—information on the Australian tea
tree oil industry and development strategy.

The ‘Tea tree oil’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 158–64
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Grains, seeds and plant fibre
A number of seed-based and fibre-based industries are emerging or prospective in Australia, including
the chia, guar, industrial hemp and quinoa industries.
Chia
Chia (Salvia hispanica) is an annual plant related to mint that produces an oil rich edible seed. The
chia plant is native to Central and South America.
The oil yield of chia is around 25–30 per cent and this oil is rich in omega-3 fatty acids that are sought
after for their healthiness in diets. Chia is also high in dietary fibre and protein as well as vitamins,
minerals and antioxidants. Chia is consumed as a drink and as a tasty supplement in a wide range of
food preparations. Chia has been consumed in South America for thousands of years but has only
come to attention of the rest of the world as a healthy food in recent years.
Chia is mainly grown commercially in Mexico, Australia, Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala and
Paraguay. Mexico is the largest chia producer and its production has increased sharply in recent years
in response to booming chia prices ( Figure 63).
99
4000
2000
3000
1500
2000
1000
1000
500
tonnes
0
0
2001
2002
Data source: SIAP (2013)
2003
2004
2005
2006
production
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
US$/t
grower return (right axis)
Figure 63: Chia: production and returns to growers, Mexico
Chia seed was recently granted novel food approval in the European Union, allowing up to 5 per cent
of the mass of bread products. Approval is required in the European Union for new foods that do not
have a significant history of consumption. The European Union is also considering approval of a wider
range of applications of chia in food.
Australian chia industry
Commercial production of chia commenced in the Ord River Irrigation Area in the far north of
Western Australia around 2005 as a dry season crop. Virtually all chia production in Australia is
contracted to a single marketer, The Chia Co. Australian chia production data are confidential but
plantings were believed to be 2000 hectares in 2011–12, producing around 2200 tonnes of chia with an
annual gross value of about $3.9 million.
Further information about chia
The Chia Co (www.thechiaco.com.au), the main marketer of chia in Australia.
Guar seed
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba; also called locust or cluster bean) is a legume that is grown as a
kharif (monsoon) crop in India (accounting for around 80 per cent of world guar production), but
which also thrives as an irrigated crop in arid regions. Indian production varies widely from year to
year according to the performance of the monsoon.
The endosperm of the guar seed is used to produce a powdered gum that is used as a thickener in food
and personal use products because of its high viscosity, cold water solubility and property of inhibiting
ice crystal formation. The meal remaining after milling has a protein content of nearly 50 per cent,
making it useful in animal feed mixes. Guar is also grown as a green manure crop.
More than 40 per cent of all guar gum produced is used in the oil and gas industry to facilitate drilling
and prevent fluid and gas loss.
World trade data are not available for guar seed but most trade is in guar gum. India accounts for
around one-third of the volume of world trade in guar gum powder, which has grown at more than 8
per cent a year over the past 20 years ( Figure 64).
100
800
8
600
6
400
4
200
2
2012
0
kt
1991
1996
exports, India
2001
exports, other countries
2006
2011
0 $/kg
export price, India (right axis)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 64: Guar gum powder: world exports and export prices
Guar seed production was very low in India in 2009–10, due to failure of the monsoon, but has
recovered in recent years ( Figure 65). Prices of guar seed and guar seed products rose sharply in
2010–11 and 2011–12.
2500
5000
2000
4000
1500
3000
1000
2000
500
1000
kt 0
0
1996–97
2001–02
Indian production
2006–07
import price, United States (right axis)
2011–12
2011–12
US$/t
Data source: Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, India (2013); USDA (2013b)
Figure 65: Guar seed: Indian production and US import prices
Australian guar industry
Guar growing commenced in Australia in 1910, but apart from some experimentation, guar has not
become established as a viable industry. However, guar cultivation is suited to some of the summer
rainfall or northern irrigated regions of Australia (Bryceson & Cover 2004). The Guar Industry
Development Association was formed in Australia in 2002.
101
Australia exported an average 160 tonnes of guar gum a year over the three years to 2011–12, with an
export value of $633 000, but imported an average of around 5568 tonnes with a value of around $20.9
million (Table 54).
Table 54: Guar seed products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Area
–
Volume
–
Gross value
–
Imports, guar mucilages and thickeners
Volume
tonnes
46
90
164
172
97
77
90
Value
$’000
257
310
600
950
356
347
614
Unit value
$/kg
5.54
3.46
3.66
5.53
3.68
4.53
6.80
Imports, guar gum a
Volume
tonnes
4 093
5 781
5 848
6 466
4 991
4 552
7 160
Value
$’000
8 406
11 334
10 215
10 509
7 840
8 404
46 384
Unit value
$/kg
2.05
1.96
1.75
1.63
1.57
1.85
6.48
a Includes dehulled guar splits.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Further information about guar seed

Bryceson & Cover (2004) (https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/04-165.pdf).
Industrial hemp
Industrial hemp is a form of Cannabis sativa, essentially the same plant as marijuana, except that its
leaves and flowering parts are bred to be low in the psychoactive drug delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC).
Industrial hemp is a source of both fibre and seed. The fibre is used for fabric, paper, biocomposite
building materials and in a range of industrial applications, including plastics. The seed, oil extracted
from the seed and the oilcake residues are used as food; the oil is also widely used in cosmetics.
Industrial hemp production is either not permitted or strictly regulated in many countries to guard
against the illegal production of marijuana.
Production systems for hemp usually mean that either fibre or seed is produced, not both. The largest
hempseed producers are France and China, while China and the Democratic Republic of Korea are the
largest fibre producers (Table 55). There are also substantial hemp industries in Canada (Laate 2012)
and Europe (Carus et al. 2013).
102
Table 55: Industrial hemp: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries shares of volume
41 236 ha
na
China (33%), Canada (32%), France (18%), Chile (5%), Ukraine (5%),
Romania (3%), Hungary (3%), Russian Federation (1%)
Hempseed
113.1 kt
na
France (46%), China (42%), Canada (9%), Chile (1%), Ukraine (1%)
Hemp tow waste
80.9 kt
na
China (56%), Democratic Republic of Korea (17%), Netherlands (8%), Chile
(5%), Austria (4%), Romania (4%), Russian Federation (2%)
Hempseed
18.3 kt
US$23.5
million
Exporters: Netherlands (38%), France (29%), Spain (8%), Belgium (7%),
Germany (5%), Canada (5%), Italy (3%), Australia (2%), Chile (1%)
Importers: Netherlands (30%), Belgium (18%), Italy (8%), Germany (8%),
United Kingdom (6%), Chile (5%), Spain (5%), Japan (4%), Sweden (3%)
Imports, hemp
tow waste
14.6 kt
US$11.7
million
Importers: Spain (46%), Czech Republic (15%), United Kingdom (15%),
Germany (8%), Switzerland (2%)
Production
Area
World trade
a Average three years to 2010.
Sources: Carus et al. (2013); FAO Statistics Division (2013); Laate (2012); Statistics Canada (2013)
Canada is an important producer and exporter of hempseed and fibre since hemp production in Canada
was legalised in 1998 ( Figure 66). Total plantings of hemp in Canada in 2011 were over 15 000
hectares, around 80 per cent of which was for hempseed production (Laate 2012). In Canada average
yields per hectare are around 785 kilograms of hempseed and 5.9 tonnes of straw (consisting of hurd
and bast) that can be transformed into about 1.5 tonnes of fibre (bast) (Laate 2012). The hurd is made
up of short absorbent fibres and is used to make products like absorbent materials, insulation, paper
and biocomposite building materials.
1250
10000
1000
8000
750
6000
500
4000
250
2000
tonnes 0
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
exports, fibre
exports, seed
export price, fibre (right axis)
2012
US$/t
export price, seed (right axis)
Data source: Statistics Canada (2013)
Figure 66: Industrial hemp products: exports and export prices, Canada
Australian industrial hemp industry
Industrial hemp can be produced under strict licensing conditions in Victoria (since 1998), Queensland
(2002), Western Australia (2004) and New South Wales (2008). Production is not legal in South
Australia and the Northern Territory.
103
At present, industrial hemp in Australia can only be used for non-food purposes; use of the seed as
food for humans is not allowed. Food Standards Australia New Zealand approved an application to
allow hempseed to be sold for human food, but the application is subject to further review (Food
Standards Australia New Zealand 2013).
An estimated 185.5 hectares of industrial hemp was planted in Australia in 2011, most of which was
irrigated, producing around 93 tonnes of hempseed (Crawford et al. 2012). The estimated gross value
of Australian hemp production in 2011–12 was around $300 000.
There are also Australian imports of hempseed products, particularly from Canada and the European
Union, but import data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics are not available. According to
Crawford et al. (2012), Canada exported 35 tonnes of hempseed products (mostly oilcake, but also
seed and oil) to Australia in 2011, with a total value of around A$43 000.
In 2012 Australia also imported 46 tonnes of ‘true hemp’ fibre and yarn, valued at $117 500 (ABS
2013), but there were no Australian exports of fibre or yarn.
Further information about industrial hemp
 European Industrial Hemp Association (www.eiha.org)—information about the European industrial
hemp industry and the products of industrial hemp.
Quinoa
Quinoa is an edible seed that is produced from the annual plant Chenopodium quinoa, which
originated in the Andes region of South America, around Peru and Bolivia. Quinoa has been consumed
as a food for thousands of years in these regions.
The inedible husk must be removed from the seed before consumption because of its bitterness. The
seeds are usually cooked like rice and used in a range of food preparations, including breakfast cereals.
Quinoa has become popular in recent years because of perceptions of its healthy properties (Vogel &
Vogel 2008). An aspect of its attractiveness to consumers is that it is gluten free, making it an
alternative to grains like wheat for those with gluten intolerance. It is also used in processed form in
cosmetics because of its emollient properties.
World quinoa prices have increased sharply in recent years in response to strong demand, despite
increasing world quinoa production and exports ( Figure 67). The main producers and exporters are
Peru (52 per cent of world production in the three years to 2010), Bolivia (46 per cent) and Ecuador (1
per cent).
104
100
4000
75
3000
50
2000
25
1000
2012
kt 0
1992
1997
production
2002
exports
2007
2012
0 US$/t
export price (right axis)
Data sources: ABARES; FAO Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 67: Quinoa: world production, exports and export prices
Australian quinoa industry
The first Australian commercial crop of quinoa was grown in 2007 in Tasmania, where crops are
planted in early spring and harvested in early autumn. Total Australian plantings of quinoa were
estimated to be 50 hectares in 2011–12, producing around 45 tonnes of quinoa with an estimated gross
value of $160 000. At this stage most Australian quinoa is based on organic production systems.
Australia imported 934 tonnes of quinoa in 2012 (the only year for which Australian trade data are
available), with a value of $3.1 million and an average price of $3319 a tonne (ABS 2013). Australian
quinoa exports in 2012 were 2 tonnes, valued at $18 840 (ABS 2013).
Further information about quinoa

FAO 2011 (www.fao.org/alc/file/media/pubs/2011/cultivo_quinua_en.pdf)—comprehensive
information on the world quinoa industry.
Olives
The olive industry produces two main products: table olives and olive oil. World production of both
olive oil and table olives reached records levels in 2011–12. The main producing countries of olive
products border the Mediterranean Sea (Table 56).
105
Table 56: Olive products: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries
Olive oil
2 811 kt
na
Spain (35%), Italy (26%), Greece (15%), Tunisia (6%), Syria (5%),
Turkey (5%)
Table olives
1 824 kt
na
Spain (26%), Turkey (14%), Egypt (11%), Syria (10%), Greece (7%),
Morocco (5%), Algeria (4%), United States (4%)
Olive oil, virgin
1 041 kt
US$3 315
million
Exporters: Spain (45%), Italy (24%), Tunisia (11%), Greece (11%), Syria
(2%), Turkey (2%)
Importers: Italy (44%), United States (13%), France (9%), Spain (6%),
Germany (4%), Portugal (5%), United Kingdom (4%)
Olive oil, other
388 kt
US$1 064
million
Exporters: Italy (35%), Spain (33%), Turkey (10%), Greece (9%),
Portugal (3%)
Importers: United States (26%), Italy (19%), Spain (8%), Portugal (6%),
Australia (5%), United Kingdom (5%), Japan (4%), Canada (3%)
Table olives
607 kt
US$1 020
million
Exporters: Spain (52%), Greece (14%), Morocco (12%), Turkey (7%),
Argentina (3%)
Importers: United States (19%), Italy (13%), France (11%), Russian
Federation (10%), Germany (7%), Canada (4%), United Kingdom (3%),
Romania (3%), Brazil (3%)
Production
World trade
a Annual average, three years to 2011 for world trade, and to 2011–12 for world production.
Sources: Australian Olive Association (2013); International Olive Council (2013a, 2013b); United Nations Statistics Division
(2013)
Large increases in world production of olives over the past five years have caused olive oil prices to
fall to very low levels.
Around half of total world production of olive oil enters world trade, a proportion that has been
growing steadily over the past 20 years. The total value of world exports of olives and olive oil
averaged US$5.4 billion a year in the three years to 2011, 19 per cent of which was attributable to
olives (mostly preserved). The main exporters of olive oil are Spain, Italy, Greece, Tunisia and Turkey
(Table 56).
Italy is also the largest importer of olive oil. Italy imports lower priced oil and exports higher priced
oil. The other main importers are the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom.
The International Olive Council, a United Nations agency created in 1959 under the auspices of the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development to administer the International Agreement on
Olive Oil and Table Olives, lists internationally accepted classifications for olive oil (United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development 2013). First, olive oil is defined as oil produced solely from
the fruit of olive trees without the use of solvents or re-esterification processes. Any olive oil that is
classified as ‘virgin olive oil’ must be obtained solely from olives using only mechanical or other
physical means in conditions, particularly thermal conditions, that do not alter the oil in any way. To
be classified as ‘extra virgin’, the olive oil must also have a ‘free acidity’ content, expressed as oleic
acid, that does not exceed 0.8 per cent; ‘virgin’, 2 per cent; and ‘ordinary virgin’, 3.3 per cent.
Olive-pomace oil is the oil obtained from olive pomace (pulp including seeds) using solvents or other
physical treatments.
The olive fruit has a bitter component (oleuropein) that means it is not usually consumed directly from
the tree (International Olive Council 2013a). The bitter component is generally removed for the table
olive market by soaking the fruit in sodium or potassium hydroxide, brine or by successive rinsing in
water. Generally, green olives are olives harvested during the ripening cycle before colour change,
while black olives are fully ripened ones. Green olives are processed in two principal ways: with
fermentation (Spanish type) and without fermentation (picholine or American type). Sometimes they
106
are stoned (pitted) and stuffed with anchovies, pimento or other edible material. Olives are preserved
in a range of substances including salt, brine, acetic acid and vinegar.
Australian olive industry
Australian production of olive products has grown rapidly over the past decade as olive yields have
matured with the extensive plantings that were undertaken in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Australian olive oil production reached a record 16 500 tonnes in 2010–11 (Table 57). Victoria
accounts for more than half of the olive trees planted in Australia, with the other major producing
states being New South Wales (15 per cent), South Australia (13 per cent) and Western Australia (11
per cent).
Australia depends heavily on imports of olive products (Table 57). Australian olive oil imports peaked
at around 40 000 tonnes in 2006–07 but have declined since then as domestic production has grown (
Figure 68).
107
Table 57: Olive products: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
Trees
1 062
’000
6 234
Olives
– for oil
tonnes
49 429
54 371
120 000
– for table olives
tonnes
3 200
2 500
3 700
– total
tonnes
52 629
56 871
123 700
Olive oil
tonnes
8 650
9 515
16 500
– olives for oil
$’000
39 092
51 048
– table olives
$’000
17 249
13 011
– total
$’000
56 342
64 060
– volume
tonnes
157
175
169
262
357
423
– value
$’000
848
910
1 030
1 358
1 791
1 608
821
– unit value
$/kg
5.39
5.20
6.11
5.19
5.02
3.80
4.69
Gross value
169 300
Exports
Table olives
175
Virgin olive oil
– volume
tonnes
1 983
1 975
2 555
4 233
6 314
5 723
4 756
– value
$’000
10 664
12 286
14 536
26 212
29 282
21 143
17 415
– unit value
$/kg
5.38
6.22
5.69
6.19
4.64
3.69
3.66
Other olive oil a
– volume
tonnes
461
680
361
590
346
236
314
– value
$’000
2 579
3 732
2 368
2 656
1 844
1 312
1 593
– unit value
$/kg
5.55
5.54
6.74
5.06
5.00
9.16
5.71
25
15
79
37
194
61
67
Olive pomace oil
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
120
120
599
518
856
1 402
583
– unit value
$/kg
4.82
7.84
7.60
14.07
4.41
23.14
8.71
Total export value
$’000
14 210
17 048
18 532
30 744
33 773
25 464
20 412
– volume
tonnes
14 435
17 179
17 370
16 425
17 597
19 119
17 981
– value
$’000
45 035
54 529
56 972
58 724
53 048
52 788
47 665
– unit value
$/kg
3.12
3.17
3.28
3.58
3.01
2.76
2.65
Imports
Table olives
Virgin olive oil
– volume
tonnes
11 905
14 358
15 091
11 241
16 383
18 071
15 945
– value
$’000
74 057
82 736
77 916
62 316
77 779
76 963
61 064
– unit value
$/kg
6.22
5.76
5.16
5.54
4.75
4.26
3.83
Other olive oil a
– volume
tonnes
18 474
25 947
16 795
12 524
19 030
17 227
14 509
– value
$’000
103 250
141 225
81 228
65 176
85 292
62 407
49 395
– unit value
$/kg
5.59
5.44
4.84
5.20
4.48
3.62
3.40
Olive-pomace oil
– volume
tonnes
427
666
337
479
330
113
165
– value
$’000
1 414
2 699
1 444
2 117
1 233
171
391
108
– unit value
$/kg
Total import value
$’000
3.31
4.05
4.29
4.42
3.74
1.51
2.37
223 756
281 188
217 561
188 333
217 352
192 328
158 514
a Not chemically modified.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012a, 2012c, 2013); Australian Olive Association (2013)
Reflecting the increase in olive production in Australia, Australian exports of both table olives and
olive oil have were much higher in 2011-12 than a decade earlier ( Figure 69). However, export prices
have fallen, reflecting movements in world prices for olive products and the appreciation of the
Australian dollar.
50000
10
40000
8
30000
6
20000
4
10000
2
tonnes 0
0
1996–97
olive imports
2001–02
oil imports
2006–07
olive import price (right axis)
2011–12
$/kg
2011–12
oil import price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 68: Olive products: imports and import prices, Australia
7500
9
5000
6
2500
3
tonnes 0
0
1996–97
olive exports
2001–02
oil exports
2006–07
olive export price (right axis)
2011–12
2011–12
$/kg
oil export price (right axis)
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 69: Olive products: exports and export prices, Australia
The largest producer of olives in Australia is Boundary Bend Limited, a publicly listed company that
maintains 2.5 million producing trees or around 60 per cent of Australia’s olive trees.
109
Further information about olives

Australian Olive Association Ltd (www.australianolives.com.au)—information about the
Australian industry, including a listing of more than 100 olive processors throughout Australia.

International Olive Council (www.internationaloliveoil.org)—comprehensive information on the
agronomics, science and international market for olives and olive products, including a monthly
market newsletter.

The ‘Olive Oil’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 295–301
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Spices
There are many different types of spices that are used in cooking. Spices are usually the fruit, seeds,
stems, roots, bark or flowers of plants, as distinct from herbs which are usually the leaves of plants.
Only a selected range of traditional spices are covered here (Table 58). There are many other common
plant products that could be considered in their dried form as spices, such as garlic, poppy seed,
mustard seed, celery, liquorice and papaya seeds.
The world’s many different regional cuisines are each characterised by their own distinctive blends of
spices. Factors such as migration and increased incomes are leading to the spread of regional
cuisines—for example, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, Thai and Spanish—beyond their traditional borders.
Combined with population growth, this is leading to increased demand for virtually all types of
culinary spices.
Reflecting this increased demand, the value of world trade in constant US dollars of the selected spices
grew strongly throughout the 1990s and even faster in the 2000s ( Figure 70). Around 2.6 million
tonnes of these spices were traded worldwide in 2011, with a total value of around US$6.7 billion (in
constant dollars). The structure of the spice trade is summarised in Table 58. The most important of the
spices in terms of value in world trade are pepper, capsicum/pimenta, ginger, cardamom and saffron.
8
6
4
2
2012
US$b
0
1991
1996
pepper
2001
capsicum/pimenta
ginger
2006
cardamom
saffron
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 70: Spices: value of world trade
Table 58: Spices: characteristics of world trade
Spice
Volume a
Value a
Main trading countries (share of total trade volume)
110
2011
other
Anise/badian
seed
17.5 kt
US$58
million
Exporters: Vietnam (28%), Syria (22%), China (18%), Turkey (18%)
Importers: India (27%), United States (13%), Germany (6%), Brazil (4%),
Turkey (4%), Malaysia (4%), Netherlands (3%)
Capsicum/
pimenta
468.9 kt
US$949
million
Exporters: China (26%), India (16%), United States (9%), Mexico (9%), Spain
(7%)
Importers: United States (25%), Mexico (12%), Malaysia (9%), Sri Lanka
(8%), Spain (6%), Thailand (6%)
Caraway seed
14.0 kt
US$32
million
Exporters: Egypt (18%), Canada (17%), Afghanistan (12%), Finland (10%),
Poland (10%), Netherlands (8%), Czech Republic (6%), Lithuania (5%)
Importers: United States (24%), Germany (19%), India (13%), Netherlands
(7%), Algeria (4%), Tunisia (4%), Austria (4%), Pakistan (3%), Russian
Federation (3%), Belarus (1%)
Cardamom
40.2 kt
US$362
million
Exporters: Guatemala (65%), Nepal (18%), India (6%), Indonesia (3%)
Importers: Saudi Arabia (34%), India (16%), Singapore (7%), Pakistan (7%)
Cinnamon
109.6 kt
US$218
million
Exporters: Indonesia (41%), China (28%), Sri Lanka (13%), Vietnam (7%)
Importers: United States (21%), India (12%), Mexico (7%), Brazil (5%),
Netherlands (5%)
Cloves
43.3 kt
US$154
million
Exporters: Madagascar (32%), Indonesia (27%), United Republic of Tanzania
(11%), Brazil (7%), Sri Lanka (7%), Comoros (6%)
Importers: Singapore (41%), India (23%), United Arab Emirates (5%)
Coriander seed
107.5 kt
US$137
million
Exporters: India (29%), Bulgaria (22%), Iran (8%), Canada (7%), Morocco
(5%)
Importers: Sri Lanka (16%), Malaysia (13%), Pakistan (13%), United Kingdom
(5%), United States (5%), Saudi Arabia (5%), Germany (5%)
Cumin seed
100.6 kt
US$239
million
Exporters: Syria (38%), Afghanistan (16%), Turkey (13%), India (11%), Iran
(9%)
Importers: United States (12%), Pakistan (10%), Bangladesh (9%), Singapore
(7%), Brazil (7%), Saudi Arabia (6%), Morocco (5%), United Kingdom (5%)
Curry
na
na
Exporters: India (29%), Pakistan (17%), Malaysia (11%), Thailand (9%),
United Kingdom (7%), Brazil (5%)
Importers: United Kingdom (19%), Saudi Arabia (16%), Singapore (10%),
Germany (8%), United States (7%), Canada (6%), Australia (5%)
Fennel/juniper
berry
25.6 kt
US$49
million
Exporters: Egypt (28%), India (23%), China (10%), Turkey (7%), Macedonia
(5%), Pakistan (5%), Bulgaria (5%)
Importers: Germany (21%), United States (12%), Malaysia (9%), Sri Lanka
(6%)
Ginger
1034.7 kt
US$541
million
Exporters: China (62%), Thailand (14%), Nepal (7%)
Importers: Japan (33%), Pakistan (13%), United States (10%), India (9%),
Malaysia (6%)
Mace
4.7 kt
US$37
million
Exporters: Indonesia (71%), Netherlands (5%), Grenada (5%)
Importers: Netherlands (20%), Singapore (20%), Germany (15%), India (15%),
United States (5%), Pakistan (5%)
Nutmeg
20.0 kt
US$112
million
Exporters: Indonesia (54%), Grenada (13%), Sri Lanka (6%), Netherlands
(6%), India (6%)
Importers: Netherlands (14%), Singapore (12%), United States (11%),
Germany (10%), Brazil (7%), Belgium (5%)
Pepper
333.0 kt
US$1
165
million
Exporters: India (17%), China (15%), Vietnam (14%), Indonesia (11%), Brazil
(8%), Peru (5%), Mexico (5%)
Importers: United States (24%), Malaysia (7%), Germany (7%), Spain (5%),
Mexico (5%)
Saffron
1.1 kt
US$204
million
Exporters: United Kingdom (24%), Spain (21%), Iran (14%), China (9%), India
(8%)
Importers: Spain (29%), United Kingdom (18%), Saudi Arabia (6%), France
(5%), Oman (5%)
Turmeric
95.4 kt
US$122
million
Exporters: India (61%), United Arab Emirates (12%), Myanmar (8%)
Importers: Iran (15%), Japan (9%), Sri Lanka (8%), Bangladesh (7%), Malaysia
(6%), India (6%), United Kingdom (5%), United States (5%)
Vanilla
5.8 kt
US$109
million
Exporters: Madagascar (31%), France (21%), Germany (9%), Indonesia (6%),
United States (6%), Papua New Guinea (5%)
Importers: United States (28%), Netherlands (15%), United Kingdom (10%),
France (10%), Germany (5%)
111
Spices nes
213.8 kt
US$674
million
Exporters: India (21%), Germany (10%), Turkey (10%), Pakistan (5%)
Importers: United States (20%), Saudi Arabia (6%), Belgium (6%), Netherlands
(5%)
a Average, three years to 2010. nes Not elsewhere specified.
Source: Based on data from United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Australian spice industry
The value of Australian spice exports has fluctuated around $25 million in constant dollars over the
past 20 years. The value of Australian imports of spices reached record levels in 2011–12 ( Figure 71).
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2011–12
$m
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
exports
2006–07
2011–12
imports
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 71: value of imports and exports, Australia
Ginger (both fresh and processed) accounted for around 45 per cent of the total value of Australian
spice exports in the three years to 2011–12; vanilla 11 per cent; pepper 4.5 per cent; and coriander 3
per cent (Table 59). A large component of Australian export trade in spices other than coriander and
ginger seems to be based on imports of spices in bulk, which are then packaged and re-exported.
Pepper was the most important spice for imports, accounting for 30 per cent of the total value of
imports in the three years to 2011–12. Other important components of the value of imports were
capsicum or pimenta spice types (11 per cent), paprika (7 per cent), curry (6 per cent), ginger (4 per
cent) and cumin (4 per cent).
112
Table 59: Spices: exports and imports, Australia
Volume
Value
Unit value
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2009–
10
2010–
11
2011–
12
2009–
10
2010–
11
2011–
12
tonnes
tonnes
tonnes
$’000
$’000
$’000
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
Anise/badian seed
0.4
0.4
0.2
11
12
8
30.92
33.86
31.16
Capsicum/pimenta
109.5
58.3
56.7
277
154
923
2.53
2.64
16.29
0.3
1.3
0.8
2
11
7
8.03
8.37
8.60
Cardamom
0.6
0.7
0.8
24
34
46
36.38
47.30
57.19
Cinnamon
11.7
3.6
33.2
124
69
210
10.53
19.18
6.32
0.6
0.1
0.1
7
1
7
11.72
12.26
66.83
Exports
Caraway
Clove
Coriander
239.9
603.8
327.5
441
830
665
1.84
1.38
2.03
Cumin
1.8
2.0
2.1
35
29
53
19.98
14.67
24.95
Curry
46.5
61.0
47.0
481
559
369
10.34
9.16
7.86
Fennel/juniper
berry
23.5
3.1
1.9
26
11
8
1.10
3.57
4.23
2 065.5
2 133.0
1 431.5
10 677
10 723
8 566
5.17
5.03
5.98
1.1
1.1
1.0
20
22
32
17.70
20.45
32.31
Ginger
Mace
Mixed spices
339.2
384.5
701.7
3 002
3 335
4 826
8.85
8.67
6.88
Nutmeg
51.2
5.3
6.5
134
108
165
2.62
20.25
25.40
Pepper
108.5
107.1
136.2
949
958
1 080
8.75
8.94
7.93
Saffron
0.8
1.1
1.1
123
179
148
154.48
167.01
136.71
Turmeric
1.4
1.6
19.8
37
42
98
26.01
26.91
4.94
Vanilla
137.3
198.4
46.4
2 493
3 507
1 318
18.16
17.67
28.44
Spices nes
486.1
395.1
339.3
3 575
2 581
1 907
7.35
6.53
5.62
3 625.8
3 961.4
3 153.7
22 438
23 165
20 436
6.19
5.85
6.48
Anise/badian seed
132.8
100.9
81.3
572
438
289
4.30
4.34
3.56
Capsicum/pimenta
1 510.9
1 593.2
2 041.6
5 575
5 780
7 739
3.69
3.63
3.79
46.2
75.3
35.5
151
205
79
3.27
2.72
2.22
Cardamom
83.0
121.0
116.9
1 276
2 803
1 933
15.38
23.17
16.54
Cinnamon
777.7
716.6
705.7
1 729
1 770
1 957
2.22
2.47
2.77
95.1
90.3
104.1
480
533
1 166
5.04
5.90
11.21
Coriander
344.0
370.5
364.7
790
721
753
2.30
1.95
2.06
Cumin
668.8
623.8
740.2
2 204
2 186
2 488
3.29
3.50
3.36
Curry
928.8
851.9
592.7
4 033
3 129
2 409
4.34
3.67
4.06
82.6
98.1
52.0
230
288
163
2.79
2.94
3.13
685.2
797.8
810.8
1 586
2 347
2 348
2.31
2.94
2.90
19.9
2.7
8.2
237
66
232
11.90
24.05
28.24
Mixed spices
621.4
796.4
781.8
3 004
3 867
3 205
4.83
4.86
4.10
Nutmeg
156.0
204.8
181.6
1 138
1 562
2 366
7.29
7.63
13.03
Paprika
1 169.3
1 257.9
1 196.3
3 551
3 708
3 753
3.04
2.95
3.14
Pepper
2 890.7
2 989.6
2 990.2
12 377
16 176
21 278
4.28
5.41
7.12
Saffron
1.3
2.3
3.5
1 287
1 319
1 165
961.24
584.49
330.84
494.7
625.6
669.4
1 258
2 309
1 811
2.54
3.69
2.71
51.8
50.0
42.9
1 313
1 317
1 405
25.38
26.34
32.78
1 524.1
1 475.5
1 414.5
5 560
5 189
5 514
3.65
3.52
3.90
Total exports
Imports
Caraway
Cloves
Fennel/juniper
berry
Ginger a
Mace
Turmeric
Vanilla
Spices nes
113
Total imports
12 284.1
12 844.2
12 933.8
48 349
55 713
62 051
3.94
4.34
4.80
a Includes processed ginger. nes Not elsewhere specified.
Source: ABS (2013)
Further information about spices

The ‘Herbs and spices’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 222–68.
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125)—information on capers, coriander and fenugreek,
culinary herbs, ginseng, medicinal herbs and paprika.

Australian Herb and Spice Industry Association (www.ahsia.org.au).
Coriander seed
The coriander plant (Coriandrum sativum) is believed to be of Mediterranean origin but is now widely
cultivated throughout the world both for its leaves and seeds. The seed is crushed to provide oil or a
powder that is used in curry powder and other spice mixes (Jongebloed 2004). Other names for fresh
green coriander leaves include cilantro or Chinese parsley.
World trade in coriander seed has grown strongly in recent years with prices above US$600 a tonne in
2012 dollars ( Figure 72). India is the main producer, consumer and exporter of coriander (dhania)
seed, accounting for around half of world production and nearly 30 per cent of world exports. Indian
production of coriander seed averaged 525 000 tonnes in the three years to 2011–12 (Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation, India 2013). The main participants in world trade of coriander seed are
summarised in Table 58.
150
1500
100
1000
50
500
kt 0
0
1991
1996
2001
exports
2006
2011
2012
US$/t
export price (right axis)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013).
Figure 72: Coriander seed: world exports and export prices
Australian coriander seed industry
Annual Australian production of coriander seed reached around 5 000 tonnes in the early 1990s but
declined to 1 154 tonnes in 2010–11 (Table 60). This is despite export returns being higher in constant
dollars in recent years than in the 1990s. Disease problems that have caused large fluctuations in yields
have contributed to the loss of interest in growing coriander for seed (Hooper & Dennis 2002). South
114
Australia typically accounts for around 40 per cent of Australian coriander production; the other major
producing states are Western Australia, New South Wales and Victoria.
Table 60: Coriander seed: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Area
hectares
1 148
1 718
46
Volume
tonnes
1 642
1 154
Gross value
$’000
991
1 400
Exports, seeds
Volume
tonnes
1 896
1 493
922
444
240
604
327
Value
$’000
2 497
1 759
1 305
895
441
830
646
Volume
tonnes
269
279
335
440
344
371
183
Value
$’000
426
461
686
1 336
790
721
404
Imports, seeds
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012a, 2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Australian exports of coriander seed reached nearly 4000 tonnes in the early 1990s but declined to
only 327 tonnes in 2011–12. The main export markets for Australian coriander seed are Vietnam (43
per cent of the total volume in the three years to 2011–12), Reunion (13 per cent), and Sri Lanka (12
per cent). Australia also imports coriander in seed form.
Further information about coriander seed

The ‘Coriander and fenugreek’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 229–
35 (https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Ginger
Ginger is the rhizome of the perennial plant Zingiber officinale and is used widely as a culinary spice
and medicine. The main participants in world ginger trade are summarised in Table 58. World ginger
trade has been growing strongly over the past 20 years.
Australian ginger industry
The Australian ginger industry is mostly located on the Sunshine Coast and, to a lesser extent, in the
Wide Bay–Burnett region of Queensland (Camacho & Brescia 2009). There is also smaller scale
production in New South Wales and the Northern Territory.
Around 55 per cent of Australian ginger production goes to processing and the other 45 per cent is sold
on the fresh market (Camacho & Brescia 2009). The processing mainly involves drying and
preservation (usually using sugar). Less than half of Australia’s ginger production is exported, mainly
in processed form. The main processor is Buderim Ginger Limited, which operates a production quota
system with prices linked to the prices received for its ginger products.
Australian exports of ginger products peaked in 2002–03 but have been lower in recent years because
of declining prices, a number of drought years and pythium (fungal) disease (Table 61). Australia’s
main export markets for ginger products are the United Kingdom (34 per cent of the total value of
Australia’s exports in the three years to 2011–12), the United States (27 per cent), Germany (19 per
115
cent), Canada (6 per cent) and New Zealand (3 per cent). There are also significant imports of
processed ginger products, mainly from China (50 per cent of the total value of Australian imports in
the three years to 2011–12), India (32 per cent) and Thailand (5 per cent).
Australia does not currently permit the importation of fresh ginger rhizomes for human consumption
from any country. An application for imports of fresh ginger from Fiji is currently in the approval
process (DAFF 2013a).
Table 61: Ginger: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
46
Area
hectares
Volume
tonnes
7 575
Gross value
$’000
22 726
Unit gross value
$/tonne
232
21 442
3 000
Exports
Ginger a
– volume
tonnes
204
199
155
191
135
140
152
– value
$’000
844
883
722
613
451
609
831
– unit value
$/kg
4.13
4.44
4.66
3.22
3.34
4.35
5.46
Ginger, preserved by sugar
– volume
tonnes
994
1 025
947
796
895
825
806
– value
$’000
6 946
7 330
6 954
5 633
6 519
5 985
5 998
– unit value
$/kg
6.99
7.15
7.34
7.08
7.29
7.26
7.44
Ginger, in syrup
– volume
tonnes
1 293
1 448
1 180
973
1 036
1 168
473
– value
$’000
4 869
5 661
4 896
3 718
3 707
4 129
1 737
– unit value
$/kg
3.76
3.91
4.15
3.82
3.58
3.53
3.67
Total export value
$’000
12 659
13 874
12 572
9 964
10 677
10 723
8 566
Imports
Ginger a
– volume
tonnes
820
671
763
652
685
798
811
– value
$’000
2 043
1 533
1 501
1 605
1 586
2 347
2 348
– unit value
$/tonne
2.49
2.28
1.97
2.46
2.31
2.94
2.90
– volume
tonnes
329
706
878
833
268
768
916
– value
$’000
943
1 631
1 361
1 650
591
1 053
1 641
– unit value
$/tonne
2.87
2.31
1.55
1.98
2.21
1.37
1.79
Total import value
$’000
2 986
3 163
2 862
3 256
2 177
3 400
3 989
Ginger, prepared or preserved
a Includes crushed and ground.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012)
Further information about ginger

Buderim Ginger Limited (www.buderimginger.com), the major ginger processor and marketer in
Australia.

Camacho & Brescia (2009)
(www.daff.qld.gov.au/documents/BusinessAndTrade_BusinessDevelopment/Australian-gingerindustry-report.pdf).
116
Saffron
Saffron is a high-priced spice derived from the dried stigmas and styles of the flower of the plant
Crocus sativus (commonly known as the saffron crocus) that are orange-red in colour. The saffron
crocus thrives in Mediterranean climates and can survive frosts to –10 °C.
Saffron is used as a seasoning and colouring agent in a range of regional cuisines, particularly in
Mediterranean countries and south-west Asia; a dye; and a traditional medicine. It takes around
150 000–250 000 saffron flowers, each with one three-pronged stigma, to produce 1 kilogram of dried
saffron. The stigma and styles are handpicked, making the harvesting process very labour-intensive.
Iran accounts for around 85–90 per cent of world saffron production (Table 62). Iran produced around
150 tonnes of saffron and exported 133 tonnes in 2011–12 (April to March), valued at US$409
million. Iranian saffron production is down from a peak of 235 tonnes in 2005 (Aghdaie et al. 2012).
Spain is also a large exporter, based on its own production and the repackaging of imports from Iran.
Other producers are Greece, Italy, India, Afghanistan and Morocco.
Table 62: Saffron: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2010)
Production
129 tonnes
na
Iran (88%), Greece (3%), Spain (2%)
World trade
na
US$199
million
Exporters: Spain (26%), France (14%), Iran (11 %), China (7%),
Vietnam (6%), India (5%), Italy (5%)
Importers: United Kingdom (26%), Portugal (13%), France (9%),
Ireland (7%), Spain (5%), Belgium (3%), United Arab Emirates
(3%)
a Average three years to 2010.
Sources: ABARES; United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Spain produced 240 tonnes of saffron in the early 1990s but this declined to only 2 tonnes in 2011 in
the face of strong competition from Iran, despite increasing world saffron prices ( Figure 73). Saffron
yields in Spain averaged 13.5 kilograms a hectare in the three years to 2010.
World saffron prices, as measured by returns to Spanish producers, have increased in recent years (
Figure 73).
25000
3500
3000
20000
2500
15000
2000
1500
10000
1000
5000
500
2012
kg 0
1991
1996
production
2001
2006
producer price (right scale)
Data source: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Espana (2013)
Figure 73: Saffron: production and producer prices, Spain
117
2011
0 €/kg
Australian saffron industry
There are around 80 growers of saffron throughout Australia, mostly in Tasmania and Victoria. The
largest grower is Tas-Saff Pty Ltd, which produces from around 0.8 hectares in Tasmania and also
sources saffron from a network of over 50 growers throughout Australia to make saffron products.
Saffron corms are planted from December to January in Tasmania. The harvest period for the flowers
starts in late March and extends for around 40 days.
Australian saffron production was estimated to be 10 kilograms in 2011–12, with a gross value of
around $150 000 (Table 63).
Australia imported 3.5 tonnes of saffron in 2011–12 but the low unit import price suggests it is not
pure saffron. Australia also exported 1.1 tonnes of saffron in 2011–12, which may not all be locally
produced.
Table 63: Saffron: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
80
Volume
kilograms
10
Gross value
$’000
Unit gross value
$/kg
150
15 000
Exports
Volume
kilograms
250
1 342
55
388
799
1 070
1 079
Value
$’000
2
11
3
72
123
179
148
Unit value
$/kg
7
8
55
186
154
167
137
Imports
Volume
kilograms
14 744
8 186
6 201
1 229
1 339
2 257
3 522
Value
$’000
440
538
943
917
1 287
1 319
1 165
Unit value
$/kg
30
66
152
746
961
584
331
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Further information about saffron

Gregory & Menary (2007) (https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/07-141.pdf).

Tas-Saff Pty Ltd (www.tas-saff.com.au), Australia’s largest saffron producer.
Stevia
Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is the common name for the native South American plant from which a
number of no calorie, high-intensity sweeteners are derived. The steviol glycosides responsible for the
sweetness are mainly contained in the leaves.
The three main steviol glycosides found in stevia plant tissue are stevioside (5–10 per cent of the dried
leaf matter), rebaudioside A (1–2 per cent) and rebaudioside C (1–2 per cent), the first two of which
have taste closest to sugar (International Sugar Organization 2012). Rebaudioside A, the most
commonly used, is 250–300 times sweeter than sugar (International Sugar Organization 2012).
Stevia is typically used in food and beverages to reduce sugar content, rather than completely replace
sugar, because sugar is needed to mask the bitter aftertastes of stevia sweeteners (Baginski 2011). For
example, a major brand soft drink recently released in Australia claims to contain 30 per cent less
sugar.
118
Stevia-based sweeteners were first commercialised as sweeteners in Japan in 1971 but have faced
regulatory hurdles in other countries. They have been approved as a dietary supplement in the United
States for many years but approval for use in all foods did not occur until 2008. Other countries with
unrestricted approval include Australia, European Union (from December 2011), China, Republic of
Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand, Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, Israel and the Russian Federation.
Apart from no calories, a selling point with stevia is that it is naturally produced, unlike the artificial
high-intensity sweeteners that currently dominate the market, such as acesulfame-k, aspartame,
cyclamate, neotame and sucralose. The only serious competitor to stevia as a natural high-intensity
sweetener is one derived from luo han guo (monk fruit or Siraitia grosvenorii) that received approval
for use in food and beverages in the United States in early 2010.
Stevia is mainly grown in China but there is also production in Argentina, Paraguay, Thailand, Kenya
and the United States. Stevia plants are established through transplanting, rather than seeding. The
plants are grown on a three-year cycle, but the first harvest does not take place until the second year of
establishment.
According to Zenith International (2011), world production of stevia sweeteners was 3500 tonnes in
2010, with a value at the processing plant gate of US$285 million. Zenith International projected
production to reach 11 000 tonnes by 2014. Consumption of stevia products in 2010 was estimated to
have replaced around 800 000 tonnes of white sugar consumption (International Sugar Organization
2012).
A stevia industry in Australia?
There is currently no field production of stevia in Australia, although there have been field trials
(Midmore et al. 2012).
According to Midmore et al. (2012), the regions in Australia suitable for stevia growing include the
coastal regions of New South Wales and Queensland, the more temperate inland regions of New South
Wales and the warmer cropping regions of Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia. They see
stevia as a possible diversification crop for many farmers who have access to irrigation, including
vegetable and herb growers, dairy farmers, sugarcane growers and growers of summer crops such as
sorghum, cotton, lucerne and maize.
The retail value of sugar substitutes in Australia was $44.5 million in 2011–12, compared with retail
sugar sales of $186.3 million (Retail Media 2012). The sugar substitutes segment of the Australian
retail market is rapidly growing, recording an 8.1 per cent increase in the value of retail sales in 2011–
12, compared with only 1.2 per cent for sugar.
Australia imports steviol glycosides mainly from China. Australian imports of glycosides have jumped
since use in food and beverages was approved in Australia in October 2008 ( Figure 74). These data
suggest that the turnover of the market is currently less than $1 million a year. No import volume data
are available.
119
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
2012
$m
0.0
1992
1997
2002
2007
2012
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 74: Glycosides: import value, Australia
Further information about stevia

International Stevia Council (www.internationalsteviacouncil.org).

GLG Life Tech Corporation (www.glglifetech.com), a leading producer of stevia products—
provides information on the supply chain from production to purification.

PureCircle (www.purecircle.com), a leading producer of high purity stevia ingredients for the
global food and beverage industry.

Midmore et al. (2012) (https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/12-051)—information on
production potential of stevia in Australia.
Tea
Overview
Tea is produced from a shrub Camellia sinensis that can live for over 100 years. Tea comes from
harvesting the new shoots of the shrub, usually consisting of two leaves and a bud. Traditionally tea
has been handpicked, but mechanical harvesters have also been developed.
Tea is consumed in three broad types—black, green and oolong. For black tea, processing involves
crushing or tearing the leaves, exposing them to oxygen, causing a natural enzymatic (often called
fermentation but actually oxidation) process. For green tea, the green leaves are typically steamed to
stop any enzymatic process and then dried. For oolong tea, the processing is broadly the same as for
black tea, except the period over which fermentation is allowed is shortened. Green tea makes up
roughly 15 per cent of world tea consumption.
World tea market
India and China contribute more than half of the world’s tea production (Table 64). World trade in
black and green tea is worth around US$3.8 billion and US$734 million a year, respectively. Kenya,
Sri Lanka and India are the main exporters of black tea in volume terms, and the Russian Federation
and the United Kingdom are the main importers. China dominates world trade in green tea with a share
120
of around 72 per cent, while the main importers are Morocco, the United States and the Russian
Federation.
Table 64: Tea: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
4 487 kt
na
Black tea
1 186 kt
US$3 818
million
Green tea
216 kt
US$734
million
Exporters: China (72%), Vietnam (5%), Germany (3%), Sri Lanka (2%),
Indonesia (2%), United Kingdom (2%), Japan (2%), India (1%)
Importers: Morocco (17%), United States (9%), Russian Federation (8%),
Germany (6%), Algeria (6%), Mauritania (4%), France (4%), Niger (3%),
Mali (3%), Senegal (4%), Japan (3%)
Concentrates of
tea, mate
220 kt
US$750
million
Exporters: Canada (26%), Netherlands (11%), Switzerland (8%), United
States (7%), Germany (5%), China (4%), Croatia (4%), Ireland (3%)
Importers: United States (34%), Ireland (11%), Germany (10%), Canada
(4%), Philippines (4%), Slovenia (4%)
Production
Key countries (share of total volume in the three years to 2011)
China (33%), India (22%), Kenya (8%), Sri Lanka (7%), Turkey (5%),
Vietnam (4%), Iran (4%), Indonesia (3%), Japan (2%)
World trade
Exporters: Kenya (27%), Sri Lanka (15%), India (13%), Argentina (6%),
Indonesia (6%), China (5%), Vietnam (4%)
Importers: Russian Federation (14%), United Kingdom (12%), Egypt (9%),
Pakistan (9%), United States (9%), Poland (3%), Germany (3%), Japan (3%)
a Average, three years to 2011.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
World production of tea and world exports of black and green tea have increased over the past 20
years ( Figure 75). World export prices of black and green tea were generally declining until around
2002, but since then have generally risen.
kt
6000
6
5000
5
4000
4
3000
3
2000
2
1000
1
2012
0
1991
1996
production
exports, green tea
export price, green tea (right axis)
2001
2006
2011
exports, black tea
export price, black tea (right axis)
0 US$/kg
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 75: Tea: world production, exports and export prices
Australian tea consumption
Over the past decade Australian imports of black tea have declined at an average annual rate of 3.1 per
cent but imports of green tea have grown at an average annual rate of 15.8 per cent. Over the three
years to 2011–12 Australia’s annual imports averaged around 12 360 tonnes of black tea and around
121
1035 tonnes of green tea. The total value of Australian tea imports was around $104.2 million a year
over the same period.
The total value of grocery sales of tea (including herbal teas) in Australia in 2010–11 was $304 million
( Figure 76). Green tea had a 9 per cent share of the total value of tea sales and a 34 per cent share of
the health/flavoured tea segment that includes herbal teas.
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
$m
0
mainstream
health/flavoured
black
green
herbal
other
premium
all types
Data source: Retail Media (2012)
Figure 76: Tea: value of grocery sales in Australia, by type, 2011–12
Black tea
In Australia tea is grown mainly in northern New South Wales and Queensland (in the Cairns and
Mossman regions), with small areas planted specifically to green tea production in Victoria, Western
Australia and Tasmania. Queensland growers benefit from higher yields than New South Wales
growers and account for nearly 90 per cent of Australian tea production.
The tea industry in Queensland and New South Wales is mainly oriented toward black tea production
but also produces ‘Chinese style’ green tea. Most of Australia’s black tea production is sold on the
domestic market and benefits in this highly competitive market from its ‘Made in Australia’ label
(Chudleigh 1999). Despite this, the main Australian tea brands—Nerada and Madura—sell in the midpriced categories of tea in Australian supermarkets (based on Retail Media 2012 data).
The main tea processors in Australia—Nerada and Madura—package tea as leaf tea or tea bags, also
using imported teas. In 2011–12, the Nerada brand had a 6.6 per cent share in volume terms of
Australian supermarket sales and the Madura brand a 3.5 per cent share (Retail Media 2012).
Tea plantings in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland were around 506 hectares in 2011-12,
producing 1254 tonnes of processed tea, with a gross value of nearly $2 million (Table 65).
122
Table 65: Tea: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
19
19
616
616
506
Production a
Growers
no.
Area
hectares
Volume, green leaf
– green leaf
tonnes
7 333
5 649
5 647
– processed
tonnes
1 627
1 255
1 254
Gross value
$’000
2 382
1 808
1 984
– volume
tonnes
454
279
819
1 518
809
604
449
– value
$’000
3 007
2 484
3 077
4 463
3 607
3 797
3 436
– unit export value
$/kg
6.63
8.91
3.76
2.94
4.46
6.29
7.65
Exports
Black tea
Green tea
– volume
tonnes
72
47
161
243
395
701
416
– value
$’000
1 584
725
1 493
1 958
3 636
3 968
2 614
– unit export value
$/kg
21.98
15.32
9.27
8.07
9.21
5.66
6.29
Total export value
$’000
4 591
3 209
4 570
6 421
7 243
7 764
6 050
– volume
tonnes
12 437
12 900
12 820
13 313
12 423
13 050
11 610
– value
$’000
80 695
88 948
89 404
103 959
94 082
100 971
87 959
– unit export value
$/kg
6.49
6.89
6.97
7.81
7.57
7.74
7.58
Imports
Black tea
Green tea
– volume
tonnes
1 097
983
1 052
965
1 043
996
1 066
– value
$’000
7 940
8 652
9 171
10 121
9 460
9 823
10 355
– unit export value
$/kg
7.24
8.80
8.71
10.49
9.07
9.86
9.72
Total import value
$’000
88 636
97 599
98 575
114 079
103 542
110 794
98 313
a Includes black and green tea.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
Japanese green tea
The Australian green tea industry in Victoria is based on production for the Japanese market. The
Australian industry can supply fresh green tea in Japan’s off season. The Japanese market is a growing
one due to health conscious consumers and innovations such as canned tea products.
Production of crude tea in Japan has fluctuated around 90 000 tonnes over the past decade ( Figure 77).
Producer prices in Japan for crude green tea and raw green tea leaves have generally declined in real
terms over the past 20 years. Based on price data from Statistics Bureau, Japan (2012), the producer
price for raw green tea leaves in Japan averaged US$2.28 a kilogram over the three years to 2010.
123
120
45
100
80
30
60
40
15
20
kt
0
0
1991
production
1996
2001
producer price, crude tea (right axis)
2006
2011
2012
US$/kg
producer price, green leaves (right axis)
Data sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan (2012); Statistics
Bureau, Japan (2012)
Figure 77: Japanese green tea: production and producer prices, Japan
In Australia the Japanese green tea industry is located mainly in the Alpine Valleys region of Victoria,
but there is a 5 hectare plantation at Mangrove Mountain in New South Wales that yielded its first
commercial harvest in 2011–12. There are also small trial plantings around Manjimup in Western
Australia and in Tasmania.
There are usually four harvest periods in each year in Victoria, corresponding to flushes of plant
growth, starting around November. The yield and quality of green tea is highest with the November
flush and declines with each subsequent harvest.
In late 2004, ITO EN Australia Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of a major Japanese beverage company, opened a
green tea processing plant at Wangaratta in Victoria with the aim of supplying the Japanese market
with crude green tea that is further processed and blended in Japan. Green tea imports by Japan are
subject to an ad valorem tariff of 17 per cent.
ITO EN Australia initially contracted 11 farms with combined plantings of 72 hectares to supply fresh
green tea leaves from Japanese tea varieties (mainly yabukita, sayamakoari and okukaori). The first
commercial harvest was in November 2004. Frost and drought severely curtailed production in 2006–
07, with virtually no harvested production. Since then the industry has put in place frost protection
measures, mainly temperature activated sprinkler systems.
Another Japanese processor of green tea, Kunitaro Company, has participated in a 1 hectare trial at
Somersby on the central New South Wales coast since 1998. In 2004 Kunitaro established its own
plantation of 5 hectares at Mangrove Mountain and has plans in the short term to increase this to 10
hectares. Kunitaro opened a processing plant at its plantation in 2012. Kunitaro is reported to have a
long-term vision of 4000 hectares of tea plantings in the central coast area of New South Wales (New
South Wales Department of Primary Industries 2012).
Victorian production of green tea was an estimated 1300 tonnes of wet green leaf in 2011–12, with a
gross value of $819 000, producing 280 tonnes of crude tea (aracha) (Table 66). Prices paid to growers
contracted to ITO EN Australia are confidential; for the purposes of this analysis informed estimates
were made based on movements in world tea prices and prices paid to Japanese producers of green tea.
124
Table 66: Japanese green tea: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
72
72
72
72
72
72
77
Production
Area
hectares
Volume, wet a
– green leaf
tonnes
114
60
450
700
1 300
– processed
tonnes
23
12
90
168
280
Gross value
$’000
72
38
284
441
819
Unit value a
$/kg
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
Volume
tonnes
25.3
13.3
64.6
86.0
153.6
219.8
100.5
Value
$’000
756.5
196.5
1 065.0
1 232.6
2 062.7
2 807.3
1 625.6
Unit export value
$/kg
29.95
14.77
16.48
14.33
13.43
12.77
16.18
Exports to Japan
Imports from Japan
Volume
tonnes
59
72
59
66
61
77
61
Value
$’000
1 138
1 199
988
1 159
1 191
1 198
1 314
Unit import value
$/kg
19.43
16.73
16.63
17.44
19.63
15.58
21.68
a ABARES estimate.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
There are longer-term plans for further green tea farms to be established in north-east Victoria, with a
target of 250 hectares producing up to 18 tonnes a hectare from four harvests a year. ITO EN Australia
hopes eventually to export 1000 tonnes of green tea a year to Japan. However, plans for industry
expansion in Victoria are on hold due to issues with marketing foreign-produced green tea in Japan.
Further information about tea

International Tea Committee (www.inttea.com)—detailed statistics, but by subscription only.

The ‘Japanese green tea’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 289–94
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Tree nuts
The main tree nuts are generally considered to be almonds, brazil nuts, cashews, chestnuts, coconuts,
hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans, pistachios and walnuts.
Worldwide demand for tree nuts is benefiting from increasing consumer perceptions of their
healthiness as part of a balanced diet. Generally tree nuts are valuable protein sources and are high in
unsaturated fats and some important vitamin and minerals. Each nut has specific nutritional
characteristics that are being used by marketers to boost demand. For example, walnuts are marketed
as containing high levels of omega 3 fatty acids; almonds as being high in vitamin E; or brazil nuts as
being a valuable source of selenium. The Australian tree nut industry has established a website ‘Nuts
for Life’ (www.nutsforlife.com.au) to provide information to consumers about the nutritional and
health benefits of tree nuts.
World tree nut market
World imports of tree nuts averaged US$13.1 billion a year in the three years to 2011, of which
almonds and cashews comprised nearly half ( Figure 78). The value of world imports of tree nuts in
real terms grew at around 10 per cent a year over the 10 years to 2011.
125
3
2
1
US$b 0
cashew
almond
pistachio
hazelnut
in shell
walnut
shelled
coconut macadamia chestnut
brazil
other
both in shell or shelled
a Annual average, three years to 2011.
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 78: Tree nuts: value of world imports, by type a
The main exporter of tree nuts in value terms is the United States; Turkey, Vietnam, India and Iran are
the other major players ( Figure 79). Australia accounts for around 1.5 per cent of the total value of
world trade, but is the largest exporter of macadamias and the third largest exporter of almonds.
United States
31%
Other
35%
China
3%
Indonesia
3%
Spain
3%
Turkey
8%
Iran
5%
India
5%
a Average share, three years to 2011.
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Vietnam
7%
Figure 79: Tree nuts: country shares of the total value of world trade a
Further information about the world tree nut industry

International Nut and Dried Fruit Council (www.nutfruit.org)—information about the world nut
and dried fruit industry, including the freely available Nut and dried fruits global statistical
review, 2006–2011
126
Australian tree nut industry
The estimated gross value of the Australian tree nut industry in 2010–11 was $282 million, of which
almonds made up around 61 per cent and macadamias 28 per cent (ABS 2012c). Domestic prices for
tree nuts in the Melbourne wholesale market in recent years are shown in Table 67.
Table 67: Tree nuts: prices, Melbourne wholesale market
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
Almond
15.70
12.63
9.48
15.00
15.00
15.00
13.06
Brazil
15.29
15.25
15.05
15.00
15.00
15.00
16.17
Cashew
15.29
15.25
15.05
15.00
15.00
15.00
13.83
Chestnut
3.79
5.93
5.71
6.23
5.39
5.47
4.86
Coconut
20.79
23.27
24.85
26.66
26.54
26.45
26.51
Hazelnut
15.29
15.25
15.05
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
Macadamia
25.20
25.25
24.28
22.50
22.50
22.50
22.50
Pecan
18.29
18.25
18.05
18.00
18.00
20.54
22.37
Pistachio
9.82
8.00
na
18.56
19.00
19.00
20.75
Walnut
6.14
6.50
6.60
6.46
7.15
7.11
7.31
Source: Datafresh Market Reporting Service (2012)
Average annual value of Australian tree nut exports was $219 million in the three years to 2011–12,
compared with average imports of $269 million. Australia is a net exporter of almonds, macadamias
and pecans, but net importers of other tree nuts ( Figure 80).
other
walnut
pistachio b
pecan b
macadamia
hazelnut
chestnut
cashew
brazil nut
almond
$m 0
20
40
60
80
imports
exports
a Annual average, three years to 2011-12. b Imports included in 'other' category.
Data source: ABS (2013)
100
120
140
Figure 80: Tree nuts: value composition of trade, Australia a
Further information about the Australian tree nut industry

Australian Nut Industry Council (www.nutindustry.org.au), national body representing seven tree
nut industries—range of information, including the Australian Nutgrower Journal.

Australian Nut Industry Council (2011)
(nutindustry.org.au/files/EJBRROBTQH/Nut_Booklet_2011_HR.pdf).
127
Hazelnuts
Hazelnuts are produced from trees from the species of Corylus. The main source of hazelnuts is the
common hazel (Corylus avellana), which is native to Europe and Asia. Hazelnut production is suited
to regions with well-drained soils, mild winters and cool summers, with yields being susceptible to
environmental stresses (Baldwin 2004). Hazelnut trees begin bearing 3 to 6 years after planting.
Hazelnuts are consumed directly as a snack food or used in a range of bakery and confectionery
products. They are rich in protein, vitamin E and monounsaturated fatty acids.
Turkey typically accounts for nearly two-thirds of world production and is also the main exporter of
shelled hazelnuts (Table 68). European countries, Hong Kong and China are the main importers.
Table 68: Hazelnuts: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
Key countries shares of volume
792 kt
na
Turkey (64%), Italy (14%), Azerbaijan (4%), United States (4%), China (3%),
Georgia (3%), Iran (3%), Spain (2%)
In shell
31 kt
US$94
million
Exporters: United States (56%), Chile (11%), France (9%), Georgia (7%),
Italy (5%), Turkey (4%), Canada (2%)
Importers: Hong Kong (48%), Italy (14%), Germany (9%), Canada (4%),
China (4%), United States (2%), Spain (2%)
Shelled
135 kt
US$1 330
million
Exporters: Turkey (59%), Brazil (9%), Italy (7%), Georgia (5%), Azerbaijan
(5%), Luxembourg (4%), Germany (2%), France (2%)
Importers: Germany (28%), Italy (13%), Egypt (11%), France (8%), Russian
Federation (5%), Belgium (5%), Switzerland (4%), Canada (4%), Spain (2%)
Production
World trade
a Annual average, three years to 2011.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Grower prices hazelnuts (inshell)in the United States have trended upward since the early 2000s (
Figure 81).
60
3000
40
2000
20
1000
kt 0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
production
2006–07
2011–12
2011–12
US$/t
grower price (right axis)
Data source: USDA (2013c)
Figure 81: Hazelnuts (in shell): production and prices, United States
World import prices for hazelnuts increased strongly around 2005 in response to production shortfalls
in key producing countries, but have declined as world production and trade have recovered ( Figure
82).
128
400
10000
300
7500
200
5000
100
2500
2012
kt 0
1991
1996
imports, in shell
2001
import price, in shell (right axis)
2006
imports, shelled
2011
0 US$/t
import price, shelled (right axis)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 82: Hazelnuts: world imports and import prices
Australian hazelnut industry
Australian hazelnut production was estimated to be 95 tonnes (shelled) in 2011–12, with a gross value
of around $708 000, based on import price parity (Table 69). Hazelnuts in Australia are harvested in
February and March. Australian hazelnut production is projected to increase to 343 tonnes by 2020
(Australian Nut Industry Council 2012).
129
Table 69: Hazelnuts: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Area
hectares
Volume (shelled)
tonnes
Unit gross value
$/kg
Gross value
105
140
35
30
79
95
13.00
12.96
6.81
7.45
$’000
455
389
538
708
– volume
tonnes
5.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
17.0
25.7
0.0
– value
$’000
60
0
0
0
140
79
0
– unit value
$/kg
11.16
na
na
na
na
3.09
na
Exports
In shell, fresh or dried
Shelled, fresh or dried
– volume
tonnes
77.4
79.0
106.2
21.6
10.9
46.7
38.6
– value
$’000
1 170
692
930
188
191
484
414
– unit value
$/kg
15.11
8.77
8.75
8.72
17.52
10.37
10.72
Total export value
$’000
1 231
692
930
188
331
564
414
– volume
tonnes
11.7
46.6
55.5
10.0
4.1
18.8
15.0
– value
$’000
36
207
171
39
15
75
54
– unit value
$/kg
3.05
4.45
3.08
3.88
3.56
3.99
3.60
Imports
In shell, fresh or dried
Shelled, fresh or dried
– volume
tonnes
2 595
2 086
2 410
1 829
2 279
2 521
2 581
– value
$’000
28 896
15 510
18 898
14 894
16 780
17 161
19 229
– unit value
$/kg
11.13
7.43
7.84
8.14
7.36
6.81
7.45
Total import value
$’000
28 931
15 717
19 069
14 933
16 794
17 236
19 283
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Australian Nut Industry Council (2012)
Australia imported around 2600 tonnes (shelled equivalent) of hazelnuts in 2011–12, valued at $19.3
million. Most of Australia’s hazelnut imports come from Turkey, with the bulk of the remainder from
the United States.
Further information about hazelnuts

Hazelnut Growers of Australia (www.hazelnuts.org.au), the peak industry body—provides a
regular newsletter.

The ‘Hazelnut’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 393–401
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Walnuts
Walnut trees require a climate with a winter chill period to benefit flowering; freedom from frosts
during flowering; and a summer that is warm but not excessively hot (Adem 2003). The common
English or Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is the main species in walnut production but the Northern
Californian black walnut (Juglans hindsii) and the eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra) are popular as
rootstocks for grafted trees because of their increased vigour (Adem 2003). There are alternate ‘on’
and ‘off’ production years with walnut production.
130
Walnuts are eaten fresh and used in baking and confectionery. A particular characteristic of walnuts is
that they are high in omega-3 fatty acids that are widely considered to offer health benefits.
China accounts for nearly half of world walnut production, virtually all of which is consumed
domestically (Table 70). Iran and the United States are the other major walnut producers. The value of
world trade in walnuts (in shell and shelled) averaged around US$1.4 billion a year in the three years
to 2011. The United States is the dominant exporter of both shelled and unshelled walnuts. There are
countries, such as the Republic of Moldova, that import unshelled walnuts and re-export them as
shelled walnut.
Table 70: Walnuts: key characteristics of the world market
Volume a
Value a
3 020 kt
na
China (48%), Iran (14%), United States (12%), Turkey (5%), Ukraine (3%),
Mexico (3%)
In shell
170 kt
US$502
million
Exporters: United States (68%), France (14%), Chile (6%), Ukraine (5%),
Argentina (1%), Uzbekistan (1%), Bulgaria (1%), Spain (1%), Germany
(1%)
Importers: Hong Kong (17%), Turkey (15%), Italy (15%), Mexico (10%),
Spain (9%), China (8%), Germany (7%), Russian Federation (2%), Republic
of Moldova (2%)
Shelled
144 kt
US$890
million
Exporters: United States (43%), Ukraine (16%), Chile (6%), India (6%),
Republic of Moldova (5%), Romania (3%), China (2%), France (2%),
Uzbekistan (2%), Germany (2%)
Importers: Germany (10%), Russian Federation (10%), Japan (7%),
Republic of Korea (6%), Spain (6%), France (5%), Canada (5%), United
Kingdom (4%), Australia (3%), Italy (3%), Turkey (3%), Israel (3%), China
(3%)
Production
Key country shares
World trade
a Annual average three years to 2011.
Sources: FAO Statistics Division (2013); United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Almost all walnut production in the United States comes from California. The California Walnut
Commission and Walnut Marketing Board oversee generic marketing (including promotion) and
research activities for the 5500 walnut growers and 45 walnut handlers that make up the California
walnut industry.
Grower prices for walnuts have increased sharply in California in recent years, despite increased
production ( Figure 83), driven by growing demand from consumers due to perceptions of the
healthiness of walnuts.
131
600
4000
450
3000
300
2000
150
1000
kt 0
0
1991–92
1996–97
2001–02
production
2006–07
2011–12
2011–12
US$/t
grower price (right axis)
Data source: USDA (2013c)
Figure 83: Walnuts (in shell): production and grower prices, California
World imports and import prices for walnuts have also been growing strongly in the 2000s ( Figure
84).
180
9000
120
6000
60
3000
2012
kt 0
0 US$/t
1992
1997
2002
2007
imports, in shell
imports, shelled
import price, in shell (right axis)
import price, shelled (right axis)
2011
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 84: Walnuts: world imports and import prices
Australian walnut industry
There has been a large expansion of walnut plantings in Australia in recent years. Australia’s
advantages in walnut production are being able to supply fresh walnuts (harvested in March and April)
in the northern hemisphere off season and being relatively free from many of the diseases that affect
other walnut producing countries. Until the recent plantings most of Australia’s walnut production was
in Tasmania, but now the bulk of production takes place in New South Wales and Victoria. South
Australia and Western Australia are also small producers of walnuts.
Australian planting of walnut trees has expanded over the past decade to 2790 hectares in 2011
(Australian Nut Industry Council 2012). Most of the increase occurred in the Riverina area and was
132
undertaken by two large companies—Webster Limited and Gunns Limited. Websters Ltd has since
taken over the Gunns Ltd plantings and now owns or manages the bulk of the walnut plantations in
Australia. To accommodate the expected increased production, new processing plants have been built
at Violet Town and Koraleigh in Victoria.
Australian walnut production in 2011–12 was an estimated 6117 tonnes (in shell), with an estimated
gross value of $37.3 million (Table 71). Australian walnut production is projected to reach nearly
15 000 tonnes (in shell) by 2020 (Australian Nut Industry Council 2012).
Table 71: Walnuts: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
174
Trees
’000
929
Volume (in shell)
tonnes
1 300
2 493
6 117
Unit gross value
$/kg
4.28
5.94
6.10
Gross value
$’000
5 561
14 800
37 334
Exports
In shell, fresh or dried
– volume
tonnes
0.0
30.1
48.3
456.3
732.4
1 527.1
2 998.5
– value
$’000
0
30
186
1 451
2 690
5 643
11 027
– unit value
$/kg
na
1.00
3.85
3.18
3.67
3.70
3.68
78.0
3.1
37.0
1.6
1.9
30.5
9.3
Shelled, fresh or dried
– volume
tonnes
– value
$’000
574
44
332
49
14
270
124
– unit value
$/kg
7.36
13.93
8.98
30.74
7.65
8.85
13.30
Total export value
$’000
574
74
518
1 499
2 704
5 913
11 150
– volume
tonnes
161.8
315.5
230.9
91.6
100.6
71.9
84.1
– value
$’000
693
1 311
1 038
380
308
266
316
– unit value
$/kg
4.28
4.15
4.50
4.15
3.06
3.71
3.76
Imports
In shell, fresh or dried
Shelled, fresh or dried
– volume
tonnes
3 871.0
3 886.4
3 875.2
3 880.3
4 679.6
4 885.5
4 972.4
– value
$’000
26 031
27 333
28 964
29 158
26 367
30 894
41 634
– unit value
$/kg
6.72
7.03
7.47
7.51
5.63
6.32
8.37
Total import value
$’000
26 724
28 644
30 002
29 539
26 674
31 160
41 949
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012a, 2012c, 2013); Australian Nut Industry Council (2012); Webster Limited (2012)
Australian exports of walnuts (in shell and shelled) have been growing rapidly in recent years to reach
over 3000 tonnes (in shell equivalent) in 2011–12, reflecting increasing Australian walnut production.
The main markets for Australian walnut exports are Italy (30 per cent share of total exports in the three
years to 2011–12), Vietnam (18 per cent), Turkey (14 per cent), Hong Kong (12 per cent), China
(9 per cent) and New Zealand (8 per cent).
However, Australia still imported record quantities of walnuts in 2011–12, mainly in shelled form.
Country details for walnut import data in ABS (2013) are confidential, but US walnut export data
provided by USDA (2012b) show that most Australian walnuts are sourced from the United States.
The increase in Australian production and imports in recent years suggests rapidly growing domestic
consumption of walnuts in Australia.
133
Further information about walnuts

Australian Walnut Industry Association (www.walnut.net.au).

California Walnuts (www.walnuts.org)—information on the Californian walnut industry,
including a regular newsletter Walnut news that provides an export market update.
Tropical exotic fruit
The northern regions of Australia are suited to growing a wide range of exotic tropical and subtropical
fruits, many of which originated in Asia and are, therefore, familiar to Asian consumers. More details
about these exotic fruits are available at www.australiantropicalfoods.com.
In this chapter, information on seven tropical and subtropical fruits is reported: durian, jackfruit
(jackfruit), longan, lychee, papaya, mangosteen and rambutan. Prices received in the Sydney market
for these (and other) exotic tropical fruits are shown in Table 72.
Table 72: Selected tropical exotic fruit: average prices, Sydney wholesale market
Type
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Carambola
$/SL tray
21.42
22.27
24.87
25.07
21.23
24.62
na
Durian
$/kg
13.50
na
na
na
8.68
6.10
5.90
– African pride
$/SL tray
16.94
18.20
21.77
18.74
21.48
22.09
na
– pink’s mammoth
$/SL tray
21.81
26.25
24.73
24.14
24.58
24.42
31.41
– pink
$/kg
14.00
14.93
16.26
13.00
21.43
35.00
10.50
– white
$/SL tray
4.64
5.18
4.96
4.80
4.27
6.02
5.14
Jackfruit
$/kg
3.08
3.18
2.71
3.46
3.61
3.03
3.50
Longan
$/kg
5.37
5.72
3.34
7.82
7.02
7.46
6.22
– fei zi xiao
$/kg
10.72
9.78
10.10
10.53
10.74
12.69
11.49
– kwai mai pink
$/kg
5.24
4.03
4.59
6.81
5.14
5.87
6.24
– salathiel
$/kg
7.18
7.74
5.96
10.50
6.84
8.92
7.89
– tai so
$/kg
5.16
4.99
5.35
7.44
5.22
7.77
6.31
– wai chee
$/kg
4.57
3.82
3.85
6.26
4.41
4.91
3.97
Mangosteen
$/kg
8.34
7.92
9.26
9.47
8.15
10.54
10.93
Custard apple
Guava
Lychee
Papaya/pawpaw
– red flesh, Hawaiian
solo
$/18L carton
17.73
22.77
19.32
20.83
20.00
20.61
22.53
– yellow flesh
$/22L carton
21.93
28.70
16.96
20.48
20.26
21.32
23.44
– red flesh
$/5kg carton
17.89
20.37
24.75
16.90
20.53
12.94
20.25
– white flesh
$/3kg carton
29.06
30.46
25.67
28.47
25.08
38.25
31.06
2.98
2.91
2.68
2.93
2.95
Pitaya/dragon fruit
Pomelo
– green
$/kg
3.25
3.16
– red
$/kg
1.50
3.15
2.45
1.50
0.00
2.66
3.15
Rambutan
$/kg
6.44
7.75
10.84
7.15
6.33
8.30
8.70
Soursop
$/kg
3.94
5.58
5.29
4.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
Source: Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
134
Thailand is a large producer of these tropical fruits and the main world exporter of many of them (
Figure 85). Australia signed a free trade agreement with Thailand in 2004 in which mangosteen,
durian, lychee and longan are explicitly specified as market access priority products (DFAT 2004).
1000
800
600
400
200
kt
0
1997
2002
durian
longan
2007
rambutan
mangosteen
2012
lychee
Data source: Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 85: Selected tropical exotic fruit: production, Thailand
Australia’s strict quarantine barriers aimed at preventing the introduction of exotic diseases and pests
have worked against imports of some tropical fruits, particularly fresh fruits. While Australia has been
importing papaya for a number of years, access has only been possible for fresh durian from Thailand
since 1999, for mangosteens from Thailand since July 2004, and for lychee and longan from Thailand
and China since April 2004. Fresh rambutan imports are yet to be allowed from any country and no
applications have yet been received. The ICON database maintained by Biosecurity Australia provides
details on the conditions under which more than 18 000 plant, animal, mineral and human production
can be imported into Australia—see DAFF (2013b) for a searchable database.
Cyclone Larry, which crossed the north Queensland coast on 20 March 2006, caused extensive loss
and damage to fruit trees and many tropical exotic fruit industries are still recovering.
An industry peak body, Tropical Exotic Fruit Australia, was established in 2007 with the merger of the
Rambutan and Tropical Exotic Growers Association and the Tropical Exotic Fruit sub-groups of the
Northern Territory Horticultural Association.
Further information about tropical and exotic fruits

Diczbalis (2012)—contains a range of information about Australia’s tropical exotic fruit industry.

The ‘Fruits and berries’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 165–97
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125)—includes sections on durian, lychee, longan,
rambutan and minor tropical fruits (mainly pitaya, pomelo, jackfruit, hog plum and carambola).

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au)—information about the
Australian tropical and exotic fruit industry.

Northern Territory Horticultural Association (www.ntha.com.au)—information on tropical exotic
fruit, including Tropical Exotic Fruit Australia’s newsletter.
135
Durian
Durian (Durio zibethinus L.) is a tree-borne tropical fruit with a complex flavour. It also has a strong
odour that many people find offensive. Durian is believed to have originated in Borneo and is now
extensively cultivated in South-East Asia, particularly in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Cambodia.
Durian fruit is mostly eaten fresh but can be frozen, dried or canned. Harvesting before it is ripe can
mean a shelf life of 2–3 weeks with refrigeration but can be as little as 2–3 days if the fruit is damaged.
World durian exports have grown strongly over the past decade, reaching a record 590 000 tonnes in
2012 ( Figure 86). The average export price fluctuated around US$550 a tonne in real terms over the
past decade. Thailand typically provides more than one-half of world durian exports, with Malaysia
providing the bulk of the remainder. Most of the Thai durian crop is harvested in the period April to
August, with peak production in May. The major importers were Hong Kong (47 per cent in the three
years to 2011), China (37 per cent) and Singapore (13 per cent).
600
750
400
500
200
250
2012
kt 0
2002
2003
2004
2005
exports, Thailand
2006
2007
2008
exports, other
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 US$/kg
export price (right axis)
Data sources: ABARES; United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 86: Durian: world exports and export prices
Australian durian industry
Commercial growing of durian fruit has only recently commenced in the Northern Territory and north
Queensland. Harvest times are November to February in the Northern Territory and January to April in
north Queensland. There are ‘on’ and ‘off’ years for yields. Over 60 per cent of durian production
occurs in the Northern Territory, with Queensland accounting for the remainder.
Before Cyclone Larry in early 2006, there were 36 durian growers in Australia with around 13 000
trees. Despite re-plantings after widespread damage inflicted by Cyclone Larry, there were only
around 5000 durian trees in Australia in 2011–12.
Based on tree numbers and average yields in Diczbalis (2012), durian production in Australia in 2011–
12 was around 60 tonnes, with an estimated gross value of $480 000, up from only 3 tonnes produced
in 2006–07 in the immediate aftermath of Cyclone Larry.
There were small quantities of Australian exports of durian in the past but almost none in recent years
(Table 73). There are larger quantities of imports, all provided by Thailand and Malaysia. Market
access for frozen durian was granted to Thailand and Malaysia in 1999 and 2004, respectively, after
import risk assessments.
136
Table 73: Durian: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
36
Trees, year end
’000
13
Volume
tonnes
20
3
60
Gross value
$’000
250
64
480
Volume
tonnes
0.0
0.0
Value
$’000
0
0
0
6
17
0
0
Unit value
$/kg
na
2.97
na
13.33
10.58
na
na
5
Exports a
0.0
0.5
1.6
0.0
0.0
Imports a
Volume
tonnes
105.1
108.1
12.1
122.1
76.2
42.1
0.6
Value
$’000
163
236
62
301
271
305
4
Unit value
$/kg
1.55
2.18
5.13
2.47
3.56
7.25
7.62
a Fresh or frozen.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Diczbalis (2012)
Further information about durian

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).

The ‘Durian’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 166–73.
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Jackfruit
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is a tropical fruit tree believed to have originated in the
rainforests of the Western Ghats in India but has now been adapted to frost-free and humid tropical
and subtropical climates. The tree typically bears fruit around three years after planting. The fruit are
very large, ranging in size from 5 to 30 kilograms.
Jackfruit is a major cultivated fruit throughout tropical Asia, particularly in Bangladesh (0.9 million
tonnes), India (1.4 million tonnes), Indonesia (0.3 million tonnes) and Thailand (0.4 million tonnes)
(Sidhu 2012). Jackfruit is an emerging export industry in Thailand ( Figure 87).
137
20
400
15
300
10
200
5
100
0
0 US$/t
kt
2012
2007
2008
2009
2010
exports
2011
2012
export price (right axis)
Data sources: Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 87: Jackfruit: exports and export prices, Thailand
Australian jackfruit industry
Jackfruit is produced in the Northern Territory and Queensland. The peak harvest period is from
December to February. There are around 9250 trees in Australia, nearly 80 per cent of which are
located in the Northern Territory (Diczbalis 2012).
Based on tree numbers and average yields in Diczbalis (2012), jackfruit production in Australia in
2011–12 was around 742 tonnes, with an estimated gross value of around $2.6 million (Table 74).
There is strong domestic demand for Australian-produced jackfruit and all production is consumed
domestically. Australia imported 2 tonnes of processed jackfruit from Thailand in 2011–12. Imports of
fresh jackfruit into Australia are not permitted.
Table 74: Jackfruit: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
25
67
Trees, year end
’000
Volume
tonnes
300
400
742
Gross value
Price, Sydney market
$’000
800
1 102
$/kg
3.08
3.18
2.71
3.46
3.61
3.03
3.50
9.2
2 600
Imports, processed, from Thailand a
Volume
tonnes
0.0
0.0
1.3
1.8
2.0
3.3
2.0
Value
$’000
0
0
3
6
6
7
5
Unit value
$/kg
na
na
2.09
3.26
3.20
2.28
2.44
a fob Thailand, converted to Australian dollars.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012a, 2012c, 2013); Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Diczbalis (2012); Sydney Market
Reporting Service (2012)
138
Further information about jackfruit

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).

The ‘Minor tropical fruits’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 182–90
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Longan
Longan (Dimocarpus longan or Euphoria longan) is a fruit closely related to the lychee. It is adapted
to production in monsoonal regions and is mainly grown in China, Thailand, Vietnam and Taiwan.
Longans are mainly consumed fresh but are also dried and canned.
Thailand is the main exporter of longans. Thailand’s production and exports of longans reached record
levels in 2012, in response to increasing export returns ( Figure 88). Harvesting of longans in Thailand
is usually from late June to August but there are techniques, such as soil drenching with potassium
chlorate, which can be used to produce off-season fruit.
kt
900
750
600
500
300
250
2012
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
production
2005
2006
2007
exports
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 US$/t
export price (right axis)
Data sources: Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 88: Longan: production, exports and export prices, Thailand
Australian longan industry
Longans are grown in the subtropical regions of the eastern coast of Australia as far south as northern
New South Wales. The picking season extends from January to April.
Estimated Australian production of longans in 2011–12 was 2000 tonnes, with an estimated gross
value of $12.5 million (Table 75).
139
Table 75: Longan: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Item
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Trees, year end
’000
Volume
tonnes
320
2 000
Gross value
$’000
1 100
12 500
Price, Sydney market
$/kg
5.37
5.72
3.34
7.82
7.02
7.46
6.22
Imports, fresh, from Thailand a
Volume
tonnes
153.9
128.5
312.0
153.3
233.2
131.6
167.2
Value
$’000
274
294
609
458
559
344
324
Unit value
$/kg
1.78
2.29
1.95
2.98
2.40
2.62
1.94
a fob Thailand, value converted to Australian dollars.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
Australian longan production is consumed domestically. Australia imports substantial quantities of
longans from Thailand—167 tonnes in 2011–12 (Table 75). China is the only other country that has
access to the Australian market for fresh longans.
Further information about longans

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).

The ‘Lychees and Longans’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 174–81
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Lychees
Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), or lychee nut or litchi, is a tree-borne fruit with sweet, fragrant and
juicy fruit and a translucent flesh. The lychee tree is native to southern China, northern Vietnam and
Myanmar. It is difficult to grow, requiring frost-free conditions, and does not produce a substantial
crop until 6–8 years after planting (Menzel 2002). The fruits are very susceptible to browning and
rotting so they have a relatively short shelf life as fresh fruit. Lychees are also canned whole or made
into a range of jellies, jams, preserves and lychee tea.
Lychees are now grown in many subtropical regions of the world. According to GHD (2013) annual
world lychee production is around 2.3 million, only 1.4 per cent of which enters world trade. The main
producers are China (1.4 million tonnes), India (0.4 million tonnes), Vietnam (0.2 million tonnes),
Madagascar (0.1 million tonnes), Taiwan (0.1 million tonnes) and Thailand (0.07 million tonnes).
Other small producers of lychees include Australia, Bangladesh, Nepal, the Philippines and South
Africa. Key exporters are Madagascar, Thailand and South Africa (GHD 2013).
Thai lychee export prices in real terms have exhibited a downward trend over the past decade ( Figure
89).
140
100
1000
75
750
50
500
25
250
2012
kt 0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
production
2006
2007
2008
exports
2009
2010
2011
0 US$/t
2012
export price (right axis)
Data sources: Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 89: Lychee: production, exports and export prices, Thailand
Australian lychee industry
Lychees have been grown commercially in Australia since the 1970s. The harvest period in Australia
is November to February but the main production period is December to January.
There are many different varieties of lychees grown in Australia, with differing agronomic and quality
characteristics. Australian domestic prices (Sydney market) for a range of lychee varieties are shown
in Table 72.
There were around 267 lychee growers in Australia in 2010-11 and more than 90 per cent of
Australian lychee production occurs in Queensland. Australian lychee production was 2294 tonnes in
2011–12, with a gross value of $15.2 million (Table 76).
Table 76: Lychee: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
250
250
267
Trees, year end
’000
24
22
196
Volume
tonnes
1 673
3 014
Gross value
$’000
9 088
13 378
Price, Sydney market a
$/kg
5.43
2 045
1 221
2 171
4.44
4.91
7.04
5.36
1 557
2 294
10 500
15 177
6.40
6.28
Exports, fresh
Volume
tonnes
163.3
1 907.2
469.9
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.0
Value
$’000
969
9 418
2 542
0
0
10
0
Unit value
$/kg
5.93
4.94
5.41
7.54
5.86
6.90
6.78
Imports, fresh, from Thailand b
Volume
tonnes
40
60
13
51
80
0
18
Value
$’000
134
149
208
166
246
0
48
Unit value
$/kg
3.38
2.50
15.52
3.27
3.08
na
2.71
a Weighted average, giving the weights of 0.7, 0.15, 0.1 and 0.05, respectively, to the kwai mai pink, tai so, wai chee and fei
zi xiao varieties. b fob Thailand, value converted to Australian dollars.
141
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2012a, 2012c, 2013); Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012);
Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
Until recently approximately 20–35 per cent of the Australian crop was exported, mainly to China (via
Hong Kong), Singapore and Europe. However, exports have been almost non-existent in recent years,
after reaching a peak of 1907 tonnes in 2006–07. Growing domestic demand, market access issues
with China (via Hong Kong) and the strengthening of the Australian dollar have contributed to the
decline.
Australia imported 18 tonnes of fresh lychees from Thailand in 2011–12, but annual imports were as
high as 80 tonnes -in 2009–10. Imports of fresh lychees are also imported from China, South Africa
and Taiwan.
Further information about lychees

Australian Lychee Growers’ Association (www.australianlychee.com.au), peak industry body.

The ‘Lychees and Longans’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 174–81
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).
Mangosteen
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is a tree-borne tropical fruit with a thick reddish-purple rind
and a flesh that is segmented like that of an orange. The fruit is usually eaten fresh, but can also be
canned, frozen or made into juice, preserves and syrup. The tree is believed to have originated from
the Malay archipelago.
Thailand accounts for more than 90 per cent of world mangosteen production and almost all of world
exports. Annual Thai mangosteen production averaged 202 000 tonnes in the three years to 2012, but
varies considerably from year to year ( Figure 90). Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia also
produce relatively small quantities of mangosteens.
kt
400
800
300
600
200
400
100
200
2012
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
production
2006
2007
exports
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 US$/t
export price (right axis)
Data sources: Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 90: Mangosteen: production, exports and export prices, Thailand
The Thai mangosteen industry has become increasingly export-oriented in recent years in response to
favourable export returns ( Figure 90).
142
Australia mangosteen industry
In Australia mangosteen plantings take around nine years to fruit and up to 12 years to provide
commercial fruit, but once they are established they are low maintenance trees. The harvest period in
Australia is January to March.
Australia had plantings of around 14 000 mangosteen trees in 2005–06, more than 98 per cent of
which were in Queensland, with the remainder in the Northern Territory. Around 9 per cent of the
plantings in Queensland were destroyed by Cyclone Larry in March 2006 (Diczbalis 2012).
Estimated Australian production of mangosteens in 2011–12 was 176 tonnes, with a gross value of
around $1.9 million (Table 77).
Small quantities of mangosteen fruit were exported from Australia in the early 2000s but the crop now
appears to be entirely sold on the domestic market.
Imports of mangosteens into Australia have been allowed from Thailand since April 2004. Around
238 tonnes of fresh mangosteens were imported from Thailand in 2011–12, equivalent to around
60 per cent of total Australian consumption.
Table 77: Mangosteen: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Trees, year end
no.
14
13
12
Volume
tonnes
36
120
176
Gross value
$’000
300
950
Price, Sydney market
$/kg
8.34
7.92
9.26
9.47
8.15
10.54
10.93
1.5
6.1
1.3
2.8
1.1
0.8
18.2
1 924
Exports, mangosteen and guava a
Volume
tonnes
Value
$’000
Unit value
$/kg
9
68
39
71
19
6
67
5.66
11.10
28.94
25.19
16.94
7.49
3.69
Imports, fresh, from Thailand b
Volume
tonnes
178.4
103.0
216.4
239.2
247.5
168.9
237.9
Value
$’000
590
419
800
1 103
902
624
982
Unit value
$/kg
3.31
4.07
3.70
4.61
3.64
3.69
4.13
a Fresh or dried. b fob Thailand, converted to Australian dollars.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Diczbalis (2012); Sydney Market Reporting Service
(2012)
Further information about mangosteens

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).
Papaya and pawpaw
Papaya and pawpaw (both Carica papaya L.) are slightly pear-shaped fruit with yellow or golden skin
and yellow flesh (pawpaw) or orange to red flesh (papaya). The papaya is believed to have originated
in Central America but is now extensively cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of
the world. The papaya plant lives for around five years but is replanted more often than this in
commercial plantations (Chay-Prove 2003). Papaya is consumed mainly as a fresh fruit but is also
canned (usually as pulp), made into jams, or dried and crystallised.
World production and exports of papayas have grown strongly since the early 1990s ( Figure 91).
World production of papayas averaged 6.6 million tonnes in the three years to 2006, produced mainly
143
by Brazil (24 per cent of total production), Mexico (12 per cent), India (12 per cent), Nigeria (12 per
cent) and Indonesia (9 per cent). World papaya production peaked in 2002 at 6.9 million tonnes, twice
the level of production in 1985.
Around 4 per cent of world papaya production typically enters world trade as fresh or dried papayas; a
large but unknown quantity is further processed for export. The main exporters of fresh or dried
papayas are Mexico (34 per cent of world exports in the three years to 2011), Malaysia (22 per cent),
Brazil (17 per cent) and Belize (11 per cent). The United States accounts for nearly half of world
imports of fresh or dried papayas, with China (11 per cent) and Singapore (10 per cent) the other major
importers.
400
800
300
600
200
400
100
200
kt 0
0
1996
1999
2002
exports
2005
2008
2011
2012
US$/t
export price (right scale)
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 91: Papaya: world exports and export prices
Australian papaya industry
Australia’s papayas are grown mainly in the tropical regions of Innisfail and Mareeba in northern
Queensland. Small amounts are also grown in the Northern Territory, southern Queensland, the
Kimberly and Carnarvon regions of Western Australia, and northern New South Wales. Fruit are
harvested year-round in Australia, but there are production peaks in autumn and spring.
Estimated Australian production of papaya in 2011–12 was 7639 tonnes (Table 78), down from a
record 11 893 tonnes in the previous year. Very small quantities of Australia’s papayas are exported
but imports were around 286 tonnes in 2011–12. Almost all of the imports were from Fiji, with a small
amount from Thailand.
144
Table 78: Papaya: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
Area
hectares
Volume
tonnes
Yield
t/ha
Gross value
$’000
Unit GVP
$/kg
130
100
650
500
474
326
na
402
11 606
7 968
10 240
9 393
10 331
11 893
7 639
17.9
15.9
21.6
28.8
na
17 061
17 370
18 938
23 121
24 410
322 17
22 625
1.47
2.18
1.85
2.46
2.36
2.71
2.96
Sydney market prices
Red flesh, Hawaiian
solo
$/18L carton
17.73
22.77
19.32
20.83
20.00
20.61
22.53
Yellow flesh
$/22L carton
21.93
28.70
16.96
20.48
20.26
21.32
23.44
Exports, fresh
Volume
tonnes
2.1
5.7
5.1
0.4
1.2
1.0
0.0
Value
$’000
7
18
12
2
4
4
0
Unit value
$/kg
3.49
3.11
2.43
5.20
3.59
3.69
na
173.8
448.5
224.1
163.0
45.7
419.2
286.2
Imports, fresh
Volume
tonnes
Value
$’000
412
918
585
471
201
796
590
Unit value
$/kg
2.37
2.05
2.61
2.89
4.41
1.90
2.06
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013); Levies Revenue Service (2012); Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
Further information about papaya

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).
Pitaya (dragon fruit)
Pitaya (various Hylocereus spp), also called dragon fruit, is a tropical cactus from the rainforests of
Central America and northern South America (Diczbalis & McMahon 2004). It is suited to a dry,
tropical climate.
In the Americas the pitaya is grown commercially from Argentina to Texas in the United States.
Vietnam is also a large commercial producer and Malaysia is an emerging producer.
Australian pitaya industry
The pitaya was introduced to Queensland in the 1970s and its commercial production has spread to the
Northern Territory, Western Australia and New South Wales (Diczbalis & McMahon 2004). The peak
production period is from January to March but fruit can be available as early as September.
In Australia, there is a white-fleshed pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) and red-fleshed pitaya (Hylocereus.
polyrhizus). The red-fleshed pitaya earns higher prices (Table 72).
There were around 40 000 pitaya trees in Australia in 2011–12, nearly 70 per cent of which were in the
Northern Territory, with the remainder in Queensland (Diczbalis 2012). Based on these tree numbers
and average yields (also in Diczbalis 2012) Australian production of pitaya in 2011–12 was around
740 tonnes, with a gross value of $2.2 million.
Australian production is sold on the domestic market and no country has access to the Australian
market for fresh pitayas.
145
Further information about pitaya

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).

The ‘Minor tropical fruits’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 182–90
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Rambutan
Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) is a red or yellow tropical fruit that is round to oval in shape, with
hairlike protrusions. The rambutan is highly perishable, which makes it difficult to handle and gives it
a short shelf life. Fruiting may occur twice in one year.
The main producers and exporters are Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, with Honduras emerging as a
significant exporter in recent years. Thai rambutan production has generally been declining over the
past decade though exports have picked up in recent years ( Figure 92).
kt
750
900
500
600
250
300
2012
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
production
2005
2006
2007
exports
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 US$/t
export price (right axis)
Data sources: Customs Department, Thailand (2013); Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand (2013)
Figure 92: Rambutan: production, exports and export prices, Thailand
Canned rambutan is an important component of the world rambutan trade. Singapore is the largest
importer of rambutan products, with growing demand from other Asian countries, the United States
and Europe.
Australian rambutan industry
The harvest period in Australia is from November to January, with small quantities around June from a
secondary fruiting. Around 85 per cent of Australian production takes place in northern Queensland,
with the remainder in the Northern Territory.
Australian rambutan production in 2011–12 was an estimated 637 tonnes, with a gross value of $3.8
million (Table 79). Rambutan production in Queensland is still recovering from Cyclone Larry in early
2006 that destroyed an estimated 23 per cent of all rambutan trees (Diczbalis 2012).
In 2000 Australian rambutan growers gained access to the Japanese market, where fresh rambutan is
considered a luxury item. Most Australian rambutan exports go to this market. Australian rambutan
exports to Japan peaked at 85 tonnes in 2002–03, with an estimated value of $1.2 million . In recent
years Australian rambutan exports to Japan have declined to almost nothing because of markedly
lower Australian production and the strength of the Australian dollar compared with the Japanese yen.
146
Australian imports of fresh rambutan are not permitted. Imported canned rambutan is available in
Australian supermarkets (no data available).
Table 79: Rambutan: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Growers
no.
110
110
Trees, year end
’000
29
23
25
Volume
tonnes
270
140
637
Gross value
$’000
2 503
1 204
Price, Sydney market
$/kg
6.44
7.75
10.84
7.15
6.33
8.30
8.70
3 760
Exports, fresh to Japan
Volume
tonnes
1.9
0
0
0
0.8
0
0
Value
$’000
44
0
0
0
13
0
0
Unit value
$/kg
23.51
na
na
na
12.67
na
na
Sources: ABARES; Diczbalis (2012); Ministry of Finance, Japan (2012); Sydney Market Reporting Service (2012)
Further information about rambutan

Australian Tropical Fruits Portal (www.australiantropicalfruits.org.au).

The ‘Rambutan’ section in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 191–97
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).
Truffles
Truffles are the fruiting body of fungi that typically form in a symbiotic relationship on the roots of
particular trees. Truffles are used as food flavouring. Fresh truffles have a shelf life of around two
weeks at 4oC, although this can be slightly lengthened through processes such as vacuum storage.
Truffles are also canned, bottled or snap frozen.
The most common high quality truffle is the French black or Perigord truffle (Tuber melanosporum),
named for the region in France where it is thought to have originated. The other main truffle types are
the white truffle of Piedmont (Tuber magnatum), the most expensive of all truffle species; the whitish
Italian or bianchetto truffle (Tuber borchii); the Asiatic truffles (Tuber sinensis, Tuber indicum, and
Tuber himalayensis); and the black summer truffle (Tuber aestivum/uncinatum), most most common
truffle in western Europe; and Tuber brumale (sometimes called the winter truffle) which can be a
troublesome contaminant where black truffles are found. The Chinese truffle (Tuber sinensis) is
relatively plentiful and much lower in quality and price than the truffles that originate in Europe.
Several other Tuber species are native to north America and some of these have commercial value.
Black Perigord truffles are gathered from both cultivated and naturally occurring woodlands in France,
Italy, Spain and, to a lesser extent, Portugal. Truffles were first cultivated in the early 1800s in France
by planting acorns under productive trees then transplanting the seedlings. In the early 1970s a
technique was developed for inoculating the roots of oak and hazelnut trees in the nursery. With this
method the first truffles may be found four to seven years after planting and maximum yields are
reached after around 12 to 18 years.
The Australian truffle industry focuses on the black Perigord truffle, although many growers are now
producing the summer truffle (Tuber aestivum) and/or the bianchetto truffle (Tuber borchii). The black
Perigord truffle typically grows on the roots of oak and hazelnut trees. The truffles mature during the
winter months, emitting an intense perfume that enables female pigs or trained dogs to be used to
detect them. Properties from which truffles are gathered are called truffle orchards or truffières.
147
World truffle industry
The characteristics of the world trade in high quality truffles are summarised in Table 80. There are
few reliable production statistics for the world truffle industry. The main producers of black truffles in
2012 were France (25.4 tonnes), Italy (20.8 tonnes), Spain (11.4 tonnes) and Australia (4.5 tonnes),
with China a large producer of the much lower-priced Chinese truffle. There are increasing numbers of
truffières in Australia, New Zealand and the United States but, apart from Australia, aggregate
production is still small.
Most high-quality truffle production in France and Italy is consumed domestically.
Table 80: Truffles: key characteristics of European Union trade
Volume
Value
Key countries (share of total volume)
Fresh or chilled,
2012
156
tonnes
US$44.5
million
Exporters: Italy (66%), Spain (13%), France (12%)
Importers: France (34%), Germany (13%), United Kingdom (10%),
United States (10%), Japan (6%), Belgium (4%), Italy (3%)
Prepared,
preserved, 2011 a
269
tonnes
US$15.4
million
Exporters: Italy (66%), France (24%), Spain (3 %)
Importers: United States (34%), Germany (15%), France (9%), Japan
(8%), Switzerland (6%), Spain (3%)
Trade
a Data not available in 2012.
Sources: Eurostat (2013)
French black truffle production was around 1000 tonnes at the beginning of the 20th century, but has
declined to only 8–40 tonnes over the past decade due to destruction of natural growing areas,
particularly as a result of the two world wars (Amaranthus 2007) and climate change (Buntgen et al.
2012).
Recorded sales of truffles in France in 2011–12 were 13.2 tonnes, with an average price of €461 a
kilogram (FranceAgriMer 2012b). The monthly pattern of production and prices in France over the
past six seasons ( Figure 93) shows production peaked in either December or January of each year.
Prices are usually relatively low at the beginning of the season when quality is poor. Another trough in
prices is usually evident in January when supply is high.
9
900
6
600
3
300
tonnes 0
November
December
January
February
March
November
December
January
February
March
November
December
January
February
March
November
December
January
February
March
November
December
January
February
March
November
December
January
February
March
0
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
quantity
2010–11
price (right scale)
Data source: FranceAgriMer (2012b).
Figure 93: Truffles: production and prices, monthly, France
148
2011–12
2011–12
€/kg
Australian black truffle industry
The Australian truffle industry was established in 1992 when trees inoculated with the spore of Tuber
melanosporum (French black truffle) were planted in Tasmania. The first Australian grown black
truffle was found in Tasmania in 1999. In 2012 there were around 150 truffières established in
Tasmania and the cooler parts of the Australian mainland, but only 50 to 60 were producing truffles
(Duell 2012). The mainland truffières are located as far north as Killarney in Queensland but are
mostly located in the Southern Highlands and Central and Southern Tableland regions of New South
Wales, the Central and Gippsland regions of Victoria and the Manjimup region of Western Australia.
Estimated production of black truffles in Australia in 2012 was 4480 kilograms, around 70 per cent of
which was produced in Manjimup. The estimated gross value of production in 2012 was $5.2 million
(Table 81). Domestic consumption was an estimated 500 kilograms in 2012, leaving around 4 tonnes
available for export.
To provide an indication of export prices received for high-quality Australian black truffles, only
exports from Western Australia and Tasmania are reported in Table 81. Changes to Australia’s export
and import codes applying from 1 January 2012 mean that truffles are included in codes that contain
all mushroom and truffle trade other than mushrooms from the genus Agaricus.
149
Table 81: Truffles: supply, disposal and value in Australia
Unit
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Production
Truffières
no.
Area
hectares
Trees
’000
Volume
kg
Gross value
$’000
Unit gross value
$/kg
30
>200
600
>300
184
800
na
na
1 700
3 300
4 480
377
1 640
na
na
2 465
3 630
5 152
2 050
2 050
na
na
1 450
1 100
1 150
0
66
127
255
412
988
1 833
Exports, Western Australia and Tasmania
Fresh or chilled
– volume
kg
– value
$’000
0
99
211
430
575
1 039
1 479
– unit value
$/kg
na
1 503.88
1 658.22
1 685.80
1 394.48
1 051.94
807.07
Prepared or preserved
– volume
kg
0
5
299
0
0
772
0
– value
$’000
0
3
9
0
0
152
0
– unit value
$/kg
na
660.00
31.05
na
na
196.76
na
Total export value
$’000
0
103
220
430
575
1 191
1 479
279
468
958
231
321
198
na
Imports
Fresh or chilled
– volume
kg
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
260
281
343
267
310
253
na
932.01
600.86
357.82
1 154.56
966.01
1 277.64
na
1
55
0
0
0
0
Provisionally preserved
– volume
kg
0
– value
$’000
0
– unit value
$/kg
1
2
0
0
0
0
1 498.00
30.24
na
na
na
na
781
2 278
2
943
953
155
na
35
16
3
22
18
29
na
Dried, whole or pieces
– volume
kg
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
44.32
7.04
1 355.00
23.64
18.82
188.86
na
– volume
kg
5 012
2 484
2 178
2 273
923
2 742
3 177
– value
$’000
– unit value
$/kg
Total import value
$’000
Prepared or preserved
197
141
157
102
91
186
136
39.40
56.63
71.90
44.66
98.40
67.67
42.86
492
438
502
390
419
468
na
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
The main producers in the Australian black truffle industry are The Wine & Truffle Company and
Manjimup Truffles (Western Australia); and Tamar Valley Truffles, Perigord Truffles of Tasmania,
Truffles Australis and Tasmanian Truffle Enterprises (Tasmania).
The Wine & Truffle Company is Australia’s largest producer and operates the Hazel Hill truffière in
Manjimup in Western Australia. From around 13 000 oak and hazelnut trees established in 1999 on 21
hectares, annual truffle production has grown from 0.5 kilograms in 2003 to 2400 kilograms in 2012.
Prices received for Australian-produced truffles benefit from being able to supply fresh truffles in the
off season for northern hemisphere producers. However, Australian truffle prices have been declining
as truffle production increases.
150
Based on the number and age structure of inoculated trees growing in Australia in 2012, Australian
truffle production is projected to rise to around 10 tonnes in 2016 (Duell 2012). The steady increase in
production is likely to continue to put downward pressure on prices for Australian-produced black
truffles.
Further information about truffles

Australian Truffle Growers Association (www.trufflegrowers.com.au), industry representative
body.

Perigord Truffles of Tasmania (www.perigord.com.au)—information on the Australian truffle
industry.

The Wine & Truffle Co. (www.wineandtruffle.com.au)—information on truffle growing in
Western Australia, including a listing of its current wholesale prices.

Truffles Australis (www.trufflesaustralis.com.au)—a range of information on truffle growing,
including production costs.

The ‘Truffles’ chapter in RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook, pp. 331–36
(https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/04-125).

The Sainte Alvère market (www.sainte-alvere.com)—market prices in France for various grades
of Perigord truffles.

FranceAgriMer (www.franceagrimer.fr)—weekly information on truffle prices in France and
quantities offered, by region of production.
Wildflowers and native plants
The annual value of world imports of cut flowers (fresh and dried), foliage (fresh and dried) and
mosses and lichens averaged around US$9 billion in the three years to 2011, with fresh cut flowers
making up more than 80 per cent of the total. The Netherlands accounted for around 44 per cent of the
value of world trade in the three years to 2011; the other major exporters were Colombia (12 per cent
of the total value in the three years to 2011), Ecuador (7 per cent), Kenya (7 per cent), Germany (3 per
cent) and Israel (2 per cent). The main importers were Germany (15 per cent of the total value in the
three years to 2011), the United States (13 per cent), the United Kingdom (12 per cent), the
Netherlands (11 per cent), the Russian Federation (7 per cent), France (7 per cent) and Japan (5 per
cent).
The value of world imports in real US dollars has grown at a trend rate of 2.3 per cent a year since the
early 1990s ( Figure 94). Around this trend, there is some evidence of a cyclical pattern.
151
10
8
6
4
2
2012
US$b 0
1991
cut flowers, fresh
1996
cut flowers, dried
2001
foliage, fresh
2006
foliage, dried
2011
mosses, lichen
Data source: United Nations Statistics Division (2013)
Figure 94: Cut flowers and foliage: value of world imports
The beauty and novelty of many of Australia’s native plants and foliage make them a valued
component of floral arrangements in many parts of the world. A wide range of Australian native plants
are now being grown commercially in countries other than Australia, particularly Israel, Colombia,
Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The most popular plants grown in these countries are waxflower,
kangaroo paw, banksia and eucalypt (for foliage).
Australian wildflower industry
The Australian wildflower and native plant industry was initially based on harvesting from the wild
but most production is now from artificial propagation on commercial farms. Each of Australia’s states
and territories has in place arrangements to ensure the wild harvesting of Australian native flora is
undertaken in sustainable ways. For example, Western Australia—a state with a rich and diverse
native flora—has a management plan agreed with the Australian Government Department of
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, under state and Commonwealth
legislation, that enables native flora to be exported (Department of Environment and Conservation,
Western Australia 2008). The arrangements include licensing systems, quotas for specific areas and
species, and monitoring of harvested and traded quantities.
A list of Australian wildflower and native plants (by species and common name) in rough order of
their importance as an export is shown in Table 82. Some plants from the proteaceae family that are
native to Southern Africa, such as proteas, are widely grown in Australia and are usually included in
the wildflowers category. There are also plants from the proteaceae family that are native to Australia,
such as the Telopea genus.
152
Table 82: Wildflowers: Australian species
Importance as export
Botanical name (Genus)
Common name(s)
1
Chamelaucium spp.
Geraldton wax, waxflower
2
Anigozanthos spp.
Kangaroo paw
3
Thryptomene spp.
Thryptomene
4
Stirlingia spp.
Blueboy, stirlingia
5
Protea spp.
Protea
6
Banksia spp.
Banksia
7
Leucadendron spp.
Leucadendron, conebush,
8
Caustis spp.
Koala fern foliage
9
Scholtzia spp.
Scholtzia
10
Eucalyptus spp.
Eucalyptus foliage
11
Boronia spp.
Boronia
12
Leucospermum spp.
Leucospermum, tea tree
13
Ozothamnus spp.
Rice flower, sago bush, mountain daisy, tick bush
14
Eriostemon spp.
Eriostemon, waxflower
15
Telopea spp.
Waratah
16
Verticordia spp.
Feather flower
17
Dryandra spp.
Dryandra, bush rose
18
Blandfordia spp.
Christmas bell
19
Conospermum spp.
Smokebush
20
Cryptandra spp.
Corroboree flower, cotton bush, snow balls
21
Ixodia spp.
Ixodia, South Australian daisy, hills daisy, mountain daisy
22
Geleznowia spp.
Yellow bells
23
Hypocalymma spp.
Myrtle
24
Crowea spp.
Crowea
25
Grevillea spp.
Grevillea
26
Podocarpus spp.
Emu bush
27
Taxandria spp.
Tea tree, juniper myrtle, swamp wattle
28
Persoonia spp.
Barker bush, cherry bush, geebung, snottygobble
29
Adenanthos spp.
Adenanthos
30
Beaufortia spp.
Swamp bottlebrush, swamp flame flower
Source: Adapted from Australian Flower Export Council (2003) and Faragher et al. (2010)
There are few statistics on the volume and value of production of flowers and foliage in Australia.
Karingal Consultants (1997) estimated the total value of the fresh cut flower and foliage domestic
market to be $142 million wholesale and $285 million retail. Of this total, wildflowers were estimated
to make up 10–15 per cent.
The most recent data indicate there were 980 establishments growing cut flowers in Australia in 2010–
11, on 4750 hectares, around 300 hectares of which were undercover (ABS 2012a). Most of the area
planted was in Victoria (52 per cent), New South Wales (14 per cent) and Western Australia (12 per
cent). The total value of the cut flower industry in Australia in 2010–11 was $291 million, down from
$323 million in 2006–07 (ABS 2012c).
Western Australia accounts for the bulk of Australian exports of wildflowers. The number of
wildflower stems harvested from the wild has been declining, due to drought and low returns, but the
seed harvest has been fluctuating around 12 000 kilograms a year ( Figure 95). The decline in the wild
harvest in Western Australia is being partially offset by increases in nursery-raised wildflowers in that
state.
153
12
24000
9
18000
6
12000
3
6000
million 0
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
stems harvested
2008
2009
kg
2010
seed collected (right axis)
Data source: Conservation Commission of Western Australia (2012)
Figure 95: Wildflowers: flower and seed harvest from native environments of south-west
Western Australia
The gross value of the wildflower industry was an estimated $30 million in 2011–12, down from $40
million in 2006–07. The Australian wildflower industry was adversely affected by seasonal conditions
in the first decade of the 2000s, but seasonal conditions in 2010–11 and 2011–12 were generally
favourable. The main reason for the decline between 2006–07 and 2011–12 appears to be the loss of
market share, both in domestic and export markets, due to the strong Australian dollar.
154
Table 83: Wildflowers: supply, disposal and value, Australia
Unit
2005–06
2006–07
42 280
40 028
1 203
707
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
Production
Gross value
$’000
30 000
Exports
Kangaroo paws a
– volume
’000 stems
725
781
405
462
432 b
– value
$’000
502
268
404
500
224
192
202 b
– unit value
$/stem
0.42
0.38
0.56
0.64
0.55
0.42
0.47
Proteas a
– volume
’000 stems
5 804
5 053
3 674
4 744
3 940
3 858
1 978 b
– value
$’000
3 340
2 685
1 679
2 186
1 546
1 389
704 b
– unit value
$/stem
0.58
0.53
0.46
0.46
0.39
0.36
0.36 b
Waxflowers a
– volume
’000 stems
14 995
12 251
7 333
9 292
7 829
7 315
7 678
– value
$’000
4 291
3 851
2 805
3 936
2 630
2 223
2 193
– unit value
$/stem
0.29
0.31
0.38
0.42
0.34
0.30
0.29
18 266
19 497
15 225
12 397
7 690
5 223
2 890
Other Australian native species a
– volume
’000 stems
– value
$’000
6 654
6 526
4 593
5 001
3 915
2 463
1 088
– unit value
$/stem
0.36
0.33
0.30
0.40
0.51
0.47
0.38
Wild picked, fresh
– volume
’000 stems
5 184
3 465
1 769
1 477
1 332
114
894
– value
$’000
867
477
864
776
741
30
199
– unit value
$/stem
0.17
0.14
0.49
0.53
0.56
0.27
0.22
Wild picked, dried or preserved
– volume
’000 stem
2 098
3 822
5 844
3 554
2 238
3 121
933 b
– value
$’000
1 129
1 184
1 200
589
82
487
182 b
– unit value
$/stem
0.54
0.31
0.21
0.17
0.04
0.16
0.20 b
na
na
na
na
na
na
6 781
7 145
7 836
7 416
6 062
5 466
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
23 563
22 135
19 381
20 404
15 200
12 250
7 060
Foliage
– volume
na
– value
$’000
– unit value
na
Total export value
$’000
na
2 493 b
a Artificially propagated. b Six months data only due to export code changes from January 2012.
Sources: ABARES; ABS (2013)
The real value of Australia’s exports of cut flowers, foliage and live plants and bulbs (exotic and
native, here called ‘flower’ exports) grew strongly to nearly $62 million in 2001–02, but has since
declined to $11 million in 2011–12. The steadily strengthening Australia dollar throughout this period
contributed to the decline. Sutton (2002) concluded that the export statistics used here from the
Australian Bureau of Statistics could considerably understate the value of exports to at least some
countries. This is because prices received are not known with any certainty until the flowers are sold at
auction in the destination country.
The share of wildflowers in the total value of Australian flower exports has grown from 17 per cent in
1988–89 to a peak of 76 per cent in 1999–2000, but declined steadily to 63 per cent in 2011–12. The
real value of Australian exports of wildflowers, native plants and foliage peaked in 2001–02 at $43.5
million dollars, but was only $7.1 million in 2011–12 ( Figure 96). The export shares of foliage,
155
waxflowers and proteas are larger than in the mid-1990s, while wild picked and cultivated Australian
native flowers and plants have declined substantially.
50
40
30
20
10
2011–12
$m
0
1996–97
2001–02
2006–07
kangaroo paws, artifically propagated
wax flowers, artificially propagated
proteas, artificially propagated
other Australian native flowers
wild picked, fresh and dried
foliage
2011–12
Data source: ABS (2013)
Figure 96: Wildflowers: value of exports, Australia
The most important export markets for Australian wildflowers, foliage and native plants are Japan (36
per cent of the total value of exports in the three years to 2011–12), the Netherlands (30 per cent), the
United States (16 per cent), Germany (6 per cent) and Canada (4 per cent). Western Australia
accounted for 34 per cent of the total value of exports in this period, Queensland 28 per cent, Victoria
24 per cent, and New South Wales 13 per cent.
The value in real terms of Australian imports of cut flowers, mosses, foliage and live plants (including
seeds and bulbs) grew strongly in the 1990s but growth has slowed markedly over the past decade.
Australia’s flower imports were mostly sourced from the Netherlands (38 per cent of the total value in
the three years to 2011–12), Singapore (15 per cent), Kenya (7 per cent), Malaysia (5 per cent),
Colombia (5 per cent), China (4 per cent) and the United States (4 per cent).
Further information about wildflowers and native plants

WildFlowers Australia (www.wildflowersaustralia.com.au), national industry organisation aimed
at improving the profitability and sustainability of the Australian wildflower industry.

Flower Auction Japan (www.faj.co.jp)—weekly flower prices and volumes (including Australia
natives) in the Ohta Market (located in southern Tokyo).
156
Appendixes
Appendix A: Value of Australian farm and fisheries production and
exports
Table A1: Gross value of Australian livestock production
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
7 281
7 491
6 813
6 806
6 567
7 164
7 244
444
380
400
428
499
484
383
1 378
1 387
1 481
1 725
1 832
2 029
1 950
Livestock slaughterings
Cattle and calves a
Sheep b
Lambs bc
Pigs
Poultry
890
944
902
976
965
919
934
1 223
1 294
1 637
1 862
1 785
2 077
2 078
404
497
541
646
701
660
651
Live exports
Cattle exported live d
Sheep exported live d
297
290
287
340
298
348
345
11 966
12 336
12 104
12 834
12 722
13 762
13 670
Wool g
2 054
2 282
2 309
1 806
1 928
2 673
2 857
Milk h
3 341
3 178
4 572
3 988
3 371
3 932
3 986
376
388
468
447
428
572
578
66
70
63
86
80
66
79
5 836
5 917
7 412
6 326
5 807
7 243
7 500
Total livestock e
Livestock products
Eggs
Honey and beeswax
Total livestock products
a Includes dairy cattle slaughtered. b Excludes skin values. c Lamb saleyard indicator weight 18–22 kilograms. d Includes
animals exported for breeding purposes. e Total livestock slaughterings includes livestock disposals. g Shorn, dead and
fellmongered wool and wool exported on skins. h Milk intake by factories and valued at the farm gate.
Notes: The gross value of production is the value placed on recorded production at the wholesale prices realised in the
marketplace. The point of measurement can vary between commodities. Generally the marketplace is the metropolitan market
in each state and territory. However, where commodities are consumed locally or where they become raw material for a
secondary industry, these points are presumed to be the marketplace. Prices used in these calculations exclude GST.
Sources: ABARES (2013); ABS (2012c)
157
Table A2: Gross value of Australian fisheries products a
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
Tuna
175
161
210
187
125
150
174
Salmonids b
231
291
302
326
369
409
516
Other fish c
382
415
431
463
464
424
451
Prawns
305
267
272
290
325
305
277
Rock lobster d
463
461
426
415
381
390
416
Abalone
225
217
189
189
173
178
166
Scallops
23
29
33
26
23
22
8
Oysters
75
91
89
93
101
99
104
Pearls e
122
124
114
90
105
120
114
Other molluscs g
66
70
52
49
32
31
38
Other crustaceans
74
63
63
66
65
65
76
2 167
2 217
2 207
2 214
2 191
2 231
2 374
Total fish
a Value to fishermen of product landed in Australia. b Includes salmon and trout production. c Includes an estimated value of
aquaculture. d Includes Queensland bugs. e Includes Northern Territory aquaculture production from 2009–10. g Also
includes fish and aquaculture values not elsewhere included.
Notes: The gross value of production is the value placed on recorded production at the wholesale prices realised in the
marketplace. The point of measurement can vary between commodities. Generally the marketplace is the metropolitan market
in each state and territory. However, where commodities are consumed locally or where they become raw material for a
secondary industry, these points are presumed to be the marketplace. Prices used in these calculations exclude GST.
Sources: ABARES (2013); ABS (2012c)
158
Table A3: Gross value of Australian crop production
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
Barley
1 417
1 039
2 244
1 850
1 356
1 729
1 636
Canola
473
227
659
1 011
840
1 283
1 562
Chickpeas
56
137
195
199
211
207
269
Field peas
130
40
109
82
86
105
79
Lupins
251
125
222
198
205
216
227
Oats
249
180
423
251
186
221
256
Triticale
119
44
113
93
120
65
102
5 099
2 619
5 292
6 021
4 765
7 052
7 540
Grains and oilseeds
Winter crops
Wheat
Summer crops
Maize
71
60
100
106
88
92
94
Rice
284
55
7
34
90
174
254
Grain sorghum
276
274
977
553
296
412
446
Soybeans
18
11
23
44
33
15
41
Sunflower seed
31
8
44
38
29
24
26
Other oilseeds a
Total grains and oilseeds
28
21
31
28
34
27
29
8 852
5 048
10 788
10 778
8 662
12 134
12 974
Industrial crops
Cotton lint and cottonseed b
995
542
254
693
828
2 025
2 889
Sugar cane (cut for crushing)
1 032
1 221
861
1 021
1 382
1 036
1 200
Wine grapes
1 154
1 243
1 446
887
709
712
723
Total industrial crops
3 181
3 005
2 560
2 601
2 919
3 771
4 812
206
240
202
286
273
308
300
Fruit and nuts (excl. grapes)
2 627
3 499
2 758
2 871
2 950
3 013
3 206
Vegetables
2 833
3 165
3 363
3 012
3 023
3 338
3 418
Other horticulture
1 675
1 730
1 693
1 556
1 649
1 606
1 680
Total horticulture
7 341
8 633
8 015
7 725
7 895
8 265
8 604
Other crops nei c
1 536
1 683
2 858
1 665
1 660
1 706
1 550
20 909
18 369
24 222
22 769
21 136
25 876
27 767
Horticulture
Table and dried grapes
Total crops
a Linseed, safflower seed and peanuts. b Value delivered to gin. c Mainly fodder crops. nei Not elsewhere included.
Notes: The gross value of production is the value placed on recorded production at the wholesale prices realised in the
marketplace. The point of measurement can vary between commodities. Generally the marketplace is the metropolitan market
in each state and territory. However, where commodities are consumed locally or where they become raw material for a
secondary industry, these points are presumed to be the marketplace. Prices used in these calculations exclude GST.
Sources: ABARES (2013); ABS (2012c)
159
Table A4: Value of exports of crops and crop products
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
$m
Grains and oilseeds
Winter crops
Barley a
1 108
833
1 496
1 321
1 093
1 295
1 875
Canola
331
108
303
595
583
866
1 344
Chickpeas
106
168
139
275
255
213
385
Lupins
99
38
31
61
115
89
65
Oats
47
20
37
64
53
37
47
Peas b
43
80
61
62
60
85
93
3 296
2 765
2 990
5 028
3 692
5 516
6 381
53
31
8
19
46
85
195
Wheat c
Summer crops
Cottonseed
Corn (maize)
Rice
Grain sorghum
Other oilseeds d
4
4
5
13
8
6
24
171
347
110
143
59
151
417
33
13
76
405
116
146
299
21
22
27
27
24
14
10
5 312
4 430
5 283
8 015
6 102
8 502
11 135
Raw cotton e
1 137
823
466
500
755
1 367
2 736
Sugar
1 454
1 510
1 006
1 338
1 887
1 436
1 718
Wine
2 799
2 990
2 683
2 428
2 164
1 957
1 859
Total industrial
crops
5 391
5 323
4 155
4 266
4 805
4 760
6 312
Fruit
629
600
590
688
589
460
507
Tree nuts
204
174
181
233
212
211
240
Vegetables
457
436
422
487
542
607
712
35
33
32
29
23
20
15
Total grains and
oilseeds
Industrial crops
Horticulture
Nursery
Other horticulture g
207
283
274
280
274
293
258
Total horticulture
1 532
1 527
1 500
1 717
1 640
1 592
1 732
Other crops and crop
products
1 639
1 678
1 876
2 368
2 346
2 461
2 517
13 874
12 957
12 813
16 367
14 894
17 315
21 695
Total crops
a Includes the grain equivalent of malt. b Field peas and cowpeas. c Includes the grain equivalent of wheat flour. d Includes
soybeans, linseed, sunflower seed, safflower seed and peanuts. Excludes meals and oils. e Excludes cotton waste and linters.
g Other horticulture includes mainly coffee, tea, spices, essential oils and other miscellaneous horticultural products.
Sources: ABARES (2013); ABS (2013); DAFF (2013c)
160
Appendix B: Levies applicable to emerging industries in Australia
A range of levies are applied to emerging industry commodities produced in Australia. The levy rates
and levy purpose are as follows:
Commodity
Levy rate
Purpose
Almond
In shell, 1c/kg
Shelled, 2c/kg
Nonpareil, in shells, 1.5c/kg
Funding for research and development carried out
by Horticulture Australia Limited
Buffalo
$5.33/head on Australian produced buffaloes that
are exported live
$10.33/head on buffaloes slaughtered for human
consumption at Australian abattoirs
Funding for research and development by RIRDC,
and the activities carried out by the Brucellosis and
Tuberculosis Eradication Council
Chestnut
Domestic, 10c/kg
Export, 10c/kg
Funding for promotion, research and development
carried out by Horticulture Australia Limited
Deer
$7.75/head payable on live deer produced in and
exported from Australia
10.5c/kg (hot dressed weight) on deer slaughtered at
an abattoir and intended for human consumption
3.5 per cent of the sale (or declared) value of deer
velvet produced and sold in Australia
3.5 per cent of the sale (or declared) value of deer
velvet produced in Australia and exported
Funding for research and development by RIRDC,
and residue testing administered by the National
Residue Survey
Goat
1.5 per cent of the sale value of shorn goat fibre
37.7c/head for all transactions where ownership of
the goat changes hands
3c/head for all wild (game) goats killed for human
consumption and processed at a licensed
establishment
Funding for research and development by RIRDC
and Meat & Livestock Australia, and residue testing
administered by the National Residue Survey
Game pig
25c/head
Funding residue testing administered by the
National Residue Survey
Ginger
0.5 per cent of the sale value of fresh ginger, seed
ginger and processing ginger
Funding for research, development and marketing
activities of Horticulture Australia Limited
Horse
$5/head for horses slaughtered for human
consumption
Funding for the residue testing program, which is
administered by the National Residue Survey
Kangaroo
7c/head for all wild (game) kangaroos killed for
human consumption by shooting and that are
processed at a licensed establishment
From 2004, 3c/head for all macropods killed for pet
food
Funding for research and development by RIRDC,
and residue testing administered by the National
Residue Survey
Lychee
8c/kg for fresh lychee
1c/kg for processing lychee
8c/kg for export lychee
Funding for research, development and marketing
activities of Horticulture Australia Limited
Macadamia
Dried kernel, 25.21c/kg
Nut-in-shell, 8c/kg
Funding for research, development and promotion
by Horticulture Australia Limited, and residue
testing administered by the National Residue Survey
Papaya
Fresh, 2c/kg
Processing, 0.25c/kg
Export, 2c/kg
Funding for research, development and promotion
by Horticulture Australia Limited
Pasture seed
Category 1 (medics), $10/t
Category 2 (lucernes), $15/t
Category 3 (clovers), $15/t
Category 4 (subclovers), $11/t
Category 5 (serradella), $10/t
Funding for research and development by RIRDC
Pulse
Levy calculated as a percentage of the farmgate
value at the rates of 1.015 per cent for field peas,
lupins and chick peas; and 1.000 per cent for mung
beans, pigeon peas, peanuts, navy beans, vetch, cow
peas and lentils
Funding for research and development activities of
the Grains Research and Development Corporation,
and residue testing administered by the National
Residue Survey for field peas, lupins and chick peas
161
Ratite (emu
and ostrich)
Applied to all ratites slaughtered for human
consumption in Australia at the rate of $0.75/head
for emus and $1.25/head for ostriches
162
Funding for research and development by RIRDC,
and residue testing administered by the National
Residue Survey
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