Outline of History of Notable Persons September 3, 2014 SOCI

Transcription

Outline of History of Notable Persons
September 3, 2014
SOCI>History>Notable_Persons
Menes
pharaoh
Egypt
-3100 to -3000
He was king in south Egypt and united north (Lower Egypt) and south (Upper Egypt), beginning the 1st Dynasty. He
founded Memphis as capital in Lower Egypt. The pharaoh became like god.
An Duong [Duong, An]
king
Vietnam
-3000 to -2000
He founded Au Viet dynasty.
Gilgamesh
king
Uruk, Iraq
-2700
Uruk is in Iraq.
Imhotep
architect/physician
Saqqara, Egypt
-2650
Pyramid of King Zoser [-2650: first step pyramid that used cut stones]
He lived -2635 to -2595, multiplied using times-two table, and built pyramid. Egyptian Old Kingdom 3rd Dynasty
pyramids had temples, palaces, and tombs {funerary district}. Palaces had fluted columns.
Cheops or Khufu
pharaoh
Egypt
-2500
He founded IV Dynasty and built Great Pyramid at Giza.
Sargon I
emperor
Akkad
-2400 to -2350
He began Akkadian or Old Assyrian Empire by conquering Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia.
Gudea
king
Lagash, Iraq
-2100
He and his son ruled Amorites or Gutians.
Sanskrit
language
Pakistan
-2000
Languages {Sanskrit language} began 4000 years ago in Pakistan.
Semiramis or Semiramide or Shamiram
queen
Babylonia/Assyria
-2000 to -800
In legends, she associated with king Ninus, legendary founder of Nineveh. Perhaps, she was Shammuramat of Babylon,
wife of Shamshi-Adad V [-811 to -808].
Hammurabi
king/lawgiver
Babylonia
-1792 to -1750
Code of Hammurabi [-1792: first law code]
He lived -1792 to -1750. He started First Babylonian Empire. He conquered Sumer and Akkad. His capital was at
Babylon. By myth, Sun god gave laws to Hammurabi. Code of Hammurabi first codified existing laws. 282 articles
were about wages, fees, divorces, slaves, and practical affairs. Code had first law of maximum retaliation, limiting
revenge to no more than original harm.
Ahmes
mathematician
Fayum, Egypt
-1650
Rhind papyrus or Ahmes Papyrus [-1650]
He lived -1680 to -1620, solved practical architecture problems, calculated astronomical events, and used simple
interest, compound interest, principal, and rate. Multiplication is repeated doubling, and division is repeated halving.
Mursilis I
king
Babylon
-1595
As Hittite king, he took Babylon.
Ahmose I
pharaoh
Thebes, Egypt
-1554
He defeated Hyskos and started New Kingdom. He took Nubia and Canaan, Palestine.
Minos
king
Knossos, Crete
-1500
Cretan civilization had boxing, bull leaping, hunting, musicians, dancers, and board games.
Abraham
patriarch
Palestine
-1500 to -1200
The Bible tells that he started Judaism.
Hatsheput
queen
Egypt
-1490 to -1458
She lived ? to -1458 and was of XVIII dynasty. She was Thutmose I's eldest daughter. Her half-brother Thutmose II
married her and was pharaoh [-1495 to -1490], and then she was regent to Thutmose III. She became pharaoh [-1479 to
-1458]. She built temple at Deir el-Bahari in Thebes.
Thotmes III
king
Egypt
-1481 to -1446
After Queen Hatsheput had become pharaoh, Thotmes III conquered to Euphrates River and Levant, including south
Canaan, Syria, and Palestine, but not Mitanni in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.
Amenhotep III
pharaoh
Egypt
-1411 to -1375
In 18th Dynasty, empire was at maximum size. Thebes was capital. His statues are at Thebes and are Colossi of
Memnon. Memnon was an Ethiopian hero of the Greeks.
Sin-leqi-unninni
priest
Sumer
-1400
Epic of Gilgamesh [-1400: contains flood story]
He revised previous version [-1600]. Gilgamesh was ruler of Uruk.
Parasara
poet/philosopher
Karnataka, India
-1391 to -575
Great Discourses on Astrology by Parasara [-1391 to -575: in the Rig-veda]; Institutes of Parasara [-1391 to -575: in
the Rig-veda]
In Vedas, he was Vyasa's father, was Kapila's student, received Vishnu Purana from Pulastya, taught Maitreya, and
wrote Dharmasastra about law.
Suppiluliumas I
king
Mesopotamia
-1380
He became Hittite king.
Iknaton or Amenhotep IV or Akhnaton
pharaoh
el-Amarna, Egypt
-1375 to -1358
Hymn to the Sun
He tried to institute monotheism based on the god of the Sun {Aton}. Sun-god temple was at the new capital Amarna or
Tel-el-Amarna, 300 miles south of Thebes. He changed Egyptian life drastically. The priests of Amon opposed him. He
had bad economy and lost all foreign lands. His queen was Nefertiti or Nefretete.
Tutankhamon
pharaoh
Egypt
-1355
He restored polytheistic religion. Thebes became capital again.
Lagadha
astronomer
India
-1350
Vedic Text on Light [-1350: Vedic astronomy]
He described Sun and Moon motions.
Moses or Móshe
leader/lawgiver
Egypt/Canaan
-1300
Ten Commandments [-1300: ten legal prohibitions]
He lived -1392 to -1272, stated Mosaic Law, and codified criminal law. The Bible tells that he received the Ten
Commandments and that he was Hebrew leader before Joshua.
Ramses II
pharaoh
Egypt
-1292 to -1225
In 19th Dynasty, he fought Hittites. Empire went from fourth cataract of Nile River to Syria. Temples were at Karnak,
Thebes, and Abu-Simbel.
Muwattalis
king
Syria
-1285
As Hittite king, he lost to Ramses II but kept north Syria.
Ramses III
pharaoh
Egypt
-1198 to -1167
In 20th Dynasty, he fought Syria and Libya, reunited kingdom, and lived in luxury with the nobles. Harem intrigue
killed him.
Saul
king
Israel
-1012 to -1006
He became first king of Israel, was first defeated by Philistines, and then defeated them.
David
king/poet
Israel
-1012 to -990
Psalms [-1012 to -990]
He defeated Philistines, conquered all of Canaan, and unified Hebrews. Jerusalem was capital. In the Bible, he fought
the giant Goliath for Saul, became king of Israel after Saul, loved Bathsheba, and wrote Psalms.
Yaska
philosopher
Gandhara (Kandahar), India
-1000 to 1
Vedic Grammar or Etymologies [-1000 to 1: commentary on Nighantu, the Rig-veda glossary]
He was Scholiast. Vedas are spiritual knowledge, mythology, and Yajna Mantras (Ritual Mantras). Deva means donor,
luminous, and heaven resident {Dyusthan}. Devas are Agni in earth, Vayu or Indra in sky, and Surya (Sun) in heaven.
Solomon
king
Israel
-967 to -935
Aramaic Edomites became independent. He rebuilt Jerusalem.
Adadnirari II
king
Assyria
-911 to -891
He started late Assyrian civilization.
Yajnavalkya
philosopher/astronomer
Mithila, Nepal
-900 to -800
Upanishads or Near Down Sit or Sitting down near guru [-900 to -800: commentary on Veda theory is in Vedanta and
has 108 conversations among masters and disciples]; Yajnavalkya [-900 to -800]
He wrote most Upanishads. His disciples were Gargi Vacaknavi and Vidagdha Shakalya.
Hindu texts can be about guru's teaching to disciple {upanishad, guru}. Upanishads are part of the Hindu Shruti
(Revealed) scriptures and are about meditation and philosophy. Veda Brahmana or Aranyaka added older Upanishads.
Recent Upanishads were separate.
Manu, Brihaspati, Ayasya and Narada are Vedic sages in Upanishads. Yajnavalkya is in most Upanishads. He taught
negating thoughts {neti-neti} to reach truth. Uddalaka Aruni, Shwetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada, and Sanat
Kumara are other sages in Upanishads.
The oldest and longest conversation is Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad or Great and Secret Teachings of the Forest, about
world and humans. Manukya Upanishad is about "silence" {manukya} and the syllable OM. The Upanishads include
Questions, Lord, and By Whom?
Upanishads use metaphors, such as metaphor of the chariot and metaphor of two birds on one tree. 95-year cycles
synchronize Sun and Moon cycles. Yajna means sacrifice.
Lycurgus
founder/lawgiver
Sparta, Greece
-885 to -825
Rhetras or Constitution of Sparta [-825: harsh and strict law]
He lived -885 and -825, reformed constitution to create the harsh Spartan way, and founded military oligarchy with
harsh laws.
Omri
king
Israel
-878 to -871
Samaria was capital.
Ahab
king
Israel
-871 to -852
He married the Phoenician Jezebel, so Baal became worshiped, not Yahweh. The prophet Elijah was against him.
Jehu
king
Israel
-871 to -852
Elijah helped him, and he restored worship of Yahweh.
Ashurnasirpal III
emperor
Mesopotamia
-850
He began New Assyrian Empire by conquering to Mediterranean.
Homer
poet
Chios, Greece
-850
Iliad [-850]; Odyssey [-850]
He lived -900 to -850 and described ancient Greek laws. George Chapman translated [1611 to 1616].
Athaliah
king
Judaea
-845 to -839
Kingdom of Judah worshiped Baal, not Yahweh. He killed descendants of former kings.
Parsvanatha
philosopher
India
-820 to -772
He lived -872 to -772 and was the 23rd Jainist saint.
Shalmaneser III
emperor
Mesopotamia
-800
New Assyrian Empire took Syria and Palestine.
Baudhayana
writer/Vedic priest/craftsman
India
-770 to -750
Discourses on Altar Construction [-770 to -750: about altar construction]
He lived -800 to -740 and wrote book about altar construction {Sulbasutra}, which required pi and square root of two
and constructed circles from rectangles and squares from circles.
Romulus
founder
Rome, Italy
-753 to -716
By legend, he founded Rome.
Tiglath Pileser III
emperor
Mesopotamia
-750
New Assyrian Empire took Babylonia, Media, and Syria.
Hezekiah
king
Judaea
-725 to -697
He was king of Judah.
Sargon II
emperor
Assyria
-722 to -705
New Assyrian Empire took Samaria [-722], Carcemish, Babylon, and west Kurdistan. He built Khorsabad as capital.
He conquered Israel [-720].
Manava
Vedic priest/craftsman
India
-720
Discourses on Altar Construction [-720: about altar construction]
He lived -750 to -690 and constructed circles from rectangles and squares from circles.
Numa Pompilius
king
Rome, Italy
-715 to -673
He was legendary peaceful king.
Sennacherib
emperor
Assyria
-705 to -681
New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon [-689]. He also defeated Egypt [-690], Cyprus, Cilicia, and Syria and exacted
tribute from Jerusalem. He built capital at Nineveh.
Hesiod
poet
Greece
-700
Theogony or Genealogy of the Gods [-700]; Works and Days [-700: didactic poetry]
He lived 730 to ? and was from Boeotia.
Necho I or Nekhao Memkheperre
king
Egypt
-690 to -664
He lived -710 to -664.
Esar-Haddon
emperor
Mesopotamia/Egypt
-680 to -669
New Assyrian Empire defeated Chaldeans and took control in Egypt [-673 to -670].
Ashurbanipal or Sardanapalus or Asnapper
emperor
Assyria
-668 to -626
He took Elam [-646] and destroyed Thebes, Egypt. New Assyrian Empire was at height of learning, art, and power. He
had famous library.
Zaleucus of Locri
lawgiver
Greece
-664
law code [-664]
He published first Greek law code.
Psamtik
king
Egypt
-663 to -609
He lived -684 to -610, started Saite Dynasty, and took Syrtis and Cyrene in Libya and Salamis in Cyprus.
Nitocris
queen
Egypt
-660 to -656
She lived -686 to -656.
Zoroaster or Zarathustra
philosopher/lawgiver
Persia
-630 to -583
Avesta or Commentary [-630: 21 parts have five books or bathas. Yasma contains hymns, including Gathas. Yashts
contains songs. Vesprat contains prayers. Videvdat or Vendidad contains myths and laws, including story of King Jam
or Jamshid. Khordeh Avesta contains prayers and praying]; Gathas or Hymns [-588: poems and songs]
He lived -660 to -583, received knowledge on Mountain of Holy Conversations, and codified laws. He converted
Vishtaspa, a northeast-Iran king. Someone killed him, but his son-in-law, Jamespa, preserved his sayings in the Avesta,
Zoroastrian scripture. Zand is Avesta comments. Zarathushtra composed the 18 poems of Gathas, the oldest Avesta
part, and Yasna Haptanghaiti or Seven-Chapter Sermon. By myth, the god Ahura Mazda gave him the law.
Nabopolassar
king
Babylonia
-626 to -605
He was Chaldean, conquered Assyria at Nineveh [-612], and started New Babylonian Empire. His son,
Nebuchadnezzar II, defeated Egyptians at Carchemish, Syria [-605].
Draco or Dracon
lawgiver
Athens, Greece
-621 to -620
law code [-621]
He gave more people right to vote, eliminated personal revenge, published a harsh criminal code prescribing death
penalty for most crimes, and set property rights that favored upper class.
Tarquin or Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquin the Elder or Tarquin I
king
Rome, Italy
-616 to -579
He was Etruscan.
Necho II
king
Egypt
-609 to -561
He lived -630 to -561. Saite Dynasty rebuilt canal from Nile to Arabian Gulf. He defeated Assyrians [-609]. He lost to
Babylonians [-588].
Jimmu Tenno or Kamuyamato Iwarebiko
emperor
Japan
-607
He founded Japan and explored Inland Sea [-607] from Hyuga to Yamato.
Nebuchadnezzar or Nebuchadnezzar II
king
Babylonia
-605 to -562
He lived -630 to -562. Second Babylonian Empire defeated Egypt under Necho [-588]. It then defeated revolt in Judah
[-587 to -586] and took Jews into captivity in Babylon (Babylonian Captivity). It also conquered Elam and
Achaemenids. He rebuilt temple to Marduk and enlarged Tower of Babel.
Brihaspati or Brhaspati or Charu
philosopher
India
-600
Discourses on Lokayata [-600]
Traditionally, founded Carvaka, Charvaka, Lokayata, Laukayatikas, or Lokayatikas School of materialism, a non-Vedic
atheistic system. Sense gratification is good.
Kanada
philosopher
India
-600
He founded Vaisesika and set rules for Hindu living under caste system. Castes were saint or sage {mahatma, caste},
priest {brahmin, caste}, noble {ksatriya, caste} {khathruja, caste}, merchant {vaisya, caste}, worker {sudra, caste}, and
person with no caste {harajan, caste} {pariah, caste} {outcast, caste}, whom no one should touch {untouchable, caste}.
Aesop
storyteller
Greece
-600 to -560
Aesop's Fables [-600 to -560: more than 500 stories about animals or people with morals]; Androcles and the Lion; Fox
and the Grapes; Lion And His Councilors; Goose That Laid A Golden Egg; Oak And The Reeds; Boy Who Cried
Wolf; Wolf and the Lamb; Lion and the Hare; Lion and the Mouse; Stargazer or The Astronomer
Indrabhuti
philosopher
Uddiyah (Swat Valley), Pakistan
-600 to -500
Establishing Deep Awareness [-600 to -500: about Buddhist School of the Great Delight]
Solon
lawgiver
Athens, Greece
-594
ordinances [-594]
He lived -638 to -558 and codified laws that protected peasant lands from merchants, opened assembly to all free men,
gave power to assembly, and created Council of the Four Hundred as trial jury [-594].
Demiurgoi selected Solon to reform law and to be dictator and forced eupatrids to approve. Solon declared amnesty,
abolished all Draco's laws except for murder, and codified Greek law. Athenians had to take oaths not to alter his laws
for 100 years, and his laws held for 50 years.
He established plutocracy. He reordered social classes based on property and taxed them accordingly. Social classes,
from highest to lowest, were eligible for fewer and fewer offices.
He kept Council of Areopagus but reduced its powers. He gave assembly {ekklesia} power to elect the nine governors
{archon}. He created council {boule, council} of 400 people, one hundred from each Attic tribe, to bring legislation
before assembly.
He devalued currency and reduced or eliminated all debts. He freed citizens enslaved through debt and bought back
citizens sold to foreigners. He ended making debtors slaves. He limited land owned by one person.
He allowed citizens to indict any person. He allowed citizens to be on juries.
He allowed man who had no sons to make will.
He held state responsible to educate sons of men killed in battle.
He legalized prostitution. He closely regulated behavior of women and conduct in society.
Ezekiel
priest
Chaldea
-592
Ezekiel [-592]
The Bible says that he saw wheel in the air and was prophet.
Sappho
poet
Greece
-590 to -570
Hymn to Aphrodite [-590 to -570: in Sapphic metric form, Fragment 1]; Anaktoria [-590 to -570: Fragment 16];
Tithonus [-590 to -570: Fragment 58]
She lived -610 to -570 and was lyric poet.
Anaximander
philosopher
Miletus, Ionia
-590 to -560
On Nature [-590 to -560]
He lived -610 to -550 and was of Milesian School. Infinite, living intelligence {apeiron} transforms itself to make all
things. Universe is always in motion.
Thales of Miletus
philosopher/mathematician/physicist
Miletus, Ionia
-590 to -560
On the Solstice [-590 to -560]; On the Equinox [-590 to -560]; Nautical Star Guide [-590 to -560]
He lived -624 to -547, described Babylonian geometry for calculating heights and distances, was first known Western
philosopher and scientist, and began Milesian School (Ionian School). He founded Greek geometry, astronomy, and
philosophy. He formalized empirical measuring techniques by making axioms and proving theorems. He studied static
electricity.
Epistemology
Experience and thought are different. Experience can be illusory or ambiguous, because objects are too small, sense
organs are faulty, or people perceive something that is not there. Thought can be opinion or fact.
Metaphysics
Water is common principle of universe.
Pherecydes of Syrus
poet/philosopher
Asia Minor
-586
Hymn to Jupiter [-586]; Theology [-586]
He was lyric and gnomic poet.
Hanno
admiral
Carthage, Tunisia
-580 to -550
He sailed along West African coast from Carthage. He founded settlement in Morocco [-550].
Servius Tullius [Tullius, Servius]
king
Rome, Italy
-578 to -535
He built wall around city.
Phaidimos
sculptor
Athens, Greece
-570 to -560
Calf-Bearer or Moschophoros [-570 to -560: Greek Archaic painted sculpture]
It was on Acropolis.
Smilis
sculptor
Samos, Ionia
-565
Hera [-565: Greek Archaic painted wood sculpture]
Smilis was Daedalus' student. Perhaps, Isches of Ionia commissioned it. Samos is Pythagoreion in Asia Minor.
Pisistratus
tyrant
Athens, Greece
-561 to -527
He lived -600 to -527. He seized power after unrest caused by nobles dissatisfied with Solon's laws [-561]. He ruled
during prosperity and decreased upper-class power.
Croesus
king
Lydia
-560 to -546
He lived -595 to -546. Lydia included Pisidia and Lycia in southwest Asia Minor and was at maximum power and
wealth. He resisted Medes. He ruled until overthrown by Persia under Cyrus the Great.
Cyrus II or Cyrus the Great
king
Persia
-557 to -529
He lived -600 to -529, founded Persian Empire, and captured Babylon [-539]. He freed Jews. His capital was at
Pasargadae. He established Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire and conquered Medea [-549], Lydia, Babylonia,
and Egypt [-525]. He restored Jews to Palestine and rebuilt temple for third time. He respected local customs and
governments and only wanted tribute. He tried to take Hindu Kush but Scythians killed him [-529].
Apastamba
writer/Vedic priest/craftsman
India
-550
Discourses on Altar Construction [-570: about altar construction]; Discourses on Higher Thought [-550: Vedic-school
social, ritual, and religious dharmas]
He lived -600 to -540 and solved general linear equation.
Kapila
philosopher
India/Nepal
-550
Samkhya Sutras or Discourses on Samkhya [-550]
He founded Samkhya.
Exekias
painter
Athens, Greece
-550 to -525
Ship of Dionysius [-530: Greek Archaic decorated pottery with black figures]
He decorated amphora.
Purana Kassapa [Kassapa, Purana]
philosopher
India
-550 to -500
He helped develop the Ajivikai system.
Akshapada or Gautama Rishi [Rishi, Gautama] or Dirghatapas
philosopher
India
-550 to -450
Discourses on Nyaya [-550 to -450: about Nyaya]
He started Nyaya and was logician.
Anaximenes
philosopher
Miletus, Ionia
-540 to -510
He lived -570 to -500 and was of Milesian School. Universe is air at different densities.
Pythagoras
philosopher
Samos, Ionia/Crotona, Italy
-540 to -500
He lived -569 to -475, founded Pythagorean School, and studied harmony in music. He developed Pythagorean
theorem, quadratic equation, powers, and roots.
Pythagorean symbol is pentagon with star inscribed, with pentagon inscribed, and so on. Diagonals split in golden ratio.
Epistemology
Soul or mind harmonizes body and has inherently moving elements, as do other body parts, such as blood. Souls
transmigrate from body to body.
Thought is deduction using logic and number. Knowledge is about mathematics and numbers. Truth known by mind is
the same for all people, because they have the same mind elements, but opinion is individual, because bodies mix
different elements.
Perception is imperfect, because it is about the physical world, which is only a copy of the true world. Sensory
knowledge comes when moving object elements enter body and meet moving body elements. Like, or opposite,
moving elements join, or recognize, each other. Only like or opposite can perceive object.
Metaphysics
Universe has order through numbers, which express all relationships. Universe has ten opposites.
Thespis
poet
Greece
-536 to -534
Games of Pelias or Phorbas [-536 to -534]; Priests [-536 to -534]; Youths [-536 to -534]; Pentheus [-536 to -534]
He lived -560 to -525 and was first known tragic actor, who spoke his own verse as character in festival.
Siddhartha Gautama or Buddha
religion founder
India
-534 to -483
He lived -563 to -483. He is also Buddha {Enlightened One} {Awakened One}, Arahat (conqueror or worthy one),
Siddhartha (accomplisher of aim), Tathagata (arriver at truth), and Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni {silent sage of the
Sakyas}. He had ten major disciples.
He was wealthy during youth, but he left his easy life at 29 [-534] to see the world and encountered sick man, old
pauper, and dead man. His Great Renunciation of luxury was at Kapilavastu [-534]. He began to search for the meaning
of life and found enlightenment by understanding source of suffering. He had Great Struggle to find knowledge.
According to Buddhism, while under the Bo tree at Gaya or Uruvela, Kama-Mara, god of desire and death, tempted
him but did not affect him. He completely introverted. He stayed seven days and nights under the tree and then moved
to new tree and stayed there seven days and nights. He experienced the Great Awakening and became the Buddha [538]. He felt state of nothingness with no individualness and total mystical knowledge {nirvana, Buddha}. He repeated
this five more times. When he again saw the world, he realized that what he had experienced was beyond speech. He
felt to talk about it was vain. According to Buddhism, Brahman, the Creator, implored him to teach all creation, awaken
it from the dream of life, and show it the Path, though few can take it. He proclaimed his doctrine at Sarnath and died at
Kusinagara [-483].
He advocated ascetic life, with no rituals, no castes, and no gods. He did not claim to be god, but his followers
worshipped him.
Pythagoras
mathematician
Greece
-530
He lived -580 or -569 to -500 and invented gnomon and Pythagorean theorem. He used similar figures, proportions,
Pythagorean triples, Golden Ratio, Golden Section, and Golden Rectangle, and triangular, square, perfect, amicable,
and prime numbers.
Anacreon
poet
Greece
-530 to -500
Accompt [-530 to -500]; Age [-530 to -500]; Beauty [-530 to -500]; Grasshopper [-530 to -500]; Picture [-530 to -500];
Spring [-530 to -500]; Vintage [-530 to -500]; Wish [-530 to -500]
He lived -563 to -478 and wrote poetry about wine and women {anacreonic poetry, Anacreon}. Thomas Moore
translated the Odes [1801].
Maskarin Gosala [Gosala, Maskarin] or Gosalikaputra or Makkhali Gosala [Gosala, Makkhali] or Gosala
Mamkhaliputta
philosopher
India
-530 to -500
He lived ? to -500 and developed the Ajivikai system, which is similar to Jainism and is non-Vedic. Ajivika are
followers of Gosala [-485]. Ajivika ended [1300].
Xenophanes of Colophon
philosopher
Colophon, Greece
-530 to -500
He lived -560 to -470. He believed in one god, which was not a person but was god-like and reasonable. People can
only know their experience but can form opinions about other ideas.
Cambyses
king
Persia
-529 to -521
He lived -558 to -521, was Cyrus's son, and took Egypt from Assyria [-525].
Hipparchus/Hippias
tyrant
Athens, Greece
-527 to -510
Hippias lived -551 to -490. Hipparchus lived -550 to -514. Sons of Pisistratus, first Hipparchus then Hippias, brought
prosperity and decreased upper-class power. Revolt deposed Hippias [-510].
Vardhamana Mahavira [Mahavira, Vardhamana] or Great Hero
philosopher
Gulbarga, Karnataka, India
-526 to -480
He lived -550 to -480, founded Jainism [-526], is the 24th and last Jainist saint, is Jina or the Victor, and was in nonAryan ksatriya caste. After 12 years of self-abuse, he attained enlightenment, omniscience, and release. He had 11
disciples.
Psiax
painter
Greece
-525
Herakles Strangling the Lion [-525: Greek Archaic amphora with red figures and black background]
He painted black figures and then red figures.
Darius I or Darius the Great
king
Persia
-521 to -486
He lived -550 to -486. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire built Persepolis, fought Scythians, and conquered to
northwest India and Danube River. Army, police, and satrap governors responsible only to king ruled the 20 provinces
{satrapy}. He improved government and communication and tried to build highway from Ephesus to Susa. Ionian cities
in Asia Minor revolted [-499] but lost. He attacked mainland Greece by navy but lost [-490], and then lost to Greek
army at Marathon [-490].
Heraclitus
philosopher
Ephesus, Anatolia
-510 to -490
He lived -540 to -480 and was Pre-Socratic.
Epistemology
People can look in themselves and into nature to find meaning and structure, because soul is like the moving element
fire. Soul is ideal, eternal, and underlying intelligence in universe. He said that you never step into same river twice.
Metaphysics
Universe essence is change or becoming. Change is the element fire. All matter always changes. Justice or fate
balancing conflicting movements or flows {flux, Heraclitus} causes apparent object permanence. All things come from
opposites, being and not being. Nature and mind have structure or harmony, as opposites unite. Matter transformations
have definite ways and orders, as law, reason, and destiny work in universe. World goes through orderly state
successions, back to original state.
Confucius or K'ung-Fu-Tsu or K'ung-tsze or K'ung Ch'iu or K'ung Chung-ni
philosopher
China
-510 to -478
Analects [-500 to -450: Confucius' collected sayings, compiled by his disciples]
He lived -551 to -478 and established Chinese-law foundations.
Confucianism is about how to live practical and wise life. Do not do to people what you would not like them to do to
you {golden rule, Confucius}. Maintain tradition and social order, such as loyalty to ruler and family, conformity to
social behavior rules, and sympathy for others. Become educated, do one's duty, have virtue, have courage, obey, and
be deferent. People should have self-discipline, not be selfish or seek profit, have filial piety, tell truth, have
knowledge, be benevolent and humane, and have jen. People should have correct behavior {li, Confucius}, which leads
to correct inner states. People that have proper behavior for their social station cause imitation by others, out of sense of
correctness, and people, society, and government then follow correct way of living, because they have virtue. Good
government requires wisdom and righteousness.
Universe obliges people to be moral {Decree of Heaven} {t'ien ming}. All things in universe have fates {Destiny}
{ming} that determine social position, wealth, health, and so on. People should accept fate and concentrate on living
morally and benevolently {tao, Confucius} {Way of the Sages}.
Cleisthenes
archon
Greece
-508 to -507
He lived -570 to -507. He became archon [-508], stabilized reforms of Solon, and added democratic reforms. He
allowed more citizens to vote and reduced clan power. Ekklesia had power to decide major issues. Boule performed
detailed government work. Major offices had elections. Lower offices rotated annually, chosen by lot. Officials were
accountable for acts.
Isagoras
archon
Athens, Greece
-508 to -507
He was rival archon to Cleisthenes.
Sun Tzu
general
Suzhou, China
-500
Art of War [-500]
Subhuti
monk
India
-500 to -470
He was Buddha's disciple.
Alcmaeon or Alcmaeon of Croton
doctor
Crotona, Italy
-500 to -450
Dissections [-500]; On Nature [-500 to -450]
He lived -535 to -440 and dissected animals. Body has opposing powers, hot/cold and wet/dry, which balance in health.
Galen later used this idea.
Antisthenes
philosopher
Greece
-500 to -400
He lived -444 to -371, founded Cynic school, and influenced Diogenes. Contradiction is impossible.
Aristippus of Cyrene
philosopher
Cyrene, Libya
-500 to -400
He lived -435 to -356. His ideas were the basis of Hedonistic or Cyrenaic School.
Badarayana
philosopher
India
-500 to -400
Brahmana or Brahma Sutras or Vedanta Sutras or Brahmanas or Brahmin Books [-500 to -400: last Vedanta books
summarize Upanishads and describe Vedic-text uses in public and family sacrifices]
Brahmanic-period [-900 to -500] Brahmanas or Brahmin Books, such as Shatapatha Brahmana, are in Hindu revealed
texts {Sruti} {Shruti} and describe and interpret Rig-vedic rituals. Rig-veda has Aitareya-Brahmana (Shakala shaka) or
Kaushitaki-Brahmana (Bashakala shaka). Samaveda has P Brahmana and Sadv Brahmana (Kauthuma) or Jayminiya
Brahmana. Yajurveda has the Brahmanas in the samhitas about Krishna: Maitrayani samhita, Carakakatha samhita,
Kapisthalakatha samhita, and Taittiriya samhita. Yajurveda has Taittiriya-Brahmana, Shatapatha-Brahmana (Shukla,
Vajasaneyi Madhyandina), and Shatapatha-Brahmana (Shukla, Kanva). Atharvaveda has GopB (Paippalada). The prose
myths and legends are about Brahman {highest reality}, explain theology, and state sacrifice meanings. Brahma Sutras
have four chapters, each with four sections. Brahma Sutras are for understanding Sruti.
By tradition, Vyasa wrote them.
Vyasa or Badarayana or Krishna Dvaipayana [Dvaipayana, Krishna]
poet/philosopher
India
-500 to -300
Epic of the Bharata Dynasty [-500 to -300]
In Vedas, he was born at end of Dvapara Yuga, was a legendary sage, incarnated Lord Krishna, wrote the Mahabharata
for understanding, wrote the eighteen Puranas, established teaching through Upanishads or Upakhyanas, and arranged
Vedas. He wrote the Bhagavata for Devarshi Narada. He established the three paths of Karma, Upasana, and Jnana.
Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura are his sons. There have been twenty-nine Vyasas. Gurupurnima or Vyasa Purnima or
Full Moon of Vyasa is Vyasa's birthday.
Valmiki or Ratnakar
philosopher
Uttar Pradesh, India
-500 to -200
Path of Rama or Early Ramayana [-500 to -200: Vedanta part is about the hero Rama]; Yoga of the Sage Vasistha [-500
to -200: the sage Vasistha tells Rama about the Self]
Vishnu is supreme god. Ikshvau is ancestor of Solar Dynasty.
Coriolanus
leader
Rome, Italy
-491
Senate expelled him from Rome for offering to feed the people if Senate ended office of tribune [-491]. He joined
Volscians and was about to sack Rome when his wife's tears stopped him. Volscians then killed him.
Douris
sculptor
Greece
-490
Eros and Memnon [-490: Greek Archaic cup]
Greek Archaics formed kylix drinking cups.
Panini
linguist
Gandhara (Kandahar), India
-490 to -470
Eight Chapters [-490 to -470: 4000 sutras or grammar rules]
He lived -520 to -460 and wrote Sanskrit grammar that had phonetic system and word analysis.
Pindar
poet
Greece
-490 to -470
Epinicia or Victory Songs [-490 to -470: for chorus]
He lived -518 to -438, was from Boeotia, and wrote odes for chorus {epinicia, Pindar}, which celebrated victories at
Pythian, Olympic, Isthmian, and Nemean games.
Parmenides of Elea
philosopher
Elea, Italy/Velia, Italy
-490 to -460
On Nature [-490 to -460: poem]
He lived -515 to -450, was Eleatic, and wrote first reasoning from premises to conclusions.
Epistemology
Thinking exists and uses objects that exist. Truths can only be about things that exist. Truths name states. False
statements name nothing and have no meaning. People can use same word at all times. Therefore, object must always
exist, so nothing changes. Thought content is unchanging substance, because all thoughts are about something, and
people can think about all beings. Non-Being cannot be thought about or exist. Plurality and empty space are only
appearance, not truth.
Metaphysics
Existence is eternal, unified, unchanging, perfect, real, material, homogeneous, and finite. Existence fills space. Space
is not empty but is substance. Objects have substance, which persists or exists, and in which qualities and predicates
inhere. Change is an illusion.
Aeschylus
playwright
Greece
-490 to -458
Suppliants [-490]; Persians [-472]; Seven against Thebes [-467]; Oresteia [-458: trilogy]; Agamemnon [-458: Oresteia
first play]; Choephoros or Libation Bearers [-458: Oresteia second play]; Eumenides or Fates [-458: Oresteia third
play]
He lived -525 to -456 and wrote tragedies. Perhaps, his son Ion wrote Prometheus Bound.
Xerxes I or Xerxes the Great
emperor
Persia
-485 to -465
He lived -519 to -465. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he was Darius I's son. He defeated Egypt. He invaded Greece by
building bridge over Hellespont channel. He won at Thermopylae [-480], sacked Athens [-480], lost his fleet at Salamis
[-480], and went back to Persia. His army lost at Plataea and his fleet burned at Mycale on same day [-479].
Kritios
sculptor
Greece
-480
Kritios Boy or Kritian Boy or Kritios Ephebe or Standing Youth [-480: Greek Classical marble statue in Severe Style
with asymmetrical body in counterpoise from Acropolis]
He taught Myron. Greek Classical statues typically put weight on one leg in counterpoise.
Libon of Elis
architect
Olympia, Greece
-470 to -456
Temple of Zeus [-470 to -456: large Greek Classical]
Olympia is on Greece west coast.
Zeno of Elea
philosopher
Elea, Italy
-470 to -450
Dialectics [-470 to -450]
He lived -495 to -435, associated with Parmenides, and founded Eleatic School. He invented the dialectic and invented
paradoxes about infinite numbers of steps and changes. The paradoxes arise because they divide continuous motion
into infinite steps, but the infinite is not real.
To go finite length, one must go through half, then half of that, and so on, through infinite number of steps or points
{Dichotomy} {Racecourse}.
If tortoise has head start, Achilles arrives at tortoise starting point only after tortoise has left, so Achilles can never
catch up to tortoise {Achilles and the Tortoise}.
Because no movement can happen through instant, at any instant, arrow is at fixed position, so arrow is at rest. At next
instant, arrow is also at fixed position and at rest {The Arrow}.
Assume one row stands still, second row moves left in one instant, and third row moves right in the same instant.
Second and third rows move one distance unit and are two units apart. The second and third rows were one unit apart at
"half-instant". Because instant is the smallest time, no relative motion can really happen {Stadium} {Moving Rows}
{Row of Solids}.
Metaphysics
Real motion does not exist. The sum of an infinite number of infinitely small quantities can equal either zero or infinity,
and so both a finite and infinite number. Finite and infinite numbers are unlike each other, so such sums are both like
and unlike, which should be impossible. Things can divide or bind infinitely, and so size can be both zero and infinite.
Zero and infinite are unlike, so objects are both like and unlike themselves, which should be impossible. The paradoxes
show motion is impossible. No motion can happen, because motion must pass through an infinite number of points to
get from one point to another. At any instant, motion is infinitely small. If space and time are divisible, motion is
impossible and cannot start.
Motion amount is relative, because measurement differs in different reference frames. Only one real thing exists.
Anaxagoras
philosopher
Ionia, Turkey/Athens, Greece
-470 to -440
He lived -500 to -428 and was Socrates' teacher. Nature has uncountable numbers of unchangeable elements, which can
divide into small particles that have same properties as elements. Objects have varying element proportions. Highest
element is Mind or Reason, which can move itself and move other elements by collision. Mind is alive and includes
reason, order, and purpose {teleology, Anaxagoras}, because all motions follow laws. Universal Mind exists and
everything has purpose.
Pericles
statesman/general
Athens, Greece
-466 to -448
Pericles' Funeral Oration [-429]
He lived -495 to -429, built Acropolis, fostered Delian League, and negotiated peace with Persia. Art, literature, and
democracy flourished. Athens needed to import corn and exported wine, oil, and pottery. Plague and Peloponnesian
War caused his downfall [-448]. Athens had 25% slaves.
Artaxerxes I
emperor
Persia
-464 to -424
He lived -483 to -424. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire became weak by wars with Greece, Egypt, and Bactria.
Diogenes of Apollonia
philosopher
Greece
-460
On Cosmology [-460]
He was Anaximenes' student. Air is spirit or reason and can account mechanically for animal adaptations.
Empedocles
philosopher
Agrigentum, Sicily
-460 to -440
On Nature [-460 to -440]; Purifications [-460 to -440]
He lived -492 to -432 and introduced the four elements. Reality has earth, water, air, and fire {four elements}. Elements
can divide into infinitely small parts. Ways elements combine, not elements themselves, cause physical qualities.
Elements are unchanging, but their movements cause world changes. Love or attraction opposes conflict, hate, strife, or
repulsion. Tension causes motion, which has cycles. Circular motion {vortex, Empedocles} is element fundamental
motion, because element collisions result in rotations, which draw in more elements and increase size. Lighter elements
go to edge, mechanically forming worlds and living things. There is no purpose. Animals change as living conditions
change, and only the fittest survive.
Cincinnatus
dictator
Rome, Italy
-460 to -439
He lived -519 to -430, was consul [-460], and was dictator [-458] [-439]. Senate appointed him dictator [-458]. He
defeated enemy for Roman Republic and then went back to his farm.
Protagoras of Abdera
philosopher
Greece
-460 to -430
Truth or Refutations [-460 to -430]; On the Gods [-460 to -430]
He lived -490 to -420, founded Sophist School, wrote book about argumentation, and was skeptic. Older Sophists were
Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, and Prodicus.
Epistemology
Perceptions differ from actual objects. People can know perception contents but cannot know objects. Perceptions
depend on moving elements. Perception differences depend on moving-element speed and direction differences. People
perceive objects in individual ways. Perceptions are true but only for that person at that time. It is impossible to prove
errors and contradictions. Therefore, man is the measure of all things.
Perceptions include feelings and desires, so ideas of good and worth are also individual.
The only true knowledge is perception. People cannot know about gods.
Ethics
People have a sense of justice and a sense of respect for ethical behavior, which is like sense of reverence. These
feelings cause people to form societies for self-preservation. Society helps people live in harsh world, and virtues help
society. Ethics must be about action consequences and possible alternative actions.
Politics
Nature requires that things should develop, control, and express all possibilities and desires. People should follow only
impulses and desires, to reach goals and express personality. However, strongest-group or strongest-party interests
determine moral and political law. Ruling class invented gods. In democracy, laws protect the weak. In other
government forms, laws protect ruling class. Moral and political laws are against law of nature for most people in
society. Therefore, one should only obey law if it is advantageous.
Ezra
scribe
Babylon/Jerusalem, Palestine
-459
Mosaic Law Additions [-459]
During reign of Cyrus the Great, he compiled Mosaic-Law additions by borrowing from Code of Hammurabi. From
Babylon, he went back to Jerusalem [-459], taking 5000 Jews with him.
Myron
sculptor
Athens, Greece
-456 to -448
Timanthes [-456]; Discobolus or Discus Thrower [-450: Greek Classical bronze statue in Severe Style]; Lycinus [-448]
Perhaps, he was Ageladas of Argos' student.
Decemviri or Ten Men
lawgiver
Rome, Italy
-451
Code of the Twelve Tables [-451: modified Roman law]
Twelve Tables included criminal, contract, tort, family, wills, succession, property, and sacred law. It had legal-action
and court-procedure rules {procedural law}. It had laws {substantive law} about rights and justice. It included
enforcement procedures, public punishments, and harsh liability penalties.
It prohibited private revenge, allowed immediate seizure by wronged person of claimed object or person, and fixed
tariffs for injuries.
It distinguished willful from accidental homicide.
It limited interest rates, gave debtors harsh penalties, defined debtor's liabilities, and gave grace period to debtors.
It prohibited excessive funerals and excessive bequests.
Antiphon
philosopher
Greece
-450 to -430
On Truth [-450 to -430]; On Concord [-450 to -430]; Statesman [-450 to -430]; On Interpretation of Dreams [-450 to 430]
He lived -480 to -411. Morality conflicts with self-interest.
Melissus of Samos
philosopher
Elea, Italy
-450 to -430
On That Which Is Not and Nature or Non-being or Nature [-450 to -430]
He lived -480 to -420 and was Eleatic. Melissus led Samian fleet and defeated Athenians [-442]. The senses are
illusions. Reality is about space and time.
Polyclitus the Older or Polycleitus
sculptor
Greece
-450 to -420
Doryphorus or Spear Bearer [-450: Greek-Classical marble copy of original Severe-Style bronze statue shows classical
male-beauty standard]; Diadumenus or Man Tying on a Fillet or Man Tying on a Headband [-430]; Amazon [-450 to 420: wearing exomis toga]; Hera [-450 to -420: gold and ivory]
His technique {canon of Polykleitos} {Polykleitos canon} balances shoulder-and-hip tension and relaxation in chiastic
balance. He worked in bronze.
Hippocrates of Chios
mathematician
Athens, Greece
-450 to -410
He lived -470 to -410 and wrote first geometry text, first calculated curved area using rectilinear figures {quadrature,
Hippocrates}, and first proved theorems using earlier theorems {pyramiding theorems}. He invented method of proving
something by disproving its opposite {indirect proof, Hippocrates}.
Sophocles
playwright
Greece
-450 to -406
Ajax [-450]; Antigone [-441]; Oedipus Rex or Oedipus Tyrannus [-429]; Electra [-425 to -410]; Trachiniae or Women
of Trachis [-425 to -410]; Philoctetes [-409]; Oedipus at Colonus [-406]
He lived -496 to -406 and wrote tragedies.
Herodotus
historian
Greece
-449 to -430
Researches [-449]; Persian Wars [-430: about wars between 499 to 479]
Ictinus
architect
Athens, Greece
-447 to -432
Parthenon [-447 to -432: large Doric marble temple on Acropolis]
He worked with Callicrates and Phidias on Parthenon.
Callicrates
architect
Athens, Greece
-447 to -424
Parthenon [-447 to -432: large Doric marble temple on Acropolis]; Temple of Athena Nike [-427 to -424: small Greek
Classical Ionic temple on Acropolis]
He worked with Ictinus and Phidias on Parthenon.
Nehemiah
governor
Jerusalem, Palestine/Shushan, Persia
-445 to -413
Mosaic Law Additions [-430]
He was governor of Judea under Persian Empire. During reign of Cyrus the Great, he compiled Mosaic-Law additions
by borrowing from Code of Hammurabi.
Phidias
sculptor
Athens, Greece/Olympia, Greece
-440
Athena [-440: Greek Classical ivory and gold statue for Parthenon]; Athena [-440: Greek Classical bronze statue for
Acropolis]; Parthenon Pediments and Friezes [-440: Greek Classical marble]; Zeus [-430: Greek Classical ivory and
gold statue for temple of Olympia]
He worked with Callicrates and Ictinus on Parthenon.
Mo Tzu or Mo Ti
philosopher
Shangqui, China
-440 to -400
Master Mo [440 to -400]
He lived -470 to -391 and started Moism or Mohist School, which advocated simple ceremonies and equal treatment of
all people.
Philolaus
philosopher
Thebes, Greece
-440 to -400
Bacchae or Followers of Bacchus [-440 to -400]; On setting [-440 to -400]
He lived -480 to -405 and was Pythagorean. Cebes and Simmias were his students at Thebes.
Epistemology
People can know only finite things.
Metaphysics
Numbers are elements of being, because they are finite, eternal, and indestructible, and their fixed and orderly relations
determine music, geometry, and heavenly motions. The series of numbers to infinity represents space. Material objects
are space shaped into geometric Forms. All harmony and order depend on unity, the number 1. Opposites derive from
odd and even numbers. Odd means limited, good, and perfect. Even means infinite, bad, and imperfect. Natural-world
cycles are copies of number properties.
Socrates
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-440 to -399
He lived -470 to -399 and emphasized moderation, friendship, and courage. He claimed he knew nothing. He criticized
Sophists for word play, smugness, paradox, imitation, and failing to examine their ideas.
Epistemology
Knowledge need be only about practical life and relations with others. All other knowledge is unnecessary to live
proper life.
Truth is absolute. No one can know final truth or have real knowledge, and obtaining this insight is the beginning of
knowledge {Socratic irony, Socrates}.
Concept is the common part among perceptions or opinions about something. To reveal concept essence, clarify
perceptions and opinions and make them consistent. Socrates did this using inductive argument. He questioned others,
got them to agree on facts, drew out definitions, found contradictions and fallacies, found incomplete ideas and
completed them, ended false beliefs, obtained understanding, and reached agreed conclusions {Socratic method,
Socrates} {method of elenchus, Socrates} {method of refutation, Socrates}.
Socratic method modified Sophist debating contests.
Ethics
Absolute good exists. The good is what is useful, profitable, or suited to the purpose in subject or activity.
The good requires conformity to law even if law is unjust. People must suffer wrong rather than do wrong to overcome
suffering.
Knowledge teaches what is good and then proper action {virtue, Socrates} always follows, because doing good is the
most advantageous for one's interests and purposes. "Knowledge is virtue." If one has knowledge, one automatically
does the good, so no one does wrong intentionally {Socratic paradox}. Error causes doing wrong.
Seeking knowledge, and especially self-knowledge, is an ethical duty, because it leads to virtue. Self-examination and
questioning give self-knowledge. "Know thyself." People can make themselves be excellent and function well {arete}.
Friendship is helping each other to be better.
Fear of death is not wise, because death can be greater good, such as eternal dreamless sleep or new world for immortal
soul. However, no soul or life exists after death.
Inner voice warns people when not to do something, especially about things too hard for knowledge.
Euripedes
playwright
Greece
-438 to -406
Alcestis [-438]; Medea [-431]; Heraclidae or Descendants of Heracles [-430]; Hippolytus [-428]; Andromache [-426];
Hecuba [-425]; Suppliants [-420]; Hercules Furens or Madness of Hercules [-420]; Electra [-417]; Trojan Women [415]; Helena [-412]; Ion [-412]; Phoenician Women [-409]; Orestes [-408]; Iphigenia in Aulis [-406]; Iphigenia in
Tauris [-406]; Bacchae [-406]
He lived -485 to -406 and wrote tragedies.
Mnesicles or Mnesikles
architect
Athens, Greece
-437 to -405
Propylaea [-437 to -432: Greek Classical marble entry gate is west of Acropolis. Small Doric temple has two side
rooms and Ionic columns.]; Erechtheum [-421 to -405: Greek Classical Ionic temple on Acropolis has Porch of the
Maidens, with roof supported by six female statues]
Plutarch mentions him.
Thucydides
historian
Greece
-431
History of the Peloponnesian Wars [-431]
He lived -460 to -410 and explained Peloponnesian Wars.
Leucippus
philosopher
Greece
-430
Great World-System [-430]; On Mind [-430]
He combined ideas of Parmenides and Empedocles. Infinite numbers of very small particles {atom, Leucippus},
differing in size, form, and other quantitative features, move in empty space. Atom types are eternal, indestructible,
unchangeable, indivisible, homogeneous, and finite. Atom motion is eternal, deterministic, and without cause or
purpose. Atom motions are change or becoming. Space exists but is not material. Objects are atom combinations.
Quantitative atom differences cause qualitative differences.
Democritus of Abdera or Laughing Philosopher
philosopher
Greece
-430 to -400
On numbers [-430 to -400]; On geometry [-430 to -400]; On tangencies [-430 to -400]; On mappings [-430 to -400]; On
irrationals [-430 to -400]
He lived -460 to -370, was materialist, and founded atomism, with Leucippus.
Epistemology
Objects have weight, texture, shape, and size {primary quality, Democritus}, which people can perceive. Objects have
distance and identity {secondary quality, Democritus}, which people can understand. Atoms themselves are
imperceptible. Qualitative features depend on atom quantitative properties. Perception happens when images, which are
infinitely small object copies, travel to body and contact sense fire-atoms. Senses have special fire-atom motions and
arrangements. People can only perceive images matching senses. People with different senses perceive different things.
Perceptual states are violent, surprising, and unclear. Dreams are weak images. Belief in gods comes from images of
gods.
Thoughts are images of sizes and spaces between atoms. Thought images are gentle in motion and hard to know. This
gentle motion gives true happiness, because soul is calmest and in harmony with absolute images.
Ethics
Good is soul's pleasures. Happiness is inner peace.
Metaphysics
Atoms are unchanging and indivisible particles that constantly move in empty space under mechanical laws. Infinitely
many atom types exist. Objects are groups of atoms in different proportions. Inertia, density, and hardness depend on
atom sizes and spacings. All other physical properties depend on atom mixtures, arrangements, and motions. Atoms
started with uncaused motions, but now atom motions and collisions determine everything that happens. Collisions are
the only atom interactions and result only in motion changes.
Mind
Mind or soul has highest and most active atoms {fire-atom}.
Hippocrates
doctor
Cos, Greece
-430 to -400
On Ancient Medicine [-430 to -400]; On Wounds of the Head [-430 to -400]
He lived -460 to -377. The "father of medicine" wrote case histories, disease observations, and Hippocratic oath. He
described trephining skull holes. Disease results from humor essence imbalance.
Gorgias of Leontini
rhetorician
Sicily/Athens, Greece
-425 to -414
On the Negative or On What Is Not [-425]; Encomium on Helen or Defense of Helen [-414]; Defense of Palomides [425 to -414]
He lived -483 to -376, was Sophist, and was Empedocles' pupil. Knowing and communicating object information is
impossible, because thoughts and language are not the same as objects, and thoughts are not the same as language.
Being is impossible, because the ideas of being and non-being contradict each other.
Aristophanes
playwright
Greece
-423 to -411
Clouds [-423]; Wasps [-422]; Birds [-414]; Lysistrata [-411]
He lived -448 to -380 and wrote comedies.
Paeonius or Paionios
sculptor
Mende, Thrace
-420 to -400
Nike [-420 to -400: marble statue]
Thrace is in northeast Greece, south Bulgaria, and northwest Turkey.
Heracleidas
sculptor
Catana, Sicily
-415 to -403
Apollo of Catana [-415 to -403: Hellenistic tetradrachma coin]
Catana was first Greek colony in Sicily [-734].
Dionysius the Elder
tyrant
Syracuse, Sicily
-406 to -367
He lived -432 to -367 and fought Italian cities and Carthage. He encouraged arts.
Lysander
admiral
Sparta
-405
He lived ? to -395, led Heraclidae, and defeated Athens at Aegospotami [-405].
Artaxerxes II
emperor
Persia
-404 to -358
He lived -456 to -358. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he defeated Cyrus the Younger in civil war and ruled Persian Empire.
Persia and Sparta negotiated Treaty of Antalcidas [-386].
Xenophon
historian
Greece
-401
Retreat of the Ten Thousand or Anabasis [-401]
Damocles
courtier
Syracuse, Sicily
-400
Damocles, at banquet in his honor, had sword suspended over his head by hair by order of Dionysius, tyrant of
Syracuse.
Jaimini
philosopher
India
-400
Purvamimamsa Sutra [-400: about Mimansa]; Upadesa Sutra or Instruction [-400]; Rudramsa Sutra or Portions of
Rudra [-400]; Shasthamsa Sutra or Rule Parts [-400]; Saptamsa Sutra or Seven Parts [-400]; Varnada Lagna or Color
Moments [-400]; Shakti Yoga [-400: about Shakti]; Raja Yoga or Prince [-400]
In Vedas, he was Vyasa's student. He wrote Purvamimamsa, Upadesa, Rudramsa, Shasthamsa, and Saptamsa sutras;
Varnada Lagna and other lagnas; and Shakti Yoga and Raja Yogas. He founded Mimamsa. Sanskrit is the true language
and leads to truth. Language is not conventional or veil. Sanskrit sounds have meaning, so hymns and mantras are
themselves magic.
Pancasika or Pancasikha
writer
India/Nepal
-400
Samkhya-sutras or Discourses on Samkhya [1380 to 1450: about Samkhya]
Vatsyayana
philosopher
Bihar, India
-400
Rulebook of Kama [-400: Hindu techniques for lovers and courtesans]
He wrote about Hinduism.
Plato
philosopher
Greece
-400 to -348
Hippias Minor [-400: dialog of Socrates and Hippias]; Alcibiades [-400: dialog of Socrates and Alcibiades]; Apology [399: Socrates' defense against charges of treason]; Euthyphro [-380: Are morals good because commanded by God, or
does God command them because they are good? Euthyphro was an expert on religion.]; Crito [-380: dialog of Socrates
and Crito about ethical ideas and virtue]; Hippias Major [-380: dialog of Socrates and Hippias about aesthetics and
law]; Charmides or Temperance [-380: dialog of Socrates and Charmides]; Laches or Equity [-380: dialog of Socrates
and Laches]; Lysis or Friendship [-380: dialog of Socrates and Lysis]; Protagoras [-380: dialog of Socrates and
Protagoras]; Gorgias [-380: dialog of Socrates and Gorgias]; Meno [-380: dialog of Socrates and Meno about a-priori
knowledge]; Phaedo [-360: dialog of Socrates and Phaedo about immortality and the Forms, which people can
recollect]; Symposium [-360: love]; Phaedrus [-360: dialog of Socrates and Phaedrus about love]; Ion [-380: dialog of
Socrates and Ion about]; Menexenus [-380: dialog of Socrates and Menexenus]; Euthydemus [-380: dialog of Socrates
and Euthydemus]; Cratylus [-360: Dialog of Socrates and Cratylus is about language. Words are conventions, but
concepts are true or false in reality. Language should be able to convey concepts. Language or thought corresponds to
reality.]; Republic [-360: justice and three soul types in ideal government]; Parmenides [-370: Dialog of Socrates and
Parmenides includes dialectic on the One. Forms are both universals and essences.]; Theaetetus [-360: dialog of
Socrates and Theaetetus about perception and objects]; Sophist [-360: dialog of Socrates and Sophists about being and
not being and differences between subjects or names and predicates or properties]; Politics or Statesman [-360: law and
rulers]; Philebus [-360: Dialog of Socrates and Philebus discusses pleasure and knowledge. The weak are targets of
humor.]; Timaeus [-360: dialog of Socrates and Timaeus about metaphysics]; Critias [-360: dialog of Socrates and
Critias]; Laws [-348: ideal state, best government, and laws]
He lived -427 to -347, founded the Academy [-387], wrote about Socrates, studied grammar, solved law problems, and
helped draft laws.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is about the beautiful and the good. The beautiful is good. Beautiful things approximate their Idea or true
Form closely.
Art imitates nature {mimesis, Plato}.
Epistemology
Minds can be aware of the ideal forms {Idea, Plato} of objects or object groups. Whenever one term can apply to a
group of particular things, the corresponding Idea exists in mind. True, clear, and stable knowledge is about Ideas.
Mind does not create the Ideas. Ideas are innate. People can discover or remember the Ideas in themselves {anamnesis,
Ideas}, using intellect, not senses.
Unlike Ideas, opinion and perception are confused, unclear, imitative, and changeable. An analogy {cave analogy} is
prisoners in a cave, who see only shadows on the wall, perceptions instead of reality.
Material motions cause thoughts and perceptions.
Things can be unlearnable, because people need them to learn {Meno's puzzle}.
Hypotheses or making categories and distinctions can define things.
Education
Education is important for everyone because knowledge leads to excellence and virtue. Education builds character.
Knowledge is about Ideas, and so curriculum is unchanging.
All children should receive practical knowledge. Social classes receive education suited to purposes. People learn
virtue and should be happy, because they reach the greatest virtue they can have.
Education is also to make good state. Society selects some boys and girls to become soldiers. Future soldiers should
learn arts and physical education and live together in school community in which they share everything. From future
soldiers, society selects some to become rulers. Future rulers should learn philosophy.
Educators have special duty and should not try to be like or coddle pupils.
Ethics
Personal virtues are industry, achievement, knowledge, honor, autonomy, courage, temperance, and piety. Otherdirected virtues are justice, benevolence, and fidelity. People can acquire virtues by becoming aware of the Ideas.
However, people can refuse to acquire knowledge and virtue and so reject freedom, responsibility, and control.
The three parts of mind {psyche, Plato} should be in harmony. Reason should be for wisdom, spirit for courage and
striving, and appetite for moderation and control. Psyche harmony makes life good, virtuous, happy, and prosperous.
The psyche's duty is to be just and upright.
Joy in the beautiful, pleasure in good artistic Idea-of-the-Good imitations, understanding of math, practical skill,
general knowledge, and well-ordered life are proper Reason uses.
Highest life state is to contemplate the Ideas, indifferent to material world. Lover of Ideas goes to heaven. Others
reincarnate.
"Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because they love it?" {Euthyphro problem, Plato}.
Either piety has no reason or has reason, but authority does not apply in either case.
The true and the beautiful are good.
World is good, because God created it.
Linguistics
Nouns are proposition subjects. Only Ideas can be sentence subjects. Verb is about proposition action or quality. Verb
and adjective are similar.
Metaphysics
Reality is Ideas. Ideas are both universal categories and object essences {third man argument, Plato}. Ideas are eternal,
a priori, unchanging, absolute, and immaterial, with absolute and unqualified properties. Ideas include Good, Bad,
Beautiful, Ugly, and such ideas as Tableness. Ideas, such as Infinite, have opposites, such as Measurable, so Ideas form
a hierarchy. The highest or greatest Idea is Good, which is purpose of reality for both material and ideal worlds and
comes from love of ideal beauty.
Objects in nature have Ideas {ideal form} as essence and are like Idea copies or imitations. Objects share in or have
part of Idea. Things cannot have opposite properties simultaneously. Objects are empty space shaped by Ideal
geometrical figures. Empty space has no substance and no definition. Material things are both non-being, such as space,
and being, such as Idea. Objects are thus contradictions and not real.
World-soul causes all motions and changes, which have relations and are unity.
The world creator {demiurge} was pure good, which molded already existing matter to bring order out of chaos.
Mind
Psyche is in body, is same as personality, and is changeable but is also unitary, indivisible, and eternal, because it is
both material and Idea. Psyche receives images of Ideas before birth. The presence of Ideas in psyche causes people to
seek Ideas and love wisdom. Psyche has appetitive, emotional, and rational parts. Rational part is ability to know Ideas.
Emotional part is spirit or will, which wants to find Ideas. Appetitive part is desires. Psyche thus perceives, wills, and
knows. Psyche causes movement and life. Psyche can separate from body.
Politics
States are about principle of justice. Justice results when classes do work with virtue. All state principles and actions
should be ethical.
States express the Idea of people as a whole and so are about people and their relations.
States have best order with three classes, corresponding to the three psyche parts: rulers with rational psyche, soldiers
with emotional psyche, and merchants and laborers with appetitive psyche. Philosopher-kings from ruler class should
lead states. Rulers or guardians should have training in goodness, truth, and beauty and so have wisdom. Military and
public officials should have training for administration, war, and police work and so use spirit and do their duty. To
exercise self-control, merchants should perform commerce, and common people should work, produce, and obey
leaders.
People showing that they have souls dominated by one psyche part or another can change classes. Upper classes should
give up all property, have communal family life, and serve state. All people should suppress private emotions and
desires and live out Idea of the Good.
Lao Tze or Lao Zi or Lao Tse or Lao Tzu
philosopher
Luoyang, China
-400 to -300
Tao De Jing or Tao Te Ching or I-Ching or The Way and Its Powers [-400 to -300: 81 chapters of ethical principles]
He founded Taoism. All things reverse direction. People should minimize their wants to minimize losses and gain
more.
Brennus
king
Rome, Italy
-390
As chief of Senones, Adriatic coast Gauls, he defeated Rome in Battle of the Allia [-390] and took Rome.
Platonic School or Old Academy
philosophic school
Athens, Greece
-389 to -260
Plato founded school that included Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemo, Crates, Philippus, Heracleides, and Crantor.
Eudoxus of Cnidus
astronomer/mathematician
Cnidus, Greece
-380 to -355
He lived -408 to -355. He studied limits, used infinite polygons to find curved-figure areas and volumes {exhaustion
method, Eudoxus}, and developed explicit axioms.
Proportion is magnitude or length. He showed how to prove that two different integer ratios, which make real numbers,
are equal or not equal. Proportions are magnitude or length ratios. To compare ratios, find integer pairs such that
product of first integer and numerators and product of second integer and denominators makes numerators greater than
denominators. If successful, first ratio is greater than second, because new ratio, first/second, is less than first ratio and
greater than second ratio. If unsuccessful, find integer pairs such that product of first integer and numerators and
product of second integer and denominators makes numerators less than denominators. If successful, first ratio is less
than second, because new ratio, first/second, is greater than first ratio and less than second ratio. If not successful, ratios
are equal. You can thus approach any real number and so can work with irrational-number square roots of positive
integers.
Planetary orbits are nested spheres. He measured year length.
Diogenes of Sinope
philosopher
Sinope, Greece
-370 to -330
He lived -404 to -323 and was Cynic. He lived simply, with only cloak and sack, and lived in a tub before enslavement.
He attacked vice, corruption, and folly. He kept looking for one virtuous man, while holding up his lantern. He told
Alexander the Great to get out of his light.
Gaius Licinius [Licinius, Gaius]/Lucius Sextus [Sextus, Lucius]
law
Rome, Italy
-367
Licinian-Sextian Law [-367]
Laws required at least one consul to be plebian.
Bryaxis
sculptor
Halicarnassus, Greece
-362 to -351
Apollo [-362: in grove of Daphne near Antioch]; Mausoleum of Mausolus [-359 to -351: Hellenistic marble statue was
individual]
He worked with Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus on Mausoleum.
Cratylus
philosopher
Greece
-360
He said, "You cannot step twice into the same river".
Scopas
sculptor
Halicarnassus, Greece
-359 to -330
Battle of Greeks and Amazons [-359 to -351: Hellenistic east frieze of Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]; Meleager [-50:
copy]; Apollo Citharoedus [-340 to -330]; Ludovisi Ares or Ludovisi Mars [-340]
He lived -400 to -350 and came from Paros in Cyclades islands.
Artaxerxes III or Arses
emperor
Persia
-358 to -338
He lived ? to -338. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he massacred his family to rule Persian Empire. He defeated Egypt.
Philip II
king
Macedon
-358 to -336
He lived -382 to -336 and took Thrace's gold. He invented phalanx infantry formation using ten rows, with long pikes
between preceding soldiers. He used armored cavalry charges and catapults. He conquered Athens at Chaeronea [-338].
He took Thebes [-335] and enslaved the people after rebellion. He died while preparing to attack Persia. His son was
Alexander the Great.
Demosthenes
orator
Greece
-351 to -330
Philippics or Tirades [-351: orations]; Olynthiacs or Political Speeches [-349: orations]; On the Peace [-346: oration];
On the False Legation [-343: oration]; On the Crown [-330: oration]
Demetrios of Alopeka
sculptor
Alopeka, Greece
-350
Pellichus [-350: realistic marble statue]
Alopeka is on Asia-Minor coast.
Lieh Tzu
writer
Luoyang, China
-350
Pure Classic of the Perfect Virtue of Simplicity and Vacuity [-350: about Lieh Tzu]
Lieh Tzu lived -400 to -300. Work is Taoist.
Polyclitus the Younger or Polykleitos
architect
Epidaurus, Greece
-350
Tholos or Theater of Epidaurus [-350: Greek Classical theater has concentric seat rows, aisles with stairs, and bottom
orchestra area]
He lived -365 to -320. Tholos is at Asclepios sanctuary.
Aristotle
philosopher
Stagira, Greece
-350 to -330
Eudemian Ethics [-350 to -330]; History of Animals [-350 to -330]; Logic [-350 to -330: includes Categories, On
Interpretation, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, and Sophistical Refutations]; Metaphysics [-350 to -330];
Meteorology [-350 to -330]; Nicomachean Ethics [-350 to -330]; On Dreams [-350 to -330]; On Generation and
Corruption or On Coming-to-Be and Passing Away [-350 to -330]; On Memory [-350 to -330]; On Sensation [-350 to 330]; On Sleep [-350 to -330]; On the Heavens [-350 to -330]; On the Parts of Animals [-350 to -330]; On the Soul or
Concerning Psyche [-350 to -330]; On Psychology [-350 to -330]; Physics [-350 to -330]; Poetics [-350 to -330:
Laughter and the ludicrous depend on deformity, defect, and ugliness but not on anything destructive or painful];
Politics [-350 to -330]; Rhetoric [-350 to -330]; Topics [-350 to -330: good arguments]
He lived -384 to -322, studied under Plato, and was Realist. He tutored Alexander the Great. He founded Peripatetic
School at Lyceum [-335]. He was the Stagirite or Peripatetic Philosopher.
In logic, he studied grammar, developed logic of terms, and defined the syllogisms. He studied deduction methods and
invented non-contradiction, excluded-middle, and bivalence laws. He considered modus ponens, modus tollens,
tautology, permutation, and summation. He studied Sophist fallacies, existence, definition, statement, axiom, postulate,
premise, conclusion, hypothesis, theorem, converse, inverse, contrapositive, corollary, lemma, necessary condition, and
sufficient condition.
In mathematics, he used method of exhaustion, rather than infinitesimals, to find limits. He used parallelogram of
forces.
In biology, he studied nature, performed animal dissections for research, and studied evolution from simple to complex
life.
Aesthetics
Art imitates nature and portrays particular objects as universals, emphasizing object Forms. Thus, art is knowledge that
gives pleasure.
Art is productive thought.
Art has classes depending on materials used or objects imitated.
Art's purpose is to excite passions, to remove them and so purify soul. Tragic drama imitates life and excites fear and
sympathy, which it then relieves {catharsis, Aristotle}. Catharsis is good for virtue, because it results in lower
emotions, allowing more reason.
Formal literary elements, involving one location, one time, and one theme {Unities, Aristotle}, make good play.
Artists impose Form on matter, causing material change with purpose, to cause art development.
Epistemology
Philosophy must consider opinions of the people or of wise people {doxa}.
True knowledge is about object Forms, not objects.
Sensation is passive thought. Reason is creative thought. Thoughts are both objects and essences. Contents and thought
processes are separate and have categories.
Quantity can be universal or particular. Quality can be positive or negative.
Opposition or contradiction and conversion or entailment can happen.
Concepts used in judgments come from general concepts by adding distinguishing characteristic or difference
{definition, Aristotle}.
Knowledge fields have most general concepts, found by moving from examples to general concept {abstraction from
specific to general}, opposite to definition. For example, logic has contradiction principle.
The ten basic-concept categories are quantity, quality, relation, space, time, action, passion or passivity or affection,
position, state or condition, and substance.
The four cause types are matter or physical or bodily cause {material cause, Aristotle}, form or essence or idea {formal
cause, Aristotle}, immediately preceding cause or motion {essential cause}, and end or purpose {final cause,
Aristotle}. Something extra {accident, cause or effect} can happen along with causes and effects.
Brain senses shapes, sizes, and motions {primary quality} directly. Brain perceives other sense qualities {secondary
quality}, which are not fundamental to object {accident, sensation}, indirectly. Sense apparatus moves and changes as
it receives object, causing body physical change {phantasm, sensation}. Physical motions caused by sensations are
imagination-faculty objects, so imagination depends on sensation. Imaginations are thought-objects, so thought
depends on imagination.
Mental faculty compares and associates shapes, sizes, and motions from all senses {common faculty, Aristotle}.
Human desires and beliefs, which are thoughts, cause all human actions.
If proposition is possible, the proposition is true at least once {principle of plenitude} {plenitude principle}.
The highest thought level is to behold the pure Forms and reach blessed feeling without will or action.
Ethics
Ethics is making proper choice when one is free to choose and knows consequences. External circumstances can hinder
or help reason and self-realization. Bad reasoning, bad purposes, weak will, compulsions, passions, or wrong choices
can cause people's actions to be irrational {akrasia}. To make proper choices, one needs to know which act or thought
is lawful or right, act consequences, means, ends, desire effects, motive effects, and self. Without this knowledge,
people do not know what they are doing and cannot control their actions.
Successful and virtuous activity based on reason leads to happy, good life and well-being. Happiness is life's goal or
purpose, because it expresses people's true nature. Virtue is the way to attain happiness.
Freedom depends on knowledge and on absence of external forces or mental pressures.
People are responsible for their actions when they have alternatives from which to choose, they know situation, and
they face no external constraints on choice. Then consciousness is action's sufficient cause and other factors, such as
motivation, do not lessen responsibility. Punishment can only be for actions for which people are responsible {justice,
Aristotle}.
Goods {good-in-itself} {intrinsic good} can be for their own sake, such as intelligence, senses, and health. Goods
{extrinsic good} can be for consequences.
Action {praxis} is doing something, as opposed to making something. Action {animal soul, Aristotle} should improve
habits and character. Exerting self-control against desires trains will to act using reason. Moderation {Golden Mean,
Aristotle} {doctrine of the mean} balances appetite/emotion and reason. Using rational mind to follow the Golden
Mean is good.
People want happiness based on virtue {eudaimonia, philosophy}, the objectively good life. Pleasure is necessary for,
but not the same as, happiness.
Friendship is good, because it is common striving for the good and beautiful.
Law
Law flows from order of nature {natural law, Aristotle}. Law has Forms. People should judge human laws by how well
they conform to natural law.
Usury is bad.
Landowning and private property are good.
Strong family is good.
Linguistics
Spoken or written words are mental-state signs. Verbs indicate time {tense}. Verbs and adjectives are similar. Nouns
can be about named things {proper noun, Aristotle} or types {common noun, Aristotle}.
Logic
Formal logic is process to prove knowledge true and to understand reasoning.
Things or groups have names and distinguishing characteristics. Defined things can be sentence subjects. Subjects can
have different quantities: "all", "some", "no", "one", or "only one".
Sentence subjects can have properties {predicate, Aristotle}. Predicates {essential predicate} can be true of all category
objects. Predicates {predicable predicate} can be true of only some category objects and so be non-essential. Predicates
{property predicate} can be non-essential but true of all category objects {proprium}.
Statements have subjects and predicates. Statements can be true or false {contradiction law}. Subjects and predicates
cannot have truth-values.
Statements {proposition, Aristotle} can have form that makes them necessary or impossible {apodeitic}.
Reasoning from particulars to generalities {induction, Aristotle} is proof method. Reasoning from generalities to
particulars {deduction, Aristotle} is proof method.
Deduction depends on having one or more general statements {premise, Aristotle} about basic concepts. People must
accept such premises as true but cannot prove them. Induction and dialectic to analyze opinions and perception can find
such premises. After analysis, such premises should be immediately apparent and certain to everyone. Other premises
come from general premises. Premises can use different sentence types: categorical, conditional or hypothetical,
alternative, and disjunctive.
All deductions are either syllogisms or inferences from single premises. The conclusion must be less general than the
premises.
People can prove statement {conclusion, Aristotle} relating subject to predicate {judgment} if two premises relate third
concept to subject and to predicate {syllogism, Aristotle}. If people know that premises are true or false, they can
combine them by removing third concept to prove conclusion {excluded middle law}. The third concept can be in firstpremise subject and second-premise predicate {first figure}, in both subjects {second figure}, or in both predicates
{third figure}.
Syllogisms can use sentences with different subject quantities and premise types and can use three moods. Syllogism
moods include categorical syllogism, conditional syllogism or hypothetical syllogism, alternative syllogism, and
disjunctive syllogism. Syllogisms {categorical syllogism, Aristotle} can use all subject quantities. Main moods
{Barbara mood} can use universal affirmative in all three statements. Main moods {Celarent mood} can have universal
negative premise, universal positive premise, and universal negative conclusion. All other moods can transform into
Barbara or Celarent mood {reduction of moods} {mood reduction}.
Reductio ad absurdum proves some moods. Negative individual instances {ekthesis} are counterexamples that prove
the positive conclusion, and this method proves some moods.
Syllogisms {perfect syllogism} with complete sentences need nothing more to be valid arguments. Syllogisms
{imperfect syllogism} with assumed premises or premise parts require more information to be valid.
Metaphysics
Only individual physical objects are real. Objects have essential invariable Forms {Form, Aristotle}, about purposes.
Forms are common properties or predicates of different same-class objects. Object Form determines state and relations
to other objects, makes unified whole, and places object in class. Forms are not universals and cannot exist by
themselves. If Forms are universals, it is necessary to explain how Forms relate to individuals {third man argument}
and how object relates to itself. Geometric forms, shapes, and sizes are physical-object aspects and do not have
independent existence.
Ability to define objects does not prove existence. To show existence, something must construct object.
Matter has potential or possibility that becomes physical particular object when combined with Form {hylomorphism}.
Forms follow laws. Forms are only potential until realized in matter. Object Form stays the same, but matter can
change. Matter and objects are potentially infinite, but this differs from actually infinite. Motion results from union of
form and matter.
Lower-thing forms make higher-thing matter, making a hierarchy of objects, classes, classes of classes, and so on.
Forms have values. Forms can be Ends, causing other Forms. The class hierarchy leads to highest Form, which never
combines with matter. Highest Form is prime mover and has no cause and indirectly causes all motion and change. It is
unmoving, because only matter can move. It is perfect, eternal, unchangeable, indivisible, mental, spiritual, and
independent. It is real, with no possibilities. It is the most general concept, thought about thought, and pure selfconsciousness. It has no goal or purpose except itself and is sufficient in itself.
Organisms grow and develop {development, Aristotle} as Form realizes itself in matter through time, also causing
purpose changes.
Objects have inessential features {accident, object} that arise by chance and do not relate to Form. Accidents have
mechanical causes and have no laws. Accidents in matter can oppose expression of Form in object.
Stars and planets have circular motion and are ether.
The four elements are earth, fire, water, and air. The material world has the four elements. Elements have quality pairs:
warm or cold and dry or moist.
Mind
Mind forms concepts automatically {passive intellect} and can reason using concepts {active intellect}. Active intellect
can be non-physical, independent, and eternal.
Mind {psyche, Aristotle} animates body to cause motion and so causes sensation, imagination, and thought. Soul or
mind is the Form for individual body.
Souls {vegetative soul} can be for body mechanical and chemical changes, like reproduction, growth, and repair. Plants
have only this soul.
Souls {animal soul} {appetitive soul} can allow motion, feelings, and sensation. Spontaneous motion arises from
desire, which is to gain pleasure and avoid pain. Desire and sensation both depend on object sensed, so seeking or
avoiding automatically happens. Animal souls can unite all sense perceptions into collective perceptions about objects
as wholes. This forms images and memories, allows body-state knowledge, and allows number, position, and motion
perception.
From the matter of the first two souls, souls {reason} {rational soul} {nous} can arise and make desires into will and
perception images into knowledge. Only such souls are eternal, divine, and impersonal and can know reality. Reason is
pure contemplation. Reason is the same in all people, so reason unites people into a class.
Politics
Justice or equality is the basis of states. Justice can depend on need, effort, deservingness, history, achievement, or
contribution.
Justice {corrective justice} {diorthotic justice} {remedial justice} {rectificatory justice} can compensate for contract
breach or tort. Justice {distributive justice} {dianemetic justice} can take and disburse goods and services among
parties.
Justice assigns punishments, which whole society administers for crimes, with no individual revenge.
The state should organize to allow natural laws to work.
A society goal is the good life for all citizens, including stability and community. Constitution's highest goal is
community well-being.
A state purpose is to train citizens ethically, emphasizing morals. Citizens, as opposed to subjects of kings or tyrants,
have civic duties, requiring sacrificing private life, and rights, allowing them roles in public and private life.
Kingdoms have one authority. Aristocracies have several authorities. Polities have many authorities. Tyrannies have
one ruler. Oligarchies have several rulers. Democracies have many rulers.
Rule by one person can be good {monarchy, Aristotle} or bad {despotism, Aristotle}. Rule by few can be good if based
on culture and character {aristocracy, Aristotle}. Rule by few can be bad if based on property or birth {oligarchy,
Aristotle}. Rule by all can be good if based on laws and order {republic, Aristotle}. Rule by all can be bad {mob-rule}
if based on demagoguery {democracy, Aristotle}. Because things held in common have no value, communism is bad.
Democracy is better than oligarchy, because more people contribute to decisions. Struggle of oligarchy with democracy
causes revolution.
States arise from first family and then village.
States should be self-sufficient. Small states are better.
Lending money and trading are bad.
Excess, more than want or need, causes tyranny and crime.
Hui Shih or Hui Shi
philosopher
China
-350 to -330
He lived -380 to -300, belonged to Mingjia School of Names, studied rhetoric, and invented paradoxes. Ming-chia or
Mingjia School of Names had dialecticians in Warring States period [-475 to -221].
Praxiteles
sculptor
Cnidus, Greece
-350 to -320
Aphrodite of the Cnidians or Aphrodite of Knidos [-350: Hellenistic marble statue with surface that looks like flesh];
Demeter [-340 to -330: Hellenistic seated marble statue in Knidos]; Hermes with Bacchus [-330: Hellenistic marble
statue]; Apollo Belvedere [-320: Hellenistic marble statue]
Chuang Chou or Chuang Tzu or Chuang Tse or Zhuangzi
philosopher
Henan, China
-350 to -300
Zhuangzi or Chuang Tzu or Master Zhuang or Book of Chuang Tzu [-350 to -300]
He explained and popularized Taoism Tao-Teh-King. If people have judgments based on differing perspectives, no
method is available to conclude which judgment is correct. Therefore, truth is elusive. People should not have
expectations or perspectives. Distinctions among ideas are not important. Emotions about life and ideas should
minimize.
Speusippus
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-347 to -335
He lived -405 to -335, was Plato's nephew, and was second Old-Academy leader [-347 to -335]. Definition uses
relations to other things.
Lysippus
sculptor
Sicyon, Greece
-340 to -330
Alexander the Great [-340]; Apoxyomenos or Scraper [-330: Realistic Hellenistic bronze statue, with small head and
slender body]
He led Argos and Sicyon school. Sicyon is between Corinth and Achaea.
Paeonius/Demetrios
architect
Ephesus, Turkey
-340 to -250
Temple of Artemis [-340 to -250: large temple]
Artemis is Diana. Chersiphron and his son, Metagenes, built first temple [-550], but it burned [-356]. The replacement
temple burned [262] and invaders destroyed it [401].
Xenocrates
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-339 to -314
He lived -396 to -314 and led Old Academy [-339 to -314]. He divided philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics.
Alexander the Great
king
Macedon
-336 to -323
He lived -356 to -323 and conquered whole Middle East. He died of typhoid fever in Babylon.
Darius III
king
Persia
-334 to -330
He lived -380 to -330 and lost to Alexander the Great at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela, ending Achaemenid Dynasty
and Persian Empire.
Pyrrho of Elis
philosopher
Greece/Rome, Italy
-330 to -300
He lived -365 to -270 and was the first Skeptic. His student was Timon of Phlius [-320 to -230].
Epistemology
Knowledge cannot be certain, so people must suspend judgment and action {epoché}. Philosophy can find true nature
of things and people's relations to objects, so people can know all action gains or losses. People cannot know true
nature of things, only their feelings. People cannot know gain or loss and cannot choose correct action. People thus
cannot really have passion or error. People should not worry {ataraxia, Pyrrho}, because beliefs are just as true as
opposite beliefs, with no need to judge.
Mencius or Meng Tzu or Meng Ko
philosopher
Linzi, China
-330 to -290
Meng Tzu
He lived -372 to -289 and was Confucian. People innately have compassion, are courteous, are good, love parents,
respect older people, care about other people, and have sense of right and wrong. They innately can have shame and
can be benevolent, dutiful, ritualistic, and wise. Ethical sense develops naturally, and society only needs to assist
development.
Chandragupta I or Chandragupta Maurya
king
Ganges Valley, India
-325 to -293
He lived -340 to -293, acquired Magadha kingdom [-325], defeated Nanda dynasty [-321], married clan princess to
form Gupta or Maurya dynasty [-321 to -293], and defeated Seleucus I [-305].
Ptolemy I or Ptolemy Soter
king
Egypt
-323 to -285
He lived -367 to -282 and was general for Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He moved capital to Alexandria [-305].
He built library [-305]. He ruled with his son [-285 to -282].
Seleucus I
king
Syria/Babylonia/Persia
-323 to -281
He lived -358 to -281, was one of Alexander's generals, and began Seleucid Dynasty. He received Babylonia after
Alexander the Great's death. He fought to Indus River in India. He won at Ipsus against Antigonus I of Macedon and
later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.
Chandragupta Maurya
king
India/Punjab/Afghanistan
-322 to -296
He lived -325 to -296 and founded Mauryan Empire when he conquered Magadha Kingdom, had strong central
government, and had strong army. He defeated invasion by Seleucus [-305]. Maurya Empire conquered part of south
India.
Theophrastus
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-322 to -287
Metaphysics [-300]
He lived -371 to -287, led Lyceum after Aristotle [-322 to -287], and studied cosmology and botany. The conclusion
cannot be stronger than the weakest premise.
Hipparchia
philosopher
Thrace, Greece
-320
She lived -340 to ?. Her husband was Crates the Cynic.
Crates the Cynic
philosopher
Greece
-320 to -316
His wife was Hipparchia. Luxury, pride, and ill will are bad.
Kautiliya or Chanakya or Vishnugupta
writer
Taxila, Pakistan
-320 to -300
Scriptural Texts on Government [-320 to -300: about government]; Scriptural Texts on Leading [-320 to -300]; Guide
of Chanakya [-320 to -300]
Menander
playwright
Greece
-317
Dyskolos or The Grouch [-317: comedy]
Gnaeus Flavius [Flavius, Gnaeus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-312 to -304
Civil Law [-312 to -304]
He published the oral court-action forms, which priests {pontifex} had kept secret before, but which were already
public knowledge.
Appius Claudius Caecus [Caecus, Appius Claudius]
leader
Rome, Italy
-312 to -285
legis actiones or Legal Actions [-300]
He lived -340 to -273, was censor [-312 to -308], was consul [307] [296], and was dictator [-292] [-285]. He illegally
remained in office as censor five years. With his power to fill vacancies in Senate, he appointed plebians to Senate. He
also allowed plebians to be priests. He reapportioned tribes to give plebians control of Tribal Assembly. His clerk
published the legis actiones law methods. He built Appian Way and main Roman aqueduct.
Epicurus
philosopher
Samos, Ionia/Athens, Greece
-310 to -280
On Nature [-310 to -280]; Letter to Herodotus [-310 to -280]; Letter to Pythocles [-310 to -280]; Letter to Menoeceus [310 to -280]; Principal Sayings [-310 to -280]; Vatican Fragments [-310 to -280]
He lived -341 to -270 and founded Epicurean School at the Garden [-306].
Ethics
Soul pleasures contemplate thoughts and expect bodily pleasures. They are more valuable than bodily pleasures alone.
The ideal pleasure is freedom from distraction, which people can achieve by philosophy study and mind control, to
achieve a happy life.
Fear of supernatural is distraction. Natural and physical mind and soul explanations remove fear of supernatural.
Prudence and self-control are good.
The private life is best.
Belief in determinism disallows criticism of people that do not believe in determinism, because both beliefs have
predetermination {Epicurean objection}.
Metaphysics
Reality is only different atoms forming and disintegrating into different groups by motions in empty space. Atoms and
universe are eternal.
Mind
Body and mind unify in special atoms. No afterlife exists.
Will
Chance, and will's free choice, show that nature has uncaused events. Will's free choice is the only explanation of good
and evil, because God is surely able to remove evil from the world.
Zeno of Citium
philosopher
Citium, Cyprus/Athens, Greece
-310 to -280
Commonwealth or Republic [-310 to -280]
He lived -334 to -262 and founded Stoicism [-310]. People either have reason and virtue or do not {absolutism}.
Politics and laws should be the same for all.
Philo the Dialectician
philosopher
Greece
-300
He opposed the Master Argument. Ability to state a predicate makes it possible. A statement implies another if first
statement is false or second statement is true {material implication, Philo}.
Euclid
mathematician
Alexandria, Egypt
-300 to -280
Elements [-300 to -280]
He lived -325 to -265 developed Euclid's theorem and Euclid's algorithm. He studied perpendicular, parallel,
superposition, arc, and prime numbers. He used exhaustion method, rather than infinitesimals, to study curves. He
systematized plane geometry, number proportions and ratios, prime numbers, and solid geometry.
Book 1 is about congruence, parallel lines, Pythagorean theorem, simple constructions, constructions with equal areas,
and parallelograms {rectilinear figure, Euclid}. Sum of two triangle-side lengths is greater than or equal to third-side
length. Book 2 is about geometric algebra, using areas and volumes to find products and quadratic equations, and
adding line segments to add. Book 3 is about circles, chords, tangents, secants, central angles, and inscribed angles.
Book 4 is about figures inscribed in, or circumscribed around, circles. Book 5 is about proportion by magnitudes,
commensurable magnitudes, and incommensurable magnitudes. Book 6 is about similar figures, using proportions.
Book 7 is about number theory, Euclidean algorithm, and numbers as line segments. Book 8 is about geometric
progressions. Book 9 is about square and cubic numbers, plane and solid numbers, geometric progressions, and the
theorem that number of primes is infinite. Book 10 classifies incommensurable magnitudes. Book 11 is about convex
solids and generation of solids. Book 12 is about curved-surface areas and volumes, using exhaustion method and
indirect proof. Book 13 is about regular polyhedrons in spheres and regular polygons in circles.
Herophilus
anatomist
Alexandria, Egypt
-300 to -280
He lived -335 to -280, dissected human body, and compared to other animal bodies. He described brain, brain
ventricles, heart, heart valves, nervous system, sense and motor nerves, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, and lens. He
founded medical school at Alexandria.
Eubulides of Miletus
philosopher
Megara, Greece
-300 to -250
He developed liar paradox and masked man paradox {Eubulides paradox, Eubulides}. "This statement is false."
Vishnu Sarma
writer
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
-300 to -200
Five Treatises of Bidpai or Fables of Bidpai [-300 to -200: fables about how to succeed in life]
He wrote animal fables.
Bindusara
king
India
-296 to -272
He lived -320 to -272. Maurya Empire extended to Madras.
Diodorus Cronus
philosopher
Greece
-294 to -284
He lived -315 to -284, was of Megarian school, and worked on logic. Nothing is possible that neither is nor will be true
{Master Argument} [-294 to -284]. The possible either is true or will be true. Possibility is impossible, because only
actual is certainly possible. A possible that does not become real proves itself impossible. Only actual or impossible can
happen. Impossible cannot result from possible. All past truths are necessary.
Kung-sun Lung or Gongsun Long
lawyer
Chang'an (Xian), China
-290 to -270
Meaning and Things [-290 to -270]
He lived -320 to -250, belonged to Ming-chia School of Names, studied rhetoric, and invented paradoxes, such as "A
white horse is not a horse".
Strato of Lampsacus
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-287 to -270
He lived -335 to -268 and was Lyceum leader after Theophrastus [-287 to -270]. Falling objects accelerate. Objects
have different weights because they have different-size voids {doctrine of the void} {void doctrine}. There are no gods
or supernatural forces, and world is mechanistic.
Ptolemy II
king
Egypt
-282 to -246
He lived -309 to -246. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty built library at Alexandria and fought Syria.
Erasistratus
anatomist
Alexandria, Egypt
-280 to -250
He lived -304 to -250, dissected animals and humans, and described brain, brain ventricles, heart, heart valves, nervous
system, sense and motor nerves, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, and lens.
Antigonus II
king
Greece
-276 to -239
He lived -319 to -239, conquered Macedon [-276], and united Greece.
Asoka or Ashoka
king
India/Afghanistan
-273 to -232
He lived -290 to -232 and ruled Maurya Empire at greatest extent, because he conquered all India, Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, Ceylon, Nepal, and Kashmir. He defeated Kalinya Empire [-265] and then warred no more. He then
promoted religious tolerance, non-violence, and personal dignity.
He became Buddhist [-255] and established Buddhism as state religion. He built 80,000 stupas and many monasteries.
He tried to restore discipline to the monks. He emphasized charity, self-command, and self-control. Buddhist
missionaries went to Burma and Ceylon [-240]. He started the idea of heavenly salvation for good behavior {svarga} in
Buddhism. After he died, Buddhism died out in north India.
He increased trade, planted banyan trees, and built roads, reservoirs, wells, and inns.
Literature had Mahabharata, including Bhagavadgita, and Ramayana.
Hermarchus
philosopher
Greece
-270 to -250
Against Empedocles [-270 to -250]; On the mathematicians [-270 to -250]; Against Plato [-270 to -250]; Against
Aristotle [-270 to -250]
He was second Epicurean-School leader [-270 to -250].
Xun Zi or Hsün Tzu or Hsün K'uang
philosopher
-270 to -240
Master Xun
He lived -298 to -238 and was Confucian. People are naturally selfish, envious, hateful, and desirous, and so cause
conflict, violence, crime, and wanton behavior. People develop desires that society must regulate. Society imposes
order and so helps people gain more satisfaction overall.
Arcesilaus of Pitane
philosopher
Greece
-268 to -240
He lived -315 to -240, was skeptic, and led Middle Academy [-268 to -240].
Archimedes
physicist/mathematician/inventor
Syracuse, Sicily
-264 to -212
Archimedes' screw
He lived -287 to -212 and invented Archimedes' theorem, Archimedes spiral, Archimedes axiom, and Archimedes realnumber property. He used exhaustion method to find pi and sphere and conic areas and volumes. He used completeness
axiom. He found Archimedes buoyancy law {Archimedes' principle, Archimedes} {Archimedes principle,
Archimedes}. He put a screw {Archimedes' screw} {Archimedes screw} inside a cylinder, to lift water.
Aristarchus of Samos
astronomer
Alexandria, Egypt/Samos, Ionia
-260
He lived -310 to -250, invented heliocentric theory [-260], calculated Earth-to-Sun distance to Earth-to-Moon distance
ratio from angle at half moon, found Moon distance and size from Earth shadow on Moon during lunar eclipse, and
stated causes of night and day and seasons.
Theocritus
writer
Greece
-250
Fifteenth Idyll [-250]
Polystratus
philosopher
Greece
-250 to -240
He lived ? to -240 and was third Epicurean-School leader [-250 to -240].
Eratosthenes
mathematician
Egypt
-250 to -200
He lived -276 to -194 and found circumference of Earth.
Arsaces I
king
Persia
-247 to -211
From central Asia, he led Parni branch of Dahae and founded Parthian kingdom in east Persia, which became Parthian
Empire.
Ptolemy III
king
Egypt
-246 to -221
He lived -280 to -221. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty fought Syria and controlled Asia Minor and
Greek coast.
Chrysippus
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-240 to -207
He lived -280 to -207, was third Stoic leader, and invented formal propositional logic.
Han Fei
lawyer
-234
Hanfeizi or Master Han Fei [-234]
He lived ? to -233, was Legalist, and studied prestige, laws, and punishments by rulers.
Apollonius of Perga or Appolonios or Great Geometer
mathematician/philosopher
Greece
-230 to -200
Conics or Conic Sections [-230 to -200]
He lived -262 to -185 and was Neo-Pythagorean and mystic. He invented a systematic theory of parabolas, ellipses, and
hyperbolas, based on eccentricity, directrix, and focus. He studied right circular cones, oblique circular cones,
hyperbolas, parabolas, ellipses, conjugate diameters, tangents, asymptotes, foci, conic intersections, maximum and
minimum conic lengths, conic normals, similar and congruent conics, and conic segments. Two conic tangents meet at
poles, and sides are polars. Given three points, lines, or circles, construct a circle tangent to or including the points,
lines, or circles {Apollonian problem}.
Ethics
Simple life is best.
Mind
Mind and body are separate realities.
Hasdrubal
general
Carthage, Tunisia
-226 to -221
He lived -260 to -207, was son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, founded city of New Carthage in Spain [-226], and governed
Spain [-228 to -221], but later someone killed him.
Antiochus the Great
king
Syria/Israel
-223 to -187
He lived -242 to -187, was Seleucid, and took Judea [-198].
Zheng or Cheng or Shih Hwang-ti or Qin Shi Huang-di
king
China
-221 to -206
He founded Qin or Ch'in or Ts'in dynasty. As king of Ch'in in Senshi Province, he subdued six other kingdoms and
united China. Shih Hwang-ti or Shi Huang-di means first emperor. Hsien Yang was capital. He built first Great Wall of
China, 1500 miles long, in north and northwest. He centralized government, set up bureaucracy, forced nobles to live at
capital, and redistributed land to peasants. He stopped crime and enforced laws with strong army. He unified measures
and currency. He standardized Chinese characters. His tomb was near Lin Tung. His death started civil war.
Ptolemy IV
king
Egypt
-221 to -205
He lived -243 to -205 and was of Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty.
Hannibal
general
Carthage, Tunisia
-218 to -200
He lived -247 to -182 and led Carthage army in Second Punic War. He ruled in Carthage after the peace.
Fabius the Cunctator or Fabius the Delayer
consul
Rome, Italy
-217
He lived -275 to -203. As Roman Republic fought against Hannibal in Second Punic War, he did not commit to battle,
and Rome replaced him before Rome's defeat at Cannae.
Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius [Cato Censorius, Marcus Porcius]
lawgiver
Rome, Italy
-214 to -185
On military things [-214 to -185]; Essay on Conduct [-214 to -185]; On filial piety [-214 to -185]; On Agriculture [-214
to -185: agriculture law]
He lived -234 to -149 and was Tribune [-214] and Censor [-185]. His son was Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus, who
wrote De iuris disciplina.
Scipio Africanus Major
consul
Rome, Italy
-209 to -202
He lived -236 to -183. Roman Republic conquered Spain and defeated Hannibal of Carthage at Battle of Zama [-202].
He tried to prevent revenge on Hannibal, but Cato the Elder rigged trial against Scipio.
Titus Maccius Plautus [Plautus, Titus Maccius]
playwright
Rome, Italy
-205
Swaggering Soldier [-205: comedy]
Sextus Papirius [Papirius, Sextus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-200
Pontifical Law or Law of Sacrificial Rites or Law of Papirius [-200: Roman traditional laws]
He collected Roman traditional laws {leges regiae}.
Bharata or Bharata Muni
writer
India
-200 to 200
Scriptural Texts on Dancing [-200 to 200: about dancing, singing, mime, and drama]
Natyasastras tell how to play heroes and other characters and how to interpret emotions in all situation types.
Experiencing art equals tasting object essence {rasa theory, Bharata}. Abhinaya (toward Drama) is about dramaturgy.
Bharata Natyam, Khathakali, and Kudiattam Yaksagana are India dance forms that follow Bharata's technique and his
concept of Abhinaya. Rasananda is ultimate bliss. The older Shilpa Shastras describe how to perform the Agama or
liturgical texts and include Vishnudharmotara Purana, Samaranganasutradhara, Sukranitisara, and Shilpa Ratna.
Patanjali
linguist/philosopher
Tamil, India
-200 to 200
Great Commentary [-200 to 200: about Panini's grammar]; Discourses on Yoga [-200 to 200: about Raja Yoga or
Ashtanga Yoga, including Kaivalya Pada as fourth book]
He wrote about Patanjali Yoga or Raja Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga, one of the Six Schools, Shad-Darsananas, or Classical
Systems of Philosophy. Raja Yoga is meditation. Hiranyagarbha started Raja Yoga.
Bhakti Yoga is devotions, prayers, rituals, and worship. Jnana Yoga is using reason to become free of seeing
differences. Karma Yoga is service to others.
Carneades
philosopher
Greece
-180 to -150
He lived -214 to -129 and was skeptic. No premise is immediately certain, so people cannot know premise truth, so it is
impossible to prove deductions. Knowledge is persuasive only, to show what is plausible {to pithanon}. What is origin
of the bad? Why did God give people freedom to choose badly? Why does God allow bad choice to continue?
Antiochus IV
king
Syria/Persia
-175 to -164
He lived -215 to -164. Seleucids tried to stop Maccabees in Judaea. Rome blocked Seleucid invasion of Egypt.
Mithradates I
emperor
Persia
-171 to -138
He lived -200 to -138 and was Parthian emperor. He conquered from Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf to border of India [160 to -140].
Katyayana or Varttika-kara or Vararuchi or Vararuci
mathematician/grammarian/Vedic priest
India
-170 to -150
Discourses on Altar Construction [-170: about geometry and altar construction]; Critical Gloss [-170 to -150: about
Panini's grammar]
He lived -200 to -140. He was in Aindra grammarian school and lived in northwest India.
Terence
playwright
Rome, Italy
-162 to -160
Eunuchus [-161]; Phormio [-161]; Adelphi [-160]
He lived -192 to -158 and was of Scipionic Circle.
Manius Manilius [Manilius, Manius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-155 to -148
Roman Sales Contracts [-150]
He was Proconsul [-155 to -154] and Consul [-148] and invented Roman sales contracts.
Milinda or Menander
king
Sagala/Bactria
-155 to -130
Questions of King Milinda or Menander [-130]
He was Greek king of Sagala in Bactria [-155 to -130]. Nagasena persuaded him to become Theravada Buddhist.
Huai-nan-tzu or Huainanzi or Liu An [An, Liu] or Huai-nan
writer
-150 to -130
Huai Nan Tzu or Book of Huai Nan Tzu [-150 to -130]
He lived -179 to -122, was a Taoist philosopher, and was Kao-tsu's grandson and emperor's cousin. Kao-tsu or Liu
Pang founded Western Han dynasty.
Panaetius
philosopher
Rome, Italy
-150 to -130
On Duty [-150 to -130]; On Providence [-150 to -130]; On Cheerfulness [-150 to -130]; On Philosophical Schools [150 to -130]
He lived -185 to -108 and was Stoic and Syncretist. Scipio the Younger was his pupil. People should become more
active and virtuous, depending on personality.
Scipio Africanus Minor or Scipio Africanus the Younger
consul
Rome, Italy
-146 to -121
He lived -185 to -129. Roman Republic fought Third Punic War and sacked Carthage. He quelled rebellion in Spain.
He tried to nullify the Gracchi's reforms.
Marcus Iunius Brutus [Brutus, Marcus Iunius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-142
Civil Law [-142]
He was Praetor [-142].
Publius Mucius Scaevola [Scaevola, Publius Mucius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-141 to -130
Complete Annals [-130]
He lived ? to -113 and was Tribune [-141] and Consul [-133].
Wu-ti or Liu Ch'e
emperor
China
-141 to -87
He lived -156 to -87, took Central Asia's Tarim Basin, south Manchuria, and southeast China, and founded Early Han
or Former Han or Western Han. Silk Road began.
Tung Chung-shu
philosopher
-140 to -120
Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals [-140 to -120]
He lived -179 to -104 and was Confucian. Confucianism became China's political system and religion [136] {Mandate
of Heaven}. Human life and universe both have good and bad, active and passive, and yin and yang and so have cycles.
Hipparchus
astronomer
Greece
-134
He lived -190 to -120 and measured relative star brightness, equinox precession [-150], and Moon size from lunareclipse parallax [-130].
Hyrcanus I
king
Judea
-134 to -104
He lived ? to -104 and left Pharisees to become Sadducee [-120].
Caius Gracchus [Gracchus, Caius]/Tiberius Gracchus [Gracchus, Tiberius]/Gracchi
tribune
Rome, Italy
-133 to -121
Caius lived -154 to -121. Tiberius lived -163 to -133. The Gracchi of Roman Republic were sons of Cornelia. Tiberius
Gracchus passed Sempronian law, which redistributed public lands to more people. Someone murdered him in riot over
his renomination. Caius Gracchus then started social reforms and blocked Senate and consuls. Someone murdered him
in riots protesting intent of Senate to repeal his measures. They redistributed land and had other land reforms. State
began to feed the poor. State did not enforce army service until man was 17 years old. Equites and patricians were
judges.
Nagasena
monk
Bactria/India
-130
Questions of King Milinda or Menander [-130]
He persuaded Milinda or Menander, Greek king of Sagala in Bactria [-155 to -130], to become Theravada Buddhist.
Dionysius Thrax [Thrax, Dionysius]
linguist
Thrace, Greece/Alexandria, Egypt
-120
Art of Grammar [-120]
He lived -170 to -90, was Stoic, and wrote comprehensive grammar.
Antiochus of Ascalon
philosopher
Athens, Greece
-110 to -70
Sosus [-90 to -79: against Sosus, Stoic philosopher]; Canons [-110 to -70]; On death [-110 to -70]
He lived -130 to -68, was at New Academy, was pupil of Philo of Larissa [-110], and began Middle Platonists. He tried
to go back to Plato's original teachings, using Stoic and eclectic ideas against skepticism.
Quintus Mucius Scaevola [Scaevola, Quintus Mucius] or Augur
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-106 to -95
Civil Law [-106 to -95: 18 volumes]; Single Book [-106 to -95: legal terms and basic principles]
He lived ? to -88, was Publius Mucius Scaevola's son, systematized Roman law, and taught Cicero. He was tribune [106], aedile [-104], and consul [-95], when, with Licinius Crassus, Lex Licinia Mucia denied Roman citizenship to
some people in Italy, later causing Social War. He was governor of Asia, publishing edict for provincial administration.
He was pontifex maximus.
Gaius Marius [Marius, Gaius]
tribune
Rome, Italy
-100
He lived -155 to -86 and tried more reform.
Aenesidemus of Knossos
philosopher
Greece
-100 to -50
Pyrrhonian thoughts or Pyrrhonian statements [-100 to -50]; On wisdom [-100 to -50]; On the search (for truth) [-100 to
-50]; Against wisdom [-100 to -50]; Outline of Pyrrhonism [-100 to -50]
He founded Pyrrhonian Skepticism and was against Academy Platonists. He developed ten skepticism modes {trope,
Aenesidemus}. Perception does not optimize. People differ in character and what they think is good. Objects present
visual and other perceptions, and none is defining. Perceptions differ under different moods. Perceptions differ in
different contexts. Nothing can separate from everything else, so properties are not definite. Properties differ depending
on quantity, such as for medicine. Perception has viewpoint, so knowledge is relative. Value depends on frequency, so
rare things and events are more valuable. Customs, education, and beliefs influence perception and judgment.
Ananda/Kasyapa/Katyayana/Mahakashyapa/Sariputra
writer
India
-100 to -25
Abhidhamma Pitaka or Higher Teaching Basket or Special Teachings Basket [-100 to -25: Tripitaka third basket has
seven books that classify psychology, metaphysics, philosophy, and logic]
Ananda
writer
Rajagaha (Rajgir), Bihar, India
-100 to -25
Sutra Pitaka or Sutta Pitaka or Basket of Teachings or Collection of the King or Discourses of Shakyamuni [-100 to 25: Buddha's discourses to followers]; Nikayas or Discourses of the Buddha [-100 to -25: Nikayas include Digha
Nikaya or Long Collection, Majjhima Nikaya or Middle-length Collection, Samyutta Nikaya or Collection of Groups
or Collection of Kindred Sayings with five vaggas and 56 samyuttas, Anguttara Nikaya or Collection of Discourses,
and Khuddaka Nikaya or Smaller Collection]; Psalms of the Elders, Brethren, and Sisters or Lives and Psalms of the
Buddha's Disciples or Psalms of the Early Buddhists [-100 to -25: in the Khuddaka Nikaya in the Fifth Group of
Sutrapitaka in Pali Canon. Sisters are Theri-Bhikkhunis]; Sayings of the Buddha [-100 to -25: in the Khuddaka Nikaya
of Sutrapitaka in Pali Canon]
He wrote Tripitaka second basket, Sutta Pitaka, Sutrapitaka, or Basket of Discourses, which has the Five Nikayas.
Longer Nikaya and Shorter Nikaya are first two parts and are Buddha's dialogues. Third Nikaya is Anguttara or
Progressive Addition, which states doctrines by units, then pairs, threes, fours, then to tens. Fourth Nikaya is Satlyutta
or Clusters, which states Logia or doctrines by subject. Sutrapitaka contains the Girimananda Sutra (Discourse to the
Venerable Girimananda), Mahanidana Sutra (Great Discourse on Origination), Mangala Sutra (Discourse on
Blessings), Metta Sutra (Discourse on Loving-Kindness), Ratana Sutra (Discourse on Precious Jewels), Samannaphala
Sutra (Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship), and Theranama Sutra (Discourse on Knowing the Better Way to Live
Alone). Fifth Nikaya is in Sutrapitaka or third basket.
Ananda/Kasyapa/Katyayana/Mahakashyapa/Sariputra/Upali
writer
India
-100 to -25
Three Baskets or Pali Canon [-100 to -25: Buddha teachings, commentaries, and conduct rules are in Pali, a south-India
literary language]
Three Baskets {tripitaka} {tipitaka} are Vinaya Pitaka, Sutra Pitaka, and Abhidharma Pitaka. Buddhist oral teachings
are Theravada Buddhism scripture. Other schools are Mahayana and Vajrayana. Vinaya Pitaka is practices and ethical
code for monks and nuns. Sutra Pitaka has Buddha's life, dialogues, and teachings {agamas} {nikayas}. Anguttara
Nikaya is in Sutra Pitaka fourth division. Abhidharma Pitaka (Toward Higher Thought or Toward Reality)
systematically investigates mind and matter. Tripitaka parts include Cullavagga, Dipavamsa, Mahavagga, Mahavamsa,
Niddesa, Parivara, Patisambhida, and Sataka.
Upali
writer
Kapilavastu, Nepal
-100 to -25
Vinaya Pitaka or Basket of Monastic Discipline [-100 to -25]
He wrote Tripitaka first basket, which has rules for the sangha monastic community.
Guhadeva
philosopher
India
-100 to 1
Spiritual Theological Dictionary [-100 to 1]
He wrote about Upanishads.
Dramida
philosopher
India
-100 to 600
Kapardi
philosopher
India
-100 to 600
Tanka
philosopher
India
-100 to 600
Cornelius Sulla [Sulla, Cornelius]
general
Rome, Italy
-88 to -81
Leges Corneliae [-88 to -81]
He lived -138 to -78. As ex-consul, he took Rome [-88], passed new laws (Leges Corneliae) to block reforms, and
increased Senate to 600 members [-81].
Philodemus of Gadara
philosopher/poet
Herculaneum, Italy
-80
On Rhetoric [-80]
He lived -110 to -35 and was Epicurean.
Cicero or Marcus Tullius Cicero [Cicero, Marcus Tullius] or Tully
lawyer/orator
Rome, Italy
-80 to -43
On oratory [-55]; On the republic [-54 to -52]; On laws [-52]; For Milone [-52]; On ends [-45]; On the nature of the
gods [-45]; On divination [-45]; On duties [-44]; Philippics [-44 to -43]; Letters to Relations [-67 to -43]; On His
Consulship [-80 to -43]; On His Life and Times [-80 to -43]
He lived -106 to -43 and defended Sextus Roscius against the state [-80]. He defended people of Sicily against the
governor [-51]. He was praetor [-66] and consul [-63]. He first emphasized intention, as well as actual act. He first
distinguished between damages and penalties.
Natural law is universal, because it depends on reason, which is inherent in all people equally. Actual laws depend on
history and natural law.
Epistemology
Ideas can be innate in reason, which people need only remember.
Psychology
People have right to take part in conversations. Conversation with monarchs should be mainly information, flattery, or
respectful silence. People should use witticisms only in conversations with equals.
Pompey the Great
consul
Rome, Italy
-76 to -48
He lived -106 to -48. Roman Republic conquered Spain. Senate and equite knights stopped revolt of Spartacus [-61].
Pompey cleared Mediterranean Sea of pirates, defeated Pontus, formed First Triumvirate [-60], and led Senate against
Caesar, who defeated him at Pharsala during civil war. Senate passed agrarian laws that kept land from plebians.
Hyrcanus II
king
Judea
-76 to -40
He lived ? to -30 and was Judea high priest [-76 to -40]. Rome took Judea, and Hyrcanus II, a Maccabee, was puppet
ruler [-63 to -40].
Andronicus of Rhodes
philosopher
Rhodes, Greece
-70
He was Peripatetic and edited Aristotle's works into logic, physics, and ethics categories [-70].
Lucretius or Titus Lucretius Carus [Lucretius Carus, Titus]
philosopher/biologist/poet
Rome, Italy
-70 to -55
On the Nature of Things [-70 to -55: six books]
He lived -99 to -55 and was Epicurean. Universe is atomistic and governed by natural laws. People are matter only.
Plants and animals evolve.
Servius Sulpicius Rufus [Rufus, Servius Sulpicius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-65 to -51
Commentary on the Praetorian Edict [-65 to -51]; Commentary on the Twelve Tables [-65 to -51]
He lived ? to -43 and used dialectical method in law. He was Praetor [-65] and Consul [-51].
Cato the Younger or Marcus Porcius Cato [Cato, Marcus Porcius]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
-63 to -46
He lived -95 to -46, was Cato the Elder's great-grandson, was Stoic, and was famous for honesty.
Julius Caesar
consul/historian/biographer
Rome, Italy
-59 to -44
Gallic Wars [-45]
He lived -100 to -44. Julius Caesar became consul [-59]. He conquered Gaul [-58 to -50]. He defied Senate's order to
disband army and crossed Rubicon River [-49], starting civil war [-49 to -45]. He marched to Rome. He then defeated
Pompey in Pharsala, Greece [-48]. He went to Greece and met Cleopatra. He went to Pontus and defeated Egypt, where
he said "I came, I saw, I conquered." After he won the civil war, he became dictator of Rome, organized Roman
Empire, ended anarchy, started social reforms, and began Julian calendar. Marcus Brutus assassinated him on March 15
{Ides of March} [-44], followed by more civil war.
He limited number of lawyers {jurisconsult} allowed to give opinions and gave them imperial authority. Only emperor
set new laws. The people disliked his new laws {Julian law}. Men had to marry if younger than 60. Women had to
marry if younger than 50. People that had children had reduced taxes and got jobs. Adultery was punishable. Weddings
had to be modest. Extravagance was bad.
His great-nephew Octavian later became Caesar Augustus (Augustus Caesar).
Gaius Valerius Catullus [Catullus, Gaius Valerius]
poet
Rome, Italy
-54
Lesbia [-54: lyric poem]
He lived -84 to -54 and wrote poems about personal life {carmina, Catullus}.
Cleopatra
queen
Egypt
-51 to -30
She lived -69 to -30. She was of Ptolemaic Dynasty. Julius Caesar and Marc Anthony loved her. After she and Marc
Anthony lost at Actium, she killed herself using asp.
Gaius Amafinius [Amafinius, Gaius] or Gaius Amafanius [Amafanius, Gaius]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
-50
He was Epicurean.
Aulus Ofilius [Ofilius, Aulus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-50
Praetorian Edict commentary [-50]
He was Rufus' student.
Publilio Siro [Siro, Publilio]
philosopher
Naples, Italy
-50
He lived -85 to -43 and was Epicurean.
Marcus Tullius Cicero [Cicero, Marcus Tullius] or Tully
consul
Rome, Italy
-50
Tuscany Disputations [-50]
He lived -106 to -43. Through alliance with Pompey, as consul he destroyed Catiline conspiracy against Roman
Republic. Philosophy is about soul {cultura animi}.
Marcus Terentius Varro [Varro, Marcus Terentius] or Varro Reatinus
linguist
Rome, Italy
-50
On the Latin Language [-50: 25 books]; Agricultural Topics [-50: 3 books]
Quintus Aelius Tubero [Tubero, Quintus Aelius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-46
He tried to prosecute Quintus Ligarius [-46] for co-operation with Juba.
Lepidus
patrician
Rome, Italy
-43 to -36
He lived ? to -19, was praetor [-49], was consul [-46], and was Triumvirate member [-43 to -36].
Virgil or Publius Vergilius Maro [Maro, Publius Vergilius]
poet
Rome, Italy
-42 to -19
Eclogues or Bucolics [-42]; Georgics [-30]; Aeneid [-19]
Publius Alfenus Varus [Varus, Publius Alfenus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-41 to -39
Digests [-40: 40 books]
He was Consul Suffectus [-39] and Rufus' student. He confiscated land for veterans, and he aided Virgil [-41].
Hagesandros or Agesander/Athenodoros/Polydoros of Rhodes
sculptor
Rome, Italy
-40 to 20
Laocöon Group [-40 to 20: Hellenistic marble statue shows Laocöon and his sons' tragic deaths]
Rhodes is island near Crete.
Herod the Great
king
Judea
-37 to -4
He lived -73 to -4, was Hyrcanus's half-Jewish minister, and ruled for Rome. He built Masada [-30] by Dead Sea as
fortress towering 1300 feet. He murdered rabbis. According to the Bible, he massacred children [-4].
Horace or Quintus Horatius Flaccus [Flaccus, Quintus Horatius]
poet
Rome, Italy
-32 to -29
Ars Poetica or Art of Poetry [-30: book]
He lived -65 to -8.
Gaius Trebatius Testa [Testa, Gaius Trebatius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-30 to 1
Topics [-30 to 1: on ius civile and divine law]
He advised Augustus about informal codicil.
Livy or Titus Livius [Livius, Titus]
historian
Padua, Italy/Rome, Italy
-29 to -9
From the Founding of the City [-29 to -9: history of Rome from -753 to -9]
He lived -59 to 17.
Augustus or Octavian
emperor
Rome, Italy
-27 to 14
He lived -63 to 14 and was Julius Caesar's great nephew. Octavian controlled Persia, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece,
Italy, Gaul, Lusitania or Portugal, and Spain and so consolidated Roman Empire [-31]. He became first emperor of
Rome as Augustus [-27]. He imposed Pax Romana, had good administration, and encouraged arts.
Ovid or Publius Ovidius Naso [Ovidius Naso, Publius]
poet
Rome, Italy
-20 to 2
Amores [-20]; Metamorphoses [-10]; Ars Amatoria or Art of Love [2]
He lived -43 to 17.
Marcus Antistus Labeo [Labeo, Marcus Antistus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
-20 to 10
Pithana [-20 to 10: about Hittite king of Kussar in -1700]; Later Works [-20 to 10]
He lived -50 to 22 and provided the ideas of Proculian School of Roman law.
Hillel I or Hillel the Elder
lawgiver
Jerusalem, Israel
-20 to 20
Prozbul or Document That Gives Supervision of a Loan to a Jewish Court [-20 to 20]
He lived ? to 20, codified the Mishnah based on rules {seven rules, Hillel}, and founded Beit Hillel or House of Hillel
school. Do not do to people what you would not like them to do to you {golden rule, Hillel}.
Joseph
carpenter
Palestine
-4
He was Mary's husband.
Mary of Nazareth
mother
Palestine
-4
She was Jesus' mother.
Herod Antipas or Herod Antipatros
tetrarch
Judaea
-4 to 40
He lived -20 to 40. According to the Bible, he executed John the Baptist and brought his head on a platter when Salome
asked for it. He was Herod the Great's son.
Aryasura
philosopher
India
1 to 100
Aspiration [1 to 100]; Meditation on Compassion [1 to 100]; Garland of Birth Stories or Garland of Tales from the
Earlier Lives of the Buddha [1 to 100]
Hermes Trismegistos or Hermes the Thrice Great
alchemist
Chenoboskion, Egypt/Nag Hammadi, Egypt/Alexandria, Egypt
1 to 100
Emerald Tablet [1 to 100: translated by Ficino in 1463]
He began Alchemy and Hermetism or Hermetic philosophy.
Chenoboskion is on Nile River west bank in Upper Egypt.
Nature has interconvertible and mixable elements: earth or solid, fire or energy, air or gas, water or liquid. Metals relate
to body parts. Gold represents longevity. Sulfur, as fire and spirit, and mercury, as water and soul, make minerals and
metals. Gold has value, because it does not rust and does not change with heat, alkali, or acid. All metals can grow into
gold. Philosophers Stone, Elixir of Life, or Red Tincture can change base metal into gold.
Epistemology
Using reason can make people like gods, by removing misconceptions {twelve madnesses} and perceiving the order of
nature.
Metaphysics
God is beyond human conception.
Kamandaki or Kumandaki or Kamandaka
writer
Dhaka, India
1 to 100
Elements of Polity [about government]
Gaius Ateius Capito [Capito, Gaius Ateius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
5
On public judgments [5]
He lived ? to 22, was consul [5], and provided the ideas of Sabinian or Cassian School.
Wang Mang
emperor
China
9 to 23
He lived -45 to -23, seized power in Han dynasty when regent, and started Hsin court.
Philo Judaeus or Philo of Alexandria
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
10 to 40
Exposition of the Law [10 to 40]; Allegorical Commentary on Genesis [10 to 40: his main work]; Question and
Solutions [10 to 40]; On the Liberty of the Wise [10 to 40]; On the Incorruptibility of the World [10 to 40]; On
Providence [10 to 40]; Alexander or On Whether Brute Animals Possess Reason or On Animals [10 to 40];
Contemplative Life [10 to 40]
He lived -20 to 50, was Neo-Platonist, commented on Bible, and unified Jewish and Greek philosophy.
Epistemology
Religious-writing literal meaning is for senses. Philosophical meaning is for mind. To understand, people must be
passive in reason, senses, and activity, so divine spirit can enter. People can achieve ecstasy {mysticism}, in which
miracles and prophecies are possible. In this state, people know, not just desire to know. People can prepare for this
state, and be worthy of it, through love, truth, faith, prayer, and suppression of will and senses. However, this state is
gift from God. People must renounce self and merge with God to know logos and so God. Logos is immanent, and
people can know it. God is transcendent, and people cannot know it.
Metaphysics
God is perfect. Matter is imperfect. Life principle, divine reason, or spirit of God {logos, spirit} is intelligent,
immanent, transcendent, and divine. Logos is powers and attributes of God and is how God acts on nature. Logos
makes and unifies all matter. Logos is Thought. Logos is immanent in all things, while God is transcendent.
Intelligence {logos spermatikos} generates everything. Intermediate connecting forces are angels and servants of God
and link God and material world. Angels have personality and connect to God by logos. Angels are also material.
Augustus or Octavian
emperor/lawgiver
Rome, Italy
14
Julian laws [14: new family laws]
He lived -63 to 14. Julian laws were new family laws.
Sempronius Proculus [Proculus, Sempronius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
14 to 37
Letters [14 to 37: 11 books for teaching]
He lived -12 to 66, was Labeo's student, and founded Proculian School, which gave Roman-law interpretations for next
200 years.
Massurius Sabinus [Sabinus, Massurius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
14 to 37
Commentary on the Ius Civile [14 to 37: three books]
He was Capito's student and founded Sabinian or Cassian School, which gave Roman-law interpretations for next 200
years.
Tiberius
emperor
Rome, Italy
14 to 37
He lived -42 to 37 and reformed finances of Roman Empire. Senate and Assembly lost all power.
Tacfarinas
general
Maghreb/Numidia
17 to 24
He led Berber tribal revolt in Maghreb (Numidia) against Rome [17 to 24].
Strabo
historian/geographer/philosopher
Greece
18
Geography [18]
He lived -63 to 24.
Shammai
lawgiver
Jerusalem, Palestine
20 to 30
18 ordinances [20: rescinded in 70]
He lived ? to 30 and founded Beit Shammai or House of Shammai school, which favored mild restrictions.
John the Baptist
philosopher
Palestine
25 to 29
He lived -28 to 30, preached the Messiah's coming [25], and baptized Jesus.
Jesus or Savior or Christ or Messiah or Immanuel or God With Us
religion founder
Palestine
26 to 29
Agrapha or Unwritten Sayings [30: Jesus' traditional sayings]
He lived -4 to 29 and was probably born in Nazareth. His name was Joshua or Savior, common Hebrew name. Jesus is
Greek for the Hebrew name Joshua. Messiah means Anointed or Savior in Hebrew. Christ is Greek for Anointed.
Immanuel means "God with us" in Hebrew. His ideas and life are Christianity's basis.
According to the Bible, he was born to Joseph and Mary of Nazareth in a stable when they traveled to Bethlehem to
pay taxes, and he lay in the stable feeding trough {manger, Bible}. However, he was more likely born in animal
quarters in a relative's house in Nazareth.
His father and he were carpenters. According to the Bible, at age 12 he argued with Hebrew elders about scriptures. At
age 30, he began preaching the Messiah's coming and that the weak and poor will triumph if they are righteous, on
Judgment Day. He had 12 disciples, Peter, John, Judas Iscariot, and others. According to the Bible, he conjured enough
food for crowd from several loaves and fishes, turned water into wine, and raised Lazarus from the dead. He preached
Sermon on the Mount and Beatitudes. He told parables about the Talents, the Prodigal Son, and the Good Samaritan.
He said, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" {golden rule, Jesus}. At age 33, he came to Jerusalem.
Crowds greeted him on Palm Sunday. He denigrated the Scribes and Pharisees. He broke with Judaism and drove out
moneychangers at the Temple. He rested on the Mount of Olives with Mary and Martha, Simon the Leper's sisters.
Sanhedrin priest council condemned him to death for blasphemy. Judas betrayed him for 30 pieces of silver. Pontius
Pilate had him arrested in Garden of Gethsemane. He had his Last Supper on Thursday. The people did not choose to
let him go free when Pilate let the people choose. The hostile crowd chose Barabbas. Romans crucified him on Good
Friday, between two thieves. He carried his cross to Golgotha, the Crucifixion site. He spoke seven sayings while on
the cross, such as "Father forgive them for they know not what they do." and "My God, why hast thou forsaken me?"
Soldier speared him to make sure he was dead. Joseph and Nicodemus took him to tomb. He was not there when Mary
Magdalene came on Easter Sunday to embalm his body, the Resurrection after three days. According to the Bible, forty
days after Resurrection, he ascended into heaven {Ascension, Bible} after revisiting the disciples.
He advocated Jewish law but opposed harsh interpretations. He used Essene ideas. Christian laws have same ideas, but
different emphases, than Jewish laws.
Pontius Pilate
governor
Judea
26 to 36
He lived ? to 36 and was Roman Judea governor [26 to 36]. A Jewish sect {Zealot} wanted a nation. Jews in Syria and
Palestine were against each other, their neighbors, and Rome. According to the Bible, he had Jesus arrested,
condemned, and crucified [29].
Doubting Thomas
writer
Greece/Israel
26 to 72
He was Jesus' disciple and went to India [52 to 72]. Someone killed him.
Gaius Cassius Longinus [Longinus, Gaius Cassius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
27
Commentary on the Ius Civile [27]
He was Capito's student.
Barabbas
criminal
Palestine
29
The people freed convicted criminal, instead of Jesus, when Pilate let them choose.
Joseph of Arimathea/Nicodemus
biblical person
Palestine
29
They received Jesus' body from the cross.
Judas Iscariot
apostle
Palestine
29
He lived ? to 33 and was Jesus' disciple but betrayed Jesus to the authorities with a kiss.
Mary Magdalene
biblical person
Palestine
29
She found Jesus' tomb empty.
Mary/Martha
biblical person
Palestine
29
They gave care to Jesus and were Simon the Leper's sisters.
Peter the Apostle or Simon Peter
apostle
Palestine
29 to 64
He lived ? to 64. Jesus said of his disciple Peter, "Upon this rock, I will build my church."
John the Apostle
apostle
Palestine
29 to 80
He was the most mystical of Jesus' disciples. He probably did not write Gospel of John.
Steven
biblical person
Greece/Israel
34
He was one of the first seven church deacons and became a martyr [34].
Saul or Paul
evangelist/apostle
Antioch/Rome, Italy
35 to 67
Thessalonians [52: I and II]; Galatians [56]; Corinthians [56: I and II]; Romans [57]; Philippians [61]; Philemon [61];
Colossians [61]; Ephesians [61]; Timothy I [66]; Titus [66]; Timothy II [67]
He lived 10 to 63, was born and educated in Tarsus, wrote in Greek, founded Christian ideas and organization, visited
churches in Asia Minor and Greece, and died in Rome [67]. Saul became the apostle Paul after his conversion [35] by a
light ray. He visited Jerusalem [37], stayed at Tarsus [37 to 43], stayed at Antioch [43 to 44], visited Jerusalem [44 or
45], took his first mission [45 to 49], visited Jerusalem [49 or 50], took his second mission [50 to 53], visited Jerusalem
[53], took his third mission [53 to 57], visited Jerusalem [57], faced arrest [57], went to Rome [59], was captive at
Rome [60 to 62], and took a mission [62 to 66]. Someone killed him [67]. He said Jesus was God and wrote about soul
versus body.
Caligula or Caius Julius Caesar Germanicus
emperor
Rome, Italy
37 to 41
He lived 12 to 41 and led Roman Empire.
Phaedrus
poet
Rome, Italy
40
Fables [40: including Lupus ad Canem or The Dog and the Wolf, Soror ad Fratrem or The Brother and Sister, Socrates
ad Amicos]
He lived -15 to 50 and translated Aesop's Fables into poetry.
Lucius Seneca the Younger [Seneca the Younger, Lucius]
leader/playwright
Rome, Italy
40 to 62
Agamemnon [40 to 60: tragic play]; Oedipus [40 to 60: tragic play]; Phaedra [40 to 60: tragic play]; Thyestes [40 to 60:
tragic play]; Moral Letters to Lucilius [40 to 60: essays on ethics]; Natural Questions [40 to 60: essays]; Dialogues [40
to 60: essays on anger, providence, impassivity, and soul]; On the elements [40 to 60: essay]; Medea [41: tragic play]
He lived -2 to 65 and ruled Roman Empire while tutoring emperor Nero [54 to 62]. His father was Seneca the elder [60 to 37].
Claudius or Claudius Nero Germanicus
emperor
Britain
41 to 54
He lived -10 to 54 and invaded Britain [43].
Apollonius of Tyana or Balinas
philosopher
Greece/Rome, Italy
50 to 80
He lived ? to 98 and was Neo-Pythagorean and mystic.
Agrippa
philosopher
Rome
50 to 90
Five Modes or Five Tropes [50 to 90]
He lived ? to 92 and was Skeptic. Syllogisms are circular reasoning, because first particular fact justifies premise and
then general premise proves particular fact. Assumptions, dissenting opinions, infinite regress and incompleteness,
alternative relations, and circular reasoning {five tropes} make suspending judgment best. Reasoning requires multiple
things to explain.
Thomas
writer
Greece/Israel
50 to 140
Gospel of Thomas
Nero
emperor
Rome, Italy
54 to 68
He lived 37 to 68, killed his mother, wife, cousin, and many Christians, and defeated many revolts against Roman
Empire.
Boudicca
queen
Britain
60 to 61
She lived 26 to 62, was Iceni queen, and rebelled against Rome [60].
Hero of Alexandria
mathematician/physicist/inventor
Alexandria, Egypt
60 to 62
Pneumatics [60]; Automata [62]; Mechanics [60 to 70]; Metrics [60 to 70]; Sighting Tube [60 to 70]
He lived 10 to 70, invented Hero's formula, and studied geodesy, mechanics, and pneumatics. He maintained constant
water-clock water supply, using float and needle valve, as in carburetors. He invented steam engine {aeolipile} [62].
Philemon
writer
Greece/Israel
61 to 63
He received epistle from Paul, his friend.
Percius
poet
Rome, Italy
62
Satires [62]
He lived 34 to 62.
Petronius Arbiter or Titus Petronius Arbiter [Petronius Arbiter, Titus]
novelist
Rome, Italy
62 to 65
Satyricon [62 to 65]
He lived 27 to 66.
Lucan or Marcus Annaeus Lucanus [Lucanus, Marcus Annaeus]
historian
Rome, Italy
65
Pharsalia or Civil War [65]
He lived 39 to 65.
Mark
writer
Alexandria, Egypt
65 to 75
Gospel of Mark [Bible gospel]
It is oldest gospel of the Bible.
Luke
writer
Troas, Anatolia
65 to 100
Gospel of Luke [Bible gospel]
Vespasian or Titus Flavius Vespasianus [Vespasianus, Titus Flavius]
emperor
Rome, Italy
69 to 79
He lived 9 to 79 and began Flavian line of Roman Empire. He constructed Forum [75] and began Colosseum. His son
Titus finished Colosseum [80].
James
writer
Greece/Israel
70 to 100
Epistle of James
Matthew
writer
Antioch
70 to 100
Gospel of Matthew [Bible gospel]
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
70 to 160
Gospel of Peter
Pliny the Elder or Caius Plinius Caecilius [Caecilius, Caius Plinius]
essayist/biologist
Rome, Italy
77
Natural History [77]
He lived 23 to 79.
Vitruvius
architect
Rome, Italy
80
On Architecture [80: book]
Flavius Josephus [Josephus, Flavius]
writer/historian
Rome, Italy
80 to 93
Jewish War [80 to 90: seven books about Israel from 66 to 73]; Jewish Antiquities [93: twenty books about Jewish
history]
He lived 37 to 101.
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
80 to 110
1 Peter
Mestrius Plutarch [Plutarch, Mestrius]
historian/biographer
Greece
80 to 110
Parallel Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans [100 to 110]; Morals [80 to 90: including On Eating Flesh, On the
Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris, On the Malice of Herodotus, On the
Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind]
He lived 46 to 120.
Barnabas
writer
Greece/Israel
80 to 120
Epistle of Barnabas
Epictetus
writer
Rome, Italy/Greece
80 to 135
Discourses [135]; Manual [80 to 120]
He lived 55 to 135, was Stoic, and wrote about ethics. Philosophy should be about morals and mind. Body, status, and
wealth are not important. People should control their emotions {apatheia}, so they can choose actions consistent with
duty and citizenship. People should not let life affect them so that they cannot act.
Martial or Marcus Valerius Martialis [Martialis, Marcus Valerius]
writer
Rome, Italy
86 to 103
Epigrams [86 to 103]
He lived 40 to 110.
Clement I
pope
Rome, Italy
88 to 97
1 Clement; 2 Clement
He lived ? to 97 and built papacy power and Holy See of Rome.
John
writer
Greece/Israel
90 to 95
Apocalypse of John
John
writer
Greece/Israel
90 to 120
Gospel of John [Bible gospel]; 1 John; 2 John; 3 John
Jude
writer
Greece/Israel
90 to 120
Epistle of Jude
Akiba or Akiva or Akiba ben Joseph or Akiva ben Yosef or Akiva ben Yoseph
rabbi
Yavne, Israel
90 to 130
Way of the Chariot [90]
He lived 50 to 135, wrote about meditation and mysticism, was a Mishnah scholar {Tannaim}, and was main oral
source for Mishnah and midrash halakha. He visualized God's bright robe {chalub}. He linked traditional practices to
biblical texts. God foresees everything, but people have free choice, though God knows the choice.
Lucius Neratius Priscus [Priscus, Lucius Neratius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
97
Rules [97]; Book about Plautio [97]
He lived ? to 117, was of later Proculian School, and was Consul Suffectus [97].
Trajan
emperor
Rome, Italy
98 to 117
He lived 53 to 117, took Parthia and Dacia for Roman Empire, and built Roman Forum and Column of Trajan. Roman
Empire was at greatest extent.
Suetonius or Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus [Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius]
historian
Rome, Italy
98 to 117
Lives of the Caesars or The Twelve Caesars [98 to 117]
He lived 75 to 160 and wrote about Roman Empire.
Jnanasri
philosopher
India
100
He was later Sautranika. Words are always general, never particular, and serve to negate {exclusion theory of
meaning}.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien
historian
100
Historical Records [100]
He lived -145 to -90 and wrote dynasty histories.
Juvenal or Decimus Junius Juvenalis [Juvenalis, Decimus Junius]
essayist
Rome, Italy
100 to 127
Satires [100 to 127: Satires 1 through 16]
He lived 55 to 127.
Aspasius
philosopher
Athens, Greece
100 to 150
Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle [100 to 150]; Reader of Natural Passions [100 to 150]
He was Peripatetic.
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
100 to 150
Apocalypse of Peter
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
100 to 160
2 Peter
Aristocles of Messene
philosopher
Messene, Greece
100 to 200
Testimony [100 to 200]
He was Peripatetic.
Asvagosha or Asvaghosha
philosopher
India
100 to 200
Treatise on the Buddha Vehicle [100 to 200: play]; Discourses on the Teachings [100 to 200: play]; Life of the Buddha
[100 to 200: play]; Discourse on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana [100 to 200: about Mahayana Buddhism]
Mary the Jewess or Maria the Jewess
alchemist
Alexandria, Egypt
100 to 200
hot ash box [100 to 200: for steady heat]; dung box [100 to 200: for prolonged heat]; double boiler or bain-marie [100
to 200]; kerotakis [100 to 200: still]; tribikos [100 to 200: top of still]
Perhaps, she wrote, "One becomes two, two becomes three, and out of the third comes the one as the fourth."
Pausanias
historian
Greece
100 to 200
Description of Greece [100 to 200]
He studied legends, customs, and arts.
Puspandanta/Bhutabalin
mathematician
India
100 to 200
Approaching the Parts [100 to 200: decimal number system]
It has decimal logarithms.
Anthony
saint
Egypt
100 to 300
He lived 251 to 356 and was Roman Catholic saint.
Elchasai
writer
Greece/Israel
101 to 220
Book of Elchasai
Cai Lun or Ts'ai Lun
inventor
China
105
paper [105]
He lived 50 to 121.
Ignatius of Antioch or Theophorus
writer
Antioch, Asia Minor
105 to 115
Letter to Ephesus [105 to 115]; Letter to Magnesia [105 to 115]; Letter to Tralles [105 to 115]; Letter to Rome [105 to
115]; Letter to Philadelphia [105 to 115]; Letter to Smyrna [105 to 115]; Letter to Polycarp [105 to 115]
He lived 50 to 117 [98 to 117].
Tacitus or Publius Tacitus [Tacitus, Publius] or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus [Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius]
historian
Rome, Italy/Germany
105 to 115
Histories [105: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian]; Annals [115: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian]
He lived 56 to 117.
Publius Iuventius Celsus [Celsus, Publius Iuventius]
lawyer/philosopher
Rome, Italy
106 to 129
Digests [106 to 129: 39 books]
He was of later Proculian School, was Middle Platonist, was praetor [106 or 107] and consul [129].
Gaius Octavius Iavolenus Priscus [Priscus, Gaius Octavius Iavolenus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
110
Letters [110: 16 books, standard Roman law text for next 300 years]
He lived 43 to ?, was Consul Suffectus [97], and taught Emperor Julian about Roman law.
Papias
writer
Greece/Israel
110 to 140
Expositions of the Sayings of Jesus [110 to 140]
He was bishop of Hierapolis.
Polycarp
writer
Greece
110 to 140
Epistle of St. Polycarp to the Philippians [110 to 140]
He lived 69 to 155.
Matthias
writer
Greece/Israel
110 to 160
Traditions of Matthias
Pliny the Younger or Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus [Plinius Caecilius Secundus, Gaius]
essayist
Rome, Italy
111 to 113
Letters [111 to 113: letters to Trajan and Tacitus, the historian, including Letter Concerning the Christian Problem]
He lived 62 to 115.
Apollodorus of Damascus
sculptor/architect
Greece/Rome, Italy
113
Column of Trajan [113: Roman spiral reliefs with little depth and weak background, similar to Assyrian style, in
Trajan's Forum]
He lived 50 to 130.
Hadrian
emperor/lawgiver
Rome, Italy
117 to 138
Perpetual Edict [131: codified Roman praetorian laws]
He lived 76 to 138 and was emperor [117 to 138]. Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He built walls in Germany and
Britain. He set Roman east boundary at Euphrates River. He ordered Perpetual Edict.
Sextus Pomponius [Pomponius, Sextus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
117 to 161
Handbook [117 to 161: introduction to law]; Commentary on the Edict [117 to 161]; Commentary about Quintus
Mucius [117 to 161]
He compiled laws and wrote history of Roman law.
Zhang Heng [Heng, Zhang]
inventor
China
120
seismograph [120]
He lived 78 to 139.
Basilides
writer
Greece/Israel
120 to 140
He was first Alexandrian Gnostic.
Kaniska or Kanishka
king
India/Pakistan/Afghanistan
120 to 162
He was king of Kushan and ruled north India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and central Asia. He converted to Buddhism.
Kushana kingdom was in Gandhara, Punjab, and Sind.
James
writer
Greece/Israel
120 to 180
2nd Apocalypse of James
John
writer
Greece/Israel
120 to 180
Apocryphon of John
Mary of Magdala
writer
Greece/Israel
120 to 180
Gospel of Mary of Magdala
Quadratus of Athens
writer
Greece
124 to 125
Apology [124]
He was bishop of Athens and first Christian apologist.
Heracleon
writer
Italy
125
He was of Valentinian School.
Aristides
writer
Athens, Greece
126
Apology of Aristides [126]
Salvius Julianus [Julianus, Salvius] or Julian
lawyer
Rome, Italy
130 to 131
Digests [130: codified Roman praetorian and equity law in 90 volumes]; Perpetual Edict [131]
He was Sabinian School leader. Hadrian appointed him to codify Roman law. He prepared Hadrian's edict (Perpetual
Edict), settling the praetorian law, including law of equity.
Appian of Alexandria
historian
Alexandria, Egypt
130 to 150
Punic Wars [130 to 150]; Roman Civil Wars [130 to 150]
He lived 95 to 165.
Justin Martyr
writer/priest
Syria/Rome, Italy
130 to 160
Apology [130 to 160]; Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon [130 to 160]
He lived 100 to 165 and became Roman Catholic saint. Knowledge requires special revelation from God, because
senses and demons make reason and nature obscure.
Judas
writer
Greece/Israel
130 to 170
Gospel of Judas
Mathetes
writer
Greece/Israel
130 to 200
Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus
Bar Kokhba
rabbi
Israel
132 to 135
He led rebellion against Rome [132 to 135].
Valentinus
philosopher
Rome, Italy
135 to 160
Gospel of Truth [135 to 160]
He lived 100 to 153, was Gnostic, and founded Valentinians.
Metaphysics
The indefinite state joined with silence or thought to make spirit or reason, which then joined with truth or Ideas. Then
reason joined with life to make the ideal man, who joined with Church. The Wisdom longs for original indefinite state,
and this sinful desire enters the Void to make material world.
In Gnosticism, Sophia or Wisdom disorders the divine world {pleroma}, and God banishes it. Jesus Christ has the
knowledge {gnosis} to restore the divine world to include people. Now Holy Spirit rules the world. Jesus the Savior
will return. The Demiurge, Yahweh of Old Testament, who created the physical world, rules the world outside the
pleroma.
Marcion
writer
Greece/Israel
138 to 144
He lived 110 to ? and started Marcionites. They rejected Old Testament.
Antonius Pius
emperor
Rome, Italy
138 to 161
He lived 86 to 161 and began Antonine Dynasty of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration.
Isidore
writer
Greece/Israel
140 to 160
Fronto
writer
Greece/Israel
140 to 170
Wei Po Yang [Yang, Wei Po]
alchemist
Luoyang, China
142
Commentary on the I Ching [142]
He lived 100 to 150. Principles similar to alchemy arose in China from Taoism. Nature has interconvertible and
mixable elements: water, fire, wood, gold, and earth.
Aristo of Pella
writer
Pella, Asia Minor
150
Disputation of Jason and Papiscus [150]
Ptolemy
mathematician
Alexandria, Egypt
150
Almagest or Great Book [150]
He lived 87 to 150, invented maps with longitude and latitude, discovered Ptolemy's theorem, and invented epicycles to
describe planetary motions.
Lucian of Samosata or Lucianos or Lucianus or Lucinus
philosopher/writer
Rome, Italy/Turkey/Greece
150 to 170
Alexander the False Prophet or Alexander the Oracle-Monger [150 to 170]; Passing of Peregrinus [150 to 170]; Dream
[150 to 170]; Doubly Indicted [150 to 170]; Fisher [150 to 170]; Apology [150 to 170]; Phalaris or Cruelty [150 to 170:
Phalaris ruled Agrigentum, Sicily, cruelly from -570 to -554]; Slander [150 to 170]; True Story [150 to 170]; Dialogues
of the Gods [170: satire]; Dialogues of the Dead [170: satire]
He lived 125 to 180 and was Skeptic.
Alexander of Aphrodisias or Expositor
philosopher
Rome, Italy
150 to 200
On Fate [150 to 200]; On the Soul [150 to 200]; Commentary on Analytica Priora of Aristotle [150 to 200];
Commentary on Topica of Aristotle [150 to 200]; Commentary on Meteorologica of Aristotle [150 to 200];
Commentary on De Sensu of Aristotle [150 to 200]; Commentary on Metaphysica of Aristotle [150 to 200]
He was Peripatetic Commentator on Aristotle.
Apollonius Dyscolus [Dyscolus, Apollonius]
linguist
Greece
150 to 200
Syntax [150 to 200]
He lived 100 to 200 and wrote about Greek syntax, starting systematic grammar study.
Nagarjuna
philosopher
Nalanda, Bihar, India
150 to 200
Guidebook for the School of the Middle Way [150 to 200]
He founded Madhyamika, Sunyavada, or Voidist School of Mahayana Buddhism. He used the dialectic to break fixed
conceptions and to prove that all signs are meaningless, that all is and is not, and that all statements are refutable
{Doctrine of the Void}.
Epistemology
To have true knowledge, people should detach from everything and be aware of Emptiness. Using logic to prove
contradictions forces coming to the concept of emptiness, neither being nor non-being. Therefore, all things are empty.
They come into being for moments but are dependent. In emptiness, there is no contradiction and no strife.
Knowledge depends on external-object reality, but their reality comes from ability to know, so everything depends on
varying perspectives and is not certain. Cause and effect are both meaningless. Pain and pleasure are both meaningless.
Ethics
The highest goal is the Void, but Void is neither void nor not-void, because it is indescribable, with no goal, no burden,
and no conflict.
Middle Way is balanced moderate life. People should not attach {non-attachment} to the 75 dharmas.
Metaphysics
Only one Void exists, so no metaphysics is true. Only relations exist. Things only have momentary existence. Being or
substance is always ordering and forming {dharma, Nagarjuna}, with no permanent order or form.
Numenius of Apamea
philosopher
Rome, Italy
150 to 200
Book of Threes [150 to 200]
He was Middle Platonist.
Thomas the Contender
writer
Greece/Israel
150 to 225
Book of Thomas the Contender
Esra
writer
Greece/Israel
150 to 250
Fifth and Sixth Books of Esra
Tatian
writer
Rome, Italy
160 to 170
Address to the Greeks [160 to 170]
He lived 110 to 180.
Apelles
writer
Alexandria, Egypt
160 to 180
Syllogisms [160 to 180]
Julius Cassianus [Cassianus, Julius]
writer
Alexandria, Egypt
160 to 180
Exegeses [160 to 180]; Concerning Abstinence or Eunuchry [160 to 180]
Minucius Felix
writer
Greece
160 to 230
Octavius
Apuleius or Lucius Apuleius of Madura [Apuleius of Madura, Lucius]
writer
Rome, Italy
161 to 170
Apologies [161]; Golden Ass or The Metamorphoses or Transformations of Lucius [170]
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
emperor/writer
Rome, Italy
161 to 180
Meditations [167]
He lived 121 to 180 and was second Antonine ruler of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration.
People can try to understand universe order and goodness, accept consequences for themselves, and sympathize with
and live harmoniously with others.
Dionysius of Corinth
writer
Greece
165 to 175
Hegesippus
historian
Rome, Italy
165 to 175
Notes on Church History [165 to 175]
He opposed Gnostics and Marcion.
Melito of Sardis
writer
Asia Minor
165 to 175
Quintus Cervidius Scaevola [Scaevola, Quintus Cervidius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
165 to 200
Digests [170]
He taught his student Papinian about Roman law.
Diatessaron
writer
Greece/Israel
170 to 175
Ulpius Marcellus [Marcellus, Ulpius]
judge
Asia Minor/Rome, Italy
170 to 180
He lived 138 to 180 and studied Roman law. He was not Lucius Ulpius Marcellus.
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
170 to 220
Letter of Peter to Philip
Athenagoras of Athens
writer
Greece
175 to 180
Plea for Christians [177]; On the Resurrection of the Dead [175 to 180]
Rhodon
writer
Greece/Israel
175 to 185
Theophilus of Caesarea
writer
Asia Minor
175 to 185
Galen
doctor
Pergamon, Asia Minor/Greece
175 to 190
On the Elements According to Hippocrates [175 to 190]; On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Human Body [175 to
190: Body parts are as good as they can be for the purpose]
He lived 131 to 201 and probably developed the fourth syllogism figure. He diagnosed disease by pulse, dissected
animals, and observed living and dead nerves, blood, and organs. Blood flows back and forth through body. Following
Erasistratus [-280], body has three spirit types {pneuma, Galen}: natural spirit from liver, vital spirit from left heart
ventricle, and animal spirit from brain. The four temperaments {temperaments, Galen} are choleric, melancholic,
phlegmatic, and sanguine.
Claudius Apollinaris [Apollinaris, Claudius]
writer
Hierapolis
177
Apologies [177]
He was bishop of Hierapolis.
Celsus
writer
Alexandria, Egypt
178
True Word or True Discourse [178]
He was Platonist.
Irenaeus of Lyons
writer
Lyon, France
178 to 185
Against Heresies [178 to 185]
He was Greek, was bishop of Lugdunum (Lyon) in France, and is a Father of the Church.
Theophilus of Antioch
writer
Asia Minor
180 to 185
He was bishop of Antioch.
Bardesanes
writer
Edessa, Assyria
180 to 220
Light and Darkness [180 to 220]; Spiritual Nature of Truth [180 to 220]; Movable and the Immovable [180 to 220]
He lived 154 to 223. Concerning Fate or Book of the Laws of the Countries is about him.
Philip
writer
Greece/Israel
180 to 250
Gospel of Philip
Clement of Alexandria or Titus Flavius Clemens [Clemens, Titus Flavius]
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
182 to 202
Hortatory Discourse to the Greeks [182 to 202]
He lived ? to 215 and was Christian. God created the world so all wills can overcome sin, face punishment, and have
redemption. God does not oppose his creation but is separate from it. Evil is an action by people, not substance, and so
God did not create it. Evil is rebellion against God's will. Evil is love of God's creation, rather than God. Evil spirits are
wills that do evil but are not human.
Maximus of Jerusalem
writer
Israel
185 to 195
Polycrates of Ephesus
writer
Greece
185 to 195
Judah ha-Nasi or Judah haNasi or Jehudah ha-Nasi or Yehudah ha-Nasi or Jehudah Hanassi or Jehudah the
Prince or Rabeinu HaKadosh
lawgiver
Judea
188 to 217
Mishnah [188 to 217]
He lived 135 to 217, codified Mishnah or Oral Tradition, and was Sanhedrin president.
Judah haNasi or Judah ha-Nasi/Rav Muna [Muna, Rav]/Rav Yossi [Yossi, Rav]/Rav Ashi [Ashi, Rav]/Ravina
I/Ravina II or Rabina or Abina
writer
Babylon/Palestine
188 to 479
Talmud or Shas [188 to 479]
Talmud or Shas is Mishnah with Gemara.
Mishnah or Repetition has Hebrew texts from rabbis and records Jewish oral law [200]. Judah haNasi or Judah the
Prince or Rabbi compiled it in Aramaic. It does not cite written law.
Gemara records comments on Mishnah by Palestine and Babylon rabbis [200 to 500]. Rabbis compared written and
oral law.
Yerushalmi Gemaras differ from Bavli Gemaras, so there is Jerusalem Talmud (Palestinian Talmud) and Babylonian
Talmud. Rav Muna and Rav Yossi wrote Yerushalmi Gemara in Israel [350]. P'nei Moshe and Korban ha-Eidah are
comments.
Rav Ashi and Ravina wrote the Babylonian Talmud [250 to 550] in Babylon [550].
Savoraim or Rabbanan Savoraei were post-Talmudic rabbis, who worked for next 250 years, making final version
[700]. Rashi or Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac [1040 to 1105] commented. Tosafot, Additions, or Supplements are
additional comments compiled by French and German rabbis. Talmud also has analyses by Maharshal or Solomon
Luria, Maharam or Meir Lublin, and Maharsha or Samuel Edels. The Rosh by Asher ben Jehiel and The Rif by Isaac
Alfasi are legal commentaries in Talmud.
Additions to Mosaic Law resulted from scripture searches {midrash, search} for meaning, using four methods
{Talmud, method}. One is for simple meaning {peshat, meaning}. One is for hidden meaning {remes, meaning}, of
seemingly unmeaningful words. One is for the homily, prophecy, and sermon meaning {derush}. One is for
metaphysical meanings, theosophy, and religious mysteries {sod, meaning}.
Midrash is about Hebrew-Bible legal and non-legal texts, using peshat or direct meaning, remez or hint, derash or
exegesis, and sod or mystic. Tannaitic texts are the following. Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael is about Exodus [300 to 500].
Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai is about Exodus [300 to 400]. Sifra is about Leviticus and is by Rabbi Akiva
[250]. Sifre is about Numbers and Deuteronomy and is by Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Ishmael [250]. Sifre Zutta or Small
Sifre is about Numbers [300 to 330]. Talmudic texts are the following. Midrash Qohelet is about Ecclesiastes [800 to
850]. Midrash Esther is about Esther [940]. Pesiqta is about Pentateuchal and Prophetic lessons [700 to 750]. Pirqe
Rabbi Eliezer is about events in Pentateuch [700 to 800]. Tanchuma or Yelammedenu is about Pentateuch [800 to 900].
Midrash Shemuel is about Books of Kings. Midrash Tehillim is about Psalms. Midrash Mishle is about Proverbs.
Yalqut Shimeoni is about scripture. Seder Olam Rabbah or Seder Olam is by Rabbi Yose ben Halafta and goes from
universe creation to Jerusalem Second-Temple construction. Yalkut Shimoni is collection about scriptures by Shimon
ha-Darshan [1200 to 1300]. Tanna Devei Eliyahu is about commandments and prayer and includes Seder Eliyahu
Rabbah and Seder Eliyahu Zuta. Midrash Rabbah has Rabboth or Great Commentaries about the Bible, Bereshith
Rabba or Genesis Rabbah [500 to 600], Shemot Rabba or Exodus Rabbah [1000 to 1200], Vayyiqra Rabba, Leviticus
Rabba [650], Bamidbar Rabba or Numbers Rabba [1100 to 1200], Devarim Rabba or Deuteronomy Rabba [900 to
1000], Shir Hashirim Rabba or Song of Songs Rabbah [800 to 850], Ruth Rabba [800 to 850], and Eicha Rabba or
Lamentations Rabbah [600 to 700].
Victor I
writer
Rome, Italy
189 to 199
High questions about resurrection and other such matters [189 to 199]
Pantaenus
writer
Greece/Israel
190 to 210
Aemilius Papinianus [Papinianus, Aemilius] or Papinian
lawyer
Rome, Italy
193 to 211
Questions [193 to 211: law principles in 37 books]; Answers [193 to 211: 19 books]; Definitions [193 to 211: 2 books];
On Adultery [193 to 211]
He lived ? to 212, was Scaevola's student, and looked for the principle and moral rule in law. He became Master of
Petitions (Magister Libellorum) [193 to 211], whom commoners petitioned to be equites or to gain other duties. He
later became General of the Guard (Praefectus Praetorii), assistant to emperor Severus.
Septimius Severus [Severus, Septimius]
emperor
Rome, Italy
193 to 211
He lived 146 to 211 and was Libyan general. He built chain of forts and long ditches in north Africa. He was member
of equestrian class, with army and administrative experience in Roman Empire. Emperor became absolute master,
without preserving legal forms. The prefect became head of civil administration and judges in Rome. He devalued
currency, gave power to army, set high taxes, and caused high inflation, which led to civil war, which he won, and to
foreign wars, which he won with some losses.
Abercius
writer
Greece/Israel
193 to 216
Inscription [193 to 216]
He was bishop of Hieropolis.
Tertullian of Carthage or Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus [Tertullianus, Quintus Septimius Florens]
philosopher/writer
Rome, Italy
197 to 220
On the body of Christ [197]; To the martyrs [197]; To the nations [197]; Apologetic [197]; Book of proscribed heresies
[200]; On the halo [211]; On flight from persecution [212]; On penance [220]
He lived 160 to 225 and was Christian Apologist. He said, "I believe what is absurd" {credo quia absurdum est}
because it showed the work of God.
Epistemology
People cannot know revelation by thinking, and revelation has no connection with philosophy. Only faith can give
religious belief {fideism}, not reason.
Isvara Krishna or Ishvara Krishna
philosopher
India
200
Verses on Samkhya [200: about Samkhya]
Julius Paulus or Paul
lawyer
Rome, Italy
200
Opinions [200]
He wrote commentary on Perpetual Edict and analyzed Roman law logically.
Sextus Empiricus
philosopher
Rome, Italy
200
Outlines of Pyrrhonism [200]; Against the Dogmatists [200]; Against the Professors [200]
He was Skeptic.
Apollonius of Ephesus
writer
Greece/Israel
200 to 210
Mara Bar Serapion [Serapion, Mara Bar] or Serapion of Antioch
writer
Antioch, Asia Minor
200 to 210
Testimony [200 to 210]; Letter from a Near Eastern Jail [200 to 210: to his son about wisdom]; Comments on the
Gospel of Peter [200 to 210]
He was Patriarch of Antioch [191 to 211].
Caius
writer
Greece/Israel
200 to 220
Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus [Philostratus, Lucius Flavius]
writer
Athens, Greece
200 to 220
Life of the Sophists [200 to 220]; Life of Apollonius of Tyana [200 to 220]
Diogenes Laertius
philosopher
Rome, Italy
200 to 250
Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers [200 to 250]
He was Stoic.
Jeu
writer
Greece/Israel
200 to 250
Books of Jeu
Martia or Martia Proba or Martia the Just
queen
London, England
200 to 300
Martian Statutes or Laws of Martia
She recorded Celtic laws. Later, Alfred and Edward the Confessor used these laws.
Peter
writer
Greece/Israel
200 to 300
Coptic Apocalypse of Peter
Olympiodorus
alchemist
Greece
200 to 400
Pseudo-Plutarch
Greece
200 to 400
Lives of the Ten Orators [100: about ancient Athens and based on Caecilius of Calacte's works]; Doctrines of the
Philosophers [100]; On Music [100]
Later Plutarch-of-Delphi Moralia editions included unknown authors, called Pseudo-Plutarch.
Caracella
emperor
Rome, Italy
211 to 217
All freeborn people in empire received Roman citizenship.
Domitius Ulpianus [Ulpianus, Domitius] or Ulpian
lawyer
Rome, Italy
211 to 222
Commentaries on Sabinus [211 to 222: 50 books about ius civile]; Commentaries on the Edicts [222: 83 books about
edicts]; On the Office of Proconsul [211 to 222: 10 books about criminal law]
He lived ? to 228, was prefect [222], and wrote a Perpetual-Edict commentary and a Roman-law summary.
Hippolytus of Rome
writer
Rome, Italy
212 to 236
Refutation of All Heresies [215]; Apostolic Tradition [215]
He lived 160 to 236 and was bishop of Rome.
Origen or Origenes Adamantius
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
212 to 248
Old Testament in Six Versions [212 to 248: compared Old-Testament translations]; Old Testament in Four Versions
[212 to 248: compared Old-Testament translations of]; Love of the Holy [212 to 248]; First Principles [212 to 215]; On
Prayer [230 to 235]; On Martyrdom [212 to 248]; Against Celsus [248]
He lived 185 to 254, was founder of Christian philosophy, and was Latin Father. God's power, wisdom, and goodness
created universe out of nothing, and universe's beauty and perfection reveals its origin. God constantly creates the
logos, which supports the free spirits surrounding God with love, harmony, and knowledge. God sends spirits that fall
out of these states to the actual world for punishment. World will vanish when all spirits are pure and in harmony with
God.
Manes or Mani
founder
Persia
216 to 277
He lived 216 to 276 and proclaimed himself intercessor {Paraclete} with God. He emphasized asceticism, prayer, and
understanding of God. He combined Christianity and Zoroastrianism gnostically, so spirit is Light, and matter is Dark
{Manichaeism}. Sassanid Shah Sapor I supported him. After Sapor I died, Zoroastrianism Magi persuaded next shah to
reject Manichaeism.
Ammonius Saccas or Sack-bearer
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
220 to 250
He lived 185 to 250 and was Neo-Platonist.
Ardashir I
king
Persia
224 to 241
He started Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty when people of Fars revolted against Parthians. He, noble soldier, killed last
Parthian king [226]. He reunited Persia. Sasan was his ancestor.
Sapor I or Shapur I
king
Persia
241 to 272
He lived 224 to 272 and was Ardashir's son. He defeated and captured Roman Emperor Valerian [260], captured
Armenia, and invaded Syria and Cappadocia. He started to build at Ctesiphon.
Wang Pi
philosopher
Luoyang, China
245
Commentary on the Lao Tzu [245]
Cyrillus
lawyer
Beirut, Lebanon
250
He formed official law school to study classical authors' Roman-law opinions.
Diophantus
mathematician
Greece
250
Arithmetic [250]
He lived 200 to 284 and studied number theory, algebra symbols, and determinate and indeterminate equations.
Plotinus
philosopher
Egypt/Rome, Italy
250
Enneads or Six Enneads [250: Enneads are nine dieties of Egyptian mythology]
He lived 204 to 270, was Platonist, studied under Ammonius Saccas, and emphasized monism and rationalism.
Metaphysics
God is the good, perfect, supreme, unified, and free being. God, the Good, has no consciousness, no form, and no
activity. God is the basis of Reason, Mind, and Being but is beyond them. God has no human traits.
Mind or divine spirit of God {divine consciousness} is self-acting and self-created and sustains material world. All
things are imperfect copies or imitations of the good and perfect {emanation system} {system of emanation}. God
overflows into the world, which reflects him as rational Mind {Nous} in matter and as Soul {Psyche, soul} in living
things. The light of God makes all Ideas: being, rest, motion or change, identity, and difference. Ideas are God, soul, or
spirit thought contents, because both are immaterial. Mind makes actual world, affecting Soul to make it form matter
based on Ideas. Matter is Void, not material or spiritual but negation and non-being, with only possibility. Matter is
absolute desire and is evil. However, evil does not actually exist, because it is non-being. Material world mixes Void
and light of God, and so mixes good and evil.
Things in the world are in spheres around God. Farthest sphere is matter. Nearest sphere is divine Mind or reason.
Mind
Individual souls are Ideas and eternal. Souls can concentrate on either desire or reason. Contemplating Beauty moves
toward spirit. The final step unites soul with spirit. All matter and souls try to reunite with God.
Human souls form self-consciousness and body from Mind and Ideas. Self-consciousness results when mind actively
thinks about itself or its states.
Mind actively synthesizes and unifies perceptions, feelings, and thoughts, and does not just passively receive images
from outside. Mind acts by taking conscious notice and doing something with perceptions. Body sensation is separate
from consciousness of object or feeling.
Hsiang Hsiu
philosopher
Luoyang, China
250 to 280
Commentary on Chuang Tzu [250 to 280: about the Chuang Tzu]
He lived 221 to 300 and was Neo-Taoist.
Kuo Hsiang
philosopher
Luoyang, China
250 to 300
Commentary on Chuang Tzu [250 to 300]
He lived ? to 312, was Neo-Taoist, and used Hsiang Hsiu's text.
Zosimos of Panoplis
alchemist
Greece
250 to 350
Keys of Wisdom or Keys of the Craft [250 to 350]
He was Gnostic, and he mentioned Mary the Jewess.
Cormac MacArt [MacArt, Cormac] or Cormac Ulfhada Mac Airt
king
Ireland
254 to 277
He codified many laws and led the five kings of Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Meath, and Munster. His capital was at
Tara.
Porphyry or Porphyrus Malchus [Malchus, Porphyrus]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
260 to 280
Isagoge or Introduction [270 to 280: about Aristotle's Categories and logic]; Plotinus' Enneads [270 to 280: arranger];
Against the Christians [270 to 280]
He lived 232 to 304, was Commentator on Aristotle, and was Plotinus' student. A chain of being goes from lowest
forms to highest {Porphyry Tree} {Tree of Porphyry}.
Wu Ti or Shih Tsu or Ssu-ma Yen or Martial Emperor
emperor
China
265 to 290
He lived 236 to 290, united China after Han dynasty ended, and started Western Chin dynasty [265 to 317].
Aurelian or Restorer of the Roman Empire
emperor
Rome, Italy
270 to 275
He lived 214 to 275 and was from Illyria. He fought at Palmyra and defeated barbarians in Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt,
Syria, and Mesopotamia. He reestablished Roman rule throughout empire. Someone murdered him at invasion of
Persia.
Arcadius Charisius [Charisius, Arcadius]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
280 to 300
Digests [280 to 300]
He wrote about Roman law.
Iamblichus
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
280 to 310
On the Mysteries of Egypt [280 to 310]
He lived 250 to 326 and was Syrian Neo-Platonist.
Arnobius
philosopher
Rome, Italy
284 to 305
Against the Heathens [284 to 305]
He was Christian apologist. People must have faith in revelation. People cannot know God, because knowledge comes
only through senses.
Diocletian
emperor
Rome, Italy
284 to 305
He lived 245 to 305, was from Illyria, regained Britain, and defeated Persians and barbarians. He ruined Roman Empire
economy by heavier taxes.
He reorganized the army of 500,000 men and used conscription.
He created smaller dioceses to replace larger provinces. He created four prefectures [285], called the Tetrarchy. They
were Italy and Africa, Gaul and Spain, Greece and north, and Egypt and Asia. He divided empire along line from
Danube to Dalmatia, with himself in eastern half {Eastern Empire}, which was richer and more populous. Maximian,
general in Gaul, controlled west half [295]. Constantius and Galerius ruled subsections [292]. He persecuted Christians
[303] for failure to worship emperor. Senate became only honorary.
Gregorius or Gregorianus
lawyer
Rome, Italy
285 to 292
Codex Gregorianus [292: collected imperial Roman-law opinions]
He was magister libellorum under Diocletian [285 to 290].
Hermogenianus
lawyer
Rome, Italy
295
Codex Hermogenianus [295: collected imperial Roman-law opinions]
It associates with slightly earlier Codex Gregorianus.
Mithradates II
king
Persia
300
He lived 256 to 190 and was of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty.
Ossian or Oisin
poet
Ireland
300
Finn Mac Cumhail or Fionn mac Cumhail or Finn MacCool [300: about his father]; Cuchulain [300]
Legendary poet wrote in Gaelic.
Vasubandhu
philosopher
Gandhara (Khandahar), India
300 to 400
Compendium toward the Supreme Thought [300 to 400]; Comments on the Abhidharmakosha or Comments on the
Compendium toward the Supreme Thought [300 to 400]; On the World as Mere Representation [300 to 400]
He developed Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School of Mahayana Buddhism, was Asanga's half-brother, and worked on
logic.
George
saint
England
303
Golden Legend
He lived 280 to 303 and was Catholic patron saint of England and of soldiers. By legend, he slew a dragon.
Theodotus
writer
Constantinople
303
Excerpts of Theodotus [303]
Constantine the Great
emperor
Rome, Italy
306 to 337
He lived 274 to 337 and was Constantius' son. Army proclaimed him emperor of West Roman Empire [306], and civil
war followed. Before battle [312], he added Christian symbol to shields. He became western emperor [312]. Later, he
judged disputes between churches and built churches. He removed sun god from coins [320]. Sunday became holiday
[321]. He reunited empire [324] and became emperor of east and west. He moved capital to Byzantium and called it
Constantinople [330]. He had himself baptized when he died.
Christian centers were in Rome, Africa, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor.
Shapur II or Shapur the Great
king
Persia
309 to 379
He lived 309 to 379 and fought Roman Empire [337 to 363]. Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty defeated Constantius II
and Julian the Apostate of east Roman Empire [363]. There was high prosperity.
Ge Hong or Ko Hung
alchemist
Mt. Luofu, China
310 to 330
Master Who Embraces Simplicity [310 to 330]
He lived 283 to 343 and was Taoist.
Arius of Alexandria
doctrine
Alexandria, Egypt
313
He lived 256 to 336, became a priest [313], and said Jesus was not eternal and was lower than God.
Edict of Milan
edict
Milan, Italy
313
Constantine the Great established Christianity in Roman Empire by ensuring religious tolerance.
Eusebius of Caesarea or Eusebius Pamphili
doctrine
Caesarea, Palestine
314 to 339
Eusebian Canons
He lived 275 to 339, was Pamphilius' student [240 to 309], was bishop of Caesarea [314 to 339] in Palestine, and crossreferenced the Gospels. He was never pope [309 to 310]. Caesarea is on coast between Haifa and Tel Aviv.
Ezana of Axum
king
Eritrea
330 to 356
He lived 330 to 356, was ruler of Axum, and became Christian.
Constantine II or Flavius Claudius Constantinus
emperor
Rome, Italy
337 to 340
He lived 317 to 340. Roman Empire stayed united.
Julius I
pope
Rome, Italy
337 to 352
He lived ? to 352 and increased Holy-See power.
Constantius II or Flavius Julius Constantius
emperor
Rome, Italy
337 to 361
Roman Empire stayed united.
Pappus of Alexandria
mathematician
Alexandria, Egypt
340
Mathematical Collection or The Collection [340]
He lived 260 to 350 and proved Pappus' theorem {Guldinus theorem}.
Nicholas
bishop
Myra, Asia Minor
342 to 352
He lived ? to 352 and became Catholic patron saint of children.
Athanasius
theologian
Alexandria, Egypt
348 to 357
Defense Against the Arians [348]; Discourses Against the Arians [357]
He lived 297 to 373, was bishop of Alexandria [328 to 373], was a Doctor of the Church, and was for orthodoxy during
Arian crisis. He wrote orthodox Catholic doctrine of Trinity and Incarnation. Jesus had body and same substance as god
{homoousion}, whereas Arians said Jesus was not like god.
Asanga or Aryasanga
philosopher
Puruspura (Peshawar), India
350
Stages of the Yogacara [350]; Mahayana Buddhism Manual [350]; Compendium toward Higher Teaching or
Compendium toward Religion [350]
He lived 300 to ?, developed Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School of Mahayana Buddhism, and was Vasubandhu's brother.
Perhaps, Maitreyanatha wrote some.
Aturpat
philosopher
Persia
350
Dinkart or Denkart or Acts [350: Zand-Avesta part]
Aturpat was Hemet's son.
Rav Muna [Muna, Rav]/Rav Yossi [Yossi, Rav]
lawgiver
Jerusalem, Palestine
350
Jerusalem Talmud [350]
They were Jewish rabbis {rav} {rab} and judged cases.
Julian the Apostate or Flavius Claudius Julianus [Julianus, Flavius Claudius]
philosopher
Pergamon, Asia Minor
350 to 363
He lived 332 to 363, was Eastern Roman Empire emperor [361 to 363], and was Neo-Platonist.
Gregory of Nazianzen
philosopher
Constantinople
350 to 380
Homily 15 [350 to 380]; Five Theological Orations [350 to 380]
He lived 323 to 389 and was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
Meghavarna
king
Sri Lanka
352 to 379
He sent embassy to Gupta court [360], which built religious monument for them.
Aelius Donatus [Donatus, Aelius]
linguist
Rome, Italy
353 to 354
Major Arts [353 to 354]; Minor Arts [353 to 354: about the eight speech parts]
He taught St. Jerome.
Basil of Caesarea
philosopher
Caesarea, Cappadocia
360 to 379
Hexameron or On the Six Days of the Creation [360 to 379]
Gregory of Nyassa
philosopher
Cappadocia
370 to 390
Life of St. Macrina [370 to 390]; Variety of Salvation [370 to 390]; On the Baptism of Christ [370 to 390]; Baptismal
Renovation [370 to 390]
Ambrose
bishop/architect
Milan, Italy
375 to 397
On the faith to Gratianum Augustum [375]; On ministerial offices [375 to 390]; On penance [375 to 390]; On the
mysteries [375 to 390]; Saint Ambrose Basilica [380 to 397]
He lived 340 to 397, was bishop of Milan [374 to 397], was a Doctor of the Church, and became a Roman Catholic
saint. Church is independent of state.
Gildo
prince
North Africa
375 to 398
As Berber prince and general, he first helped Romans defeat his brother Firmus [375] but then rebelled against Roman
emperor Honorius [386 to 398].
Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya
king
Ganges Valley, India
375 to 415
He was of Gupta dynasty. Gupta Empire covered north India.
Rab Ashi [Ashi, Rab] or Rav Ashi [Ashi, Rav]
lawgiver
Babylon
375 to 427
Gemara of Babylonian Talmud [375 to 427]
He lived 352 to 427, led academy at Sura, and started compiling the Gemara of Babylonian Talmud.
Theodosius I or Theodosius the Great
emperor
Constantinople, Turkey
379 to 395
He lived 346 to 395. East Roman Empire negotiated peace with Visigoths. He invaded Italy and reunited East and West
Roman Empires, for last time. People in west left cities for farms, army had mercenaries, and government raised taxes.
He put down rebellion in Salonica. He ended Trinity doctrine of Arius, by force and by first Council of Constantinople,
and forbade paganism.
Ammonius
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
380 to 410
On the Harmony of Moses and Jesus [380 to 410]
He lived 347 to 419, refounded Alexandrian School, and was Proclus' student.
Kalidasa
poet/playwright
India
380 to 420
Meghaduta or Cloud Messenger [400: poem]; Sakuntala or Fatal Ring [400: play]; Abhiknana Shakuntala or
Recollection of Shakuntala [400]; Ritu Samhara or Account of Seasons or Cycle of Seasons [400]
John Chrysostom [Chrysostom, John]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
381 to 403
Treatise on the Priesthood [381]
He lived 347 to 407, was Patriarch of Constantinople [398 to 403], was Doctor of the Church and Greek Father, and
was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
Jerome
theologian
Rome, Italy
382 to 405
Vulgate Bible or Latin Bible [382 to 405: It uses Western Canon books, similar to Septuagint]; Four Gospels [384:
revised Latin version]; Roman Psalter [384: revised Latin version]; Job [384]; Epistles of St. Paul [385: revised Latin
version]; Gallican Psalter [386 to 391]; Old Testament [390 to 405: from Hebrew to Latin]; New Testament [398:
completed]
He lived 340 to 420 and was a Doctor of the Church.
Hippo Regius monastery
monastery
Bona, Algeria
388 to 390
Monastery founded by Augustine was west of Carthage.
Tao Yuanming or T'ao Ch'ien or Tao Qian
poet
China
390 to 410
Peach Blossom Shangri-la or Peach Blossom Country or Peach Blossom Spring or Tao Hua Yuan Ji [390 to 410];
Returning to Live in the Country [390 to 410]; Moving House [390 to 410]
Simeon Stylites
saint
Egypt
390 to 459
He lived 390 to 459, was ascetic, and sat on a pillar.
Alaric I
king
Italy/Spain/Gaul
395 to 410
He lived 370 to 410 and conquered Italy, Spain, and south Gaul, as Visigoths fled from Huns to Roman lands.
Augustine
priest
Africa
396 to 427
Confessions [400: autobiography]; City of God [426: about Christian society and against any other culture's value];
Reconsiderations [427: sermons and letters]; On the Beautiful and the Fitting [400 to 427]; On Music [400 to 427];
Literal Meaning of Genesis [400 to 427]
He lived 354 to 430, was Bishop of Hippo Regius (now Annaba, Algeria) [396 to 430], favored monasticism, and
argued against pagans, Manichees, Pelagius, and Donatists. He was Neo-Platonist, from Plotinus' ideas, and Apologist.
He united Patristic and Greek philosophy, using the psychological principle of internality.
Epistemology
People can infallibly know that they exist, because they can think rightly or wrongly. Sensations postulate perceivers. If
people doubt perception content, it proves there is doubter. To be in error, people must exist.
People cannot doubt existence of perception about which they have doubt {method of doubt, Augustine}. Therefore,
people know that they have consciousness. Knowing, willing, remembering, living, motivation, thinking, and judging
are actions included in doubting and so must exist, too.
People can know their inner experiences: feelings, thoughts, and perceptions. Mental-state self-observation and analysis
can lead to truth.
People can doubt that perception contents are real, because they use criteria that they have in themselves: logical laws,
standards of good and beautiful, and other truths not derivable from sensation. These criteria are the same for all people
and are universally valid. The criteria exist, though they are not material. They are the Ideas of God, in whom they
unite. Reason perceives these Ideas, so man has reason. People cannot know how Ideas unite in God and cannot know
all Ideas.
People cannot know if they are moving, are at certain place, or are single or multiple.
Senses and reason can know matter and spirit, which unite in self-consciousness.
Becoming conscious of sensation is an act of will, as is realizing an inner state. Will directs memory, imagination, and
judgment or reasoning.
To judge or reason, mind receives illumination or revelation from God, because cause must be more active than effect.
Truth is gift of God by grace.
Language reflects mind's workings.
Time is subjective, because past is in memory and future is in expectation, which both are in the present.
Ethics
Faith is more important than good deeds. Because there is original sin, man should seek the grace of God and union
with God.
Will directs people to be good in general and worthy of grace. Will is free to choose, independently of understanding or
knowledge. The only cause of will's choice is itself. Will determines its purposes. Will strives after happiness, and only
beholding the truth of God satisfies it. People should lead strict lives to fight evil and help God. People should have
faith that reward will be peace in eternity, when person's will suppresses into will of God.
People are responsible for acts done by will. God has foreknowledge of acts but does not cause them or force choice. It
is like God remembers them.
Evil is spirit's wrong action, so even intending or desiring to sin is evil. Sin of Adam corrupted all human will, so
people are guilty, because will turns toward evil. No one is capable of good on his or her own. This is people's
punishment for original sin. Only by the grace of God can people be good or have redemption. No one is worthy and no
one can complain. Good only comes from God. The will of God determines which people do good and which evil.
Souls have predestination.
Metaphysics
God is highest Being, highest Truth, highest Beauty, and infinite personality. God is omniscient about Ideas. God is
omnipotent, because God is all Being. God is completely good, because God is complete attainment of will. God is not
in time. Categories used to describe finite nature cannot apply to God, who is indescribable.
Reality has objects, souls, and God. Objects are in space and time. Souls are only in time. God is outside time and
space. Universe depends on Ideas, life, and God's will. God makes all things, including time and space. World is matter
and spirit.
God makes only good things. Decay causes bad things.
Mind
God causes people to have understanding or enlightenment. Consciousness is unified personality or soul and has one
basic activity, which is self-consciousness. Soul has three parts. People's ideas are memories of Ideas. Life is making
judgments based on Ideas. Will is motive or force behind life and striving for happiness in God.
Faith, which is assent by will, must precede knowledge, because will prepares self for illumination.
Fa-hien
historian
Qingzhou, Shandong, China
399
Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms [399 to 414]
He was Chinese Buddhist historian who traveled through India and Ceylon [399 to 414].
Plutarch the Younger or Plutarch of Athens
philosopher
Athens, Greece
400 to 430
He lived 350 to 433, founded School of Athens [400 to 529], and was Neo-Platonist. Matter is principle equal to God.
Innocent I
pope
Rome, Italy
401 to 417
Theodosius II
emperor/lawgiver
Byzantium
408 to 450
Codex Theodosianus [429 to 438: Legal code based on Roman law systematized all imperial laws since time of
Constantine, in 16 books]
He lived 401 to 450, was emperor [408 to 450], was Arcadius's and Aelia Eudoxia's son, and built protective walls
around Constantinople [412]. He issued Law of Citations [438]. Theodosius I lived 346 to 395 and was emperor [379 to
395].
Seng-chao
philosopher
410 to 414
Treatise on the Immutability of Essence or Things Do Not Alter [410]; Treatise on Non-substantiality [410]; Treatise
on Incomprehensible Wisdom [410]; Treatise on the Inexpressible State of Nirvana [410]; Book of Chao [410:
collected works]
He lived 384 to 414, was Kuramajiva's student, and started and led Hua-yen School [410 to 414], a Zen precursor. He
was of Maadhyamikas School, Madhyamaka School, San-lun tsung, or School of the Three Treatises. The schools used
Nagarjuna's Madhyamika-sastra (Spiritual Texts on the Middle Way) and Dvadasadvara or Twelve Gates and
Aryadeva's Sata-sastra or Treatise in One Hundred Verses. Another influence was Yogacara.
Pelagius
philosopher/priest
410 to 418
On faith in the trinity [410: in three books]; Eclogues on Divine Scripture [410: one book]; Commentaries on the
Letters of Saint Paul [410]
He lived 354 to 420 and was Christian. People have free will and can choose salvation. Heaven is reward for virtue.
Will is completely free. There is no original sin, and people can be perfect without God's grace {Pelagianism,
Pelagius}. There is no grace of God. Alternatively, people can just freely will and believe {semi-Pelagianism}.
Cyril of Alexandria
bishop
Alexandria, Egypt
412 to 444
On Adoration in Spirit and in Truth [412 to 444]; Commentaries on Pentateuch [412 to 444]
He lived ? to 444, was bishop of Alexandria [412 to 444], was a Doctor of the Church, and opposed Nestorius. Jesus
united divine and human in one person {orthodox doctrine}.
Tao-sheng
philosopher
414 to 434
Comments on Nirvana-sutra [414 to 434]
He lived 360 to 434, was Kuramajiva's student, and headed Hua-yen School after Seng-chao [414 to 434].
Rabina or Ravina or Ravina I
lawgiver
Babylonia
421
Gemara of Babylonian Talmud [421]
He lived ? to 421 and helped compile the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud.
Nestorius
bishop
Near East
428 to 451
He lived 386 to 451 and was Patriarch of Constantinople [428 to 431]. Jesus was two separate persons, one divine and
one human {Nestorian controversy, Nestorius}. There was no Virgin Birth. Council of Ephesus [431] rejected this
heresy and exiled him, so he started Nestorian churches.
Attila or Attila the Hun or Scourge of God
king
Hungary
433 to 453
He lived 406 to 453 and led Huns during conquests. Ostrogoths lost to Huns under Attila and went westward [433].
Huns got tribute from Byzantine Empire and from tribes in central and east Europe. After he died, Huns settled in
Hungary and Austria.
St. Patrick
missionary/bishop
Britain/Ireland
433 to 457
Senchus Mor or Great Custom or Code of Patrick
He lived 385 to 461. He brought Christianity to Ireland [433] and built many churches. He used the shamrock to
explain the Doctrine of the Trinity. He set up commission to compile Irish law [441]. He converted Ireland to
Christianity [457] and is Catholic patron saint of Ireland.
Leo I or Leo the Great
pope
Rome, Italy
440 to 461
Proclus
philosopher
Greece
440 to 470
Elements of Theology [440 to 470]; Platonic Theology [440 to 470]; Commentary on Euclid [440 to 470]; Hypothesis
[440 to 470]
He lived 410 to 485, was non-Christian Neoplatonist, and led revived Academy.
Epistemology
The idea of God is the simplest concept, because God is the most general premise.
Metaphysics
Nature is divisions of the idea of God into lower classes. Particular things retain idea of class but also differentiate from
class, by methods of abiding, procession, and return {triad, class methods}. Particular tries to return to class, and actual
world tries to reunite with God.
Aun
king
Uppsala, Sweden
450 to 480
He was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
Bidpai or Bidpay or Pilpai
poet
Persia
450 to 500
Pancha Tantra or Panchatantra or Pancatantra or Fables of Bidpai [450 to 500: Sanskrit animal fables, translated into
Pahlavi in 550 and later by Rudaki in 930]
Bidpai means wise man or court scholar in Sanskrit.
Adils or Eadgils
king
Uppsala, Sweden
460 to 505
He lived 450 to 505, was Ottar Vendilkraka's son, and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and
Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
Gundobad
king
Lyon, Burgundy
473 to 516
Roman law of Burgundians [501 to 515]
He lived ? to 516, was king of Burgundy [473 to 516], was Patrician of Western Roman Empire [472 to 473], and
issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [501 to 515].
Theodoric the Great
king
Ravenna, Italy
474 to 526
Edict of Theodoric [508: short and unsystematic book of Roman laws]
He lived 454 to 526, was Ostrogoth king [474 to 526], and defeated Vandals under Odoacer several times in Italy [481]
[484], starting Ostrogoth kingdom [493]. He believed in Arianism, which was contrary to Catholic orthodoxy, and had
trouble with the pope.
Rabina or Ravina or Ravina II
lawgiver
Babylonia
475
He lived ? to 499, led academy at Sura, and finished compiling the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud.
Clovis I or Chlodowech or Chlodwig
king
Belgium/France/Germany
481 to 511
He lived 466 to 511, was Salian Frank king [465 to 511], and united Franks, founding Merovingian Dynasty and
Frankish Kingdom [481]. Capital was at Lutetia (Paris). Using stirrups for horses, he defeated Romans, Alemanni,
Burgundians, and Visigoths and ruled down to Loire River. Franks became Christian. He married Catholic princess of
Burgundy and became Christian later. At his death, his sons got parts of his lands.
Alaric II
king
Rome, Italy
484 to 507
Roman Law of Visigoths or Alaric's Breviary [506]
He lived ? to 507 and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [506]. Clovis defeated Alaric II at Battle of
Campus Vogladenis [507].
Mazdak
leader
Persia
494 to 524
He lived ? to 524 or 528 and advocated class equality and sharing of all goods, including wives. His sect [494 to 524]
was Gnostic.
Aryabhata or Aryabhatiya or Aryabhatta
mathematician
Kusumapura (Patna), Bihar, India
499
Works of Aryabhatta [499]; Principles of Aryabhatta [499: about astronomical calculations]
He lived 476 to 550, used positional notation, found circle chord lengths, and calculated sine tables.
Arthur
king
England
500
The legendary king lived at Camelot and founded Knights of the Round Table.
Priscian or Priscianus Caesariensis
linguist/teacher
Constantinople
500
Foundations of Grammar [500: 18 books about Latin grammar]
He was Greek and from Caesarea (Cherchell, Algeria).
Pseudo-Dionysius or Dionysius the Areopagite
philosopher
Athens, Greece
500
He was mystic.
Severus
theologian
Antioch, Turkey
500
Lover of Truth [509 to 511]; Against John Grammaticum [519]; Sermons of Severus at Antioch [512 to 518]
He lived ? to 538, was Patriarch of Antioch [512 to 518], and was Monophysite.
Dignaga
philosopher
Kanchi, Tamil, India
500 to 530
Wheel of Reason [500 to 530]; Treatise on the Objects of Cognition or Compendium on Valid Perception [500 to 530];
Treatise on Systems of Cognition [500 to 530]; Treatise on the Correct Principles of Logic [500 to 530]
He lived 480 to 540 and was of Mahayana-Buddhism Yogacara School. He replaced older logic {trairuupia} with
implication {vyaapti}.
Boethius
philosopher
Rome, Italy
510 to 520
Consolation of Philosophy [510 to 520]
He lived 480 to 526, served under King Theodoric, was Neo-Platonist, and stressed Stoic morality. He wrote textbooks
on four subjects {quadrivium}: geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Events can be necessary or only
conditionally necessary. God will punish vice. God is omnipotent and eternal. Eternity is simultaneous knowledge of
all life.
Egil or Ongentheow
king
Uppsala, Sweden
515 to 530
He was Aun's son and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
Bodhidharma or Daruma or Ta-mo
monk
India/China
520 to 527
By legend, Bodhidharma was 28th in line of transmission from Buddha's disciple Kasyapa, founded Chan or Zen in
China as mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism, and was first Patriarch of Zen. His story is in Jingde Record of
the Transmission of the Lamp [527]. Chan says that all people have Buddha nature, but thought and feeling obscure it.
John Philoponus [Philoponus, John]
philosopher
Alexandria, Egypt
520 to 550
New Definition of Prime Matter [520 to 550]
He lived 490 to 570 and was Commentator on Aristotle. Motion requires force. World began finite time ago, because
motion through infinite interval {traversal of the infinite} cannot finish.
Simplicius
philosopher
Rome, Italy
520 to 550
On the Heavens of Aristotle [520 to 550]; Commentary on Physics of Aristotle [520 to 550]; On the Animals of
Aristotle [520 to 550]
He lived 490 to 560 and was Commentator on Aristotle.
Kaleb
king
Aksum/Yemen
520 to 570
As king of Aksum or Axum [520 to 570], he conquered Yemen [525] in south Arabia and built churches.
Rabbana Jose
lawgiver
Babylonia
525
He lived ? to 525 and finished compiling the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli).
Justinian I
emperor/lawgiver
527 to 565
Code of Justinian [533: codified Roman law]; New Laws [534: statutes about administration and Church, with privatelaw principles]; Digest or Pandects [529 to 565: excerpts from commentaries on Sabinus, Perpetual Edict, and
Responsa and Quaestiones of Papinian, in 50 books]
He lived 482 to 565, was Illyrian, and was emperor of Byzantine Empire [527 to 565]. His generals Belisarius and
Narses conquered Vandal Kingdom in Africa and Italy. Ravenna, Italy, became capital. They subdued Ostrogoths and
took south part, up to Cordoba, of Visigothic Kingdom in Spain. He fought Khosru I of Sassanid Empire in east and
controlled Egypt and Levant.
Burgundian Kingdom was in south France. Frankish Kingdom was in north France. Celts were in Britain. Lombards
were north of Greece. Slavs were north of Lombards.
He codified Roman law. He closed the Academy.
Emperor became spiritual leader of Orthodox Church, together with bishops. He supported Orthodox Christians. He
called second Council of Constantinople to unify church. He built Hagia Sophia or St. Sophia Church in
Constantinople. He persecuted Jews, Coptic Christians of Egypt, and Nestorian Christians in east Syria.
Theodora was empress. She ended Nika riot over taxes and church doctrine.
In art, Christ had a ring {nimbus, light ring} of light, like sun god, around his head.
He fixed interest at 8% for business loans and 4% to 12% for other loans with average interest of 6% and set maximum
interest equal to principal.
Hui-k'o
philosopher
China
527 to 580
He lived 487 to 593 and was second Patriarch of Zen Buddhism.
Benedict of Nursia
monk
Monte Cassino, Italy
529 to 530
Rule of St. Benedict [530: monasticism rules]
He lived 480 to 547 and organized first monastic system, Benedictines, at monastery south of Rome. Monks had to
work, study, and pray {Benedict's Rule}. He became Roman Catholic saint. Benedictine Order had copies in many
places, and some had women.
Tribonianus
lawyer
529 to 534
Body of Civil Law [534: edited Roman-law commentaries]; Institutes [534: Roman-law introduction based on Gaius'
opinions, in four books]; Code of Justinian [534: imperial constitution and laws, in 12 books]
He lived ? to 545 and headed commission of 17 professors of the two official Eastern law schools to edit the many
Roman-law commentaries. He was Justinian's quaestor sacri palatii. After five years, with nine others under
appointment from Justinian, he codified law [529 to 534], based on Roman law.
Stephanus/Dorotheus of Beyrouth/Cyrillus of
Beyrouth/Isidorus/Anthemius/Theodorus/Anatolius/Enantiophanes/Theophilus/Thalelaeus
lawyer
534 to 550
They copied, translated, or commented on Code of Justinian, but emperor banned them from pointing out Roman-law
contradictions.
Hatim Tai
king
Arabia
550 to 600
He was famous for generosity.
Columba
monk
Scotland
563 to 597
He lived 521 to 597, came from Ireland to Scotland, set up a Christian monastery on Iona island [563], and became a
Roman Catholic saint.
Bhartrhari or Bhartruhari
philosopher/linguist
India
570 to 651
Teachings of Saints [600 to 700]
He lived 570 to 651 and studied semantics.
Varahamihira or Varaha or Mihira
mathematician
Ujjain, Mahdya Pradesh, India
575
Five Astronomical Canons [575]
He lived 505 to 587 and used positional notation.
Seng-t'san
philosopher
Mt. Huang Mei, China
580 to 606
Verses on the Faith Mind [gatha]
He lived ? to 606 and was third Patriarch of Zen Buddhism [580 to 606].
Sui Wendi or Wen-di or Yang Jian
emperor
China
581 to 589
He united China and founded Sui Dynasty [581 to 604].
Gregory I or Gregory the Great
pope
Rome, Italy
590 to 604
He lived 540 to 604, encouraged monasticism, established clergy laws, developed Gregorian chant or plain song, and
held off Lombards. He refused to recognize Patriarch of Constantinople and so split eastern from western Church.
Chosroes II or Khosrow II or Khosrow Parviz [Parviz, Khosrow]
king
Persia
590 to 628
Of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty, he was Khosrow I's grandson and succeeded his father Hormizd or Hormoz [590],
but Bahram Chubin forced him to flee to Byzantine Empire. Emperor Maurice of Byzantine Empire helped him regain
throne, but got Armenia in return for his help. After Phocas murdered Maurice, Chosroes II took Armenia, Cappadocia,
Syria, and Jerusalem [615]. He defeated White Huns. He took Egypt [616]. He next reached Constantinople [617].
Heraclius I of Byzantine Empire entered Assyria and Mesopotamia [627] and then his son murdered Chosroes II and
became king as Kavadh II Shiruya.
Augustine
missionary
England
597 to 604
He lived ? to 604. King Ethelbert of Kent became Christian.
Barbad or Borbad
composer/poet
Persia
600
Kin-e Iraj or Vengeance of Iraj [600: epic song]; Takhte Ardeshir or Throne of Ardeshir [600: epic song]; Baq-eSahryar or Sovereign's Garden [600]; Haft Ganj or Seven Treasures [600]; Mah Abr Kuhan or Moon, Cloud,
Mountains [600]
He lived 586 to 636, during the Sassanid Empire, in Khosrow Perviz's court [590 to 628]. He created a musical system
with seven khosravani modes. Bamshad was another Sassanid surud song composer.
Barbod or Baarbod
musician
Persia
600
Royal Khosravani or Royal Modes [600]
He lived during the Sassanid Empire and created music with seven royal modes.
Nakisa or Nakissa
musician
Persia
600
Royal Khosravani or Royal Modes [600]
He lived 549 to 623 during the Sassanid Empire and created music with seven royal modes.
personal law
law
Germany
600
German tribe members were always under tribe's law {personal law}. If two people from different tribes disputed, they
used laws of tribe of person with dominant interest.
Ramtin or Raamtin
musician
Persia
600
He lived 547 to 620 during the Sassanid Empire and created music with seven royal modes.
Masoretes
scribe
Jerusalem, Palestine/Tiberias, Palestine
600 to 1100
Masoretic Text [600 to 1100: arranged Torah books based on notes by Hebrew scholars]
Hebrew scholars and rabbis {Masoretes} {Masorets} in Tiberias compiled Hebrew-Bible critical notes. Karaite ben
Asher family preserves Masoretic Text. Masoretes invented the current Hebrew vowel-notation system.
Harsha or Harshavardhana
king
India
606 to 647
He lived 590 to 647, defeated White Huns, and restored Hinduism.
Saicho or Dengyo Daishi
monk
China/Japan
608
From the rational T'ien-t'ai School in China, he went to Japan and founded [806] the Tendai School in Japan.
Mohammad
religion founder
Mecca, Saudi Arabia/Medina, Saudi Arabia
610 to 632
Koran [630]; Sayings
He lived 570 to 632, was born in Mecca, was merchant-traveler, was epileptic, and founded Islam. He is also Mahomet,
Mahmoud, Mehemet, or Muhammad.
He meditated in the mountains [610] and one day became inspired on Mount Hira. He had vision that the Angel Gabriel
instructed him to preach new faith centered on one true God, Allah. He proclaimed that there was one god and that he
was the messenger and last prophet. He taught that believers in Allah submitted to God {Muslim, Mohammad}.
He had a vision of going to Mi'raj heaven on al-Borak, a winged animal.
Tribal leaders opposed him. He fled to Medina [622] after losing battle in Mecca, flight called the Hegira. He gained
rule in Medina but then suffered another defeat and escaped to cave. People did not find him in cave because he did not
destroy spider's web. He conquered until he won Hejaz, region near Medina. He went to Mecca [630] and overthrew
Caaba or Kaaba, the old sanctuary. He saved the black stone, called Hajaru'l-Aswad. Mecca became religious center.
He later conquered Damascus. He died at Mecca [632] at his favorite wife Ayesha's house, after preaching from Mount
Arafat.
Heraclius I
emperor
610 to 641
He lived 575 to 641, led Byzantine Empire, was Armenian, defended Constantinople by defeating Avars on west [626],
and took back Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from Persia [628].
Gisu Navagar [Navagar, Gisu]
musician
Persia
620
Tai-tsung or Tai Tsung or Taitsung
emperor
China
627 to 649
He was of Tang Dynasty.
Brahmagupta
mathematician
Bhillamala (Bhinmal), Rajasthan, India
628 to 665
Opening of the Universe or Improved System of Brahma [628]; Time Sweetmeat [665]; zero; negative numbers
He lived 598 to 668 and used decimal number system, negative numbers, and zero. He invented Brahmagupta's
theorem.
Tao-hsin
philosopher
China
629 to 651
He lived 580 to 651 and was fourth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism.
Ayesha
wife
Saudi Arabia
630
She lived 642 to 699 and was Mohammad's favorite wife and Abu Bekr's daughter.
Fatima
wife
Saudi Arabia
630
She lived 615 to 632, was Mohammad's daughter, and married Ali.
Isidore of Seville
linguist
Seville, Spain
630
Etymologies or Origins [630]
He lived 560 to 636 and translated.
Dharmakirti or Serlingpa
philosopher
Nalanda, Bihar, India
630 to 700
Commentary on Valid Perception [630: comments on Compendium on Valid Perception by Dignaga of 450]
He was Dignaga's student and listed cognition types and how they relate to their objects.
Abu Bakr or Abu Bekr
caliph
Arabia
632 to 634
He lived 573 to 634, was uncle of Ali, was one of the first converts to Islam, became first caliph [632], and subjugated
all Arabia to start Moslem Empire [634].
Omar or Umar
caliph
Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt
634 to 644
Omar lived 581 to 644, was second caliph, set up administration, set up tax system, and started kadi office. Capital was
Medina. He conquered Syria, Palestine, Middle East, Mesopotamia, and Persia [637] but not Byzantine Empire. He
conquered Egypt [640 to 641]. He took north Africa [644]. He took Kabul [664].
Dagobert I
king
France
639
He lived 605 to 639, united Merovingian Frankish kingdoms, and controlled Bretons and Basques.
Othman or Uthman
caliph
644 to 656
He lived 574 to 656 and was third caliph of Moslem Empire.
Martin I
pope
Rome, Italy
649 to 655
He lived ? to 655 and built church and papacy power.
Recceswinth
king
Toledo, Spain
649 to 672
Visigothic Code [654]
He codified law, based on Alaric's code [654].
Wonhyo or Daisa Wonhyo of Shilla [Wonhyo of Shilla, Daisa]
philosopher
Gyeongsan, Korea
650 to 680
Exposition on the Diamond Samadhi Scripture [650 to 680]; Commentary and Supplementary Notes on the Awakening
of Faith in Mahayana [650 to 680]; Treatise on Ten Approaches to the Reconciliation of Doctrinal Controversy [650 to
680]; Arouse the Mind to Practice [650 to 680]
He lived 617 to 686, in Sil Lah period, united Buddhist-sect teachings, and added Tao and Confucian ideas. He was one
of the Ten Sages of the Ancient Korean Kingdom. He followed the way of the flow of the wind {poong-ryu-do}, using
the idea of nothingness {mu, Buddhism} to eliminate dualities and achieve unity.
Hung-jan
philosopher
China
651 to 675
He lived 601 to 675 and was fifth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism. His student Faju [638 to 689] started Northern School.
Sun Ssu-miao
alchemist
652
Great Secrets of Alchemy or Thousand Golden Remedies [652]
Ali or Ali ibn Abi Talib
caliph
Medina, Saudi Arabia
656 to 661
He lived 598 to 661, was cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was Abu Bakr's nephew and Mohammad's cousin, was
one of the first converts to Islam, and was fourth caliph. He married Fatima, Mohammad's daughter. In Sunni Islam, he
was fourth and last Khulafa-i-Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs. In Shi'a Islam, he was the first imam and true
caliph. His sons did not become caliph.
Muawiya I or Mu'awiyya I
caliph
661 to 683
He lived 600 to 683 and started Omayyed Dynasty of caliphs. He assassinated Ali [661] and deposed Hassan and
Hussein, sons of Ali. He then united most of Islam using diplomacy. He moved capital from Medina to Damascus.
After he died, his son Muawiya II was caliph several months [683 to 684].
Caedmon
poet
England
670
Hymn [poem]
He lived ? to 680 and wrote hymns.
Callinicus of Heliopolis or Kallinikos
inventor/architect
Syria/Constantinople, Byzantium
673
Greek fire [673]
Byzantine army used flammable liquid {Greek fire}, first in battle of Cyzicus [673] during reign of Constantine
Pogonatus [648 to 685].
Hui-neng or Hui Neng or Eno
philosopher
675 to 713
Platform Sutra or Sutra Spoken by the Sixth Patriarch on the High Seat of the Treasure of the Law [675 to 713]
He lived 637 to 713 and was sixth and last Patriarch of Zen Buddhism [675 to 713].
O No Yasumaro [Yasumaro, O No]
writer
Japan
680 to 712
Records of Ancient Matters [680: Shinto beliefs and customs]
Emperor Temmu commissioned it.
Abdul-Malik
caliph
684 to 705
He lived 646 to 705, was fifth Omayyed caliph, was Sunni, and united Islam.
Empress Iwa no Hime/Princess Oku/Empress Jitoh/Princess Nukada/Yosami/Lady Ohtomo no Sakanoe no
Iratsume/Lady Kii/Kasa no Iratsume
writer
Japan
687 to 759
Collection of 10,000 Leaves [687 to 759: Shinto beliefs, rituals, and customs]
Shinto is Way of the Spirits {Kami-no-michi}.
Yung-chia Hsuan-chueh or Yung-chia Hsuan-chio or Yung Chia Hsuan Chueh or Yongia Xuanjue or Hsuanchueh Hsing-ssu
philosopher
690 to 710
Song of Enlightenment [690 to 710]
He lived 655 to 713 and was Hui-neng's disciple. Zen-Buddhism Soto School depends on his teachings.
Ch'ing-yuan
philosopher
China
690 to 720
He lived 660 to 740, was Hui-neng's disciple, and taught Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien.
Shen-hui
philosopher
China
700 to 730
He lived 670 to 762, was Hui-neng's disciple, started Southern School, and opposed Northern-School creation.
Laksminkara
princess
India/Ceylon
700 to 750
She was Tantric Buddhist. In Nepalese Buddhism, one can gain transcendence through erotic behavior {mahasukha}.
Wasil of Ata
theologian
Basra, Iraq
700 to 750
He lived ? to 748 and founded Mu'tazila school. Second leader was Amr of Ubayd [? to 761]. Baghdad schools opposed
it.
Bharuci
philosopher
India
700 to 800
Comments on Manava-dharma-shastra [700 to 800]; Comments on Vishnu-dharma-shastra [700 to 800]
Gaudapada
philosopher
Kerala, India
700 to 800
Commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad [700 to 800]
He first expounded Advaita Vedanta and was Govinda's teacher. Govinda taught Sankara.
Govinda Bhagavatpada
philosopher
India
700 to 800
He was Gaudapada's pupil and studied Vedanta.
Mandana Misra or Suresvaracharya
philosopher/linguist
Mithila, Nepal
700 to 800
Treatise on Brahma [700 to 800: about Advaita]
Prabhakara Misra
philosopher
India
700 to 900
He founded the later Prabhakara School of Mimamsa and taught Salikanatha, who wrote Prakaranapancika. The first
Mimansa school was the Kumarila School.
Aurillac
philosophic school
Aurillac, France
700 to 1100
School included Gerhart of Aurillac.
Arabian Philosophy
philosophic school
Near East/Spain
700 to 1300
School included Avicenna, Mutakallimoun [-700 to -800], Mutazilites (Wazil), Averroës (Ibn Rashd), al-Kindi, Askari,
al-Farabi, al-Gazel, Avempace, al-Ash'ari, Abubacer, David of Dinant, Amalrich of Bena, Joachim of Fiore (Joachim
Floris), Athir al-Din Abhari, and Dabiran Qazvini.
Epistemology
Material-world knowledge is individual.
Ethics
God knows everything but does not cause or force human behavior.
Metaphysics
God is the only substance. Things are in God. Individuals are part of the whole and can passively receive universals,
truth, and reason from God. All matter thus unifies. Matter holds its Form inside itself. Matter has eternal motion,
without outside force.
Nanyue Huaizhang or Nan-yueh Huai-jang or Nan-Yueh Huai-jang [Huai-jang, Nan-Yueh] or Nan Yueh Huai
Jang
philosopher
China
710 to 730
He lived 677 to 744, was Hui-neng's disciple, and started Hongzhou School. Zen-Buddhism Rinzai School depends on
his teachings.
Charles Martel [Martel, Charles]
king
France
714 to 741
He lived 688 to 741, was Frankish king [714 to 741] from Austrasia east of Rhine River, united former Merovingian
kingdoms of Franks, won Battle of Tours [733], and founded Carolingian line. He helped Boniface convert Germany to
Christianity. He was grandfather of Charlemagne.
Leo III or Leo the Isaurian
emperor
Anatolia
717 to 741
He was from Anatolia, allied Byzantine Empire with Khazars in south Russia, and controlled Anatolia.
Toneri or Prince Toneri/O No Yasumaro [Yasumaro, O No]
writer
Heijo-kyo (Nara), Japan
720
Nihonshoki or Nihongi or Chronicles of Japan [720: Japan history]
Earlier history book Kojiki, Furukotofumi, or Records of Ancient Matters [680] is in Chinese.
Kumarila or Kumarilla-bhatta
philosopher
Prayag, Uttar Pradesh, India
720 to 740
Comments on Jaimini's Mimamsa-sutras or Profound-Thought Sutras [720 to 740]
He lived 686 to 745, studied Mimamsa, and wrote about realism.
Wang-wei or Poet Buddha
painter/poet
China
720 to 750
landscape paintings [720 to 750]
Zen Buddhist lived 698 to 759, in T'ang Dynasty. He affected later Southern school of Chinese landscape art.
Abd-al-Rahman I
ruler
Spain
721 to 732
He was governor of Spain [721 to 732], fought Battle of Toulouse [721], and invaded France again, but lost at Tours
(Poitiers) to Charles Martel of Franks [732].
Bede
theologian/historian
Jarrow, England
730
Ecclesiastical History of England [730]
He lived 673 to 735 and was historian and theologian.
John Damascenes [Damascenes, John]
philosopher
Greece
730
Fount of Knowing [730]
He lived 700 to 751 and founded Damascene School.
Leo the Isaurian or Leo the Syrian
king
Rome, Italy
730
Ecloga or Selections [730]
He lived 685 to 741 and issued short unsystematic law set in Greek [730] and new decrees in maritime law and
feudalism.
Li Bai or Li Bo or Li Po or Li Taibai
poet
China
730 to 750
Night Thoughts or Thoughts on a Still Night [730 to 750: romantic]; Hearing a Flute on a Spring Night in Luoyang
[730 to 750]; Seeing a Friend Off [730 to 750]; Staying the Night at a Mountain Temple [730 to 750]
He lived 701 to 762 and was Taoist.
Wu Tao-tzu or Wu Daozi [Daozi, Wu]
painter
China
730 to 750
mural [730 to 750: commissioned by Emperor Xuanzong]
Zen Buddhist lived 700 to 760, in T'ang Dynasty.
Shih-t'ou or Sekito Kisen [Kisen, Sekito]
philosopher
Hengshan (Nanyue), China
730 to 760
Song of the Grass Roof Hermitage [730 to 760]
He lived 700 to 790 and was Hsuan-chueh Hsing-ssu's disciple.
Du Fu or Tu Fu
poet
China
740 to 760
Seeing Li Bai in a Dream [740 to 760: realistic]
Constantine V
emperor
741 to 775
He lived 718 to 775. Byzantine Empire controlled Balkans.
Padma Sambhava
writer/missionary
India/Tibet
750 to 760
Tibetan Book of the Dead or Bardo Thodol or Bardo Thotrol [1300 to 1400]
He lived 717 to 762 and was Tantric Buddhist missionary.
Ma-tsu or Baso or Ma Jo
philosopher
China
750 to 780
He lived 709 to 788 and was Nan-yueh Huai-jang's disciple.
Pai-chang or Po-chang
philosopher
China
750 to 780
He lived 720 to 814, was Chao-chou's disciple, and founded first Zen community. Chao-chou was previous ZenBuddhist leader.
Pepin the Short
king
France
751 to 768
He lived 714 to 768 and started Carolingian Dynasty of Franks when he became Frank king by election [751]. He
deposed last Merovingian king, defended Rome from Lombards twice, and gave his acquisitions in Italy, including
Ravenna, to the pope, creating Papal States [756]. The pope gave him the title Patrician of Rome. He then fought
Saxons, who were pagan, and drove Moorish Kingdom behind Pyrenees. He was father of Charlemagne.
Abdu-r-Rahman I or Abdurrahman I or Abdur Rahman I
emir
Spain
756 to 788
He lived ? to 788, went to Spain after escaping from Abu Muslem, and became emir of Cordoba. North Spain also
contained Kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Barcelona.
Cynewulf
king/poet
Northumbria, England/Mercia, England
757 to 786
Christ II [760 to 780: religious poem]; Elene [760 to 780: religious poem]; Fates of the Apostles [760 to 780: religious
poem]; Juliana [760 to 780: religious poem]
He was king of West Saxons or Wessex [757 to 786]. He wrote in Old English.
al-Mansur
caliph
Baghdad, Iraq
762 to 775
He lived 716 to 775 and was second Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. Abbasid family was at al-Humaymah.
Abu Hanifeh Ne'man Ben Sabbet [Hanifeh Ne'man Ben Sabbet, Abu] or al-A'zam Abu Hanifah [Hanifah, alA'zam Abu] or Abu Hanifa [Hanifa, Abu] or Great Imam
lawyer
Persia
767
Greater Understanding [767: Islamic law]
He started Islamic law study.
Barmakids or Barmecides
vizier
Baghdad, Iraq
771 to 806
From Persia, they were viziers for Harun-al-Rashid until murdered.
Charlemagne
king
France/Germany
771 to 813
He lived 742 to 813. Of Carolingian Dynasty of Franks, he united Franks again [771]. He defeated Spanish Moors and
set up Spanish March, from along Pyrenees down to Ebro River and Catalonia. He took Austria [788], defeated Saxons,
converted them, and restored Leo III to Holy See after defeating Lombards. He got Carinthia and Bohemia from Avars,
Wends, and Slavs. He set up the Dane Mark or Dane March at Elbe River in north Germany to stop Danes. He became
emperor of Western Empire of Rome [800], when Pope Leo III, who had regained Rome by Charlemagne's conquests,
crowned him. Western Empire of Rome had France, Germany, and Italy. Capital was at Aachen.
Charlemagne presided at synods and ruled the bishops.
Alcuin of York was his teacher, founded palace school at Aachen, ran library, and taught at Tours. Einhard wrote life of
Charlemagne. It used Carolingian alphabet to copy Bibles and books.
Charlemagne set weights and measures to one silver pound equal to 240 pennies {denarii}.
Charlemagne and Catholic Church developed new warfare rules. He established royal court {aula regis}, which was
superior to popular courts. He also issued decrees {capitulary} on the poor, general welfare, and education, with his
council's consent.
He sent envoys {missi, envoy} to all empire parts to force law obeyance and inspect. He contacted Byzantine and
Islamic Empires.
Art was for religious purposes, not just personal glory.
Offa
king
England/Wales
778 to 797
He was king of Mercia in central England, fought south Wales [778], and built dike [784] between England and Wales.
Nan-chuan or Nansen
philosopher
China
780 to 800
He lived 748 to 834 and was Ma-tsu's disciple.
Abu Navass [Navass, Abu] or Abu Nawas [Nawas, Abu] or Father of Curls
poet
Persia
780 to 800
Diwan Abu Nuwas or Collected Poems [780 to 800]; What Has Become of Your Youth [780 to 800]; Love in Bloom
[780 to 800]; Boy Is Worth More Than a Girl [780 to 800]
He lived 756 to 815 and wrote drinking songs {khamriyyat, Navass} and funny love lyrics {mudhakkarat, Navass}
{mujuniyyat, Navass}.
Godescalc
painter
Aachen, Germany
783
Gospel Book of Charlemagne or Godescalc Evangelistary or Godescalc Gospel Lectionary [783: Medieval illuminated
book]
Charlemagne commissioned it after he marched to meet Pope Adrian I.
Harun al-Rashid or Haroun al-Raschid
caliph
Baghdad, Iraq
786 to 809
He lived 764 to 809 and was fifth Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. He was in the Arabian Nights. Barmacides, from
Persia, were his viziers. After he died, his son al-Amin became caliph [809 to 813].
Idris ibn Abdallah or Moulay Idris
ruler
Morocco
788 to 793
He lived ? to 793, was Arab chief, took Morocco, and started Idrisid Dynasty [789 to 926]. He preceded Idris II [809],
who lived 793 to 828.
Sibuyeh or Sibawayh
linguist
Shiraz, Persia
790
Doctrine [790: Arabic grammar]
Irene of Athens
empress
Byzantium
797 to 802
She lived 752 to 803.
Geber or Jabir ibn Haiyan [Haiyan, Jabir ibn] or Jabir ibn Hayyan [Hayyan, Jabir ibn]
alchemist
Iraq
800
He lived ? to 803.
Bo Juyi [Juyi, Bo] or Bai Juyi [Juyi, Bai] or Po Chu-i
poet
China
800 to 820
Song of Everlasting Sorrow or Song of Eternal Regret [800 to 820: about Yang Guifei or Yang Yuhuan, one of the
Four Beauties and consort of Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty]; Song of the Pipa Player [800 to 820]
He lived 772 to 846. Pipa is Chinese lute.
The army killed Yang Guifei and her cousin Yang Guozhong, because it thought Yangs caused the Rebellion of Anshi.
The Four Beauties are Xi Shi [-700 to -600] of Spring and Autumn Period, Wang Zhaojun [-100 to 1] of Western Han
Dynasty, Diao Chan [200 to 300] of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Yang Guifei [719 to 756] of Tang Dynasty.
Zhang Ji
poet
China
800 to 820
Night Mooring near Maple Bridge or Mooring by Fengqiao at Night or Overnight Stay at Feng Qiao [800 to 820]
Han Yu
philosopher/poet
800 to 824
Laments [poems]
He lived 768 to 824, was neo-Confucian, followed Mencius, and was against Buddhism. He wrote in old style prose
{gu wen}, as did Meng Jiao [751 to 814].
Kukai or Kobo Daishi [Daishi, Kobo]
philosopher
Japan
800 to 830
He lived 774 to 835 and introduced Tantric Buddhism to Japan as Shingon or True Word School. All people can attain
enlightenment, by meditation, mantras {shingon}, and hand movements. Enlightenment requires ten stages. The final
stage is identity with the Buddha {Mahavairocana}. He was a calligrapher. Perhaps, he invented Japan's hiragana
script.
Li Ao
philosopher
800 to 840
Record of Coming to the South [800 to 840]; Master Li Ao [800 to 840]
He lived 772 to 841, followed Mencius, and was against Buddhism.
Hung-po or Huang-po
philosopher
China
800 to 850
Chun Chou Record [800 to 850]
He lived ? to 850 and was Pai-chang's disciple.
Padmasambhava or Padmakara or Padma Raja
philosopher
Tibet
800 to 900
He brought Mahayana Buddhism to Tibet, and there he is second Buddha.
Egbert or Ecgbehrt or Ecgbert
king
England
802 to 839
He lived 770 to 839, was king of Wessex [802 to 839], defeated Mercia at Battle of Ellendun [825], and united
England.
Jayavarma II
king
Cambodia
802 to 850
He lived 792 to 850 and declared independence of Java [802], founding Khmer Empire.
Sankara or Shankara or Iamkara or Jagadguru Sankaracharya [Sankaracharya, Jagadguru] or Jagat Guru Adi
Sankaracharya [Sankaracharya, Jagat Guru Adi]
philosopher
Kerala, India
810 to 820
Crown Jewel of Discrimination [810 to 820]; Spiritual Theosophical Dictionary [810 to 820]; Thousand Teachings
[810 to 820]; Commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, Bhagavadgita, and Upanishads [810 to 820]
He lived 788 to 820, was Govinda's pupil, and founded Advaita Vedanta or Non-dualist School. He founded the
Dashanamis, who renounce world to meditate.
A phrase {That art Thou} is in Vedas and means that individuals are part of consciousness. Selves and the Self are one,
with no God.
World, language, and sense qualities that people experience are real but are illusory and produce ignorance. People
must suppress desires to gain real knowledge. Only the Brahman is ultimate reality.
Chao-chou or Joshu
philosopher
Gu_ny_nyuàn Temple, China
810 to 840
Chao-Chou's Dog or Joshu's Dog [810 to 840]
He lived 778 to 897 and was Nan-chuan's disciple.
Mamun or al-Mamun or al-Ma'mun
caliph
Baghdad, Iraq
813 to 833
He lived 786 to 833, was Harun-al-Rashid's son, and was Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire, succeeding his brother alAmin [813]. He established Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) library and academy. Baghdad had 500,000 people.
Empire was at height of art and science. Decimal system came from India.
Louis I or Louis the Pious
emperor
France
814 to 840
He lived 778 to 840, was Charlemagne's son, and was Frank. He negotiated at Lugenfeld (Field of Lies) [833] and
faced incursions by Norse. His sons were Lothair I, Charles II the Bald, and Louis the German, who rebelled often.
Louis the German
king
Germany
817 to 876
He lived 804 to 876, was Louis I the Pious' son, got Germany [817], and was East Frank king [817 to 876].
Atur-Farnbag or Adur-Farnbag or Farnbag
philosopher
Persia
820
Letters [820: written in Pahlavi]; Dinkart or Denkart or Acts [820: Zand-Avesta part]
He was Farukhzat's son.
Vacaspati Misra
philosopher
Mithila, Nepal
820 to 841
Analysis of Worship [820 to 840]; Analysis of Grammar or Analysis of Lotus Flowers [820 to 840]
He lived ? to 841, wrote commentaries on the six Hindu systems, and established Nyasa.
Mohammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi [al-Khwarizmi, Mohammad ibn Musa] or Algorizm or Muhammad Bin
Musa al-Khwarizmi [al-Khwarizmi, Muhammad Bin Musa]
mathematician
Baghdad, Iraq
825
Arithmetic [825]; Algebra [839]; world map [830]
He lived 770 to 840, used Hindu numbers and fractions, and studied algebra. Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona
[1100 to 1150] translated his works and so transferred Indian and Islamic philosophy to Europe.
Du Mu
poet
China
830 to 850
Poems for Parting [830 to 850]
Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus [Tammam Habib ibn Aus, Abu]
poet
Arabia
840
Hamasa or Valor [840: ancient-verse anthology]
Li Shangyin
poet
China
840 to 850
Han Monument [840 to 850]; Cicada [840 to 850]; Wind and Rain [840 to 850]; Falling Petals [840 to 850]; Thoughts
in the Cold [840 to 850]
He lived 813 to 858 and wrote in five-character regular verse.
Lothair I or Lothar I
king
Lotharingia, Germany/Italy
840 to 855
He lived 795 to 855, was Louis I the Pious' son, and got Lotharingia and Italy [817 to 855], and led Holy Roman
Empire [840 to 855].
Yaaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi [al-Kindi, Yaaqub ibn Ishaq]
philosopher
Iraq
840 to 860
On First Philosophy [840 to 860]
He lived 803 to 873, was first Arabic philosopher at the Academy, was neo-Platonist, and used logic to prove religious
truths. Universe is whole knowledge system {architectonic}. All humanity has one active intellect.
Gottschalk of Orbais or Godescalc or Gottescalc or Godescalchus
philosopher
Germany/Orbais, Marne, France
840 to 860
On the threefold godhead or On the trinity [840 to 860]; On predestination [840 to 860]; On 'IN' proposition
explanations [840 to 860]
He lived 803 to 867. There is predestination.
Hincmar
bishop
Rheims, France
840 to 870
On City Law [840 to 870]; Divorce of Lothair [840 to 870]; Annals [861 to 882]
He lived 806 to 882 and was archbishop of Reims [845 to 882]. There is no predestination.
Charles the Bald or Charles II
king
France
843 to 877
He lived 823 to 877, was Louis I the Pious' son, got south and west France [843 to 877], held Council of Pistes [864],
and led Holy Roman Empire [875 to 877].
al-Mutawakkil
caliph
Samarra, Iraq
847 to 861
Great Mosque of Samarra [847 to 852: Open rectangle plan has spiral minaret and columns to support wooden roof]
He lived 821 to 861, was Abbasid ruler [847 to 861], and built many palaces. Samarra is north of Baghdad on Tigris
River.
Mahavira or Mahaviracharya
mathematician
India
850
Ganita Sara Sangraha or Compendium of the Essence of Mathematics [850]
He lived 800 to 870 and used zero, positional notation, decimal system, and negative, irrational, and rational numbers.
Lin-chi Yi-Sen or Lin-chi I-hsuan or Rinzai or Rinzai Gigen [Gigen, Rinzai]
philosopher
China
850 to 867
He lived 830 to 867, was Hung-po's disciple, and led to Rinzai School. He started the shout "Ho" or "Kwatz".
al-Buhturi
poet
Arabia
850 to 880
Hamasa or Valor [850 to 880: ancient-verse anthology]
Boris I
king
Bulgaria
852 to 889
He lived ? to 907 and was khan [852 to 889]. Bulgaria became Christian [865].
Nicholas I
pope
Italy
858 to 867
He lived 820 to 867 and increased papal authority. Roman aristocrats controlled papacy.
John Scotus Erigena [Scotus Erigena, John] or John Scotus Eriugena [Scotus Eriugena, John]
philosopher
Dublin, Ireland/France
858 to 870
Translation of Pseudo-Dionysius [858]; On the Division of Nature [865 to 870]
He lived 810 to 877 and was neo-Platonist.
Epistemology
Reason and faith are both sources of truth.
Ethics
Sin is to think something is good or right if it is not.
Metaphysics
Universals are essential reality and produce and have within themselves all particular objects. Reality has four parts:
uncreated and creating, created and creating, created and not creating, and uncreated and not creating. Material world is
lowest reality, created but not creating. Higher concepts are higher forms of reality. The only universal concept is God,
who has no particular qualities, eternally produces all things, and has them within itself. God is the purpose of all
things. Logos unites all things to God. There is no predestination.
Seiwa
emperor
Japan
858 to 876
He became Japanese emperor at age nine or ten. He removed his opponents [866] and became regent {sessho}.
Ibn Khurdadbih [Khurdadbih, Ibn] or Ibn Khurradadhbih [Khurradadhbih, Ibn] or Postmaster of Baghdad
geographer
Baghdad, Iraq
860
Book of Roads and Kingdoms [860]; Listening Etiquette [860]; Book of Entertainment and Music [860]
He lived 820 to 893 and studied under the musician Ishaq al-Mawsili or Isaac of Mosul [767 to 850].
Ali ibn Rabn Tabari [Tabari, Ali ibn Rabn] or Ali Bin Rabn Tabari [Tabari, Ali Bin Rabn]
physician
Persia/Baghdad, Iraq
860
Paradise of Wisdom [860: about Indian and Greek medicine]
Rurik
leader
Russia
860 to 879
He lived 830 to 879. Swedish Viking traders under Rurik built settlements at Novgorod and Kiev [860 to 879]. He
attacked Byzantine Empire [860] in Rus'-Byzantine War. He started Rurik Dynasty that ruled Russia [862 to 1054].
Methodius
leader
Czech Republic/Slovakia
863
He lived 815 to 885. Czechs and Slovaks became Orthodox.
Cyril
priest/linguist
Czech Republic/Slovakia
863 to 869
He lived 826 to 869 and invented Cyrillic alphabet with Methodius. Czechs and Slovaks became Orthodox.
Harold I or Harold Luva
king
Norway
866 to 874
He was Viking in southeast Norway and became first king of Norway at Hafrs Fjord [872], uniting small kingdoms and
causing some losers to go to Iceland and other losers, under Rollo, to go to Normandy.
Alfred the Great
king
England
866 to 899
Doom Book or Code of Alfred or Legal Code of Aelfred the Great [890]; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle [890]
He lived 849 to 899 and was West Saxon king [866 to 889]. He defeated Danes [871], captured London, and limited
Danes to the Danelaw: East Anglia, Midlands, York, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford.
Northumbria in Scotland, Wales in west Britain, Mercia in middle-south Britain, and Wessex in southwest England
were free. He recaptured some of the Danelaw from Danes [886], becoming king of all England.
He codified laws, emphasized Christianity, and started navy, schools, and writing. He set up fortified sites {burgh} and
shires. He commissioned Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, history of England.
Basil I
emperor
867 to 886
He lived 826 or 835 to 886 and started Macedonian Dynasty [867 to 1056]. Byzantine Empire fought Bulgars. He
repaired finances and codified law.
Basilius Macedo or Basilius the Macedonian or Basilius I
emperor
Constantinople
867 to 886
Imperial Law [888]
He lived ? to 886, was Byzantine emperor [867 to 886], started Macedonian dynasty [867 to 1081], and issued law
condensations [888] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.
Ahmad ibn Tulun
prince
Egypt
868 to 884
He lived 835 to 884, was Egyptian noble from Turkey, rebelled from Abbasid caliphate, and started Tulunid dynasty
[868 to 905] in Egypt.
Thabit or Tabit ibn Qorra or al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani [Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani, al-Sabi]
mathematician
Baghdad, Iraq
870
Conics [870]
Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari [al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir] or Umar Ben
Alfarkhan Altabary [Altabary, Umar Ben Alfarkhan] or Almuhib Altabary [Altabary, Almuhib]
philosopher/historian/theologian
Persia
870 to 900
Comments on Ptolemy
Oleg
leader
Russia
879 to 913
He lived 850 to 913, followed Rurik, and united Viking Russian settlements by capturing Kiev [882].
Manuskihar or Manuschihar or Manushchihar
writer
Sirkan, Persia
881
Epistles [881]
Sirkan is in Baluchestan in southeast Iran.
Leo the Wise
king
Constantinople
886 to 912
Imperial Law [888]
He lived 862 to 912, was Basilius' son, and restated Roman law in 60 books, abridging all previous work and
eliminating obsolete law.
Simeon I
king
Bulgaria
888 to 927
He lived 864 to 927, was king of Bulgaria [888 to 927], took Serbia [925], and was first tsar of Bulgarian Empire [925
to 927].
Edward the Elder
king
Wessex, England
899 to 925
Edward recaptured all the Danelaw from Danes.
Gorm the Old
king
Denmark
899 to 936
He lived 855 to 936 and regained independence from Sweden [899]. Jelling was capital. He was father of Harold I.
al-Battani or al-Batin or Albategnius or Albategni or Albatenius
mathematician
Baghdad, Iraq
900
Book of Astronomical Tables [900: about astronomical calculations]
He lived 868 to 929 and found ecliptic angle and solar-year length.
Hallaj or Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj [al-Hallaj, Husayn ibn Mansur] or Mansoor al-Hallaj [al-Hallaj,
Mansoor]
poet
Persia
900
Diwan al-Hallaj or Collected Poems [900]
Isaac Ben Solomon Israeli [Israeli, Isaac Ben Solomon] or Isaac Israeli [Israeli, Isaac] or Isaac the Elder or Abu
Ya-'qub Ishaq Ibn Sulayman al-Isra'ili [al-Isra'ili, Abu Ya-'qub Ishaq Ibn Sulayman]
poet
Spain
900
Book of Elements [900]; Book of Five Substances [900]
Mohammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi [al-Razi, Mohammad ibn Zakariya] or Rhazes or Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn
Zakariya al-Razi [al-Razi, Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya] or Ibn Zakaria [Zakaria, Ibn] or Zakariya
philosopher/physician/alchemist
Baghdad, Iraq/Rey (Tehran), Persia
900 to 920
Philosophical Way of Life [900 to 920]; Encyclopedic Book of Medicine [900 to 920]; Secrets [900]; Secret of Secrets
[900]
He lived 864 to 930, classified chemicals, distilled alcohol, and synthesized sulfuric acid.
Abu Nassr Farabi [Farabi, Abu Nassr] or al-Farabi
philosopher
Turkey/Baghdad, Iraq
900 to 930
Utterances Used in Logic [900 to 930]; Book of Letters [900 to 930]; Attainment of Happiness [900 to 930]; Political
Regime [900 to 930]; Ideas of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City [900 to 930]; On the Perfect State [900 to 930];
Commentary and Short Treatise on Aristotle's De Interpretatione [900 to 930]
He lived 872 to 950, was neo-Platonist, and was Second Teacher. He wrote about prophecy and knowledge and
analyzed language with new linguistics. He wrote about politics as metaphysics, which Shi'a politicians used in
sixteenth century.
Metaphysics
In Islamic philosophy, God is the only ultimate reality and unity. Only such knowledge is necessary. God's omniscience
of facts does not necessitate determinism, because facts are not necessary. Determinism is not about existence but about
essence.
Ibn Muqla [Muqla, Ibn]
calligrapher
Middle East
900 to 940
Naskh script [900 to 940: first systematic cursive Arabic calligraphy style]
He lived ? to 940 and perfected Naskh.
Ibn al-Faqih [al-Faqih, Ibn] or Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadhani [al-Faqih al-Hamadhani, Ibn]
geographer
Baghdad, Iraq
902 to 903
City of Peace or Baghdad [902]; Summary of Regions [903: geography summary]
Hamadan is in west Iran and is where Mede capital Ecbatana was.
Wenceslaus
king/duke
Bohemia
907 to 929
He was Duke of Bohemia [907 to 929], promoted Christianity, and negotiated peace with Henry I of Saxony [929]. He
is Roman Catholic patron saint of Bohemia.
Ubaydullah
leader
Tunisia/Africa
909 to 934
He founded Fatimid dynasty in Tunisia [909]. He conquered from Morocco to edge of Egypt [914].
Kino Tsurayuki [Tsurayuki, Kino]
poet
Japan
910 to 935
Preface to Kokinwakashû [910 to 935: introduces his ancient and modern verse collection and describes Japanese
poetics]; Tosa nikki or Tosa Diary [935]
Zen Buddhist lived 872 to 945 and wrote tanka.
Conrad of Franconia or Conrad I
king
Franconia, Germany
911 to 918
He lived 890 to 918 and was Duke of Franconia [906 to 918]. East Franks chose him leader against Magyars [911].
Charles III or Charles the Simple
king
France
911 to 922
He lived 879 to 929, was king [893 to 922], and gave Norsemen Duchy of Normandy [911] to keep peace and to
become Christians.
Rollo or Rolf or Rolph the Ganger
duke
Normandy
911 to 932
He lived 860 to 932. Charles III of France gave Viking Rollo Duchy of Normandy [911 to 932] to keep peace and
become Christians.
Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari [al-Ash'ari, Abu al-Hasan]
philosopher
Baghdad, Iraq
912
Treatise on Principles of Religion [912]
He lived 873 to 935, was of Arabian Philosophy, founded Ash'ari school of Sunni Islam, and was against rationalism.
Abd-al-Rahman III
caliph
Cordoba, Spain
912 to 961
He lived 891 to 961, was Omayyad, started Cordova Caliphate, and supported arts and industry. Artisans invented
paper.
Tabari or Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari [al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir]
historian
914
Annals of Apostles and Kings [914]
Henry I or Henry the Fowler
king
Saxony
919 to 936
He lived 876 to 936, was father of Otto I, and was first Saxon king [919]. He defeated Wends, took Lotharingia, and
defeated Magyars. Denmark became vassals.
Saadiah Gaon [Gaon, Saadiah]
philosopher
Sura, Babylonia/Baghdad, Iraq
920
Book of Critically Chosen Beliefs and Convictions or The Book of Beliefs and Opinions [920]; Book of Theodicy
[920]
He lived 882 to 942, led Talmudic Academy, was systematic, and studied language. God knows all but does not force
or cause people's actions.
Ahmad ibn Fadlan [Fadlan, Ahmad ibn] or Ahmad ibn al-'Abbas ibn Rashid ibn Hammad ibn Fadlan
geographer
Baghdad, Iraq
922
Soul [922]
He wrote about traveling from Baghdad to Volga River to see Bulgar king [921 to 922].
Athelstan or Athelstan the Glorious
king
England
925 to 939
He lived 895 to 939, was Alfred the Great's grandson, was king of England [925 to 939], and defeated Scots, Irish, and
Danes at Battle of Brunanburg [937] in north England.
Boleslav I or Boleslaus the Cruel
king
Poland/Bohemia
929 to 967
He lived 915 to 967 or 972, killed Wenceslaus [929], and was duke of Bohemia [929 to 967].
Abu Abullah Rudaki [Rudaki, Abu Abullah] or Abu 'Abd Allah Ja'far ibn Muhammad [Muhammad, Abu 'Abd
Allah Ja'far ibn]
poet
Arabia
930 to 940
Kalila wa Dimna or Pancha Tantra or Fables of Bidpai [930: translator]; Lament in Old Age [940: poem]
He lived 858 to 941 and wrote bayt.
Otto I or Otto the Great
king
Saxony
936 to 973
He lived 912 to 973. Of Brandenburg Dynasty or Ottonian Dynasty of Saxon emperors, he was Henry the Fowler's son,
became Saxon king [636], united France and Germany, and took Italy [951]. The pope crowned him Holy Roman
emperor [962]. He fought France, conquered Lombardy, and aided Pope John XII.
Hywel Dda or Howell Oda or Howell the Good
prince
Wales
942
Law of Hywel Dda [942]
He was king of Deheubarth, took Gwynedd, and ruled Wales [942]. He codified law in south Wales [942].
Balami or Abu-Ali Mohammad Balami [Balami, Abu-Ali Mohammad]
historian
Bokhara
946 to 973
Annals [966: translated and shortened version of Tabari plus fables]
He was vizier at Bokhara [946 to 973].
al-Mutanabbi
poet
Iraq
948 to 957
To Sayfu d-Dawla [948 to 957: ode]
Ibn Rustah [Rustah, Ibn] or Ahmad ibn Rustah [Rustah, Ahmad ibn]
geographer
Isfahan, Iran
950
Journey to Croatia [950]; Book of Precious Records [950]
He described Isfahan's twenty districts {rostaq}, gates, and walls and wrote about Sana'a (Yemen), Novgorod, Burka,
Croatia, and Caucasia.
Sivaditya Misra
philosopher
India
950
Treatises on Seven Steps [950]
He combined the six Hindu systems.
Mas'udi or Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn al-Mas'udi [al-Mas'udi, Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn]
historian
Baghdad, Iraq
956
Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems [956]
He lived ? to 957 and wrote world history.
Istakhri or al-Istakhri or Abul Qasim Ubaidullah ibn Abdullah ibn Khurdad-bih [Khurdad-bih, Abul Qasim
Ubaidullah ibn Abdullah ibn] or Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Farisi al-Istakhri [al-Istakhri, Abu
Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Farisi] or Ibrahim Ibn Muhammad al-Istakhri [al-Istakhri, Ibrahim Ibn
Muhammad]
geographer
957
Configuration of the Land or Book of Roads and Kingdoms [957]; Civilizations [957]
He wrote about windmills.
Firdausi or Ferdowsi or Abu Ol-Qasem Mansur [Mansur, Abu Ol-Qasem]
poet
Persia
960 to 1025
Book of Kings or Shah-Nameh or Shah Nama [1010]
Mieszko I
king
Poland
963 to 992
He lived 935 to 992 and was Piast duke of Poland [963]. He preceded Boleslav I, who started independent kingdom.
Sviatoslav I
duke
Kiev, Ukraine
964 to 972
He lived 945 to 972, was Grand Prince of Kiev [964 to 972], defeated Khazars, and marched to Caucasus and Balkans,
taking Belorussia.
Gawhar
general
Egypt
969
He invaded Egypt [969]. The Fatimid ruler al-Muiz built Cairo as Fatimid Empire capital.
Ibn Hawqal [Hawqal, Ibn]
geographer
Baghdad, Iraq
969 to 977
World Map [977]
He described Kiev [977] and defeat of Volga Bulgars and Khazars [969] by Rus.
Abul Wafa Muhammad al-Buzjani [al-Buzjani, Abul Wafa Muhammad] or al-Buzjani
mathematician
Baghdad, Iraq
970 to 980
Book on What Is Necessary from the Science of Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen [970 to 980]; Book on What
Is Necessary from Geometric Constructions for the Artisan [970 to 980]
He lived 940 to 997, used secant and cosecant, and constructed using straightedges and circles.
Eric the Red
discoverer
Iceland/Greenland, Denmark
970 to 986
Norse navigator colonized Greenland.
Abhinavagupta
philosopher
Kashmir, Pakistan
975 to 1025
Light on the Tantras [975 to 1025]; Shakti of Vairocana or Divine Power of the Great Illuminator [975 to 1025: about
the Dhvanyaloka and the arts]; Commentary on Bharata Muni's Natyasastra [975 to 1025: about Natyasastra or
Spiritual Texts on Dancing of Bharati and the arts]
He derived metaphysics and epistemology from Tantric Buddhism and developed Kashmir Shaivism. Female energy
resides in the body, and people need to become aware of this knowing, wishing, and acting power.
Aesthetics
He invented an aesthetics theory {theory of rasa} {rasa theory, Abhinavagupta}.
Basil II
emperor
Byzantium/Bulgaria
976 to 1025
He lived 957 to 1025 and became sole emperor [976]. He was Bulgaroctonus or Slayer of Bulgars. He confiscated great
landowner estates and gave jobs to his followers. He fought Bulgar kingdom in Bulgaria under Tsar Samuel [990 to
1014] and won Battle of Balathista [1014]. He defeated Italy and Normandy [1018]. Byzantium controlled from Italy to
Euphrates River in Iraq.
Sabuktagin
king
Iran/Afghanistan/India
977 to 997
He started Ghaznavid dynasty, was son-in-law of Albtakin, and helped Samanians.
Vladimir I
prince/duke
Kiev, Ukraine
978 to 1015
He lived 950 to 1015, was Oleg's grandson, and became Grand Prince of Kiev [978 to 1015]. He chose Eastern
Orthodox Church and Byzantine Christianity over Islam as official religion [989] and so is saint.
Hai Gaon [Gaon, Hai]
rabbi
Babylonia
980 to 1010
Talmud Commentary [980 to 1010]
He lived 939 to 1038, expanded Akiva's work, and explored higher consciousness.
Udayana
philosopher
Darbhanga, Bihar, India
984
Flower-Offerings of Arguments [984: arguments for God's existence]; Intention to Associate with Purity [984]; Radiant
Vali [984]
He wrote about Hinduism and invented proofs of gods. All things have cause and must have been made, requiring
maker. To make things, atoms must bond, requiring conscious agent {argument from atomic combinations, Udayana}.
Earth is stationary and not falling, as Earthly things fall, requiring holder. People have skills, requiring first teacher.
People can understand writing and can write, requiring absolute knowledge.
Harold Bluetooth
king
Denmark
985
He lived 911 to 986 and was Gorm the Old's son.
Rajaraja Chola I
king
India
985 to 1014
He became Chola Empire king and defeated Chera of Kerala in south India.
Svend I or Sweyn or Sweyn Forkbeard or Swegen or Swein
king
England/Norway/Denmark
986 to 1014
He lived 960 to 1014, was Harold Bluetooth's son, was king of Denmark [986 to 1014], took England [1013], allied
with Sweden, and defeated King Olaf I of Norway, dividing Norway [999 to 1014].
Hugh Capet [Capet, Hugh]
king
France
987 to 996
He lived 938 to 996, deposed Carolingian line, and became king of France [987], starting Capetian line.
Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi [al-Kalabadhi, Abu Bakr] or Abu Bakr-e-Kalabadi [Bakr-e-Kalabadi, Abu]
philosopher
995
Doctrine of the Sufis [995]
He lived ? to 995.
Abu Rayhan al-Biruni [al-Biruni, Abu Rayhan] or Abu Reyhan al-Biruni [al-Biruni, Abu Reyhan] or Biruni
geographer/astronomer/scientist/linguist/mathematician
Ghazni
995 to 1040
Definition [995 to 997]; Chronology of Ancient Nations [1000]; Shadows [1021]; Book of India [1030 to 1040];
Masudic Canon [1000 to 1040: astronomy and trigonometry]; Book of Pharmacy or Book of Medicinals [1000 to 1040:
Arab and Indian medicine]; Book of Precious Stones [1000 to 1040: minerals]; Elements of Astrology [1000 to 1040:
mathematics and astronomy]
He lived 973 to 1048, wrote grammar, and calculated latitude and longitude. He measured land in three dimensions
{geodesy} {geodetics}.
Sei Shonagon [Shonagon, Sei]
essayist
Japan
996
Pillow Book [996: about court life in Heian Japan]
Mahmud or Ghazna or Mohammed of Ghazna
king
Persia/India
997 to 1030
He lived 971 to 1030 and was Sabuktagin's son. He took all Samanian lands [999] and conquered into India. After his
death 1030, Seljuk Turks threatened his empire and it gradually declined.
Stephen I
king
Hungary
997 to 1038
He lived 969 to 1038, was first of Arpad dynasty, accepted Christianity, and was first king of Hungary. Magyars
became Christians. Nobles {magnate, Hungary} grew more powerful.
Otto III
king
Holy Roman Empire
998 to 1002
He lived 980 to 1002, was king in Germany [983 to 1002], was Holy Roman emperor [998 to 1002], deposed the pope,
set up German pope, and then set up French pope.
Baba Taher or Baba Tahir or Oryan
poet
Persia
1000
Dubayti or Two-Sentence Poems [1000: in two-bayt form]
He lived 934 to 1019. Poetic forms {bayt} can have two sentences.
Fujiwara Kinto [Kinto, Fujiwara] or Fujiwara no Kinto [Kinto, Fujiwara no]
poet
Japan
1000 to 1040
Selected Poems of the Thirty-six Immortal Poets or Collection of Clear Songs [1000 to 1040: anthology of Chinese and
Japanese poems]; Swooping Hawk [1000 to 1040]
Zen Buddhist lived 966 to 1041 and wrote Japanese waka poems.
Bahya ibn Paquda [Paquda, Bahya ibn] or Bahya ibn Pakuda [Pakuda, Bahya ibn] or Bahya ben Joseph ibn
Paquda [Paquda, Bahya ben Joseph ibn] or Bechaya or Our Rabbi Behaya
philosopher
Saragossa, Aragon, Spain
1000 to 1050
Guide to the Duties of the Heart or Duties of the Heart [1040: first Jewish ethics system, written in Arabic]
He was pietist.
Leif Ericson [Ericson, Leif]
discoverer
Iceland/North America
1000 to 1050
He was from Iceland, was navigator and explorer, and discovered northeast America and called it Vinland. Afterward,
other Icelanders visited Baffin, Labrador, and Newfoundland in Canada, up to 1350. He was son of Eric the Red, who
had reached Greenland. From Viking settlement in Godthafjord, he landed in Newfoundland.
Xuedou Zhongxian or Hsue Tou Ch'ung Hsien or Setcho/Yuanwu Keqin
philosopher
Bianjing (Kaifeng), China
1000 to 1050
Blue Cliff Record [1000 to 1050: 1000 koans, with notes by Yüan-wu K'o-ch'in or Engo]
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers or Guanilo or Gaunilon
philosopher
Paris, France
1000 to 1100
In Defense of the Fool or On Behalf of the Fool [1000 to 1100]
People can imagine perfect island, but no such thing exists. Actual things are better than concepts, because concepts
have no actuality. Concepts are lower reality. Therefore, people must reject Anselm's argument for God's existence.
Nimbarka or Niyamanandacharya or Aruna Rishi [Rishi, Aruna] or Haripriyacharya
philosopher
Andhra Pradesh, India
1000 to 1100
Vedanta [1000 to 1100: commentary on the Brahma Sutras]; Parijat Tree [1000 to 1100: commentary on the Brahma
Sutras]; Abode [1000 to 1100: commentary on the Brahma Sutras]; Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita [1000 to 1100];
Light on Behavior [1000 to 1100: on Karma Kanda]; Mystical Creation Power [1000 to 1100: poem on the Gopala
Mantra]; Sections on Order and Shelter [1000 to 1100: poem on the Mukunda Mantra]; Surrender to God at Chintaman
Temple [1000 to 1100]; Seeking Refuge with the Supreme [1000 to 1100: hymn]; Ten Nectarine Verses [1000 to 1100:
poem]; Hymns on Lord Krishna [1000 to 1100]
From Dvaitadvaita School, he derived a Difference and Non-Difference philosophy {Bhedabheda}. He began a
Vaisnavism sect {Sanaka-sampradaya}. All things differ but unify in God.
Venkatamadhava
philosopher
India
1000 to 1100
On Accent and Meaning Change [1000 to 1100]; Bhasya or Spiritual Theological Dictionary [1000 to 1100:
commentary on Rig-veda]
Narayan
writer
Dhaka, India
1000 to 1400
Instruction in the Advantageous [1000 to 1400: fables about how to succeed in life]
Brian Boru [Boru, Brian]
king
Ireland
1002 to 1014
He lived 941 to 1014, was king of Munster [997], and became High King of Ireland [1002]. He defeated Vikings and
dissident nobles at Battle of Clontarf [1014], but someone killed him afterward.
Murasaki Shikibu [Shikibu, Murasaki]
novelist
Kyoto, Japan
1008 to 1015
Tale of Genji [1008 to 1015: about Heian Japan court life]
She lived 973 to 1015 or 1025 and was at court.
al-Karkhi or al-Karaji
mathematician
Baghdad, Iraq
1010
Glorious on Algebra [1010]
He lived 953 to 1029 and invented completing the square.
Avicenna or Ibn Sina [Sina, Ibn] or Abu Ali Seena [Seena, Abu Ali] or Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd-Allah ibn
Sina [Sina, Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd-Allah ibn] or Supreme Master
philosopher/physician/alchemist
Bokhara
1010 to 1030
Book of Salvation [1010 to 1030: philosophy]; Book of Directives and Remarks [1010 to 1030: philosophy]; Canon of
Medicine [1010 to 1030]; Book of Healing [1010 to 1030]; Virtuous City [1010 to 1030]
He lived 981 to 1037, developed Islamic philosophy based on Aristotle, studied the intellectually intelligible, and
studied statement time types. His students were Gorgani and Bahmanyar, in Muslim Peripatetic School.
Epistemology
Prophecy is knowledge about mystical experiences.
Metaphysics
Necessary being and possible {contingent} being both exist. One being, God, has identical essence and existence and
so is necessary {existence, Avicenna} {Avicennan proof of existence}. All other existences come from Necessary
Being by a hierarchy of existences, in which higher things determine lower-thing essences. Vacuum is impossible.
Rajendra Chola I
king
India
1014 to 1052
He became Chola Empire king. His merchant fleets traded, and his navy controlled trade between Arabia and China.
Olaf II Haraldsson
king
Norway
1015 to 1028
He lived 995 to 1030, established Christianity, and fled when King Canute's followers revolted [1028].
Canute I or Canute the Great or Cnut
king
Denmark/England/Norway/Sweden
1016 to 1035
He lived 994 to 1035, was Sweyn's son, was Viking king, and united Denmark, England, and Norway [1016]. He
codified laws and brought peace and Christianity.
Yaroslav the Wise
prince
Kiev, Russia
1019 to 1054
He lived 978 to 1054. As ruler of Kiev [1019 to 1054], he united Russian principalities.
Guido d'Arezzo [d'Arezzo, Guido]
composer
Italy
1020 to 1050
He lived 995 to 1050, wrote masses and Gregorian chants, and invented clef.
Hananel ben Hushiel or Chananel ben Chushiel or Chananel ben Kushiel or Hananel ben Kushiel
rabbi
Kairouan, Tunisia
1020 to 1053
Talmud Commentary [1020 to 1053]; Torah Commentary [1020 to 1053]; Ritual Law Decisions [1020 to 1053]
al-Zahir
caliph
Egypt
1021 to 1036
He was Fatimid.
Ibn al-Bawwab [al-Bawwab, Ibn]
calligrapher
Middle East
1022
Naskh [1022: cursive Arabic calligraphy]
He lived ? to 1022.
Ibn Hazm or Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi or Ahmad ibn Sa`id ibn Hazm [Hazm, Ahmad ibn Sa`id ibn]
philosopher
Córdoba, Spain
1022 to 1060
Necklace of the Dove [1022]; On Sects [1030 to 1060]; On Mannerism and Behavior [1030 to 1060: about ethics];
Detailed Critical Examination [1030 to 1060: about philosophical systems]
He lived 994 to 1064 and began romanticism and troubadour style. He studied comparative religion, listing sects,
heterodoxies, and denominations. He wrote first systematic critical Old-and-New-Testament studies.
Henry III or Henry the Black or Henry the Pious
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1028 to 1056
He lived 1017 to 1056 and was of Salian dynasty. Holy Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He supported reform by
Benedictine Cluniac monastic order, which wanted a government-free church, and helped elect a German reform pope.
In 1046, he deposed three popes and nominated popes.
al-Hazen or Alhazen or Ibn al-Haytham [al-Haytham, Ibn] or Abu Ali al-Hassan
mathematician/physicist
Baghdad, Iraq/Egypt
1030
Treasury of Optics [1030]
He lived 965 to 1039 and studied perspective, projection, vanishing points, and cubic equations.
Mas'ud
king
Iran/Afghanistan/India
1031 to 1041
Of Ghaznavid Dynasty, he was Mahmud's son. He lost to Seljuk Turks, but family still ruled east Afghanistan and west
India.
Magnus I
king
Norway
1035 to 1047
He lived 1024 to 1047 and became king when Canute died [1035]. He was king of Denmark [1042 to 1047].
Fernando I or Ferdinand I or Ferdinand the Great
king
Spain
1035 to 1065
He lived 1017 to 1065. King of Castile [1035 to 1065] and Leon [1037] subjugated Moors in Seville, Toledo,
Saragossa, and Badajoz [1065] and controlled Spain.
Tughril Beg
sultan
Persia/Iraq
1038 to 1063
He lived 990 to 1063 and led Seljuk Turks from central Asia [1038] to Persia [1040 to 1044] and Baghdad [1055],
where he became sultan.
Lady Godiva [Godiva, Lady] or Godgyfu or Godgifu
activist
Coventry, England
1040
She rode through Coventry naked to get her husband Leofric to lower taxes. "Peeping Tom" looked.
MacBeth
king
Scotland
1040 to 1057
He lived 1020 to 1057, defeated Duncan [1040], killed him to take over kingdom, and then lost part of kingdom to
Malcolm [1054].
Chou Tun-i or Zhou Dunyi [Dunyi, Zhou] or Chou Lien-hsi or Zhou Lianxi [Lianxi, Zhou]
philosopher
China
1040 to 1070
Penetrating Writing on the Classic Work on Change [1040 to 1070]
He lived 1017 to 1073 and combined Neo-Taoism and Confucianism to make ideas used in later Neo-Confucianism.
Shao Yung
philosopher
Luoyang, China
1040 to 1070
Supreme Principle Governing the World [1040 to 1070]
He lived 1011 to 1077 and was neo-Confucian.
Edward III or Edward the Confessor
king
England
1042 to 1066
He lived 1003 to 1066, reduced taxes, and struggled with Godwin. He chose Godwin's son as heir, leading to Norman
Conquest of England [1066].
Anawrahta or Aniruddha
king
Pagan, Burma
1044 to 1077
He built large empire with strong army and unified Burma. Pagan was capital.
Solomon Ibn Gabirol [Gabirol, Solomon Ibn] or Avicebron
philosopher/poet
Spain
1045 to 1050
Mekor Hayyim or Fons Vitae or Well of Life [1045 to 1050: poem]; Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh or On the Improvement
of the Moral Qualities [1045: essay]; Choice of Pearls [1045 to 1050: sayings]; Kingly Crown [1050: poem]
He lived 1020 to 1070 and wrote in Kabbalah mystic style.
Nasir Khosrow [Khosrow, Nasir] or Nasser Khosrow ebn-e Haress al-Qobadiani al-Balkhi al-Marvazi [Khosrow
ebn-e Haress al-Qobadiani al-Balkhi al-Marvazi, Nasser] or Abu Mo'in Hamid al-Din Nasir ibn Khusraw
[Khusraw, Abu Mo'in Hamid al-Din Nasir ibn]
poet
Persia/Tajikestan
1046 to 1052
Book of Travels or Safarnama [1046 to 1052]; Ruby of Badakhshan [1047]; Diwan or Collected Poems [1046 to 1052]
Berengar of Tours or Bérenger or Berengarius
priest
Tours, France
1049
Eucharist [1049: reply to Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury]
He lived 1000 to 1088 and was Nominalist. He believed that the bread and wine cannot change into Jesus' body and
blood, because their qualities stayed the same.
servientes Regis ad Legem
lawyer
London, United Kingdom
1050
Law profession {servientes Regis ad Legem} began.
Chang Tsai
philosopher
1050 to 1070
Western Inscription [1050 to 1070]; Great Harmony [1050 to 1070]
He lived 1020 to 1077 and was neo-Confucian.
Michael Psellos [Psellos, Michael]
philosopher
Byzantium
1050 to 1080
Manifold Teaching [1050 to 1080]; Synopsis of Hermogenes [1050 to 1080]; Sermon on the Crucifixion [1050 to
1080]; Chronography [1050 to 1080]; On Demonic Energies [1050 to 1080]
He lived 1018 to 1096 and was Platonist.
Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamol Molk-e-Bakravi [Molk-e-Bakravi, Nezamol]
grand vizier
1050 to 1090
Book of Government or Rules for Kings [1050 to 1090]
He lived 1018 to 1092, was minister for thirty years to first Qaznavids then Seljuk ruler Malek Shah, and founded
Nezamiyeh School of Baghdad.
Fakhroddin Gorgani [Gorgani, Fakhroddin] or Fakhr al-Din As'ad Gurgani [Gurgani, Fakhr al-Din As'ad]
poet
Persia
1054
Vis and Rahmin [1054: original Pahlavi translated into Farsi]
Henry IV
emperor
Germany/Austria
1056 to 1105
He lived 1050 to 1106, was king of Germany [1056 to 1105], and established Holy Roman Empire rule over duchies
[1084]. He and Pope Gregory VIII clashed over bishop and abbot investiture [1075]. He appointed his own bishops in
defiance of Pope Gregory VII. Threatened with revolt, he humbled himself in the snow before the pope, but civil war
started anyway. He invaded Italy, forced Pope Gregory VII from Rome, and named Guibert of Ravenna pope. Guibert
crowned him emperor [1084]. His son Henry V forced him to abdicate [1105].
Robert Guiscard [Guiscard, Robert]
leader
Albania
1059 to 1085
Robert Guiscard lived 1016 to 1085 and controlled Albania as Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Illyria and Epirus were in
Albania mountain regions.
Ramanuja
philosopher
Tamil, India
1060
Commentary on the Brahma Sutra [1060]
He lived 1017 to 1137 and started Visistadvaita Vedanta or Qualified Non-Dualism or Vishishta Advaita or Nondualism of the Differentiated. He led south-India Shri Vaishnavism. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as embodiment of
Brahman.
People are separate from God and want to experience and love God. People can feel god-like in dependence on God.
People should live actively in the world without trying to control anything or get something. People perform acts to
please gods, which are Brahman manifestations.
God, matter, and souls all exist in unity. Matter comes from creative powers of God.
Ch'eng Hao or Ming-tao
philosopher
Henan, China
1060 to 1080
Ten Matters Calling for Reform [1060 to 1080]; Remonstrance Against the New Laws [1060 to 1080]
He lived 1032 to 1085, was brother to Ch'eng I, and was idealist neo-Confucian.
Alp Arslan
sultan
Iraq
1063 to 1072
He lived 1029 to 1072 and was nephew of Tughril Beg and Seljuk Turk. He invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Armenia
and defeated Byzantine army at Battle of Manzikert [1071].
Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar [Bivar, Rodrigo Diaz de] or El Cid Campeador or Lord Champion [Champion, Lord] or
Ruy Díaz de Vivar [Vivar, Ruy Díaz de]
warrior
Castile
1065 to 1099
He lived 1043 to 1099. He served under Alfonso VI until 1081, when he sided with Muslims. Later, he captured
Valencia from Muslims. Cid is same as Arabic "sayyid", "seid", or "lord". Campeador means "champion".
Harold
king
England
1066
He lived 1022 to 1066. Witan assembly elected him king [1066], with Pope's sanction. He lost and died at Battle of
Hastings [1066].
William I or William the Conqueror
king
London, England
1066 to 1087
Domesday Book [1086: census of England for taxation purposes, for William the Conqueror]
He lived 1027 to 1087, was Duke of Normandy, and conquered England, led by Harold, at Battle of Hastings [1066]
during Norman Conquest. He built many castles, brought in priests from France, started separate ecclesiastical courts,
surveyed England, and demanded loyalty first to king then to nobles. Norman kings followed. He sent representatives
to preside over county courts, rather than use clergy. He held all land parcels directly or indirectly.
Su Dongpo or Su Shi or Su Shih
poet
China
1070 to 1090
Chibifu or The Red Cliffs [1070 to 1090]; Shui diao ge tou or Remembering Su Zhe on the Mid-Autumn Festival or
Mid-Autumn Moon [1070 to 1090]
He lived 1037 to 1101, founded the Haofang School, and wrote poetic satires {fu}, late-Han and early-Tang dynasty
classical poetry {shi}, and formal lyrical poems {ci}.
Anselm
bishop
Canterbury, England
1070 to 1093
Monologues [1070 to 1093]; Discourse [1070 to 1093]; On Truth [1070 to 1093]; On the Fall of the Devil [1070 to
1093]; Why Did God Become Man? [1070 to 1093]
He lived 1033 to 1109, was Benedictine, was archbishop, upheld church's power to appoint bishops [1093], and is
Father of Scholasticism. He said, "I believe so I may understand" {credo ut intelligam}.
Epistemology
Understanding needs faith.
People can conceive of highest being.
Ethics
All things should be their best. People strive for their benefit and for justice.
Metaphysics
God exists, as shown by the following argument {ontological argument, Anselm}. Mind can conceive of existence that
is greater than anything else conceivable, and this must actually be the greatest thing in reality, because existence is
necessary to be good and highest.
Highest being that causes all other being through its essence must exist, because cause must be greater than effect.
Highest being can only exist by its essence as necessity, because it is being itself. All good things must come from and
through supreme, self-existing, necessary, perfect, universal, single, and whole being. Things are similar to the supreme
but in different degrees. God created everything, which is in God. Amount of being is amount of Good.
Ch'eng I or Ch'eng Yi or Cheng Yi [Yi, Cheng]
philosopher
Luoyang, China
1070 to 1100
Memorial to the Emperor Renzong [1070 to 1100]
He lived 1033 to 1107, was brother to Ch'eng Hao, was rational Neo-Confucian, and started new Confucianism,
Ch'eng-Chu School. All things have unchanging pattern and changing matter. People need to live properly and have
education to discern the pure patterns in impure matter.
Jallaluddin Malekshah [Malekshah, Jallaluddin]
sultan
Iraq
1072 to 1092
He followed Alp Arsalen as sultan. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Malekshah. Seljuk Turks or Sultanate of
Rum controlled Middle East. Seljuk control of Holy Land was reason for Crusades.
Alfonso VI or Alfonso the Brave
king
Castile
1072 to 1109
He lived 1040 to 1109, was king of León [1065 to 1109], was king of Castile [1072 to 1109], and attacked Muslim
kingdoms in Spain.
Gregory VII or Hildebrand
pope
Rome, Italy
1073 to 1083
He lived 1020 to 1085 and allied with Normans of Italy. His reforms lost support and Henry IV of Germany led
opposition. Henry IV took Rome [1083] and set up anti-pope. Robert Guiscard and Normans in Italy rescued Gregory
VII but then lost Rome again. As pope, he started reform {Hildebrandine reform}, which ended simony, lay bishop
investiture, celibacy-vow violations, and priest marriage. He transferred pope's election to College of Cardinals.
Ladislaus I
king
Croatia/Hungary
1077 to 1095
He lived 1040 to 1095 and got Croatia and Hungary [1077] after Boleslaus III of Poland died.
Matilda of Tuscany
queen
Tuscany
1077 to 1115
She lived 1046 to 1115, was countess of Tuscany [1077 to 1115], and gave her land to the pope [1115].
Roscellinus or Roscelin or Roscellinus Compendiensis or Rucelinus
priest
France
1080 to 1092
He lived 1050 to 1122 and founded Nominalism and Scholasticism. He believed that the Trinity was three distinct
objects, not one. Council at Reims [1092] condemned the heresy.
Omar Khayyam [Khayyam, Omar]
poet/mathematician
Persia/Iraq
1080 to 1123
Rubaiyat [1080]
He lived 1048 to 1123 and invented new Persian calendar.
Qabus or Shams al-Ma'ali Qabus ibn Wushmgir ibn al-Ziyar [Qabus ibn Wushmgir ibn al-Ziyar, Shams alMa'ali] or Onsor ol-Ma'ali Keykavus [Keykavus, Onsor ol-Ma'ali] or Unsur al-Mo'ali Qabus ibn Iskander ibn
Qabus ibn Wushmgir ibn al-Ziyar [Qabus ibn Wushmgir ibn al-Ziyar, Unsur al-Mo'ali Qabus ibn Iskander ibn]
prince
Gorgan, Golestan, Persia
1082
Counsels of Nushirwan the Just to his Son or Book of Counsel or Book of Advice or Mirror for Princes [1082]
He was Prince of Gurgan or Gorgan [1049 to 1090].
Guibert of Ravenna
pope
Rome, Italy
1084 to 1100
He lived 1025 to 1100. Henry IV of Holy Roman Empire installed Guibert of Ravenna as pope, after making Pope
Gregory VII flee Rome.
Urban II
pope
Rome, Italy
1088 to 1099
He lived 1035 to 1099. As pope, he started First Crusade and continued Pope Gregory VII's church reforms.
Irnerius
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1088 to 1120
Comments on the Corpus Juris [1088 to 1120]
He lived 1055 to 1130 and founded law school at Bologna [1088]. He studied Justinian Code, Institutes, and Digest and
taught Martinus, Bulgarus, Iacobus, and Hugo.
Hassan Sabbah [Sabbah, Hassan] or Old Man of the Mountain
leader
Iran
1090
Batinis or Ismaili sect believed that Imam Jaffar's sons were the only true Imams. Imam Jaffar's first son was Ismail.
Hassan's followers were the Assassins.
Abu al-Gazel [al-Gazel, Abu] or Abu Algazel [Algazel, Abu] or Abu al-Ghazali [al-Ghazali, Abu]
philosopher
Tus, Khorasan
1090 to 1100
Revival of Religious Sciences [1090]; Deliverance from Error [1090 to 1100]; Intentions of the Philosophers [1090 to
1100]; Incoherence of the Philosophers [1090 to 1100]
He lived 1058 to 1111 and was main Sufi philosopher. He identified twenty false philosophical claims, later discussed
by Averroës.
Mohammad al-Ghazzali [al-Ghazzali, Mohammad]
historian/philosopher
Iran
1090 to 1111
Book of Counsel for Kings [1111: Persia history]; Revival of the Sciences of Religion [1090 to 1111]
He lived 1058 to 1111 and developed method of criticizing hypotheses and assumptions. Intellect cannot attain ultimate
truth.
Henry of Burgundy
king
Burgundy/Portugal/Coimbra, Spain
1093 to 1112
He lived 1066 to 1112, was duke of Burgundy, and became Count of Portugal [1093].
al-Hariri
poet
Arabia
1100
Maqamat or Assemblies [1100: entertaining dialogues]
Li Ching-zhao or Li Ch'ing-zhao or Li Qingzhao or Li Ch'ing-chao
poet
China
1100
Dream Season [1100]; Cilun or Tz'u-lun or Lun ci or On lyrics or Discourse on Lyric [1120 to 1150: book]; Double
Nine [1100]; Wuling Spring or Spring Ends [1100]; Autumn Evening Beside the Lake [1100]; Two Springs [1100];
Sorrow of Departure or Cutting a Flowering Plum Branch [1100]; Autumn Love or A Weary Song to a Slow Sad Tune
[1100]; Quail Sky [1100]; Clear Peace Happiness [1100]; Fading Plum Blossoms or Perfumed Garden [1100];
Bodhisattva's Headdress [1100]
Ari Thorgilsson the Learned [Thorgilsson the Learned, Ari]
poet
Iceland
1100 to 1140
Islendingabok or Book of Icelanders [1100 to 1140: about Iceland society and wars]; Landnamabok or Book of
Settlements [1100 to 1140: about Iceland society and wars]
Judah Halevi [Halevi, Judah]
poet
Spain
1100 to 1141
Kuzari [1100: Khazar king converts to Judaism]
He lived 1075 to 1141. Franz Rosenzweig, who also translated the Old Testament into German from Hebrew, translated
his work into German [1886 to 1929].
Jacobus de Boragine or Iacobus
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1100 to 1200
He was one of the Four Doctors, who recreated Roman law.
Shi Nai'an [Nai'an, Shi] or Shi Naian [Naian, Shi]/Luo Guanzhong or Luo Daobun or Lo Kuan-chung
novelist
China
1100 to 1200
Water Margin or Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers or Shui Hu Chuan [1100 to 1200: about outlaws of
Mount Liang]
Nai'an lived 1296 to 1370. Guanzhong lived 1330 to 1400.
Henry V
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1105 to 1125
He lived 1086 to 1125, deposed his father, was Germany king [1099 to 1125], was Holy Roman emperor [1111 to
1125], was of Salian Dynasty, captured the pope and cardinals, and forced them to allow him to appoint his own
bishops.
Renier of Huy or Reiner von Huy [Huy, Reiner von]
sculptor
Liège, Belgium
1107 to 1118
Baptismal Font [1107 to 1118: in gold, commissioned by Abbot Hellinus for St Bartholomew Cathedral]
He molded Romanesque metal work.
William of Champeaux or Guillaume de Champeaux [Champeaux, Guillaume de]
philosopher
Champeaux, France
1109 to 1121
He lived 1070 to 1121, was Scholastic Realist, was Abelard's teacher, founded monastic school of St. Victor [1109],
and was bishop of Châlons-en-Champagne [1113 to 1121].
William IX, Duke of Aquitaine
composer
Aquitaine
1110 to 1127
He lived 1087 to 1127 and composed troubadour love poetry and music.
Suryavarman II or Paramavishnuloka
king
Cambodia
1113 to 1150
He started building temples at Angkor Wat.
Bhaskara or Bhaskara II or Bhaskaracharya
mathematician
Ujjain, Mahdya Pradesh, India
1114 to 1140
Sun Spheres and Light [1114: spheres, planets, and decimal number system]; Diadem of an Astronomical System
[1140]
He lived 1114 to 1185, followed Brahmagupta, and used combinations and permutations.
Bernard of Clairvaux
priest/abbot/architect
Clairvaux, France
1115 to 1153
Apology [1120 to 1140]; Cistercian Abbey [1115 to 1153: Romanesque church in Cistercian style]
He lived 1091 to 1153. Faith, authority, and tradition are more important than knowledge, reason, and science. His
abbey was an important reformed Cistercian monastery.
Gislebertus d'Autun
sculptor
Autun, France
1120 to 1135
Last Judgement [1120 to 1135: expressive, active, and fantastic reliefs on Autun-Cathedral West Portal]; Eve [1120 to
1135: on Autun-Cathedral North Portal]
He lived ? to 1150.
Pierre Abelard [Abelard, Pierre] or Peter Abelard [Abelard, Peter]
priest/scholar
Cluny, France
1120 to 1140
Aye and Nay [1120]; Dialectics [1121 to 1125: logic]; Story of My Misfortunes [1132: including Letter of Heloise and
Abelard]; Introduction to Theology [1136 to 1140]
He lived 1079 to 1142, was nominalist Scholastic, founded University of Paris, and loved Héloïse. He studied under
Roscelin and William of Champeaux.
Epistemology
Antecedent and consequent can logically relate {relevance logic, Abelard} by sharing word or variable or by being
dependent.
Ideal forms {universal, Abelard} have basis in particulars, as features shared by many things, but they exist only in
thought and speech. Use in thought or judgment defines universal. Universal acquires meaning from perception and
sense experience and is not just convention. Universals are real insofar as they express similarities or essential object
characteristics to which people respond to make concepts or dispositions {conceptualism, Abelard}.
Body sense qualities are confused ideas, held in imagination or perception. Reason uses sense qualities to build
intuitions {full perception} of objects and then concepts and judgments. Then reason can form opinions, have faith,
have knowledge, and know universals.
Necessity about things {de re}, as used in sentences, differs from necessity about words {de dicto}, as used in
predicates.
Revelation does not give truth or knowledge.
Ethics
Goodness and perfection are separate from reality and being.
Thoughts, feelings, and desires do not cause evil. Good and evil are not actions in themselves but decisions of will.
Consent to do bad thing is evil, not act itself, because will is action cause. If will has decided to do evil, it is evil, even
if no act happens. Conscience allows will to know God's will, so if will goes against conscience, it has done evil.
Moral natural law {God's will} is the same for all people, but sin obscures it. Some people know it better than others.
Law
Human convention makes some laws {positive law, Abelard} {jus positivum}.
Metaphysics
Higher than universals are God's ideas, which create world. Universals can exist before world as God's ideas, in world
as quality similarities and after world as mental concepts, ideas derived from Avicenna.
Bulgarus
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1120 to 1158
On Regulations [1120 to 1158]
He lived ? to 1166 and was one of the Four Doctors, at University of Bologna law school or School of the Glosswriters, who recreated Roman law. He was at diet of Roncaglia [1158].
David I
king
Scotland
1124 to 1153
He lived 1082 to 1153 and started feudal system.
Lothair II or Lothar II
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1125 to 1137
He lived 1070 to 1137, was king of Germany [1125 to 1137], and was Holy Roman emperor [1133 to 1137] after
election by nobles, who elected all later emperors.
Abol-Maid Sana'i [Sana'i, Abol-Maid] or Hakim Sana'i [Sana'i, Hakim]
poet/teacher
Ghazni, Afghanistan/Persia
1130 to 1131
Tadhkirat al-Awliyd or Book of Saints [1130]; Hadiqa or Hadiqat al-Haqiqa or Walled Garden of Truth or Garden of
Truth or Garden of Mystical Truth [1131: first mathnawi]
He lived 1092 to 1167, wrote masnavi and ghazal, and was Sufi. Lust, greed, and emotional excitement stand between
humans and divine knowledge. Love and social conscience are religion foundations.
Ibn Bajja or Avempace or Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Say'igh [al-Say'igh, Abu Bakr Muhammad
ibn Yahya ibn]
poet/musician/scientist/mathematician
Saragossa, Aragon/Fes, Morocco
1130 to 1138
Commentary on the Meteorology of Aristotle [1130 to 1138]; On the Soul [1130 to 1138]; Hermit's Guide [1130 to
1138]
He lived 1106 to 1138, invented a separate-substances theory, and emphasized the solitary life.
al-Idrisi or Dreses or ash-Sharif al-Idrisi [al-Idrisi, ash-Sharif] or al-Sharif al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi [al-Qurtubi, alSharif al-Idrisi]
geographer
Palermo, Sicily
1130 to 1150
Roger's Book [1130 to 1150]; Delight of Him Who Desires to Journey through the Climates [1130 to 1150]; Pleasure of
Men and Delight of Souls [1130 to 1150]; Book on the Collection of Attributes of Medicinal Plants [1130 to 1150:
about plants for drugs]
He lived 1099 to 1166, drew a world map [1130], and was at King Roger II's court [1145 to 1166], where he built a
silver globe.
Martinus Gosia
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1130 to 1160
Structure of the Institutes [1130 to 1160]
He lived 1100 to 1166 and was one of the Four Doctors, who recreated Roman law. Martinus led a school about equity
of the purse {aequitas bursalis}.
Suger or Abbot Suger [Suger, Abbot]
abbot/architect
St. Denis, France
1132 to 1144
Abbey Church of St. Denis [1137 to 1144: Gothic church]
He lived 1081 to 1151 and built St. Denis Abbey, first Gothic church. He started Gothic art and said that art is
necessary to see truth and beauty. He counseled Louis VI and Louis VII and was their historian. St. Denis is in Ile-deFrance, near Paris.
Adelard of Bath
philosopher
Bath, England
1137
Natural Questions [1137]
He lived 1075 to 1160. Common qualities found in existing individual objects are universals but are not real, only
conventions {indifferentism}.
Eleanor of Aquitaine
queen
France/England
1137 to 1204
She lived 1122 to 1204 and was queen to Louis VII of France [1137 to 1152]. Later, she got annulment, became queen
of Henry II of Burgundy and England [1152 to 1189], set up her court at Poitiers, helped her sons revolt against Henry
II, and got her son Richard I kingship of England [1189 to 1199], then her son John [1199 to 1216].
Alfonso I
king
Lisbon, Portugal
1139 to 1185
He lived 1110 to 1185, was Henry of Burgundy's son, and was first king of Portugal [1139 to 1185], becoming
independent of Castile. He took Lisbon [1147], Cadiz, and Murcia from Caliphate. He favored art and learning.
Gratian
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1140
Decrees [1140]
He was Benedictine monk and codified canon law at Bologna University.
John of Salisbury
philosopher
Salisbury, England
1140 to 1170
Polycraticus or The Statesman's Book [1140 to 1170: about government]; Metalogic [1140 to 1170: philosophy]
Epistemology
Sensation and perception involve judgment.
Passions unite new sensations with remembered ones. Pleasure and pain result from these unions.
The fundamental mental state is imagination or perception. From perceptions come opinions. Knowledge comes from
opinion comparisons. Will added to knowledge causes belief. When will has faith, people attain final state, of
contemplation.
Mind
All soul's activities have unity.
Peter Lombard [Lombard, Peter] or Master of Sentences
philosopher/theologian
Paris, France
1145 to 1160
Book of Sentences [1145 to 1160: compares many sources on theological points]
He lived 1100 to 1160, was Sententiary or Summist, became professor [1145], and was bishop of Paris [1159].
Abd-al-Mumin
caliph
Morocco/Spain/Algeria/Tripoli
1147 to 1163
He lived 1094 to 1163, took Marrakech [1147], conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163], and started the
Almohads.
Abraham Ibn Ezra [Ibn Ezra, Abraham] or Abenezra
poet/philosopher
Spain
1148
Beginning of Wisdom [1148]
Conrad III
emperor
Germany
1148 to 1152
He lived 1093 to 1152, was king of Germany [1138 to 1152], and was first Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman
Empire [1148]. In Second Crusade, he sailed to Antioch to establish Principality of Antioch and sailed to Tyre to hold
it. He struggled with papacy.
Eric IX or Erik the Lawgiver or Erik the Saint
king
Sweden
1150 to 1160
He lived 1120 to 1160, established Christianity in north Sweden, and conquered Finland [1157].
Auhadu'd-Dín Mohammad Anvari [Anvari, Auhadu'd-Dín Mohammad]
poet
Persia
1150 to 1170
Divan-e Anvari or Collected Poems of Anvari [1150 to 1170]
Ibn Tufayl or Abubacer or Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Malik Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn
Tufayl [Ibn Tufayl, Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Malik Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad]
philosopher/physician
Granada, Spain/Córdoba, Spain
1150 to 1180
Living Son of the Vigilant [1150 to 1180]
Frederick I or Frederick Barbarossa or Frederick Red Beard
emperor
Germany/Austria
1152 to 1190
He lived 1123 to 1190 and was duke of Swabia as Frederick III [1147 to 1190]. As Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy
Roman Empire [1152 to 1190], he elevated Henry the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria but then humiliated him and ended
last duchies of Germany [1152]. As king of Germany, he then proclaimed general peace. As emperor, he started calling
Germany Holy Roman Empire. He fought Pope Alexander III and Lombard League but lost at Legnano and accepted
Peace of Constance [1183], guaranteeing Lombard-city freedom. He led Third Crusade [1189] against Saladin, but he
drowned.
Taira no Kiyomori [Kiyomori, Taira no]
leader
Japan
1153 to 1181
He lived 1118 to 1181, led Taira clan [1153 to 1181], and defeated Fujiwara clan, but Taira lost to Minamoto clan at
Battle of Dan No Ura [1185].
Henry II
king
England
1154 to 1189
He lived 1133 to 1189, was king [1154 to 1189], founded English jury and court system, and was first of Plantagenet
Dynasty. He was Duke of Burgundy and married Eleanor of Aquitaine. He invaded England and defeated barons.
He struggled with Thomas à Becket over whose courts tried clergymen. He convened Great Council [1164], which
proclaimed Constitutions of Clarendon, which gave more power to king's courts to try clergymen. His knights
murdered Thomas à Becket, and people's reaction forced him to do penance. After he had Thomas à Becket killed, he
rescinded Constitutions of Clarendon.
He took north England and Wales. Pope Adrian IV awarded him Ireland, and he invaded it [1167]. He struggled with
his son. He invaded Ireland again [1172]. Richard I, Eleanor's son, and Philip II of France defeated him [1185].
Waldemar I or Waldemar the Great
king
Denmark
1157 to 1182
He lived 1131 to 1182, defeated Sweyn [1157] at Viborg, and ruled north Scandinavia.
Alexander III
pope
Rome, Italy
1159 to 1181
He lived 1105 to 1181. As pope, he excommunicated Frederick Barbarossa [1176].
Chu Hsi or Zhu Xi
founder/philosopher
China
1160 to 1190
Analects [1160 to 1190: Confucius' collected sayings]; Master Mencius [1160 to 1190]; Great Learning [1160 to 1190];
Doctrine of the Mean [1160 to 1190]
He lived 1130 to 1200, wrote the Four Books, and started neo-Confucian Ch'eng-Chu School, which blended Ch'eng-I
ideas, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
All things have unchanging pattern and changing matter. Principles {li, Chu Hsi} {t'ai ch'i} interact with matter and
energy {ch'i, matter}. People need to live properly and have education to discern the pure patterns in impure matter.
The Four Beginnings are feeling shame, deferring to others, sharing other's feelings, and perceiving. The Four Virtues
are being wise, loving humanity, acting correctly, and following ritual.
The Seven Emotions are hate, love, happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and wanting. The Four Books are Lun-yü, Ta
Hsüeh, Chung Yung, and Meng-tzu.
Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi
writer
China
1160 to 1190
He lived 1130 to 1200 and encouraged footbinding and small feet.
Honen or Honen Bo Genku
philosopher
Japan
1160 to 1212
He lived 1133 to 1212, broke with royal court's Tendai Buddhism and military's Shingon or Tantric Buddhism, and
introduced Pure Land Buddhism based on Shan-tao or Zendo [1176]. Honen, Dogen, Nichiren, and Honen's disciple
Shinran developed popular Buddhism {Kamakura Buddhism}. Honen developed Jodo-shu, and his disciple Shinran
derived Jodoshin-shu.
Thomas à Becket [Becket, Thomas à]
archbishop
Canterbury, England
1162 to 1170
He lived 1118 to 1170 and was Archbishop of Canterbury [1162 to 1170]. He opposed Henry II on jurisdiction over
clergy and refused to ratify Constitutions of Clarendon [1164], which gave more power to king's courts. He fled to
Europe. On his return, someone murdered him in Canterbury Cathedral by order of King Henry II. Reactions to his
death caused Henry II to rescind Constitutions of Clarendon.
Leonin or Leoninus
composer
Paris, France
1163 to 1190
Magnus Liber Organi or Great Book of the Organ [1163 to 1190: for masses]
He lived 1135 to 1201 and worked at Notre Dame Cathedral. He added second descant part above the Gregorian chant
and so composed organum polyphonic music. He developed chant-note rhythm and time notation.
Maurice de Sully
architect
Paris, France
1163 to 1250
Notre-Dame Cathedral [1163 to 1250: Gothic]
Chrétien de Troyes [Troyes, Chrétien de]
poet
Troyes, France
1164 to 1180
King Arthur [1164]; Erec et Enide [1170]; Cliges [1176]; Lancelot [1178 to 1180]; Yvain [1178 to 1180]; Perceval or
The Story of the Grail [1180]
Hugo de Porta Ravennate or Hugolinus de Porta Ravennate or Ugo de Alberico [Alberico, Ugo de]
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1165 to 1194
Summation on Fighting [1165 to 1194]
He lived ? to 1194 and was one of the Four Doctors, who recreated Roman law.
Nezami or Elyas Yusof Nezami Ganjavi [Nezami Ganjavi, Elyas Yusof]
poet
Persia
1166 to 1199
Khamseh or Five Books [1166 to 1191: mathnavi poems]; Makhzanul-Assrar or Treasure of Mysteries [1166: in
Khamseh]; Khosrow and Shirin [1176: in Khamseh]; Leili and Majnoon [1189: in Khamseh]; Eskandarnameh or Book
of Alexander [1191: in Khamseh]; Haft Peykar or Seven Figures [1199: in Khamseh]
Moses Maimonides [Maimonides, Moses] or Moses ben Maimon [Maimon, Moses ben] or Rambam
philosopher
Spain/Cairo, Egypt
1168 to 1190
Commentary on the Mishnah [1168]; Guide of the Perplexed [1180 to 1190]; Book of the Commandments [1185]
He lived 1135 to 1204 and developed Jewish philosophy. People have free choice because the knowledge that God has
is not understandable by humans, though God knows the future.
Lu Xiangshan or Lu Hsiang-shan or Lu Jiuyuan or Tzu-ching or Ts'un-chai
philosopher
China
1170 to 1190
He lived 1138 to 1193, was Neo-Confucian, and blended Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in Lu-Wang School.
Myoan Eisai [Eisai, Myoan] or Eisai Zenji
philosopher
Japan
1170 to 1210
He lived 1141 to 1215 and introduced Zen to Japan, as Rinzai School, building on Ch'an Buddhism in China. He began
tea ceremony and brought green tea from China to Japan.
Saladin or Salah al-Din
ruler
Egypt/Syria
1173 to 1193
He lived 1138 to 1193, took Jerusalem [1173] and Damascus, and started Ayyubid dynasty [1173 to 1250]. With
Saracens, he conquered Tunisia, Yemen, and Syria. He defeated Crusade at Hattin [1187]. He held Jerusalem through
Third Crusade. He met Richard I of England.
Andreas Capellanus [Capellanus, Andreas] or Andreas Capella [Capella, Andreas]
essayist
Europe
1174 to 1186
Art of Courtly Love [1174 to 1186: essay]
He lived 1140 to 1200. Capellanus means Chaplain. At the Countess' request, he described courtly love and its
speaking and acting rules in Eleanor of Aquitaine's court. Her daughter was Countess Maria of Troyes [1170 to 1174].
Guichard of Lyons
archbishop/architect
Lyon, France
1175 to 1550
St. Jean Cathedral [1175 to 1550: Gothic]
Lyon is Lugdunum or Lyons.
Waldo or Peter Waldes [Waldes, Peter]
missionary/reformer
Lyon, France
1176
He lived ? to 1217, sold all his goods, arranged for his family [1176], began to preach, and started Waldenses, Vaudois,
Valdesii, Vallenses, the Poor, Leonistae, Poor Men of Lyons, Sandaliati, Insabbatati, Sabbatati, or Sabotiers, which
emphasized strict morals and the Bible and opposed Catholic-Church worldliness. They congregated in west Piedmont
in north Italy by 1200 to 1210 and exist now.
Averroës or Ibn Rushd [Rushd, Ibn]
Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain
1180 to 1190
Incoherence of the Incoherence [1180]; Decisive Treatise on the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy [1190]
He lived 1126 to 1198, commented on Aristotle's works, which had just become available in Europe, and developed
non-theological Arabian philosophy {Averroism}, which influenced later European philosophers. People can use
religious truth, and philosophers can use rational truth {double truth, Ibn Rushd}. Only intellect is immortal. Intellect is
impersonal.
Shihab al-Din Yahya Sohravardi [Sohravardi, Shihab al-Din Yahya] or Shihab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash ibn
Amirak Abu'l-Futuh al-Suhrawardi [al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash ibn Amirak Abu'l-Futuh]
or Shihaboddin Yahya [Yahya, Shihaboddin] or al-Maqtul or Slain
philosopher
Aleppo
1180 to 1190
Intimations [1180 to 1190]
He lived 1154 to 1191 and founded Islamic, non-Aristotelian Illuminationist School.
Epistemology
Essential light inside objects and subjects allows perception and knowledge {illumination philosophy} {philosophy of
illumination}.
Universal statements true now can be invalid in the future.
People can know object essence by special faculty {knowledge by presence}.
Sensations and reasons connect in middle world, which allows prophecy and magic {mundus imaginalis}.
Politics
Enlightened politics has rule by people with knowledge, power, and sense of justice.
Afkham Darbandi Farid al-Din Attar [Attar, Afkham Darbandi Farid al-Din]
poet
Persia
1180 to 1200
Book of Saints or Recapitulation of the Saints [1180 to 1200]; Book of Travail [1180 to 1200]; Pand Namah or Book of
Counsel [1180 to 1200]; Book of Secrets [1180 to 1200]; Mantiq al-Tayr or Conference of the Birds or Bird Discourse
or Parliament [1188]; Divan or Collected Poems [1190]
He lived 1145 to 1221. Collective human souls are God or the divine.
Accursius Azo of Bologna [Azo of Bologna, Accursius]
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1180 to 1210
Summary of Codes [1180 to 1210: systematized all law parts]; Distinctions [1180 to 1210: explained law-principle
ramifications]; Lectures on Codes [1180 to 1210]
He lived 1150 to 1230 and was Glossator.
Benedetto Antelami [Antelami, Benedetto]
sculptor
Italy
1180 to 1216
King David [1180 to 1190: Romanesque and classical relief in Fidenza Cathedral]; King David [1210 to 1216:
Romanesque and classical relief in Borgo San Donnino Cathedral]
He lived 1150 to 1230 and was of Parma School.
Philip II or Philip Augustus
king
France
1180 to 1223
He lived 1165 to 1223. Of Capetian Dynasty, he joined Third Crusade to take back Jerusalem [1191] but retreated to
Egypt. He conquered Angevins in west. He increased king's power over nobles, created law court and advisory council,
and warred on England to regain his lands. France became the greatest European power at Bouvines [1214], doubling
kingdom's size. He fought the Albigenses religious sect, which controlled south France. He ended serfdom, built
cathedrals and cities, and presided over prosperity.
Nicholas of Verdun
painter
Austria
1181
Klosterneuburg Abbey Altar [1181: Romanesque and early Gothic engraved and enameled plaques about courtly love]
Sverre
king
Norway
1184 to 1202
He lived 1151 to 1202 and established power over nobles [1201].
Yoritomo or Minamoto Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto] or Minamoto no Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto no]
shogun
Japan
1185 to 1192
He lived 1147 to 1199, led Minamoto clan, and established military government in emperor's name at Kamakura
[1185]. He won the long civil war and became first shogun [1192], by emperor's decree. He set up feudal system.
Mohammad of Ghur or Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad ibn Sam [Muhammad ibn Sam, Mu'izz ad-Din]
king
India
1186 to 1206
He defeated last Ghaznavid and founded Muslim empire in north India.
Bernard of Pavia
lawyer
Rome, Italy
1187 to 1191
Digest of Early Papal Documents or First Ancient Compilation [1187 to 1191]
He wrote about papal decretals from Gregory IX [1150 to 1227] to Clement III [1187 to 1191].
Maestro Mateo
architect
Compostela, Spain
1188 to 1211
Santiago de Compostela Cathedral or Saint James of Compostela Cathedral [1188 to 1211: Romanesque church has
Portico de la Gloria]
Church was north Spain destination for medieval Way of Saint James (Camino de Santiago) pilgrimage. Santiago is
Saint James.
Richard I or Richard the Lionhearted
king
England
1189 to 1199
He lived 1157 to 1199 and fought his father Henry II to gain crown. He went on Third Crusade [1189] and his brother
John became king. Leopold II imprisoned him and then gave him to Henry VI. Ransom released him, and he fought
Philip of France. He returned to England and regained his crown.
Ranulf de Glanville [Glanville, Ranulf de]
judge
London, England
1190
Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England [1190]
He lived ? to 1190, was Chief Justiciar of England under Richard I [1172], and wrote about written appeals {writ,
appeal} to crown courts.
Ma Yuan
painter
China
1190 to 1225
Scholar by a Waterfall [1190 to 1225]
Zen Buddhist lived 1155 to 1235 in Sung Dynasty. He founded Ma-Hsia school of landscape painting, with Hsia Kuei.
Baldwin VI of Hainaut [Hainaut, Baldwin VI of] or Baldwin IX of Flanders
duchy
Flanders
1191 to 1195
He lived 1150 to 1195. The count of Hainaut took Flanders, but Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres remained independent.
Henri de Sully [Sully, Henri de]
archbishop/architect
Bourges, France
1195 to 1220
Cathedral of St. Etienne of Bourges [1195 to 1220: Gothic]
He lived 1103 to 1195 and was archbishop of Bourges [1183 to 1995].
Innocent III
pope
Rome, Italy
1198 to 1216
He lived 1161 to 1216. As pope, he tried to make church supreme over all rulers. He first gave Holy Roman Empire to
Otto IV, then Philip of Swabia, then Otto IV, and then Frederick II. He struggled with Frederick II for power. He put
King John of England under interdict until he submitted and declared Magna Carta invalid. Philip II of France resisted
but then followed divorce law.
Innocent III reorganized papal territories and gained Tuscany but did not get north Italy cities.
He encouraged Fourth Crusade and recognized Latin Empire of Constantinople set up by Fourth Crusade, but Osmanli
Turks helped Byzantines regain Constantinople.
He authorized Franciscan Order, who had mission to the poor, started by Francis of Assisi.
Ottocar I
king
Bohemia
1198 to 1230
He lived ? to 1230, was duke [1197 to 1198], and was king [1198 to 1230].
John I
king
England
1199 to 1215
He lived 1167 to 1216 and became king while Richard I was on Third Crusade. He had Richard held captive abroad.
He lost Brittany to Philip II of France. Barons forced him to sign Magna Carta [1215]. He exiled all Catholic monks.
The pope interdicted and excommunicated all of England. England had war threats. King John became vassal to Pope.
Marie de France [France, Marie de]
poet
France
1200
Lay of the Werewolf [1200: Breton lay]
Perotin or Perotinus
composer
Paris, France
1200
Magnus Liber Organi or Great Book of the Organ [1200: for masses]
He lived 1160 to 1203, was Leonin's student, and worked at Notre Dame Cathedral. He added two more voices
{triplum voice} {quadruplum voice} above chant and renamed descant {duplum voice}.
Liang K'ai
painter
China
1200 to 1210
Sixth Patriarch (Hui Neng) Chopping the Bamboo [1200 to 1210]; Immortal in Splashed Ink [1200 to 1210]
Zen Buddhist lived in Sung Dynasty.
Bieris de Romans [Romans, Bieris de] or Bieiris de Romans [Romans, Bieiris de]
poet
France
1200 to 1220
Na Maria, pretz e fina valors or Na Maria, you are a prize [1200 to 1220]
She was a troubadour.
Shinran
philosopher
Inada, Kanto, Japan
1200 to 1230
Record in Lament of Divergences [1200 to 1230: compiled by his disciple Yuiembo]
He lived 1173 to 1262, was Honen's student, founded Pure-Land sect, and said Amida has all power.
Francis of Assisi
monk
Assisi, Italy
1200 to 1300
Praise of the Creatures [1221 to 1226]; Canticle of Brother Sun [1221 to 1226]; Testament of Saint Francis [1226]
He lived 1182 to 1226, founded Franciscan monastic order, and advocated the simple life. Little Flowers of St. Francis
tell his stories. It is said that he preached to birds and tamed wolf by his gentleness.
Kokkoka
writer
India
1200 to 1300
Mystical Love or Secrets of Love [1200 to 1300: about love and emotions]
Fibonacci or Leonardo of Pisa
mathematician
Pisa, Italy
1202
Book of Calculation [1202]
He lived 1170 to 1250 and invented Fibonacci numbers and studied number theory.
Waldemar II
king
Denmark
1202 to 1241
He lived 1170 to 1241 and ruled north Scandinavia.
Genghis or Jenghiz or Chinghis or Temuchin or Lord Absolute
khan
China
1206 to 1227
He lived 1163 to 1227. He became Mongol king {Great Khan} to begin Mongol Empire. He captured Zhongdu (Peking
or Beijing) and defeated Ch'in Empire of China [1215]. He conquered Transoxania, Turkestan, Afghanistan, south
Russia, and southeast Europe [1227]. He placed conquered peoples in army, used Turkish alphabet for Mongol
language, and used Chinese tax system to collect tribute.
St. Francis or Giovanni Bernardore [Bernardore, Giovanni] or Francesco
monk
Assisi, Italy
1209
He lived 1182 to 1226 and founded Franciscan religious order.
Ritter Eike von Repgow [Repgow, Ritter Eike von]
lawyer
Saxony
1209 to 1233
Mirror of the Saxons [1209 to 1233: north-Germany Saxon law]
German common law was not Saxon but Roman law.
Petrus Collivacinus of Benevento [Collivacinus of Benevento, Petrus]
lawyer
Rome, Italy
1210
Third Compilation [1210]
He wrote about papal decretals from the first twelve years of Innocent III [1198 to 1210].
Gottfried von Strassburg [von Strassburg, Gottfried]
poet
Strasbourg, France
1210
Tristan [1210]
He lived ? to 1210.
John of Wales or Johannes de Walesio [Walesio, Johannes de] or Walensis or Galensis
lawyer
Rome, Italy
1210 to 1216
Third Compilation [1210 to 1216]
He wrote about papal decretals from Clement III and Celestine III [1191 to 1198].
Hsia Kuei or Xia Gui
painter
China
1210 to 1230
Twelve River Views [1210 to 1230]
Zen Buddhist lived 1180 to 1230 in Sung Dynasty. He founded Ma-Hsia school of landscape painting, with Ma Yuan.
Snorri Sturluson [Sturluson, Snorri]
poet
Iceland
1210 to 1240
Heimskringla or Disc of the World [1210 to 1240: about Norway kings from 870 to 1177]; Prose Edda or Younger
Edda [1220: about Scandinavian mythology]
Stephen Langton [Langton, Stephen]
archbishop
Canterbury, England
1215
He lived 1155 to 1228 and led baron and prelate revolt against King John [1215], as Archbishop of Canterbury [1207 to
1228].
Frederick II
emperor
Germany/Austria
1215 to 1250
He lived 1194 to 1250. Of Hohenstaufen Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he became king {anti-king} in opposition to
Otto IV [1210]. He peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem [1228] by treaty. He fought Pope Gregory IX,
Pope Innocent III, and Pope Innocent IV [1239 to 1250] and conquered Italy. His court was in Sicily. Law, currency,
and commerce reforms, and arts and science expansion, made his era the Proto-Renaissance. After he died [1250], the
pope became ruler of Italy.
Dominic or Domingo de Guzmán [Guzmán, Domingo de]
monk
Spain
1216
He lived 1170 to 1221 and founded Dominican monastic order [1216].
Honorarius III
pope
Rome, Italy
1216 to 1227
He lived ? to 1227. As pope, he authorized Dominican order for scholarship and preaching and revised Franciscan
order.
Henry III
king
England
1216 to 1272
Provisions of Oxford [1258]
He lived 1207 to 1272, was John's son, and was king [1227 to 1272]. Regency [1216 to 1227] lost in invasions of
Gascony and Brittany and spent much money. As Plantagenet, he became king [1227]. Barons' War under Simon de
Montfort defeated him at Lewes [1263]. Barons called Parliament but then lost to Edward I.
Haakon IV
king
Norway
1217 to 1263
He lived 1204 to 1263 and reformed legal system and got Iceland and Greenland [1223].
Ivan Asen II
king
Bulgaria
1218 to 1241
Trnovo was capital.
Alexander of Hales
philosopher
France
1220 to 1245
He lived 1178 to 1245, was Scholastic, and taught Bonaventura.
Robert Grosseteste [Grosseteste, Robert]
philosopher
Oxford, England
1220 to 1253
Six Days of Creation [1220 to 1240]; On lines, angles, and figures [1230]
He lived 1175 to 1253, was Bishop of Lincoln [1240 to 1253], was Augustinian, and translated Aristotle.
Robert de Luzarches/Thomas de Cormont/Renaud de Cormont
architect
Amiens, France
1220 to 1269
Amiens Cathedral Notre-Dame [1220 to 1269: Gothic, tallest in France]
Luzarches lived ? to 1223. Thomas de Cormont lived ? to 1228.
Louis IX
king
France
1226 to 1270
He lived 1215 to 1270, was Capetian, stopped invasion by England, stopped warring nobles of France, led Seventh
Crusade to Egypt, was captive at El Mansura [1250], and crusaded against Tunis. He improved taxation, gave right of
appeal to all, streamlined administration, and built Gothic cathedrals. He became Roman Catholic saint.
Honorius III
lawyer
Rome, Italy
1227
Decretals [1227]
He wrote about other papal decretals.
Ogodei
khan
China
1227 to 1241
He was Genghis Khan's son and became khan at his death.
Franciscus Accursius [Accursius, Franciscus] or Francesco Accorso [Accorso, Francesco]
lawyer
Bologna, Italy
1230
Great Gloss [1230: described all Glossator commentaries on Justinian books]
He lived 1182 to 1260, was Azo's student, and was Glossator.
Sumanguru
king
Ghana
1230 to 1235
He lived 1190 to 1255, took Kumbi in Ghana, and then lost to Mali and Malinke under Sundiata Keita [1235]. He was
last Susu or Sosso king of Kante dynasty.
Ibn Arabi or Ibn al-Arabi
mystic
Damascus, Syria
1230 to 1240
Managements or Phases of Wisdom [1230]; Meccan Revelations [1230 to 1240: mystical allegory]; Interpreter of
Desires [1230 to 1240: mystical allegory]
He lived 1164 to 1240 and followed Sufi principles and unity of divine being {pantheism, Arabi}.
Dogen Kigen or Dogen Zenji or Eihei Dogen Zenji [Dogen Zenji, Eihei] or Koso Joyo Daishi [Daishi, Koso Joyo]
philosopher
China/Japan
1231 to 1253
Treasury of the True Dharma Eye [1231 to 1253]
He lived 1200 to 1253, came from China, and started Zen-Buddhism Eiheiji or Soto School. "Enlightenment and
practice are one." All things already have enlightenment. All things have their times.
Tejahapala/Vastupala
architect
Mount Abu, India
1232
Delwara Temple or Dilwara Temple or Luna Vasahi [1232: Jaina temple]
Delwara Temple is in Gujarat. Tejahapala and Vastupala were brothers.
Alexander Nevski [Nevski, Alexander]
grand duke
Russia
1236 to 1263
He lived 1220 to 1263, led Novgorod [1236], and was Grand Prince of Vladimir [1252].
Guillaume de Lorris [Lorris, Guillaume de] or Guillaume de Loris [Loris, Guillaume de]
poet
France
1237
Roman de la Rose or Story of the Rose [1237]
Albertus Magnus or Albert the Great
philosopher
Bollstadt, Germany
1240 to 1270
On plants [1240 to 1270]; Summary of Theology [1240 to 1270]
He lived 1193 to 1280, was Dominican, and taught Aquinas. Church mysteries cannot be rational. Faith depends on
revelation about topics for which philosophy has no answers. Faith and revelation are above reason but not contrary to
reason. Theology and philosophy share same principles, which soul knows.
Molavi or Jalal al-Din Mohammad al-Rumi [al-Rumi, Jalal al-Din Mohammad] or Jalalu'ddin Rumi [Rumi,
Jalalu'ddin] or Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi [Rumi, Mawlana Jalaluddin] or Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi
[Balkhi, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad] or Mawlawi or Mawlana or Mevlana
poet/philosopher
Balkh, Afghanistan/Konya, Turkey
1240 to 1270
Divan Shams Tabrizi or Diwan-e Shams-e Tabriz-i or The Works of Shams of Tabriz [1270: poems]; Spiritual
Couplets or Qur'an-e Farsi or Masnavi-e-Ma'navi or Mathnawi-i-maanawi or Poem of Inner Meaning [1270: poems
totaling 24,000 verses]; Ruba'iyat [1270: poems]; Fihi Ma Fih or Discourses of Rumi [1240 to 1270: Rumi's speeches,
as transcribed by his son Sultan Valad and other disciples]; Majalis-i Sab-a or Sermons [1240 to 1270: lectures]
He lived 1207 to 1273, wrote in Farsi, and was Sufi. His father was Bahauddin Walad, professor who wrote Maarif, or
mystic visions. Sayyid Burhaneddin, his father's friend and from Balkh, taught him after his father died, when he was
24 through 33. Rumi became Sufi-community sheikh at Konya. At age 37, he met Shams of Tabriz, Iran, mystic, who
left after two days but was brought back and then disappeared. EPISTEMOLOGY: Knowledge of objective truth, or
God, develops through love and self-knowledge. Physical and emotional stimuli prevent people from higher
perceptions. Addiction to vice or virtue is idolatry and prevents higher perception {veiling}. Teaching people to hate
evil and to covet sanctity teaches hatred and covetousness, not goodness or holiness. Conventional religious systems
are secondary, imitative, and limited. However, teacher can help people reach higher perceptions, because ordinary
people cannot evaluate the mystical masters. Sufi knowledge involves escaping from familiar dimensions.
Innocent IV
pope
Lyon, France
1243 to 1254
He lived 1195 to 1254. As pope, he deposed Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire at synod. He led fourth Lateran
Council [1251] on church laws.
Thomas Aquinas [Aquinas, Thomas]
theologian
Cologne, Germany/Rome, Italy
1243 to 1273
Commentaries on the Theological "Sentences" of Peter Lombard [1243]; Summation against Gentiles [1264]; Summary
of Theology [1273: in two parts, Prima Pars about God as First Cause and Secunda Pars about ethics and people's
relations to God. The second part has Prima Secundae about people's purpose and Secunda Secundae about moral
choices]
He lived 1224 to 1274, was Dominican and Aristotelian, and unified Catholic dogma with Aristotle's ideas and logic
{Thomism}.
Epistemology
Faith and reason are not contradictory. Both can gain knowledge.
Forms present in someone's mind are concepts and differ from forms present in external things. People can link objects
to mind concepts, to make rational judgments. Concepts that exist in mind are true. People can know essences and
concepts are universals. Falsity applies only to poor correspondence between thing and mental representation.
Physical organs or organisms have no self-conscious awareness and cannot form or use concepts.
External objects produce sense impressions {phantasm, Aquinas}, in body, that refer to non-perceptual entity {common
sense, Aquinas}, which stores and combines sense impressions {cogitative power} to make object-characteristic
concepts {image, Aquinas}. Soul becomes conscious of image presence. Memory stores object mental concepts and
uses them for sensory recognition. Mind does not know objects, only object mental concepts.
Understanding involves abstracting intelligible essence or form from sensory impression {agent intellect}. Human
mind builds from constituent forms of objects that caused sensory impressions. There are no innate ideas. Mind's
thoughts and wills are about things, which have intelligible forms or essences.
Animal instincts apprehend things and events as beneficial or harmful.
People can know God through reason, revelation, and intuition. Revealed theology explains doctrines of Trinity,
Incarnation, and Last Judgment, which people must accept by faith. Natural theology explains existence of God and
soul's immortality, which reason can prove.
Ethics
People can freely have intentions, deliberate, act, and make choices, though God knows past, present, and future. God
knows all but is outside time, allowing people free will. Will is power to strive towards the rationally good or desirable
and requires intellect to determine the good and desirable. All things are attractive in some respects and unattractive in
others, so wills can choose freely among all things.
God created people, and their reason and purpose for being is to return to God. People have other purposes in accord
with God's purposes and with natural law.
People must act to gain happiness, though they do not necessarily know what to do. Pursuit of wisdom is the best life
course, because wisdom is knowledge of universe purposes, which are the good and the true.
People should contemplate God without will or desire. Happiness is contemplating God.
Secondary causes cause evil, which is unintentional. Evil-act initiating causes are always good. Evil is not an essence.
Prayer is good, but fate is inevitable.
Divine law is to love God and people.
Metaphysics
Because traversals require beginning points and endpoints, traversal of the infinite cannot happen, and universe began a
finite time ago.
Universals are real and manifest themselves in individual objects, which are quantitative and exist in space and time.
Individuals thus participate in higher reality but are separate from it. Same-species individuals have same essence.
Five ways can prove God's existence by arguing from effect back to cause: prime mover, first cause, supreme being,
perfection or highest good, and highest purpose.
However, because people cannot know God's essence, except by analogy with people's essences and thoughts, one
cannot argue from cause to effect.
God's knowledge is what creates things. All things that exist, in world or mind, are true. The reason that anything exists
is that necessary being, which cannot not exist, exists.
Because God has no parts, God's essence and existence are the same. God has no qualities and is indefinable. God is
eternal, unchanging, immaterial, pure activity, good, intellectual, and Truth itself.
God knows all things, but some ideas do not actually exist. God knows singular and particular things, not-yet-existing
things, all time, all infinities, all wills, all minds, all evil, and all good. God knows singular and particular things
because God is their cause. God knows not-yet-existing things because God is their creator. God knows all time as if it
is present time. God knows all good because evil is opposite of good.
God has will that is pure-activity essence. God is object of God's will. God wills universe by reason but without causes
or purposes except God, so God can perform miracles but cannot will contradictions. God's will depends only on itself
and so is free. God wills Good because God is good and the only good. God acts rationally, so people can know the
good through reason.
God cannot sin, change past, make another God, stop itself from existing, or fail. God cannot be body, tire, forget,
repent, be sad, or be angry. God has no hate. God is happy. God is its own happiness.
Mind
Living things have souls, which are their essences {substantial form}, but only human beings have spiritual soul. Body
has nutrition, growth, and reproduction from one essence {vegetative principle}. Body has sense activity and
locomotion from another essence {sensitive principle}. Body has reason and will from a third essence {intellectual
principle}.
Spiritual soul connects material and spiritual. Spiritual soul is lowest form with pure intelligence and highest form that
can form matter and that realizes in matter. Spiritual soul permeates body and is immaterial, unchangeable, and
immortal. Human intellect is in spiritual soul. Spiritual souls are individual, and God creates them at conception.
Because soul is purely spiritual, it comes directly out of nothing.
Law
Laws come from God through natural law of morality and society. Natural law does not apply to property. Law must
contribute to public good.
Politics
States contribute to God's plan, preparing for the community of believers after the redemption. States are subordinate to
church, because states exist to help people reach virtue. Rulers have duties, with no natural right to rule.
Mu-Ch'i or Fa-Ch'ang
painter
China
1245 to 1270
Kwan-Yin triptych [1245: with Crane and Monkey]; Six Persimmons [1270]
Zen Buddhist lived 1200 to 1274 in Sung Dynasty.
John I of Avesnes
count
Holland/Belgium/Luxembourg
1246 to 1257
He lived 1218 to 1257 and ruled Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg as count of Hainaut.
Bonaventura or Bonaventure of Bagnoregio
philosopher
Paris, France
1250 to 1270
Mind's Way to God [1250 to 1270]; Vision of the Poverello in the Desert of Mt. Alverna [1250 to 1270];
Commentaries on the Sentences in Four Books [1250 to 1270]; On the Mystery of the Trinity [1250 to 1270]
He lived 1221 to 1274 and was Scholastic and Franciscan. He became Roman Catholic saint.
Peter of Spain or Petrus Hispanus Portugalensis [Portugalensis, Petrus Hispanus]
philosopher
Spain
1250 to 1270
Summary of Logic [1250 to 1270]
He lived 1215 to 1277 and became Pope John XXI. *Negation can apply to sentences with quantities. NOT every a is
b, so Every a is NOT b {equipollence, Peter of Spain}. Different propositions have contexts that determine term
references {supposition theory, Peter of Spain}.
Baybars al-Bunduqdari
sultan
Egypt
1250 to 1277
He lived 1223 to 1277, was Turkish slave, and started Mameluke dynasty [1250 to 1517].
Sturla Thordarson [Thordarson, Sturla]
poet
Iceland
1250 to 1280
Islendinga Saga [1250 to 1280: part of Sturlunga Saga]
He lived 1214 to 1284 and was nephew of Snorri Sturluson.
Ottocar II
king
Bohemia/Austria
1253 to 1278
He lived 1230 to 1278, was Premysl, was King of Bohemia [1253 to 1278], and was Duke of Austria [1253 to 1276].
As King of Bohemia, he took Austria from Brandenbergs of Saxony [1251].
Premysl or Otakar II or Ottokar II or Premysl Otakar [Otakar, Premysl]
duke
Bohemia
1253 to 1278
He lived 1230 to 1278 and was king of Bohemia [1253 to 1278]. Premysls or Przemysls were under Holy Roman
Empire, ruled Bohemia, and acquired Silesia and Moravia.
Alfonso X or Alfonso the Wise or Alfonso el Sabio
king
Castile/Leon
1255
Songs to the Virgin Mary [1252 to 1284: songs]; Royal Lawbook [1255: local laws and information about Roman laws]
He lived 1221 to 1284 and was king of Castile and Leon [1252 to 1284].
Saadi or Mosleh al-Din Saadi Shirazi [Saadi Shirazi, Mosleh al-Din]
poet
Persia
1257 to 1270
Bustan or Scented Garden or Orchard [1257]; Golestan or Rose Garden [1270]
He lived 1210 to 1290 and was Sufi.
Nicola Pisano [Pisano, Nicola]
sculptor
Pisa, Italy
1258 to 1278
Marble Pulpit of the Baptistry of Pisa [1258 to 1278: Gothic and classical style]
Jacopo de Voragine [Voragine, Jacopo de] or Jacobus de Voragine [Voragine, Jacobus de]
Rome, Italy
1260 to 1275
Golden Legend [1260 to 1275]
He lived 1229 to 1298 and wrote about saints.
Siger of Brabant or Sigerus or Sighier or Sigieri or Sygerius
philosopher
Brabant, Netherlands
1260 to 1277
On the soul [1260 to 1277]; On animal intellect [1260 to 1277]; On the eternity of the world [1260 to 1277]
He lived 1240 to 1281 and led Latin Averroism.
Kublai or Khubilai
khan
China
1260 to 1294
He lived 1215 to 1294. Nobles elected him Great Khan [1260]. He defeated Sung Dynasty [1279] and founded Yuan
Dynasty in China. He failed to conquer Japan, Indonesia, and southeast Asia.
Michael VIII
emperor
1261 to 1282
He lived 1225 to 1282, reunited Byzantine Empire as states of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus, and started Palaeologan
Dynasty [1261 to 1453].
Charles I or Stephen d'Anjou
king
Naples, Italy
1262 to 1285
He lived 1226 to 1285, was king of Sicily [1262 to 1282] and king of Naples [1282 to 1285], was of Angevin family,
and led Guelphs to control of Italy by beating Ghibellines under Manfred [1266]. Sicilian Vespers revolt [1282],
instigated by Peter III of Aragon, ended his rule in Silicy.
Magnus VI
king
Norway
1263 to 1280
He lived 1238 to 1280 and settled with Scotland [1266] and codified law [1274].
Athir al-Din Abhari [Abhari, Athir al-Din]
philosopher
Zanjan, Persia
1264
Commentary on the Isagoge [1264]
He lived 1200 to 1265 and was of Arabian philosophy.
Roger Bacon [Bacon, Roger]
philosopher
England
1267
Opus Major [1267]; Opus Minor [1267]; Opus Tertium or Third Work [1267]
He lived 1220 to 1292, opposed dogma, and was alchemist, natural scientist, and Franciscan. Science and faith are
complementary. Visual perception depends on images {species, image} {image, species} that come from object
through medium to eye.
Henri de Bracton [Bracton, Henri de]
lawyer
London, England
1268
On English Laws [1268: standardized English law for next 200 years]
He lived 1210 to 1268 and relied on common-law precedents. He said that people can petition king, who must act
justly.
Philip III
king
France
1270 to 1285
He lived 1245 to 1285 and was of Capetian Dynasty.
George Pachymeres [Pachymeres, George]
philosopher
Byzantium
1270 to 1300
Commentary on Boethius's De Differentiis Topicis [1270 to 1300]; Paraphrase of All of Dionysius Areopagitae [1270
to 1300]
Giles of Rome
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1270 to 1302
Errors of the Philosophers [1270]; On Ecclesiastical Power [1302]
He lived 1247 to 1316 and was Scholastic and Augustinian.
Madhvacharya or Madhavacharya or Madhvacarya
philosopher
India
1270 to 1317
He lived 1238 to 1317, was dualist during the Bhakti movement, tried to refute Carvaka philosophy, and started
Vedanta Tattvavada, True Philosophy, Advaita, Dvaita, or Dualist School.
He said that Vedanta, including Upanishads, Bhagavadgita, and Brahmasutras, revealed that individual self {atman}
and ultimate reality {brahman} differ, rather than being the same {non-dualist}. Independent reality {svatantra} is
Brahman, and dependent reality {paratantra} is souls {jivas} and objects {jada}. He said this was realistic based on
people's perceptions {tattvavada}. God is not the world and is not self. The self is the same as other selves and is not
the same as object. All objects differ and are not God or the Self.
Marco Polo
explorer/historian/biographer
Venice, Italy/China
1271 to 1295
Travels of Marco Polo [1295]
Marco Polo lived 1251 to 1324. Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, two brothers from Venice, went to China [1271 to 1274]
with Niccolo's son Marco, through Palestine, Persia, central Asia, and across Gobi desert in Mongolia. He visited
Kublai Khan at Cambuluc [1275]. The Polos returned to Venice [1295].
Nasir-Eddin or Nasireddin or Nasir Tusi [Tusi, Nasir] or Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi [al-Tusi, Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din] or Nasir alDin al-Tusi [al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din]
mathematician
Alamut, Persia
1272
Ilkhanic Tables [1272]
He lived 1201 to 1274 and used tangent and secant. He invented devices to resolve linear motion into sum of two
circular motions {Tusi-couple, Nasir-Eddin}.
Edward I or English Justinian
king/lawmaker
England
1272 to 1307
Statute of Mortmain [1279: king controlled church land acquisitions]; Hundred Rolls [1279 to 1280: great landholders
had to prove title to land]; First and Second Statutes of Westminster [1285 and 1290: codified statutes of England]
He lived 1239 to 1307, was king [1272 to 1307], won Baron's War for his father, conquered Wales [1282 to 1284], and
fought Scotland.
He reformed laws. He reduced private and church courts and limited Church courts to church matters, in Circumspecte
Agatis. He permitted attachments of feudal lands by merchants, in Statute of Merchants. He issued Statute of Mortmain
decree, which prohibited land transfer to Church without king's consent [1300].
He reproclaimed Magna Charta. He formed Model Parliament [1295] of barons, clergy, and merchants and promised
no taxes without its consent. Parliament had two knights from every shire and two burgesses from every town. He
granted Parliament right to present petitions to king.
He defeated Scottish armies and ruled Scotland directly [1296 to 1307] but died in 1307.
Near end of his reign, judicial scandal caused court reform, and thereafter judges were people trained in law, not
churchmen or courtiers.
Rudolf I
emperor
Austria
1273 to 1291
He lived 1218 to 1291. As duke of Austria, he became emperor and started Hapsburg dynasty. He was friendly with the
pope and tried to check the robber barons. He defeated Ottocar II of Bohemia, gained Austria, and united Germany.
Jean de Meun [Meun, Jean de] or Jean de Meung [Meung, Jean de]
poet
France
1275
Roman de la Rose or Story of the Rose [1275]
He lived 1240 to 1305 and wrote satires.
al-Qazwini al-Katibi [al-Katibi, al-Qazwini] or Dabiran
philosopher
1276
Sun Treatise [1276]
He lived ? to 1276 and was of Shaf'i school of Arabian philosophy. He discussed logic, inheritance laws, and art of
debate {munazara}.
Henry of Ghent or Henricus de Gandavo [Gandavo, Henricus de] or Doctor Solemnis
philosopher
Belgium
1277 to 1293
Various Questions [1277 to 1293]; Summary of Theology [1277 to 1293]
He lived 1250 to 1293 and was Platonist, Augustinian, Avicennian, and Aristotelian.
Diniz or Dinis or Denis of Portugal
king
Portugal
1279 to 1325
He lived 1261 to 1325 and fought Knights Templar, founded university, and helped farmers.
Giovanni Cimabue [Cimabue, Giovanni]
painter
Assisi, Italy
1280
Crucifixion [1280: in church of St. Francis of Assisi]; St. Francis [1280: in church of St. Francis of Assisi]; Madonna
Enthroned and Child [1280: in church of St. Francis of Assisi]
Moses de Léon
mystic
Avila, Spain
1280 to 1286
Book of Splendor [1280 to 1286: supposedly based on writings of Shimon Bar Yohai, Akiva's student]
He lived 1240 to 1305 and was Jewish mystic.
Philip IV
king
France
1285 to 1314
He lived 1268 to 1314. Of Capetian Dynasty, he tried to extend clergy taxation and stop gold export, which angered
Pope Boniface VIII. He arrested Bishop Saisset for rebellion, called first States-General, and captured the pope. He had
Pope Clement V elected and moved him to Avignon, France. He got money by confiscating wealth of bankers in
Lombardy, Jews in France, and Knights Templar. He lost at Guienne to Edward I of England and failed to control
Flanders in Battle of the Spurs.
John Duns Scotus [Duns Scotus, John] or Doctor Subtilis
philosopher
Scotland/Oxford, England
1290 to 1300
Opus Oxoniense or Oxford Work [1290 to 1300]; Understanding and Experience [1290 to 1300]; Questions on the
Metaphysics of Aristotle [1290 to 1300]
He lived 1266 to 1308, was Scholastic and Franciscan, and developed Augustine's ideas in psychology {Scotism}.
Epistemology
Concepts develop from nature observation. Such concepts also apply to God. Evidence types are objects and event
experiences, bodily actions, and principles, all of which people know directly. The first ideas and perceptions are
confused and imperfect. Will makes some clear and perfect. Ideas that wills do not understand die out. In this way,
wills control intellect.
Philosophy is for material world and is theoretical. Theology is for practical life and is spiritual. Only revelation gives
truth.
Metaphysics
Individual objects and properties are distinct.
God is the efficient cause that keeps universe in being and keeps it from nothingness.
Mind
Will is independent of reason. The intelligent and immaterial soul links to material body by the life-force, which is the
Form for body.
Theology
God impregnated Jesus's mother (Immaculate Conception).
Amir Khusrau [Khusrau, Amir] or Abul Hasan Yaminuddin Khusro [Khusro, Abul Hasan Yaminuddin] or
Amir Khusro Dehlavi [Dehlavi, Amir Khusro]
poet
Delhi, India
1290 to 1310
Khamsa or Amulet [1290 to 1310]
He lived 1253 to 1325 and wrote masnavi.
Giotto or Ambrogio Bondone [Bondone, Ambrogio]
painter
Padua, Italy/Florence, Italy
1290 to 1313
St. Francis of Assisi [1290 to 1300: frescoes]; Arena Chapel Murals [1305 to 1313: Byzantine and Gothic frescoes
about life of Christ are in Padua]; Lamentation [1305 to 1313: in Arena Chapel]; Noli me Tangere or Do Not Touch Me
[1305 to 1313: in Arena Chapel]; Wedding Procession [1305: in Arena Chapel]; Marriage at Cana [1305 to 1313: in
Arena Chapel]; Madonna Enthroned [1305 to 1313: in Arena Chapel]; Christ Entering Jerusalem [1305 to 1313: in
Arena Chapel]; Life of the Virgin [1303 to 1313: frescoes in Arena Chapel]; Santa Croce Frescoes or Holy Cross
Frescoes [1310: in Florence]
He lived 1267 to 1337, used linear perspective, and painted with tempera.
Johannes Eckhart von Hochheim [Eckhart von Hochheim, Johannes]
philosopher
Germany/Paris, France
1290 to 1320
Sermons [1290 to 1320]; Unutterable Things or Indescribable Things [1290 to 1320]
He lived 1260 to 1337 and based his Mysticism on ideas of Realism.
Metaphysics
Being and Knowledge are the same. God is beyond being and knowledge. God has three parts: generating essence,
creation itself, and part beyond all things and creating. God creates by expressing Ideas in itself, out of nothing. God
does not create by will, because will is in time.
Mind
Soul is like the part of God beyond creating and essence and is timeless. Body is in time. Human mind approaches God
by reducing plurality to unity. Soul then reaches purity, withdraws from world, and ceases to be self.
Dante Alighieri
poet
Florence, Italy
1292 to 1321
New Life [1292: poem about love]; De Vulgari Eloquentia or Of Vulgar Eloquence [1300: essay]; Divine Comedy
[1319 to 1321: poem trilogy dedicated to Beatrice]; Inferno [1319: Divine Comedy first poem]; Purgatorio [1319:
Divine Comedy second poem]; Paradiso [1321: Divine Comedy third poem]
He lived 1265 to 1321, was White Guelf, and wrote Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and European language studies.
Boniface VIII
pope
Rome, Italy
1294 to 1303
He lived 1235 to 1303. As pope, he struggled with Philip IV of France over taxes and interfered in Florence.
Wang Shifu
writer
China
1295 to 1307
Romance of the Western Chamber or Story of the Western Wing or Hsi Hsiang Chi [1295 to 1307]
Giovanni Pisano [Pisano, Giovanni]
sculptor
Pisa, Italy/Pistoia, Italy
1297 to 1310
San Andrea Pulpit [1297 to 1301: Early Gothic marble sculpture in San Andrea Cathedral in Pistoia]; Pisa Pulpit [1302
to 1310: Early Gothic marble sculpture in Pisa Cathedral]
Arnolfo di Cambio [Cambio, Arnolfo di]
architect
Florence, Italy
1298
Palazzo della Signoria or Palazzo Vecchio or Vecchio Palace [1298: fortress-like Gothic palace with high square tower]
He lived 1245 to 1302. It was Piazza della Signoria or Leaders' Plaza. Signoria were leaders of Florence.
Osman I or Othman I
emperor
Turkey
1299 to 1326
He lived 1259 to 1326 and started Osmanli or Ottoman principality {beg} in northeast Turkey. He began Islamic law
and government. As leader of Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks, he founded Ottoman Empire by taking Bursa [1317 to
1326], capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, using artillery. Bursa became Ottoman capital.
Muso Kokushi [Kokushi, Muso] or Muso Soseki [Soseki, Muso]
painter
Japan
1300 to 1350
gardens [1300 to 1350]; Dream Conversations [1300 to 1350: book]
Zen Buddhist lived 1275 to 1351 and used fine brush style {sumi style, Kokushi}. He designed gardens.
Clement V
pope
Avignon, France
1305 to 1314
He lived 1264 to 1314. As pope, he dissolved Knights Templar and formulated canon law. Philip IV of France
controlled him.
Edward II
king
England
1307 to 1327
Duccio di Buoninsegna
painter
Italy
1308 to 1311
Maesta Altar [1308 to 1311: back is Byzantine and Gothic]; Jesus Opens the Eyes of a Man Born Blind [1311]
John of Luxembourg
king
Bohemia
1310 to 1346
He lived 1310 to 1346, became Bohemia king, and became overlord of Silesia dukes [1335].
Mansa Musa [Musa, Mansa]
king
Mali
1312 to 1337
He lived 1280 to 1337, was Muslim, and had a tolerant legal system.
Robert Bruce [Bruce, Robert]
king
Scotland
1314 to 1329
He lived 1274 to 1329, defeated English at Bannockburn in central Scotland [1314], and became king of Scotland.
Louis IV or Ludwig the Bavarian
king
Bavaria
1314 to 1347
He lived 1282 to 1347 and defeated Frederick the Fair at Muhlberg [1322]. He struggled against Pope Clement VII.
Magnus VII or Magnus Ericsson
king
Norway/Sweden
1319 to 1363
He lived 1316 to 1377. Nobles elected him king. He united Sweden [1319 to 1363] and Norway [1319 to 1343] and
allied with Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, but Hanseatic League defeated him. His son was Haakon VI. Albert of
Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and Haakon VI.
Gersonides or Levi ben Gershon [Gershon, Levi ben] or Ralbag
philosopher
Spain/Avignon, France
1320 to 1340
Wars of the Lord [1320 to 1340]
He lived 1288 to 1344 and developed Jewish philosophy.
Philippe de Vitry [Vitry, Philippe de]
composer
Meaux, France
1320 to 1350
Ars Nova or New Art [1320 to 1350: book]
Bishop of Meaux lived 1291 to 1361 and developed four prolation time signatures.
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlug [Tughlug, Ghiyas-ud-din] or Ghiyasuddin Tughluk [Tughluk, Ghiyasuddin]
sultan
India
1321 to 1325
Nobles elected Tughlug, Turkish general, sultan, and he founded Tughluq dynasty. His son Mohammed murdered him.
Mohammed bin Tughluq
sultan
India
1325 to 1351
He killed his father and expanded Tughluq Empire, but he caused provincial revolts.
Waldemar III
king
Denmark
1326 to 1329
He lived 1314 to 1364 and was Duke of Schleswig [1330 to 1364].
William of Occam or William Ockham
philosopher
London, England
1327
Summary of Logic [1327]
He lived 1285 to 1349, was Franciscan and nominalist, studied legal and property rights, and argued with Pope John
XXII. He opposed William of Sherwood, Peter of Spain, and Walter Burleigh. He developed syllogisms with
inferences, worked on modal logic, and studied logic of terms {supposition theory, Occam}.
Epistemology
Logic concepts are about meaning, not about mental states, and are natural objects or idea signs. Words are signs used
by convention. Words have two uses: one is to represent object and the other is to have meaning. Rational soul knows
immaterial world. Sensitive soul perceives material world. Sense knowledge is an object sign and is sensitive-soul state
or action. Sensations do not involve copying objects. Cause's powers, not God's will, cause causation, so he opposed
Henry of Ghent. People should use as few concepts as necessary to explain idea {Ockham's razor, Occam}.
Ethics
Divine will is obligatory for all actions.
Law
Right is freedom and ability to act. Command or contract can make law.
Brother Ugolino [Ugolino, Brother]
writer
Naples, Italy
1327 to 1342
Little Flowers of St. Francis or Fioretti [1327 to 1342: Latin original]
He lived 1262 to 1348. He wrote original Latin version, which is lost. Somebody wrote the Italian version in Tuscany
[1400]. Stories about Francis of Assisi say he preached to birds and tamed wolf by his gentleness.
Thomas Bradwardine [Bradwardine, Thomas]
philosopher
London, England
1328 to 1344
Treatise on the Continuum [1328 to 1335]; Treatise on the Proportion [1328]; On speculative arithmetic [1328 to
1344]; On speculative geometry [1328 to 1344]; On God's cause against Pelagius and the causes of virtue [1344]
He lived 1290 to 1349 and was against Pelagians, who believed that people's will was morally correct.
Philip VI
king
France
1328 to 1346
He lived 1293 to 1350, deposed Capetian kings of France, and became first Valois king by Salic law. He got control of
Flanders, began Hundred Years War, and ended its first phase with his defeat at Crecy.
Andrea Pisano [Pisano, Andrea]
sculptor
Florence, Italy
1330 to 1336
South Door of the Florence Baptistry [1330 to 1336]
Guillaume de Machaut [Machaut, Guillaume de]
composer
France
1330 to 1346
He lived 1300 to 1346 and developed minstrels.
Johann Tauler [Tauler, Johann]
philosopher
Constance, Germany
1330 to 1350
Sermons for Festivals or Inner Way [1330 to 1350]
He lived 1300 to 1361 and was mystic.
Heinrich Seuse [Seuse, Heinrich] or Henry Suso [Suso, Henry]
philosopher
Constance, Germany
1330 to 1360
Clock of Wisdom [1330 to 1360]
Edward III
king
England
1330 to 1377
He lived 1327 to 1377 and was king [1327 to 1377]. He gained power [1330] but failed to subdue Scotland. He entered
Hundred Years War [1337 to 1359] with his son Edward the Black Prince, which ended with Treaty of London. He had
money troubles with Parliament. He caused economic crash by defaulting on payments to Bardi and Peruzzi families of
Florence [1339]. Through his mother, he claimed he was king of France. He agreed to get consent of Parliament for all
laws [1350]. Statute of Laborers [1351] tried to make all work have wage ceiling and set fixed prices. Wat Taylor
rebellion was series of revolts against it. Finally, king ended Statute and promised end to serfdom. He saw Black Death
cause demands for social change. He had trouble with church and John Wyclif. He ended Brehon Laws of Ireland. He
appointed judges {Justices of the Peace} to preside over national courts in shires [1361]. The Good Parliament [1376]
elected Speaker to represent Commons and spoke against high taxes.
Stephen Dushan [Dushan, Stephen] or Stefan Dusan [Dusan, Stefan]
king
Serbia
1331 to 1355
He lived 1308 to 1355, took Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Thessaly from Byzantine Empire, controlled Montenegro, and
attacked Constantinople.
Vidyaraya or Madhavacarya or Madhava Vidyaranya
minister
Mysore, Karnataka, India
1331 to 1380
Compendium of Speculations [1380: written in Telugu]; Five Servants [1380: Advaita]
He lived 1268 to 1380, headed [1331] Smarta Order, and was minister for King Bukka of Vijayanagara Empire.
Sankaracharya founded the Smarta Order. The sixteen philosophy systems are in order of knowledge: Carvaka,
Buddha, Arhata or Jaina, purna-prajna, Nakulisa-Pasupata, Saiva, Pratyabhijna, Rasesvara, Vaiseshika or Aulukya,
Akshapada or Nyaya, Jaiminiya, Paniniya, Sankhya, Patanjala or Yoga, Vedanta or System of Sankaracharya, and
Advaita Vedanta or System of Sankara.
Nicholas of Autrecourt
philosopher
Autrecourt, France
1335 to 1347
Universal Treatise [1335]; Could the vision of any natural thing be naturally intensified? [1336 to 1339]
He lived 1300 to 1369, was Terminist, and commented on Sentences of Abelard. The church condemned him [1347].
Because cause and effect differ and do not relate, effect must transform cause.
Richard II
king
England
1337 to 1399
He lived 1312 to 1400, defeated peasants after revolt, and had to deal with barons under Earl of Gloucester. He married
Charles IV of France's daughter [1396]. He banished his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke for accusing Duke of Norfolk of
treason. Later, Henry of Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV, forced him to abdicate.
Petrarch or Francesco Petrarcha [Petrarcha, Francesco]
poet
Arezzo, Tuscany/France
1340 to 1372
Trionfi or Triumphs [1340: poem]; Canzoniere or Songbook [1340: Petrarchan sonnets]; On Remedies for Fortune, Fair
and Foul [1365: essay]; On His Own Ignorance [1372: essay]
He lived 1304 to 1374, was Stoic, had ethics based on emotion, and wrote language studies.
Waldemar IV
king
Denmark
1340 to 1375
He lived 1320 to 1375 and fought Hanseatic League but lost. He reunited Denmark and allied with Magnus VII, king of
Norway and Sweden, but he lost to Hanseatic League. He took Norway by beating Albert of Mecklenburg, Swedish
king.
Gregory of Rimini
philosopher
Rimini, Italy
1342
Commentary on the Sentences of Peter of Lombard [1342]
He lived 1300 to 1358 and was Sententiary or Summist.
Pietro Lorenzetti [Lorenzetti, Pietro]
painter
Italy
1342
Birth of the Virgin [1342: Byzantine and Gothic]
Marsiglio or Marsilius of Padua
philosopher
Padua, Italy
1342
Defender of the Peace [1324]
He lived 1280 to 1342 and was Terminist. He argued in favor of city-states, against factions and pope.
Louis I or Louis the Great
king
Hungary
1342 to 1382
He lived 1326 to 1382, got Dalmatia, defeated Ottoman Empire, mastered nearby lands, and ruled Poland [1370 to
1382], displacing Piasts.
Taddeo Gaddi [Gaddi, Taddeo]
architect
Florence, Italy
1345
Ponte Vecchio or Vecchio Bridge [1345: bridge]
He lived 1300 to 1366 [rebuilt 1564].
Jean Buridan [Buridan, Jean]
philosopher
Paris, France
1345 to 1360
Sophisms on Meaning and Truth [1345 to 1350]; Summaries of Dialectics [1345 to 1350]
He lived 1295 to 1360, was Terminist, invented theory of consequences, and studied syllogisms, inertia, and impetus.
Epistemology
Hungry donkey is between two haystacks that appear identical but starves because it cannot decide rationally which
one to eat first {Buridan's ass}. Different propositions can have different contexts for same terms, and this affects term
references {supposition theory}. Sentence inferences depend on suppositions. Supposition {personal supposition} can
be about number of term or object, such as just one {discrete supposition} or at least one {determinate supposition}.
Determinate supposition can be All or Some. Suppositions {material supposition} can be about speech or writing.
Suppositions {formal supposition} can be about universals or ideas.
Giovanni Boccaccio [Boccaccio, Giovanni]
poet/storyteller
Florence, Italy
1348 to 1353
Decameron [1348 to 1353: stories]
Bartolus de Saxoferrato
lawyer
Perugia, Italy
1350
Theory of Statutes [1350: general law rules that reconciled conflicting legal systems]
He lived 1313 to 1357 and was Commentator. Laws of place in which action happened govern actions {territoriality,
Bartolus de Saxoferrato}.
Hafez or Hafiz or Khajeh Shamseddin Mohammad Hafiz-e Shirazi [Shirazi, Khajeh Shamseddin Mohammad
Hafiz-e]
poet
Persia
1350 to 1370
Divan-e Hafiz or Divan Ghazaliat or Collected Poems [1350 to 1370]
Sayana
philosopher
Vijayanagara, Karnataka, India
1350 to 1370
Spiritual Theological Dictionary of Sayana [1350 to 1370: commentary on Rig-veda]
He lived 1315 to 1387 and was court minister.
Firoz Shah [Firoz, Shah] or Shah Firoz
sultan
India
1351 to 1388
He lived 1310 to 1388 and ruled Tughluq Empire [1351 to 1388].
Yi Song-gye or T'aejo
general
Korea
1354 to 1358
He lived 1335 to 1408, revolted against Mongols, and returned Korea to Koryo dynasty of China [1354]. He ended
Koryo dynasty [1392] and founded Yi dynasty or Choson dynasty [1392 to 1910]. Capital was at Kyon-Song (Seoul).
Charles IV
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1355 to 1378
He lived 1316 to 1378, was king of Germany and Bohemia [1346 to 1378], and wrote Golden Bull [1356], which lasted
until 1806. It established seven prince-electors as diet legislative upper house. They elected emperor. Brandenburg,
Bohemia, and Saxony were the important electors. Other princes were in diet middle house. City representatives were
in diet lower assembly.
Edward the Black Prince
prince
France
1356
He lived 1330 to 1376 and defeated France at Poitiers [1356] and captured the French king, John II.
Luo Guanzhong or Lo Kuan-chung
novelist
China
1360
Romance of the Three Kingdoms [1360: about war adventures]
Petrus Baldus de Ubaldis [Baldus de Ubaldis, Petrus]
lawyer
Perugia, Italy
1360 to 1390
Commentary on the Book of Fees [1360 to 1390]
He lived 1327 to 1406, was of the Baldeschi, and was Commentator.
Francesco Landini [Landini, Francesco]
composer
Italy
1360 to 1397
Landini cadence
He lived 1330 to 1397, wrote madrigals, ballato, and cacia, and began the Landini cadence.
Charles V or Charles the Wise
king
France
1364 to 1380
He lived 1338 to 1380 and put down Jacquerie Revolt of peasants against nobles and army. He gave rights to assembly
{States-General} but revoked those rights to stop the power of Étienne Marcel and Charles the Bad. He appointed Du
Guesclin as constable of France, who drove England out of France [1734]. He increased taxes and developed standing
army. He favored learning under his ministers, Marmousets.
William Langland [Langland, William]
novelist
England
1365
Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman [1365]
Simone da Orsenigo [Orsenigo, Simone da]/Nicola di Bonaventura [Bonaventura, Nicola di]/Giovannino de'
Grassi [Grassi, Giovannino de']/Giacomo da Campione [Campione, Giacomo da]/Filippino degli Ugoni [Ugoni,
Filippino degli]/Giovanni Solari [Solari, Giovanni]/Guinforte Solari [Solari, Guinforte]/Pier Antonio Solari
[Solari, Pier Antonio]/Giovanni Antonio Amadeo [Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio]/Pellegrino Pellegrini [Pellegrini,
Pellegrino] or Tibaldi
architect
Milan, Italy
1366 to 1485
Milan Cathedral [1366 to 1485: French Gothic]
Guinforte Solari lived 1465 to 1481. Amadeo lived 1447 to 1522. Pellegrini lived 1527 to 1596.
Ferdinand I
king
Portugal
1367 to 1383
He lived 1345 to 1383 and fought Castile [1369].
Tamerlane or Timur Leng [Leng, Timur] or Timur Lang [Lang, Timur] or Timur the Lame
emperor
Persia/India/Samarkand, Kazakhstan/Levant
1369 to 1405
He lived 1336 to 1405. Descendant of Genghis Khan, he first ruled Samarkand. Using horsemen, he conquered Persia
[1379], Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan and established Timurid Empire. He invaded south Russia [1395]. He invaded
India [1397] and Tughluq Empire, sacked Delhi [1398], and killed most people. He died on way to China [1405].
Ibn Khaldun
historian/sociologist/economist
Tunis, Tunisia
1370
Prolegomenon or Introduction or Muqaddima[1370]
He lived 1332 to 1406, was Sufi and politician, and was "father of science of history". History analyzes development of
culture through social, political, and economic patterns and causes {unran}.
Geoffrey Chaucer [Chaucer, Geoffrey]
poet
England
1370 to 1387
Book of the Dutchess [1370]; Troilus and Criseyde [1385]; Canterbury Tales [1387]
Acamapichtli
king
Mexico City, Mexico/Tenochtitlán, Mexico
1376 to 1396
He lived 1356 to 1396 and was first Aztec emperor {tlatoani} (one who speaks) at Tenochtitlán. Aztecs used Nahuatl
language.
Margaret
queen
Denmark
1380
She lived 1353 to 1412 and was queen of Denmark [1388 to 1412], Sweden [1375 to 1412], and Norway [1389 to
1412].
Mir Ali
calligrapher/painter
Tabriz, Iran
1380 to 1400
Nasta'liq [1380 to 1400: Arabic calligraphy style]
He lived ? to 1416 and painted miniatures.
Madhava of Sangamagramma
mathematician
Kerala, India
1380 to 1410
Rig-veda comments [1380 to 1410]
He lived 1350 to 1425, founded Kerala School of mathematics, developed infinite series, and started mathematical
analysis.
Charles VI or Charles the Mad or Charles the Well-Beloved
king
France
1380 to 1411
Platonism/Neo-Platonism
philosophic school
Europe
1380 to 1600
School included George Plethon, Basilius Bessarion, Marsilio Ficino, Francesco Patrizzi, Guillaume Postel, Giovanni
Pico della Mirandola, Florentine Academy, Amaury Bouchard, Fevre de la Boderie, Baldassore Castiglione, Leon
Hebreo, Pontus de Tyard, and Ronsard.
John Wycliffe [Wycliffe, John] or John Wyclif [Wyclif, John]
philosopher
London, England
1382 to 1384
Summary of Theology [1382]; Summary of Being [1384]
He lived 1320 to 1384 and was realist about universals.
Claus Sluter [Sluter, Claus]
sculptor
Dijon, France
1385 to 1406
Chartreuse de Champnol Portal [1385 to 1393: Gothic International style]; Moses Well [1395 to 1406: Gothic
International style]
John I or John the Great
king
Portugal
1385 to 1433
He lived 1357 to 1433. As master of Knights of Aviz, he cooperated in revolt against Spain and, with Pereira of
Portugal, defeated Castile at Aljubarota. He defeated Moors, allied with England, and began colonization and
exploration. He started Aviz Dynasty.
Ladislaus II or Jagiello
king
Poland/Lithuania
1386 to 1434
He lived 1350 to 1434, was grand duke of Lithuania [1378 to 1401], became Ladislaus II king of Poland [1386 to
1434], and founded Jagiello Dynasty and Polish-Lithuanian kingdom, strongest in east Europe.
Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I
emperor
Anatolia
1389 to 1403
He lived 1360 to 1403. Ottoman Empire took east Anatolia [1396].
Hatun Tupac [Tupac, Hatun] or Viracocha Inca
emperor
Cuzco Valley, Peru
1390 to 1400
He lived 1347 to 1400 and was eighth Inca ruler. As previous rulers had done, he used the name Sapa Inca (the unique
Inca), but he also changed his name to supreme god's name, Viracocha Inca. He took neighboring lands and allied with
other rulers. He gave army, government, and religious jobs to his family or his associates. People entering his presence
bowed, wore no shoes, and carried packs on their backs. Inca myth said he traveled to Pacific and never returned.
Cho Densu [Densu, Cho] or Kichizan Mincho [Mincho, Kichizan] or Myo-cho
painter
Japan
1390 to 1420
Indian Saints [1390 to 1420]
Zen Buddhist lived 1352 to 1431 and painted in sumi style.
George Plethon [Plethon, George] or Pletho or George of Trebizond
philosopher
Byzantium/Florence, Italy
1390 to 1438
On Differences [1390 to 1438: differences between Plato and Aristotle about God]; Summary of the Doctrines of
Zoroaster and Plato [1390 to 1438]; Address to Theodore II Palaiologos [1390 to 1438]
He lived 1355 to 1452 and was neo-Platonist. Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaeologus, Plethon, Plethon's student
Johannes Bessarion, and George Scholarios attended Council of Ferrara [1438] to try to unify east and west churches.
He taught about Plato in Florence [1438].
Henry IV
king
England
1399 to 1413
He lived 1367 to 1413, invaded England in Richard II's absence, and then put down Scotland, Wales, and Percy
rebellions. He founded Lancaster Dynasty, whose symbol was the white rose. Lancaster Dynasty was Henry IV, Henry
V, and Henry VI.
Zafar Khan Muzaffar or Hassan Gangu
governor
India
1401 to 1411
He was governor [1391], became independent of Delhi Sultanate [1401], and founded Gujarat Dynasty.
Witowt
king
Lithuania
1401 to 1430
He lived 1350 to 1430 and ruled Lithuania at height.
Lorenzo Ghiberti [Ghiberti, Lorenzo]
architect/sculptor
Florence, Italy
1401 to 1435
Florence Baptistery Dome [1401 to 1422: Gothic International style]; Gates of Paradise [1435: on Florence-Baptistry
bronze doors]
Yongle Dadian
encyclopedia
China
1403 to 1409
encyclopedia [1403 to 1409]
Encyclopedia had 20,000 chapters.
Yong Le or Yongle or Yong-le or Zhu Di
emperor
China
1403 to 1424
He lived 1360 to 1424 and was first Ming emperor. Nanking was first Ming capital.
Zheng He
admiral
China
1405 to 1433
He lived 1371 to 1433, was Chinese Muslim, and voyaged seven times to west to collect tribute for Ming dynasty. He
traded gold, porcelain, silks, and spices. He reached Africa.
Louis de France
duke
Orleans, France
1407
He lived 1372 to 1407. As Duke of Orleans, he caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France
Burgundians [1407]. He started Valois-Orleans kings [1411].
Jamshid al-Kashi [al-Kashi, Jamshid]
mathematician
Samarkand, Kazakhstan
1407 to 1427
Stairway of Heaven [1407]; Compendium of the Science of Astronomy [1411]; Key to Arithmetic [1427]
He lived 1390 to 1450 and used base-ten number system, decimals, and negative powers.
Hasdai ibn Crescas [Crescas, Hasdai ibn]
philosopher
Barcelona, Spain
1410
Light of the Lord [1410]
He lived 1340 to 1412 and developed Jewish philosophy. Belief in God's commandments implies belief in God. Empty
space is not contradictory.
Andrei Rublev [Rublev, Andrei]
painter
Russia
1410
Old Testament Trinity icon [1410: Byzantine]
Ahmad Shah or Shah Ahmad
sultan
Ahmadabad, India
1411 to 1442
Of Gujarat Dynasty, he started Muzaffarid Dynasty, was Zafar Khan's grandson, and built Ahmadabad as capital. His
soldiers received half cash and half land plots.
Limbourg Brothers or Limburg Brothers/Herman Limbourg [Limbourg, Herman]/Jean Limbourg [Limbourg,
Jean] or Jannequin Limbourg [Limbourg, Jannequin]/Paul Limbourg [Limbourg, Paul] or Pol Limbourg
[Limbourg, Pol]
painter
France
1413 to 1416
Très Riches Heures de Duc de Berry or Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry [1413 to 1416: Byzantine and Gothic
illuminated book used new light directions and showed integrated nature and life]
Herman Limbourg lived 1370 to 1416. Paul Limbourg lived 1375 to 1416. Jean Limbourg lived 1380 to 1416.
Henry V
king
England
1413 to 1422
He lived 1387 to 1422. Of Lancaster Dynasty, as Prince Hal, he defeated Glendower and army of Wales. He invaded
France [1415], restarting Hundred Years War. He defeated France at Agincourt, France [1415], and conquered
Normandy [1417 to 1419]. He put down Lollards [1417]. He married French king's daughter.
Donatello
sculptor
Florence, Italy
1413 to 1454
St. Mark [1413: marble in Or San Michele in Florence]; St. George and the Dragon [1417: marble in Or San Michele,
with schiacciato relief]; Prophet or Zuccone [1423: marble on Florence-Cathedral campanile]; Feast of Herod [1425:
painting of Herod Antipas, Herod the Great's son, using linear perspective]; David [1432: bronze]; Gattamelata [1445:
bronze]; Annunciation [1430 to 1435]; High Altar of St Anthony [1447 to 1450: in St. Anthony of Padua church]; St.
Mary Magdalene [1454: wood]
John Huss [Huss, John] or Jan Hus [Hus, Jan]
religious reformer
Bohemia
1415
He lived 1369 to 1415. He burned at stake.
Thomas à Kempis [Kempis, Thomas à] or Thomas Hammerken [Hammerken, Thomas] or Thomas Hammerlein
[Hammerlein, Thomas]
philosopher
Agnetenberg, Germany
1418
Imitation of Christ [1418]
Sejong
king
Korea
1419 to 1450
He lived 1397 to 1450, was relative of Yi Song-gye, and started official Korean script, Han'gul. He ended Japanese
piracy.
Philip the Good
duke/count
Burgundy/Flanders
1419 to 1467
He lived 1396 to 1467 and was duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders. He took Luxembourg, Netherlands, and
Belgium [1433]. He sponsored Treaty of Troyes, giving England rule of Normandy. He supported Pragueries nobles
against Charles VII. Then he allied with Charles VII of France in Treaty of Arras.
Ikkyu or Crazy Cloud
philosopher/poet/calligrapher
Zenko-an Temple, Japan
1420 to 1460
Poems [1420 to 1460: in Chinese]
Bartolomeo Bon [Bon, Bartolomeo]
architect
Venice, Italy/Rome, Italy
1422 to 1434
Ca' d'Oro Palazzo or House of Gold or Saint Sofia Palace [1422 to 1434: Gothic palace, light and ornate]
Charles VII or Charles the Victorious or Charles the Well-Served
king
France
1422 to 1461
He lived 1403 to 1461. Joan of Arc rallied him at Orleans [1429]. He allied with Burgundy [1435] and ended Hundred
Years War against England [1453]. He strengthened finances with Jacques Coeur, wealthy Orient trader. Coeur left
after someone poisoned Agnes Sorel, Charles' mistress. Charles VII put down Praguerie revolt of nobles.
Henry VI
king
England
1422 to 1471
He lived 1421 to 1471. During his regency, England lost to Joan of Arc and France in Hundred Years War. Queen
Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset were Lancaster regents and leaders. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he became king
of France [1430] but lost Paris when Burgundians ended alliance [1436]. Richard, Duke of York, whose symbol was
the red rose, fought Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset for kingship in Wars of the Roses, captured Henry
VI, and killed Somerset at St. Albans [1455]. He lost kingship [1461] but got it back [1470 to 1471].
Robert Campin [Campin, Robert] or Master of Flemalle
painter
Flemalle, Flanders
1425
Merode Altarpiece [1425]
He lived 1378 to 1444 and dissolved pigments in oil {oil painting}. Oil allows more color tones and can be thick or
thin. He was among the earliest portrait artists. His Late Gothic painting is realistic, with light, depth, continuity, and
detail.
Masaccio
painter
Italy
1425 to 1427
Holy Trinity with the Virgin and St. John [1425]; Carmelite Church polyptych [1426: in Pisa]; Tribute Money [1427:
fresco in Brancacci Chapel in Church of the Carmine]; Expulsion from Paradise [1427: fresco in Brancacci Chapel in
Church of the Carmine]; St. Peter Healing the Sick with His Shadow [1427]; Madonna Enthroned [1427: in Pisa alter]
He lived 1401 to 1428, began Early-Renaissance painting, and used perspective and full-bodied figures.
Hubert van Eyck [van Eyck, Hubert]
painter
Flanders
1425 to 1432
Ghent Altarpiece [1425 to 1432: Northern Renaissance triptych including Crucifixion, Last Judgment, Annunciation,
Adam and Eve. with Jan van Eyck]
He lived 1370 to 1426 and first used atmospheric perspective.
Jan van Eyck [van Eyck, Jan]
painter
Flanders
1425 to 1434
Ghent Altarpiece [1425 to 1432: with Hubert van Eyck. Northern-Renaissance triptych includes Crucifixion, Last
Judgment, Annunciation, Adam and Eve]; Adoration of the Mystic Lamb [1432]; Man in a Red Turban [1433];
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride [1434]
He lived 1390 to 1441, first used oil paint, and painted the first portraits.
Joseph Albo [Albo, Joseph]
philosopher
Castile, Spain
1425 to 1444
Book of Principles [1425]
He lived 1360 to 1444 and was follower of Maimonides.
Itzcoatl
king
Mexico
1426 to 1440
Aztec king allied with Texcoco and Tlacopan, and they defeated Tapanecs. Aztecs had trade caravans controlled by
guild {pochteca}. They built pyramids, palaces, and temples. Main temple was at Tenochtitlan. It had up to 20,000
sacrifices a day.
Joan of Arc or Jeanne d'Arc [d'Arc, Jeanne] or Maid of Orleans
leader
France
1428 to 1431
She lived 1412 to 1431 and was farmer's daughter. At age 16, she said saints told her to lead France against England to
help the Dauphin. She persuaded the Dauphin, Charles VII, heir to throne, to give her troops, and she relieved besieged
city of Orléans [1429] and defeated England at Patay [1429]. She helped crown Charles VII king at Rheims. She tried
to regain Paris [1430], but Duke of Burgundy captured her at Compiegne and sold her to Duke of Bedford, regent of
England. English tried her for heresy and burned her at stake in Rouen on May 30, 1431.
She became saint [1920].
Guillaume Dufay [Dufay, Guillaume]
composer
France
1430 to 1474
He lived 1400 to 1474 and first used thirds, sixths, and false bass.
Henry the Navigator or Dom Henrique
king
Portugal
1434 to 1460
He lived 1394 to 1460 and was King John I of Portugal's son. Of Aviz Dynasty, he sent Vasco de Gama to discover
Africa at Angola. Portuguese reached Cape Bojaddor [1434], Cape Verde Islands [1444], Azores [1444], and Senegal
[1445]. He sent Cabral to discover Brazil. He sent Almeida and Albuquerque to discover East Indies. The pope gave
monopoly on Africa to Portugal by Pontifex Romanus [1455]. He started slave trade. He commissioned maps, scales,
and cartography.
Zera Yacub or Zar'a Ya'eqob
emperor
Ethiopia
1434 to 1468
He was Christian and built monasteries.
Filippo Brunelleschi [Brunelleschi, Filippo]
architect
Florence, Italy
1434 to 1469
Santa Maria degli Angeli or Saint Mary of the Angels [1434: central plan church]; San Spirito [1434]; Dome of
Florence Cathedral [1436: Octagonal ribbed dome has two lightweight shells and a small hole, through which light
shines on a metal floor plate on June 21]; Pazzi Chapel of Santa Croce or Pazzi Chapel of Holy Cross [1460]; Old
Sacristy of San Lorenzo [1469: small round columns and multiple spaces]; Foundling Hospital; Library of San Marco;
Piazza of Florence Cathedral [drawing in linear perspective]
He lived 1377 to 1446 and invented Florentine style.
Roger van der Weyden [van der Weyden, Roger]
painter
Flanders
1435
Descent from the Cross [1435]; Francesco d'Este
Leone Battista Alberti [Alberti, Leone Battista]
architect/sculptor
Italy
1435 to 1476
Luca della Robbia [1435: marble]; Malatesta Temple [1450]; Virgin and Child [1450: glazed terracotta]; Rusellai
Palace [1455 to 1458: in Florence]; Giovanni da San Miniato [1456: marble]; Santa Andrea [1470 to 1476: in Mantua];
Hercules and Antaeus [1475: bronze]; On Painting [1435: book]; Ludi Matematici or Mathematical Games [1436:
book]; Treatise on Architecture or De Re Aedificatoria [1452 to 1458: book]
Yupanqui or Pachacuti
emperor
Cuzco, Peru
1438 to 1470
Yupanqui was Viracocha Inca's son and choose the name Pachacuti. He defeated nearby state that invaded, reformed
government, and expanded north to Ecuador. Fortress was at Cuzco.
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec
king/architect
Cuzco, Peru/Machu Picchu, Peru/Ollantaytambo, Peru
1438 to 1471
Machu Picchu [1460 to 1470: mountain city]
He lived ? to 1471 and was Inca emperor [1438 to 1471]. Incas built roads and buildings using shaped and fitted stone
blocks. Machu Picchu is northwest of Cuzcoa and is high in mountains, with stepped streets and agricultural terraces.
Alfonso V
king
Portugal
1438 to 1481
He lived 1432 to 1481. Of Aviz Dynasty, he monopolized African trade by lease. Portuguese reached Equator [1473]
and Vongo [1482]. Fort was at Elmina, Guinea [1481]. Bartolomeu Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope [1487].
Portuguese reached Calicut, India [1498].
Lorenzo Valla [Valla, Lorenzo] or Laurentius Valla [Valla, Laurentius]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1439
Declamation on false credit and incorrect thinking about the Donation of Constantine [1439: against the Donation of
Constantine]
He lived 1407 to 1457 and was Eclectic humanist. He opposed metaphysics as twisted language and opposed logic as
only rhetoric. Good is pleasure of soul in heaven.
Nicholas of Cusa
philosopher/mathematician
Germany/Italy
1440
Of Learned Ignorance [1440]
He lived 1401 to 1464 and influenced Council at Basle and later Council of Florence. He combined Thomist
scholasticism, Eckhart's mysticism, and science to develop a religious metaphysics.
Epistemology
People cannot know God {docta ignorantia, Nicholas of Cusa} [Nicholas of Cusa, 1440].
Metaphysics
God is one and infinite, uniting all opposites, such as essence and existence. The infinite can realize all possibilities.
World is plural, finite, and filled with opposites.
Mind
Individual person and divine essence are the same.
Fra Filippo Lippi [Lippi, Fra Filippo] or Lippo Lippi [Lippi, Lippo]
painter
Florence, Italy
1440 to 1445
Madonna and Child [1440 to 1445: Early Renaissance tempera]
He lived 1406 to 1469 and was of Florentine school.
Basilius or John Bessarion [Bessarion, John] or Johannes Bessarion [Bessarion, Johannes]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1440 to 1460
Calumny against Plato [1440 to 1460: against George of Trebizond]
He lived 1403 to 1472, was neo-Platonist, and was archbishop of Nicaea and patriarch of Constantinople.
Shubun
painter
Japan
1440 to 1465
ink paintings [1440 to 1465]
Zen Buddhist lived 1414 to 1465 and painted in sumi style of Chinese ink painting of Muromachi period. He was
Josetsu's student and taught Sesshu.
Moctezuma Ilhuicamina or Moctezuma I or Montezuma I
emperor
Mexico
1440 to 1469
He lived 1398 to 1469. Aztecs defeated other lake cities and took east Mexico.
Frederick II
margrave
Brandenburg
1440 to 1470
He lived 1413 to 1471, was Elector of Brandenburg, and was Hapsburg.
Filippo Brunelleschi [Brunelleschi, Filippo]/Luca Fancelli [Fancelli, Luca]
architect
Florence, Italy
1440 to 1472
Pitti Palace [1440 to 1472: first construction phase used Renaissance style]
Brunelleschi lived 1377 to 1446. Fancelli lived 1430 to 1494. Bartolomeo Ammannati changed it from 1558 to 1570.
Jami or Mulla Nuru'd-Din Abdur Rahman ibn Ahmad Jami [Jami, Mulla Nuru'd-Din Abdur Rahman ibn
Ahmad] or Risalat al-Insha [al-Insha, Risalat]
poet
Persia/Herat, Tajikistan
1440 to 1490
Lava'ih or Flashes [1440]; Fragrances of Companionship or Breeze of Friendship [1440]; Chain of Gold [1470];
Baharistan or Abode of Spring [1490: poems]; Divan or Collected Poems [1440 to 1490: lyric poems]; Fatihatush
Shabab or Opening of Youth [1440: in Divan]; Wasitatul-lqd or Middle of the Necklace [1470: in Divan]; KhatimatulHayat or End of Life [1490: in Divan]; Haft Awrang or Seven Thrones or Sab'a or Septet [1440 to 1490: seven
mathnavi poems]; Silsilatudh-Zahab [1440 to 1490: in Haft Awrang]; Salman-wa-Absal; Tuhfatul-Ahrar or Gift of the
Noble [1440 to 1490: in Haft Awrang]; Sabhatul-Abrar or Rosary of the Pious [1440 to 1490: in Haft Awrang]; Yusuf-
u-Zulaikha [1470: in Haft Awrang]; Laila-wa-Majnun [1440 to 1490: in Haft Awrang]; Khirad-nama-i-Sikandari or
Book of Wisdom of Alexander [1440 to 1490: in Haft Awrang]
He lived 1414 to 1492 and was of naqshbandiyya or Designers School of Sufism.
John Hunyadi [Hunyadi, John]
general
Hungary
1441 to 1456
He lived 1385 to 1456, was governor of Transylvania [1441], and took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1456].
Scanderbeg or Iskander Bey or George Castriota [Castriota, George]
prince
Albania
1443 to 1468
He lived 1403 to 1468. Venice supported him.
Nicholas V
pope
Rome, Italy
1447 to 1455
He lived 1397 to 1455. As pope, with Frederick III of Holy Roman Empire, he ended Great Schism by Concordat of
Vienna, which undid Council-of-Basel acts. He rebuilt St. Peter's Cathedral. Nicholas of Cusa tried to reform German
Church.
Casimir IV
king
Poland/Lithuania
1447 to 1492
He lived 1427 to 1492 and united Poland with Grand Duchy of Lithuania [1447].
Trailok
king
Siam
1448 to 1488
He lived 1431 to 1488, and reformed laws. He had military and civilian divisions, with departments for local
government, finance, and law. Siamese society had classes, and all people had land. He fought wars with northern
states. He moved capital north to P'itsanulok. He appointed his son "second king".
Andrea Mantegna [Mantegna, Andrea]
painter
Padua, Italy/Mantua, Italy
1448 to 1497
Ovetari Chapel frescoes [1448 to 1459: in Padua in Church of Eremitani. Includes St. James Led to his Execution];
Calvary [1457 to 1460]; Camera degli Sposi Frescoes or Room of the Bride and Groom or Room of the Spouses [1465
to 1474: in Mantua. Includes The Gonzaga Family]; St. Sebastian [1485: fresco]; Triumphs of Caesar [1489: fresco];
Lamentation over the Dead Christ [1490: Tempera on canvas used foreshortening]; Battle of Sea Gods [1490: fresco];
Madonna of Victory [1495: diagonal composition]; Parnassus [1497: allegory commissioned by Isabelle d'Este]
Ashikaga Yoshimasa [Yoshimasa, Ashikaga]
shogun
Kyoto, Japan
1449 to 1490
He lived 1436 to 1490. Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought to choose new shogun [1443 to 1467]. This ended
Muromachi Era [1333 to 1467]. He built Silver Pavilion or Ginkakuji temple [1489].
Fra Angelico or Fiesole
painter
Florence, Italy
1450
Annunciation [1450: Florentine fresco in San Marco]
Sadananda
philosopher
India
1450
Essence of Vedanta [1450: Sankara's ideas]
Andrea del Castagno [Castagno, Andrea del]
painter
Italy
1450 to 1457
Last Supper [1450: fresco in Santa Apollonia convent refectory]; David [1457: on leather shield]
Tochihuitzin Coyolchiuhqui [Coyolchiuhqui, Tochihuitzin]
writer
Mexico
1450 to 1480
Cantares Mexicanos or Songs of the Aztecs [1450 to 1480]
He lived ? to 1481, was señor de Mexicaltzinco, and was son of Itzcoatl, ruler of Teotlaltzinco.
Marco Cara [Cara, Marco]
composer
Italy
1450 to 1500
He lived 1470 to 1525 and composed Mannerist frottole.
Bartolomeo Tromboncino [Tromboncino, Bartolomeo]
composer
Italy
1450 to 1500
He lived 1470 to 1535 and composed Mannerist frottole.
Mohammad II or Mehmed the Conqueror
sultan
Turkey
1451 to 1481
He lived 1429 to 1481, was sultan of Turkey, bombarded Constantinople for eight weeks, had 80,000 soldiers, and
started Ottoman Empire [1453]. Emperor Constantine XI of Byzantine Empire died fighting [1453].
Frederick III
emperor
Germany/Austria
1452 to 1493
He lived 1415 to 1493. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he used marriages to try to make Austria rule
world.
Ibrahim Munif/Shaikh Hamadullah al-Amsani
painter
Turkey
1453 to 1500
Diwani script or Imperial script [1453 to 1500: complex Arabic calligraphy style with diagonals, for Ottoman-Empire
official documents]
Munif originated it, and Hamadullah improved it.
Johannes Gutenberg [Gutenberg, Johannes]
inventor
Germany
1456
movable type [1456]
He lived 1398 to 1468 and printed Mazarin Bible or Gutenberg Bible [1456], using transferable letters {movable type}
on printing presses.
Stephen the Great
prince
Moldavia
1457 to 1504
Pius II
pope
Rome, Italy
1458 to 1464
He lived 1405 to 1464. As pope, he struggled with Louis XI of France and tried to unite Europe against Ottoman
Empire.
Matthias Corvinus [Corvinus, Matthias] or Messala Corvinus [Corvinus, Messala]
king
Hungary/Bohemia
1458 to 1490
He lived 1443 to 1490, was king of Hungary [1458 to 1490], conquered and became king of Bohemia [1478 to 1490]
and Austria, founded Corvina library at Buda or Budapest, and fought Ottoman Empire.
Piero della Francesca
painter
Italy
1459 to 1480
Discovery and Proving of the True Cross [1459: in San Francesco Church in Arezzo]; Ideal Town [1475]; De
Prospecttiva Pingendi or On Painting in Perspective [1480: book]
François Villon [Villon, François] or François Montcorbier [Montcorbier, François]
poet
France
1461 to 1463
Testament [1461: including Where Are the Snows of Yesteryear, in the longer poem Ballade des dames du temps jadis]
He lived 1431 to 1463 and wrote lyric poems.
Edward IV
king
England
1461 to 1483
He lived 1442 to 1483, defeated Duke of Lancaster, and captured Henry VI. He lost later to Earl of Warwick and
Margaret of Anjou, queen to Henry VI [1470], but then he defeated them [1471]. He founded York kings. He was
Richard Duke of York's son. York kings were Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III.
Louis XI
king
France
1461 to 1483
He lived 1423 to 1483 and was Valois. As dauphin, he conspired against his father Charles VII. He submitted to
League of the Public Weal, led by Charles the Bold of Burgundy and Francis II of Brittany, but then he reneged. He got
Peace of Ancenis from Francis II but then helped the captured Charles the Bold stop revolt of Liege. He took part of
Mary of Burgundy's lands at her death. He revoked Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges [1461], which had limited the
pope's authority and asserted French Roman Catholic Church's independence.
Sonni Ali
emperor
West Africa
1462 to 1492
He lived ? to 1492, ruled Songhai, and took east Mali to make Songhai Empire. He took trade centers Timbuktu and
Jenne in Mali. Capital was at Gao. Having overrun much of Mali, he aimed to preserve best features and develop them
under better management. His son succeeded him, but his general Askia Mohammed Turré soon took over.
Ivan III or Ivan the Great
grand duke
Moscow, Russia
1462 to 1505
He lived 1440 to 1505, freed Moscow from Golden Horde or Tatar Empire [1480], expanded state, threw out German
merchants, and took Novgorod. He married last Byzantine Emperor's niece and called himself Tsar.
John Fortescue [Fortescue, John]
judge
England
1463 to 1471
On Praiseworthy English Laws [1463]; Difference between an Absolute and Limited Monarchy [1471]
He lived 1394 to 1476 and was Chief Justice [1442 to 1461].
Thomas Littleton [Littleton, Thomas] or Thomas Lyttelton [Lyttelton, Thomas] or Thomas Lyttleton [Lyttleton,
Thomas]
judge
London, England
1466 to 1470
Tenures [1470: real property law]
He lived 1422 to 1481 and was judge at Court of Common Pleas [1466].
Charles the Bold
duke
Burgundy
1467 to 1477
He lived 1433 to 1477, controlled Low Countries, and fought Louis XI of France. He was Philip the Good's son.
Kamal-udin Bihzad [Bihzad, Kamal-udin] or Kamal-od-Din Behzad [Behzad, Kamal-od-Din]
painter
Tabriz, Iran/Herat, Afghanistan
1467 to 1494
History of Taimur [1467: miniature in Timurid style]; Garden of Sultan Hussain Bayqara [1480: miniature in Timurid
style]; Bustan of Saadi or Orchard of Saadi [1487: miniature in Timurid style]; Khamseh Tribesmen [1491: miniature
in Timurid style]; Laila and Majnoon [1494: miniature in Timurid style]
He lived 1450 to 1520, was of Herat School [1467 to 1506], was later of Tabriz School [1506 to 1520], and used
Safavid style. Herat is in northwest Afghanistan.
Luciano Laurana [Laurana, Luciano]
architect
Urbino, Italy
1468
Palace of Urbino [1468: Renaissance style]
Marsilio Ficino [Ficino, Marsilio]
philosopher
Florence, Italy
1469 to 1473
Commentary on the Symposium [1469]; Platonic Theology [1473]
He lived 1433 to 1499, was neo-Platonist, and translated all of Plato. Love {Platonic love} can be spiritual and godlike.
Soga Jasoku [Jasoku, Soga] or Jasoku Soga [Jasoku, Soga]
painter
Japan
1469 to 1483
Tokusan and Rinza [1469 to 1483]; Sakyamuni in His Contemplation [1469 to 1483]; Landscape [1469 to 1483]; Birds
and Flowers in the Four Seasons [1469 to 1483]
Zen Buddhist lived ? to 1483, painted in Bummei-Period sumi style, and started Soga School.
Lorenzo de' Medici
leader
Florence, Italy
1469 to 1492
He lived 1449 to 1492, stopped Pazzi Conspiracy [1748], fought the pope [until 1481], and failed to check Savonarola
[1492 to 1494].
Isabella I
queen
Castile/Leon
1469 to 1504
She lived 1451 to 1504 and married Ferdinand V [1469], king of Aragon, to found Spanish monarchy.
Thomas Mallory [Mallory, Thomas]
poet
England
1470
Morte d'Arthur [1470]
Andrea del Verrocchio [Verrocchio, Andrea del] or Andrea di Cione [Cione, Andrea di]
sculptor
Florence, Italy/Venice, Italy
1470 to 1496
Putto with Dolphin [1470: bronze]; Baptism of Christ [1472 to 1475: bronze, with da Vinci]; David [1473 to 1475:
bronze]; Colleoni or Bartolomeo Colleoni [1496: bronze equestrian statue]
Nzinga Nkuvu or João I
king
Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo
1470 to 1507
He lived 1430 to 1506 and became Christian [1491] when Portuguese arrived.
Josquin des Prez
composer
Spain
1470 to 1521
He lived 1440 to 1521. He composed Renaissance motets that used paired voices and followed text in both rhythm and
phrasing.
Sixtus IV
pope
Rome, Italy
1471 to 1484
He lived 1414 to 1484. As pope, he struggled with Louis XI of France, fought Lorenzo de' Medici in Pazzi Conspiracy,
and founded Sistine Chapel.
Topa Inca or Tupac Inca or Tupac Yupanqui
emperor
Peru
1471 to 1493
He lived 1440 to 1493 and took Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina as commander [1463 to 1471].
Tupac Inca Yupanqui or Topa Inca
emperor
Peru
1471 to 1493
He was Inca emperor [1471 to 1493], was Pachacuti's son, and was Huayna Capac's father.
Ladislaus II or Uladislaus II
king
Bohemia/Hungary
1471 to 1516
He lived 1456 to 1516, had a double marriage treaty, was king of Hungary [1490 to 1516], and was Ladislaus II king of
Bohemia [1471 to 1516].
Ferdinand V
king
Aragon/Castile
1474 to 1516
He lived 1452 to 1516, was king of Castile [1474 to 1504], was Ferdinand II of Aragon [1479 to 1516] and Ferdinand
II of Sicily [1468 to 1516], and married Isabella I of Castile and Leon to unite Spain [1469]. He took last Moorish city
in Spain at Granada [1474]. He expelled Moors and Jews from Spain. He started Spanish Inquisition [1478]. He sent
Columbus to America [1492]. He divided overseas colonies with Portugal at Treaty of Tordesillas. He won Navarre in
Italian Wars between Spain and France.
Isabella I and Ferdinand V are the "Catholic kings".
Mary of Burgundy
duchess
Flanders
1477 to 1482
She lived 1457 to 1482. When she died, rebellion spread in Flanders.
Sandro Botticelli [Botticelli, Sandro]
painter
Florence, Italy
1478 to 1490
Allegory of Spring or La Primavera [1478]; Birth of Venus [1490]
Rudolf Agricola [Agricola, Rudolf]
philosopher
Dilligen, Netherlands
1479
On dialectical inventions [1479]
He lived 1444 to 1485 and was Aristotelian and humanist.
Michael Pacher [Pacher, Michael]
sculptor/painter
Germany
1480 to 1483
Coronation of the Virgin [1480]; Altarpiece of the Four Latin Fathers [1483: at Sankt Wolfgang in Austria]
Giovanni Bellini [Bellini, Giovanni]
painter
Venice, Italy
1480 to 1488
St. Francis in Ecstasy [1480]; Madonna with the Pear [1488]
Martin Schongauer [Schongauer, Martin]
engraver
Germany
1480 to 1490
Temptation of St. Anthony [1480 to 1490: Late Gothic woodcut]
He lived 1450 to 1491 and used copper plates.
Leonardo da Vinci
sculptor/painter/architect/engineer/inventor/biologist
Italy
1480 to 1519
Helicopter [1480: drawing]; Adoration of the Magi [1482: painting]; Horse [1482: drawing]; Flying Wings [1485:
drawing]; Equestrian Monument of Francesco Sforza [1490]; Last Supper [1500: painting]; Mona Lisa [1504:
painting]; Lady with Ermine [1490: painting]; Battle of Anghiari [1505: painting]; Virgin of the Rocks [1506:
painting]; Embryo in the Womb [1510: drawing]
He lived 1452 to 1519 and studied anatomy. Fossils are sea organisms that fell to bottom in layers, but land
subsequently rose [1482 to 1499].
He used perspective and shadow. Figures were in chiaroscuro light and dark, with light coming from undefined source.
Sfumat haze makes soft veiled atmosphere to suggest more depth. Brighter objects appear larger by irradiation. He
mirror wrote, as can many left-handers. He used hydraulics in shows that he created for the duke.
Adrian Willaert [Willaert, Adrian]
composer
Europe
1480 to 1550
He lived 1490 to 1562 and composed Mannerist madrigals.
Tizoc
emperor
Mexico City, Mexico
1481 to 1486
He ruled Aztec Empire.
Maximilian I
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1482 to 1519
He lived 1459 to 1519 and married Anne of Brittany to get part of France. Marriage caused war with France. He lost
part of France at Treaty of Arras [1482]. He regained it at Treaty of Senlis. He married Mary of Burgundy [1493] to get
Low Countries as king of Germany and Burgundy and Holy Roman emperor [1493 to 1519]. As king of Austria, he put
down rebellion in Flanders. He married niece of Ludovico Sforza to get Milan. He warred with Venice, leading to
fighting in Italian Wars and costing all his money. He reformed, tried to crusade against Turks, encouraged Swabian
League, helped merchants, patronized arts, and allowed Protestant Reformation.
Richard III
king
England
1483 to 1485
He lived 1452 to 1485. Of York Dynasty, he murdered the true king Edward V in Tower of London, put down rebellion
of Stafford, lost to Earl of Richmond (Henry VII) at Bosworth Field [1485], and was last of York kings, ending Wars of
the Roses.
Pietro Perugino [Perugino, Pietro]
painter
Italy
1485 to 1496
Annunciation [1485]; Crucifixion with Saints [1496]
Henry VII
king
England/Wales
1485 to 1509
He lived 1465 to 1509 and was first Tudor king of England and Wales. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he invaded England and
defeated Richard III of House of York at Bosworth Field [1485]. He married a York and founded Tudor line, ending
Wars of the Roses. Tudor line was Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. He subdued Ireland and
negotiated peace with Scotland. He founded Star Chamber.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola [Mirandola, Giovanni Pico della]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1486 to 1491
Conclusions [1486]; Of Being and Unity [1491]
He lived 1463 to 1494 and was neo-Platonist. All systems have shared truths.
Ahuizotl
emperor
Mexico
1486 to 1502
He ruled at Aztec height.
Bartholomew Diaz [Diaz, Bartholomew]
discoverer
Portugal/Africa
1488
He lived 1450 to 1500, was from Portugal, explored west coast of Africa, was first to round Cape of Good Hope, and
found way to India.
Sikander Lodi [Lodi, Sikander]
sultan
India
1489 to 1517
He ruled Delhi, annexed Bihar [1492], moved capital to Agra, and invaded Rajastan.
Leo Hebraeus [Hebraeus, Leo] or Leone Hebreo [Hebreo, Leone] or Leon Hebreo [Hebreo, Leon] or Judah
Abravanel [Abravanel, Judah]
philosopher
Spain/Venice, Italy
1490 to 1510
Dialogue of Love [1490 to 1510]
Alexander VI or Rodrigo Borgia [Borgia, Rodrigo]
pope
Rome, Italy
1492 to 1503
He lived 1431 to 1503. As pope, he was Lucrezia Borgia's and Cesare Borgia's father and was an art patron.
Christopher Columbus [Columbus, Christopher]
discoverer
Spain/San Salvador, Dominican Republic/Bahamas/Cuba/Hispaniola/Honduras/Nicaragua/Costa
Rica/Panama/Columbia
1492 to 1504
He lived 1451 to 1506 and used money from Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand V of Spain. He rode the Santa
Maria, accompanied by the smaller Nina and Pinta, on the first of four voyages to West Indies [1492]. He explored
Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Columbia [1502 and 1504].
Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq [Qhapaq, Quechua Wayna]
emperor
Peru
1493 to 1527
Huayna Capac led Inca Empire at greatest extent.
Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq
emperor
Peru
1493 to 1527
He was Inca emperor [1493 to 1527], was Tupac's son, and was father of Huascar, Atahualpa, Manco Inca Yupanqui,
and Pawllu Inca.
Sesshu or Sesshu Toyo or Toyo Sesshu [Sesshu Toyo]
painter
Japan
1495
Ink-splash Landscape [1495]
Zen Buddhist lived 1421 to 1506 and was master of Japanese suiboku ink painting.
Peter van Diest [Diest, Peter van]
playwright
Flanders
1495 to 1518
Elckerlijc or Everyman [1495 to 1518: morality play later translated into English]
Perhaps, he was Petrus Dorlandus [1454 to 1507].
Manuel I
king
Portugal
1495 to 1521
He lived 1469 to 1521 and tried to convert Jews to Christianity, but they left.
John Cabot [Cabot, John]
discoverer
England/Canada
1497
He lived 1450 to 1499 and discovered coast of Canada.
Vasco da Gama [Gama, Vasco da]
explorer
Portugal/South Africa/India
1497 to 1499
He lived 1469 to 1524. From Portugal, he went to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and sailed to India. He opened
east Africa and India to trade, by force. He captured the gold-trading port of Kilwa in Zimbabwe [1498].
Girolamo Savonarola [Savonarola, Girolamo]
religious reformer
Florence, Italy
1498
He lived 1452 to 1498. He burned at stake.
Louis XII
king
France
1498 to 1515
He lived 1462 to 1515, was Valois, and resumed Italian Wars but lost to Holy Roman Empire.
Albrecht Durer [Durer, Albrecht]
painter/engraver
Germany
1498 to 1525
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse [1498: Northern-Renaissance engraving]; Oswald Krell [1499: NorthernRenaissance engraving]; Self-Portrait [1500: Northern-Renaissance engraving]; Young Hare [1502: NorthernRenaissance engraving]; Tall Grasses or The Great Turf [1503: Northern-Renaissance engraving]; Adam and Eve
[1504: Northern-Renaissance engraving]; Knight, Death, and the Devil [1513: Northern-Renaissance engraving];
Melancholia I [1514: Northern-Renaissance engraving]; Head of a Walrus [1521: Northern-Renaissance engraving];
Instructions in Measuring with Compass and Straightedge [1525: book]
Thomas de Vio [Vio, Thomas de] or Cajetan
philosopher
Milan, Italy
1499
Analogy of Names [1499]
He lived 1468 to 1534 and was Thomist and Dominican. By analogy, terms can be true of both God and finite things,
because they have terms in differing proportions. Analogies can be about inequality, attributes, or proportion.
Proportion is the only true analogy, because it is about same named thing in different amounts. The other two analogies
compare different things.
Fernando de Rojas [Rojas, Fernando de]
writer
Spain
1499
La Celestina or Celestina [1499]
Amerigo Vespucci [Vespucci, Amerigo]
discoverer
Florence, Italy/Spain/South America
1499 to 1504
New World [1504: forgery]; Four Voyages [1504: forgery]
He lived 1454 to 1512, was from Florence, and devised system to find longitude closely. He found South America
[1499] for Spain. He voyaged to Americas [1501 to 1504]. He sailed to Plate River in South America [1502]. On
returning, he had maps made. German mapmaker Martin Waldseemuller called New World "America" [1507].
Michelangelo Buonarroti
sculptor/architect/painter
Italy
1499 to 1555
Pieta [1499: marble]; David [1504: marble]; Ceiling of Sistine Chapel [1509 to 1512: frescoes in Vatican]; Creation of
Adam [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Division of Light from Darkness [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine
Chapel]; Fall of Man and the Expulsion from the Garden of Eden [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; God
Dividing the Waters from the Earth [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Deluge [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine
Chapel]; Last Judgment [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Athletes [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel];
Captives [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Dawn and Evening [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Night
and Day [1509 to 1512: fresco in Sistine Chapel]; Moses [1513: marble]; Dying Slave [1516: marble]; Rebellious Slave
[1516: marble]; Tomb of Giuliano de Medici [1519 to 1534: marble]; Laurentian Library [1525: in Florence]; New
Sacristy or Medici Chapel [1526 to 1531: in San Lorenzo]; Campidoglio or Capitol [1538 to 1564: design for Rome];
Conversion of Saul or St. Paul [1545: in Pauline Chapel in Rome]; Tomb of Pope Julius II [1545: in Rome]; St. Peter's
Cathedral drawing [1546: for Rome]; Conservator's Palace [1555: in Rome]; Senator's Palace [1555: in Rome]
He lived 1475 to 1564 and used mental force in calm body {action-in-repose, Michelangelo}.
Pedro Alvares Cabral [Cabral, Pedro Alvares]
discoverer
Portugal/Brazil
1500
He lived 1467 to 1520 and took Brazil.
Nanak
founder
Punjab/Pakistan
1500 to 1520
Sri Guru Granth Sahib or Adi Granth or Living Lord [1520]
He lived 1469.1123 to 1520 and began Sikhs in west Punjab. Babur imprisoned him [1520]. His companion was
Mardana.
Wang Yang-ming or Wang Shou-jen
philosopher
Jiangxi, China
1500 to 1520
Instructions for Practical Living [1500 to 1520]
He lived 1472 to 1529, was Neo-Confucian, and blended Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in Lu-Wang School.
He used moral principles to unify close-relationship types. Mind or heart {hsin} is the most-important thing. People
should observe and control their minds.
Vallabha or Vallabhacharya
philosopher
Andhra Pradesh, India
1500 to 1530
Discourses on the Spiritual Theological Dictionary of Vyasa [1500 to 1530]; Discourses on the Spiritual Theological
Dictionary of Jaimini [1500 to 1530]; Hierarchy of Commenting Acaryas or Hierarchy of Commenting Teachers [1500
to 1530]; Grace Sprouting Code of Conduct [1500 to 1530]; Mystical Principles [1500 to 1530]
He lived 1479 to 1531 and founded a Vaishnavite cult in Rajasthan and Gujarat. He believed Shuddhadvaita-School
monism, in which Krishna or Bala Krishna or Vatsalya Bhava or Purushottama is Brahman. He emphasized grace
{pushti} and devotion {bhakti, Vallabha}. The highest grace {Maha Pushti} {Anugraha} can attain release. The body
of Krishna {Akshara} {Satchidananda} emits sparks to make things.
Askia Mohammed Turre [Turre, Askia Mohammed]
emperor
West Africa
1500 to 1600
He ruled Songhai Empire as it expanded.
Philosophy of Nature
philosophic school
Europe
1500 to 1650
School included Charles Bouille, Girolamo Cardano, Francesco Patrizzi, Giordano Bruno, Bernardino Telesio, Pietro
Pompanazzi, Tommaso Campanella, and Vanini. Material objects are atom complexes {corpuscle, atom}. Eternal atom
motions under mathematical laws govern corpuscle movements. Atoms are monads.
Ismail I or Khata'i
shah/poet
Persia
1501 to 1524
He was first Safavid, was Shia, and took Persia [1502].
Cesare Borgia [Borgia, Cesare]
cardinal
Rome, Italy
1502
He lived 1476 to 1507. He lured his enemies to castle and had them strangled.
Moctezuma II or Montezuma II or Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin
emperor
Mexico
1502 to 1520
He lived 1466 to 1520 and lost to Cortez from Spain.
Julius II
pope
Rome, Italy
1503 to 1513
He lived 1443 to 1513. As pope, he restored papal rule of Papal States and fought Italian Wars. He called fifth Lateran
Council, which condemned the idea {Gallicanism} that French king was supreme over church in France. He patronized
art.
Desiderius Erasmus [Erasmus, Desiderius]
philosopher
Netherlands/England/Italy/Brabant
1503 to 1530
Handbook of the Militant Christian [1503]; In Praise of Folly [1509]; Education of a Christian Prince [1516]; Colloquia
[1516]; Lament of Peace [1517]; On the Civility of Boys' Manners [1530]
He lived 1466 to 1536, was Catholic and humanist, complained about Catholic Church problems, and was against
Protestant Reformation. He edited Greek and Latin writings of early Christian writers, including New Testament. He
attacked foolish thinking and abuse of people.
Epistemology
Reason and common sense are good.
Ethics
Young people should behave properly in society.
Hieronymous Bosch [Bosch, Hieronymous]
painter
Flanders
1504
Garden of Earthly Delights [1504: triptych]
Luca Signorelli [Signorelli, Luca]
painter
Orvieto, Italy
1504
Damned Cast into Hell [1504: Renaissance style painting in Orvieto Cathedral]
Baber or Babar or Babur
emperor
Kabul, Afghanistan
1504 to 1530
Autobiography [1510 to 1530: Hindustan description]
He lived 1483 to 1530 and was descendant of Tamerlane and Chingis Khan. He founded Mogul or Moghul Empire
[1504] when he took Delhi and killed Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. He defeated Hindu kingdoms down to Bihar. He
invaded India [1525]. He brought grapes, melons, bananas, and sugar cane to Pakistan. He liked poetry.
Lucrezia Borgia [Borgia, Lucrezia]
duchess
Ferrara, Italy
1505
She lived 1480 to 1519 and had brilliant court.
Raphael or Raffaello Sanzio [Sanzio, Raffaello]
painter
Florence, Italy/Rome, Italy
1505 to 1520
Madonna del Granduca or Madonna of the Grand Duke or Madonna con il Bambino or Madonna and Child [1505: in
Pitti Palace]; Cardinal Virtues [1510 to 1511: fresco in Vatican]; School of Athens [1510 to 1511: fresco in Vatican];
Parnassus [1510 to 1511: fresco in Stanza della Segnatura or Signature Room]; Disputa or Disputation of the Holy
Sacrament or Adoration of the Sacrament [1510 to 1511: fresco in Stanza della Segnatura]; Triumph of Galatea [1511:
fresco in Stanza della Segnatura]; Miraculous Draught of Fishes [1515]; Pope Leo X with His Nephews [1518];
Transfiguration [1520: fresco in Stanza della Segnatura]
Donato Bramante [Bramante, Donato]
architect
Italy
1506 to 1508
Original Plan of St. Peter's Cathedral [1506: in Rome]; Tempietto of San Pietro or Saint Peter's small temple [1508: in
Rome]
Ulrich Zasius [Zasius, Ulrich] or Faber Stapulensis [Stapulensis, Faber]
lawyer
Netherlands/Freiberg, Germany
1506 to 1521
Statutes of the City of Freiburg [1506 to 1530]
He lived 1461 to 1536 and was international lawyer.
Cornelius Agrippa [Agrippa, Cornelius] or Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim [Agrippa von
Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius]
philosopher
Paris, France/Antwerp, Germany
1506 to 1533
On the nobility and superiority of the female sex [1509]; On occult philosophy [1531: three books]; Epistles [1506 to
1533]
Donato Bramante [Bramante, Donato]/Michelangelo
architect
Rome, Italy
1506 to 1626
St. Peter's Cathedral [1506 to 1626: Late Renaissance church is world's largest Christian church, 230 meters by 150
meters with roof 15 stories high]
Michelangelo succeeded Bramante in 1547. Michelangelo lived 1475 to 1564.
Nzinga Mbemba or Alfonso I
king
Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo
1507 to 1543
He lived 1456 to 1542, ruled Kongo kingdom in central Africa, was Christian, and allied with Portugal.
Mozaffar Ali Siyavash [Siyavash, Mozaffar Ali]
painter
Isfahan, Iran
1508 to 1535
Layla and Majnun [1508: Safavid miniature]; Rostam
Sultan Muhammad's son Mozaffar Ali Siyavash or Mosavar Mohammadi was miniature painter of Ghazvin School.
Sultan Muhammad
painter
Isfahan, Iran
1508 to 1543
Khamsa by Nezami [1539 to 1543: book illustrations]
He was of Tabriz School of miniature painters, as was Behzad, and was Aqa Mirak of Isfahan's pupil. Mir Sayyid Ali,
Mirza Ali, and Muzaffar Ali were also of Tabriz School.
Luca Pacioli [Pacioli, Luca]
mathematician
Italy
1509
On Divine Proportion [1509]
He lived 1445 to 1514. Ratios relate to beauty.
Giorgione
painter
Italy
1509 to 1510
Fete Champêtre or Outdoor Festival [1509]; Tempest [1510]; Col Tempo or La Vecchia or Old Woman [1510]
Henry VIII
king
England
1509 to 1547
He lived 1491 to 1547 and married Katherine of Aragon, who bore Mary I. He allied with France at Field of the Cloth
of Gold. His minister was Cardinal Wolsey. Later, Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and he fought France. He got rid
of Wolsey when he failed to get divorce. He married Anne Boleyn. Thomas Cromwell became minister and started
anti-Catholic policy. He married Anne Boleyn [1530], who bore Elizabeth I. He took the pope's powers for himself,
established Church of England, and published the Bible in English. He married Jane Seymour, who bore Edward VI,
Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. He also took Wales, warred with Scotland, and lost Ireland.
In 1534, he split with Roman Catholicism and became English church leader.
Peter Henlein [Henlein, Peter]
inventor
Nuremberg, Germany
1510
spring-powered clock [1510]
He lived 1480 to 1542 {spring-powered clock}.
Matthias Grunewald [Grunewald, Matthias]
painter
Germany
1510 to 1515
Isenheim Altarpiece [1510 to 1515]
Baldassare Peruzzi [Peruzzi, Baldassare]
architect
Italy
1510 to 1520
Plan of St. Peter's [1510 to 1520]
Thomas More [More, Thomas]
philosopher
London, England
1510 to 1535
Utopia [1516: about just and good political system]
He lived 1478 to 1535 and was Catholic humanist. Freedom requires religious tolerance. Society's problems, especially
property inequality, cause most wrongdoing. State interests are material, not spiritual. Society should organize, so
community holds all property {communism, More}, with no classes. Citizens should be equal before the law.
Punishments should not be severe.
Francisco de Vitoria [Vitoria, Francisco de]
lawyer
Salamanca, Spain
1510 to 1539
On Indians [1532]; On Law of War [1532]; Theological Reflections [1539: natural and international law]
He lived 1483 to 1546, was Dominican, and was at Salamanca. He wrote about natural and international law, especially
as applied to American native peoples.
Selim I or Selim the Grim
sultan
Istanbul, Turkey
1512 to 1520
He lived 1467 to 1520 and led Ottoman Empire at height. He defeated Persia and got Kurdistan, defeated Mamelukes
in Syria and Egypt, killed many Shiite Moslems, and got Caliphate by taking over Mecca and Medina.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa [Balboa, Vasco Nunez de]
explorer
Spain/Panama/Pacific Ocean
1513
He lived 1475 to 1519. From Spain, he was first European to see Pacific Ocean at Panama (Darien).
Juan Ponce de Léon [Ponce de Léon, Juan]
discoverer
Spain/Florida/Puerto Rico
1513
He lived 1460 to 1521 and discovered Florida, and later tried to colonize Florida. He also governed Puerto Rico.
Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici [Medici, Giovanni di Lorenzo de'] or Leo X
pope
Florence, Italy/Rome, Italy
1513 to 1521
He lived 1475 to 1521 and was pope [1513 to 1521].
Christian II
king
Denmark
1513 to 1523
He lived 1481 to 1559 and was king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden [1513 to 1523] and Denmark [1513 to 1523].
Of Oldenburg line, he took Stockholm, Sweden, after Sture family died out at Lake Asunde [1520].
Niccolo Machiavelli [Machiavelli, Niccolo]
philosopher
Florence, Italy
1513 to 1527
Prince [1513]; Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy [1513: about political theory]; Mandrake Root [1515:
comedy]; History of Florence [1520 to 1527]
Politics
Government must maintain public order, because human nature is not noble or honest. Government must maintain itself
to maintain order. State actions are justifiable if they are in ruler's interest, because people act to achieve their own
interests. Means justify ends, to maintain public order.
State's goals are national independence, security, and well-ordered constitution. States need religion for social cohesion.
Power is necessary to achieve state's purposes. However, no legitimate power source exists in states. Opinion,
propaganda, virtue, and semblance of virtue can secure power and authority.
Liberty requires virtue in people. Personal rights in states should be commensurate with power. Rulers are better if
there is no censorship. People have right to rule. People in states need power, to stabilize state through system of
checks and balances. Tyrannies are bad.
Andreas Alciatus of Milan [Alciatus of Milan, Andreas]/Viglius ab Aytta [Aytta, Viglius ab]
lawyer
Milan, Italy
1514
Commentary on the laws and canons of the Church of England [1514]
Alciatus lived 1492 to 1550, wrote about international law, and founded Bourges University. He tried to discover pure
Roman law from commentaries and added good other laws.
Baldassare Castiglione [Castiglione, Baldassare]
essayist
Italy
1514
Il Libro del Cortegiano or Book of the Courtier [1514: essay]
He lived 1478 to 1529. Respect and worship of women have rules of conduct.
Francis I
king
France
1515 to 1547
He lived 1494 to 1547. With Venice, he resumed Italian Wars and won at Marignano. He lost election to be emperor of
Holy Roman Empire to Charles V [1519]. He failed to ally with England at Field of the Cross of Gold. He attacked
Charles V and lost at Pavia [1525]. He signed Treaty of Madrid, giving up claims to Spanish territory. He formed
League of Cognac with the pope, Venice, and Florence, leading to another war with Charles V. War ended to League's
disadvantage at Treaty of Cambrai [1529]. He allied with Suleiman I of Ottoman Empire and fought Charles V of Holy
Roman Empire and Henry VIII of England [1542]. He had to sign Treaty of Crepy, in which France lost Naples and
Flanders and Charles V lost Burgundy.
Pietro Pomponazzi [Pomponazzi, Pietro]
philosopher
Padua, Italy
1516
On the Immortality of the Soul [1516]
He lived 1462 to 1525 and was Aristotelian. Philosophy does not support Christianity.
Charles I
king
Spain
1516 to 1558
He lived 1500 to 1558, was Charles I of Spain [1516 to 1556] and was Charles V of Holy Roman Empire [1519 to
1558]. He fought France under Francis I in Italian Wars, sacked Rome, and got Italy. He then succeeded Ferdinand V
and Isabella I as Charles I of Spain. He defeated Schmalkaldic League but compromised his anti-Protestant position by
Peace of Augsburg [1555]. He promoted Catholic Reformation. He conquered Mexico and Peru. Silver mined at Potosi,
Peru, helped cause inflation in Europe.
Martin Luther [Luther, Martin]
priest/theologian
Germany
1517 to 1538
95 Theses [1517]; Confession of Faith [1520]; Book of Concord [1538]
He lived 1483 to 1546 and began Protestant Reformation when he posted his 95 Theses on church door at Worms
[1517]. He broke away from Roman Catholic Church, started Reformation, and founded Lutheran Church. He helped
found educational system and translated Bible into German. Faith is more important than good works. Grace of God
redeems sin. Reason, tainted by original sin, is inimical to God.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger [Sangallo the Younger, Antonio da]/Michelangelo/Giacomo della Porta [Porta,
Giacomo della]
architect/sculptor
Rome, Italy
1517 to 1590
Farnese Palace [1517 to 1589: Baroque]; Il Gesù Facade [1575 to 1584]; St. Peter's Cathedral Dome [1590: Dome is 20
meters higher than dome of Capitol Building in Washington]
Porta lived 1533 to 1602 and completed collaborations with Sangallo and Michelangelo. Sangallo the Younger lived
1484 to 1546. Sangallo the Elder lived 1455 to 1534.
Titian or Vecellio Tiziano [Tiziano, Vecellio]
painter
Italy
1518 to 1570
Assumption of the Virgin [1518]; Man with the Glove [1522]; Bacchanal of the Andrians [1525]; Madonna with
Members of the Pesaro Family [1526]; Paul III and His Grandsons Ottavio and Cardinal Alessandro Farnese [1546];
Charles V [1548]; Christ Crowned in Thorns [1570]
Ferdinand Magellan [Magellan, Ferdinand]
discoverer
Spain/Philippines
1519 to 1522
He lived 1480 to 1521. His ships circumnavigated world and showed Asia and America relation to Europe. Magellan
discovered Philippines [1521] and claimed them for Spain. Juan Sebastian Del Cano returned home, but Magellan was
slain.
Domenico Bernabei [Bernabei, Domenico] or Domenico da Cortona [Cortona, Domenico da]
architect
Italy
1519 to 1539
Chateau de Chambourd [1519 to 1539: Early Renaissance castle]
Charles V
emperor
Germany/Austria
1519 to 1554
He lived 1500 to 1558. As Archduke of Austria and king of Spain, nobles elected him Holy Roman Emperor [1519].
Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire included Spain, Latin America, Naples, Sicily, Low Countries, and Austria.
He defeated the peasants in Peasants' War [1524 to 1526] and in other uprisings.
This preserved feudalism [until 1806].
He had to give power to German princes. He abdicated in favor of his brothers and son [1554] to become Charles I of
Spain [until 1556]. As Holy Roman Empire emperor and Austria king, he added territory in Flanders and Holland
[1490]. He took Rome and captured Pope Clement VII [1527].
Hwadam or Flowery Pool or So Kyongdok
philosopher
Kaesong, Korea
1520 to 1540
Sijo or Shijo or Short Poems [1520 to 1540: poems]
He lived 1489 to 1546 and taught the sijo poet Hwang Chini. Great harmony {taehwa} unites the "i" and "ki" of neoConfucianism.
Claude de Lorraine [Lorraine, Claude de]
duke
Guise, France
1520 to 1550
He lived 1496 to 1550 and was first Duke of Guise [1520 to 1550], branching from House of Lorraine. Second Duke of
Guise [1550 to 1588] controlled King Francis II of France, suppressed Protestant Huguenots, and provoked Wars of
Religion [1562] by opposing Catherine de' Medici's tolerance. He helped plan St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of
Protestants in Paris. He formed Catholic League [1576] and revolted against Henry III [1588].
Suleiman I or Suleiman the Magnificent or Suleiman the Lawgiver or Sulayman the Magnificent
sultan
Istanbul, Turkey
1520 to 1566
He lived 1494 to 1566. As Sultan of Ottoman Empire [1520 to 1566], he conquered Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungary at
Mohacs, Persia, Arabian coast, and Mediterranean Sea under Admiral Barbarossa. He lost siege of Vienna, failed to
take Malta and Tunis, and did not defeat Spain or Venice at sea. He allied with France against Austria [1536], reformed
government, and favored arts.
Hernando Cortez [Cortez, Hernando] or Hernan Cortes [Cortes, Hernan]
discoverer
Spain/Mexico
1521
He lived 1485 to 1547. Coming to Mexico for Spain, people thought he was descendant of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl.
He renounced his allegiance to Spain and defeated Spanish army. He turned to defeated Aztecs, but he lost his powers.
John Skelton [Skelton, John]
poet
England
1521
Speke Parrot [1521: satire]
John III
king
Portugal
1521 to 1557
He lived 1502 to 1557, was Manuel I's son, started Inquisition, and increased slavery. Kingdom was at height.
Ignatius of Loyola
priest
Rome, Italy
1522 to 1539
Spiritual Exercises [1522 to 1524]
He lived 1491 to 1556 and founded Society of Jesus {Jesuit} monastic order [1539], to serve the pope as teachers and
missionaries. He later became Catholic saint.
Ludovico Vives [Vives, Ludovico] or Johann Ludwig Vives [Vives, Johann Ludwig] or Juan Luis Vives [Vives,
Juan Luis]
philosopher
Aragon, Spain
1523
Instruction of a Christian Woman [1523]
He lived 1492 to 1540 and was humanist and Neoplatonist.
Clement VII
pope
Rome, Italy
1523 to 1534
He lived 1475 to 1534 and was Medici. As pope, he first opposed but then crowned Charles V as Holy Roman Empire
emperor. He opposed Henry VIII's divorce.
Hans Holbein the Younger [Holbein the Younger, Hans]
painter
Germany
1523 to 1540
Erasmus [1523]; Madonna of Burgomeister Meyer [1526]; Sir Thomas More and His Family [1527]; Henry VIII
[1540]
Gustavus I
king
Sweden
1523 to 1560
He lived 1496 to 1560. Nobles elected him king after he led peasants revolt against Denmark and dissolved Kalmar
Union. He established Lutheran Church [1527]. He ended economic dependence on Hanseatic League by defeating it
[1537]. He founded Vasa Dynasty: Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles
XI.
Girolamo Cardano [Cardano, Girolamo] or Gerolamo Cardano [Cardano, Gerolamo]
mathematician/physician/inventor
Milan, Italy
1524 to 1545
Book of Games of Chance [1524]; Practice of Arithmetic and Simple Mensuration [1540]; Great Arts [1545]; universal
joint or cardan shaft [1545]; combination lock
He lived 1501 to 1576 and found general-cubic-equation and general-quartic-equation solutions. He studied negativenumber square roots and essentially discovered complex numbers, finding complex-number roots of x + y = 10 and x*y
= 40. Cubic equation can be x^3 = p*x + q, where p and q can be zero, positive, or negative. Cubic equation can have
up to three roots, all real numbers. If there are three roots {casus irreducibilis}, intermediate steps to solution can
require complex numbers. He also studied game probability and began probability theory.
Politics
Culture and politics relate, as actual states and history show.
Tahmasp
shah
Iran
1524 to 1576
He lived 1514 to 1576. Safavids ruled Persia.
Jacob the Czech of Prague
inventor
Prague, Czech Republic
1525
fusee [1525]
Conical devices {fusee} can keep constant tension in clock springs.
Diego Ribeiro [Ribeiro, Diego]
mapmaker
Spain
1525
He lived ? to 1533 and charted Pacific Ocean.
Correggio
painter
Italy
1525 to 1532
Assumption of the Virgin [1525]; Jupiter and Io [1532]
Giulio Romano
painter
Italy
1525 to 1535
Polyphemus the Cyclops [1525 to 1535: Mannerist]
He lived 1499 to 1546 and started academic style.
Lucas Cranach the Elder [Cranach the Elder, Lucas]
engraver
Germany
1528 to 1545
Judgment of Paris [1528]; Stag Hunt of the Elector Frederick the Wise [1529: Northern Renaissance]; Christ Blessing
the Children [1545]
He lived 1472 to 1553. Lucas Cranach the Younger lived 1515 to 1586.
Albrecht Altdorfer [Altdorfer, Albrecht]
painter
Germany
1529
Battle of Issus [1529: Northern-Renaissance panel]
Martin Luther [Luther, Martin]
lyricist/composer
Worms, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
1529
Mighty Fortress Is Our God [1529: music is Ein' Feste Burg, translated by Frederick H. Hedge in 1914]
John Calvin [Calvin, John]
theologian/religious reformer
Geneva, Switzerland
1530 to 1564
Institutes of the Christian Religion [1530]
He lived 1509 to 1564, broke away from Roman Catholic Church, and founded Calvinism.
God has all authority, dictated the Bible, and created good world. People are sinful. Christ can redeem them. People are
predestined to heaven or hell. People should work hard and try to be successful. Redemption is by faith alone, but thrift,
industry, order, and steadfastness are virtues. God knows all actions at time's beginning {predestination, Calvin}. The
Bible has religious authority, not Pope.
Tabinshwehti
king
Burma
1531 to 1550
He lived 1512 to 1550, was of Toungoo dynasty [1531 to 1550], took Pegu from Mons [1546], and became king of
Burma.
Ludovico Ariosto [Ariosto, Ludovico]
poet
Italy
1532 to 1533
Orlando Furioso [1532: epic poem]
Francisco Pizarro [Pizarro, Francisco]
discoverer
Spain/Peru
1532 to 1541
He lived 1475 to 1541 and conquered Peru starting at Cajamarca and marching to Cuzco [1533]. He ruled until
assassinated.
Aqa Mirak [Mirak, Aqa] or Agha Mirak [Mirak, Agha] or Aqa Jalal ad-Din Mirak al-Hasani [Mirak al-Hasani,
Aqa Jalal ad-Din]
painter
Isfahan, Iran
1532 to 1543
Firdausi Encounters the Court Poets of Ghazna [1532]; Khamsa by Nezami [1539 to 1543]
He taught Sultan Muhammad.
François Rabelais [Rabelais, François]
novelist
France
1533
Gargantua and Pantagruel [1533]
Ivan IV or Ivan the Terrible
grand duke/tsar
Moscow, Russia
1533 to 1584
He lived 1530 to 1584 and was three years old when he became grand duke [1533]. Later, he began rule himself [1547
to 1584]. He took European Russia and Siberia, conquering Tatars under Yermak [1582]. He lost Poland and Sweden.
He put down nobles, created army corps to put down rebellion, and became insane.
Jacques Cartier [Cartier, Jacques]
explorer
France/Canada
1534
He lived 1491 to 1557. From France, he explored and then settled in Canada.
Manco Inca Yupanqui
emperor
Peru
1534 to 1537
He lived 1516 to 1544 and was last Inca emperor [1534 to 1537].
Paul III
pope
Rome, Italy
1534 to 1549
He lived 1468 to 1549. As pope, he founded modern Inquisition and censorship and began Catholic reform.
Paracelsus or Philippus Aureolus [Aureolus, Philippus]
alchemist
Innsbruck, Austria
1536
Great Surgery Book [1536]
He lived 1493 to 1541. He searched for substance {philosopher's stone, Paracelsus} that can control nature by
strengthening essence of universe in all things. To mercury and sulfur, he added salt, for body, to have three primary
substances {tria prima}.
Philippe Verdelot [Verdelot, Philippe]
composer
Europe
1536
Madrigal book [1536]
Costanzo Festa [Festa, Costanzo]
composer
Europe
1537
Magnificat [1537]
Nicolo Tartaglia [Tartaglia, Nicolo]
mathematician
Venice, Italy
1537 to 1546
New Sciences [1537]; New Problems and Inventions [1546]
He lived 1499 to 1557 and found general solution to cubic equation.
Cosimo I de Medici
duke
Florence, Italy
1537 to 1574
He lived 1519 to 1574, had absolute power, and led Florence at height. He became grand duke of Tuscany [1569 to
1574] through the pope's order. He was Giovanni de' Medici or Giovanni delle Bande Nere's son [1498 to 1526]. He
gained a banking fortune, patronized arts, and started Medici rule.
Francis Xavier [Xavier, Francis]
missionary
Japan
1539 to 1551
He lived 1506 to 1552 and was Roman Catholic saint and missionary [1539 to 1551].
Domingo de Soto [de Soto, Domingo]
discoverer
Spain/Georgia
1540
He lived 1494 to 1560, was Dominican, explored Georgia, and started Sea Island Missions.
Toegye or Yi Hwang or Retreating Creek or Gyeongho
philosopher
Hanseong (Seoul), Korea
1540 to 1560
Sijo or Shijo or Short Poems [1540 to 1560: poems]; Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning [1540 to 1560]; Outline and
Explanations of the Works of Zhu Xi [1540 to 1560]; Commentary on the Scripture of the Heart [1540 to 1560];
History of Neo-Confucianism in the Song, Yuan and Ming Dynasties [1540 to 1560]; Four-Seven Debate [1540 to
1560: discusses Mencius with Ki Taesung]
He lived 1501 to 1570. He emphasized effort and devotion {chisung}, as neo-Confucian mental strength {kyung} with
emphasis on action. Process allows the "i" and "ki" of neo-Confucianism to derive from each other.
Francesco Primaticcio [Primaticcio, Francesco]/Sebastiano Serlio [Serlio, Sebastiano]
architect
France
1541 to 1545
Fontainebleau Palace [1541 to 1545: French Mannerist]
Primaticcio lived 1504 to 1570. Serlio lived 1475 to 1554.
Bartolomé de las Casas [Casas, Bartolomé de las]
philosopher
Mexico
1542
Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies [1542]
He lived 1484 to 1566 and was for Native American rights.
Lodovico Ferrari [Ferrari, Lodovico]
mathematician
Italy
1542
He lived 1522 to 1565 and found general solution to quartic equation [1542].
Mary Stuart or Mary Queen of Scots
queen
Scotland
1542 to 1587
She lived 1542 to 1587, was queen of Scotland [1542 to 1567], and was queen consort of France [1559 to 1560]. She
escaped to England after her husband's murder and her remarriage. She engaged in several attempts to get throne from
Queen Elizabeth I, with Catholic support, because she was Catholic. England beheaded her [1587].
Nicholas Copernicus [Copernicus, Nicholas]
astronomer
Poland
1543
On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs [1543]
He lived 1473 to 1543 and invented heliocentric theory of solar system.
Andreas Vesalius [Vesalius, Andreas]
biologist
Flanders/Basel, Switzerland
1543
On the Structure of the Human Body [1543]
He lived 1514 to 1564 and studied animal and human anatomy.
Domingo de Soto of Segovia [Soto of Segovia, Domingo de]
philosopher
Segovia, Spain
1544 to 1545
Aristotelian Commentaries [1544]; Eight Books on Aristotelian Physics [1545: commentary on Aristotle's Categories]
He lived 1494 to 1560, was Francis Vittoria's student, was in School of Salamanca, and was Thomist.
Daniele da Volterra [Volterra, Daniele da]
painter
Rome, Italy
1545
Descent from the Cross [1545: in Church of the Trinità dei Monti]
Mannerist lived 1509 to 1566.
Pierre Lescot [Lescot, Pierre]
architect
Paris, France
1546
Louvre [1546: Court southwest side is High Renaissance]
Berndt Notke [Notke, Berndt]
sculptor
Germany/Stockholm, Sweden
1546
St. George Group [1546: Northern-Renaissance wood sculpture in Cathedral of Saint Nicholas, including St. George
and the Dragon]
He lived 1435 to 1509, was from Germany, carved wood, and painted.
Edward VI
king
England
1547 to 1553
He lived 1537 to 1553 and was under regency of Duke of Somerset, Edward Seymour, who eased heresy and treason
laws, favored Protestants, and helped yeomen. Duke of Northumberland engineered Somerset's downfall and caused
struggle for throne by opposing Mary I.
Chrétien Herlin [Herlin, Chrétien]/Conrad Dasypodius [Dasypodius, Conrad]
inventor
Strasbourg, France
1547 to 1574
astronomical clock [1547 to 1574: clock with escapement and moving figures]
Dasypodius lived 1532 to 1604.
Philip Melancthon [Melancthon, Philip]
minister
Wittenberg, Saxony, Germany
1548
History of the Life and Acts of Luther [1548]
He lived 1497 to 1560 and broke away from Roman Catholic Church. He used Aristotle to make philosophy for
Protestantism.
Peter Ramus [Ramus, Peter] or Petrus Ramus [Ramus, Petrus] or Pierre de la Ramée [Ramée, Pierre de la]
philosopher
Paris, France
1549
Arguments in Rhetoric Against Quintilian [1549]
He lived 1515 to 1572. Rhetoric and grammar demonstrate that people can use reasoning at will. Answering question
requires correct viewpoint {invention}. Selecting invention to apply to question requires judgment {judicium}. Good
judgment selects correct viewpoint for question by relating subject and object using category, cause, effect, or relation.
Person's judgments unite to build philosophical system. Judgments and system relate to God.
Jacques Arcadelt [Arcadelt, Jacques]
composer
Europe
1550
Il Bianco e Dolce Cigno or Sweet White Swan [1550]; Ave Maria or Hail Mary [1550]
Benvenuto Cellini [Cellini, Benvenuto]
sculptor
Italy
1550
Saltcellar of Francis I [1550: Mannerist]
Hiawatha or Ayenwatha
chief
USA
1550
As Lone Pine tribe chief, he created Iroquois Confederation of Native American tribes in northeast USA and so became
Onondaga and Mohawk chief.
Sadiqi-Beg or Sadegh Beig [Beig, Sadegh]
calligrapher
Isfahan, Iran
1550
Dragon and Horseman [1550]
He lived 1533 to 1610, wrote Arabic calligraphy, painted miniatures, and was of Ghazvin School.
Lelio Sozzini [Sozzini, Lelio] or Laelius Socinus [Socinus, Laelius]
philosopher
Italy
1550 to 1560
Commentary on John 1 [1550 to 1560]
He lived 1525 to 1562, and founded Anti-trinitarian movement.
Giorgio Vasari [Vasari, Giorgio]
architect/historian
Florence, Italy
1550 to 1560
Uffizi Gallery [1559 to 1560]; Lives of the Most Excellent Architects, Sculptors, and Painters [1550: book]
Jacques Cujas [Cujas, Jacques] or Jacques de Cujas [Cujas, Jacques de] or Cujacius
lawyer
Paris, France
1550 to 1580
Criticisms and Observations [1550 to 1580]; Additional Commentary [1550 to 1580: on Digest and Code of Justinian,
especially Ulpian and Paulus]
He lived 1520 to 1590 and helped establish Continental law and international law, using original sources. He studied
law at Bourges University, was Alciati's pupil's student, and studied law's relations to history and literature.
Rikyu or Sen no Rikyu [Rikyu, Sen no] or Sen no Rikyu Koji [Rikyu Koji, Sen no]
philosopher
Kyoto, Japan
1550 to 1591
Poems [1550 to 1591]
He lived 1518 to 1591 and perfected tea ceremony.
Vijnanabhiksu
philosopher
Uttar Pradesh, India
1550 to 1600
Essence of Yoga [1550 to 1600: about Yoga]; Conveying Intelligence about Yoga [1550 to 1600: about Yoga]; System
of Sankhya [1550 to 1600: about Sankhya yoga]; Spiritual Theological Dictionary and Announcements of Sankhya
[1550 to 1600: about Sankhya yoga]
Bayinnaung or Braginoco or Barinnaung
king
Burma/Thailand
1551 to 1581
From Burma, he took Thailand.
Mary I
queen
England
1553 to 1558
She lived 1516 to 1558. Staunch Catholic, she married Philip II of Spain, allied with Spain, and restored England to
Catholic Church. Her religious persecutions made her Bloody Mary.
Gerhardus Mercator [Mercator, Gerhardus]
geographer
Duisberg, Flanders
1554 to 1594
Atlas [1569]
He lived 1512 to 1594, drew maps [1554], and created Mercator's projection [1569].
Nostradamus
poet
France
1555
Centuries [1555: poetic prophecies]
Paul IV
pope
Rome, Italy
1555 to 1559
He lived 1476 to 1559. As pope, he altered papacy.
Barma or Postnik Yakovlev [Yakovlev, Postnik]
architect
Moscow, Russia
1555 to 1561
Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed or Intercession Cathedral [1555 to 1561: Byzantine tented church next to Kremlin
has bulb-shaped wood towers]
Cathedral has hipped roof with small arches in tiers. Ivan the Terrible had it built after he captured Kazan Khanate. St.
Basil has chapel built by Czar Fedor Ivanovich [1588].
William the Silent or William of Orange
stadholder
Netherlands
1555 to 1584
He lived 1533 to 1584. As prince of Orange, Spain appointed him stadholder of Holland [1555]. Later, he supported the
Gueux, who were Dutch and Flemish nobles opposed to intervention from Spain, and fought Spain. After deposing
Philip II of Spain, he ruled United Provinces [1579 to 1584] and founded Dutch Republic. Someone assassinated him
before struggles with Spain ended.
Louise Labé [Labé, Louise] or La Belle Cordière [Cordière, La Belle]
poet
Lyon, France
1556
Sonnet I What If The Hero [1556]; Sonnet II Your Cold, Appraising Eyes [1556]; Sonnet III My Long Desire [1556];
Sonnet IV When Love Arrives [1556]; Sonnet V Bright Venus [1556]; Sonnet VI Twice Blessed [1556]; Sonnet VII
All Love Is Seen [1556]; Sonnet VIII I Live, I Die [1556]; Sonnet IX However Soon [1556]; Sonnet X When I Catch
Sight [1556]; Sonnet XI One Passing Glance [1556]; Sonnet XII O Lute, True Friend [1556]; Sonnet XIII If Only I
Were Ravished [1556]; Sonnet XIV As Long As Tears [1556]; Sonnet XV Pay Homage [1556]; Sonnet XVI A Bolt of
Lightning [1556]; Sonnet XVII I Run Away [1556]; Sonnet XVIII O Kiss Me [1556]; Sonnet XIX The Beautiful Diana
[1556]; Sonnet XX I Always Knew [1556]; Sonnet XXI That Solemn Grandeur [1556]; Sonnet XXII O Shining Sun
[1556]; Sonnet XXIII Alas! You Used To Pour Out Lavish Praise [1556]; Sonnet XXIV Do Not Blame Me, Ladies
[1556]; À Mademoiselle Clémence de Bourges [1556]; Au temps qu'Amour or In the Time of Love [1556]; D'un tel
vouloir or Wanting [1556]; Quand vous lirez or When you listen [1556]
She lived 1524 to 1566 and was of the Lyons School of Humanist poets, which used the Petrarchan sonnet.
Philip II
king
Spain
1556 to 1598
He lived 1527 to 1598 and ascended when his father, Charles I, abdicated. He got Netherlands, Belgium, and
Luxembourg at Treaty of Augsburg between Spain and Holy Roman Empire. Belgium had Flanders, Hainaut, Limburg,
Antwerp, and Brabant. He married Mary I of England but left when he did not become king of England. He fought
France. By Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis [1559], Spain became leading European power, holding America, Naples,
Sicily, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Milan, and Franche-Comte in France. He was strong Catholic
and emphasized Spanish Inquisition. When he imposed the Inquisition in the Netherlands, William the Silent led
rebellion against Duke of Alba. Philip II took Portugal when Henry I died, with support of legislature {Cortes} of
Portugal. Because Francis Drake had raided Cadiz and England's navy had helped Netherlands, he built Spanish
Armada, but it lost [1588]. He helped Catholic League in Wars of Religion in France. He gained Philippines.
Akbar or Great Mogul
emperor
India
1556 to 1605
He lived 1542 to 1605. Mogul Empire took Afghanistan and rest of north India. Agra was capital. He reformed
government, allowed religious tolerance, and started land tax. He married the Rajputana Hindu king's daughter. Urdu
language started, which was Hindi language with Turkish and Persian words.
Index
inquisition
Rome, Italy
1557
Inquisition listed banned books.
Sebastian
king
Portugal
1557 to 1578
He lived 1554 to 1578 and lost Africa.
Giovanni della Casa [Casa, Giovanni della]
writer
Italy
1558
Il Galateo [1558]
He lived 1503 to 1556. Gentleman has good manners.
Ferdinand I
emperor
Austria/Germany/Hungary/Bohemia
1558 to 1564
He lived 1503 to 1564. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he fought Suleiman I in Hungary, pushed
Protestant Reformation, abolished liberty, fought Peasants' War, and got Peace of Augsburg [1555].
Elizabeth I
queen
England
1558 to 1603
She lived 1533 to 1603, was Tudor, and built navy, colonies, and trade under her ministers Burghly and Cecil. She
favored Anglicans against Protestants and first sheltered then imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots. She had romances
with Earl of Essex and Earl of Leicester.
Paolo Veronese [Veronese, Paolo]
painter
Venice, Italy
1559 to 1576
Supper at Emmaus [1559: in Church of San Sebastian in Venice]; Marriage at Cana [1562]; Rape of Europa [1576: in
Ducal Palace in Venice]
Catherine de' Medici
regent
France
1560
She lived 1519 to 1589. Catherine de' Medici, queen to Henry II, was regent for Charles IX of France [1560]. She
persecuted Protestants.
Orlando di Lasso [Lasso, Orlando di]
composer
Flanders/France
1560
Penitential Psalms [1560]
He lived 1532 to 1594, composed masses, motets, and choral music, and invented cross-relation.
Filippo Neri [Neri, Filippo]
saint
Rome, Italy
1560 to 1580
He lived 1515 to 1595 and became Roman Catholic saint.
Theresa of Avila
saint
Rome, Italy
1560 to 1580
She lived 1515 to 1582 and became Roman Catholic saint.
Muhammadi
painter
Middle East
1560 to 1586
miniatures [1560 to 1586]
He painted miniatures.
Shaikh Bahai [Bahai, Shaikh] or Shaykh Baha'i [Baha'i, Shaykh] or Sheykh-e Baha'ee [Baha'ee, Sheykh-e] or
Sheikh Baha' al-Din Mohammed bin Hossein Ameli [Ameli, Sheikh Baha' al-Din Mohammed bin Hossein]
poet
Persia
1560 to 1605
Tashrih al-Aflak or Explanation of Heavens [1605: poem about astrology]; Risalat Khulasat al-Hisab or Khulasat alHisab or Kholasat al-Hesab or al-Khullasah Fil Hisab or Treatise on Reckoning [1560 to 1605: about mathematics];
Milk and Sugar [1560 to 1605: masnavi poem]; Bread and Sweet Paste [1560 to 1605: masnavi poem]; Kashkool or
Scraps [1560 to 1605: stories and Persian and Arabic proverbs]; Collection [1560 to 1605: essays]
He lived 1532 to 1610 and wrote in Arabic.
John Hawkins [Hawkins, John]
slaver
West Africa
1562
He lived 1532 to 1595. From England, he took slaves from West Africa to Americas.
Vincinzo Galilei [Galilei, Vincinzo]
composer
Italy
1563 to 1584
Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna or Dialogue on ancient and modern music [1581]; Fronimo or Lute
Playing [1584]
He lived 1528 to 1591 and composed Baroque monodic works.
Andrea Amati [Amati, Andrea]
instrument maker
Cremona, Italy
1564
He lived 1520 to 1578 and perfected violins [1564], labeling them Amadus or Andreas Amatus and using varnish with
amber color. His sons, Antonio Amati and Girolamo Amati, used Antonius Amatus and Hieronymus Amatus. Girolamo
Amati's son Niccolò Amati [1596 to 1684] built the best ones [1645], labeling them Nicolaus Amatus. His students
were Antonio Stradivari, Andrea Guarneri, and his son Girolamo Amati [1649 to 1740].
Lopez de Legaspi [Legaspi, Lopez de]
discoverer
Spain/Philippines
1564
He lived 1502 to 1572 and conquered Philippines.
Germain Pilon [Pilon, Germain]
sculptor
France
1564 to 1583
Tomb of Henry II and Catherine de Medici [1564 to 1583: Mannerist]
Carlo Borromeo [Borromeo, Carlo] or San Carlo Borromeo [Borromeo, San Carlo] or Charles Borromaeus
[Borromaeus, Charles]
cardinal/architect/saint
Milan, Italy
1564 to 1584
Instructiones fabricae et supellectilis ecclestiasticae or Instructions for building and decorating churches [1573: book]
Pieter Bruegel the Elder [Bruegel the Elder, Pieter]
painter
Flanders
1565 to 1568
Return of the Herd [1565]; Hunters in the Snow [1565: Northern Renaissance]; Peasant Wedding [1568]; Blind
Leading the Blind [1568]
Andrea Palladio [Palladio, Andrea]
architect/designer
Vincenza, Italy
1565 to 1570
San Giorgio Maggiore or Saint George Major [1565]; Villa Rotunda [1567 to 1570]; Palladian furniture style [1550:
windows and columns had pediments and cornices, with eagle, scallop shell, and acanthus leaf decorations]
Yulgok or Yi I or Sukheon or Chestnut Valley
philosopher
Hanseong (Seoul), Korea
1565 to 1576
Divine [1565]; Questions and Answers at East Lake [1570]; Essentials of Confucianism [1576]; Complete Works of
Yulgok [1585: compiled by students]
He lived 1536 to 1584. Process allows the "i" to become the "ki" of neo-Confucianism.
Pius V
pope
Rome, Italy
1566 to 1572
He lived 1504 to 1572. As pope, he united Spain and Venice against Ottoman Empire. He implemented Third-Councilof-Trent reforms.
Tintoretto
painter
Italy
1566 to 1581
Christ before Pilate [1566]; Last Supper [1581]
Martin Alfonso de Sousa [Alfonso de Sousa, Martin]
governor
Brazil
1567
He lived 1500 to 1564 and founded Sao Paolo. Portugal ousted France from Rio de Janiero [1567].
Alvaro de Mendaña [Mendaña, Alvaro de]
explorer
Spain/Ellice Islands/Solomon Islands/Marquesas Islands
1567 to 1569
He lived 1541 to 1595. From Spain, he left Callao in Peru, crossed Pacific Ocean, and came back [1567 to 1569]. From
Spain, he found Marquesas Islands [1595].
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola [Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da]
architect
Rome, Italy
1568
Il Gesu church or Jesus church [1568: Late Renaissance and pre-Baroque church]
Mimar Koca Sinan [Sinan, Mimar Koca]
architect
Edirne, Turkey
1568 to 1574
Selimiye Mosque [1568 to 1574]
He lived 1489 to 1588. It was for Selim II.
Oda Nobunaga [Nobunaga, Oda]
shogun
Japan
1568 to 1600
He lived 1534 to 1582. Ashikaga shogunate defeated all rival barons. He took Kyoto and unified Japan {National
Unification period}.
Gabriel Van der Muyden [Muyden, Gabriel Van der] or Mudaeus
lawyer
Belgium
1570
He lived 1500 to 1560, was international lawyer, was Alciatus' pupil, and founded Louvain University.
Giovanni Palestrina [Palestrina, Giovanni]
composer
Italy
1570
Tu Es Petrus or You Are Peter [1570]
He lived 1524 to 1594 and composed masses, motets, and choral music.
Fausto Sozzini [Sozzini, Fausto] or Fausto Sozini [Sozini, Fausto] or Socianus or Faustus Socinus [Socinus,
Faustus]
philosopher
Rome, Italy/Poland
1570
On the Authority of the Holy Scriptures [1570]
He lived 1539 to 1604, started Unitarianism {Socinianism}, which denied the Trinity, and founded Polish Brethern
[1579].
Muzaffar 'Ali
painter
Isfahan, Iran
1570 to 1575
He lived 1540 to 1576 and was miniature painter of Ghazvin School.
John of Austria or Don John or Juan of Austria
captain
Spain/Austria
1571
He lived 1547 to 1578 and defeated Ottoman Empire navy at naval Battle of Lepanto [1571].
Edmund Plowden [Plowden, Edmund] or Edward Plowden [Plowden, Edward]
judge
London, England
1571
Commentaries or Reports [1571: first modern law reports emphasized sense of laws]
Gregory XIII
pope
Rome, Italy
1572 to 1585
He lived 1502 to 1585. As pope, he began Gregorian calendar, established new canon law, and led Fourth Council of
Trent. Fourth Council of Trent established modern Catholic Church foundation. He did not deal with German
Protestants.
Torquato Tasso [Tasso, Torquato]
poet
Italy
1573 to 1581
Aminta [1573: pastoral play]; Gerusalemme Liberata or Jerusalem Delivered [1581: poem]
Wanli or Wan-li or Chu I-chun or Hsien Ti or Shen Tsung
emperor
China
1573 to 1620
He lived 1563 to 1620. Empire had painting and porcelain making.
Henry III
king
France
1574 to 1589
He lived 1551 to 1589. Henry of Navarre led Huguenots, a French Protestant party, and married Margaret of Valois,
leading to St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris, followed by Wars of Religion. Henry of Navarre
defeated Henry III and Catholic League. Because Henry III was last of Valois line, Henry III designated Henry of
Navarre (later Henry IV) to be king. Duke of Guise, head of Catholic League, opposed this designation, and War of the
Three Henries followed, in which Henry III murdered Guise and Catholic League rebels.
Stephen Batory [Batory, Stephen]
king
Transylvania/Romania/Poland
1575 to 1586
He lived 1533 to 1586 and was Prince of Transylvania [1576 to 1586] in Romania. Nobles elected him King of Poland
[1575].
Jean Bodin [Bodin, Jean]
lawyer
Paris, France
1576
Six Books of the Republic [1576: about state sovereignty]
He lived 1530 to 1596 and belonged to Politiques. Family is basis of society. State is about material, not spiritual,
things. State requires absolute sovereignty to prevent civil war.
Martin Frobisher [Frobisher, Martin]
explorer
England/Canada
1576
He lived 1535 to 1594. From England, he tried to find Northwest Passage to China and reached Canadian coast.
Bartholomew Medina [Medina, Bartholomew]
philosopher
Salamanca, Spain
1577 to 1584
Commentary on the First Section of the Second Part of the Summary of Theology [1577]; Brief Instruction about how
to administer the sacrament of penitence [1580]; Commentary in Three Parts [1584]
He lived 1527 to 1581, was Francis Vittoria's student, was Thomist, and was founder of Probabilism [1577]. People are
free to perform other acts, rather than always conforming to moral law {probabilism}.
Francis Drake [Drake, Francis]
captain
England
1577 to 1588
He lived 1540 to 1596 and sailed around world [1577 to 1580]. He pirated ships from Spain and helped defeat Ireland.
He destroyed fleet of Spain at Cadiz [1587] and helped defeat Spanish Armada [1588].
Luca Marenzio [Marenzio, Luca]
composer
Italy
1577 to 1593
Madrigals [1577 to 1593: in five and six parts]
He lived 1553 to 1599 and composed Mannerist madrigals with five voices.
Hubert Languet [Languet, Hubert]
philosopher
France
1579
Victory against tyranny [1579]
He lived 1518 to 1581. People can change the social agreement if sovereign rules against their interests.
François Vieta [Vieta, François]
mathematician
Paris, France
1579
Mathematical Canon [1579]
He lived 1540 to 1603 and invented sine law, cosine law, and Napier's rule.
Edmund Spenser [Spenser, Edmund]
poet
England
1579 to 1596
Shepheardes Calendar [1579: pastoral]; Epithalamion or Wedding Song [1595: poem]; Fairie Queen [1590 to 1596:
poem]
Michel de Montaigne [Montaigne, Michel de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1580
Essays [1580: including Cannibals and the Apology for Raimond Sebond]
He lived 1533 to 1592, was humanist, and emphasized instincts, faith, and irony of life. He developed Skepticism,
based on Sextus Empiricus' and Pyrrho's ideas.
Wang Shih-cheng
writer
China
1580
Golden Lotus [1580: Ming Dynasty novel]
He lived ? to 1593.
John of the Cross
saint/poet
Rome, Italy
1580 to 1590
He lived 1542 to 1591 and became Roman Catholic saint and mystic.
Giordano Bruno [Bruno, Giordano]
priest
1580 to 1600
On the Infinite Universe and Worlds
He lived 1548 to 1600 and was Dominican. He influenced Spinoza and Leibniz.
Epistemology
Absolute truth does not exist. Knowledge has no limit.
Ethics
People should be optimistic and joyous about man, nature, and God.
Metaphysics
Space, time, and particles have no limit. Countless worlds exist, each growing and decaying in the living universe.
Reality units {monad, Bruno} are parts of eternal infinite being. Monads are infinite in number, living, imperishable,
individual, material, spiritual, and existing. Monads follow own laws and general law.
Universe is alive and has soul {anima mundi} {world-soul}.
God is the formal, efficient, and final cause of all things and is immanent and transcendent. World is life of God and so
is perfect and harmonious, if viewed as whole. God is like light: illuminating, animating, and forming world. Essence
of God and world are same {pantheism, Bruno}. World opposites harmonize in God's infinity.
All things have matter, mind, and spirit. People can know these if they are in themselves. Things are individual and
different but in essence are God.
Johannes Capreolus [Capreolus, Johannes] or John Capreolus [Capreolus, John]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1580 to 1600
He lived 1550 to 1600 and was Principal Thomist.
Cornelius Corneliszoon [Corneliszoon, Cornelius]
inventor
Netherlands
1580 to 1600
sawmill [1580 to 1600]; pitman [1580 to 1600]
He lived 1550 to 1600 and invented pitman to convert rotary motion into back-and-forth motion.
Imad al-Husni [al-Husni, Imad]
calligrapher
Isfahan, Iran
1580 to 1610
Imad al-Husni lived 1554 to 1614 and was of Isfahan School.
Jacques Salmon [Salmon, Jacques]/Sieur de La Chesnaye [Chesnaye, Sieur de La]/Lambert de Beaulieu
[Beaulieu, Lambert de]
choreographer/composer/lyricist
Italy
1581
Ballet Comique de la Reine [1581]
First ballet was for Catherine de Medici. Dances combined ballet de cour and Italian opera and had music, dance, plot,
and choreography.
François Sanchez [Sanchez, François]
philosopher
Spain/Lyon, France
1581
That nothing is known [1581]
He lived 1550 to 1623 and developed doubt as method. He said Scholastic ideas and methods were too far from actual
world.
Antoine Favre [Favre, Antoine] or Antonius Faber [Faber, Antonius]
lawyer
Netherlands/Lyon, France
1581 to 1607
Conjectures on Civil Law [1581: three books]; On Practical Errors and Law Interpretation [1598]; Codex Fabrianus
[1607]
He lived 1557 to 1624 and was international lawyer.
Domingo Banez [Banez, Domingo] or Domingo Vanez [Vanez, Domingo]
philosopher
Salamanca, Spain
1584
Primacy of Existence in Thomas Aquinas [1584]
He lived 1535 to 1600, was Francis Vittoria's student, and was Thomist and Dominican. God gives grace and motivates
acceptance of grace {praemotio physica}.
Feodor I
czar
Russia
1584 to 1598
He lived 1557 to 1598, was Ivan IV's son, and was Rurikid. Oleg followed and moved to Kiev.
Boris Godunov [Godunov, Boris]
czar
Russia
1584 to 1605
He lived 1551 to 1605 and was Feodor I's son.
Simon Stevin [Stevin, Simon]
mathematician
Bruges, Belgium
1585
Art of Tenths [1585]
He lived 1548 to 1620 and used decimal fractions and force parallelograms.
Simon Stevinus [Stevinus, Simon]
mathematician
Netherlands
1585
Decimal Numbers [1585]
He lived 1548 to 1620. He invented decimal numbers and fractions, and so real numbers [1585].
Sixtus V
pope
Rome, Italy
1585 to 1590
He lived 1521 to 1590. As pope, he improved Papal-States administration and beautified Rome.
Walter Raleigh [Raleigh, Walter]
colonist/poet
England
1585 to 1599
Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd [1599: poem]
He lived 1552 to 1618 and started Roanoke Colony on North Carolina Outer Banks, but it died out [1585 to 1597]. He
introduced tobacco and potatoes to Europe. He was rival to Earl of Essex for Elizabeth's hand. James I became king and
imprisoned him in Tower of London.
Miguel Cervantes [Cervantes, Miguel]
novelist
Spain
1585 to 1615
La Galatea or Galatea [1585]; Don Quixote de la Mancha [1605 and 1615: mock epic novel]
Domenico Fontana [Fontana, Domenico]
architect
Rome, Italy
1586
St. John Lateran or Cathedral of Rome [1586: Late Renaissance church]; Lateran Palace [1586]
He lived 1543 to 1607. Cathedral began in 324 under Constantine at place according to Papal town plan.
Bernardino Telesio [Telesio, Bernardino]
philosopher
Naples, Italy
1586
On the Nature of First Principles [1586]
He lived 1509 to 1588 and was of Philosophy of Nature school.
Virginia Dare [Dare, Virginia]
colonist
Roanoke Colony, Virginia
1587
She lived 1587 to ? and was first child born in USA of parents from England.
Hugo Doneau [Doneau, Hugo] or Hugo Donellus [Donellus, Hugo] or Hugo D'Onneau [D'Onneau, Hugo] or
Hugues Doneau [Doneau, Hugues]
lawyer
Leyden, Netherlands
1587
Commentaries on the Civil Law [1587]
He lived 1527 to 1591, was international lawyer, and studied law at Bourges University.
Christopher Marlowe [Marlowe, Christopher] or Cristofer Marley [Marley, Cristofer]
poet/playwright
England
1587 to 1593
Tamburlaine the Great [1587: play]; Jew of Malta [1589: play]; Passionate Shepherd to his Love [1589: poem];
Tragedy of Dr. Faustus or Faustus [1590: play]; Edward II [1592: play]; Hero and Leander [1593]; Who Ever Loved,
that Loved not at First Sight [1593: poem from Hero and Leander]
Abbas I or Abbas the Great or Shah Abbas [Abbas, Shah]
shah
Iran
1587 to 1629
He lived 1571 to 1629, was Safavid, and moved capital from Ghazvin to Isfahan. Mullahs were powerful. He punished
Sufis. He built the Medan town square in Isfahan and encouraged art. Shah means king.
Sigismund III Vasa
king
Poland/Sweden
1587 to 1632
He lived 1566 to 1632 and was king of Poland [1587 to 1632] and Sweden [1592 to 1599]. Vasa kings of Poland fought
Sweden and Russia.
Thoinot Arbeau [Arbeau, Thoinot]
choreographer
France
1588
ballet positions [1588]
He lived 1519 to 1596 and outlined the ballet positions.
Thomas Harriott [Harriott, Thomas]
mathematician
England
1588
Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia [1588: close-packing]
He lived 1560 to 1621, used modern algebra notation, and studied trajectories. He invented refraction law.
Luis de Molina [Molina, Luis de]
philosopher
Spain/Portugal
1588
Concordia [1588]
He lived 1535 to 1600 and was Thomist. God knows all results under all circumstances, actual and possible, and so
determines circumstances. However, God does not control free will. Circumstances and will merely coincide.
El Greco or Domenikos Theotokopoulos [Theotokopoulos, Domenikos]
painter
Greece/Spain
1588 to 1609
Burial of Count Orgaz [1588]; Fray Felix Hortensio Paravicino [1609: oil]; View of Toledo [1597]
He lived 1541 to 1614, in Spain from 1577.
Albericus Gentilis [Gentilis, Albericus] or Albericius Gentilis [Gentilis, Albericius]
lawyer
London, England
1589
On the Laws of War [1589]
He lived 1552 to 1608 and emphasized that contemporary situations required new international law rules.
His ideas came into use in approximately 1900.
He established peace-treaty rules, neutrality rules, and war rules. He established justifications for war, especially selfdefense.
Licenses for reprisal against another nation's vessels {letters of marque} are unlawful, because they lead to piracy.
Travelers in peacetime have freedom of passage, especially over seas.
Diplomatic personnel have immunity from prosecution, have right of passage, and have right of property and person
protection. Rulers cannot reject embassies but can return particular ambassadors. All nations, no matter what
governmental system or ruler, are in society of nations.
Epistemology
Rights and laws based on reason are true for all people at all times.
William Lee [Lee, William]
inventor
England
1589
knitting machine [1589]
He lived 1550 to 1610 {knitting machine}.
Henry IV or Henry of Navarre
king
France
1589 to 1610
He lived 1553 to 1610, was of Bourbon family, was Huguenot leader, and defeated army sent by Henry III of France
and Catholic League, ending Wars of Religion. He gave up Protestantism to enter Paris. He fought Spain until Treaty of
Vervins. He published Edict of Nantes, giving religious tolerance. His minister Sully worked for trade and order and
helped peasants. In 1598, he granted toleration to Protestants. He started Bourbon line. Bourbons were Louis XIII,
Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.
Earl of Essex or Robert Devereux [Devereux, Robert]
earl
England
1590
He lived 1566 to 1601. After being her favorite, Queen Elizabeth I arrested and executed him for marrying secretly and
for failing to put down rebellion in Ireland.
Alonso de Ercilla y Zuniga [Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de]
poet
Spain/Chile
1590
La Araucana or Araucaniad [1590]
Wu Cheng'en
novelist
China
1590 to 1600
Journey to the West or Westward Journey or Monkey King [1590 to 1600: The monk Xuanzang travels westward to
find Buddhist writings]
William Shakespeare [Shakespeare, William]
playwright/poet
England
1590 to 1611
Henry VI [1590 to 1592: in three parts]; Richard II [1593]; Comedy of Errors [1594]; Titus Andronicus [1595]; Taming
of the Shrew [1595]; Two Gentlemen of Verona [1595]; Love's Labour's Lost [1595]; Romeo and Juliet [1596];
Richard II [1596]; Midsummer Night's Dream [1596]; King John [1596]; Merchant of Venice [1596]; Henry IV [1596:
in two parts]; Much Ado about Nothing [1597]; Henry V [1598]; Julius Caesar [1599]; As You Like It [1599]; Twelfth
Night [1600]; Hamlet [1601]; Merry Wives of Windsor [1602]; Troilus and Cressida [1602]; All's Well That Ends Well
[1603]; Measure for Measure [1603]; Othello [1604]; King Lear [1605]; Macbeth [1606]; Antony and Cleopatra
[1606]; Coriolanus [1607]; Timon of Athens [1607]; Henry VIII [1608]; Two Noble Kinsmen [1608]; Pericles [1609];
Cymbeline [1609]; Winter's Tale [1610]; Tempest [1611]; When Forty Winters [sonnet 2]; Shall I Compare Thee
[sonnet 18]; When in Disgrace with Fortune [sonnet 29]; When to the Sessions [sonnet 30]; Full Many a Glorious
Morning [sonnet 33]; Let Me Not to the Marriage of True Minds [sonnet 66]; Marriage of True Minds [sonnet 116];
Who is Sylvia? [1595: from Two Gentlemen of Verona]; Winter [1595: from Love's Labour Lost]; Imagination [1596:
from Midsummer Night's Dream]; He Jests at Scars [1596: from Romeo and Juliet]; The Living Juliet [1596: from
Romeo and Juliet]; Quality of Mercy [1596: from Merchant of Venice]; Blow Blow Thou Winter Wind [1599: from As
You Like It]; Seven Ages of Man or All the World's a Stage [1599: from As You Like It]; Under the Greenwood Tree
[1599: from As You Like It]; Loves Love the Spring [1599: from As You Like It]; To Thine Own Self Be True [1601:
from Hamlet]; To Be or Not To Be [1601: from Hamlet]; Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow [1606: from
MacBeth]; Hark Hark the Lark [1609: from Cymbeline]; When I was and a Little Tiny Boy [1611: from The Tempest];
O Mistress Mine [1611: from the Tempest]; Full Fathom Five [1611: from The Tempest]; Our Revels Now Are Ended
[1611: from The Tempest]
Philip Sidney [Sidney, Philip]
poet
England
1591
Astrophel and Stella [1591]; My True Love Hath My Heart [1591]
Tokugawa Hideyoshi [Hideyoshi, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Ieyasu [Ieyasu, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Iyeyasu
[Iyeyasu, Tokugawa]
shogun
Japan
1592 to 1616
He lived 1543 to 1616 and invaded Korea [1592], trying to take China. He founded Tokugawa Shogunate [1603 to
1867] when he defeated other barons [1603]. He allowed no one to change occupation, stabilized existing classes, and
took all swords away from classes. He encouraged foreign trade and tolerated missionaries at first.
Edward Coke [Coke, Edward]
lawyer/judge
London, England
1592 to 1641
Treatise on Bail and Mainprize [1592: about depositing money to avoid jail while awaiting trial and ordering sheriffs to
take bail]; Fines [1597: about penalties]; Beverley's Case [1603]; Book of Entries [1614: about writs and pleading];
Complete Copyholder [1630: about tenancy at will]; Institutes [1641: First volume was on common law, second was on
ancient statutes, third was on criminal law, and fourth was on court jurisdiction]
He lived 1552 to 1644. He defended common law in Shelley's case, became Solicitor General of the Realm [1592],
entered Parliament [1593], became Attorney General [1594], and later became Parliament Speaker. He became Chief
Justice of Court of Common Pleas, the highest possible judge office, and became Chief Justice of the King's Bench
under King James [1613 to 1616]. He refused to stay an action for the king, because it was against the law, and the king
suspended him from Privy Council and then discharged him from office. He rejoined Privy Council [1617] and then
entered Parliament again. He fought for constitutional rights and upheld Parliament against king [1620]. He became
Baron Veculam and then Viscount St. Albans.
In Fuller case, he won common law courts right to issue prohibition writs. He blocked King James I from changing
law, establishing that only Parliament was able to change law. He blocked King James's proclamation to stop using
grain for starch, because Parliament had not proclaimed it. He worked against monopolies. He defended common law
or civil law. He wrote about bail, mainprize, and copyhold estate.
He was always at legal and personal odds with Francis Bacon.
Psychology
Insane people do not know what they do and cannot have criminal intent. Insanity is not a defense if people know right
from wrong {right-wrong test}. Drunkards, idiots, or fools can be insane at the time [1604].
Willem Barents [Barents, Willem]
discoverer
Holland/Canada
1594
He lived 1550 to 1597 and explored northeast coast of America, looking for Northwest Passage.
Carlo Gesualdo [Gesualdo, Carlo] or Prince of Venosa
composer
Italy
1594
Lagrime di San Pietro or Spiritual Madrigals of Saint Peter [1594: madrigals]
He lived 1566 to 1613 and composed Baroque polyphonic madrigals.
Thomas Nashe [Nashe, Thomas]
novelist
England
1594
Unfortunate Traveller [1594: picaresque novel]
Edward Poynings [Poynings, Edward]
law
Ireland
1594 to 1595
He lived 1459 to 1521. Poynings' Law gave all legislation for Ireland to England.
Pierre Charron [Charron, Pierre]
philosopher
Paris, France
1594 to 1601
Treatise on Three Truths [1594]; Sermons [1600]; Treatise on Wisdom [1601]
He lived 1541 to 1603. Only faith can reveal true knowledge. Faith believes revealed knowledge.
John Napier [Napier, John]
mathematician
Edinburgh, Scotland
1594 to 1617
Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms [1614]; Using Sticks for Calculation of Products [1617: about
Napier's Rods or Napier's Bones]
He lived 1550 to 1617, used decimal point [1594], and studied logarithms.
Lope de Vega or Phoenix of Spain or Félix Lope de Vega Carpio [Lope de Vega Carpio, Félix]
playwright
Spain
1594 to 1634
El maestro de danzar or Dance Teacher [1594: comedy]; La Arcadia [1598: pastoral romance]; La Dragontea [1598:
poem of Sir Francis Drake's last expedition and death]; El Isidro or Isidore [1598: octosyllabic quintillas about St.
Isidro, patron of Madrid]; La Hermosura de Angélica or Beauty of Angelica [1602: three poem books]; La viuda de
Valencia or Valencian Widow [1611: comedy]; El perro del hortelano or Dog in the Manger [1612: comedy]; Fuente
Ovejuna or Sheep Well [1612 to 1614: comedy]; Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo or New Art of Making
Comedy in this Time [1609: book]; Rimas humanas y divinas del licenciado Tomé de Burguillos or Human and Divine
Rhymes [1634: poems]
He lived 1562 to 1635 and wrote love and intrigue dramas {capa y espada, Lope de Vega} (cloak and sword).
Zacharias Janssen [Janssen, Zacharias]
physicist
Netherlands
1595
compound microscope [1595]
He lived 1580 to 1638. With his father, he helped invent compound microscopes and used them.
Thomas Campion [Campion, Thomas] or Thomas Campian [Campian, Thomas]
poet
England
1595 to 1613
Poemata [1595]; Observations in the Art of English Poesy [1602]; Books of Airs [1601 to 1617: five song books]; New
Way of Making Four Parts in Counterpoint [1613]
He lived 1567 to 1620 and wrote lute lyrics.
Johannes Kepler [Kepler, Johannes]
astronomer
Tübingen, Poland/Prague, Czech Republic
1596 to 1627
Cosmographic Mystery [1596]; Dream or Astronomy of the Moon [1611]; Harmony of the Universe [1619];
Rudolphian Tables [1627]
He lived 1571 to 1630 and invented planetary-motion laws (Kepler's laws). Kepler's first law [1609] is planets move in
elliptical orbits around Sun, with Sun at one ellipse focus. Kepler's second law [1609] is planets sweep out equal ellipse
areas in equal times. Kepler's third law is planet period squared is proportional to average distance from Sun cubed.
Giovanni Gabrielli [Gabrielli, Giovanni]
composer
Italy
1597
Sacrae Sinfonia: I Solisti di Sofia or Sacred Symphony: Solace of Sophia [1597]
He lived 1557 to 1612 and used contrasting pitch and color.
Andreas Libavius [Libavius, Andreas]
chemist
Jena, Germany
1597
Alchemy [1597]
Adrianus Valerius [Valerius, Adrianus]
lyricist/composer
Netherlands/USA
1597
We Gather Together or Prayer of Thanksgiving [1597: translated by Theodore Baker, 1894, arranged and translated
from Dutch to Latin by Eduard Kremser, 1877]
Francisco Suarez [Suarez, Francisco]
priest
Coimbra, Spain
1597 to 1612
Metaphysical Discussions [1597: about being and the idea of being]; On Laws [1612]
He lived 1548 to 1617 and was Jesuit.
People use reason to choose right from wrong under obligation to God.
Law
Law is about will of superior commanding obligation from inferiors. Laws can be natural, divine, human, and eternal.
Human laws require compliance, require payment for non-compliance, grant privileges, and grant authority and
legitimacy.
Metaphysics
Reality is individual essences expressed in entities.
Francis Bacon [Bacon, Francis]
statesman/philosopher/essayist
London, England
1597 to 1620
New Atlantis [1597: about utopia]; Essays [1601]; Advancement of Learning [1605]; Novum Organum or New
Organon: Directions for the Interpretation of Nature [1620: about inductive logic]
He lived 1561 to 1626, became Attorney General [1607], and became Privy Council member. When Edward Coke,
whom he was always against legally and personally, had to resign, he became Lord Chancellor, but he had to resign
after it became public that he took bribes.
He introduced scientific method, used inductive proof, founded empiricism, and classified all knowledge. He analyzed
scholastic, humanistic, and mystical philosophy and separated science from philosophy.
Epistemology
Truth is more important than dogma.
The basis of science should be an empirical technique of finding knowledge {induction, Bacon}. People should gather
data, note associations and non-associations between characteristics and events, make hypothesis, and then test the
hypothesis by trying to refute it or find exceptions to it. Experimental situation should be reproducible under same
conditions. The induction process leads to more experiments and higher laws. People must observe and experiment,
because only induction can lead to general knowledge. General knowledge then uses axioms for deduction. However,
people should not over-generalize. It is not enough just to gather supporting data for hypothesis, but one must try to
prove it false.
Perception and memory errors cause false images and ideas {idols, Bacon}. Thinking can be imprecise and misuse
language {marketplace idols} {idols of the marketplace}. Thinking uses previous beliefs {theater idols} {idols of the
theater}. Thinking depends on nature, and human thinking has limitations {tribe idols} {idols of the tribe}. Thinking
has differences among individual perceptions and thoughts {cave idols} {idols of the cave}. Using people as standard
or model also causes these faults. Habits, individual limitations, personal prejudices, and personal feelings also cause
these faults. Language ambiguity, word play, and concentration on word rather than idea or meaning can cause these
faults. Philosophical dogma, history, tradition, uncritically accepted theories, conventional ideas, reliance on authority,
anthropomorphism, and belief in order and purpose can cause these faults.
Senses give no certain knowledge. People must eliminate errors added to perception by nature and self. Removing
errors leaves knowledge and fact.
Knowledge knows object formal cause {essence, formal cause}. Object experiences have three groups: ones in which
object is present, ones in which it is absent, and ones in which it exhibits different intensities. Essence is present when
object is present, absent when object is absent, and more when object is more. Essence can abstract from events
involving object. Essence should not abstract from previous concepts.
After finding essence, new situation should test it and related laws. Best situations allow choice between two
hypotheses. Building up laws allows general explanation.
Power over nature, to better things, is reason to gain knowledge. Using organized invention and technology can make
continual progress. Knowledge is power.
Politics
Law should be certain. Society should improve people's wealth through research and invention. Royal power is greater
than law and Parliament.
Tycho Brahe [Brahe, Tycho]
astronomer
Denmark/Hamburg, Germany
1598
Mechanical Instruments of Astronomy [1598]
He lived 1546 to 1601 and accurately recorded star and planet positions.
George Chapman [Chapman, George]
poet
England
1598 to 1616
Iliad [1598 to 1611: translated]; Odyssey [1614 to 1616: translated]
He lived 1559 to 1634 and translated Homer.
Philip III
king
Spain
1598 to 1621
He lived 1578 to 1621. Lerma ran government, negotiated peace with England and United Provinces (the Netherlands),
and entered Thirty Years War. Philip III expelled Moriscos, who were Christian Moors that had rebelled.
William Gilbert [Gilbert, William]
physicist
England
1600
Magnet [1600]
He lived 1544 to 1603 and studied static electricity and magnetism.
Madame de Mornay [Mornay, Madame de] or Charlotte Arbaleste de la Borde [Arbaleste de la Borde,
Charlotte]
salon
Paris, France
1600
Memoirs [1600]
She lived 1548 to 1606 and was wife of Philippe de Mornay.
Jacopo Peri [Peri, Jacopo]
composer
Florence, Italy
1600
Euridice [1600: first known opera, with lyricist Ottavio Rinuccini]
Caravaggio or Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio [Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da]
painter
Italy
1600 to 1606
Calling of St. Matthew [1600]; Madonna di Loreto or Madonna with Pilgrims [1606]; Death of the Virgin [1606]
He lived 1571 to 1610 and used naturalism. He used tenebrism high contrast between dark and light from one source.
Abraham Herrera [Herrera, Abraham] or Alonzo de Herrera [Herrera, Alonzo de]
philosopher
Spain/Amsterdam, Netherlands
1600 to 1620
Gate of Heaven [1600 to 1620]
James I
king
England
1603 to 1625
He lived 1566 to 1625, was Stuart, and was Mary Queen of Scots' son. He was king of Scotland before 1603 and allied
with Elizabeth I of England. As king of England, he favored Catholicism, dissolved Parliament [1611], and allowed
war on Spain. Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.
Antonio Rubio [Rubio, Antonio]
philosopher
Mexico
1605
Mexican Logic [1605]
He lived 1548 to 1615 and was scholastic.
Ben Jonson [Jonson, Ben]/Inigo Jones [Jones, Inigo]
lyricist
England
1605 to 1618
Twelfth Night [1605: masque]; Masque of Blackness [1605: masque]; Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue [1618: masque]
He lived 1572 to 1637. At European courts, pageants and dances used masked actors in masques.
Ben Jonson [Jonson, Ben]
playwright/poet
England
1606 to 1616
Volpone [1606: play]; Epicœne [1609: play]; Alchemist [1610: play]; Bartholomew Fair [1616: poem]; Song to Celia
[1616: poem]; Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes [1616: poem in Song to Celia]
Pocahontas
princess
Jamestown, Virginia
1607
She lived 1595 to 1617. Chief's daughter saved John Smith of Jamestown Colony from death. She later married an
Englishman and went to England.
Francis Beaumont [Beaumont, Francis]
playwright
England
1607 to 1610
Woman Hater [1607]; Knight of the Burning Pestle [1607]; Philaster [1609: with John Fletcher]; Maid's Tragedy
[1610: with John Fletcher]
He lived 1584 to 1616 and worked with John Fletcher.
Henry Hudson [Hudson, Henry]
discoverer
Holland/England/New York
1607 to 1614
He lived 1565 to 1611 and discovered New York [1607], which was part of Iroquois Confederacy of Native Americans.
He claimed Hudson River area for Holland [1611]. He claimed Connecticut for England [1614].
Carlo Maderno [Maderno, Carlo]
architect
Rome, Italy
1607 to 1626
St. Peter's Cathedral Facade and Nave [1607 to 1615: Baroque]; Santo Ignacio di Loyola a Campo Marzio or Saint
Ignace of Loyola in the Field of Mars [1626: Baroque church]
He lived 1556 to 1629. Santo Ignacio has painting by Pozzo.
Claudio Monteverdi [Monteverdi, Claudio]
composer
Italy
1607 to 1642
Orfeo [1607: opera]; Arianna [1608: opera]; Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda or Battle of Tancred and Clorinda
[1624: opera]; L'incoronazione di Poppea or Coronation of Poppea [1642: opera]
He lived 1567 to 1643, composed Baroque polyphonic madrigals, and began stile concitato in opera.
Samuel de Champlain [Champlain, Samuel de]
discoverer
France/Canada
1608
He lived 1567 to 1635 and founded Quebec, Canada, on St. Lawrence River.
Thomas Dekker [Dekker, Thomas]
playwright
England
1608 to 1609
Bellman of London [1608]; Gull's Hornbook [1609]
Takuan Soho
philosopher
Kyoto, Japan
1608 to 1640
Unfettered Mind [1608 to 1640]
He lived 1573 to 1645 and perfected Zen swordsmanship. He emphasized that mind should not focus or rest {no mind}
but be ready to act at any time and place.
Louis de Buade [Buade, Louis de] or Comte de Frontenac [Frontenac, Comte de]
discoverer
France/Canada
1608 to 1700
He lived 1620 to 1698 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
Louis Joliet [Joliet, Louis]
discoverer
France/Canada
1608 to 1700
François Montmorency de Laval [Laval, François Montmorency de]
discoverer
France/Canada
1608 to 1700
Jacques Marquette [Marquette, Jacques]
discoverer
France/Canada
1608 to 1700
John Fletcher [Fletcher, John]
playwright
England
1609 to 1610
Philaster [1609: with Francis Beaumont]; Maid's Tragedy [1610: with Francis Beaumont]
He lived 1579 to 1625 and worked with Francis Beaumont.
John Webster [Webster, John]
playwright
England
1609 to 1613
White Devil [1609 to 1612]; Duchess of Malfi [1612 to 1613]
Sedefkar Mehmed Aga
architect
Istanbul, Turkey
1609 to 1616
Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I or Sultanahmet Cami or Blue Mosque [1609 to 1616: madrasah style]
He lived 1562 to 1622 and was Sinan's student. Ahmed I [1589 to 1617] was Ottoman sultan [1603 to 1617].
John Selden [Selden, John]
lawyer
London, England
1610 to 1618
Judicial Combat [1610]; England's Philosopher [1610]; Reverse of the English Janus [1610: on constitution]; Titles of
Honor [1614]; Fabulous Gods [1617: about Oriental gods]; History of Tithes [1618]; Territorial Waters [1618]
He lived 1584 to 1654, helped draft Petition of Right, tried to block royal authority, and was against freedom of seas.
Galileo Galilei
mathematician/physicist/astronomer/inventor
Italy
1610 to 1638
Sidereal Messenger or Starry Messenger [1619]; Dialogue Concerning the Two Great World Systems [1632]; On Two
New Sciences or Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences [1638]; pendulum clock; compound microscope [1610]
He lived 1564 to 1642 and invented {pendulum clock} {compound microscope}.
He established pendulum isochronism. He noted constant gravity acceleration: heavy weights and light weights fall
with same acceleration. He invented force parallelogram and found motion laws. He developed the idea of Permanence
of Form.
He found that integers have one-to-one correspondence with squares and found curve areas and volumes.
He perfected refracting telescopes, invented in Netherlands [1608].
He described Jupiter moons [1610], Moon craters and mountains, sunspots [1613], Venus phases, and Milky-Waygalaxy stars. He described how Earth moved around Sun. He used curve lengths and areas in astronomy.
He saw the seven photoreceptors in compound-eye optical elements.
Epistemology
Physical laws are the same whether one is standing still or moving. Knowledge is about mathematical motion laws and
motion relations, not about Forms or Being. Mathematics and measurement are for mechanics and experiments, not just
for formal geometry and number theory. Experiments must simplify situation to allow measurement. Measurements
suggest best-fitting mathematical formula, hypothesis to which later data can fit.
Metaphysics
In impacts, causes and effects are motion exchanges, not essence transfers and not Form acting on matter, and apply
only to object states and motions. Material actions are object movements, with no supernatural or spiritual causes and
no teleology.
Hayashi Razan [Razan, Hayashi] or Hayashi Nobukatsu [Nobukatsu, Hayashi] or Doshun
philosopher
China
1610 to 1640
He lived 1583 to 1657, was Neo-Confucian, and established it as religion during Tokugawa Shogunate.
Louis XIII
king
France
1610 to 1643
He lived 1601 to 1643, was of Bourbon family, and married Anne of Austria. In 1610, Marie de Medici held regency.
His ministers were Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin.
Miyamoto Musashi [Musashi, Miyamoto] or Shinmen Takezo [Takezo, Shinmen]
painter/samurai/author
Japan
1610 to 1645
Miyamoto Musashi [self-portrait]; Book of Five Rings [1645: about swordsmanship]
Edward Herbert [Herbert, Edward] or Herbert of Cherbury
philosopher
England
1610 to 1648
On the Causes of Error [1645]; On Truth [1624]; On Layman's Religion [1645]; On Gentile Religion [1663]; To the
Lay Ministers of Layman's Religion [1645]
He lived 1583 to 1648 and became baron [1629]. There are four kinds of truth: things as they exist {veritas rei}, things
as they appear {veritas apparentiae}, concepts, and generally accepted concepts {veritas intellectus}. Rational religion
aids society cohesion.
Robert Herrick [Herrick, Robert]
poet
England
1610 to 1648
Country Life [1610]; To The Virgins, To Make Much of Time [1648]; To Anthea, Who May Command Him Anything
[1648]; Delight in Disorder [1648]; Hesperides [1648: poems]
Peter Paul Rubens [Rubens, Peter Paul]
painter
Netherlands
1610 to 1660
Raising of the Cross [1610]; Descent from the Cross [1614]; Christ on the Cross [1620]; Arrival of Marie de' Medici at
Marseilles [1626: in Luxembourg Palace in Paris]; Garden of Love [1632]; Landscape with the Chateau of Steen
[1636]; Triumphant Christ Forgiving Penitent Sinners or Sinners Saved by Penitence [1660]
Gustavus II
king
Sweden
1611 to 1632
He lived 1594 to 1632 and ended Kalmar War with Denmark [1613] by payment. He gained concessions from nobles.
He gained Livonia from Poland. He allied with France and Denmark to aid Protestants. He defeated all opponents in
Germany as he swept through [1630 to 1632] in Thirty Years War.
Thomas Middleton [Middleton, Thomas]
playwright
England
1613 to 1623
Chaste Maid in Cheapside [1613]; Any Thing for a Quiet Life [1621]; Changeling [1623]
Heinrich Schutz [Schutz, Heinrich]
composer
Germany
1615 to 1631
Motet [1631]
He lived 1585 to 1672 and composed Baroque bel canto.
Ben Jonson [Jonson, Ben]
lyricist
England
1616
Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes [1616: music is traditional air]
Tarquinio Merula [Merula, Tarquinio]
composer
Italy
1616 to 1652
He lived 1595 to 1665 and composed Baroque and rococo sonatas.
John Donne [Donne, John]
poet
England
1617 to 1644
Song [1617]; Valediction Forbidding Mourning [1617]; Death Be Not Proud or Death [1617]; No Man is an Island
[1644]
René Descartes [Descartes, René]
France
1618 to 1649
Musical Compendium [1618]; Rules for the Direction of the Mind [1628]; Treatise on Man [1629]; Discourse on the
Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking Truth in the Sciences [1637]; World [1634]; Geometry [1637];
Optics [1637]; Meteorology [1637]; Meditations on First Philosophy [1641]; Principles of Philosophy [1644]; Passions
of the Soul [1649]
He lived 1596 to 1650, was Catholic, and was "father of modern philosophy". In mathematics, he studied analytic
geometry, slope, rectangular coordinates, Cartesian products, absolute value, sign rule, undetermined-coefficients
principle, and logarithmic spirals.
Epistemology
God's purposes cannot explain anything, because people cannot know those purposes.
Senses and opinions cannot be true, because they can change and often deceive. People cannot know if they are asleep
or awake and so they can be incorrect about image or thought {dreaming argument}. An evil demon {malin genie} or
outside agent can perpetually deceive people. Because people can always perceive deceptive things, people cannot be
certain about personal experiences or actions or about mathematical propositions and tautologies. Doubting everything
is suspending judgment. One can doubt existence of all physical objects. However, the act of doubting implies
consciousness, so people cannot doubt their existence as thinking faculties or consciousnesses with thoughts {method
of doubt, Descartes} {cogito argument}. People cannot doubt doubting, so "cogito ergo sum" or "I think therefore I
am".
However, ability to doubt that thing possesses some feature does not prove that thing can exist without feature.
Doubting, affirming, denying, understanding, willing, hating, imagining, and feeling are consciousness parts.
Consciousness or soul essence is thinking, which happens even in deep sleep.
The method of doubting demonstrates a fact about truth: If a statement is as clear and distinct as the truth that the
doubter exists, the statement must be true. Such statements must be as clear as tautologies and as distinct as exact
meanings. Such truths {innate idea} are true by themselves and do not require deduction from other truths. Therefore,
people can know clear and distinct statements. They can know them by reason, which comes from God. Mind passively
receives cause mental effects. However, because body can cause unclear ideas, mind has to actively find clear and
distinct truths.
Facts and theories do not and cannot lead to truth. Rather, analysis or induction methods should reach one and only one
basic and certain principle. From that principle, deduction and synthesis can explain everything. All knowledge can
connect in logical systems.
Cause must have more reality than effects. People have an idea of perfect being. However, people are finite and not
perfect and so cannot themselves conceive of perfect things. Only a perfect being can put ideas of perfect things into
consciousness. Therefore, God must exist, and "God exists" is clear and distinct.
Because God is perfect and so is truthful, God never creates people so they always have error. People can therefore
believe in knowledge that is clear and distinct. Most truths have clarity and distinctness and do not need deduction. For
example, mathematical truths are clear and distinct. Deduction only corroborates them. People can believe bodies exist,
though mind knows only their extension, number, flexibility, and motion. Qualitative judgments and sense perceptions
are mental signs, are not clear and distinct, and so are not truths.
Total motion in cause equals that in effect {conservation, motion} {motion conservation}.
Ethics
Rational thinking about clear and distinct ideas results in proper willing and action. Will can judge clear and distinct
ideas in only one way and so is not free in those cases. Error in willing and action can arise when ideas are not clear
and distinct and will is free in those cases. Sin arises from will's incorrect choice in unclear or indistinct cases.
Feelings and desires are mental disturbances caused by body. Only humans have feelings, because only they combine
mind and body. Feelings and desires come from fundamental feelings: wonder or admiration, love, hate, desire or want,
pleasure or joy, and pain or sadness. The mind's duty is to control body effects on mind.
Metaphysics
There must be a first cause for all things and especially for the whole. Reality has God, souls, and matter. The mental,
non-material, and spiritual world, which has mental activities or consciousness, is entirely separate from physical
world. Only one mental level exists. Mental or soul substance {res cogitans} does not extend in space and is indivisible.
Physical substance {res extensa, Descartes} extends and is divisible. Material objects in motion fill space and follow
deterministic motion laws. The physical world is the same everywhere. Living things are complex mechanical objects
with no animating force. Math and physics can apply to body {iatrophysicism} (Giovanni Alfonso Borelli).
Mind
Soul and body are two independent things but interact. Psychological properties differ from physical properties
{attributive dualism}, and psychological descriptions cannot be physiological descriptions.
Inigo Jones [Jones, Inigo]
architect
1619 to 1622
Royal Banquet Hall or Banqueting House of Whitehall Palace [1619 to 1622: Baroque and Classical Palladian style]
Ferdinand II
emperor
Germany/Austria
1619 to 1637
He lived 1578 to 1637. Holy Roman Empire leader was strong Catholic and controlled Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary.
Bohemian nobles rebelled, beginning Thirty Years War [1618]. He murdered his commander Wallenstein.
Diego Valasquez [Valasquez, Diego]
painter
Spain
1619 to 1656
Water Carrier of Seville [1619]; Surrender of Breda [1635]; Las Meninas or Ladies in Waiting or Maids of Honor
[1656]
John Winthrop [Winthrop, John]
governor
Massachusetts
1620
He lived 1588 to 1649. First Puritan governor worked closely with church.
George Wither [Wither, George]
poet
USA
1620
Lover's Resolution [1620]
Reza Abbasi [Abbasi, Reza]
painter
Isfahan, Iran
1620 to 1625
Youth [1620 to 1625]; Old Man [1620 to 1625]
He lived 1580 to 1530, wrote Safavid Arabic calligraphy, painted miniatures, and was of Isfahan School. Reza Abassi's
pupil was Moin. Moin painted Reza Abassi. Muhammad Qasim, Mir Muhammad Ali, and Muhammad Yusuf
continued Isfahan School style until 1700. Nadir Shah showed Mogul influences in 18th century.
John of St. Thomas or John Poinsot
philosopher
Madrid, Spain
1620 to 1640
Outlines of Formal Logic [1620 to 1640]; Gifts of the Holy Spirit [1620 to 1640]; Course in Philosophy [1620 to 1640]
He lived 1589 to 1644 and was Thomist.
Vincent de Paul
saint
Rome, Italy
1620 to 1640
Iwasa Matabei [Matabei, Iwasa]
printmaker
Japan
1620 to 1650
Popular prints [1620 to 1650]
He lived 1577 to 1650. He studied at Tosa School and then at Kano School, and then he founded Ukiyoye School or
Popular School. Tosa School [1220] painted court scenes and battles. Kano School [1460] used Chinese-style painting
for shoguns.
Robert Burton [Burton, Robert]
psychologist
England
1621
Anatomy of Melancholy [1621]
He lived 1577 to 1640 and studied melancholia.
Willebrord Snell [Snell, Willebrord]
physicist
Leyden, Netherlands
1621
Eratosthenes Batavus [1617: on triangulation of Earth. Eratosthenes measured Earth diameter. Batavus is last name of
Orange dynasty of Holland and is region around Leyden.]; Tiphys Batavus [1621: on navigation. Tiphys was pilot of
the Argo]
He lived 1580 to 1626, first discussed loxodrome paths on sphere that make constant angles with meridians, and
invented Snell's law [1621].
Angeli von Guercino [Guercino, Angeli von]
painter
Rome, Italy
1621 to 1623
Aurore [1621 to 1623: Baroque ceiling fresco in Villa Ludovisi]
Philip IV
king
Spain/Portugal
1621 to 1665
He lived 1605 to 1665 and was king of Spain [1621 to 1665] and Portugal [1621 to 1640]. Olivares was his chief
minister.
Jakob Böhme [Böhme, Jakob]
philosopher
Germany
1622 to 1623
Way to Christ [1622]; Great Mystery [1623]
He lived 1575 to 1624 and was German Mystic. He united neo-Platonism and Paracelsus to try to unify religion and
science.
Ethics
Good and evil in world result from absolute necessity of God revealing itself in world as being, because everything in
world has to have opposite. Nature moves by will, which can choose good or evil. People's acts affect universe. People
should progress from spiritual perception, to mystical devotion, to pure spirit.
Metaphysics
Nature is unified whole, created by God using laws and reason. Nature is beautiful. God is world essence and efficient
cause. God is spirit with infinite senses and reason and is world inner activity, like the living sap of trees.
Richelieu or Armand Jean du Plessis [Plessis, Armand Jean du]
cardinal/prime minister/composer/lyricist
Paris, France
1622 to 1641
Prosperity of the Arms of France [1641: masque]
He lived 1585 to 1642 and became cardinal [1622] then prime minister [1624]. With Louis XIII, he founded absolute
monarchy, put down Huguenots, controlled nobles, helped Protestants in Thirty Years War, founded French Academy,
and depleted treasury. He controlled Anne of Austria, consort of Louis XIII.
Johann Baptista van Helmont [van Helmont, Johann Baptista]
biologist
London, England
1622 to 1644
On the development of medicine [1622]; Physic Refined [1648: translated into English in 1662]
He lived 1577 to 1644. Plants make organic materials and do not get them from soil, which stays same weight while
plant grows.
Tommaso Campanella [Campanella, Tommaso]
philosopher
Italy
1623
City of the Sun [1623]
He lived 1568 to 1639 and was of Philosophy of Nature school. Highly regulated states with bureaucracies based on
merit can make socialist societies. Technology and philosophy can control and create world.
Giambattista Marino [Marino, Giambattista] or Giambattista Marini [Marini, Giambattista]
poet
Italy
1623
Adone [1623]
He lived 1569 to 1625 and wrote in florid marinismo style.
Urban VIII
pope
Rome, Italy
1623 to 1644
He lived 1568 to 1644 and was of Barberini family.
Gianlorenzo Bernini [Bernini, Gianlorenzo]
sculptor/architect
Rome, Italy
1624 to 1667
Baldacchino [1624 to 1633]; David [1624]; Apollo and Daphne [1625]; Tomb of Urban VIII [1628 to 1647]; Scipione
Borghese [1632]; Ecstasy of St. Theresa [1647 to 1652]; Colonnade of St. Peter's Cathedral [1656: in Rome];
Tabernacle [1657: in St. Peter's Cathedral]; Throne of St. Peter [1657 to 1666: in St. Peter's Cathedral]; Piazza di San
Pietro or St. Peter's Plaza [1656 to 1667: Late Renaissance. The Egyptian obelisk from Nero's amphitheater is in
middle]
Johann Rudolf Glauber [Glauber, Johann Rudolf]
chemist
Germany/Netherlands
1625
He lived 1604 to 1668 and formed sodium sulfate [1625].
Cornelius Jansen [Jansen, Cornelius] or Cornelius Jansenius [Jansenius, Cornelius]
theologian
Ypres, Flanderss
1625
Augustinius [1625]
He lived 1585 to 1638, was Catholic theologian, desired return to teachings of Augustine, and advocated strict ethics.
He started Jansenism [1642]. To do good requires God's grace. Salvation comes by God's grace. Universe has
predestination.
Hugo Grotius [Grotius, Hugo] or Huig de Groot [Groot, Huig de]
lawyer
Netherlands/Paris, France
1625 to 1645
On the Laws of War and Peace [1625]
He lived 1583 to 1645 and was the "father of international law". He described current international law, basing his
ideas on natural law, reason, and Roman ius gentium.
Ethics
Moral precepts are true even without God, are rational, and are social.
Law
International law depends on natural law, customs, and agreements. Natural law comes from man's social nature and
needs, is absolute, is power and authority basis, and protects property and life rights. Law gives rights and justice by the
ruled's consent.
Politics
People have natural rights, which government should guarantee. State is social contract. Aristocratic republic is best.
Charles I
king
England
1625 to 1647
He lived 1600 to 1647, was Stuart, and was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. To get money, he had to sign
Petition of Right [1628], which stated that taxes, imprisonment, and quartering of soldiers in homes needed due cause
or consent of Parliament. Later, he dissolved Parliament. He tried to impose Catholicism in Scotland, leading to
Bishop's Wars [1640]. Long Parliament convened, which was Protestant and middle class, while king and nobles were
Catholic or Anglican. Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, married him to French Catholic, leading to Puritan
Revolution. In the civil war, Oliver Cromwell defeated him [1647]. Pride's Purge of Parliament rid the parliament of
opposition to Protestant army. Rump Parliament beheaded Charles I.
Frederick Henry
king
Holland
1625 to 1647
He lived 1584 to 1647, defeated Spain in Thirty Years War, and presided over era of artists, scientists, commerce, and
prosperity.
Giacomo Carissimi [Carissimi, Giacomo]
composer
Italy
1625 to 1674
Mass for Three Voices; Six Motets
He lived 1605 to 1674 and composed Baroque cantatas.
Francisco Quevedo y Villegas [Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco]
writer
Spain
1626 to 1627
Historia de la vida del Buscón or History of the Life of Buscon [1626: novel]; Los sueños or Visions [1627: satire]
Giovanni Battista Fontana [Fontana, Giovanni Battista]
composer
Italy
1627
Sonata 1; Sonata 3; Sonata quarta
He lived 1571 to 1630 and composed Baroque sonatas using violin.
Tirso de Molina [Molina, Tirso de] or Gabriel Tellez [Tellez, Gabriel]
playwright
Spain
1627
El Burlador de Sevilla y Convidado or Rake of Seville and the Stone [1627: about Don Juan]
He lived 1583 to 1648. Don Juan lived 1571 to 1648.
Jacques Lemercier [Lemercier, Jacques]
architect
Paris, France
1627 to 1633
Tuileries Palace [1627]; Palais Royal [1633]
He lived 1585 to 1654. Tuileries Garden is near Louvre, where Tuileries Palace was.
Benedetto Castelli [Castelli, Benedetto]
priest
Rome, Italy
1628
On the Measurement of Running Waters [1628]
He lived 1578 to 1643 and described Moon illusion and afterimages.
William Harvey [Harvey, William]
doctor
England
1628
Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals [1628]
He lived 1578 to 1657 and studied embryology. Blood flows through blood vessels from and to heart.
Pierre de Fermat [Fermat, Pierre de]
mathematician
France
1629 to 1640
He lived 1601 to 1665, invented Fermat's minor theorem and Fermat's last theorem [1640], and studied differential
calculus, maxima/minima in war and astronomy [1629], curve and surface tangents and normals in optics and motion,
and infinite-descent method.
Bonaventura Cavalieri [Cavalieri, Bonaventura]
mathematician
Bologna, Italy
1629 to 1647
Geometry of Indivisibles [1635]; Geometric Exercises [1647]
He lived 1598 to 1647, invented Cavalieri's theorem, and studied indivisibles method [1629].
Jahan
shah/architect
Agra, India
1629 to 1648
Taj Mahal [1629 to 1648: madrasah near Jumna River]
He lived 1592 to 1666 and ruled as Shah [1628 to 1658]. Taj Mahal is at old capital and is tomb of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal. It has a square marble platform 100 meters on sides, octagon 60 meters on longest side, walls 23 meters high,
and bulb-shaped dome 80 meters high. It has four minarets, at corners, 45 meters high. A walled garden, with reflecting
pools and walkways, surrounds it.
Frans Hals [Hals, Frans]
painter
Netherlands
1629 to 1664
Jolly Toper or Merry Drinker [1629]; Member of the Haarlem Civic Guard [1636]; Descartes [1649]; Hille Bobbe or
Malle Bobbe [1650]; Women's Regents of the Haarlem Almshouse [1664]
John Milton [Milton, John]
poet
England
1629 to 1671
On the Morning of Christ's Nativity [1629: poem]; Il Penseroso or Meditator [1631: poem]; Comus [1634: masque];
Lycidas [1637: poem]; Aereopagitica or Against Censorship [1644: treatise]; On His Blindness [1651: poem]; Paradise
Lost [1667: poem, including Eve to Adam]; Samson Agonistes or Samson the Struggler [1670: play]; Paradise
Regained [1671: poem]
Carlo Maderno [Maderno, Carlo]/Gianlorenzo Bernini [Bernini, Gianlorenzo]
architect
Rome, Italy
1630
Palazzo Barberini or Barberini Palace [1630: Baroque palace]
Maderno lived 1556 to 1629. Bernini lived 1598 to 1680.
Mulla Sadra or Molla Sadra or Sadr al-Din Shirazi [Shirazi, Sadr al-Din] or Sadr al-Din Muhammad al-Shirazi
[al-Shirazi, Sadr al-Din Muhammad] or Sadr al-Muta'allihin [al-Muta'allihin, Sadr]
philosopher
Isfahan, Iran
1630 to 1640
Transcendent Theosophy in Four Intellectual Journeys [1630 to 1640]
He lived 1600 to 1641 and was Shi'ite. Essence motions cause higher essences by transformation, so everything is
eternal becoming.
John Suckling [Suckling, John]
poet
England
1630 to 1640
Constant Lover [1630 to 1640: poem]; Ballad upon a Wedding [1630 to 1640: poem]; Why so Pale and Wan, Fond
Lover [1637: poem in Aglaura]; Goblins [1638: play]; Fragmenta Aurea or Incomparable Pieces [1646]
John Cotton [Cotton, John]
lawyer
Boston, Massachusetts
1630 to 1648
Divine Right to Occupy the Land [1630]; Democracy as Detrimental to Church and State [1636]; Model of Moses His
Judicials [1636: about theocracy]; Way of the Churches of Christ in New England [1645]; Spiritual Milk for Babes
[1646]; Way of Congregational Churches Cleared [1648]
He lived 1595 to 1652 and wrote about theocratic government by religious leaders.
Andrew Marvell [Marvell, Andrew]
poet
England
1630 to 1650
To His Coy Mistress [1630]; Thoughts in a Garden [1650]; Horatian Ode [1650]
George Stiernhielm [Stiernhielm, George]
theologian
Stockholm, Sweden
1630 to 1660
Necklace of Minerva [1630]
He lived 1598 to 1672 and was mystic. Word sounds have meaning, which can lead to deeper understanding.
Anthony van Dyck [van Dyck, Anthony]
painter
Flanders
1632 to 1635
Crucifixion with Saint Francis [1632]; Deposition [1634]; Charles I in Hunting Dress [1635]
François Mansart [Mansart, François]
architect
Paris, France
1632 to 1646
Château de Maisons-Laffitte [1632 to 1646: Early Baroque palace]; Church of Val de Grace or Valley of Grace church
[1640: in Paris]
Uladislas VII Vasa or Ladislaus IV
king
Poland
1632 to 1648
Rembrandt van Rijn
painter
Netherlands
1632 to 1669
Anatomy Lesson [1632]; Blinding of Samson [1636]; Night Watch [1642]; Tobit and Anna with the Kid [1645];
Bathsheba [1654]; Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph [1656]; Dutch Masters or The Syndics or Staatmeesters [1662];
Return of the Prodigal Son [1662]; Jewish Bride or The Loving Couple [1666]; Self-Portrait [1669]
Nicolas Poussin [Poussin, Nicolas]
architect/painter
France
1633 to 1648
Cephalus and Aurora [1633]; Rape of the Sabine Women [1634]; Palace of Versailles paintings [1640 to 1642];
Landscape with the Burial of Phocion [1648]
Li Yü
writer
China
1634
Jou Pu Tuan or Prayer Mat of Flesh [1634]
Roger Williams [Williams, Roger]
leader
Boston, Massachusetts/Providence, Rhode Island
1635 to 1636
He lived 1603 to 1683 and claimed that American Indians owned Puritan lands. He stood trial at General Court in
Boston [1635] but escaped to Rhode Island [1636].
Thomas Hooker [Hooker, Thomas]
leader
Hartford, Connecticut
1636
Fundamental Orders
He lived 1586 to 1647, left Puritans in Massachusetts, and moved near Hartford, Connecticut [1636]. He wrote one of
the first constitutions [1639], which required magistrate elections. Freemen controlled General Court.
Pierre Corneille [Corneille, Pierre]
playwright
France
1637
Le Cid [1637]
Ann Hutchinson [Hutchinson, Ann]
leader
Massachusetts
1637
She lived 1591 to 1643. The state banished her after her trial [1637] on charges of altering religious concepts.
Francesco Borromini [Borromini, Francesco]
architect
Rome, Italy
1638 to 1663
San Carlo alle Quatro Fontane or Saint Charles of the Four Fountains [1638 to 1641]; Santo Ivo della Sapienza or Saint
Ives of Wisdom [1642 to 1660]; Facade of Santa Agnese [1653 to 1663: in Navona plaza]
Gregorio Allegri [Allegri, Gregorio]
composer
Italy
1639
Miserere or Have Mercy or Have Pity [1639]
He lived 1582 to 1652 and composed masses.
Pietro da Cortona [Cortona, Pietro da]
painter
Rome, Italy
1639
Barberini Palace Frescoes [1639]
Girard Desargues [Desargues, Girard]
mathematician
France
1639
Rough draft for an essay on the results of taking plane sections of a cone [1639]
He lived 1591 to 1661, invented Desargue's theorem, and studied projective geometry, involution, harmonic point sets,
and poles and polar theory.
Thomas Hooker [Hooker, Thomas]/John Haynes [Haynes, John]/Roger Ludlow [Ludlow, Roger]
lawyer
Connecticut
1639
They published the Fundamental Orders constitution. Thomas Hooker lived 1586 to 1647. John Haynes lived 1594 to
1654. Roger Ludlow lived 1590 to 1664. All were from England.
Claude Lorrain [Lorrain, Claude] or Claude Gellée [Gellée, Claude]
painter
France
1639 to 1647
Pastoral Landscape: The Roman Campagna [1639]; Pastoral Landscape [1647]
John Smith [Smith, John]
philosopher
Cambridge, England
1640 to 1652
Discourse concerning the Immortality of the Soul [1640 to 1650]
He lived 1618 to 1652 and was Cambridge Platonist.
John IV or John of Braganza
king
Portugal
1640 to 1656
He lived 1603 to 1656, was of Braganza family, and allied with England.
Frederick William or Frederick the Great Elector
king
Brandenburg
1640 to 1688
He lived 1620 to 1688, ended Thirty Years War, received territory at Peace of Westphalia [1648], got control of Prussia
at Peace of Oliva [1660], and defeated Sweden in third Dutch War.
Evangelista Torricelli [Torricelli, Evangelista]
Florence, Italy
1641 to 1644
Geometric Works [1644]
He lived [1608 to 1647] and invented Torricelli's theorem [1641]. Nature does not abhor vacuum.
Nathaniel Ward [Ward, Nathaniel]
lawyer
1641 to 1647
Body of Liberties [1641: about individual rights in theocracy]; Simple Cobler of Aggawam [1647]
He lived 1578 to 1652. Puritans used his ideas in law codes.
Jan Amos Komensky [Komensky, Jan Amos] or Comenius
philosopher
Czech Republic
1641 to 1662
Way of Light [1641]; General Consultation concerning the Improvement of Human Affairs [1662]
He lived 1592 to 1670 and was humanist. He advocated education in human values.
Anton Arnauld [Arnauld, Anton]
philosopher
France
1641 to 1683
Objections to the Meditations [1641]; Logic or The Art of Thought or Port-Royal Logic [1662: with Pierre Nicole];
Treatise on Truth and Falsehood [1683]
He lived 1612 to 1694. He criticized Descartes' idea of pure mind, Malebranche's ideas about perception, and Leibniz's
ideas about substances, in letters to Leibniz.
Thomas Browne [Browne, Thomas]
novelist
England
1642
Religion of a Physician [1642]
Jules Mazarin [Mazarin, Jules] or Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino [Mazzarino, Giulio Raimondo]
minister
France
1642
He lived 1602 to 1661. Under Louis XIII and then Louis XIV, he dictated Peace of Westphalia, but his strong power
and France's weak finances resulted in revolt of Fronde nobles and Parliament of Paris. He ended revolt of Fronde
[1653]. He got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain [1659]. He controlled the regent Anne of Austria.
Abel Tasman [Tasman, Abel]
discoverer
Holland
1642 to 1644
He lived 1603 to 1659 and discovered Tasmania and New Zealand.
Thomas Hobbes [Hobbes, Thomas]
philosopher
England
1642 to 1658
On the Citizen [1642]; Leviathan [1651]; On the Body [1655]; Elements of Philosophy [1656]; On Man [1658]
He lived 1588 to 1679 and was materialist, rationalist, and determinist.
Epistemology
Reason is about long-term goals and means to reach them. Emotions are about short-term goals.
Sense impressions are body motions and are the only consciousness contents. Imagination and dreams are decaying
sense impressions. Sense impressions combine and transform {association, Hobbes} to give thoughts and memories.
All thoughts are deterministic, either by association or by purpose.
Feelings and will result from combining pleasure, pain, self-preservation desires, and sense impressions.
True knowledge is mathematical and symbolic. Mathematics gives rational knowledge of material world. Object
motions in space follow geometry. Perceptions are about object motions in space. Mind thinks by combining symbols,
which are perceptions and words. Rational thought uses only words.
Mind uses space and time, but physical existence has no space and time.
Laughter comes from comparing self, or superior, to inferior {superiority theory}, to build up self and disparage
inferior [1651].
Ethics
Pleasure is desire for more, and pain is aversion to something already present. Desire or love determines what is good
for people. Aversion or hate determines what is evil. Therefore, morality is relative. People are mostly concerned with
their desires and aversions and try to do what is good for themselves to stay alive and healthy. People have absolute
right to take personal action for self-defense. Therefore, people's desires conflict. Morality is the means to achieve
peace. Society must impose it. People accept it to maintain peace.
Will is desire or aversion that causes action. People always will the strongest desire or aversion. Different action
choices are available, and wills choose among actions, but choices are deterministic. Freedom is only the fact that
choice is available and that people have ability to act.
Fear causes religion.
Happiness is always succeeding or prospering. Happiness is only process, not state.
Law
Laws can gain peace and avoid war and crime, which are the main threats to individual lives.
People have right of self-defense but no other individual liberties.
Metaphysics
Universe contains only physical things. Religious and spiritual things are separate from material world.
Mind
Mental or psychological properties are about body matter motions.
Voluntary movements begin with insensible motion {endeavor}. Motion toward something is desire, and motion away
is aversion.
Politics
People's main interest is self-preservation. State prevents continual war of self-interest among people and so is
necessary for self-preservation. In state of nature, without law, there is no right or wrong. Left alone, state is anarchic.
State's goal is order and stability.
The best way to achieve peace is in society with sovereign assembly or monarch. Sovereign makes and enforces laws to
guarantee peace and maintain lives.
Sovereignty comes from the people, because power depends on the people's will. State is contract between ruler and
people. People, who are all equal, agree among themselves to yield all power to one authority, the sovereign, chosen by
majority. People give rights to sovereign to protect themselves. After this, people have no power or rights, except of
self-defense and refusal to fight. People yield power to get more security and liberty. Otherwise, anarchy occurs.
After agreement, people do not have right to change it. Therefore, civil war never has justification.
Political-authority basis is sovereign authority. Sovereign powers and rights must be supreme. People must fear
authority and so obey.
Sovereigns must be just, because people must follow law. States must use power to maintain rule of law and must use
any means to reach this end {end justifies means}. Power provides stability and physical security for citizens. With no
such power, person is against person, and life is "nasty, brutish, and short."
Monarchy has less favoritism, fewer private interests, secret advice, and stable policy, compared to legislature or
multiple rulers. Honest monarchy keeps order and protects people.
There should be state religion and monarch or ruler should control church, because religious belief is arbitrary.
Blaise Pascal [Pascal, Blaise]
mathematician/philosopher/inventor
France
1642 to 1670
Thoughts [1670]; Provincial Letters; calculating machine [1642]
He lived 1623 to 1662, was Cartesian and Jansenist, and invented first metal-tooth wheeled calculating machine [1642].
He invented hydraulic press to multiply force, syringe, Pascal's principle, Pascal's theorem, Pascal's triangle,
mathematical induction, fundamental enumeration principle, binomial theorem, large-numbers law, and conditionalprobability law.
At mechanical equilibrium, with only gravity acting, liquid has hydrostatic pressure {Pascal's law}.
Epistemology
People can neither reject reasoning nor say there is only reasoning. Reason cannot deal with ultimate metaphysical
problems. Faith is necessary complement to reason. Expected value of believing in God is more than value of nonbelief {Pascal's wager}.
Metaphysics
God exists because man is helpless without God.
Sieur de La Salle [La Salle, Sieur de] or René-Robert Cavelier [Cavelier, René-Robert]
discoverer
France/Canada
1643
He lived 1643 to 1687 and explored Canada and interior of North America, claimed Mississippi River valley for
France, and built forts for trade.
Anne of Austria
regent
Austria/France
1643 to 1661
She lived 1601 to 1666, was consort to Louis XIII [1615], and held regency for Louis XIV [1643 to 1661]. Mazarin
controlled her.
Louis XIV or Sun King
king
France
1643 to 1715
He lived 1638 to 1715. Anne of Austria was regent at first. During regency [1643 to 1661], Mazarin dominated, won
Thirty Years War, ended Fronde rebellion, got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain, and married Louis to Marie Therese
of Austria.
From 1661 to 1691, the Bourbon Louis and his minister Colbert reformed economy. He pursued colonialism
{mercantilism, Louis XIV}, added import taxes, and got gold from exports and manufacturing.
He emphasized control by state. He changed administration for civil servants and nobles.
He started War of Devolution, started third Dutch War with England and France against Holland, got Franche-Comte,
got part of Flanders, and took Strasbourg. He fought League of Augsburg or Grand Alliance, which had Holy Roman
Empire, Sweden, Spain, German states, England, and Holland, in War of the Grand Alliance. He fought War of the
Spanish Succession against England, Holland, Austria, and most German states over whether Hapsburgs or Bourbons
ruled Spain. French generals Villars and Vendôme matched English Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy in
Holland, but then Blenheim, Gibraltar, and Malplaquet were battle victories for Grand Alliance. War of the Spanish
Succession ended in Peace of Utrecht and Treaty of Utrecht, Treaty of Rastatt, and Treaty of Baden. War ruined
economy of France.
He revoked Edict of Nantes and persecuted Huguenots. He struggled with the pope over Gallicanism, which he
supported, and Jansenism, which he suppressed.
His mistresses were La Valliere, Montespan, and Maintenon.
He built Versailles Palace.
Peter Saenredam [Saenredam, Peter]
painter
Haarlem, Netherlands
1645
Interior of St. Janskerk [1645]
He lived 1597 to 1665 and built church interiors.
Georges de La Tour [La Tour, Georges de]
painter
France
1645 to 1650
Joseph the Carpenter [1645]; Madonna and Child [1645]; Education of the Virgin [1650]
Alexis
czar
Russia
1645 to 1676
He lived 1629 to 1676 and was Romanov.
Richard Crashaw [Crashaw, Richard]
poet
England
1646
Steps to the Temple [1646]; Weeper [1646]
John Endicott [Endicott, John]
governor
Massachusetts
1646
He lived 1588 to 1665 and succeeded Winthrop as Massachusetts Bay Colony governor.
Paul Potter [Potter, Paul]
painter
Netherlands
1647
Young Bull [1647]
Johann II Kazimierz Vasa or John II Casimir
king
Poland
1648 to 1669
Frederick III
king
Denmark/Norway
1648 to 1670
He lived 1609 to 1670, lost to Charles XI of Sweden, and lost in Thirty Years War.
Oliver Cromwell
prime minister
England
1649
After Charles I died, Oliver Cromwell led Commonwealth.
Richard Lovelace [Lovelace, Richard]
poet
England
1649
Lucasta [1649]; On Going to the Wars or To Lucasta, on Going to the Wars [1649: in Lucasta]; To Althea from Prison
[1649: in Lucasta]
Richard Zouche [Zouche, Richard]
lawyer
England
1649 to 1657
Exposition of Fecial Law and Procedure or Exposition of Law of War and Peace [1649: international law]; Solutions to
Old and New Questions, Ways of Mediating Late Competent Justice [1657]
He lived 1590 to 1661. He discussed laws between nations {ius inter gentes} based on actual legal practices and
founded positivist or historical school of international law.
Anne Bradstreet [Bradstreet, Anne]
poet
USA
1650
Tenth Muse [1650]
Luigi Rossi [Rossi, Luigi]
composer
Italy
1650
L'Orfeo or Orpheus [1650]
He lived 1598 to 1653 and composed Baroque cantatas.
Henry Vaughn [Vaughn, Henry]
poet
England
1650 to 1655
I Saw Eternity the Other Night [1650]; World [1655]; Silex Scintillans or As Time One Day by Me Did Pass [1650 and
1655]
Bankei Zenji or Bankei Zenji or Bankei Yokatu
philosopher
Zuio-ji, Ehime, Japan
1650 to 1680
Song of Original Mind [1650 to 1680]
He lived 1622 to 1693 and was Zen master.
Wang Fu-chih or Wang Fuzhi
philosopher
Mt. Ch'uan-shan, China
1650 to 1680
Commentary on Chang Tsai's Treatise on Edification [1650 to 1680]
He lived 1619 to 1692 and was Confucian.
Henry More [More, Henry]
philosopher
Cambridge, England
1652 to 1671
Conway Letters [1652 to 1671]; Antidote against Atheism [1652]; Conjectural Essay of Interpreting the Mind of Moses
[1653]; Enthusiasm Triumphant [1656]; Immortality of the Soul [1659]; Explanation of the Grand Mystery of
Godliness [1660]; Metaphysical Handbook [1671]
Arnout Geulincx [Geulincx, Arnout] or Arnold Geulincx [Geulincx, Arnold]
philosopher
Antwerp, Flanders/Netherlands
1653
Miscellaneous Questions [1653]
He lived 1624 to 1669 and was follower of Descartes and Occasionalist. Thing can only do what it knows how to do.
Because no finite material thing has mind and can know anything, only God can cause things. God is not an efficient
cause. God supplies fixed and general relations between physical and mental worlds by synchronizing them, so they
can appear as causes or sequences.
Jean Baptiste Lully [Lully, Jean Baptiste]
choreographer/composer
France
1653 to 1671
Ballet de la Nuit or Ballet of the Night [1653: masque]; La Marriage Forcé or Forced Marriage [1664: comedy]; Le
Bourgeois Gentilhomme or Bourgeois Gentleman [1670: comedy]; Les Amants Magnifiques or Magnificent Loves
[1670: comedy, including Le Divertissement Royal]; Ballet des Nations [1670]; Psyche [1671: tragic ballet]
He lived 1632 to 1687 and included ballet in French opera.
Jean Baptiste Lully [Lully, Jean Baptiste]/Molière
choreographer/composer/lyricist
France
1653 to 1686
ballets de cour [1653 to 1663]; comédies-ballets [1663 to 1672]; tragédie lyrique [1673 to 1686]
Lully lived 1632 to 1687. Molière lived 1622 to 1673.
Paul Gerhardt [Gerhardt, Paul]/Catherine Winkworth [Winkworth, Catherine]/John Ebeling [Ebeling, John]
lyricist/composer/composer
Germany/USA
1653 to 1858
All My Heart This Night Rejoices [1653: translated by Winkworth, 1858]
Gerhardt lived 1607 to 1676. Winkworth lived 1829 to 1878. Ebeling lived 1637 to 1676.
Pierre Gassendi [Gassendi, Pierre]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1655
Institutes of Logic [1655]; Synthesis of Philosophy [1655]
He lived 1592 to 1655 and opposed Aristotelianism. He believed in atomism, non-determinism, and empiricism.
John Wallis [Wallis, John]
mathematician
England
1655
He lived 1616 to 1703, studied cryptography, and invented expressions for pi [1655].
Izaak Walton [Walton, Izaak]
essayist
England
1655
Compleat Angler [1655: essay]
Leopold I
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1655 to 1705
He lived 1640 to 1705, was king of Hungary [1655 to 1705] and Bohemia [1658 to 1705], and Holy Roman emperor
[1658 to 1705]. Holy Roman Empire warred with Louis XIV of France. He put down rebellion of Thokoly in Hungary
and ended resulting siege of Vienna by Ottoman Empire, with aid from Poland. He got Hungary, Slovenia, and Croatia
at Treaty of Karlowitz.
Johann Jacob Froberger [Froberger, Johann Jacob]
composer
Germany
1656
Capriccio in G major [1656]; Toccata in C major [1656]
He lived 1616 to 1667 and composed Baroque harpsichord concertos.
James Harrington [Harrington, James]
writer
USA
1656
Commonwealth of Oceana [1656: power comes from property]
Christiaan Huygens [Huygens, Christiaan]
astronomer/mathematician/physicist/inventor
Netherlands
1656 to 1675
pendulum clock [1656]; spiral balance spring for clocks [1675]
He lived 1629 to 1695 and saw Venus clouds, Saturn rings, and Jupiter red spot. He invented a light-wave theory using
Huygen's principle and contributed to calculus. He improved clocks {spiral balance spring}.
Jacob van Ruisdael [Ruisdael, Jacob van]
painter
Netherlands
1657
Jewish Graveyard [1657: landscape]
Robert Hooke [Hooke, Robert]
biologist/physicist/inventor
England
1657 to 1665
anchor escapement for clocks [1657]; Micrographs [1665]
He lived 1635 to 1703, invented Hooke's law [1660], and observed cork cells under microscope [1663]. He invented
universal joint, iris diaphragm, anchor escapement {anchor escapement}, and balance spring [1660].
Molière or Jean-Baptiste Pocquelin [Pocquelin, Jean-Baptiste]
playwright
France
1658 to 1673
Amorous Doctor [1658]; Tartuffe [1664]; Misanthrope [1666]; Doctor in Spite of Himself [1666]; Miser [1668];
Amphytrion [1668]; Wise Women [1669]; Le Bourgeois gentilhomme or Gentleman Bourgeois [1670]; Les Fourberies
de Scapin or Scapin's Tricks [1671]; Le Malade Imaginaire or Imaginary Illness [1673]
Francesco Cozza [Cozza, Francesco]
painter
Rome, Italy
1660
Madonna del Riscatto [1660: Baroque painting in Santa Francesca Romana monastery or Tower of Mirrors or Palazzo
dei Ponziani]
Pieter de Hooch [Hooch, Pieter de]
painter
Netherlands
1660
Preparing Bread [1660]
He lived 1629 to 1684 and painted domestic scenes.
Claude Lancelot [Lancelot, Claude]/Antoine Arnauld [Arnauld, Antoine]
linguist
Paris, France
1660
Port Royal Grammar [1660: all languages have similar structure]
Lancelot lived 1616 to 1695. Arnauld lived 1612 to 1694.
Jan Steen [Steen, Jan]
painter
Netherlands
1660 to 1666
Eve of St. Nicholas [1660 to 1666]; Drawing Lesson [1665]
Zeb-un-Nissa
poet
India
1660 to 1680
Song of Princess Zeb-Un-Nissa in Praise of Her Own Beauty [1660]; Things of Love [1660 to 1680]; Diwan or
Collected Poems [1680]
Thomas Syndenham [Syndenham, Thomas]
physician
Londin, England
1660 to 1682
Epistolary Dissertation to Dr. Cole [1682]; On Hysteria [1682]
He lived 1624 to 1689 and described diseases accurately. Hysteria in women and hypochondrias in men are similar.
Hysterical symptoms often accompany depression. He invented opium tincture {laudanum, Syndenham} [1660].
Charles II
king
England
1660 to 1685
He lived 1630 to 1685 and was Stuart. General Monck ended rule of Cromwell and organized Stuart Restoration
[1660]. Prime Minister was first Earl of Clarendon and then Cabal. London had plague and fire [1666]. He began
second Dutch War against William of Orange. He intervened in Titus Oates affair, rumor that Jesuits were plotting to
assassinate king. He dissolved Parliament [1681]. Political parties, parliamentary power, sea trade, and arts grew.
Charles XI
king
Sweden
1660 to 1697
He lived 1655 to 1697, helped win Thirty Years War, and conquered St. Petersburg, Livonia in Estonia, Latvia, Karelia
in east Finland, Denmark, south Sweden, and Pomerania in north Poland and northeast Germany.
Yen Yüan
philosopher
China
1660 to 1704
Robert Boyle [Boyle, Robert]
chemist/physicist
London, England
1661
Sceptical Chymist [1661]
He lived 1627 to 1691, invented Boyle's law, and found elements.
Jan Vermeer van Delft [Vermeer van Delft, Jan]
painter
Netherlands
1661 to 1667
View of Delft [1661]; Music Lesson [1665]; Girl with a Pearl Earring [1665]; Letter [1667]
Jean-Baptiste Colbert [Colbert, Jean-Baptiste]
minister
Paris, France
1661 to 1677
Memorandum on Trade [1664]; Criminal Code [1670]; Maritime Code [1672]; Commercial Code [1677]
He lived 1619 to 1683 and appointed council to codify laws. Under Louis XIV, he opposed Fourquet, who had become
wealthy by mismanaging Treasury. He espoused the policy of protecting industry by tariffs and subsidies, regulating
prices, making roads and canals, and colonizing {mercantilism, Colbert}.
Louis Le Vau [Le Vau, Louis]
architect
Versailles, France
1661 to 1688
Palace of Versailles [1661 to 1688: Baroque palace has Hall of Mirrors, Salon de la Guerre, Salon de la Paix, and park]
He lived 1614 to 1670 and worked for Louis XIV.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart [Hardouin-Mansart, Jules]
architect
France
1661 to 1709
Versailles Palace [1661 to 1687]; Grand Trianon [1680: at Versailles]; Place Vendôme [1698: in Paris]; Dome of Les
Invalides [1709: in Paris]
He lived 1646 to 1708. His great-uncle was François Mansart.
Benedict de Spinoza [Spinoza, Benedict de] or Baruch de Spinoza [Spinoza, Baruch de]
philosopher
Amsterdam, Netherlands
1663 to 1677
Principles of Descartes' Philosophy [1663]; Tractatus Theologico-Politicus or Theological-Political Treatise [1670:
Bible as guide to ethics]; Short Treatise on God [1677]; Man and his Well-being [1677]; Treatise on the Emendation of
the Intellect [1677]; Ethics [1677: including Concerning God, On the Nature and Origin of the Mind, Concerning the
Origin and Nature of the Emotions, Of Human Bondage or the Strength of the Emotions, On the Improvement of the
Understanding, and Of the Power of the Intellect or of Human Freedom]; Political Treatise [1677]; On the
Improvement of the Understanding [1677]
He lived 1632 to 1677 and was determinist. He derived Cartesian philosophy from axioms and definitions. He used
Scholastic concepts for axioms and definitions.
Epistemology
People know God through intuition. People can know the parts of God {doctrine of modes}.
The physical can explain the mental, and vice versa. Physical and mental worlds exhibit parallelism. Ideas have objects
or relations and essence of God.
Ideas and thoughts all logically connect, and understanding and reasoning mind perceives that fixed logical relations
are between all objects and events, so all determines each. Effects are cause or premise logical consequences. All
actions and objects are necessary and sufficient. No cause hierarchy exists, only a systematic whole. Causes and effects
do not just happen in time.
Sense perceptions and emotions are body processes. Perceptions are external-object representations used by mind as it
tries to maintain existence and perfect itself. Perceptions and emotions can become perfect in mind by clear and distinct
understanding of their causes.
Purpose is human idea that does not apply to God's actions.
Ethics
Only finite minds see evil. Because everything is necessary, world as a whole has no evil.
Because everything is necessary, free will does not exist.
Man should seek order, give up passion, and try to find and understand God's plan. Attaining clear and distinct
understanding improves mind's reasoning powers and allows more activity and freedom. Freedom is the understanding
that God grants existence to people to act in predetermined ways manifesting God's power and law. The highest state of
living, insight, and understanding {intuition, Spinoza} is intellectual love of God, union of thought and emotion, and
joyful realization that all is eternal necessity under control of God, not contingent on time but determined by laws.
Virtue is acquiescence in this knowledge and living life based on it.
People start with emotion and experience, then learn to reason, and eventually become free through insight, if they are
perfectly active, not reactive, in oneness with God and nature.
Because the future is certain, hope, anxiety, repentance, and fear are not real but are passions based on inadequate
knowledge. Other passions are effects of outside world. Passions distract from vision of God and unity of all.
True freedom is feeling and acting self-determination. Control from outside is bad. Reason is outside time and is
certain. Knowledge leads to proper necessary action, and error leads to wrongdoing.
Self-preservation governs all behaviors. Fundamental desires are desire or appetite, pleasure, and pain or sadness. Selfpreservation requires only these.
Metaphysics
Substance needs only itself to exist {substance monism}. Physical and mental are different perspectives on same reality
{anomalous monism, Spinoza} {double-aspect theory, substance} {dual-aspect theory} {dual-attribute theory,
Spinoza}. Substance has God as essence and nature as laws, is infinite, and has an infinite number of attributes, such as
thinking and spatial extension.
All finite things, such as minds and bodies, are not substances but are only substance parts, manifestations, fragments,
states, or expressions {mode, Spinoza}. Finite things maintain their being {conatus}, perfect their existence, and are
aware of pleasure and pain. Finite things can be more active or more reactive.
Nothing can be different than it is, because everything results from God, who is necessary and eternal being. God is
cause and essence of all things. Actual world and all knowledge derive from God, and this unifies them. All infinite
attributes unite in God's reality, whose essence involves its existence. God has no qualities, no consciousness, no will,
and no body. All things are God modifications, and God is in all things.
Mind
Soul and body exhibit parallelism. Mind is thoughts of body. Body is mental matter. Mind and body are different
aspects of Nature or God.
Politics
States should control the church. However, each age changes religious dogma, so state should not force dogma upon
people. State religion should be about ethics, not dogma. Social life comes from individual interests. State is an
agreement that unites people into group with common interests, to ensure their interests. Agreement makes people give
up some rights to authority to enforce laws. Aristocratic republics are best.
Pierre Beauchamp [Beauchamp, Pierre]
choreographer
France
1664
foot positions [1664]
He lived 1639 to 1705 and established the five ballet foot positions.
Increase Mather [Mather, Increase]
preacher
Massachusetts
1664 to 1692
He lived 1639 to 1723. As Puritan, he supported Massachusetts Bay Colony theocracy, supported education, and led
Salem witch trials [1692]. His son was Cotton Mather, who lived 1663 to 1728.
François Duc de la Rochefoucauld [Rochefoucauld, François Duc de la]
essayist
France
1665
Maxims [1665: epigrams]
Charles II
king
Spain
1665 to 1700
He lived 1661 to 1700, was king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily [1665 to 1700], and fought with Louis XIV of France but
lost.
Henry Morgan [Morgan, Henry]
pirate
Barbados
1666
He lived 1635 to 1688. English pirate took Spanish ships.
Marcello Malpighi [Malpighi, Marcello]
biologist
Bologna, Italy
1666 to 1671
On Visceral Structure [1666]; Plant Anatomy [1671]
He lived 1628 to 1694, observed plant and animal tissues under microscope, and started embryology and histology.
Guarino Guarini [Guarini, Guarino]
architect
Turin, Italy
1666 to 1694
San Lorenzo [1666 to 1687: in Turin]; Chapel of the Holy Shroud [1667 to 1694: in Turin]; Palazzo Carignano or
Carignano Palace [1679: in Turin]
Isaac Newton [Newton, Isaac]
physicist/mathematician
England
1666 to 1704
Principia [1671 and 1687]; Universal Arithmetic [1680]; Opticks or Optics [1704]
He lived 1642 to 1727 and developed gravity and force laws [1687]. He stated three motion laws and universalgravitation law.
He invented a light-particle theory and used prisms to separate sunlight into different-color rays. Colors bend by
different amounts, but rays cannot further separate or bend [1666].
He invented dy/dx differentiation, infinitesimal calculus, prime-ratio method, ultimate-ratio method, infinite series,
fundamental theorem of calculus, differentiation, limits, and limit theorem. He studied polar and bipolar coordinates
and invariance under transformation. He invented Newton's parallelogram, Newton's root-finding method, and physical
"action".
For one dimension, shear stress F equals shear viscosity µ times derivative of horizontal velocity v with orthogonal
coordinate y {linear constitutive relation}: F = µ * dv / dy. This law relates stress to strain rate and usually has three
dimensions. This relation leads to the later Navier-Stokes equations.
Epistemology
Spinning discs with varying-area colored segments can make new colors. Average star mass provides absolute
reference for accelerated motion, including rotational motion. Water in spinning buckets is concave, because it rotates
with respect to universe and not with respect to bucket {bucket argument, Newton}.
"Hypotheses non fingo" or "I feign no hypotheses (about the causes of gravity)" is a phrase in the General Scholium
essay of the Principia, 2nd edition [1713].
Christopher Wren [Wren, Christopher]
architect
England
1666 to 1708
London town plan [1666: submitted after Great Fire]; St. Paul's Cathedral [1675 to 1708: in London]; Royal Hospital
[1694: in Greenwich]; Octagon Room of Royal Observatory [1675: in Greenwich]
He lived 1632 to 1723. His clerk was Nicholas Hawksmoor.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz [Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von]
mathematician/philosopher/inventor
Germany
1666 to 1716
On the Art of Combination [1666]; Samples of the Numerical Characteristic [1679]; New Method for maximums and
minimums [1684]; Discourse of Metaphysics [1686]; Reply to the Thoughts on the System of Pre-established Harmony
Contained in the Second Edition of M. Bayle's Critical Dictionary, Article Rorarius [1702]; Explanation of the Binary
Arithmetic [1703]; Theodicy [1710]; Principles of Nature and Grace [1714]; Monadology [1714]; On the
Combinatorial Arts [1714: infinitesimal calculus, notation, integration, chain rule, variable separation, Leibniz's test];
On the Method of Distinguishing Real from Imaginary Phenomena [1715 to 1716: letter to Clarke]; calculating
machine; water pump
He lived 1646 to 1716. He invented machines for calculating and for pumping water out of mines. In mathematics, he
solved differential equations by isolating variables and used infinitesimals in calculus. He invented integration as
summation, integration as differentiation inverse, closed-function integration, logarithmic-function and exponentialfunction differentials [1694], chain rule, and calculus notation. He studied curvature, curve envelopes, and osculating
circles. In logic, he wanted to create perfect language {symbolic logic, Leibniz} {systematic philology}, whose
grammar and words can state all logical propositions and proofs. He attempted to write deductive philosophy, using
formulas in symbol language that he devised, but he did not complete it.
Epistemology
For all x and y, if x and y are identical, then x and y have same properties {Leibniz' law}.
Truths contain predicates in subjects {concept containment}. Necessary truths have a finite series of containments.
Contingent truths have an infinite series of containments.
No proposition can be both true and false at once {principle of contradiction, Leibniz}. Nothing happens without
adequate reasons or causes {principle of sufficient reason, Leibniz}, though people usually cannot know reason.
Reasoning involves contradiction and sufficiency principles. All analytic statements are true. All true statements are
analytic.
Identical things have same intrinsic, non-relational properties. If two objects share all intrinsic, non-relational
properties, they are identical {identity, indiscernible} {indiscernible, identity} {Leibniz's law, Leibniz}. The identity
relationship is symmetrical for thing and properties. However, no two things have same qualities, and things differing
in qualities are two separate things.
Perception is clear if understood. Perception is distinct if people can analyze it into concepts.
Awareness that one's perceptions have become more clear and distinct is pleasure. Awareness that one's perceptions
have become less clear and distinct is pain.
Clear and distinct statements have two classes. One class is personal experiences, which are clear and intuitively true,
because people have immediate experience of their own existence, but are true for one time only. However, opposites
of these facts are also possible, so people can know their truth only after they have happened {a posteriori, Leibniz}.
Facts of experience are conditional or contingent truths of the finite world. All things are deterministic, so opposites
only appear to be possible. People's senses know only space and time, not physical forces or causes.
The other class is eternal truths, self-evident to reason, whose opposites cannot be true or even possible. People can
know their truth before events {a priori, Leibniz}. Eternal truths are unconditional, necessary, and about the infinite.
Ethics
God allows free will, because it is good, but this necessarily allows evil.
Physical evil is punishment for sin. Object finiteness and unclear ideas cause moral evil.
Law
Law must have philosophical bases to be consistent and just. Law has natural divisions. Law and reasoning principles
can find document meanings.
Metaphysics
Objects must be finite, because something created them. Finite world had to have evil, but it has as much good as
possible because God formed it. The created world has the most variety from simplest causes and laws. What exists is
the largest possible set of compatible things. Because existence is good, this makes world have the most possible reality
and be the best it can be. God chose the best deterministic mechanical laws. However, laws can be different and so are
not absolute truths, only facts {contingent truth, Leibniz}. There are infinitely many possible worlds.
Only finite matter and spiritual force units {monad, Leibniz} exist. Existing things are monad collections.
Ideal things are continuous and so have no monads.
An infinite number of monads differ in intrinsic properties.
Monads form a hierarchy based on their forces, not motions. Highest monad is God, which is pure activity and has all
forces. Next highest are souls and minds, possess good memory and perception, and are most active. Soul is will's
purpose and is body's central monad. Lowest monads are matter. Monads reflect universe as whole, allowing them to
seem to occupy space. Monads perceive other monads more distinctly or less distinctly {universal expression}.
Number of forces is infinite. Forces or energies are active and immaterial. Material properties, such as filling space or
being impenetrable, are force consequences. Motions are force consequences. Time and space result from combined
force actions. Forces are independent of other forces, but are forms of whole world's essence {world-force}. Forces try
to clearly represent world-force, by infinitely small steps.
Monads have unconscious perceptions {minute perception}. Monads continually seek improvement, which perceives
more clearly and distinctly. Unconsciously, monads continually perceive entire universe {apperception, monad} but are
conscious of only small regions.
Monad wills directly cause actions. Monad beliefs direct will, but not deterministically.
Monads never affect each other, but they appear to do so, because their perceptual states correspond {preestablished
harmony}. God synchronizes the pre-established harmony, which is deterministic. In determined worlds, subjects must
contain all the infinite number of qualities, actions, and predicates that statements can assert and so must be immortal
and unchangeable. Therefore, all statements about reality contain predicate in subject and are analytic. To God, all
experience is analytic, but people cannot know all predicates or facts. For God, objects are necessary, and their
properties are in object essence.
Only God is necessary. All else is contingent.
God exists, as proved by ontological argument, cosmological argument, argument from eternal truths, and argument
from design.
Mind
All ideas are always unconsciously present in soul, which is the central body monad and represents whole universe.
Mind can bring ideas to consciousness. Perceptions contain universal concepts and truths.
Claude Perrault [Perrault, Claude]
architect
Paris, France
1667 to 1672
Louvre East Facade and Colonnade [1667 to 1670: Baroque and French Classical palace]; Paris Observatory [1667 to
1672]
Dieterich Buxtehude [Buxtehude, Dieterich] or Dietrich Buxtehude [Buxtehude, Dietrich] or Diderik Buxtehude
[Buxtehude, Diderik]
composer/organist
Denmark/Lübeck, Germany
1667 to 1705
Prelude and Fugue BuxWV 139; Cantata BuxWV 104; Membra Jesu Nostri or The Limbs of Our Jesus [1681];
Variations on an Aria by Lully
He lived 1637 to 1707 and composed organ chorales, preludes, cantatas, oratorios, and sonatas. He used old notation
{organ tablature}.
Francesco Redi [Redi, Francesco]
biologist
Italy
1668
He lived 1626 to 1697 and proved spontaneous generation does not happen, by showing that maggots did not come
from meat [1668].
John Dryden [Dryden, John]
poet/playwright
England
1668 to 1697
Dramatick Poesy [1668: essay]; Marriage a la mode [1672]; Ode to the Memory of Mrs. Anne Killigrew [1686: poem];
Alexander's Feast or The Power of Musique [1697: poem]
Samuel Pepys [Pepys, Samuel]
London, England
1669
Diary [1669]
Jean Racine [Racine, Jean]
playwright
France
1669 to 1691
Britannicus [1669]; Berenice [1670]; Bajazet [1672]; Mithradate [1673]; Iphigenie en Aulide [1674]; Phaedra [1677];
Esther [1689]; Athalie [1691]
Marie Madeleine de la Fayette [Fayette, Marie Madeleine de la] or Marie Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne,
Comtesse de La Fayette [Fayette, Marie Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, Comtesse de La]
writer
France
1670
Zayde [1670]
Matsuo Basho [Basho, Matsuo] or Matsuo Munefusa [Munefusa, Matsuo]
poet
Japan
1670 to 1690
Journal of Weather-Beaten Skeleton [1670 to 1690: poems]; Notes in My Knapsack [1670 to 1690: poem]; Narrow
Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches [1670 to 1690: essays]
Zen Buddhist lived 1643 to 1694 and wrote haiku.
Ihara Saikaku [Saikaku, Ihara]
storyteller/poet
Japan
1670 to 1690
Koshoku Ichidai Onna or Life of an Amorous Woman [1670 to 1690: humorous]
He lived 1642 to 1693 and wrote in popular form {ukiyozoshi, Saikaku}.
John Locke [Locke, John]
philosopher
London, England
1670 to 1695
Letter concerning Toleration [1670]; Two Treatises of Government [1681 and 1690]; Thoughts concerning Education
[1686]; Essay Concerning Human Understanding [1689: about psychology]; Reasonableness of Christianity [1695]
He lived 1632 to 1704 and founded empirical psychology and empiricism. William Molyneux helped him and
corresponded with him.
Epistemology
Mental objects are sense-data about sensations, memories of sensations or ideas, or concepts {idea}. Sensation is the
way objects present to understanding when thinking. Ideas can be simple or complex. People cannot analyze simple
ideas or construct them. Mind is passive as it receives simple ideas from appropriate stimuli. Mind cannot prevent or
select simple ideas. The two simple-idea sources are sensation and reflection. Sensation ideas result from observing
external objects. Reflection ideas result when observing mind's operations. Simple ideas come from sensations or
reflections by resemblance, nearness in space and time, and cause and effect {associationism, Locke}.
Idea associations can be false or true. Human action or nature connects true associations. False associations happen by
chance or custom.
People construct and analyze complex ideas, such as objects, relations, and forms, from simple ideas using
consciousness. Complex ideas combine simple ideas consciously using mathematical and logical operations to
rearrange words, abstract, demonstrate, prove, and construct. Words are signs for idea contents, and general ideas are
mental structures using words. Complex concepts find common features among objects or events or subtract space and
time from objects or events {abstraction from examples}. Mind is active while attending, remembering, discriminating,
comparing, combining, enlarging, and abstracting complex ideas.
Knowledge relates ideas perceived by reason. Opinion depends on observation.
Cause and effect is the major idea.
All ideas originate in experience. At birth, mind is blank page {tabula rasa}, waiting for experience to fill. A priori
knowledge, such as tautology, does not exist. Because babies and primitive peoples do not know them, there are no
innate ideas or universally true or known ideas, even of God or mathematics. Because soul or mind has to later
formulate them and judge them, which it does for all ideas anyway, ideas cannot reside in soul for future use. Because
people must learn words and grammar first, clear and distinct or intuitively certain ideas cannot be innate. Because the
most-profound truths can be so abstract that they are not intuitively certain, they are not innate.
In demonstrative knowledge, necessary formal idea is substance that holds qualities or modes. People can be certain
about their ideas and sensations through reflection, but they can know nothing about thing itself, essence, soul, or soul's
relation to body. The only possible knowledge is of mind and its contents.
Will a blind person that knows shapes by touch recognize shapes if able to see {Molyneux problem, Locke}?
Understanding cannot perceive itself. Sense organs cannot perceive themselves.
Ethics
God is lawgiver and has rewards and punishments to induce people to conform to law. God's law is also nature's law, so
following law leads to good results and breaking it leads to bad results in world.
Public opinion and state are two other law sources, and both have rewards and punishments to induce people to
conform to law.
Moral judgments can conform to known ethical laws or not, so moral judgments are demonstrative knowledge.
Metaphysics
Matter is atom groups and has properties. Properties {primary quality, Locke} can be about atoms {corpuscular
theory}: mass or solidity, figure, motion, and number. Properties {secondary quality, Locke} can be about atom
relations. Tertiary qualities are about object perceptions.
Mind
Mind can sense objects and events {outer sense, Locke} and think about experiencing objects and events {inner sense,
Locke}, making two knowledge kinds.
Politics
Kings have no divine right to rule. Hereditary succession to power is not right. Absolute monarchy makes king both
judge and accuser.
Primogeniture is unjust.
People have many basic rights. Mothers have rights the same as fathers.
Before government, men follow natural law, which comes from reason and is God's law. All people are equal and free.
People judge for themselves and rely on themselves for remedies. There is no anarchy. If all people are prudent,
consider their overall interests, not just current ones, and are pious because they fear hell, society needs no law, because
general interests of all coincide with special interests of each, over time.
Government results from social contract, to secure life, liberty, and property. States are expressions of people's will.
Property causes people to agree on government and give right of judging and enforcing law to authority. Authority
must establish laws interpreting natural law, have impartial judges to judge and mete punishment, and have powers to
enforce laws.
Judges should be independent of governing authority. The people should elect legislature by majority rule. Legislature
and executive should be separate, with equally divided powers to make laws and enforce them. There should be checks
and balances among government branches. War or compromise must resolve struggles between branches, because no
higher authority can arbitrate.
The state has limited powers against people, especially against their property.
Government is moral trust. If government does not do good things, people can resist it.
There should be religious tolerance, with love of truth. People should avoid dogma.
Hishikawa Moronobu [Moronobu, Hishikawa]
engraver
Japan
1670 to 1700
prints [1670 to 1700]
He lived 1638 to 1714 and printed ukiyo-e from woodblocks.
Eizan/Horishige/Hokusai/Utamaro
engraver
Japan
1670 to 1867
ukiyo-e [1670 to 1800: woodblock ink prints]
He lived 1787 to 1867 and printed India-ink woodblock prints {ukiyo-e}. Horishige, Hokusai, Utamaro, and Hishikawa
Moronobu also printed them.
Robert Cambert [Cambert, Robert]
composer
France
1671
Pomone [1671: First opera at Paris Opera had ballet]
James Gregory [Gregory, James]
mathematician/astronomer
Scotland
1671
He lived 1638 to 1675 and invented expressions for pi [1671].
Pierre-Paul Puget [Puget, Pierre-Paul]
sculptor
France
1671 to 1683
Milo of Crotona [1671 to 1683: Early Baroque marble sculpture]
Nicolas Cassegrain [Cassegrain, Nicolas]
astronomer/inventor
France
1672
reflector telescope [1672]
He lived 1625 to 1712 and invented two-mirror reflector telescope.
Richard Cumberland [Cumberland, Richard]
philosopher
England
1672
On Nature's Laws [1672]
He lived 1631 to 1718. Altruistic and social motives in people come from God.
Samuel Puffendorf [Puffendorf, Samuel]
lawyer
Lund, Germany
1672
On Natural Law and Law of Nations [1672]
Law
Laws define what to do or not do and prescribe punishment. Travelers have freedom of seas, except in territorial
waters.
Politics
Man's natural duties, defined by natural law, are examples of state duties. Authority has legitimate power to limit
freedom and punish people to make people secure or better. Authority can also be legitimate if people have consented.
People have obligation to obey superiors. Social relations aid individual self-preservation. Theocracy is not good.
Taking booty is sovereign's right, and it is then his property. Treaty or danger {necessity} can allow nations to prevent
actions they normally allow.
William Wycherley [Wycherley, William]
playwright
England
1672
Country Wife [1672]
Thomas Ken [Ken, Thomas]/Louis Bourgeois [Bourgeois, Louis]
lyricist/composer
England/France
1674
Praise God, from Whom All Blessings Flow or the Doxology [1674: music is Old 100th, 1551]
Ken lived 1637 to ?. Bourgeois lived 1515 to 1559.
Shivaji Bhonsle or Sijavi
king
India
1674 to 1680
He lived 1627 to 1680 and started Maratha kingdom [1674]. Mahrattas from west-central India established capital at
Poona and conquered part of Mogul Empire [1655 to 1674].
Takakazu Seki [Seki, Takakazu] or Kowa Seki [Seki, Kowa] or Seki Kowa [Seki, Kowa]
mathematician
Edo (Tokyo), Japan
1674 to 1683
Mathematical Methods for Finding Details [1674]
He lived 1642 to 1708, invented calculus, and used determinants [1683]. Japanese temple geometry flourished at this
time.
Anton Leeuwenhoek [Leeuwenhoek, Anton]
biologist
Delft, Netherlands
1674 to 1716
Letter to Leibniz [1716]
He lived 1632 to 1723 and observed bacteria [1674], yeast, protozoa, sperm, and capillary blood corpuscles under
microscope.
Philipp Jakob Spener [Spener, Philipp Jakob]
philosopher
Frankfurt, Germany
1675
Tender Desirables or Gentle Desirables [1675]
He lived 1635 to 1705. In response to Church corruption, he developed ideal of personal morality and contemplation
{pietism, Spener}.
Nicolas Malebranche [Malebranche, Nicolas]
philosopher
France
1675 to 1688
Search after Truth [1675]; Christian Metaphysical Meditations [1683]; Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion [1688]
He lived 1638 to 1715 and was Occasionalist.
Epistemology
At each occasion of experience, God places experience in people. Mind cannot know the body except through God.
God holds all perceptions and ideas. God puts innate ideas into minds so they can think. People cannot know all their
mind or faculties.
Error is self-deception, so people are at fault for error.
Metaphysics
God causes all actions, including will, because they are necessary. No actual causes and effects exist, only physical
motions under laws. God put initial motion in all bodies.
God wills at each instant.
Mind
Individual minds are in infinite reason, love, and God, because they modify universal reason or God. People can only
oppose God in their wills, not minds.
Feodor III
czar
Russia
1676 to 1682
Mary II
queen
England/Scotland/Ireland
1677 to 1694
She lived 1662 to 1694 and married William III [1677].
John Bunyan [Bunyan, John]
novelist
England
1678
Pilgrim's Progress [1678]
Ralph Cudworth [Cudworth, Ralph]
philosopher
Cambridge, England
1678
True Intellectual System of the Universe [1678]
Alessandro Scarlatti [Scarlatti, Alessandro] or Il Palermitano
composer
Italy
1679
Gli Equivoci nel Sembiante or Deceptions [1679]
He lived 1660 to 1725 and composed Italian overtures, da capo arias, operas, cantatas, oratorios, and masses.
Jacques Bossuet [Bossuet, Jacques]
philosopher/bishop
France
1679 to 1681
Discourse on Universal History [1681]
He lived 1627 to 1704. Christianization relates nation histories and gives history purpose.
Hafiz Osman [Osman, Hafiz]
painter
Iran
1680
Hilyah or Description of the Prophet [1680: Arabic calligraphy style]
He lived 1642 to 1698 and used words and phrases to depict bird or animal.
John Wise [Wise, John]
clergyman
USA
1680
He lived 1652 to 1725, wrote about democracy, and resisted English tax collectors.
Denis Papin [Papin, Denis]
inventor
London, England
1680 to 1707
steam pressure cooker [1680: with safety valve]; steam piston engine [1690]; New Method of Obtaining Very Great
Moving Powers at Small Cost [1690]; New Art of Pumping Water by using Steam [1707]
He lived 1647 to 1712 {steam pressure cooker}.
De Lafontaine [Lafontaine, De]
ballerina
France
1681 to 1707
Triumph of Love [1681: first ballet with woman as solo dancer]
She lived 1665 to 1738 and was first woman to appear professionally in ballet as solo female dancer {prima ballerina}
{premiere danseuse}.
John Holt [Holt, John]
judge
London, England
1681 to 1710
Ashby v. White and Others [1681 to 1710]; Case of John Paty and Others [1681 to 1710]
He lived 1642 to 1710. As Chief Justice [1681 to 1710], he added bailment law to English law, from Continental law.
Edmund Halley [Halley, Edmund]
astronomer
England
1682
He lived 1656 to 1742 and discovered Halley's comet [1682].
Ivan V
czar
Russia
1682 to 1696
Peter I or Peter the Great
czar
Russia
1682 to 1725
He lived 1672 to 1725, was Romanov, overthrew his sister, and took the title emperor. He shifted capital to St.
Petersburg from Moscow. He expanded Russia to Black and Baltic Seas. He took Livonia, Estonia, and Karellas from
Sweden [1721] and won Northern War. He took Azov on Black Sea from Ottoman Empire and built navy but later lost
it. He defeated Persia.
He westernized and industrialized. He started universal taxation, reformed army and government, and built schools and
hospitals. He freed women from serf status and crushed serf revolts. Serfs became even more subject to nobles. Russia
had lumber and iron. He formed Russian Orthodox Church with himself as head.
James II
king
England
1685 to 1688
He lived 1633 to 1701 and was Stuart. After Puritan Revolution [1649], he escaped to France and married Catholic.
After Charles II became king, James II returned to England as Lord Admiral but later resigned. England exiled him
after Titus Oates affair. He became king when Charles II died [1685]. He presided over the Bloody Assizes, bishop
trials, and hostile parliaments. Glorious Revolution deposed him.
Henry Purcell [Purcell, Henry]
composer
England
1685 to 1692
Trumpet Tune and Air [1685]; Dido and Aeneas [1689: opera]; King Arthur [1691: opera]; Fairy Queen [1692: opera]
Arcangelo Corelli [Corelli, Arcangelo]
composer
Italy
1685 to 1700
sonatas or trio sonatas for violin [1685 to 1700]
He lived 1653 to 1713 and composed sonatas.
Jacob Bernoulli [Bernoulli, Jacob]
mathematician
Basel, Switzerland
1686
Art of Conjecturing [1686]
He lived 1654 to 1705 and studied calculus of variations, variable separation, lemniscate curve, differential equations,
and inflection points. He invented Bernoulli's theorem and Bernoulli equation. If event can have two outcomes, each
with probability, after many independent events, relative frequency approaches probability {weak law of large
numbers, Bernoulli}. Perhaps, probabilities are inferable from frequencies.
Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle [Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de]
essayist
Paris, France
1686
Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes or Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds [1686: essays]
He lived 1657 to 1757 and wrote essays and operas.
Pierre d'Ortigue [d'Ortigue, Pierre]
writer
Paris, France
1688
Art of Pleasing in Conversation [1688]
He lived 1630 to 1693. Conversation is part of good manners.
Jean de La Bruyere [La Bruyere, Jean de]
essayist
France
1688
Les Caracteres or Characters [1688: essay]
Jean de la Fontaine [Fontaine, Jean de la]
poet/storyteller
France
1688 to 1693
Fables [1668 to 1693]
William III or William of Orange
king
England/Scotland/Ireland
1688 to 1702
He lived 1650 to 1702. Before 1688, as William of Orange of United Provinces, he negotiated peace with England after
Dutch Wars and fought against Louis XIV of France in War of the Grand Alliance. He helped remove James II of
England and became king in Glorious Revolution. As king, he accepted Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement, gave land
in Ireland to nobles, raised taxes, and started Bank of England. He fought Louis XIV of France in War of the Spanish
Succession. Whigs, landowners and merchants, gained control of Parliament.
Isaac Watts [Watts, Isaac]/Georg Friedrich Handel [Handel, Georg Friedrich]/David Lowell Mason [Mason,
David Lowell]
England
1689
Joy to the World [1689: music is Antioch, arranged by Mason]
Watts lived 1674 to 1748. Mason lived 1792 to 1872.
Gobind Singh
leader
India
1690
He lived 1666 to 1708 and was tenth and last Sikh guru. He changed Sikhs to Hindu practices, urging them to follow
the Guru Granth Sahib scripture. He emphasized militarism, started a brotherhood {khalsa}, and gained land.
Johann Bernoulli [Bernoulli, Johann]
mathematician
Basel, Switzerland
1691
He lived 1667 to 1748 and studied series, arithmetic series, geometric series, differential equations [1691], astroid
[1691], curvature radius, Bernoulli numbers, and curve rectification. Wire shape allows bead to slide from one end to
the other in shortest possible time {brachistochrone, Bernoulli} [1696].
Michel Rolle [Rolle, Michel]
mathematician
France
1691
He lived 1652 to 1719 and invented Rolle's theorem [1691].
Christian Thomasius [Thomasius, Christian]
lawyer
Germany
1691 to 1705
Introduction to the Theory of Pure Reason [1691]; Fundamentals of Natural Law and Law of Nations [1705]
He lived 1655 to 1728, was international lawyer, and helped found natural law.
Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach [Erlach, Johann Bernhard Fischer von]
architect
Vienna, Austria
1694 to 1737
Dreifaltigkeitssäule or Holy Trinity Column [1694 to 1702: monument in Vienna]; University Church [1694 to 1707: in
Salzburg]; Church of the Trinity [1694 to 1710: in Salzburg]; Imperial Palace Schönbrunn [1696 to 1711: in Vienna];
Karlskirche or Church of San Carlo Borromeo [1715 to 1737: Baroque church in Vienna]; Hofbibliothek or Imperial
Library [1722: in Vienna]; Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture [1721: book]
He lived 1656 to 1723. San Carlo Borromeo is St. Charles Borromaeus.
Gerrit Berckheyde [Berckheyde, Gerrit]
painter
Netherlands
1696
Market Square at Haarlem [1696]
He lived 1638 to 1698 and painted town scenes.
William Kidd [Kidd, William]
pirate
Scotland
1696
He lived 1645 to 1701 and pirated Spanish ships.
Guillaume de l'Hôpital [l'Hôpital, Guillaume de]
mathematician
Paris, France
1696
Analysis of the Infinitely Small by Understanding Curved Lines [1696]
He lived 1661 to 1704 and studied series and invented L'Hospital's rules.
John Toland [Toland, John]
philosopher
Ireland
1696 to 1720
Christianity not Mysterious [1696]; Letters to Serena [1704]; Form of Celebrating the Socratic Society [1720]; Four
Tracts [1720]
He lived 1670 to 1722, was Deist, and was free thinker. People can speak and write in forms {exoteric writing} for
most people or in forms {esoteric writing} for scholars. Religion should have no mysteries. Deism emphasizes duty,
modesty, charity, and tolerance. God is in all things.
Pierre Bayle [Bayle, Pierre]
philosopher
Paris, France
1697
Historical and Critical Dictionary [1697]
He lived 1647 to 1706. Nobody can know absolute truth, so faith must have constraints, and people should have
religious tolerance. Reason can know its duty. Conscience knows ethical truths intuitively and immediately, though
they are not innate. Ethical truths are the same for all people.
Charles Perrault [Perrault, Charles]
poet/storyteller
France
1697
Contes de ma Mère l'Oye or Tales of Mother Goose [1697: with The Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding Hood,
Bluebeard, Puss in Boots, Diamonds and Toads, Cinderella or The Little Glass Slipper, Riquet a la houppe, and Tom
Thumb]
Charles XII
king
Sweden
1697 to 1718
He lived 1682 to 1718, fought Northern War, and won at first but then lost to Russia and Poland [1721], ending
Swedish power.
Augustus II
king
Poland
1697 to 1733
He lived 1670 to 1733. Elector of Saxony became king of Poland [1697].
Johann Pachelbel [Pachelbel, Johann]
organist/composer
Germany
1698
Canon in D [1698]
Thomas Savery [Savery, Thomas]
inventor
England
1698
steam engine [1698]
William Congreve [Congreve, William]
playwright
England
1700
Way of the World [1700]
John Jones [Jones, John]
physician
London, England
1700
Mysteries of Opium Reveal'd [1700]
He studied opium effects.
Louis Pecourt [Pecourt, Louis]
ballet dancer
France
1700
He lived 1655 to 1729 and was solo dancer {premier danseur} and balletmaster [1700].
Ogyu Sorai [Sorai, Ogyu]
philosopher
Tokyo, Japan
1700 to 1720
Distinguishing the Way [1700 to 1720]; Distinguishing the Names [1700 to 1720]; Journey to Kai [1706]
He lived 1666 to 1728 and started Kogaku School, which studied original Confucian writings.
Alain-Rene LeSage [LeSage, Alain-Rene]
writer
France
1700 to 1730
Gil Blas [1700 to 1730: stories]
Thomas Sheraton [Sheraton, Thomas]
designer
England
1700 to 1730
Sheraton
He lived 1751 to 1806. It was a light linear neoclassical style based on Adam and Hepplewhite. It used contrasting
veneers, inlay, and painted decorations. Chair backs had urns, swags, or lyres.
Jethro Tull [Tull, Jethro]
inventor
England
1701
horse-drawn hoe with seed drill [1701]
He lived 1674 to 1741 {hoe with seed drill}.
Frederick I
king
Brandenburg/Prussia
1701 to 1713
He lived 1657 to 1713. Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.
Johann Becher [Becher, Johann]
chemist
Germany
1702
He lived 1635 to 1682 and invented a heat theory [1702], in which heat is a substance {phlogiston} {caloric fluid}.
Georg Stahl [Stahl, Georg]
chemist
Germany
1702
He lived 1660 to 1734 and invented a heat theory [1702], in which heat is a substance {phlogiston, Stahl} {caloric
fluid, Stahl}.
Anne
queen
England
1702 to 1714
She lived 1665 to 1714, was Stuart, and fought War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain began [1707]. Parliament
became strong. Because she had no children, she preceded Hanover kings: George I, George II, George III, George IV,
and Victoria.
Berthold Dietmayr [Dietmayr, Berthold]
abbot/architect
Melk, Austria
1702 to 1736
Melk Monastery [1702 to 1736: Baroque]
Ito Jinsai [Jinsai, Ito]
philosopher
Kyoto, Japan
1705
Philosophical Lexicography of the Analects and Mencius [1705]
He lived 1627 to 1705 and started Kogaku School or Study of Antiquity School, which studied original Confucian
writings.
John Vanbrugh [Vanbrugh, John]
architect
Oxfordshire, England
1705
Blenheim Palace [1705: Baroque palace shows Italian styling]
George Farquhar [Farquhar, George]
playwright
England
1706
Recruiting Officer [1706]
John V
king
Portugal
1706 to 1750
Hermann Boerhaave [Boerhaave, Hermann]
France/Leyden, Netherlands
1707
Medical Institutions [1707]
He lived 1668 to 1738. Matter moves and lives. Mind is not separate from matter. Mind depends on body completely.
All mental processes use material or mechanical processes.
Johann Sebastian Bach [Bach, Johann Sebastian]
composer
Germany
1707 to 1749
Fugue in G Minor or Little Fugue [1703 to 1707]; Mighty Fortress Is Our God [1707: hymn with lyrics by Martin
Luther]; Toccata and Fugue in D Minor [1709]; Sheep May Safely Graze or Hunting Cantata or Birthday Cantata
[1713]; Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring [1716 to 1723: Chorale from Cantata No. 147]; Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor
[1717]; Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 [1717]; Orchestral Suite No. 1 [1717]; Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 [1719];
Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 [1721]; Orchestral Suite No. 2 [1721]; Well-tempered Clavier [1722]; St. John Passion
[1723: mass]; Two-Part Inventions [1723]; Three-Part Inventions [1723]; Mass in B Minor [1724 to 1749: mass];
Magnificat [1725: mass]; Minuet in G [1725: from Anna Magdalena Notebook]; Anna Magdalena Notebook [1725:
with The Little Suite and Art Thou with Me or Bist du bei mir]; Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D [1727]; Air on the G String
[1727: from Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D]; St. Matthew Passion [1729: mass]; Oboe Concerto in D minor [1731];
Sleepers Awake [1731: from Cantata 140]; Christmas Oratorio [1734: including Sinfonia in G]; Italian Concerto
[1735]; Goldberg Variations [1742]; Musical Offering [1747]; Art of Fugue [1749]
He lived 1685 to 1750 and composed Baroque polyphonic works.
Gobind Singh or Gobind Singh Ji
religious leader
Punjab/Pakistan
1708
Wonder Tale [1708: autobiography]; Praise of Almighty God [1708]; Wondrous Drama [1721 to 1734: compilation by
Bhai Mani Singh]
He lived 1666 to 1708, was the 10th Sikh guru, and emphasized militarism.
La Verendrye or Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de la Verendrye [Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes,
sieur de la]
discoverer
France/Canada
1708
Abraham Darby [Darby, Abraham]
inventor
England
1708 to 1709
iron smelting with coke [1708 to 1709]
He lived 1677 to 1717 {iron smelting with coke}. Previously, smelting used charcoal.
Anthony Collins [Collins, Anthony]
philosopher
England
1708 to 1717
Answer [1708]; Discourse of Freethinking [1713]; Philosophical Inquiry [1717]
He lived 1676 to 1729 and was deist and freethinker.
William King [King, William]
philosopher/bishop
Dublin, Ireland
1709
Sermon on Predestination [1709]
He lived 1650 to 1729, was archbishop of Dublin [1702 to 1729], and opposed Toland.
Isaac Watts [Watts, Isaac]/William Croft [Croft, William]
lyricist/composer
England
1709
O God, Our Help in Ages Past [1709: music is St. Anne, 1718]
Watts lived 1674 to 1748.
Antonio Stradivari [Stradivari, Antonio]
instrument maker
Italy
1709 to 1720
"Ernst" violin [1709]; "Madrileno" violin [1720]
He lived 1644 to 1737 and perfected violin, which he signed Antonius Stravidarius.
Richard Steele [Steele, Richard] or Isaac Bickerstaff [Bickerstaff, Isaac]
essayist
England
1709 to 1722
Tatler [1709 to 1711: edited magazine]; Spectator [1711 to 1712: edited magazine with Addison]; Conscious Lovers
[1722]
Peter Browne [Browne, Peter]
philosopher
Ireland
1709 to 1733
Procedure, Extent, and Limits of Human Understanding [1728]; Things Divine and Supernatural Conceived by
Analogy with Things Natural and Human or The Divine Analogy [1733]
He lived 1665 to 1735, was bishop of Cork [1709], and opposed Toland.
George Berkeley [Berkeley, George]
philosopher
England
1709 to 1744
Essay towards a New Theory of Vision [1709]; Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge [1710 and
1713]; Passive Obedience [1712]; Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous [1713]; On Motion [1721]; Minute
Philosopher [1732]; Siris or Chain of Philosophical Reflections, and Inquiries concerning the Virtues of Tar-Water
[1744]
He lived 1685 to 1753, was Catholic, and studied vision psychology.
Epistemology
Mind can only know sense impressions and images {immediate object}, perception contents. Mind only knows primary
qualities and secondary qualities. People cannot know anything about physical world or about substance. Objects are
only quality conjunctions, with no need for substance.
Mind only uses examples and analogies, not words or abstractions. Abstractions are illusions, because they just
recombine words. Abstractions about object sensations are not real in thought or nature, because they must both include
and exclude qualities, and no process can be so general and so specific simultaneously.
Perception cause is God's will, which maintains complex correlations between all sense qualities. All people thus
perceive the same unified, continuous, and coherent world, and world really is as it appears.
People correlate visual experience and visual judgments, such as distance and size, by contingent and arbitrary
associations, not by calculation. Objects in visual experience are only mental {divine visual language}, by which
people infer information about environment objects. People do not know or use innate mathematical ideas or optics
theorems.
Mechanical movements do not cause or explain anything, but scientific theories are useful to predict experience.
Metaphysics
Matter is not real. Only mind and sense qualities are real {subjective idealism}. To exist is to be perceived {esse est
percipi}.
If consciousness is matter property, world needs no creator, and soul is mortal.
The real world is under will of God and is purposeful. God perceives, and thus guarantees, material existence.
Mind
Mind is not ideas but contains or perceives ideas. Perceiving or attending is mental action, and mind is mental actions.
People are, and are only, minds or spirits, thinking things. Only intelligent active animate agents or minds can have will
and cause ideas or events. People are always thinking and do not have unconscious periods {doctrine of private times}
{private times doctrine}.
John M. Neale [Neale, John M.]/Christoph Meineke [Meineke, Christoph]
lyricist/composer
USA
1710
Gloria Patri or Glory to the Father [1710: translated from Latin by John M. Neale]
traditional [200 to 300]. Neale lived 1818 to 1866. Meineke lived [1782 to 1850].
Lord Shaftesbury [Shaftesbury, Lord] or Anthony Cooper [Cooper, Anthony]
philosopher
England
1711
Characteristics of Man, Manners, Opinions, and Times [1711]
He lived 1671 to 1713 and was deist. As third Earl of Shaftesbury, he introduced laws to prevent women and children
from working in coal mines, to limit workdays to ten hours, and to create insane asylums.
Ethics
Feelings depend on reflection about self. They approve the good and beautiful and abhor the bad and ugly and so guide
person's actions, making moral sense {moral sense} {sentimentalism}.
Goal of ethical life is individual-ability development, by unfolding essences. Individuals should use all forces and
impulses in harmonious ways. Individuals should not conform to others' laws or humble self or will before other
people. In cultivated and mature people, development combines selfish interests with altruistic motives.
Metaphysics
God is what orders physical world {deus ex machina, Shaftesbury}.
Charles VI
emperor
Germany/Austria
1711 to 1740
He lived 1685 to 1740. Holy Roman Empire claimed Spain against Charles II of Spain, in War of the Spanish
Succession. He involved Austria in War of the Polish Succession. His Pragmatic Sanction gave Hapsburg lands to
Maria Theresa of Austria, which later led to War of the Austrian Succession.
Prosper Crébillon [Crébillon, Prosper]
playwright
France
1711 to 1748
Rhadamiste et Zenobie [1711]; Catilina [1748]
Thomas Newcomen [Newcomen, Thomas]
inventor
England
1712
steam engine [1712]
Christian Wolff [Wolff, Christian]
philosopher/lawyer
Silesia/Poland/Russia/Prussia/Halle, Germany
1712 to 1753
Rational Ideas [1712 to 1725: essays]; Moral Philosophy [1750 to 1753]
He lived 1679 to 1754, was follower of Leibniz, was Protestant, and founded Berlin Academy. He was international
lawyer and favored natural law.
Epistemology
Rational and empirical knowledge are separate.
Ethics
Natural law and moral law are both strivings for perfection by monads. Increase in perfection brings happiness, and
decrease brings pain. Helping other people and following moral duties lead to perfection and happiness. People
improve by increasing idea clarity.
Joseph Addison [Addison, Joseph]
essayist
England
1713
Squire Roger de Coverly [1713: essay]
William Cheselden [Cheselden, William]
surgeon/inventor
Britain
1713 to 1723
Anatomy of the Human Body [1713]; Anatomy of Bones [1733: human skeleton]; Treatise on the High Operation for
the Stone [1723: kidney stone removal]
He lived 1688 to 1752, developed artificial pupil, and removed kidney stones {kidney stone removal} and cataracts.
François Couperin le grand [Couperin le grand, François]
composer
France
1713 to 1730
1st Suite [1713 to 1730]; 2nd Suite [1713 to 1730: includes La Flateuse and La Florentine]; 3rd Suite [1713 to 1730];
4th Suite [1713 to 1730]
Frederick William I
king
Prussia
1713 to 1740
He lived 1688 to 1740, created efficient army and government, and gained treasury surplus by avoiding war.
Philip V
king
Spain
1713 to 1746
He lived 1683 to 1746 and was of Bourbon family. His accession led to War of the Spanish Succession, which Peace of
Utrecht settled [1713]. Spain lost all outside territory to Austria and Britain, and he became king of Spain. Cardinal
Alberoni tried to get back Italian lands, leading to Quadruple Alliance [1718] to block the move. Quadruple Alliance
was France, England, Holy Roman Empire, and Germany. He also took part in War of the Polish Succession and War
of the Austrian Succession.
Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit [Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel]
physicist
Poland/Netherlands
1714
He lived 1686 to 1736 and invented Fahrenheit thermometer [1714].
George I
king
Great Britain
1714 to 1727
He lived 1660 to 1727, was of Hanover family, and became king under Act of Settlement [1701]. Quadruple Alliance
[1718] assured his succession. Whig party began to have real power.
Alexander Pope [Pope, Alexander]
poet/essayist/critic
England
1714 to 1734
Little Learning [1711: poem]; Essay on Criticism [1711: essay]; Odyssey of Homer [1713 to 1725: translated from
Greek, including Vital Spark of Heavenly Fire]; Iliad of Homer [1713 to 1725: translated from Greek]; Rape of the
Lock [1714: poem]; Solitude [1717: poem]; Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady [1717: poem]; Eloisa to
Abelard [1717: poem]; Moral Essays [1731 to 1735: essays]; On the Nature and State of Man or An Essay on Man
[1734: essay, including The Riddle of the World or Know Then Thyself]; Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot [1735: essay in
Moral Essays]; Dunciad [1742: poem]
George Graham [Graham, George]
inventor
England
1715
deadbeat escapement for clocks [1715]
He lived 1674 to 1751 {deadbeat escapement}.
Brook Taylor [Taylor, Brook]
mathematician
London, England
1715
Direct and Inverse Methods of Increments [1715]; Linear Perspective [1715]
He lived 1685 to 1731 and invented Taylor series and Taylor's theorem.
Danilo I
king
Montenegro
1715 to 1735
He lived 1670 to 1735 and allied with Russia.
Louis Dupré [Dupré, Louis]
ballet dancer
France
1715 to 1751
He lived 1697 to 1774 and was principal dancer [1715 to 1751].
Louis XV
king
France
1715 to 1774
He lived 1710 to 1774 and was of Bourbon family. First, he was under regency of Philippe II or Philippe d'Orleans
[1715 to 1723]. He fought War of the Polish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, and Seven Years War, which
resulted, together with costly court and official corruption, in loss of colonies and financial ruin. Cardinal Fleury was
minister [1726 to 1743]. Madame de Pompadour was mistress [1743 to 1764].
Egid Quirin Asam [Asam, Egid Quirin]/Cosmas Damian Asam [Asam, Cosmas Damian]
architect/painter
Germany
1716 to 1733
Weltenburg Church [1716 to 1721: at Weltenburg]; Rohr Church [1716 to 1733: at Rohr]; St. Johann Nepomuk or
Asamkirche or Asam Church [1729 to 1733: at Munich]
Egid Quirin Asam lived 1692 to 1750 and was architect. Cosmas Damian Asam lived 1686 to 1739 and was painter and
architect.
Samuel Clarke [Clarke, Samuel]
philosopher
England
1717
Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence [1717]
He lived 1675 to 1729 and was Moralist. Morals are part of natural law. Reason shows that people should follow the
golden rule and be benevolent to others.
Antoine Watteau [Watteau, Antoine]
painter
France
1717 to 1719
Gilles as Pierrot [1718]; Pilgrimage to Cythera [1719]; Fêtes Venitiennes or Venice Festivals [1719]
Georg Friedrich Handel [Handel, Georg Friedrich]
composer
Germany/England
1717 to 1749
Royal Water Music, Suite No. 2 in D [1717: symphony]; Esther [1718: oratorio]; Xerxes or Serses [1734]; Atalanta
[1736: opera]; Berenice [1737: opera]; Saul [1738: oratorio]; Concerto grosso in A minor [1739]; Israel in Egypt [1739:
oratorio]; Samson [1741: oratorio]; Messiah [1742: oratorio, including the Hallelujah Chorus]; Judas Maccabeus [1747:
oratorio]; Royal Fireworks Music [1749: symphony]; Solomon [1749: including Arrival of the Queen of Sheba]
He lived 1685 to 1759 and used arias.
Abraham de Moivre [Moivre, Abraham de]
mathematician
France/England
1718 to 1722
Doctrine of Chances [1718]
He lived 1667 to 1754 and invented DeMoivre's theorem [1722].
Daniel Defoe [Defoe, Daniel]
novelist
England
1719
Robinson Crusoe [1719]
Balthasar Neumann [Neumann, Balthasar]
architect
Bohemia/Würzburg, Germany
1719 to 1772
Episcopal Palace [1719 to 1744: in Würzburg in Bavaria, Late Baroque palace has many windows, bright colored
paintings, and hidden structural members, and Kaisersall paintings have Rococo style]; Vierzahnheiligen or Fourteen
Saints [1743 to 1772]
Lord Chesterfield [Chesterfield, Lord] or Philip Dormer Stanhope [Stanhope, Philip Dormer]
essayist
England
1720
Letters [1720: essays about chatterer, flatterer, and silent man]
Chikamatsu Monzaemon [Monzaemon, Chikamatsu]
playwright
Japan
1720
Double Suicide [1720]
Colin Maclaurin [Maclaurin, Colin]
mathematician
London, England
1720 to 1742
Organic Geometry [1720]; Treatise of Fluxions [1742]
He lived 1698 to 1746, invented Maclaurin series, and used determinants method to solve linear equations [1726 to
1729].
Hakuin Ekaku or Kokurin or Byakuin or Sugiyama Iwagiro [Iwagiro, Sugiyama] or Iwajiro or Jinki or
Dokumyo or Shoji Kokushi [Kokushi, Shoji]
philosopher/poet
Shoin-ji Temple, Japan
1720 to 1750
Wild Ivy [1720 to 1750: autobiography]; Daruma [1720 to 1750: scroll]
He lived 1685 to 1768 and was Zen poet and painter. People need to meditate during all activities.
Cornelius Van Bynkershoek [Bynkershoek, Cornelius Van]
lawyer
Leyden, Netherlands
1721 to 1737
Sovereignty of the Sea [1721]; Questions of Public Law [1737]
He lived 1673 to 1743 and emphasized actual law practice. He established neutral country protections, blockade rules,
and contraband rules. One cannon shot, three miles, is territorial-waters limit. High seas are free to all. Ambassadors
should have full protection. War declarations are unnecessary.
Montesquieu or Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu [Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de]
philosopher/historian
Paris, France
1721 to 1748
Persian Letters [1721: satire on European society]; Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decline of the
Romans [1734: philosophy of history]; Spirit of Laws [1748: comparative government and economic and geographic
origins of laws]
He lived 1689 to 1755, wrote histories, and began political science.
Law
Laws must suit environment. The standard of law is justice.
Politics
Personal liberty is good. There are three government types. Kings of Europe illustrate monarchy. Rulers of Orient
illustrate despotism. Republics can be either democratic or aristocratic. Democratic republics depend on virtue and
public spirit. Aristocratic republics depend on moderation. Monarchy depends on honor. Despotism depends on fear.
Virtue is the ideal of democracy. Moderation is the ideal of aristocracy. Honor is the ideal of monarchy. Fear is the
ideal of despotism. States need constitutions. Separating executive, legislative, and judicial government branches is
good.
Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann [Pöppelmann, Matthäus Daniel]
architect
Dresden, Germany
1722
Zwinger Palace [1722: Dresden Baroque]
Jean Philippe Rameau [Rameau, Jean Philippe]
composer
France
1722
Traité de l'harmonie or Treatise on Harmony [1722]; Nouveau système de musique théorique or New System of Music
Theory [1726]; Hippolyte et Aricie [1733]
Mahmud
king
Afghanistan
1722 to 1725
With Afghans, he defeated Sultan Hossein, ending Safavid Dynasty in Persia and starting Ghilzay Afghan dynasty
[1722 to 1730].
William Blackstone [Blackstone, William]
lawyer
England
1723
Commentaries on the Laws of England [1723: basis of USA law study before law schools]
He lived 1723 to 1780, was conservative aristocrat, opposed American freedom, and was protégé of Mansfield.
Bernard Mandeville [Mandeville, Bernard] or Bernhard de Mandeville [Mandeville, Bernhard de]
philosopher
France/England
1724
Fable of the Bees [1724]
He lived 1670 to 1733. Civilization creates more unsatisfied wants and so reduces happiness and morals. People obey
laws to get the most advantage. Laws should bring the greatest utility and happiness to the most people.
Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington [Burlington, Richard Boyle, Earl of]
architect
1725
Chiswick House [1725: Neoclassical house has landscaped garden and has style similar to Villa Rotunda]
Jacob Christof Le Blon [Le Blon, Jacob Christof]
inventor
Germany
1725
He lived 1667 to 1741 and introduced color plates.
Matabei or Matahei
printmaker
Japan
1725
Otsu pictures [1725]
He lived ? to 1725 and sketched scenes and demons {Otsu pictures} in Otso near Kyoto.
Pierre Rameau [Rameau, Pierre]
choreographer/ballet dancer
France
1725
Dancing Master [1725: book]
He lived 1674 to 1748 and recorded the five ballet foot positions. He invented first ballet leaps and turns in air
{elevation, Rameau}.
Catherine I
queen
Russia
1725 to 1727
Antonio Vivaldi [Vivaldi, Antonio]
composer
Italy
1725 to 1731
Four Seasons [1725: symphony has four of The Strife between Harmony and Invention twelve concertos]; Mandolin
Concerto in C [1729]; Flute Concerto in G minor or La Notte or The Night [1731]
Giambattista Vico [Vico, Giambattista]
philosopher
Naples, Italy
1725 to 1744
New Science [1725 and 1730 and 1744]
He lived 1668 to 1744. Things known to be true by people are the same as things created by people, an idea that
influenced German Romanticism. People's thinking differs at different history stages. Development processes in
individuals are similar to history processes. Both mature and then decay. Society developed from human nature.
Individual creations create society, so society depends on all people at that time and place.
Francis Hutcheson [Hutcheson, Francis]
philosopher
Ireland/Scotland
1725 to 1755
Inquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue [1725]; Compendiums on Philosophies of Instituting
Morals, Ethics and Jurisprudence as continuing Elements or Nature [1742: Book 2]; System of Moral Philosophy
[1755]
He lived 1694 to 1746 and affected Hume and Adam Smith. Feelings are innate and natural, not from reason or
intuition. People have moral sense, an idea from Shaftesbury.
André de Fleury [Fleury, André de]
cardinal/prime minister
France
1726
He lived 1653 to 1743, controlled Louis XIV [1726], corrected finances, and had to wage War of the Polish Succession
and War of the Austrian Succession.
Jonathan Swift [Swift, Jonathan]
novelist
England
1726
Gulliver's Travels [1726: tiny Lilliputians, big Brobdingnagians, and yahoos like stupid people]
Marie Camargo [Camargo, Marie]
ballerina
France
1726 to 1734
Joseph Butler [Butler, Joseph]
philosopher
Durham, England
1726 to 1736
Fifteen Sermons [1726]; Analogy of Religion [1736]
He lived 1692 to 1752. People have moral sense and can reason, and both cause conscience. Conscience balances selflove and benevolence and so controls passions towards other objects. However, conscience can be wrong.
James Thomson [Thomson, James]
poet
Scotland
1726 to 1748
Seasons [1726 to 1730 and 1744: epic poem]; Rule, Britannia [1740: poem from Alfred, music by Arne]; Castle of
Indolence [1748]
Peter II
czar
Russia
1727 to 1730
Marie Sallé [Sallé, Marie]
ballerina
France
1727 to 1733
Pygmalion [1733]
She lived 1707 to 1756 and first used ballet gestures.
George II
king
England
1727 to 1760
He lived 1683 to 1760, was of Hanover family, and fought War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole was Tory Prime
Minister [until 1741] and fought Seven Years War. William Pitt the Elder was Whig Prime Minister [from 1741].
John Gay [Gay, John]
playwright/poet
England
1728
Beggar's Opera [1728: play]
Dominikus Zimmermann [Zimmermann, Dominikus]
architect
Bavaria
1728 to 1757
Pilgrimage Church of Steinhausen [1728 to 1733: Late Baroque pilgrimage church has oval hall]; Die Wies Church or
Wieskirche [1745 to 1757: has Rococo paintings]
John Flamsteed [Flamsteed, John]
astronomer
London, England
1729
Celestial Atlas [1729]
He lived 1646 to 1719 and found 300 star positions.
Stephen Gray [Gray, Stephen]
physicist
England
1729 to 1732
He lived 1666 to 1736 and studied electrical conductors and insulators [1729 to 1732].
Tomaso Albinoni [Albinoni, Tomaso]
composer
Italy
1730
Adagio [1730]
He lived 1671 to 1750. He wrote oboe concertos.
Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount [Townshend, 2nd Viscount, Charles]
inventor
England
1730 to 1738
crop rotation [1730 to 1738]
He lived 1674 to 1738. Crop rotation rotated clover, wheat, turnips, and barley.
Anna Ivanovna or Anna of Russia
queen
Russia
1730 to 1740
She lived 1693 to 1740, was in War of the Polish Succession [1733 to 1735], and attacked Turkey [1736].
Suzuki Harunobu [Harunobu, Suzuki]
engraver
Japan
1730 to 1800
nishiki-e [1730 to 1800: color woodblock prints]
He lived 1725 to 177 and printed woodblocks in colors {nishiki-e}.
Antoine Prévost [Prévost, Antoine] or Abbé Prévost [Prévost, Abbé]
playwright
France
1731
Manon Lescaut [1731]
Alexis-Claude Clairaut [Clairaut, Alexis-Claude]
mathematician
Paris, France
1731 to 1752
Theory of the Shape of the Earth [1743]; Theory of the Moon [1752]
He lived 1713 to 1765, studied space curves [1731], invented Clairaut's equation, and determined Earth's shape.
William Hogarth [Hogarth, William]
painter
England
1732 to 1754
Harlot's Progress [1732]; Rake's Progress [1735]; Orgy [1735]; Marriage a la Mode [1743]; Chairing the Candidate
[1754]; Analysis of Beauty [1753: book]
He lived 1697 to 1764. Feeling of beauty depends on bodily characteristics and sensations, as they identify themselves
with art {empathy theory}.
Jean Jacques Rousseau [Rousseau, Jean Jacques]
philosopher
Paris, France
1732 to 1762
Confessions [1732: autobiography]; Discourse on Arts and Sciences [1749]; Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
[1755]; Julie or The New Heloise; Émile [1762: about education]; Social Contract [1762]
Education
There should be education for all, to perfect people and let them use their talents. Teachers should not restrain or
indoctrinate but arrange child's environment so child can learn. Children should be able to play, learn, and enjoy life.
Children should not have to be under society's rules but be free and so good.
Epistemology
Mind's basic quality is feeling or sentiment, not ideas or their combinations.
Ethics
Natural people are without good or evil. Human nature and natural motives are good. Natural states of feeling and self
should be the basis for civilization. Society corrupts by envy, competition, and status. Knowledge and culture have
removed people from their true nature and living style, separated them from nature, and corrupted them, mainly
through property institutions. Property makes self-interest the motive for life, but this is not natural. Emotion and
anarchy contain good and allow freedom. Religion should be from the heart, relying on conscience.
Metaphysics
Nature is good and simple.
Mind
Mind is self-directed unified personality, not just mechanical activities.
Politics
State results from contract {social contract, Rousseau} that expresses collective will among people to provide
government services for common interest. Contract applies equally to all citizens, who give all their rights to
community. Liberty, fraternity, and equality should result. People make social contracts and can change them any time.
Government rules by governed's consent {compact theory, Rousseau}, an idea from ancient Greece.
Authoritarian society is bad. Most laws are to maintain superior-subordinate relations between people. "Man is born
free, but everywhere is in chains."
All people are equal. Government and education should offset economic and institution inequalities among people.
Majority should rule. Constitution should allow as much personal freedom as possible, so talents can develop. Small
city-states with democracy are best. Larger states need elected legislatures. There should be no institutions except state,
because their interests will conflict with state's interests. If there must be other institutions, there should be many, so
they will neutralize each other.
Benjamin Franklin [Franklin, Benjamin]
inventor/statesman
USA
1732 to 1790
Poor Richard's Almanac [1732 to 1757: maxims and practical advice]; lightning rod [1752]; Franklin stove [1757];
bifocals [1760]; Autobiography [1790]
He lived 1706 to 1790 and helped found University of Pennsylvania [1751]. He found that lightning is electric, using
kite and key [1752].
John Kay [Kay, John]
inventor
England
1733
flying shuttle [1733: for looms]
He lived 1704 to 1780 {flying shuttle}.
Daniel Bernoulli [Bernoulli, Daniel]
mathematician
Basel, Switzerland
1734
Hydrodynamics [1734]
He lived 1700 to 1782. He solved differential equations by isolating variables. He developed cylindrical and spherical
wave equations to represent organ-pipe sounds. He invented vibrating string equation. He studied hydrodynamics and
invented Bernoulli's law [1734].
François de Cuvillies [Cuvillies, François de]
architect
France
1734 to 1739
Amalienburg Pavilion [1734 to 1739: beside Nymphenburg Palace near Munich, it has Hall of Mirrors]
François Boucher [Boucher, François]
painter
France
1734 to 1761
Capriccio View from the Campo Vaccino [1734]; Vulcan Presenting Venus with Arms for Aeneas [1756]; Shepherd
and Shepherdess Reposing [1761]
He lived 1703 to 1770 and used Rococo style.
David Hume [Hume, David]
philosopher
Scotland
1734 to 1762
Treatise of Human Nature [1734 and 1739: including Of the Understanding, Of Passions, and Of Morals]; Essays:
Moral and Political [1742]; Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding [1748]; Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
Morals [1751]; Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion [1751]; Political Discourses [1752]; History of England [1754
to 1762]; Essay on Miracles [1755: Miracles are illusions, because such testimony is more miraculous than the
miracle]; Four Dissertations [1757]; On Suicide [1757]
He lived 1711 to 1776 and was utilitarian, empiricist, and humanist.
Epistemology
Sensation or immediate experience is certain, providing basis for ideas and knowledge.
However, observations depend on uncertain assumptions.
Mental ideas are sense-impression copies. Brain does not infer sensations and ideas. Sensations and mental ideas are
similar, but sense qualities have greater degree, force, and liveness. Belief in sensations and mental ideas depends on
their degree, force, and liveness.
Besides original sensations and their copies, mental contents are ideas about sensations. Simple ideas are about
independent sense impressions {psychological atomism}. Complex ideas have parts that are about sense impressions.
All ideas depend on sense impressions. General ideas are actually about particular perceptions that have general
connotation. Ideas are about sensation relations, which are resemblances, contrarieties, magnitudes, proportions, time
and space relations, identities, and causations.
People can use logic and know probability of ideas and their relations. However, such reasoning does not necessarily
relate to actual world. People can only know that perceptions or ideas relate, not that real objects relate. Demonstrative
knowledge is about ideas and their relations. Knowledge is uncertain and relative. Beliefs are as justified as other
beliefs. No uniform principles can apply. No object implies another's existence.
Perceptions are object representations. Perceptions do not prove external objects exist, because mind only has
perceptions and not external objects themselves.
Statements can be facts that depend on nature or can relate ideas without needing facts {Hume's fork}.
Deduction or causation can prove statements. Causation arguments assume that laws are universal. Deductive
arguments cannot show that laws are universal.
People assume causation when same event succession or conjunction {regular succession} repeats. Causation depends
on constant mental association {necessary connection} {necessary relation}, which depends on contact. Causation
allows inferences about the future, which is knowledge beyond observation. Belief allows us to act in practical life.
However, people do not experience causal relations but only perceive events and objects in succession. Because
sensations, ideas, and events have no logical connections, people cannot know causes and causation. Association only
apparently relates cause and effect. Inductive processes depend on experience, make only contingent predictions, and
cannot give rational knowledge based on logic or reflection.
People can have no rational knowledge of God, causality, substance, mind, or self, because such ideas have no
associated sense impressions. People cannot prove God's existence by reason.
Ethics
Moral actions can be good for people. People can perform moral actions in systems that generally are good.
Morals are about emotions, which can then produce actions. Basis of moral actions and judgments is ability to feel
what others feel {sympathy, ethics}, as they experience pain or pleasure. Social life determines feelings. People
approve good actions, because people feel the pleasure others gain.
Reason clarifies, orders, and evaluates feelings that people have and the ideas behind them. Reasoning, and feelings of
sympathy for simple virtues, teach people sympathy for complex virtues. Besides sense qualities, people feel pleasure
from justice, benevolence, fortitude, wisdom, and prudence. Though actions resulting from these virtues can be harmful
or insignificant, sympathy causes people to approve.
No Ought from an Is {Hume's principle}.
Mind
Self has interactions, causes, and effects {bundle of sensations}, depending on memory. Selves are not objects or
perceptions, because no sensation corresponds to "I". Mind is sum of sense impressions and ideas. Introspection only
reveals perceptions, not self {elusiveness thesis}.
Politics
Compact theories of government are incorrect.
Voltaire or François-Marie Arouet [Arouet, François-Marie]
novelist/essayist/philosopher
France
1734 to 1764
Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation [1734]; Zadig [1747]; Century of Louis the 14th [1751]; Essay on
General History and on the Customs and Spirit of Nations [1756: culture and economics]; Candide [1759: novel]; Zaire
or Zara [1759: classic tragedy]; Philosophical Dictionary [1764]
He lived 1694 to 1778 and was skeptical, rationalist, freethinking, libertarian, and deist. He criticized institutions and
upheld justice. He said, "If God did not exist, he would have to be invented."
Epistemology
Mental powers have limits.
Politics
Religious freedom is necessary {écrasez l'infame}.
Carolus Linnaeus [Linnaeus, Carolus] or Carl von Linné [Linné, Carl von]
biologist
Sweden/Amsterdam, Netherlands
1735
System of Nature [1735]
He lived 1707 to 1778, classified plants and animals by structures, and named organisms as genus and species
{binomial nomenclature, Linnaeus}.
John Peter Zenger [Zenger, John Peter]
writer
Germany/USA
1735
He lived 1697 to 1746. He wrote against the governor in his New York Weekly Journal and went to jail. His lawyer,
Andrew Hamilton, asked the jury to consider the fact that the libel was true, which it was, so they acquitted him [1735].
Ever since then, truth has been defense against libel.
Augustus III
king
Poland
1735 to 1763
He lived 1696 to 1763. Elector of Saxony was king of Poland [1735].
Nader Shah
shah
Persia
1736 to 1747
He lived 1688 to 1747 and defeated Afghans [1729].
Thomas Bayes [Bayes, Thomas]
mathematician
London, England
1736 to 1761
Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions, and a Defence of the Mathematicians Against the Objections of the Author of
The Analyst [1736]
He lived 1702 to 1761. Expected outcome is worth or gain multiplied by probability. Risk is expected-outcome divided
by outcome value {Bayesian theory} [1761].
Epistemology
Census, experimental, or statistical data can determine expected outcomes and find hypothesis probability {Bayesian
confirmation theory}. Before evaluating new data, people already have beliefs about hypothesis risk and expected
outcome. They know what they expect data to be if hypothesis is correct and what data happen no matter whether
hypothesis is true or false.
Chi'en Lung or Chien Lung or Chi'en-lung
emperor
China
1736 to 1795
He was of Manchu family and controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina.
Charles DuFay [DuFay, Charles]
physicist
France
1737
electric charge
He lived 1698 to 1739 and studied positive and negative electric charge transfers, calling them vitreous and resinous
[1737].
John Harrison [Harrison, John]
inventor
England
1737 to 1761
marine chronometer to determine longitude at sea [1737 to 1761]
He lived 1693 to 1776 {marine chronometer}.
Jean Chardin [Chardin, Jean]
painter
France
1738 to 1741
Scullery Maid [1738]; La Toilette de Matin or Morning Dressing [1741]
Alexander G. Baumgarten [Baumgarten, Alexander G.]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1739 to 1750
Metaphysics [1739]; Aesthetics [1750]
He lived 1714 to 1762 and studied art and nature of beauty.
Emilie de Breteuil [Breteuil, Emilie de] or Marquise du Châtelet [Châtelet, Marquise du]
physicist
France
1740
Institutions of Physics [1740]
She lived 1706 to 1749 and translated Newton's Principia into French.
Ivan VI
czar
Russia
1740 to 1741
Samuel Richardson [Richardson, Samuel]
novelist
England
1740 to 1748
Pamela [1740]; Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady [1748]
Abraham Tucker [Tucker, Abraham] or Edward Search [Search, Edward]
philosopher
London, England
1740 to 1774
Light of Nature Pursued [1768 to 1778]
He lived 1705 to 1774 and was Associational Psychologist.
Frederick II or Frederick the Great
king
Prussia
1740 to 1786
He lived 1712 to 1786, engaged in War of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa of Austria, and gained
Silesia. He fought Seven Years War [1756 to 1763] against Holy Roman Empire. He partitioned Poland. He fought
War of the Bavarian Succession, after creating Furstenbund League of princes [1785]. Bavaria is in south Germany. He
established Prussian military strength and reformed society and law.
Domenico Gregorini [Gregorini, Domenico]/Pietro Passalacqua [Passalacqua, Pietro]
architect
Rome, Italy
1741 to 1744
Basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme or Basilica of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem [1741 to 1744: Baroque church]
Gregorini lived 1700 to 1777. First built in 325, the stone columns remain.
Elizabeth
queen
Russia
1741 to 1762
She lived 1709 to 1762, ended German influence, fought in Seven Years War, and founded Moscow University.
David Garrick [Garrick, David]
actor
England
1741 to 1771
Richard III [1741]
Anders Celsius [Celsius, Anders]
physicist
Sweden
1742
Celsius thermometer
He lived 1701 to 1744 and invented centigrade or Celsius thermometer [1742].
Christian Goldbach [Goldbach, Christian]
mathematician
Germany
1742
He lived 1690 to 1764. All even integers greater than 2 are sums of two primes {Goldbach's hypothesis, Goldbach}
[1742].
Nikolaus Pacassi [Pacassi, Nikolaus] or Nikolaus von Pacassi [Pacassi, Nikolaus von]
architect
Vienna, Austria
1742
Schönbrunn Palace [1742: Rococo]
He lived 1716 to 1790. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach designed and built the Early Baroque original [1696 to
1699].
Horace Walpole [Walpole, Horace]
prime minister
England
1742
He lived 1717 to 1797. Criticism of War of the Austrian Succession by William Pitt caused him to lose prime
ministership [1742].
Henry Fielding [Fielding, Henry]
novelist/essayist
England
1742 to 1749
Essay on Conversation [1742]; Tom Jones [1749: novel]
He lived 1701 to 1754. The highest pleasure that people can enjoy in conversation is to be with persons whose
understanding is equal with their own.
Jean Georges Noverre [Noverre, Jean Georges]
ballet dancer/choreographer
France
1743 to 1760
Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets or Letters on dance and ballet [1760: book]
He lived 1727 to 1810. He choreographed ballet d'action. Emotion became more important than plot in choredrame
ballets.
Charles Wesley [Wesley, Charles]/Felix Mendelssohn [Mendelssohn, Felix]/William H. Cummings [Cummings,
William H.]
USA
1743 to 1855
Hark! The Herald Angels Sing [1743: music is Festgesang, 1855]
Wesley lived 1757 to 1834.
Abraham Trembley [Trembley, Abraham]
naturalist
Switzerland/Netherlands
1744
Memoirs concerning the natural history of a type of Freshwater Polyp [1744]
He lived 1710 to 1784 and related hydra and jellyfish. Hydra and jellyfish parts can move and bud.
Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis [Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de]
mathematician
France
1744 to 1746
He lived 1698 to 1759 and developed dynamics maximizing-minimizing principle (principle of least action or leastaction principle or principle of stationary action or stationary-action principle).
Thomas Simpson [Simpson, Thomas]
mathematician
London, England
1745
Algebra [1745]
He lived 1710 to 1761 and invented Simpson's rule.
Julien Offray de La Mettrie [La Mettrie, Julien Offray de]
philosopher/surgeon
France
1745 to 1748
Natural History of the Soul [1745]; Man the Machine [1748]
He lived 1709 to 1751, was materialist, and was Boerhaave's student. Cells have intrinsic motion. Human and animal
brains are similar.
Madame Pompadour [Pompadour, Madame] or Jeanne Antoinette Poisson [Poisson, Jeanne Antoinette]
mistress
France
1745 to 1764
She lived 1721 to 1764 and was mistress of Louis XV of France until she died. Her influence allied France with Austria
in Thirty Years War. She patronized arts.
Charles Bonnet [Bonnet, Charles]
philosopher
Paris, France
1745 to 1765
Treatise on Insectology [1745]; Contemplation of Nature [1765]
He lived 1720 to 1793 and described people who saw aliens {Charles Bonnet syndrome, Bonnet}. Consciousness unity
and sensation-and-motion disconnection both imply that immaterial mind is separate from body. Nervous system
initiates mind's activities but does not cause them.
William Collins [Collins, William]
poet
England
1746
Ode to Evening [1746]; Ode Written in 1746 [1746]
Étienne de Condillac [Condillac, Étienne de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1746 to 1754
Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge [1746]; Treatise on Sensation [1754]
He lived 1715 to 1780 and was philosophe. He tried to make science of ideas {idéologie}.
Epistemology
All knowledge depends on senses {sensationalism, Condillac}. Data infer perceptions. For example, people do not see
retinal images but external objects. All ideas are sense qualities or sense-quality transformations. Morals, abstraction,
will, imagination, and judgment come from perceptions. Consciousness automatically senses sense-quality relations to
themselves and self, because they are all in same consciousness. Knowledge is consciousness of idea relations. The
chief relation is equality. Knowledge expresses unknown ideas in terms of known. Logic is general language grammar.
Languages are how people analyze ideas and phenomena.
Jonathan Edwards [Edwards, Jonathan]
minister
1746 to 1758
Treatise concerning Religious Affections [1746]; Freedom of the Will [1754]; Original Sin [1758]; End of Creation
[1758]; True Virtue [1758]; History of Redemption [1758: unfinished]
He lived 1703 to 1758 and was Puritan.
Epistemology
People know the primary and secondary qualities from God and so can perceive harmony and beauty.
Ethics
God gives sense of virtue and kindness to all beings. God knows all infallibly, so all events are necessary, not
contingent. People have no free will, though God is not the cause and is not forcing choice.
Metaphysics
All things depend on God, which is eternal and everywhere and conscious. All is deterministic.
Maria Gaetana Agnesi [Agnesi, Maria Gaetana]
mathematician
Bologna, Italy
1748
Analytic Institutions for Use by Italian Youth [1748 to 1749]
She lived 1718 to 1799 and published discussion of cubic witch of Agnesi curve [1948].
Robert Joseph Pothier [Pothier, Robert Joseph]
lawyer
France
1748 to 1752
Digest of Pandects of Justinian [1748 to 1752]
He lived 1699 to 1772 and combined Roman law, customary law, and natural law.
Leonhard Euler [Euler, Leonhard]
mathematician
Basel, Switzerland
1748 to 1770
Introduction to Infinite Analysis [1748]; Institutes of Integral Calculus [1770]; Institutes of Differential Calculus [1770]
He lived 1707 to 1783 and invented Euler's formula, Euler number, and Euler constant. He studied incompressible nonrotating non-viscous fluid flows {potential flow}. He studied non-homogeneous nth order differential equations,
partial-fractions method, explicit and implicit functions, networks, harmonic and divergent series, hypergeometric
functions, natural logarithms, partial derivatives, multiple integrals, calculus of variations, finite-differences method,
and gamma and beta functions.
First-order equations can be exact differentials. Newton's laws can depend on a maximizing-minimizing principle
{principle of stationary action} {stationary action principle} {Euler-Lagrange equations}.
Tobias George Smollett [Smollett, Tobias George]
novelist
England
1748 to 1771
Adventures of Roderick Random [1748]; Adventures of Peregrine Pickle [1751]; Expedition of Humphrey Clinker
[1771]
Maria Theresa
queen
Austria/Hungary/Bohemia
1748 to 1780
She lived 1717 to 1780 and was queen of Hungary and Bohemia [1740 to 1780]. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua,
Tuscany, and Modena in Italy, after end of War of Austrian Succession [1740 to 1748].
Thomas Gainsborough [Gainsborough, Thomas]
painter
England
1748 to 1785
Robert Andrews and His Wife Mary [1748]; Mountain Landscape with Bridge [1784]; Mrs. Siddons [1785]
Gabriel Cramer [Cramer, Gabriel]
mathematician
Geneva, Switzerland
1749
Introduction to the analysis of algebraic curved lines [1749]
He lived 1704 to 1752 and invented Cramer's rule.
David Hartley [Hartley, David]
Britain
1749
Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations [1749]
He lived 1705 to 1757. Nerves to brain cause vibrations, which cause sensations. Resonances cause idea association
{associationism, Hartley}.
Thomas Gray [Gray, Thomas]
poet
England
1750
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard [1750]
He lived 1716 to 1771 and was of the Graveyard School.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahab
party
Saudi Arabia/Qatar
1750
He lived 1703 to 1792 and started Salafi or Wahabi sect, which reformed Sunni Islam and emphasized simple life with
no rites.
Patrick Henry [Henry, Patrick]
lawyer/statesman
USA
1750 to 1765
He lived 1736 to 1799. In Maury case [1750], he successfully defended merchants against tobacco tax, which supported
Anglican clergy. Virginia House of Burgesses had replaced tobacco tax with cash payment, but king vetoed payment.
In 1765, he entered House of Burgesses and became leader. He said [1776], "Give me liberty or give me death." From
1789, he worked for Bill of Rights.
Denis Diderot [Diderot, Denis]
philosopher/essayist/editor
Paris, France
1750 to 1772
Encyclopedia [1750 and 1772: essays]; Thoughts on the Interpretation of Nature [1754]; Nephew of Rameau [1760]
He lived 1713 to 1784 and was philosophe.
Joseph I
king
Portugal
1750 to 1777
He lived 1714 to 1777. Pombal was his minister, and economy became good.
Samuel Johnson [Johnson, Samuel]
historian
London, England
1750 to 1779
Dictionary [1750]; Lives of the Poets [1779]
Philip Doddridge [Doddridge, Philip]/Edward P. Rimbault [Rimbault, Edward P.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1751
Oh Happy Day [1751: music, 1854]
Doddridge lived 1702 to 1751. Rimbault lived 1816 to 1876.
Gaetan Vestris [Vestris, Gaetan]
ballet dancer
France
1751 to 1770
He lived 1729 to 1808 and was first great classical ballet dancer.
Domenico Scarlatti [Scarlatti, Domenico]
composer/harpsichordist
Italy
1752
da capo arias; Italian overtures
He lived 1685 to 1757 and developed Baroque da capo arias and Italian overtures.
James Brindley [Brindley, James]
inventor
England
1752 to 1758
water wheel [1752]; flint mill [1756]; steam-engine boiler [1758]
Alaungpaya or Alaung Phra or Alompra or Aungzeya
king
Burma
1752 to 1760
He lived 1711 to 1760, defeated Mons of Burma, raided India, and started Alaungpaya dynasty or Konbaung dynasty.
Giovanni Tiepolo [Tiepolo, Giovanni]
painter
Italy/Würzburg, Germany
1753
Kaisersaal Ceiling Fresco [1753: Rococo, in Episcopal Palace of Würzburg, Bavaria]
Joseph Black [Black, Joseph]
chemist
England
1754 to 1763
He lived 1728 to 1799 and discovered carbon dioxide [1754] and latent heat [1759 to 1763].
Giacomo Casanova [Casanova, Giacomo]
lover
Italy/Bohemia
1755
Memoirs
He lived 1725 to 1798 and was adventurer and famous lover.
Jacques-Ange Gabriel [Gabriel, Jacques-Ange]
architect
France
1755 to 1775
Place de la Concorde [1755 to 1775: in Paris between Champs Elysées and Tuileries Garden and beside Seine River,
with Obelisk of Luxor]; Petit Trianon [1762 to 1768: at Versailles]
Leopold Mozart [Mozart, Leopold]
composer
Austria
1756
Toy Symphony [1756]
Jean Honoré Fragonard [Fragonard, Jean Honoré]
painter
France
1756 to 1764
Les Baigneuses or Bathers [1756 to 1764]
William Murray, Lord Mansfield [Mansfield, William Murray, Lord]
judge
London, England
1756 to 1788
Somerset case [1772: against slavery in England]; On the Right to Tax America [1776]
He lived 1705 to 1793 and established modern English commercial law, using Roman and customary law. He was
Chief Justice [1756 to 1788] and opposed American freedom.
William Pitt the Elder [Pitt, William the Elder]
prime minister
England
1757 to 1761
He lived 1708 to 1778 and became Prime Minister by his stand against Seven Years War [1757 to 1761]. He defeated
France in India and Canada. He wanted to concede everything to the American colonies to keep them. His love of
Constitution's rights made him the Great Commoner.
Richard Wilson [Wilson, Richard]
painter
England
1757 to 1765
Landscape with Diana and Callisto [1757]; Snowdon from Llyn Nantlle [1765]
He lived 1713 to 1782 and painted landscapes.
Ruder Boskovic [Boskovic, Ruder] or Rudjer Boskovic [Boskovic, Rudjer] or Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich
[Boscovich, Ruggero Giuseppe]
philosopher
Croatia/Vienna, Austria
1758
Theory of Natural Philosophy derived to the Single Law of Forces that Exist in Nature [1758]
He lived 1711 to 1787 and studied matter and space.
Jedediah Strutt [Strutt, Jedediah]
inventor
England
1758
rib knit knitting machine [1758]
He lived 1726 to 1797 {rib knit knitting machine}.
Emanuel Swedenborg [Swedenborg, Emanuel]
theologian
Sweden
1758
Heaven and Hell [1758]; Earths in the Universe [1758]
He lived 1688 to 1772, had visions, and started Swedenborg cult, which was popular in Romantic era.
Emmerich de Vattel [Vattel, Emmerich de]
lawyer
Germany
1758
Rights of People or Principles of Natural Law [1758: natural law]
He lived 1714 to 1767, was international lawyer, and believed in natural law. Nations are like moral persons, so ethics
is a consideration in law.
Claude-Adrien Helvétius [Helvétius, Claude-Adrien]
encyclopedist/philosopher
Paris, France
1758 to 1771
On Spirit [1758]; On Man [1771]
He lived 1715 to 1771. People have same potential, which differentiates with education and in society. Virtue should
have reward. People obey laws to get the most advantage. Laws should bring the greatest utility and happiness to the
most people.
Jacques-Germain Soufflot [Soufflot, Jacques-Germain]/Jean-Baptiste Rondelet [Rondelet, Jean-Baptiste]
architect
Paris, France
1758 to 1780
Le Panthéon or St. Genevieve Church [1758 to 1789: Neoclassical museum]
Le Panthéon is in Latin Quarter. Soufflot lived 1713 to 1780.
Robert Adam [Adam, Robert]/James Adam [Adam, James]
designer
Scotland
1758 to 1794
Adam
Robert lived 1728 to 1792. James lived 1732 to 1794. It replaced Rococo and Palladian.
Robert Burns [Burns, Robert]
lyricist
Scotland
1759
Auld Lang Syne [1759: traditional music. poem by Robert Burns, 1788]
Francis Hopkinson [Hopkinson, Francis]
composer
USA
1759
My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free [1759]
Adam Smith [Smith, Adam]
philosopher
Scotland
1759 to 1776
Theory of Moral Sentiments [1759]; Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations [1776]
He lived 1723 to 1790 and was Hutcheson's student. In economics, he studied free trade, economies of scale,
infrastructure, agriculture as economic growth basis, and labor and capital interaction.
Economics should have no regulation {laissez-faire, economics}. Colonial exploitation {mercantilism, Smith} is bad.
Labor division gives more value. Economic transactions among people make markets, which need no higher-level rules
or conscious-agent actions {invisible hand, Smith}.
Ethics
People judge their actions by what others' judgment will be, so social life determines ethical feelings.
Politics
Workingmen should have good conditions and education. American colonies should have legislature representation.
Johann Hamann [Hamann, Johann]
philosopher/theologian
Königsberg, Germany
1759 to 1784
Socratic Memorabilia [1759]; Aesthetics in a Nutshell [1761]; Golgatha and Scheblimini [1784]
He lived 1730 to 1788 and was Pietist. Consciousness has unity. Senses are not separate from understanding. Language
is the basic unifying activity of reason and consciousness.
Charles III
king
Spain
1759 to 1788
He lived 1716 to 1788 and was of Bourbon family. He joined Seven Years War through Family Compact between
France and Spain, which ended with Treaty of Paris [1763]. He then controlled Naples, Parma, and Sicily. He helped
American Revolution and gained territory in America at Treaty of Paris [1783]. Floridablanca was his minister, with
increasing power and prosperity.
Thomas Chippendale [Chippendale, Thomas]
designer
England
1760
Chippendale
He lived 1718 to 1779. It derived from late Baroque, Rococo, Louis XV, and Georgian. Chippendale Gothic and
Chinese Chippendale derived from it.
Tai Chen or Dai Zhen or Tai Tung-yüan or Dai Dongyuan
philosopher
Beijing, China
1760 to 1770
Evidential Study of the Meaning of Terms in the Mencius [1760 to 1770]
Robert Adam [Adam, Robert]
architect
1760 to 1773
New Town of Edinburgh [1760: Neoclassical]; Home House [1773: Neoclassical, in London]
Robert Bakewell [Bakewell, Robert]
inventor
England
1760 to 1790
selective animal breeding [1760 to 1790]
George III
king
England
1760 to 1820
He lived 1738 to 1820, was of Hanover family, and blocked Whigs by forcing the older William Pitt's resignation. Lord
North was his minister. Both forced American Revolution. Tories, who were aristocrats, controlled Parliament.
Walpole, Burke, and the younger William Pitt were Tory ministers. Pitt ended king's power. George III became insane.
James MacPherson [MacPherson, James]
poet
Scotland
1761
Romantic Poems of Ossian [1761: poems]; Fingal, An Ancient Epic [poem]
Jean Dauberval [Dauberval, Jean]
choreographer
France
1761 to 1789
La Fille Mal Gardée or Unchaperoned Daughter [1789: oldest comic ballet still performed, with music by Ferdinand
Herold]
He lived 1742 to 1806. Frederick Ashton updated the dance [1950].
James Boswell [Boswell, James]
Scotland/London, England
1762
Biography of Samuel Johnson [1762]
Peter III
czar
Russia
1762
Christopher Willibald Gluck [Gluck, Christopher Willibald]
composer
France/Germany
1762 to 1779
Orfeus et Eurydice [1762: opera, including Dance of the Blessed Spirits]; Alceste [1776: opera]; Iphigenie en Tauride
[1779: opera]
He lived 1714 to 1787 and used drama in opera seria.
Catherine II or Catherine the Great
queen
Russia
1762 to 1785
She lived 1729 to 1796, partitioned Poland, got Crimea, fought Ottoman Empire, and colonized Alaska. After
Pugachev Rebellion, she chartered nobles to make serfs slaves [1785].
Cao Xueqin or Ts'ao Chan [Chan Ts'ao] or Cao Xue Qin or Cao Zhan [Zhan, Cao] or Chan Tsao or Tsao Chan
[Chan Tsao] or Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in
novelist
China
1763
Dream of the Red Chamber or Red Chamber Dream or A Dream of Red Mansions or The Story of the Stone or
Honglou Meng or Hung lou meng [1763: autobiographical epic novel about a family]
Pontiac or Obwandiyag
chief
USA
1763 to 1766
He lived 1720 to 1769, was Ottawa chief in north-central USA, and led Pontiac's Rebellion [1763 to 1766].
Cesare Beccaria [Beccaria, Cesare]
philosopher
Milan, Italy
1764
Of Crimes and Punishments [1764]
He lived 1738 to 1794 and studied law.
Cesare Bonesana [Bonesana, Cesare] or Marchese di Beccaria [Beccaria, Marchese di]
philosopher
Beccaria, Italy
1764
Essay on Crimes and Punishments [1764: attacked penal and criminal systems]
He lived 1738 to 1794. Punishment should fit crime's seriousness and should exact vengeance. Judiciary should be
separate from legislature.
Madame du Barry [du Barry, Madame] or Comtesse du Barry [du Barry, Comtesse] or Marie-Jeanne Bécu
[Bécu, Marie-Jeanne]
mistress
France
1764
She lived 1743 to 1793 and was last mistress of Louis XV.
James Hargreaves [Hargreaves, James]
inventor
England
1764
spinning jenny [1764]
He lived 1720 to 1778. Spinning jenny spun four threads simultaneously, and spun 120 threads soon after.
James Otis [Otis, James]
lawyer
1764
Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved
He lived 1725 to 1783 and claimed that Americans were British citizens, that Parliament must conform to Constitution,
and that taxation required representation. From 1761 to 1769, he led colonies until severe head injury. He tried to
defend merchants from general search warrants {assistance, writ} {writ of assistance}.
Horace Walpole [Walpole, Horace]
storyteller/novelist
England
1764
Castle of Otranto [1764: Gothic horror novel]
Thomas Reid [Reid, Thomas]
philosopher
Scotland
1764 to 1788
Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense [1764]; Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man
[1785]; Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind [1788]
He lived 1710 to 1796, founded Scottish School of common sense and realism, and developed faculty psychology.
Perception and sensation are separate. Sensations are mental and have no objects except themselves. Sensations cause
belief directly, as signifiers. Perceptions are mental and represent physical objects. Perceptions depend on sensory
beliefs. Ethical judgments are not feelings.
Motoori Norinaga [Norinaga, Motoori]
philosopher
Japan
1764 to 1790
He lived 1730 to 1801 and started return to Shintoism and ancient myth {kokugaku}, in Kokugaku or Kogaku School
[1764]. Foreign influence should not change Japanese culture. Sorrow results from passing away {mono no aware,
sorrow}, as in classical Japanese literature.
Pierre-Alexandre Barthélémy Vignon [Vignon, Pierre-Alexandre Barthélémy]
architect
Paris, France
1764 to 1807
La Madeleine or Church of St. Mary Magdalene [1764 to 1807: Neoclassical]
Antonio Genovesi [Genovesi, Antonio]
philosopher
Bari, Italy
1765
Lectures on Commerce [1765]
James Watt [Watt, James]
inventor
Scotland
1765
governor [1765]
He lived 1736 to 1819. Devices {governor, engine} can regulate steam-engine rotation velocity [1765]. Steam engines
pumped water out of mines and increased coal production greatly.
Laurence Sterne [Sterne, Laurence]
novelist
England
1765 to 1767
Sentimental Journey through France and Italy [1765: essay]; Life and Opinions of Tristam Shandy [1767: novel]
Oliver Goldsmith [Goldsmith, Oliver]
poet/playwright
England
1765 to 1773
Traveller [1765: poem]; Vicar of Wakefield [1766: play]; Deserted Village [1770: poem]; She Stoops to Conquer
[1773: play]
Frans Hemsterhuis [Hemsterhuis, Frans]
philosopher
Netherlands
1765 to 1787
Letter on Sculpture [1765]; Letter on man and his relationships [1772]; Alexis or Golden Age [1787]
He lived 1721 to 1790 and was romantic.
Joseph II
emperor
Europe
1765 to 1790
He lived 1741 to 1790, abolished serfdom in Holy Roman Empire [1781], ended dues to feudal lords, allowed peasants
to buy land cheaply, ordered religious tolerance, eliminated torture, liberalized penal code, and abolished monastic
orders and clergy rights. Opposition by Furstenbund League of princes, under Frederick II of Prussia, caused him to fail
to annex Bavaria in War of the Bavarian Succession. He allied with Russia and Catherine II against Ottoman Empire.
He controlled Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, and part of Netherlands [1780].
George Stubbs [Stubbs, George]
painter
England
1766
Lion Attacking a Horse [1766: Romantic]
Louis Antoine de Bougainville [Bougainville, Louis Antoine de]
discoverer
France/South Pacific Ocean
1766 to 1769
He lived 1729 to 1811 and explored south Pacific Ocean as he went around world.
John Singleton Copley [Copley, John Singleton]
painter
USA
1766 to 1778
Mrs. Thomas Boylston [1766]; Watson and the Shark [1778]
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing [Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]
philosopher
Germany
1766 to 1780
Laocöon: On the Limits of Painting and Poetry [1766]; Hamburg Dramaturgy [1769]; Education of the Human Race
[1780]
He lived 1729 to 1781 and was Kantian.
Joshua Reynolds [Reynolds, Joshua]
painter
England
1766 to 1790
Orrery [1766]; Experiment with an Air Pump [1768]; Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse [1787]; Discourses [1769 to
1790: book]
He lived 1723 to 1792. Beauty relates to central idea. The most-beautiful things are the most-representative class
examples.
Adam Ferguson [Ferguson, Adam]
philosopher
England
1767
Essay on the History of Civil Society [1767]
He lived 1723 to 1816 and was English Moral Philosopher. Society can progress or not progress. People are social,
fight, indulge, and can be virtuous.
Joseph Priestley [Priestley, Joseph]
chemist
England
1768 to 1793
Essay on the First Principles of Government [1768]
He lived 1733 to 1804 and discovered ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, nitrous oxide [1793],
oxygen, and sulfur dioxide. For the greatest happiness of the greatest number, ruler and ruled interests must integrate,
by forcing rulers to depend on ruled to stay in power.
Gaspard Monge [Monge, Gaspard]
mathematician
Paris, France
1768 to 1800
Descriptive Geometry [1800]
He lived 1746 to 1818, studied developable surfaces, rediscovered projective geometry [1768], and was the "father of
descriptive geometry".
Richard Arkwright [Arkwright, Richard]
inventor
England
1769
water frame [1769]
He lived 1732 to 1792 and owned large cotton mills with spinning and weaving machines. Machines {water frame}
spun pure cotton, with no added flax.
Jean-François de Saint-Lambert [Saint-Lambert, Jean-François de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1769
Seasons [1769: including Autumn and Summer Wind]
He lived 1716 to 1803. Idea contents and idea forms and relations are two distinct things. Contents come from
perception, but form is from mind.
James Cook [Cook, James]
discoverer
England/Hawaii/Australia
1770
He lived 1728 to 1779. While circumnavigating Earth, he discovered Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) [1768] and later
claimed east coast of Australia for Britain [1770]. Original inhabitants were Aborigines.
Paul-Henri Holbach [Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiery, Baron d']
philosopher
France
1770
System of Nature [1770]
Marie Allard [Allard, Marie]
ballerina
France
1770 to 1775
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart [Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus]
composer
Austria
1770 to 1791
Cosi fan Tutte or thus do all or They're All Like That or The School for Lovers [1770: opera]; Violin Concerto No. 3 in
G [1775]; Violin Concerto No. 5 in A [1775]; Serenata Notturna or Nocturnal Serenade [1776]; Piano Sonata in A
[1778: includes Turkish March]; Flute Concerto No. 2 in D [1778]; Abduction from the Seraglio [1782: opera]; Horn
Concerto No. 3 in E flat [1783]; Piano Concerto No. 21 in C [1785]; Piano Concerto No. 23 in A [1786]; Marriage of
Figaro or Le Nozze di Figaro [1786: opera, including Duettino Sull'aria]; Don Giovanni [1787: opera]; A Little Night
Music or Eine Kleine Nachtmusik [1787: symphony]; Symphony 39 in E Flat [1788]; Symphony 40 in G Minor
[1788]; Symphony 41 in C or Jupiter [1788]; Magic Flute [1791: opera]; Clarinet Concerto in A [1791]; Requiem
[1791]
He lived 1756 to 1791. His operas had finales.
Immanuel Kant [Kant, Immanuel]
philosopher
1770 to 1798
On the Forms and Principles of the Intelligible and Sensible World [1770]; Critique of Pure Reason [1781 and 1787:
science]; Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics or Introduction to any Future Metaphysics [1783]; Groundwork of
the Metaphysics of Morals or Foundations of the Metaphysics of Ethics [1785]; Metaphysical Foundations of Natural
Science [1786]; Critique of Practical Reason [1788: morality]; Critique of Judgment [1790: aesthetics and purposes];
Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone or Religion within the Boundaries of Pure Reason [1793]; Doctrine of Law
or Doctrine of Right [1797: Natural law is the form of reason. Universal law mutually encourages and regulates
everyone's freedom and will.]; Metaphysics of Morals [1797]; Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View [1798]
He lived 1724 to 1804, was pietist, and synthesized rationalism and empiricism.
Aesthetics
Consciousness has feeling, including judging art {judgment, Kant} {aesthetics, Kant}. Aesthetics is about perceptions
that reveal object formal properties {Form, Kant} and lead to feelings of the Beautiful and the Sublime.
The beautiful or sublime is subjective feeling and is not necessarily useful or agreeable. The feeling is not about
physical object or concept but about mental image or perception that reveals object formal properties, exciting
understanding, imagination, and sensibility. The Beautiful and Sublime belong to consciousness-in-general and are
beautiful or sublime for everyone.
The sublime causes painful subjective inadequacy feelings in humans, because its greatness overcomes sensual
abilities. Then human higher abilities relate sublime to super-sensual mastery, overcome awe, and obtain final delight.
The sublime harmonizes sensual and super-sensual. Theoretical reason masters the mathematically sublime. Practical
reason masters the dynamically sublime or powerful.
Art tries to elicit feelings of the beautiful or the sublime. Feeling suggests nature's purpose, which is to harmonize
experience Forms and contents. Good artists therefore follow nature's forms.
Epistemology
Consciousness has thinking or ideation {theoretical reason} {pure reason}, which leads to questions about knowledge.
Knowledge can only be about experience. Reasoning strives to find ultimate, complete, and consistent knowledge by
pure reason but can only know how to act in experience {practical reason}. Through reason, people have ideas {ideas
of reason} about self, physical world, and God.
Immanent principles involve Mind, which perceives world and has experience sense data {phenomena, Kant}.
Transcendent principles involve reason, which uses unconditioned ideas beyond experience, such as actual objects and
ideal forms {thing-in-itself} {noumena, Kant} {Idea, Kant}, about which one can have only faith in a-priori universal
and necessary truths.
People can reflect and judge, using mass terms and sortal terms {natural kind, Kant}, to find experience order and
purpose. Because all people use same tools, they share universal judgments of beauty and laws.
Knowledge is about perceptions, objects, and mental concepts, which can be true or not true and have value levels.
Knowledge statements require subjects and predicates. Predicate to subject relations are third concepts different from
subject and predicate concepts.
Applying concepts to objects using rules {judgment rule} is one cognition aspect. Judgments {analytical judgment}
{explicative judgment} such as tautologies have predicate same as subject, so statement must be true. Judgments
{synthetic judgment} {ampliative judgment} can have predicates that differ from subjects. Synthetic judgments have
two types. People learn synthetic judgments, such as facts about world and perceptions, from experience {a posteriori
synthetic judgment}. Synthetic judgments, such as mathematics and reasoning principles, relate subject and predicate in
universally true and logically necessary way, unrelated to experience {a priori synthetic judgment}.
The main question about knowledge is about thinking forms or tools, how ideas originate and what mental activities are
{critical method} {transcendental method}. The reason uses such concepts, principles, and judgments, but they are not
innate, are not from experience, and are not consciousness contents. The fundamental categories used to understand
reality are not objective features but are conceptual mental structures {Kantian idealism, Kant} and make experience
possible {transcendental idealism, Kant}. Human understanding needs a priori concepts about space, time, substance,
and cause to have experience, know objects, and give objects properties {transcendental argument}. A-priori synthetic
judgments are only in mathematics, pure natural science, and metaphysics and are mental concepts, not physical reality.
The basis for their truth is how people think.
Basic reasoning activity is synthesis {transcendental logic}, which is unifying manifolds or plurality. Sensations
synthesize to perceptions, perceptions to judgments, and judgments to Ideas. First, mind combines sensations caused by
physical objects {things-in-themselves} with mental space and time Forms to make perceptions. Second, mind
combines perceptions with understanding concepts, which can create ideas, to make experience judgments
{spontaneity, Kant}. Third, mind combines judgments about experience to make Ideas or general principles. Thus, a
priori judgments do not require formal or analytical logic.
Using synthesis, people can make general synthetic judgments based on their perceptions. Such judgments are about
perceived-thing relations, such as "every change must have a cause."
People cannot know physical reality itself.
Mind uses general judgments to form further concepts from perceptions.
Space and time ideas are pure perception forms and are a-priori principles, not mental concepts. Perceived particular
things must be in space and time. Space and time are infinite, are about only one thing, are not subjective, do not relate
to particulars as wholes relate to parts, are not necessarily actually in the physical world, are invariable, and are not
universals. Space and time unify the sense manifold. Time unifies the self-perception manifold.
Twelve judgment types reflect twelve relations between subject and predicate. Universal quantity uses "all". Particular
quantity uses "some". Singular quantity uses "one". Affirmative quality uses "true". Negative quality uses "false".
Infinite quality uses "all" or "none". Categorical relation uses "all" or "none". Hypothetical relation uses "if ... then ...".
Disjunctive relation uses "and/or". Problematic modality uses "possible" or "contingent". Assertoric relation uses
existence as actuality. Apodictic relation uses necessity. Twelve Categories correspond to twelve relations.
Respectively, they are totality, plurality, unity, reality, negation, limitation, inherence vs. subsistence {accident,
substance}, causality vs. dependence or effect, community or reciprocity, possibility vs. impossibility, existence vs.
non-existence, and necessity vs. contingency.
Categories lead to reasoning principles. Quantity gives the principle: all phenomena are extensive magnitudes. Quality
gives the principle: sensation objects are intensive magnitudes. Three categories define possible, actual, and necessary
{modality, Kant}. Relation category and other categories give principles. Substance is permanent. Substance quanta
cannot increase or decrease. All changes have causes and effects. All substances continually interact. In mathematical
form, these principles are all inferences from motion laws, because motion accounts for all events and perception
changes. Principles are only about perceptions and experiences, not about actual physical reality.
The principle of pure understanding, which is self, ego, or consciousness as whole, develops from all Categories.
People can think of things-in-themselves as quality totalities, setting up intuition or non-sensuous mind perception, and
so can think of world, souls, God, and imaginary creatures. World is totality of sensations. Souls are totality of selfperceptions. God is totality of everything. Such unifying totalities are the Ideas.
Subjectively, mind has sensibility and understanding. Sensibility is passive or receptive. Things in themselves can
generate mental contents or representations {intuition, Kant} in sensibility {perception, Kant}. The fundamental time
and space categories are in sensibility. Time is the form of inner sense, which allows people to know mind's contents.
Space is the form of outer sense {outer sense}, which allows people to perceive external objects. Understanding acts on
sensibility to form conceptions from intuitions. Understanding includes fundamental categories and general
conceptualization principles, which allow people to find natural laws. Imagination links sense data to understanding to
recognize objects and apply laws. Imagination is necessary {transcendental, Kant} mediator between receptive sense
and active understanding.
Contradictions and opposite conclusions {antimony} happen when using space, time, and categories to understand
things that cannot be in experience. Antimony subjects are not experience objects but are transcendent reality. Pure
reason has four such unresolved principle logical contradictions. A logical contradiction is that universe had beginning
and has finite space, or it had no beginning and is infinite. Space and time are both infinite and finite. A logical
contradiction is that substances have simpler substances, or only one substance exists. Substance is both simple and
composite.
These two antimonies are about infinities.
A logical contradiction is that people have free will separate from physical laws, or that physical laws or God determine
everything. Things can be both caused and uncaused. A logical contradiction is that necessary being exists or does not
exist. God does and does not exist.
These two antimonies are about causation.
Thesis and anti-thesis are true. Contradictions happen because people can only know perceptions, cannot know actual
world, and try to draw conclusions about world anyway. Infinite regression through same answer type, to which human
experience cannot provide unconditional answers, causes antimonies.
Neither experience nor logical operations and concepts can prove existence of actual material things or their causal
relations. Substance and causality are only mental associations.
Philosophy is about concepts, is analytic, searches for definitions, depends on experience, and depends on
understanding concepts. Metaphysics is synthetic but a priori, as in statements about ultimate existence and causation.
Mathematics is about magnitudes, is synthetic, uses definitions, is independent of experience, and depends on clear and
distinct perceptions using space and time.
Humor depends on feelings of superiority [1790].
Ethics
Consciousness has willing, which questions morality {practical reason, Kant}. Thought contents synthesize will or
purpose objects using Forms, and wills perform acts. Ordinary will tries to gain happiness or satisfy desire by
synthesizing ends with means to find action courses.
Rational will has universal and necessary purpose, which is duty. Rational will follows a priori moral laws {categorical
imperative}. Rational wills can want that everyone do action. People should act based on principles that they will that
they should become universal laws. Such moral judgments have no conditions and are universal laws. Wrong action or
thing is against reason.
People do not perform ethical actions to obtain happiness or pleasure. Following duty is action for its own sake.
Consequences are not important.
Phenomena are deterministic. Noumena are not deterministic. Rational will is autonomous and free. People are free in
as much as they are things-in-themselves. People's will is free to act. All actions must come from will. People consider
{autonomy, Kant} which actions to take in situations to attain goals. People can choose to act morally and justly.
Conscience is feeling responsibility for actions and implies that people can choose in unconditioned ways. Being moral
is having temperament that follows duty. Reverence for law causes obedience. People gain the dignity of law itself.
Pleasure or approval feelings unite and synthesize theoretical and practical reason and tell people if object or idea in
theoretical reason is means for desire or purpose of practical reason. Feelings can be pleasant or show utility. Feelings
can arise from Forms themselves. One feeling is what people feel when they obey or break the categorical imperative.
The Idea of the highest good connects perceptions and unconditioned things by uniting happiness, which is object of
natural or sensuous will, and virtue, which is object of rational will. The only happiness is virtue or justice. All ends
have highest end, to attain after death, that combines virtue and happiness.
Divinity above experience can represent the moral ideal. The moral law within us leads to faith in free will, God, and
immortality.
God, society, or mental feeling or goal {heteronomy} can command moral law. Religion makes the moral law divine
command. Because people, in their guilt and awe, need help, God offers man redeeming love to obey the law.
People have reason, and others must respect this reason and so respect people as persons or agents, with ends in
themselves. People are subjects and should not be tools, instruments, or objects.
Logic
Logic is science of understanding. Logic has twelve judgment types. Logic {transcendental analytic} has quantity,
quality, relation, and morality.
Metaphysics
People seek highest good, so a source of all morality must exist and make this idea. However, ontological and
cosmological arguments are invalid.
If universe and time are infinite, everything should have happened already and everything should have same
temperature. If universe began at a time, why did it begin at that instant after infinite time?
Mind
Perhaps, people have mental faculty that unifies their experiences {transcendental ego, Kant} and separate mental
faculty that makes them self-conscious {empirical ego} [Kant, 1787].
Politics
Law and rights are about people's actions, not intentions or temperaments. Law is only valid if enforcement is certain.
Law should unite people's wills to ensure freedom, by blocking natural or sensuous will. People's dignity, derived from
moral law, makes them ends in themselves not things.
Penal law should only be for necessary retribution. Perhaps, before governments, people were innocent of duty. History
has brought people closer to duty but not happiness, because it has increased people's wants. History is movement
toward more rational social order.
Benjamin West [West, Benjamin]
painter
USA
1770 to 1817
Death of General Wolfe [1770]; Death on a Pale Horse [1817]
Alexandre-Theophile Vandermonde [Vandermonde, Alexandre-Theophile]
mathematician
Alsace
1771
Memoir of equation solving [1771]; Remarks on the problems of position [1771: about knots]
He lived 1735 to 1796 and invented determinant minor.
Yosa Buson [Buson, Yosa] or Yosa no Buson [Buson, Yosa no] or Buson Yosa [Buson, Yosa] or Taniguchi Buson
[Buson, Taniguchi]
poet
Japan
1771 to 1772
Light from the Snow [1772: poem]; Around Here [1772: poem]; Crow at Dawn [1772: poem]; Ten Screens [1771:
paintings]
Zen Buddhist lived 1716 to 1783, wrote haiku, and painted.
Charles Messier [Messier, Charles]
astronomer
Paris, France
1771 to 1784
Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters [1771 to 1784]
He lived 1730 to 1817 and published a star catalog [1771 to 1784].
Gustavus III
king
Sweden
1771 to 1792
He lived 1746 to 1792 and restored king's authority in Sweden, over Caps and Hats.
Joseph Louis Lagrange [Lagrange, Joseph Louis]
mathematician
Paris, France/Italy
1771 to 1811
Turin Miscellany [1771]; Analytical Mechanics [1788 and 1811]
He lived 1736 to 1813 and studied calculus of variations, mean-value theorem, spherical coordinates, solution
envelopes, adjoint equations, finite-differences method, and perturbation methods. He solved differential-equation
systems using conic-section deviations. Newton's laws can depend on principle of stationary action in Euler-Lagrange
equations. Natural numbers are sums of four natural-number squares.
Jean Le Rond d'Alembert [d'Alembert, Jean Le Rond]
mathematician
Paris, France
1772
Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia [1772]
He lived 1717 to 1783 and studied differential equations and multiple integrals and invented d'Alembert's test. He
found that Newton's 3rd law applies to free bodies {d'Alembert's principle}.
John Newton [Newton, John]/William Cowper [Cowper, William]
lyricist/composer
England
1772
Amazing Grace [1772: last stanza is anonymous. music is 19th century American melody, Loving Lambs]
Newton lived 1725 to 1807. Cowper lived 1731 to 1800.
Caspar Wolf [Wolf, Caspar]
painter
Switzerland
1773
Lauteraargletscher [1773: landscape of Lauteraargletscher river]
William Herschel [Herschel, William]
astronomer/chemist
London, England
1773 to 1781
Catalogue of One Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars [1782 to 1802]
He lived 1738 to 1822, studied infrared light [1773 to 1781], first saw Uranus [1781], and published a star catalog
[1782 to 1802]. Solar system is moving through space [1783].
Warren Hastings [Hastings, Warren]
governor
India
1773 to 1787
He lived 1732 to 1818. Appointed by Britain as governor-general [1773 to 1785], he reformed law and finances.
Parliament impeached him [1787].
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe [Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von]
novelist/playwright/scientist
Germany
1773 to 1821
Gotz von Berlichingen [1773: play]; Sorrows of Young Werther [1774: novel]; Iphigenie auf Tauris [1787: play];
Romische Elegien or Roman Elegies [1790: poems]; Hermann und Dorothea [1798: poem]; Egmont [1808: play]; Faust
[1808 to 1832: part 1 and part 2, plays]; Die Wahlverwandschaften or Elective Affinities [1809: novel]; Aus meinem
Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit or Out of My Life: Poetry and Truth [1811 to 1813: poems]; Wilhelm Meisters
Lehrjahre or Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship [1821: novel]; Metamorphosis of Plants [1790: nonfiction book];
Theory of Colors [1810: nonfiction book]; Italienische Reise or Italian Journey [1817: nonfiction book]
He lived 1749 to 1832 and wrote about strong emotions {sturm und drang}. He studied color contrast effects {Goethe's
shadows} and biology. Living things have repeated parts with similar structures. Leaf is basic plant form, and other
plant parts are leaf variations. Skulls evolved from vertebrae.
Metaphysics
Nature is a living whole, a unity manifesting God. All transitory things are but symbols. Things have archetypes or
beginning forms {Ur, Goethe}.
Samuel Adams [Adams, Samuel]
leader
USA
1774
He lived 1722 to 1803 and persuaded Massachusetts Assembly to invite other colonies to send delegates to First
Continental Congress.
Louis XVI
king
France
1774 to 1793
He lived 1754 to 1793 and was of Bourbon family. Helping American Revolution resulted in near bankruptcy. His
ministers, first Turgot, and then Necker, tried to correct finances. He summoned States-General, leading to French
Revolution [1789]. Ministers negotiated with Austria and French Revolution leaders, but he dismissed them after court
politics involving Marie Antoinette. When French Revolutionary War started badly, king and queen tried to flee, and
revolutionaries captured and guillotined them.
His queen was Marie Antoinette, who said, "Let them eat cake" when told the people had no bread.
Daniel Boone [Boone, Daniel]
pioneer
Kentucky
1775
Samuel Crompton [Crompton, Samuel]
inventor
England
1775
spinning mule [1775]
He lived 1753 to 1827. Machines {spinning mule} had a spinning-jenny moving carriage and water-frame rollers, to
spin fine threads.
Johann Kaspar Lavater [Lavater, Johann Kaspar]
biologist
Zurich, Switzerland
1775 to 1778
Physiognomy Fragment [1775 to 1778]
Pierre de Beaumarchais [Beaumarchais, Pierre de] or Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais [Beaumarchais,
Pierre-Augustin Caron de]
playwright
France
1775 to 1784
Barber of Seville [1775]; Marriage of Figaro [1784]
Edmund Burke [Burke, Edmund]
lawyer/politician
Ireland/London, England
1775 to 1796
Conciliation with America [1775]; Nabob of Arcot's Debts [1785]; Reflections on the French Revolution [1790];
Appeal from the Old to the New Whigs [1791]; Letters on a Regicide Peace [1795]; Letter to a Noble Lord [1796]
He lived 1729 to 1797 and was conservative Whig. He believed in maintaining current institutions and social customs,
deciding on evidence not theory, and being skeptical. He exposed East India Company injustices in India, during
Hastings trial. He opposed French-Revolution Jacobites. He tried to improve policies about America and wanted to free
Ireland. He wanted to free House of Commons from King George III.
Politics
Political power is to preserve order. Society coheres through habit, emotional bonds, conventions, loyalty, communal
feeling, and tradition {conservatism, Burke}, not by reason, rights, or law. Institutions can reform by small steps,
keeping essence, rather than change too much or quickly.
People should be dutiful, loyal to traditions, bound by social relations, and fitted into roles. Moral tradition is more
important than rational morality. Individuals should be free and independent, to judge and choose for best advantage
and to be responsible for their families. Human nature causes inequalities in society, but justice must prevail.
Government should use power legally. Government should only maintain security and order, because it often abuses
power. Bureaucracy and interference reduce human energies. Institutions should fit culture. Institutions should be free
and independent. Changes should be slow and subject to change, because human frailty can make everything worse.
George Washington [Washington, George]
general/president
USA
1775 to 1797
He lived 1732 to 1799. Second Continental Congress appointed him commander-in-chief [1775]. As first president
[1989 to 1797], he approved Alexander Hamilton's finance plans and pursued conservative policies, leaning toward
Federalists.
Vincenzo Galeotti [Galeotti, Vincenzo]
France
1775 to 1816
Whims of Cupid and the Ballet Master [1786: music by Jens Lolle]
He lived 1733 to 1816. From 1775 to 1816, he directed Royal Danish Ballet.
Nathan Hale [Hale, Nathan]
spy
USA
1776
He lived 1755 to 1776. Britain hanged officer of USA as spy [1776]. He said, "I regret that I have but one life to lose
for my country."
Henry Lee [Lee, Henry] or Light Horse Harry
general
USA
1776
He lived 1756 to 1818 and was father of Robert E. Lee.
Betsy Ross [Ross, Betsy]
seamstress
USA
1776
She lived 1752 to 1836 and supposedly sewed first USA flag.
Augustus M. Toplady [Toplady, Augustus M.]/Thomas Hastings [Hastings, Thomas]
lyricist/composer
England
1776
Rock of Ages [1776: music, 1830]
Toplady lived 1740 to 1778. Hastings lived 1784 to 1872.
Moses Mendelssohn [Mendelssohn, Moses]
philosopher
Germany
1776 to 1783
On the Immortality of the Soul [1776]; Jerusalem [1783]
He lived 1729 to 1786 and was follower of Leibniz and friend of Kant. He translated Pentateuch into German. Beauty
is people's imitation of God's unity. People should act to progress.
Thomas Paine [Paine, Thomas]
philosopher
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
1776 to 1797
Common Sense [1776]; Rights of Man [1792]; Age of Reason [1795]; American Crisis; Agrarian Justice [1797]
He lived 1737 to 1809. Deism is preferable. Free-thinking and liberty are good. People have right to education,
pensions, and other benefits.
Jeremy Bentham [Bentham, Jeremy]
philosopher
London, England
1776 to 1843
Fragment on Government [1776]; Of Laws in General [1782]; Defense of Usury [1787]; Introduction to the Principles
of Morals and Legislation [1789]; Treatise on Civil and Penal Legislation [1802]; Rationale of Reward [1825];
Anarchical Fallacies [1843]
He lived 1748 to 1832 and founded empiricist philosophy. His ideas led to fewer crimes carrying death penalty, new
divorce and bankruptcy laws, new married-woman rights, and real-property law reform.
Epistemology
Sentences are meaning units. Sentences using certain words or about certain thoughts can translate into other sentences
without those words or thoughts {paraphrasis} {contextual definition}, which people can perceive and so understand,
for example, in terms of pain and pleasure.
Pronouns and demonstratives {egocentric particular} refer to different things in different contexts.
Ethics
The greatest good is pleasure. People pursue pleasure and avoid pain, for themselves or others. Both pleasure and pain
are clear in meaning and are measurable. The greatest good for the greatest number is the goal of social ethics
{utilitarianism, Bentham}. All actions are reasonable and good that promote "the greatest happiness of the greatest
number" {greatest happiness principle} {utility principle} {principle of utility}.
Value systems can measure pleasure and pain in individual and social relations or actions. Action consequences can
have values, and mind can choose the best action. Action effects on others' gains or losses determine act's morality.
Ethical acts give utility, pleasure, and happiness to the most people.
Politics
Law is about rights and duties, which are complex ideas, not simple perceptions. Natural rights have no corresponding
duties and so are contradictions. Legal rights have legal duties and so are rational. Experiments must continually test
legal rights and duties. No rights are unchangeable or permanent. Description of, or wish for, right does not make it
exist.
Laws should be socially useful and not merely reflect customs. Laws can produce the greatest happiness for the most
people by punishing and rewarding to balance all people's desires. Law should make public and private interests
coincide and ensure subsistence, abundance, security, and equality. Laws should make people pursue happiness, to
attain general happiness. Perhaps, tradition and imperialism do not do this. Women's rights help.
Punishment is to deter people from causing pain or reducing pleasure, so punishment should be correct amount for this
purpose.
Social contract, in which people agree to obey authority to obtain certain rights and benefits, is legal contract, not
foundation for law.
Contract depends on maximizing utility.
Diminishing marginal utility causes equality to make more utility. Ability to subsist has greater utility than mere
general abundance. Security has great utility.
Democracy allows the greatest number of people to seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Carlo Goldoni [Goldoni, Carlo]
writer
Italy
1777
Il Mondo della luna or World of the Moon [1777: music by Joseph Haydn]
He lived 1707 to 1793. He wrote operas with Baldassare Galuppi.
Richard Sheridan [Sheridan, Richard]
playwright
England
1777
School for Scandal [1777]
Seyed Ahmad Hatef [Hatef, Seyed Ahmad] or Sayyed Ahmad Hatef [Hatef, Sayyed Ahmad] or Sayyid Ahmad
Hatif [Hatif, Sayyid Ahmad] or Hatef Esfehani
poet
Persia
1777 to 1783
Atom [1784]; Tarjih-Band or Strophes [1777 to 1783]
He lived ? to 1783 and was at the School of Moshtaq.
Marquis de Lafayette [Lafayette, Marquis de] or Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du Motier [Motier,
Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du]
general
France
1777 to 1983
He lived 1757 to 1834 and helped USA in Revolutionary War.
John Paul Jones [Jones, John Paul]
admiral
USA
1778
Georg Christof Lichtenberg [Lichtenberg, Georg Christof]
philosopher
Göttingen, Germany
1778
On Physiognomy [1778]
He lived 1742 to 1799 and was skeptic and aphorist.
Franz Anton Mesmer [Mesmer, Franz Anton]
physician
Vienna, Austria
1778
He lived 1734 to 1815, invented hypnosis {animal magnetism} [1778], and used tub {baquet} of magnetized water for
cures.
Antoine Lavoisier [Lavoisier, Antoine]
chemist
Paris, France
1778 to 1789
General Considerations on the Nature of Acids [1778]; Reflections on Phlogistics [1783]; Methods of Chemical
Nomenclature [1787]; Elementary Treatise of Chemistry [1789]
He lived 1743 to 1794, invented definite-proportions law {constant-composition law}, and noted mass conservation.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck [Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de]
anatomist
Paris, France
1778 to 1822
French Flora [1778]; Animal Philosophy [1809]; Natural History of the Invertebrates [1815 to 1822]
He lived 1744 to 1829 and studied invertebrate paleontology and invertebrate classification. Environment forces
animals to acquire new characteristics through learning. What individual experience learns, offspring can inherit
{Lamarckianism, Lamarck}. However, Lamarckianism is only true for minor specialized cellular transmittance.
Louis Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Louis]
king
Netherlands/Batavia
1778 to 1846
He lived 1778 to 1846. France created Batavian kingdom in Netherlands [1778 to 1846].
Abraham Darby III [Darby III, Abraham]
inventor
England
1779
Iron Bridge Coalbrookdale [1779: cast iron bridge]
He lived 1750 to 1791 {iron bridge}.
Edmund Cartwright [Cartwright, Edmund]
inventor
England
1779 to 1785
yeast treatment for putrid fever [1779]; power loom for weaving [1785]
He lived 1743 to 1823 {power loom}.
Benedict Arnold [Arnold, Benedict]
traitor
USA
1780
He lived 1741 to 1801, was general, and betrayed USA plans to British in American Revolution.
Platonism or Cambridge School
philosophic school
England
1780
School included Richard Price.
William Cowper [Cowper, William]
poet
England
1780
Light Shining Out of Darkness [1780]
Stephen Decatur [Decatur, Stephen]
captain
USA
1780
He lived 1779 to 1820 and captained warship.
Luigi Galvani [Galvani, Luigi]
physiologist
Italy
1780
He lived 1737 to 1798 and observed frog muscles twitch when touched by electrified wires {galvanic stimulation}
[1780].
Pierre-Simon de Laplace [Laplace, Pierre-Simon de]
mathematician
Paris, France
1780
Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements or Memoir on the probability of events [1774]; Théorie du
mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes or Theory of movement of planet elliptical orbits [1776]; Mécanique
céleste or Celestial Mechanics [1780]; Essai philosophique sur les probabilités or Philosophical essay on probabilities
[1814]
He lived 1749 to 1827 and studied partial differential equations, Laplace transforms and operators, perturbations
method, spherical coordinates, finite-differences method, and divergence theorem.
After proving that planetary elliptical orbits can be stable, he said, "Je n'avais pas besoin de cette hypothèse-là" or "I
had no need of that hypothesis" when asked by Napoleon why he did not invoke God to explain solar-system stability,
as Newton had thought necessary because of chaotic conditions (which are there but just small enough).
Epistemology
Given physical laws and particle motions and positions, people can predict everything in the future.
Metaphysics
Solar system formed from spinning gas cloud {nebular hypothesis}. Gravity and motion correct planetary-orbit
perturbations, rather than causing chaos.
Casimir Pulaski [Pulaski, Casimir]
soldier
Poland
1780
Josiah Wedgwood [Wedgwood, Josiah]
designer
England
1780
Wedgwood
He lived 1730 to 1792 and manufactured china.
Faetano Filangeri [Filangeri, Faetano]
philosopher
Italy
1780 to 1788
Franc Samuel Karpe [Karpe, Franc Samuel]
philosopher
Slovakia
1780 to 1800
He lived 1747 to 1806, was part of Slovene Cultural Revival, and studied associative psychology.
Sengai Gibon [Sengai, Gibon] or Gibon Sengai [Sengai, Gibon]
painter
Japan
1780 to 1810
Frog and Snail; Banana Plant or Basho; Bamboos in the Wind
Ryokan
poet
Japan
1780 to 1831
Haiku [1780 to 1810]
John Henry Fuseli [Fuseli, John Henry]
painter
Switzerland/England
1781
Nightmare [1781]
Johann Peter Eckermann [Eckermann, Johann Peter]
essayist
Germany
1781 to 1783
Gespräche mit Goethe or Conversations with Goethe or Conversations of Eckermann [1836 and 1848]
Baron Munchausen [Munchausen, Baron]
essayist
Germany
1781 to 1783
Tales [1781 to 1783]
He lived 1720 to 1797 and wrote about travel.
Jean Antoine Houdon [Houdon, Jean Antoine]
sculptor
France
1781 to 1789
Voltaire [1781]; George Washington [1788]; Thomas Jefferson [1789]
Joseph Haydn [Haydn, Joseph]
composer
Austria
1781 to 1801
Russian Quartets [1781]; Seven Last Words [1786: oratorio by Eugene Drucker]; Symphony 88 in G [1787];
Symphony No. 94 or Surprise Symphony [1791]; London Symphonies [1791 to 1792]; Symphony 99 in E Flat [1794];
Clock Symphony [1794]; Trumpet Concerto in E flat [1796]; Creation [1796 to 1798: oratorio]; String Quartet in C
[1797: including Emperor's Hymn]; Emperor Quartet [1797]; Seasons [1801: oratorio]
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi [Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich]
educator
Switzerland
1781 to 1801
Leonard and Gertrude [1781]; How Gertrude Teaches Her Children [1801]
He lived 1746 to 1827 and related education to practical life at home. Children can learn by doing tasks at home and
thinking about them [Pestalozzi, 1781] [Pestalozzi, 1801].
Johann von Schiller [Schiller, Johann von]
poet/playwright/philosopher
Germany
1781 to 1805
Die Rauber or The Robbers [1781: play]; An die Freude or Ode to Joy [1785: poem]; Don Carlos [1787: play];
Wallenstein [1800: play]; Die Jungfrau von Orleans or Young Woman of Orleans [1801: play]; Wilhelm Tell [1804:
play]; Story of the Bell [1805: poem]; What is Universal History? [1789: essay]; On the Aesthetic Education of Man
[1795: essay]; Naive and Sentimental Poetry [1796: essay]
Aesthetics
Beauty is freedom in phenomenal appearance. It is not subject to concepts, understanding, or related phenomena. It has
no known cause and makes cause meaningless. It is not about ethics, because it does not relate to duty. It is play. It
involves no want or need, and so no will. It can create state in which sensuous and moral natures harmonize. Art
silences natural will, allowing moral will to work.
Politics
Man started in instinctive state, following moral laws, because sensuous and moral natures were yet to come to
consciousness. History and poetry evolved together. In first state, naive poetry was about unity with nature, was
realistic, and used author-narrator. Middle states are sentimental and are about personal reflection, appeals to nature,
and poet as subject. In final state, moral law will reunite with will.
Etienne Falconet [Falconet, Etienne]
sculptor
Leningrad, Russia
1782
Equestrian Monument of Peter the Great or Bronze Horseman [1782: Rococo statue]
Choderlos de Laclos [Laclos, Choderlos de]
writer
France
1782
Les Liaisons dangereuses or Dangerous Liaisons [1782]
Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans [d'Abbans, Marquis Claude de Jouffroy]
inventor
France
1783
steamboat [1783]
Henry Cort [Cort, Henry] or Great Finer
inventor
England
1783
puddling [1783]; rolling [1783]
He lived 1740 to 1800. Processes {puddling} can convert brittle pig iron to wrought iron, which is more malleable for
shaping {rolling}.
Edward Gibbon [Gibbon, Edward]
historian
England
1783
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [1783]
James Madison [Madison, James]/Alexander Hamilton [Hamilton, Alexander]/John Jay [Jay, John]
lawyer
USA
1783
Federalist Papers [1787 to 1788]
Madison lived 1751 to 1836. Hamilton lived 1755 to 1804. Jay lived 1745 to 1829. They wrote to gain support to ratify
new Constitution.
Joseph Michel Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Joseph Michel]/Jacques Étienne Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Jacques
Étienne]
inventor
Paris, France
1783
hot air balloon [1783]
Joseph lived 1740 to 1810 {hot air balloon}. Jacques lived 1745 to 1799.
Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin [Potemkin, Grigori Alexandrovich]
governor
Crimea
1783
He lived 1739 to 1791, annexed Crimea for Russia [1783], and advised Catherine II of Russia. He set up model villages
{Potemkin village} as Catherine toured south Russia.
William Jones [Jones, William]
linguist
England
1783 to 1794
Sanscrit Language [1786: nonfiction]; Laws of Manu [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit]; Recollection of
Shakuntala [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of play by Kalidasa. Shakuntala was a beautiful woman.]; Account
of Seasons or Cycle of Seasons [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of poem by Kalidasa]; Gita Govinda or Song
of Govind or Song of Divine Love between Radha and Krishna [1783 to 1794: translation from Sanskrit of poem by
Jayadeva. Govind is Krishna as Protector.]
He lived 1746 to 1794 and related Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin by describing similarities among words [1786].
Caroline Herschel [Herschel, Caroline]
astronomer
Germany
1783 to 1797
She lived 1750 to 1848 and discovered nebulae [1783] and comets [1786 to 1797].
William Pitt the Younger [Pitt the Younger, William]
prime minister
London, England
1783 to 1801
Catholic Emancipation Bill [1783 to 1801]
He lived 1759 to 1806. As prime minister under George III [1783 to 1801], he held general elections, cut debt through
taxation, and led reforms in Parliament. He reformed India and Canada administrations. Wars with France caused
financial crisis. He achieved union with Ireland but resigned when King George III vetoed his Catholic Emancipation
Bill.
Johann G. Herder [Herder, Johann G.]
lawyer
Weimar, Thuringia, Germany
1784 to 1799
Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind [1784 to 1791]; Metacritique on the Critique of Pure Reason [1799]
He lived 1744 to 1803 and wrote about law.
Epistemology
Senses are not separate from understanding. Living people unify sensations and consciousness or understanding as
feeling. Feeling unifies senses and turns sounds into thought and language by revealing or bringing to consciousness
innate ideas.
All languages derive from one language. Language is the basic unifying activity of reason and consciousness.
Language arose from people's nature. Language includes both emotion and reason, showing that these are not separate
in mind or thought. Language can show culture's ideas.
History
History is progression toward perfection. Language, culture, and history cause national character. People have had
many different ideas, which people today can try to understand through getting feelings {Einfühlung, Herder} for
periods and cultures.
Law
Absolute law does not derive from reason alone. Law and institutions relate to living conditions. National, especially
German, laws show that laws can be systematic, logical, and practical.
Politics
States began from the historical process of striving for perfection.
Jacques Louis David [David, Jacques Louis]
painter
France
1784 to 1801
Oath of the Horatii [1784]; Death of Socrates [1787]; Lictors Bringing Back the Sons of Brutus [1789]; Oath of the
Tennis Court [1791]; Death of Marat [1793]; View of the Luxembourg Palace Gardens [1794]; Madame Verninac
[1799]; Madame Récamier [1800]; Napoleon Crossing the Alps [1801]
Charles Augustin de Coulomb [Coulomb, Charles Augustin de]
physicist/inventor
France
1785
torsion balance
He lived 1736 to 1806 and invented Coulomb's law [1785]. At fluid boundaries, fluid does not slip {no-slip condition,
Coulomb}.
Robert Burns [Burns, Robert]
poet
Scotland
1785 to 1788
To a Mouse [1785]; Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect [1786]; My Love Is Like a Red, Red Rose or Red, Red Rose
[1786]; My Heart's in the Highlands [1786]; Man's a Man for A' That [1786]; Tam O'Shanter [1786]; Comin' thro' the
Rye [1786]; Auld Lang Syne [1788]; John Anderson, My Jo [1789]; Flow Gently, Sweet Afton [1791]
Henry Cavendish [Cavendish, Henry]
physicist
England
1785 to 1798
He lived 1731 to 1810 and studied specific heat, discovered hydrogen gas [1785], measured gravity of 10000-gram
mass [1798], and found Earth mass and density [1798].
Marquis de Sade [Sade, Marquis de] or Donatien Alphonse François, Counte de Sade [Sade, Donatien Alphonse
François, Counte de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1785 to 1800
120 Days of Sodomy [1785: essay]; Justine [1791: novel]; Philosophy of the Bedroom [1793: essays]; Juliette [1797:
novel]; Crimes of Love [1800: novel]
He lived 1740 to 1814 and studied sexual motives, sadism, and masochism. People are sums of their inherited qualities
and so do not have personal responsibility for behavior. People can have sexual pleasure {sadomasochism} by
inflicting pain or cruelty on others {sadism, Sade} or on oneself {masochism, Sade}.
William Paley [Paley, William]
philosopher
London, England
1785 to 1802
Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy [1785]; Evidences of Christianity [1794]; Natural Theology [1802]
He lived 1743 to 1805 and formulated argument from design.
Ethics
Right is what agrees with will of God. Proper actions come from moral, but not necessarily noble, feelings.
Utility, not emotions or altruism, causes people's actions. God uses Heaven and Hell to try to make people avoid
temporal gain. People's fear and hope can control their selfish desires, because people act only in their own interest.
Morals require rewards and punishments, together with power or authority to enforce law.
Metaphysics
Anyone who sees watches must assume that watchmakers designed and formed them, so observing universe makes
people assume that God designed and formed it {argument from design, Paley}.
George Heppelwhite [Heppelwhite, George]
designer
England
1786
Heppelwhite
He lived ? to 1786 and drew furniture designs [1786]. Style derived from Adam and neoclassical but was lighter and
more curved. Chairs can have Prince-of-Wales feathers on back.
Philip Freneau [Freneau, Philip]
poet
USA
1786 to 1787
Poems of Philip Freneau [1786]; Journey from Philadelphia to New York [1787]
He lived 1752 to 1832 and was American-Revolution poet.
John Trumbull [Trumbull, John]
painter
USA
1786 to 1824
Declaration of Independence [1786]; Paintings in United States Capitol Building [1824]
Jacques Charles [Charles, Jacques]
physicist
France
1787
He lived 1746 to 1823 and invented Charles' law [1787].
William Patterson [Patterson, William]
lawyer
New Jersey
1787
He lived 1745 to 1806 and proposed New Jersey Plan for constitution at Constitutional Convention, which was similar
to Articles of Confederation, but senators and executives had life terms, like limited elected monarchy.
Edmund Randolph [Randolph, Edmund]
lawyer
Virginia
1787
He lived 1753 to 1813 and proposed Virginia Plan for constitution at Constitutional Convention. Bicameral legislature
has two parts. Executive or judiciary can veto state laws that violate Constitution.
John Wilkinson [Wilkinson, John]
inventor
England
1787
iron boat [1787]
He lived 1728 to 1808 {iron boat}.
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi [Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich]
philosopher
Germany
1787 to 1819
David Hume on Beliefs: Idealism and Realism [1787]
He lived 1743 to 1819, was pietist, was against the metaphysics of Spinoza and Kant, and quarreled with Moses
Mendelssohn. Things-in-themselves must cause sense qualities to start their synthesis originally. God has determined
all knowledge completely. Faith or feeling allows immediate knowledge. People have feelings for freedom,
immortality, morality, reality of perceptions, and reality of God. Feelings give knowledge of what is real.
Louis Saint-Simon [Saint-Simon, Louis]
historian
Paris, France
1788
Memoirs on the Court of Louis XIV [1788]
Karl Gotthard Langhans [Langhans, Karl Gotthard]
architect
Berlin, Germany
1788 to 1791
Brandenburg Gate [1788 to 1791: Neoclassical]
Charles IV
king
Spain
1788 to 1808
He lived 1748 to 1819 and was of Bourbon family. His minister Godoy quit Spanish side of French Revolutionary
Wars and allied with France. Iberian peoples of Spain and Portugal revolted against France in Peninsular War but lost
to France, who captured his son. His queen was Maria Luisa.
Alexander Hamilton [Hamilton, Alexander]
treasurer
USA
1789 to 1791
He lived 1755 to 1804. As first Treasury secretary, he established USA treasury system and Bank of the USA. He
favored centralized and strong Federal government and favored Britain in foreign policy.
John Jay [Jay, John]
chief justice
USA
1789 to 1791
He lived 1745 to 1829 and was first USA Supreme Court Chief Justice. He signed Jay's Treaty [1791] between USA
and Britain over freedom of navigation, trade restrictions in West Indies, and evacuation of British Northwest forts, but
it did not stop naval impressment. He resigned to run for Governor of New York [1791].
William Blake [Blake, William]
poet
England
1789 to 1794
Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience [1789 to 1794]; Tiger or Tyger [1789 to 1794: in Songs of Innocence and
Songs of Experience]; Lamb [1789 to 1794: in Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience]; Auguries of Innocence
[1789 to 1794: in Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience]; Piping Down the Valleys Wild [1789 to 1794: in
Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience]; Marriage of Heaven and Hell [1789 to 1794: in Songs of Innocence and
Songs of Experience]; To the Evening Star [1792]
Oliver Ellsworth [Ellsworth, Oliver]
lawyer
USA
1789 to 1800
Judiciary Act of 1789
He lived 1745 to 1807. First Congress required one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices for Supreme Court.
Supreme Court was to try cases involving state relations, ambassadors, ministers, and consuls and to hear appeals from
lower courts. President appointed judges, with Senate's consent. Judges had life terms. Only trial in Senate, needing
two-thirds majority, can remove judge {impeachment, judge}. Judiciary Act also established fifteen District Courts and
two Circuit Courts, which were higher than District Courts but lower than Supreme Court. He lived 1745 to 1807 and
became USA Supreme Court Chief Justice [1796 to 1800] after John Jay resigned to run for Governor of New York.
He resigned in 1800.
Madeleine Guinard [Guinard, Madeleine]
ballerina
France
1790
Temple of Terpiscore [1790]
Solomon Maimon [Maimon, Solomon]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1790
Essay On Transcendental Philosophy [1790]
He lived 1753 to 1800 and was Kantian. The idea of things-in-themselves is impossible, because they must cause
sensation but cannot be in experience. Sensations are the lowest grade of consciousness, which has an infinite number
of grades. Sensations are unclear and not fully in consciousness. Being can have different consciousness forms.
Karl L. Reinhold [Reinhold, Karl L.]
philosopher
Jena, Germany
1790 to 1792
Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy [1790 and 1792]
He lived 1758 to 1823, was Kantian, and systematized Kant from the fundamental principle of Consciousness. Ideas in
consciousness relate to both subject and object. Subject is unity of Form. Object is sensation or material thing.
Consciousness contains only subject and object relations, not subjects or objects.
Anne W. Radcliffe [Radcliffe, Anne W.]
poet
England
1790 to 1794
Sicilian Romance [1790]; Mysteries of Udolpho [1794]
Pierre Charles L'Enfant [L'Enfant, Pierre Charles]
architect
France
1791
Washington DC town plan [1791]
He lived 1754 to 1852 and designed Washington avenues and quadrants.
Wilhelm von Humboldt [Humboldt, Wilhelm von]
linguist
Germany
1791 to 1828
Limits of State Action [1791]; Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain by the Help of the Basque Language
[1821]; On the Dual [1828]; Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind
[1828]
He lived 1767 to 1835, wrote about ethics, and studied language types. The three structural-language types differ in
morphology and syntax. Sanskrit is syntactically more complex than modern languages.
Politics
States should ensure property and lives.
Jean Paul Marat [Marat, Jean Paul]
journalist
France
1792
He lived 1743 to 1793 and led Cordeliers in National Convention against Girondists during French Revolution. Other
revolutionaries stabbed him in his bath [1792].
Gottlöb Ernst Schulze [Schulze, Gottlob Ernst]
philosopher
Germany
1792
Aenesidemus or Concerning the Foundations of the Philosophy of the Elements Issued by Professor Reinhold in Jena
Together with a Defense of Skepticism against the Pretensions of the Critique of Reason [1792: about ancient Greek
Academy philosopher Aenesidemus's ideas]
He lived 1761 to 1831. Aenesidemus was a sceptic and later Pyrrhonian, who discussed principle of suspended
judgment {epoché, Schulze}.
Epistemology
Knowledge that is beyond, or does not depend on, experience is impossible. Senses and understanding are things-inthemselves and people cannot know them. Mental faculties are not real or metaphysical entities, just similar-activity
descriptions.
Maximilian Robespierre [Robespierre, Maximilian]
leader
France
1792 to 1794
He lived 1758 to 1794. Elected to National Convention, he led Jacobin radicals and put down Girondists. As
Committee of Public Safety member, he started Reign of Terror and eliminated his rivals. The Convention resisted and
beheaded him [1974].
Jacob Sigismund Beck [Beck, Jacob Sigismund]
philosopher
Riga, Latvia
1792 to 1796
Unique Viewpoint about qualities that can be judged in the Kantian philosophy [1796]
He lived 1761 to 1840, was Kantian, and corresponded with Kant [1792 to 1796].
Francis II
emperor
Holy Roman Empire
1792 to 1806
He lived 1768 to 1835 and was Francis I king of Bohemia [1804 to 1835] and Hungary [1792 to 1835]. Holy Roman
Empire lost to France in French Revolutionary Wars [1792]. He lost again to Napoleon [1806], dissolved Holy Roman
Empire [1806], and gave his daughter Josephine to Napoleon. With Metternich, he joined coalition against Napoleon
[1813].
Johann Fichte [Fichte, Johann]
philosopher
Zurich, Switzerland/Germany
1792 to 1808
Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation [1792]; Science of Knowledge or Wissenschaftslehre [1794]; Science of Rights
[1797]; Science of Ethics [1798]; Closed Commercial State [1800]; Vocation of Man [1800]; Way to the Blessed Life
or the Doctrine of Religion [1806]; Characteristic of the Present Age [1806]; Addresses to the German People [1808]
He lived 1762 to 1814 and developed a philosophy based on Kant's idealism.
Epistemology
Sense qualities come freely from outside. Consciousness is activities {tasks, Fichte} that create objects from
unconscious sense qualities and unify knowledge about such objects. In this way, experience is a consciousness
product. To perform its tasks, consciousness reasons using all activities in unified ways. Consciousness starts with
basic task and ideas felt to be necessary and true. The first task for people is to create oneself and unify all ideas about
oneself, to be self-consciousness. Whenever task tries to create and/or unify, it encounters resistance or contradiction.
To overcome contradiction, task performs dialectical process, to reach higher synthesis. Consciousness knows its
actions while it acts and so has both being and consciousness. The self-consciousness perceives subject, oneself, and
object, one's activities. People can only know the "I" or self by distinguishing it from the not-I or object perceived by
self. The "I" has evolved historically by the dialectic to know, first, objective activity, then communities governed by
law, then exercise of will and science, then realization that all is spirit, and then philosophical understanding of God's
will as part of God's community. Therefore, starting from the basic task, dialectical processes create task hierarchy.
Dialectic processes keep all tasks working together smoothly to form unified processes. Dialectic is essence of reason.
Perhaps, self-consciousness involves unified task hierarchy [Fichte, 1794].
Besides ideas that arise from dialectic, consciousness contains ideas characterized by feelings of necessity and certainty
in their truth.
Sensation has no basis in preceding mental activity and so is free and unconscious. It appears to come from outside
consciousness but is the way reason sets goal or object for itself.
Ethics
Consciousness creates sensation objects for action. People follow the command of duty. People have right to work to
fulfill duty.
History evolves from state of instinctive reason and morality, to impulse and will, to reason {artistic reason} under
common universal consciousness. Man's goal is restfully contemplating God. "I" comes from and directs toward God.
Philosophy is to organize reason or consciousness.
Metaphysics
All being comes from objective reason. There are no things-in-themselves. Reality cannot mix material world and
consciousness, because they are completely separate.
Objective-reason unity, which is not subjective, causes all things to have unity, have order, and necessarily connect.
God is the free, world-creating activity or universal self. World is teleological, not causal.
Mind
All things happen within self, and there are no things-in-themselves {critical idealism}.
The "I" is activity of being aware of self {thesis, Fichte}, which is subjective being. Things outside the "I" have their
own activities {antithesis, Fichte}, which is objective world. Both interact dialectically to limit each other and make
relations between self and world {synthesis, Fichte}. Theoretical-reason synthesis stages achieve purer knowledge.
Consciousness knows its actions while it acts and so has both being and consciousness. The self-consciousness
perceives subject as oneself and object as one's activities. People can know the "I" or self only by distinguishing it from
the not-I or object perceived by self.
The "I" has evolved historically by the dialectic to know, first, objective activity, then communities governed by law,
then exercise of will and science, then realization that all is spirit, and then philosophical understanding of God's will as
part of God's community.
Gustavus IV
king
Sweden
1792 to 1809
He lived 1778 to 1837 and fought Napoleon with the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian coalition. He lost Finland to
Russia. Revolution deposed him [1809].
Mary Wollstonecraft [Wollstonecraft, Mary]
novelist
England
1792 to 1818
Vindication of the Rights of Women [1792: essays]; Frankenstein [1818: Gothic horror novel about body with
transplanted brain]
Dugald Stewart [Stewart, Dugald]
philosopher
Scotland
1793 to 1794
Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind [1793]; Outlines of Moral Philosophy [1794]
He lived 1753 to 1828. Science can finds phenomena laws but cannot give understanding.
Thomas Beddoes [Beddoes, Thomas]
physician
London, England
1793 to 1807
Observations on the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence [1793]; Essay on the Causes, Early Signs and Prevention of
Pulmonary Consumption [1799]; Essay on Fever [1807]; Hygeia, or Essays Moral and Medical [1807]
He lived 1760 to 1808 and discovered analgesic effects of nitrous oxide [1798].
Pierre Laromiguière [Laromiguière, Pierre]
philosopher
Paris, France
1793 to 1818
Project on the Elements of Metaphysics [1793]; Paradoxes of Condillac [1805]; Course of Philosophy [1815 to 1818]
He lived 1756 to 1837 and was French Ideologist. Attention notes sensation facts. Comparison links sensations. Reason
organizes sensations and comparisons. He said property taxation is illegal.
William Godwin [Godwin, William]
philosopher
England
1793 to 1836
Enquiry concerning Political Justice and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness [1793]
He lived 1756 to 1836 and was Utilitarian. Society should have no rulers.
William Blake [Blake, William]
painter
England
1794
Ancient of Days [1794]
Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat [Caritat, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de] or Marquis de Condorcet
[Condorcet, Marquis de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1794
Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind [1795]
He lived 1743 to 1794, invented Condorcet paradox, and was philosophe.
Assume that there are more than two alternatives. Assume that voting members have transitive preferences among
alternatives. Assume that voters always choose between two alternatives. Assume that alternative with majority vote
wins contests among pairs. Then, person or law favored by most people does not necessarily win {paradox of voting}
{voting paradox}. Voting order changes result. The voting paradox also requires that there be more than one choice
criterion. If one criterion ranks alternatives {singlepeakedness}, voting order does not change result. Weighted voting
eliminates voting paradox, but strategic voting can affect it.
Thaddeus Kosciusko [Kosciusko, Thaddeus]
general
Poland
1794
He lived 1746 to 1817 and rebelled against Russia and Prussia. Before, he had fought in American Revolution.
Erasmus Darwin [Darwin, Erasmus]
physician/scientist
Britain
1794 to 1796
Zoonomia or The Laws of Organic Life [1794 to 1796]
Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar [Ghajar, Agha Mohammad Khan]
shah
Persia
1794 to 1797
He lived 1742 to 1797 and began Qajar or Ghajar Dynasty.
Eli Whitney [Whitney, Eli]
inventor
Europe/USA
1794 to 1798
cotton gin [1794]; interchangeable parts [1798: for muskets]
He lived 1765 to 1825 {cotton gin}. Honoré Blanc used interchangeable parts for muskets in France [1785].
Napoleon or Napoleon Bonaparte
general/emperor/lawgiver
France
1794 to 1815
Code Napoleon or Napoleonic Code [1801 to 1804: basis of European private law]; Code of Civil Procedure [1807];
Commercial Code [1808]; Code of Criminal Procedure [1811]; Penal Code [1811]
He lived 1769 to 1821, defeated the noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory, and gained fame. In French
Revolutionary Wars, he took Milan [1796], Venice [1797], and Austria [1801]. He became emperor [1804] and
defeated Austria [1805] and Prussia [1806]. He became king of Italy [1807]. As emperor, he lost to united Europe
[1814] and again at Waterloo [1815].
John Taylor of Caroline [Taylor of Caroline, John]
lawyer
USA
1794 to 1823
Definition of Parties: Or the Political Effects of the Paper System Considered [1794]; Inquiry into the Principles and
Policy of Government [1814]; New Views of the Constitution of the United States [1823]
He lived 1753 to 1824, had same ideas as Jefferson, and believed in farming communities with no aristocracy.
Adrien-Marie Legendre [Legendre, Adrien-Marie]
mathematician
Paris, France
1794 to 1830
Elements of Geometry [1794]; Theory of Numbers [1808]; Exercises in Integral Calculus [1811 to 1830]
He lived 1752 to 1833, studied number theory and elliptic integrals, and invented Legendre function and Legendre
differential equation.
Gilbert Stuart [Stuart, Gilbert]
painter
USA
1795 to 1805
Washington [1795]; Jefferson [1805]
Matthew Lewis [Lewis, Matthew]
novelist
England
1796
Monk [1796: Gothic novel]
Johann Paul Friedrich Richter [Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich] or Jean Paul [Paul, Jean]
novelist
Germany
1796
Hesperus [1795]; Leben des Quintus Fixlein or Life of Quintus Fixlein [1796: fantasy novel]; Siebenkas or
Sevencheese [1796: fantasy novel]; Titan [1803]; Flegeljahre or Lout Years [1805]
Paul I
czar
Russia
1796 to 1801
Charles Didelot [Didelot, Charles]
choreographer
Sweden/France/Russia
1796 to 1808
Flore et Zaphire or Flower and Sapphire [1796]; Don Quixote [1808]
He lived 1767 to 1837 and founded Russian Imperial Ballet [1801].
Ludwig van Beethoven [Beethoven, Ludwig van]
composer
Germany
1796 to 1824
Minuet in G [1796]; Pathetique Sonata [1798]; Moonlight Sonata [1801]; Kreutzer Sonata [1803]; Fidelio [1805:
opera]; Third Symphony or Eroica [1805]; Fifth Symphony [1808]; Sixth Symphony or Pastoral [1808]; Fifth Piano
Concerto or Emperor [1809]; Für Elise or For Elise [1810]; Seventh Symphony [1812]; Missa Solemnis [1817 to 1823:
mass]; Ninth Symphony [1824]
Henri Benjamin Constant de Rebecque [Rebecque, Henri Benjamin Constant de]
political scientist
Paris, France
1796 to 1830
On the force of actual government and necessity of its unity [1796]; On political reactions [1796]; On the spirit of
conquest and usurpation on their trusting relationships with European civilization [1813]; Adolphe [1815: novel]; On
religion considered in its sources, forms, and developments [1825 to 1831: five volumes]
He lived 1767 to 1830. He opposed social-contract ideas of Rousseau. He advocated privacy, individual rights, freedom
to gain property, democracy by representatives, and limited powers for government parts. Diversity and autonomy
require private life.
Edward Jenner [Jenner, Edward]
doctor/inventor
England
1797
smallpox vaccine [1797]
He lived 1749 to 1823 {smallpox vaccine}.
Henry Maudslay [Maudslay, Henry]
inventor
England
1797
lathe for metal [1797]
He lived 1771 to 1831 {lathe for metal}.
Charles Newbold [Newbold, Charles]
inventor
USA
1797
iron plow [1797]
He lived 1764 to 1835 {iron plow}.
Caspar Wessel [Wessel, Caspar]
mathematician
Norway
1797
He lived 1745 to 1818 and placed complex numbers on a plane with two perpendicular coordinates.
John Adams [Adams, John]
president
USA
1797 to 1801
He lived 1735 to 1826. Second president prevented war with France. His wife was Abigail Adams.
Novalis or Friedrich von Hardenburg [Hardenburg, Friedrich von]
philosopher
Freiberg, Germany
1797 to 1801
Hymns to the Night [1797 to 1800: poems]; Heinrich von Ofterdingen [1801: about Minnesinger]
He lived 1772 to 1801 and was of Schelling School.
Charles de Talleyrand-Perigord [Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles de]
foreign minister
France
1797 to 1807
He lived 1754 to 1838 and served as foreign minister under Directory and Napoleon.
John Marshall [Marshall, John]
judge/chief justice
USA
1797 to 1820
Marbury v. Madison [1803]; Fletcher v. Peck [1816]; McCulloch v. Maryland [1819]; Dartmouth College v.
Woodward [1819]; Cohens v. Virginia [1821]; Gibbons v. Ogden [1824]
He lived 1755 to 1835, was at Constitutional Convention, defended Jay Treaty, went on X.Y.Z. mission to France
[1797], entered Congress, became Secretary of State [1800], and was USA Supreme Court Chief Justice [1801 to
1820]. He increased Supreme Court power by insisting on its right to judge constitutionality of all laws. He allowed
expansion of federal powers in opposition to states' rights. He did not like Thomas Jefferson or his ideas and interpreted
federal government power broadly.
Fath-Ali
shah
Persia
1797 to 1834
He lived 1762 to 1834, was Qajar, lost Caucasia to Russia, and fought Afghans and Ottoman Empire. His son was
Abbas Mirza, who wanted to reform but never ruled.
Robert Southey [Southey, Robert]
poet
England
1797 to 1837
To a Goose [1799: sonnet]; Ariste [1797: sonnet]; Winter [sonnet]; Go, Valentine [sonnet]; Two Poems Concerning the
Slave Trade [1797 to 1810: poems]; My Days Among the Dead Are Past [1837]
He lived 1774 to 1843 and was Lake Poet.
Frederick William III
king
Prussia
1797 to 1840
He lived 1770 to 1840, lost to Napoleon at Jena [1806], and signed Treaty of Tilsit, giving west Prussia to France. He
gave Poland to Duke of Warsaw. He joined Continental System. Then his ministers revitalized Prussia and fought War
of Liberation from France. He joined Holy Alliance.
Decroix
inventor
France
1798
circular loom [1798]
Looms {circular loom} can weave socks and shirts with no seams.
Rouget de Lisle [Lisle, Rouget de]
lyricist/composer
France
1798
Le Marseillaise [1798]
Thomas Robert Malthus [Malthus, Thomas Robert]
economist/mathematician
London, England
1798
Essay on the Principle of Population [1798]
He lived 1766 to 1834 and said that population increases until limited by environment.
Benjamin Thompson [Thompson, Benjamin] or Count Rumford [Rumford, Count]
physicist
USA/England
1798
He lived 1753 to 1814 and studied heat from work and friction [1798].
Philippe Pinel [Pinel, Philippe]
psychologist
Paris, France
1798 to 1800
Analects on the Medical-philosophic Treatment of Mental Alienation or Mania [1800]
He lived 1745 to 1826 and divided mental disorders into four groups: mania, melancholia, dementia, and idiocy [1798].
Thomas Jefferson [Jefferson, Thomas]
architect
USA
1798 to 1806
Virginia State Capitol [1798: Neoclassical]; Monticello [1806: his Neoclassical house in Virginia]; University of
Virginia [Neoclassical]
William Wordsworth [Wordsworth, William]
poet
England
1798 to 1806
Tintern Abbey [1798]; Lyrical Ballads [1798: with Coleridge]; She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways [1799]; World
Is Too Much With Us [1799]; My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold [1802]; I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud [1802];
London 1802 [1802]; Daffodils [1802]; Rainbow [1802]; Ode (Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early
Childhood) [1802]; Solitary Reaper [1803]; Prelude [1805]; She Was a Phantom of Delight or The Perfect Woman
[1805]; Ode to Duty [1805]; Character of the Happy Warrior [1806]
Samuel Taylor Coleridge [Coleridge, Samuel Taylor]
poet
England
1798 to 1825
Rime of the Ancient Mariner [1798: poem]; Kubla Khan [1816: poem]; Aids to Reflection [1825: book]
Lord Stowell [Stowell, Lord] or William Scott [Scott, William]
judge
England
1798 to 1827
Dalyrmple v. Dalyrmple [1798 to 1827]; Evans v. Evans [1798 to 1827]
He lived 1745 to 1836 and was High Court of the Admiralty judge [1798 to 1827].
In Dalrymple case, he decided that law of marriage location, not court location, decided validity.
He determined legality of capturing prize vessels at sea.
Domicile in peace is not necessarily the same as domicile in war. In war, neutral persons can be enemies. During war,
citizen in enemy country is enemy.
Joseph Mallord William Turner [Turner, Joseph Mallord William]
painter
England
1798 to 1844
Buttermere Lake: A Shower [1798]; Willows by a Stream [1805]; Passage of the Mont Cenis [1820]; Waves Breaking
on a Lee Shore [1835]; Slave Ship or Slaves Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On [1840];
Rain, Steam, Speed [1844]
Vincenzo Cuoco [Cuoco, Vincenzo]
philosopher
Italy
1799
Account of the Revolution of Naples [1799]
John Jacob Astor [Astor, John Jacob]
merchant
Germany/USA
1800
He lived 1763 to 1848 and became wealthy fur merchant.
Beau Brummel [Brummel, Beau]
dandy
England
1800
Nguyen Du [Du, Nguyen] or To Nhu or Thanh-hien or Shakespeare of Vietnam
poet
Vietnam
1800
Tale of Kieu or Kim van Kieu [1800]
He lived 1765 to 1820 and wrote in Nom {chu nom} {nom script} ideograph script.
Maria Edgeworth [Edgeworth, Maria]
novelist
Ireland
1800
Castle Rackrent [1800]
She lived 1767 to 1849 and wrote about rent.
Ho Xuan Huong
poet
Vietnam
1800
On Sharing a Husband [1800]; Cake that Drifts in Water [1800]; Three-Mountain Pass [1800]
Ho^` Xua^n Hu'o'ng lived 1775 to 1820 and wrote in Nom (No^m) ideograph script.
Alessandro Volta [Volta, Alessandro]
physicist/chemist/inventor
Italy
1800
electrostatic generator; primary cell [1800]
He lived 1745 to 1827 {electrostatic generator}.
Friedrich von Schelling [Schelling, Friedrich von]
philosopher
Germany
1800 to 1809
System of Transcendental Idealism [1800]; Exposition of My System of Philosophy [1801]; Bruno [1802]; Philosophy
of Art [1805]; Of Human Freedom [1809]
He lived 1775 to 1854, was Romantic, and worked with Fichte.
Aesthetics
Aesthetic reason or artistic genius unites conscious and unconscious.
Art works are the highest phenomenon of reason, because they realize the world of reason.
Epistemology
Dialectic is a tool of metaphysics and reason. Formal logic is for perceptions only.
Ethics
Life parallels God's self-development, an idea from Baader and St. Martin. Directed toward itself, will makes Ideas,
then reason, and then world, which is consciousness of conflict between purpose and impulse. Later, self-knowledge
brings consciousness of reason.
Metaphysics
Universe is a perfect organism and artwork. Organisms can share body plans {bauplan, Schelling}. Reality has
archetypes, which become more perfect {Naturphilosophie}.
God created ideal mental world and real matter world by creating finite irrational things {leap}, which must return to
God over history. Realizing such Ideas is falling away from God, which is selfish and evil. Falling away has no cause
or reason, so Ideas are free. Ideas strive to return to God. Reality is will, going from irrational to rational.
The Absolute must have falling away in it at all times and so must have irrationality in its essence. God has primordial
ground of being and striving or unconscious will. God develops from primitive essence, to self-knowledge, and then to
absolute reason. God participates in history, and history of revelations and religions shows God's development.
Nature and mind cannot be separate, because they unify in the absolute or God. Nature is self in the process of
becoming self. Nature is an organism whose purpose is to produce sensitive beings that have consciousness, sensation,
and reason and so make higher selves. Higher reality builds over history by synthesizing opposing forces into higher
unity.
Mind
Absolute and unknowable reason unites self and nature.
Francisco Goya [Goya, Francisco]
painter
Greece/Spain
1800 to 1810
Family of Charles IV [1800]; Third of May [1808]; Disasters of War [1810]
Henry Raeburn [Raeburn, Henry]
painter
Scotland
1800 to 1810
Lieut-Colonel Bryce McMurdo [1800 to 1810]; Sir Henry Raeburn The 1st Viscount Melville [1805]
He lived 1756 to 1823 and painted portraits.
Tecumseh
chief
USA
1800 to 1810
He lived 1768 to 1813 and was Shawnee chief.
Duncan Phyfe [Phyfe, Duncan] or Duncan Fife [Fife, Duncan]
designer
USA
1800 to 1830
Duncan Phyfe
He lived 1768 to 1854 and defined Federal style. He used rectilinear style, with veneer, inlay, and brass feet.
Salvatore Vigano [Vigano, Salvatore]
choreographer
Milan, Italy
1801
Les Créatures de Prométhée or Creatures of Prometheus [1801: music by Beethoven]
He lived 1769 to 1821 and unified music, ballet, and mime.
Thomas Young [Young, Thomas]
physician/physicist/Egyptologist
Britain
1801 to 1807
Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts [1807]
He lived 1773 to 1829, invented Young's modulus, developed light-wave theory, and analyzed light-interference
patterns [1801]. Prism colors add to make brightness. Different colored-light ratios make all intermediate colors [1801].
Eye lens accommodates to different distances by changing anterior surface curvature. Color vision mixes signals from
three retinal channels.
Thomas Jefferson [Jefferson, Thomas]
president
USA
1801 to 1809
Declaration of Independence
He lived 1743 to 1826. Before becoming third president, he drafted Declaration of Independence [1776] and, in
Virginia, abolished entail and primogeniture, enacted religious freedom, and started public schools and University of
Virginia. He helped plan Washington, District of Columbia, and drafted Kentucky Resolution on states' rights. He
bought Louisiana Purchase of all middle USA [1803] and sent Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore it [1803]. He
tried to enforce Embargo Act [1807], which tried to block trade with France and England to force free trade.
Politics
He believed in free public education, self-sufficiency, and consent of the governed in renewable social contract. The
greatest possible freedom is best, with minimal state. Independent farmers are a democracy foundation.
Friedrich Bouterwek [Bouterwek, Friedrich]
philosopher
Göttingen, Germany
1801 to 1812
History of Poesy [1801 to 1812]
He lived 1766 to 1828. People can have relative knowledge of things-in-themselves, relative to themselves. Objects
exist, because they resist the force of will. Subjects or selves exist, because people are conscious of willing and thus
know force within themselves.
Kobayashi Issa [Issa, Kobayashi] or Kobayashi Yataro [Yataro, Kobayashi]
poet
Japan
1801 to 1819
Journal of My Father's Last Days [1801]; Oragaharu or A Year of My Life [1819]
Alexander I
czar
Russia
1801 to 1825
He lived 1777-1825, was Romanov, and promoted Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia [1815].
Karl Friedrich Gauss [Gauss, Karl Friedrich]
mathematician
Göttingen, Germany
1801 to 1827
Disquisitions on Arithmetic [1801]; General Investigations of Curved Surfaces [1827]
He lived 1777 to 1855 and studied Earth magnetic field. In statistics, he developed Gaussian distribution {normal
distribution, Gauss}, variance, standard deviation, mean standard error, least-squares method, and regression. In
number theory, he worked on analytic number theory, algebraic numbers, complex numbers, hypercomplex numbers,
Diophantine analysis, and theory of forms. In geometry, he invented seventeen-sided regular polygons, used substitute
parallel axiom for non-Euclidean geometry, and studied curvature, congruence theory, and Gaussian coordinates. In
algebra, he invented fundamental theorem of algebra and studied elliptic functions, Gauss characteristic equation, and
central limit theorem. In vector theory, he worked with dot product and cross product. In physics, he developed
dynamic equations that minimized quantity and Principle of Least Constraint.
Thomas Moore [Moore, Thomas]
poet/composer
England
1801 to 1834
Irish Melodies [1807 to 1834]; Tis the Last Rose of Summer [1801]; Believe Me If All those Endearing Young Charms
[1808]; Oft in the Stilly Night [1815]
François de Chateaubriand [Chateaubriand, François de]
novelist
France
1802
Genius of Christianity [1802: novel]; Atala [1802: story in The Genius of Christianity]; René [1802: story in The
Genius of Christianity]
Gian Domenico Romagnosi [Romagnosi, Gian Domenico]
philosopher
Milan, Italy
1802
He lived 1765 to 1835 and was Ontologist. Electricity and magnetism have relation [1802].
Richard Trevithick [Trevithick, Richard]
inventor
England
1802 to 1812
high-pressure steam engine carriage [1802]; locomotive [1804]; steam threshing machine [1812]
He lived 1771 to 1833 {high-pressure steam engine}.
Germaine de Stael [Stael, Germaine de]
essayist/novelist
France
1802 to 1813
Delphine [1802: novel]; Corinne [1807: novel]; De l'Allemagne or On Germany [1810 to 1813: essays]
William Henry [Henry, William]
chemist
England
1803
He lived 1774 to 1836 and found Henry's gas-solubility law [1803].
William Clark [Clark, William]/Meriwether Lewis [Lewis, Meriwether]
explorer
USA
1803 to 1806
Clark lived 1770 to 1838. Lewis lived 1774 to 1809. They organized Lewis and Clark Expedition, started at St. Louis,
went up Missouri River, crossed Rocky Mountains, and traveled to Columbia River mouth. Sacajawea of Lemhi
Shoshone accompanied them.
Friedrich Karl von Savigny [Savigny, Friedrich Karl von]
lawyer
Germany
1803 to 1842
Law of Possession [1803]; System of Present Day Roman Law [1840 to 1849]; History of Roman Law in the Middle
Ages [1815 to 1831]
He lived 1779 to 1861, was international lawyer, and started Historical School [1810 to 1842]. He emphasized Roman
law and customs as the law basis. He first recreated classical law, contrasted Roman law to natural law, and tried to
show how law had evolved.
Aaron Burr [Burr, Aaron]
vice-president
USA
1804
He lived 1756 to 1836 and killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. His plan to colonize southwest USA led to trial for
treason.
Jean Jacques Regis Cambaceres [Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis]
lawyer
France
1804
Napoleonic Code [1804]
He lived 1753 to 1824 and helped make Code Napoleon [1804] about private law.
Joseph Marie Jacquard [Jacquard, Joseph Marie]
inventor
France
1804
Jacquard loom [1804]
He lived 1752 to 1834. Power looms {Jacquard loom} had punched cards to make cloth designs.
Matthew Murray [Murray, Matthew]
inventor
Leeds, England
1804
steam locomotive on timber rails [1804]
He lived 1765 to 1826 {steam locomotive}.
Johnny Appleseed [Appleseed, Johnny] or John Chapman [Chapman, John]
wanderer
Midwest USA
1805
He lived 1774 to 1847 and began planting apple trees in midwest USA.
Alexander Forsyth [Forsyth, Alexander]
inventor
Scotland
1805
percussion lock [1805: shooter poured potassium chlorate in bottle into flash pan]
He lived 1768 to 1843 {percussion lock}.
Mungo Park [Park, Mungo]
explorer
England/Africa/Nigeria
1805
He lived 1771 to 1806 and reached upper Niger River.
Walter Scott [Scott, Walter]
novelist/poet
England
1805 to 1825
Lay of the Last Minstrel [1805: poem, including Native Land]; Patriotism [1808: poem]; Lochinvar [1808: poem from
Marmion]; Lady of the Lake [1810: poem]; Proud Maisie [1818: poem]; Ivanhoe [1819: novel]; Kenilworth [1821:
novel]; Talisman [1825: novel]
Ibrahim Pasha
viceroy/khedive
Egypt
1805 to 1848
He lived 1789 to 1848 and was Muhammad 'Ali's son or adopted son. His father named him hereditary governor of
Egypt. He led his father's armies against Wahhabite sect in Arabia [1816 to 1818].
Muhammad Ali [Muhammad, Ali] or Muhammad 'Ali
pasha
Egypt
1805 to 1849
He lived 1769 to 1849, became pasha under Ottoman Empire [1805], and defeated Mamelukes [1811]. He took Syria
from Ottoman Empire [1833] and led revolts in Asia Minor [1838], which European armies suppressed.
Nathan Mayer Rothschild [Rothschild, Nathan Mayer]
banker
Frankfurt, Germany
1805 to 1850
He lived 1777 to 1836 and started London bank [1805]. Later, firm opened banks in London, Vienna, Paris, and
Naples. Banks loaned to countries and influenced policy.
Jean Robert Argand [Argand, Jean Robert]
mathematician
France
1806
He lived 1768 to 1822 and placed complex numbers on a plane with two perpendicular coordinates.
Jean François Thérèse Chalgrin [Chalgrin, Jean François Thérèse]/Guillaume Abel Blouet [Blouet, Guillaume
Abel]
architect
Paris, France
1806
Arc de Triomphe or Triumphal Arch [1806: Neo-Baroque arch]
Chalgrin lived 1739 to 1811. Blouet lived 1795 to 1853.
Humphrey Davy [Davy, Humphrey]
chemist
Britain
1806
He lived 1778 to 1829, discovered nitrous oxide exhilarating and anesthetic effects [1806], and split compounds using
electricity.
Jean Ingres [Ingres, Jean]
painter
France
1806
Napoleon as Emperor [1806]
Joseph Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Joseph]
king
Spain
1806 to 1813
He lived 1768 to 1844 and was king of Naples [1806 to 1808] and Spain [1808 to 1813].
Charles Bell [Bell, Charles]
anatomist/surgeon
London, England
1806 to 1833
Essay on the Anatomy of the Expressions or The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as Connected with Fine Arts
[1806]; Animal Mechanics or Proofs of Design in the Animal Frame [1828]; Nervous System of the Human Body
[1833]; Hand: its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design [1833]
He lived 1774 to 1842, studied reciprocal innervation and haptic perception, and related muscles to facial expressions.
Spinal-nerve anterior and posterior roots have separate functions {Bell-Magendie law, Bell}: dorsal root is sensory, and
ventral root is motor [1822].
Johann Friedrich Herbart [Herbart, Johann Friedrich]
philosopher/educator
Germany
1806 to 1841
Universal Pedagogy [1806]; Textbook of Psychology [1816]; Psychology as Science [1825]; Psychological
Investigations [1840]; Outlines of Some Lectures on Pedagogy [1841]
Epistemology
Ideas are active and compete to become consciousness. Ideas have intensity, which they can lose through tension. After
losing intensity, idea becomes unconscious and becomes impulse. This is how feeling and will arise.
Psychology is mechanics of ideas. Associational psychology is not true, because it makes mind faculties real and basic.
Understanding cannot produce or create, so space, time, and categories all derive from experience. They cannot mold
experience. Consciousness uses concepts from experience and has no transcendental logic. Consciousness is aware of
matter, which is appearance created when Reals interact, as sense qualities. Consciousness is not aware of inner states
of Reals.
Something that contradicts itself cannot be real. To know reality, people must take concepts known by experience and
use relation method to find what has no contradiction.
Ethics
Morals are part of aesthetics. People's aesthetic Ideas give them ability to judge or estimate. All mental relations have
feelings of pain or pleasure, which judge relations aesthetically and morally. Ethical Ideas used for judging are
freedom, affection, right, benevolence, and equity.
Metaphysics
Universe has many things-in-themselves or independent elements {Real}, which are simple and unchangeable. Reals
interact with or influence {disturb, Herbart} each other, causing their inner states, not necessarily conscious, which are
for self-preservation. Reals are like physical units of a causally interacting machine, which has interaction laws. Matter
is appearance created when Reals interact.
Mind
Souls are Reals, with Ideas as inner states. Ideas disturb each other, making tension and resulting in mental activities
and states. Self is activity in which new perceptions and ideas meet previous ones and assimilate.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel [Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich]
philosopher
Germany
1806 to 1844
Phenomenology of Spirit [1807]; Science of Logic [1830]; Science of Logic [1808 to 1815]; Encyclopedia of the
Philosophical Sciences [1817]; Philosophy of Spirit [1817]; Elements of the Philosophy of Right [1821]
He lived 1770 to 1831 and was empiricist and materialist. He expanded dialectical method of Kant.
Epistemology
Categories or statements {thesis, philosophy} have within them internal contradictions, which are opposite categories
or statements {antithesis, philosophy}. The only available resolution is to combine the statements at a higher thought
level {dialectical method}, to reach new categories or statements {synthesis, philosophy}. Dialectic applies to all
subjects. Synthesis can explain all phenomena. Theses and anti-theses are not fully in consciousness until synthesized
to higher knowledge.
Dialectic can continually create new theses from existing ones, without limit. Knowledge subjects develop through
dialectic.
Thinking methods or categories similarly have internal contradictions. Reason as object of itself negates reason as
subject. Sensations are objects, consciousnesses are subjects, and their synthesis is self-knowledge. Self perceives
individual subjective spirit and objective spirit, and synthesis resolves these two into one absolute spirit, which is
perception in art, image in religion, and concept in philosophy and combines personal and social.
People already contain in their minds all knowledge but must remember, grasp, or learn it through dialectic to make it
exist {learning paradox}. However, theses and categories are not real but exist only in mind as mental-process parts.
Material mind cannot perceive ideal rational concept of mind or spirit but can know spirit through people's objective
spirit.
Ethics
People's objective spirit causes activity, will, and spiritual life. Abstract, general objective spirit in itself is Right.
Acting morally is following the commands of Right. The moral order has people in states following Right.
Morality is from family and society and so is social in origin and maintenance.
Religion relates finite spirit to infinite and absolute spirit. People can gain better absolute-spirit knowledge through
better finite-spirit representations.
Freedom applies to objective spirit as it tries to know absolute spirit better and develop self and society. Subjective
spirit is not free.
History
History is self-realization of absolute spirit working through individuals and nations. The Absolute comes to understand
itself through the dialectic of history. States develop by such dynamic processes, not by rules or social contracts and
other static abstract-principles. States are particular and individual expressions of people's objective spirits.
History develops through dialectic toward higher consciousness and more freedom. In ancient empires, only emperor
had freedom. In ancient Greece, more people, as city-state individual citizens, were free and began to think more.
Reformation allowed more people to be more individual and use their minds more. In the Enlightenment, states and
institutions became more rational and favored more freedom.
Metaphysics
Reality is only spiritual, with subjective spirit {soul, Hegel}, objective spirit {consciousness, Hegel}, and absolute
spirit {geist, Hegel}. Absolute spirit {Absolute, Hegel} {Absolute Mind} {Absolute Idea} is unconditional and unitary.
Absolute spirit {absolute idealism} is real, rational, and true, because it knows itself and has no contradiction, from
Fichte. Absolute spirit permeates whole universe and has synthesized and unified all concepts {gedanken, Hegel}
through its dialectic, which motivates the dialectic in everything. Absolute Mind {Begriff} contains all knowledge and
has reflections in intuition in art, imagination in religion, and pure logic in philosophy.
Dialectic in everything means universe is like organisms that continually develop.
Particular and finite thing is separate from infinite whole and can be only partially real and true. Combining particulars
makes more reality and truth.
Because finite things have contradictions in themselves if they apply to the whole or absolute, finite things develop by
thesis, anti-thesis, and resolution through the dialectic contained in absolute spirit.
Mind
Objective spirit or consciousness is a finite reflection of absolute spirit. Mind is subject that can know something other
than itself {alienation, Hegel}. This thesis-antithesis resolves at higher level using absolute spirit. Because spirit is selfdetermined, objective spirit acts through logical necessity and develops through dialectic stages like organisms grow.
Politics
History stages have dominant groups that arise from national spirit, and groups determine people's ideas and decisions.
Ideal societies are rational communities that provide maximum benefits, so all people can give it allegiance, not just
one group.
History judges actions. Therefore, power and success make whatever happened be the right or best thing {might makes
right}.
Robert Fulton [Fulton, Robert]
inventor
USA
1807
steamboat [1807]
He lived 1765 to 1815 {steamboat}.
William Hazlitt [Hazlitt, William]
essayist
England
1807 to 1808
Reply to Malthus [1807: essay]; Eloquence of the British Senate [1808: essay]
George Crabbe [Crabbe, George]
poet
England
1807 to 1812
Late Wisdom; Marriage Ring; Parish Register [1807]; Borough [1810]; Tales [1812]
Dingiswayo
chief
Africa
1807 to 1818
In southeast Africa, he united Zulu tribes to make a Zulu kingdom (Mtetwa Empire) and taught Shaka Zulu.
George Byron [Byron, George] or Lord Byron [Byron, Lord]
poet
England
1807 to 1821
Farewell or Farewell to the Muse [1807]; When We Two Parted [1808]; Childe Harold's Pilgrimage [1812 to 1818:
including Ocean]; She Walks in Beauty [1814]; Destruction of Sennacherib [1815]; Prisoner of Chillon [1816]; So
We'll Go No More A-Roving [1817]; Don Juan [1821]
John VI
king
Portugal
1807 to 1826
He lived 1767 to 1826 and went back to Portugal from Brazil.
Charles Lamb [Lamb, Charles] or Elias
essayist/poet
England
1807 to 1828
Tales of Shakespeare [1807: stories]; On an Infant Dying as Soon as Born [1828]
Friedrich Ast [Ast, Friedrich]
theologian
Landshut, Germany
1808
Elements of Grammar, Hermeneutics and Criticism [1808]
Joseph Guy-Lussac [Guy-Lussac, Joseph]
chemist/physicist
France
1808
He lived 1778 to 1850 and invented law of combining volumes and law of Guy-Lussac [1808].
John Dalton [Dalton, John]
chemist/physicist
England
1808 to 1827
New System of Chemical Philosophy [1808]
He lived 1766 to 1844 and studied atomic theory, compounds, atomic weights, partial-pressure law, and color
blindness.
Ferdinand VII
king
Spain
1808 to 1833
He lived 1784 to 1833, was of Bourbon family, and was king of Spain [1808 to 1833]. Napoleon captured him, but he
later regained throne. He set aside new constitution twice. He lost mainland South and Central America [1825]. He
caused Carlist Wars [1839] by giving his kingdom to his daughter instead of Don Carlos, as required by Salid law.
Simeon-Denis Poisson [Poisson, Simeon-Denis]
mathematician
Paris, France
1808 to 1837
On the inequalities of the methods of planet movements [1808]; On the movement of Earth's rotation [1809]; On the
variation of arbitrary constants in mechanical questions [1809]; Researches in the probability of judgments of criminal
and civil matters [1837]
He lived 1781 to 1840 and invented Poisson distribution.
Jöns Jakob Berzelius [Berzelius, Jöns Jakob]
biologist/physicist
Stockholm, Sweden
1808 to 1838
Chemistry Textbook [1808]; protein discovered [1838]
He lived 1779 to 1848 and discovered proteins [1838] and studied ions and atomic and molecular weights. He invented
old chemical symbols [1811] and atomic-weight table [1826].
James Madison [Madison, James]
president
USA
1809 to 1817
He lived 1751 to 1836. Fourth president fought War of 1812. His wife was Dolly Madison.
Charles XIII
king
Sweden/Norway
1809 to 1818
He lived 1748 to 1818, accepted constitution, settled with Russia, fought Napoleon at Leipzig [1814], and united
Norway [1814 to 1818] with Sweden when Denmark gave up rule of Norway.
Washington Irving [Irving, Washington]
novelist
USA
1809 to 1819
Knickerbocker History of New York [1809: humorous history]; Legend of Sleep Hollow [1819: story]; Rip van Winkle
[1819: story]; Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. [1819: including Rip Van Winkle and Legend of Sleepy Hollow]
Caspar David Friedrich [Friedrich, Caspar David]
painter
Germany
1809 to 1821
Man Looking at Mountains with Rainbow [1809]; Wreck of the "Hope" [1821]
Sequoia or Sequoyah
chief
Southeast USA
1809 to 1821
He lived 1770 to 1843 and developed syllabic alphabet for Cherokee language.
Furst von Metternich [Metternich, Furst von]
minister
Austria
1809 to 1848
He lived 1773 to 1859, married Marie Louise to Napoleon, and allied with France [1809]. He joined Allies [1813]. He
dominated German Confederation and Congress of Vienna [1815]. He led Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance to
maintain peace and order and set political boundaries. Holy Alliance had Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Revolution of
1848 ousted him.
Franz von Zeiller [Zeiller, Franz von]
lawyer
Vienna, Austria
1810
Austrian Civil Code [1810]
Martini lived 1726 to 1800. Zeiller lived 1751 to 1828. Maria Theresa of Holy Roman Empire asked for code of private
law based on Roman law [1753]. Codex Theresianus [1866] was long and ambiguous.
Jane Austen [Austen, Jane]
novelist
England
1810 to 1815
Sense and Sensibility [1810]; Pride and Prejudice [1813]; Mansfield Park [1813]; Emma [1815]
Johann Gaspar Spurzheim [Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar]
biologist
Germany
1810 to 1815
Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General [1810 to 1815: first two volumes, with Gall]
He lived 1776 to 1832 and studied memory storage and retrieval and physiological bases of normal brain function.
Johannes Samuel Pauly [Pauly, Johannes Samuel]
inventor
Switzerland
1810 to 1820
bullet [1810 to 1820: cartridge has brass head with explosive primer]
He lived 1766 to 1820 {bullet}. Pin-fire cartridges, with pins, began in France [1830 to 1840]. Center-fire cartridges
[1860 to 1870] had pin in gun.
Franz Joseph Gall [Gall, Franz Joseph]
anatomist
1810 to 1825
Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General [1810 to 1819: four volumes, first two with Johannes
Caspar Spurzheim]; On the Functions of the Brain [1822 to 1825: six volumes]
He lived 1758 to 1828, founded phrenology, and studied brain white matter, gray matter, and ganglia.
Hirata Atsutane [Atsutane, Hirata]
philosopher
Edo (Tokyo), Japan
1810 to 1840
Studies in Shinto Thought [1810 to 1840]
He lived 1776 to 1843 and started return to Shintoism and ancient myth, in Kokugaku or Kogaku School.
Amadeo Avogadro [Avogadro, Amadeo]
chemist
Italy
1811
He lived 1776 to 1856 and calculated Avogadro's number [1811].
Jacob F. Fries [Fries, Jacob F.]
philosopher
Germany
1811
System of Logic [1811]
He lived 1773 to 1843. Inner experience causes consciousness, in obscure form, of a priori truths, which then transform
by reflection into knowledge.
Destutt de Tracy [Tracy, Destutt de] or Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, Comte de Tracy [Tracy, Antoine Louis
Claude Destutt, Comte de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1811
Commentary and Review of Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws [1811]
He lived 1754 to 1836 and was French Ideologist. He wanted to make a science of ideas {ideology of ideas}.
Franz Schubert [Schubert, Franz]
composer
Austria
1811 to 1827
German Dance No. 1 [1811]; Erlkonig or Elf King [1815: songs]; Symphony No. 8 in B Minor or Unfinished
Symphony [1822]; Rosamunde [1823: opera, including Ballet Music in G]; Ave Maria [1823: song]; Die Schone
Mullerin or Fair Maid of the Mill [1823: songs]; Symphony No. 9 in C Major or the Great Symphony [1826]; Die
Winterreise or Winter Journey [1827: songs]; Serenade or Ständchen [1827]
He lived 1797 to 1828 and composed lied.
John Constable [Constable, John]
painter
England
1811 to 1830
Stoke-by-Nayland [1811]; Boys Fishing by the Stour [1813]; Haywain [1819]; Cloud Studies [1819 to 1830];
Hampstead Heath [1821]
Jacob Grimm [Grimm, Jacob]
linguist/philologist
Berlin, Germany
1811 to 1837
High German Master Song [1811]; German Grammar [1819 to 1837]
He lived 1785 to 1863. As language develops, sound usage shifts according to rules {Grimm's Law} [1822], accounting
for sound pairing among languages.
Joseph von Fraunhofer [Fraunhofer, Joseph von]
physicist
Germany
1812
He lived 1787 to 1826 and described Fraunhofer lines [1812].
Wilhelm Grimm [Grimm, Wilhelm]/Jacob Grimm [Grimm, Jacob]
storyteller
Germany
1812
Children's and Household Tales [1812: story collection]
The Brothers Grimm wrote fairy tales. Jacob lived 1785 to 1863. Wilhelm lived 1786 to 1859.
Francis Scott Key [Key, Francis Scott]/John Stafford Smith [Smith, John Stafford]
lyricist/composer
USA/England
1812
Star-Spangled Banner [1812: music is To Anacreon in Heaven]
Key lived 1779 to 1843. Smith lived 1750 to 1836.
Gottlieb Sigismund Kirchhoff [Kirchhoff, Gottlieb Sigismund]
biologist
Russia
1812
He lived 1764 to 1833 and discovered enzymes. Wheat gluten enzyme converts starch to sugar and dextrin [1812].
Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov [Kutuzov, Mikhail Illarionovich]
general
Russia
1812 to 1813
He lived 1745 to 1813, fought Turkey [1770 to 1774], and defeated Napoleon.
Johann Wyss [Wyss, Johann]
writer
Switzerland
1812 to 1813
Swiss Family Robinson [1812]
Jean Lafitte [Lafitte, Jean]
pirate
New Orleans, Louisiana
1812 to 1815
He lived 1780 to 1826, was pirate of France against Spain, and helped USA in War of 1812.
Brothers Grimm/Jakob Grimm [Grimm, Jakob]/Wilhelm Grimm [Grimm, Wilhelm]
writer
Germany
1812 to 1857
Children's and Household Tales [1812 to 1857: 7 editions, including Elves and Shoemaker, Hansel and Gretel, Red
Riding Hood, Rumpelstiltskin, Sleeping Beauty, Snow White, and Tom Thumb]
Jakob lived 1785 to 1863. Wilhelm lived 1786 to 1859.
Gioacchino Rossini [Rossini, Gioacchino]
composer
Italy
1813 to 1823
L'Italiana in Algeri or Italian Girl in Algiers [1813: opera]; William Tell [1816: opera, with well-known Overture];
Thieving Magpie or La Gazza ladra [1817: opera]; Barber of Seville or Il Barbiere di Siviglia [1821: opera];
Semiramide or Semiramus [1823: opera]
Claude Henri de Saint-Simon [Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1813 to 1825
Memoir on the Science of Man [1813]; On the Reorganization of European Society [1814]; New Christianity [1825]
He lived 1760 to 1825, influenced Comte and Marx, and was the first socialist in France. History has progress.
Medieval society became the Enlightenment and then science and technology, as merchants and industrialists arose and
conflicted with church and king.
Niccolò Paganini [Paganini, Niccolò]
violinist/composer
Italy
1813 to 1826
Theme and Variations on a Song by Süssmayr or Le Streghe or The Witches [1813]; I Palpiti or Pulsations or
Heartbeats [1819: from Rossini]; Concerto No. 2 in B minor or La Campanella or Cloister Bell [1826]
He lived 1782 to 1840 and composed violin music.
Arthur Schopenhauer [Schopenhauer, Arthur]
philosopher/pessimist
Germany
1813 to 1851
On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason [1813]; World as Will and Idea or The World as Will and
Representation [1818 and 1844]; On the Will in Nature [1836]; Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics [1841]; On the
Freedom of the Will [1841]; On the Basis of Morality [1841]; Incidentals and Supplements or Philosophical Writings
[1851]
He lived 1788 to 1860 and was a pessimist. Plato, Kant, and Vedic thought influenced him. Philosophy is art, not
science, based on people's will.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is perception without will.
As people become less individual, they can better know the ideal.
Epistemology
Knowledge depends on having objective concepts {Idea, Schopenhauer} {objective concept} about reasoning, space,
time, and causes.
Perceptions are individual, are in space and time, and have causes. From perceptions, people abstract subjective images
or representations {Vorstellung}, which are also memories and imagination objects, using reason. From
representations, people can know geometry, arithmetic, space, and time. From causes, space, time, and reason, people
can know the world. The Ideas unify all knowledge.
Humor depends on feelings of superiority [1819].
Ethics
The Will, and individual wills, are always unhappy, because they never have complete satisfaction.
Individual wills conflict as they try to live and gain their desires. Conflicts of wills lead to inability to satisfy desires
and thus pain and suffering.
People can never overcome the will to live, but to obtain happiness people should try to deny or negate will. They
should quiet desires, have contempt for life, and become selfless {self-abnegation}. People can quiet will by
sympathizing with suffering and by contemplating art and science.
Pleasure is relief from suffering and dissatisfaction.
Ethics {ethics of pity} depends on sympathy, compassion for the inescapable suffering and pain felt by other people.
People should feel others' pain and should not inflict suffering. By submerging self and sympathizing with others,
people decrease conflict of wills. The ideal is to unify all wills, and so end suffering and obtain justice.
Will feels itself to be free, but it actually acts deterministically. Freedom is acting to deny or negate will to live.
Metaphysics
Will to live or exist is essence of reality. Will is subjective thing-in-itself that has no object except itself, and so it can
only will that it exist and live. Will has no outside method, object, purpose, or conclusion and is therefore absolute
unreason.
All individual wills unite in the Will {world-will}.
All existing things manifest Will {voluntarism}. Will causes things to move and so keeps individuals restless and
unsatisfied.
The world formed by Will is necessary and has determination, with an infinite number of relations and ideas.
All things in world result from physical cause, logical reason, mathematical reason, or moral cause.
Mind
Undirected forces {will to live, Schopenhauer} are true natures of people {absolute virtualism}. The will to live is
individual, subjective, and irrational but is part of world-will. Will is separate from body. Will feels itself to be free, but
all actions are deterministic. Will encounters resistance to its acts from everything, because everything has will or
manifests will.
David Brewster [Brewster, David]
physicist/inventor
Scotland
1814 to 1816
kaleidoscope [1816]
He lived 1781 to 1868 and improved Wheatstone's stereoscope {kaleidoscope, Brewster}. Polarization maximizes
when polarization angle tangent {Brewster's angle} equals reflecting-medium refractive index {Brewster's law} [1814].
James Kent [Kent, James]
lawyer
USA
1814 to 1824
Commentaries on American Law [1814]
He lived 1763 to 1847, was conservative Chancellor of New York State, and founded American equity system.
Augustin-Louis Cauchy [Cauchy, Augustin-Louis]
mathematician
Paris, France
1814 to 1829
Lessons on Differential Calculus [1829]
He lived 1789 to 1857, used arithmetic concepts for mathematical analysis, and began complex-variable function
theory [1814]. He invented Cauchy's principle, Cauchy convergence criterion, and Cauchy integral theorem. He studied
method of characteristics, theory of content, and spaces. Separating first-order partial-differential-equation variables
can make ordinary-differential-equation systems. First-order partial differential equation systems can describe elasticmedia properties.
Melchiorre Gioja [Gioja, Melchiorre]
philosopher
Milan, Italy
1815
New prospect of economic science [1815]
He lived 1767 to 1829 and was Ontologist.
John Nash [Nash, John]
architect
Brighton, England
1815 to 1823
Royal Pavilion [1815 to 1823: House is in Georgian style with Motifs from India]
Louis XVIII
king
France
1815 to 1824
He lived 1755 to 1824. In Bourbon Restoration, he became king through Talleyrand at Congress of Vienna and
Talleyrand was his foreign minister. He tried to reconcile French factions with new constitution. Someone assassinated
his nephew. Royalists gained control through Villele [1820].
Karl Joseph Anton Mittermaier [Mittermaier, Karl Joseph Anton]
lawyer
Landshut, Germany
1815 to 1824
Critique of a Scientific Treatment of German Private Law [1815]; Foundations of Intent in German Private Law [1824]
He lived 1787 to 1867. His writings about criminal procedure resulted in German-law reforms.
William I
king
Netherlands
1815 to 1840
Victor Cousin [Cousin, Victor]
philosopher
Paris, France
1815 to 1845
Course of the History of Philosophy [1815 to 1829]; Philosophical Fragments [1826]; Philosophy of Locke [1829]; On
truth, beauty, and the good [1836]; Scottish philosophy [1845]
He lived 1792 to 1867 and modified spiritualism.
William Cullen Bryant [Bryant, William Cullen]
poet
USA
1815 to 1850
To a Waterfowl [1815]; Thanatopsis [1817]; To the Fringed Gentian [1832]; Death of the Flowers [1850]
Ernst T. A. Hoffman [Hoffman, Ernst T. A.]
storyteller
Germany
1816
Nutcracker and the Mouse King [1816: story]; Sandman [1816: story]
Joshua Shaw [Shaw, Joshua]
inventor/painter
England/USA
1816
percussion cap [1816: steel nipple replaced flash pan and held copper caps]
He lived 1776 to 1860 {percussion cap}.
Sophia Germain [Germain, Sophia] or Sophie Germain [Germain, Sophie]
mathematician
France
1816 to 1820
She lived 1776 to 1831 and studied number theory and elasticity [1816]. For integers x, y, and z, if x^5 + y^5 = z^5,
then x, y, or z must be divisible by 5 [1820] {Germain's theorem}.
John Keats [Keats, John]
poet
England
1816 to 1820
On First Looking into Chapman's Homer [1816]; I Stood Tip-toe upon a Little Hill [1816]; When I Have Fears that I
May Cease To Be [1817]; Endymion [1818]; Thing of Beauty [1818: in Endymion]; Ode to a Nightingale [1819]; To
Autumn [1819]; Ode to Melancholy [1819]; Hyperion [1819]; Bright Star Would that I Were Steadfast As Thou Art
[1819 and 1820]; Ode on a Grecian Urn [1820]; La Belle Dame Sans Merci or Beautiful Lady without Mercy [1820];
Eve of St. Agnes [1820]; On the Grasshopper and the Cricket [1820]
Charles Babbage [Babbage, Charles]
mathematician/inventor
London, England
1816 to 1833
difference engine designed to compute tables [1816]; Analytical Engine Drawings [1833]; ophthalmoscope; railway
cowcatcher
He lived 1792 to 1871 {analytical engine}.
Daniel Webster [Webster, Daniel]
lawyer/senator
USA
1816 to 1850
Dartmouth College v. Woodward [1819]; Gibbons v. Ogden [1821]; McCulloch v. Maryland [1824]; WebsterAshburton Treaty [1842]
He lived 1782 to 1852, believed in Alexander Hamilton's ideas, was Whig, and argued Dartmouth College case about
contracts and McCulloch vs. Maryland case about states' rights. He backed Compromise of 1850 to preserve union.
David Ricardo [Ricardo, David]
economist
England
1817
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation [1817]
He lived 1772 to 1823 and studied rents and agriculture and invented labor theory of value and growth. Land scarcity
as population increases causes diminishing returns from agriculture, so food prices rise relative to other prices. Workers
wages rise and reduce profit rates. With no incentive for investing, output, capital, and labor remain constant from then
on. Rising wages cause even higher population and bring wages back down to subsistence level. Rents depend on land
agricultural uses.
James Monroe [Monroe, James]
president
USA
1817 to 1821
He lived 1758 to 1831. Fifth president resolved boundary with Canada, got Florida, settled Liberia with former slaves,
presided over Missouri Compromise, and formulated Monroe Doctrine, ending European influence in Americas.
Percy Blythe Shelley [Shelley, Percy Blythe]
poet
England
1817 to 1821
Ozymandias [1817]; Ode to the West Wind [1819]; Prometheus Unbound [1819]; Love's Philosophy [1819]; To a
Skylark [1820]; Adonäis [1821]; To Night [1821]; Defence of Poetry [1821: essay]; Music [1821]
François Magendie [Magendie, François]
physiologist
Paris, France
1817 to 1822
Summary of Physiology [1817]
He lived 1783 to 1855, studied emetine and morphine drugs, and studied iodides and bromides in nutrition. He
poisoned animals with Javanese arrow poison in various ways, described convulsions and asphyxia, sectioned spinal
cord, and isolated strychnine [1818]. Spinal-nerve anterior and posterior roots have separate functions {Bell-Magendie
law, Magendie}: dorsal root is sensory, and ventral root is motor [1822].
Friedrich Bessel [Bessel, Friedrich]
mathematician
Germany
1817 to 1824
He lived 1784 to 1846 and invented Bessel equation [1817 to 1824] and Bessel's inequality.
Georges Cuvier [Cuvier, Georges]
biologist
Paris, France
1817 to 1825
Animal Kingdom [1817]; Discourse on the Revolutionary Upheavals on the Surface of the Earth [1825]
He lived 1769 to 1832 and studied fossils, differentiated animals by body structures and nervous systems, and noted
adaptations to environment.
James Mill [Mill, James]
political scientist
Scotland
1817 to 1835
History of British India [1817]; On Government [1820]; Elements of Political Economy [1821 to 1822]; Analysis of the
Phenomena of the Human Mind [1829]; Fragment on Mackintosh [1835]
He lived 1773 to 1836. Democracy by majority gives the most people the best chance to maximize happiness, because
people act by self-interest.
Lambert Hitchcock [Hitchcock, Lambert]
designer
USA
1818
Hitchcock
He lived 1795 to 1852. First mass produced furniture in USA.
Joseph Mohr [Mohr, Joseph]/Franz Gruber [Gruber, Franz]
lyricist/composer
Germany
1818
Silent Night [1818]
Mohr lived 1792 to 1848. Gruber lived 1787 to 1863.
Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire [Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy]
biologist
Paris, France
1818
Anatomical Philosophy [1818]
He lived 1772 to 1844 and studied fossils and compared fish and land animals, vertebrates and insects, and cephalopods
and vertebrates. Fossils have structure homologies {unity of type}. Body type depends on vertebral structure.
Samuel Woodworth [Woodworth, Samuel]/George F. Kiallmark [Kiallmark, George F.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1818
Old Oaken Bucket [1818: music, 1826]
Woodworth lived 1785 to 1842. Kiallmark lived 1804 to 1887.
Charles Bulfinch [Bulfinch, Charles]
architect
USA
1818 to 1830
State House [1818: Federal style, in Boston]; Massachusetts General Hospital [1820: Federal style, in Boston]; Capitol
Building [1818 to 1830: Federal style, in Washington]
Alexander Pushkin [Pushkin, Alexander]
poet
Russia
1818 to 1834
Russlan and Ludmilla [1818: poem]; Eugene Onegin [1823 to 1831: verse novel]; Boris Godunov [1831: poem]; Queen
of Spades [1834: story]
Charles XIV
king
Sweden/Norway
1818 to 1844
Pierre Dulong [Dulong, Pierre]
chemist
France
1819
He lived 1785 to 1838 and studied heat capacity and invented law of Dulong-Petit [1819].
Hans Christian Oersted [Oersted, Hans Christian]
physicist
Denmark
1819
He lived 1777 to 1851 and found that moving charge has magnetic field [1819].
Alexis Petit [Petit, Alexis]
chemist
France
1819
He lived 1791 to 1820 and studied heat capacity and invented law of Dulong-Petit [1819].
Theodore Gericault [Gericault, Theodore]
painter
France
1819 to 1822
Raft of the Medusa [1819]; Madman [1822]
Friedrich Schlegel [Schlegel, Friedrich]
poet
Vienna, Austria
1819 to 1823
Lessons on the History of Philosophy [1819 to 1823]
He lived 1772 to 1829 and compared classic poetry to romantic poetry using Romantic School of Criticism. Beauty is
an Idea manifested in matter. Irony can oppose finite {appearance, Schlegel} to infinite {Idea, Schlegel} {infinite,
Schlegel}, as in Romantic poetry.
Joseph de Maistre [Maistre, Joseph de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1819 to 1826
On the Pope [1819]; St. Petersburg Dialogs [1821]; Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon [1826]
He lived 1753 to 1821 and was Traditionalist.
Alphonse de Lamartine [Lamartine, Alphonse de]
poet
France
1820
Les Méditations poétiques or Poetic Meditations [1820]
Carl Maria von Weber [Weber, Carl Maria von]
composer
Germany
1820 to 1826
Der Freischütz or The Free-Shooter [1820: opera]; Invitation to the Dance [1821: music]; Euryanthe [1823: opera];
Oberon [1826: opera]
André M. Ampere [Ampere, André M.]
physicist
France
1820 to 1827
He lived 1775 to 1836 and studied magnetic fields around conductors [1820 to 1827].
Carlo Blasis [Blasis, Carlo]
choreographer
Milan, Italy
1820 to 1830
Elementary Treatise upon the Theory and Practice of the Art of Dancing [1820: book]; Code of Terpsichore [1830:
book]
He lived 1803 to 1878, was Dauberval's student, codified the dance at La Scala opera house, and first used poses.
Christian Jurgenson Thomsen [Thomsen, Christian Jurgenson]
archaeologist
Denmark
1820 to 1830
He lived 1788 to 1865 and assigned Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age eras. Gold jewelry {bracteates} [500 to 700]
has Norse motifs.
Ernst Heinrich Weber [Weber, Ernst Heinrich]
physiologist
Leipzig, Germany
1820 to 1846
On vision and hearing in humans and animals [1820]; Additions to the Theory of Construction and Function of the
Genital Organs [1846]
He lived 1795 to 1878, studied psychophysics, invented theory of signs {Lokalzeichentheorie}, measured skin
sensitivity to separated stimuli [1826], studied inhibition by vagus nerve [1845], and developed law of sensation
[1834], with Fechner. People can distinguish between two similar sensations {just-noticeable difference}. For each
sense, ratio of just-noticeable-difference to intensity is approximately constant for all intensities. Subjective sensation
increases as logarithm of physical-stimulus magnitude. Just-noticeable difference increases in direct proportion to
stimulus intensity. If I is sensation intensity, intensity change divided by intensity equals constant {Weber-Fechner
law} {Weber's law}: (I2 - I1) / I1 = Weber's constant. Weber's constant {Weber fraction} represents smallest stimulus
intensity difference that people can perceive. If intensity is higher, differences must be larger for people to perceive
them. Weber's constant is typically greater than one to three percent, differs for different senses, and tends to increase
with age.
Henry Clay [Clay, Henry] or Great Pacificator or Great Compromiser
lawyer
USA
1820 to 1850
Missouri Compromise [1820]; Compromise of 1850 [1850]
He lived 1797 to 1852 and believed in Alexander Hamilton's ideas. He favored strong central government, high tariffs
for business protection, Bank of USA, Missouri Compromise, and Compromise of 1850.
Thomas De Quincey [De Quincey, Thomas]
essayist
England
1821
Confessions of an English Opium Eater [1821: essay]
Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier [Navier, Claude Louis Marie Henri]
physicist
France
1821 to 1822
He lived 1785 to 1836 and studied fluid dynamics [1821 to 1822].
Louis Braille [Braille, Louis]
inventor
France
1821 to 1829
Braille [1821 to 1829]
He lived 1809 to 1852. He invented a printing and writing system using six dots, in two vertical lines of three raised
dots each, to represent 63 characters and allow blind people to read by touch {Braille} [1821 to 1829].
Pedro I
king
Brazil
1821 to 1831
He lived 1798 to 1831, declared independence from Portugal, and was John VI of Portugal's son.
Jan Evangelista Purkinje [Purkinje, Jan Evangelista]
anatomist
Spain/Germany
1821 to 1839
Observations and Experiments Investigating the Physiology of Senses [1821]; New Subjective Reports about Vision
[1825]
He lived 1787 to 1869 and studied brain neurons. He said fingerprints are unique [1823]. As light intensity decreases,
red objects fade faster than blue objects {Purkinje effect} [1825]. He discovered germinal vesicles [1825], skin sweat
glands [1833], Purkinje cells [1837], and Purkinje fibers [1839]. He digested protein with pancreatic extract [1836].
George Cruikshank [Cruikshank, George]
illustrator
England
1821 to 1841
Life in London [1821: illustration, with Robert Isaac]; Oliver Twist [1841: illustration]
Heinrich Heine [Heine, Heinrich] or Harry Heine [Heine, Harry]
poet
Düsseldorf, Germany
1821 to 1853
Gedichte or Poems [1821]; Die Harzreise or Harz Journey [1824]; Book of Songs [1827]; Lorelei [1827: in Book of
Songs]; Neue Gedichte or New Poems [1844]; Atta Troll [1847]; Deutschland [1847: in Wintermärchen]; Letzte
Gedichte or Late Poems [1853]
Joseph Fourier [Fourier, Joseph]
mathematician
Paris, France
1822
Analytical Theory of Heat [1822]
He lived 1768 to 1830, invented heat equation, and invented Fourier series and Fourier transform: over intervals, any
function can be trigonometric series.
Augustin Fresnel [Fresnel, Augustin]
physicist
France
1822
He lived 1788 to 1827, developed Fresnel integral, and applied it to making lenses for refraction [1822].
Joseph Niepce [Niepce, Joseph]
inventor/photographer
USA
1822
photography [1822]
He lived 1765 to 1833 and invented photography. Light darkens silver chloride or silver bromide, and then sodium
hypochlorite fixes it.
Jean-Victor Poncelet [Poncelet, Jean-Victor]
mathematician
Paris, France
1822
Treatise on the projective properties of figures [1822]
He lived 1788 to 1867, rediscovered projective geometry, and studied affine geometry, differential geometry, and
harmonic point sets.
Friedrich E. D. Schleiermacher [Schleiermacher, Friedrich E. D.]
theologian
Berlin, Germany
1822
Christian Faith [1822]
He lived 1768 to 1834 and founded Schleiermacherian School of Plato and Protestantism.
Epistemology
He invented a theory of how to interpret texts {hermeneutics, Schleiermacher}. Analyze text language and author mind
and development. Relate parts to whole text. Knowledge gained can find new knowledge, which expands knowledge
{hermeneutic circle}.
The goal of knowledge is to show identity of being and thought, which appear separate in consciousness as perception
and conception. This goal can never have complete attainment. As method, presuppose that they are the same as God
and try to understand process involved in uniting them.
Ethics
Religion is communion with, and absolute dependence on, God, universal, infinity, or unified thought and being.
Religion is not about knowing or doing right actions.
All ethical action is for uniting nature and reason. This is the moral and natural law.
People develop lives in particular ways based on natural law, nature, and harmony. Aristocrats live life fully, cultivate
sensibilities, and ignore rules and laws as unnecessary.
Metaphysics
Absolute Good or Infinite has Ideas in Mind.
Agustin de Iturbide [Iturbide, Agustin de]
emperor
Mexico
1822 to 1823
William Beaumont [Beaumont, William]
biologist
USA
1822 to 1833
Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion [1833]
He lived 1785 to 1853 and observed stomach functions [1822 to 1833].
Clement Clark Moore [Moore, Clement Clark]
poet
USA
1822 to 1837
Night Before Christmas or Twas the Night Before Christmas [1822]
Eugène Delacroix [Delacroix, Eugène]
painter
France
1822 to 1861
Dante and Virgil Crossing the Styx or Barque of Dante [1822]; Massacre of Chios [1824]; Greece expiring on the
Ruins of Missolonghi [1827]; Women of Algiers in their Apartments [1834]; Attila and his Hordes Overrun Italy and
the Arts [1847]; Liberty Guiding the People [1848]; Odalisque [1854]; Lion Hunt [1854]; Jacob Wrestling with the
Angel [1861]
Janos Bolyai [Bolyai, Janos]
mathematician
Hungary
1823 to 1833
Appendix to Tentamen [1833: of Farkas Bolyai or Wolfgang Bolyai]
He lived 1802 to 1860 and used substitute parallel axiom [1823], applied to intersecting and non-intersecting lines, to
make non-Euclidean geometry [1833].
Adam Mickiewicz [Mickiewicz, Adam]
poet
Poland
1823 to 1834
Dziady or Forefathers' Eve [1823 to 1832: play]; Konrad Wallenrod [1828: poem]; Pan Tadeus [1834: long poem]
He lived 1798 to 1855 and was nationalist.
James Fenimore Cooper [Cooper, James Fenimore]
novelist
USA
1823 to 1841
Leatherstocking Tales [1823 to 1841: novels]; Last of the Mohicans [1826: in Leatherstocking Tales]
Ralph Waldo Emerson [Emerson, Ralph Waldo]
poet/essayist
USA
1823 to 1841
Good-Bye [1823 to 1829]; Nature [1836: essay that started New England Transcendentalism]; American Scholar
[1837: essay]; Concord Hymn [1837: poem]; Self-Reliance [1841: essay]; Essays [1841: essays]; Brahma [1857]
Nicolas Carnot [Carnot, Nicolas]
physicist
France
1824
Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire [1824]
He lived 1796 to 1832 and invented heat-engine theory.
Marie Jean Pierre Flourens [Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre]
physiologist/anatomist
France
1824
Experimental Researches on the Properties and Functions of the Nervous System in Vertebrates [1824]
He lived 1794 to 1867, studied brain and concluded that cortex acts as one unit, and ablated brain areas to investigate
brain function. Cerebellum is for muscle coordination. Medulla is for respiration. Central nervous system has diverse
and localized psychological functions.
Maine de Biran or Marie Francois-Pierre-Gonthier de Biran [Biran, Marie Francois-Pierre-Gonthier de]
philosopher
Paris, France
1824
New Considerations on Reports of Physical Effects on Human Morals [1824]; Essay on the Foundations of Psychology
[1824]
He lived 1766 to 1824 and developed spiritualism.
Epistemology
People have methods, such as will and belief, to know their inner states {inner sense} {inner light}. Methods also allow
knowledge of outside world. Perception is thus activity.
Will is not one object but is mental acts. Will operations relate terms. One term is active self. The other term is action
performed. Effort exerted senses relation, and mind immediately introspects willed efforts, especially muscular efforts.
Will's physiological fact and psychological fact correspond symbolically. People cannot act deliberately without
knowing what they are doing. Reason and will, and action and cognition, cannot separate.
Niels Abel [Abel, Niels]
mathematician
Norway
1824 to 1826
He lived 1802 to 1829 and invented elliptic-function addition theorems and integrals. He studied quintic polynomials
[1824], elliptic functions, series, fields, and rings. He invented Abelian integrals [1826], Abel's theorem, Abel
summability, and Abelian group or commutative group.
Charles X
king
France
1824 to 1830
He lived 1757 to 1836. Talleyrand was his foreign minister.
Henri Dutrochet [Dutrochet, Henri]
biologist
France
1824 to 1830
Mechanistic Materialism and General Psychology [1830]
He lived 1776 to 1847, studied osmosis [1824], studied plant respiration and light sensitivity [1824 to 1830], and
worked on cell theory.
Jean A. Brillat-Savarin [Brillat-Savarin, Jean A.]
judge
France
1825
Physiology of Taste [1825: about food and philosophy]
Thomas Telford [Telford, Thomas]
architect
Anglesey, England
1825
Menai Straits Bridge [1825: first large suspension bridge]; Aqueduct over the Dee; Design for London Bridge
He lived 1757 to 1834. It is in north Wales.
John Quincy Adams [Adams, John Quincy]
president
USA
1825 to 1829
He lived 1767 to 1848. Sixth president opposed slavery and developed Monroe Doctrine.
Lejeune Dirichlet [Dirichlet, Lejeune]
mathematician
Belgium
1825 to 1839
Lectures on Number Theory [1839]
He lived 1805 to 1859 and invented Dirichlet series, Dirichlet conditions, and Dirichlet principle or Thomson principle.
He studied analytic number theory [1825].
Prosper Merimée [Merimée, Prosper]
storyteller/playwright
France
1825 to 1840
Le Théâtre de Clara Gazul [1825: play]; Colomba [1840: story]
Friedrich Wöhler [Wöhler, Friedrich]
chemist
Berlin, Germany
1825 to 1854
Textbook of Chemistry [1825: four volumes]; Foundations of Inorganic Chemistry [1830]; Foundations of Organic
Chemistry [1840]; Practical Experiments of Analytical Chemistry [1854]
He lived 1800 to 1882 and synthesized urea from ammonium cyanate [1828], the first artificial organic-chemical
synthesis.
Nicholas I
czar
Russia
1825 to 1855
He lived 1796 to 1855, was Romanov, crushed Decembrist Conspiracy, defeated Polish uprising, helped Austria defeat
Hungarian Republic [1849], and lost Crimean War to Britain.
Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel [Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August]
educator
Germany
1826
On the Education of Man [1826]
He lived 1782 to 1852, established first kindergarten, and emphasized relationship between teacher and pupil. Teacher
guides, not directs, child in self-discovery. Development stages are critical, and children must fully experience them.
School curriculum must have continuity and connectedness. School must maintain close contact with family and
community. Play is central to learning.
Metaphysics
Man, God, and nature are an organic unity. All living things have inherent form and purpose, not predetermined, that
develops through creative struggle with environment. All living things grow from simple to complex structures with
same underlying pattern.
Friedrich Holderlin [Holderlin, Friedrich]
writer
Germany
1826
Essays and Letters on Theory [1826]
Thomas Hood [Hood, Thomas]
poet
England
1826
I Remember, I Remember [1826]
Friedrich E. Beneke [Beneke, Friedrich E.]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1826 to 1827
Relationship of Mind and Body [1826]; Animal Psychology [1827]
He lived 1798 to 1854. Associational psychology is not true, because it makes mental faculties real and basic.
Knowledge has limits.
Jean Baptiste Corot [Corot, Jean Baptiste]
painter
France
1826 to 1870
View of the Farnese Gardens [1826]; Femme à la Perle or Woman with a Pearl [1870]; Interrupted Reading [1870]
Davy Crockett [Crockett, Davy]
pioneer/frontiersman
USA
1827
George Green [Green, George]
mathematician
England
1827
Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism [1827]
He lived 1793 to 1841, invented Green's theorem, and studied double integrals, line integrals, and curvilinear integrals.
Hokusai Katsushika [Katsushika, Hokusai]
painter
Japan
1827
Mount Fuji Views [1827]
Georg Simon Ohm [Ohm, Georg Simon]
physicist
Germany
1827
He lived 1789 to 1854 and invented Ohm's law [1827].
Robert Brown [Brown, Robert]
physicist
Scotland
1827 to 1828
He lived 1773 to 1858 and discovered cell nucleus [1827] and Brownian movement [1828].
Wilhelm Traugott Krug [Krug, Wilhelm Traugott]
philosopher
Germany
1827 to 1829
Theoretical Dictionary of Philosophical Sciences [1827 to 1829]
He lived 1770 to 1831. Consciousness allows people to know being, and being allows people to know consciousness.
Real and conscious activities interact. Philosophy is explanation of self, because self is conscious.
Karl Ernst von Baer [Baer, Karl Ernst von]
naturalist
1827 to 1837
Letter on the Mammalian Egg and Human Genesis [1827]; History of the Evolution of Animals [1828 and 1837: two
parts]
He lived 1792 to 1876 and discovered ovum in mammals [1826]. Embryos of various vertebrates are similar {Baer
laws}.
Augustus Ferdinand Möbius [Möbius, Augustus Ferdinand]
mathematician
Leipzig, Germany
1827 to 1837
Calculus of Centers of Gravity [1827]; Handbook on Statics [1837]
He lived 1790 to 1868, invented Möbius strip, and studied homogeneous coordinates.
Noah Webster [Webster, Noah]
lexicographer
USA
1828
Dictionary [1828]
He lived 1758 to 1843 and wrote dictionary.
Julius Plucker [Plucker, Julius]
mathematician
Germany
1828 to 1835
Developments in Analytic Geometry [1828 to 1831: two volumes]; System of Analytic Geometry [1835]
He lived 1801 to 1868 and studied trilinear coordinates and line coordinates.
Thomas Graham [Graham, Thomas]
chemist
England
1829
He lived 1805 to 1869 and invented Graham's diffusion law [1829].
George Stephenson [Stephenson, George]
inventor
England
1829
miner's safety lamp [1815]; steam locomotive [1829]
Andrew Jackson [Jackson, Andrew]
president
USA
1829 to 1837
He lived 1767 to 1845. Seventh president had Kitchen Cabinet of advisors. He started spoils system and emphasized
Democratic Party. He antagonized Calhoun and Clay. He fought Bank of the USA, leading to requirement that only
hard currency can buy public land. He ended National Bank and caused Panic of 1837.
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi [Jacobi, Carl Gustav Jacob]
mathematician
Germany
1829 to 1841
Fundamental new theory of elliptical functions [1829]; On determinants of functions [1841]
He lived 1804 to 1851 and studied elliptic integrals, function theory, and inverse elliptic functions {theta function,
Jacobi}. He invented Jacobian.
Antonio Rosmini-Serbati [Rosmini-Serbati, Antonio]
philosopher
Italy
1829 to 1848
Origin of Ideas [1829]; Five Wounds of the Holy Church [1848]
He lived 1797 to 1853, was Hegelian, and founded Institute of Charity or Rosminians.
Joseph Liouville [Liouville, Joseph]
mathematician
Paris, France
1829 to 1851
Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics [1836]
He lived 1809 to 1882 and invented Sturm-Liouville theory [1829 and 1837] and transcendental numbers [1851].
Phase-space region volume is constant for Hamiltonian equation {Liouville's theorem, Liouville}, but volumes spread
into larger space, leaving empty spaces.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel [Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]
architect
England
1829 to 1852
Design for a Suspension Bridge at Clifton over the Avon River [1829]; Box Tunnel for the Great Western Railway
[1833]; Great Western Steamship [1838]; Great Eastern Steamship [1852]
Juan Manuel de Rosas [Rosas, Juan Manuel de]
dictator
Argentina
1829 to 1852
Francis Leiber [Leiber, Francis]
lawyer
Germany/USA
1829 to 1863
Encyclopaedia Americana [1829 to 1833: translated from Brockhaus encyclopedia]; Manual of Political Ethics [1838];
Essays on Property and Labor [1841]; On Civil Liberty and Self-Government [1853]; Instructions for the Government
of Armies of the United States in the Field or General Order No. 100 [1863]
He lived 1800 to 1872 and established war rules for USA Civil War.
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevski [Lobachevski, Nikolai Ivanovich]
mathematician
Kazan, Russia
1830
On the Principles of Geometry [1830]
He lived 1793 to 1856 and invented Lobachevsky's rule. He used substitute parallel axiom, applied to two boundary
lines with angle to the perpendicular, to make non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry {Lobachevskian geometry,
Lobachevski}. People do not know Euclid's axioms with certainty, and they are not true a priori.
George Peacock [Peacock, George]
mathematician
London, England
1830
Treatise on Algebra [1830]
He lived 1791 to 1858 and studied algebra systems and permanence of form.
Evariste Galois [Galois, Evariste]
mathematician
France
1830 to 1832
He lived 1811 to 1832 and studied group, field, solvability, and factoring representation theory [1830 to 1832].
Fréderic Chopin [Chopin, Fréderic]
composer
France/Poland
1830 to 1838
Piano Concerto No. 2 [1830]; Etude No. 3 in E or Tristesse [1832: étude]; Polonaise in A or Military [1838]
He lived 1810 to 1849 and composed preludes, waltzes, nocturnes, and polonaises.
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach [Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas]
philosopher
Bruckberg, Germany
1830 to 1844
Thoughts on Death and Immortality [1830]; Towards a Critique of Hegel's Philosophy [1839]; Essence of Christianity
[1841]; Principles of the Philosophy of the Future [1843]; Provisional Theses for the Reformation of Philosophy
[1843]; On the Essence of Faith in Luther's Sense [1844]
He lived 1804 to 1872 and was Theist. He studied people as thinking and acting subjects {philosophical anthropology}.
Ethics
God is what man conceives himself to be and wishes to be. People have alienation, because they do not understand, or
are not successful in, actual world and so turn to fantasy and religion. Religion projects people's emotions and thoughts.
Felix Mendelssohn [Mendelssohn, Felix]
composer
Germany
1830 to 1846
Scottish Symphony [1830 and 1842]; Reformation Symphony [1832]; Hebrides [1832]; Symphony No. 4 in A or
Italian Symphony [1833]; St. Paul [1836: oratorio]; Spring Song [1841]; Midsummer Nights Dream [1843: opera, with
The Wedding March]; Violin Concerto in E Minor [1845]; Elijah [1846: oratorio]
Augustus De Morgan [De Morgan, Augustus]
mathematician
England
1830 to 1849
Elements of Arithmetic [1830]; Induction [1838]; Formal Logic [1847]; Trigonometry and Double Algebra [1849]
He lived 1806 to 1871 and studied divergent series. He invented De Morgan's laws [1849] of algebra of classes:
commutation, association, inverse, identity, distribution, and null.
Auguste Comte [Comte, Auguste]
philosopher/sociologist
Paris, France
1830 to 1854
Course of Positive Philosophy [1842]; System of Positive Polity [1851 to 1854]
He lived 1798 to 1857 and founded sociology. He invented theories of social order and societal progress.
Epistemology
Phenomena have verifiable procedures {positivism, Comte}. Sciences have methods and principles. Scientific
knowledge is finding principles in life's activities. Scientific laws are descriptions for predictions. Positivism depends
on empiricism. Sciences move through stages until phenomena have verifiable procedures. Sciences form a hierarchy,
with ethics at top.
Ethics
Altruism is the best ethic, is the religion of humanity, and depends on science.
Politics
Societies develop progressively through medieval theological stage, metaphysical or deist stage, and positivist stages.
Society depends on social impulses, not self-interest {catechism of positivism}.
Hector Berlioz [Berlioz, Hector]
composer
France
1830 to 1858
Symphonie Fantastique [1830]; Harold en Italie [1834: opera]; Requiem or Grand Messe des Morts or Grand Mass of
Death [1837: mass]; Benvenuto Cellini [1838: opera]; Romeo et Juliette [1839: opera]; Damnation of Faust [1846:
opera, including Rakoczy March]; Trojans [1858: opera]
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. [Holmes Sr., Oliver Wendell]
essayist/poet
USA
1830 to 1858
Old Ironsides [1830: poem]; Autocrat of the Breakfast Table [1858: essay]; Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful
One-Hoss Shay [1858: poem]; Chambered Nautilus [1858: poem]
Michael Thonet [Thonet, Michael]
designer
Vienna, Austria
1830 to 1860
Bentwood
Victor Hugo [Hugo, Victor]
novelist
France
1830 to 1866
Hernani [1830]; Hunchback of Notre Dame [1831]; La Legends des Siècles or Legends of the Centuries [1859 to 1883:
stories]; Les Misérables or Poor People or Unfortunates [1862]; Toilers of the Sea [1866]
Louis Philippe or Citizen King
king
France
1830.07 to 1848.02
He lived 1773 to 1850. As Duke of Orleans, Lafayette helped him and he replaced Charles X in July Revolution
[1830]. He allowed business freedom and Algeria colonization. His reactionary cabinet and slight electoral reforms led
to February Revolution [1848].
Michael Faraday [Faraday, Michael]
chemist/physicist
England
1831
He lived 1791 to 1867 and invented Faraday's electrolysis laws [1831] and studied magnetic induction and
diamagnetism.
Michal Oginski [Oginski, Michal]
composer
Poland
1831
Polonaise in A minor or Farewell to the Homeland or Les Adieux or Polonaise tres favorite [1831]
Thomas Love Peacock [Peacock, Thomas Love]
novelist
England
1831
Crotchet Castle [1831: satire]
George Catlin [Catlin, George]
painter
USA
1831 to 1832
White Cloud [1832]
He lived 1796 to 1872 and painted Native Americans.
Vincenzo Bellini [Bellini, Vincenzo]
composer
Italy
1831 to 1835
Norma [1831: opera]; I Puritani or The Puritans [1835: opera]
Stendhal or Henri Beyle [Beyle, Henri]
novelist
France
1831 to 1839
Red and the Black [1831]; Charterhouse of Parma [1839]
Jean Coralli [Coralli, Jean]
choreographer
France
1831 to 1843
La Peri [1843: music by Norbert Burgmuller]
Robert Schumann [Schumann, Robert]
composer
Germany
1831 to 1848
Papillons [1831]; Carnaval [1835]; Marches des "Davidsbündler" contre les Phillistins or March of the "League of
David" against the Philistines [1838 and 1850]; Kinderszenen or Scenes from Childhood [1838]; Kreisleriana [1838];
Träumerei or Dreaming [1838]; Fourth Symphony in D Minor [1841]; Spring Symphony [1841]; Piano Concerto in A
Minor [1845]; Rhenish Symphony or 3rd Symphony [1850]; Merry Peasant [1848]
Edgar Allen Poe [Poe, Edgar Allen]
storyteller/poet
USA
1831 to 1849
To Helen [1831: poem]; Israfel [1831: poem]; Fall of the House of Usher [1839: story]; Descent into the Maelstrom
[1841: story]; Murders in the Rue Morgue [1841: story]; Pit and the Pendulum [1842: story]; Raven [1845: poem];
Cask of Amontillado [1846: story]; Ulalume [1847: poem]; Annabel Lee [1849: poem]; Bells [1849: poem]; El Dorado
[1849: poem]
William Lloyd Garrison [Garrison, William Lloyd]
editor
USA
1831 to 1861
He lived 1838 to 1909. Abolitionist opposed violence and Civil War [1861].
Leopold I
king
Belgium
1831 to 1865
He lived 1790 to 1865. Belgium became independent of Holland [1830].
Pedro II
king
Brazil
1831 to 1889
He lived 1825 to 1889 and became king after his father, Pedro I, abdicated. He later fought Argentina and Paraguay.
Cyrus McCormick [McCormick, Cyrus]
inventor
USA
1831 to 1938
reaper for wheat harvesting [1831]; combine for grain harvesting [1838]
John Austin [Austin, John]
lawyer
London, England
1832
Province of Jurisprudence Determined [1832]
He lived 1790 to 1859 and founded science of law in England. Laws are sovereign's commands, with threat of
punishment. Subjects must obey. Permission from sovereign or obligation cancellation grants rights.
Karl von Clausewitz [Clausewitz, Karl von]
general
Prussia
1832
On War [1832]
He lived 1780 to 1831 and advocated total war.
Joseph Henry [Henry, Joseph]
physicist
USA
1832
He lived 1797 to 1878 and induced current magnetically and studied self-inductance [1832].
Filippo Taglioni [Taglioni, Philippe]
choreographer
France
1832
La Sylphide [1832: music by Jean Schneithöffer, for Marie Taglioni]
Charles Wheatstone [Wheatstone, Charles]
physicist/inventor
England
1832
stereoscope [1832]
He lived 1802 to 1875. Corresponding eye image points have greater separation for near objects than for distant ones
{stereoscope, Wheatstone}.
Gaetano Donizetti [Donizetti, Gaetano]
composer
Italy
1832 to 1842
Elixir of Love or L'elisir d'amore [1832: opera]; Lucia di Lammermoor [1835: opera]; Daughter of the Regiment [1840:
opera]; Don Pasquale [1842: opera]
Fanny Cerrito [Cerrito, Fanny]
ballerina
Italy
1832 to 1845
Pas de Quatre [1845: with Carlotta Grisi, Marie Taglioni, Lucille Grahn, and Fanny Cerrito]
Marie Taglioni [Taglioni, Marie]
ballerina
Italy
1832 to 1845
John C. Calhoun [Calhoun, John C.]
lawyer/senator/vice-president
South Carolina
1832 to 1850
On the Clay Compromise Measures [1850]
He lived 1782 to 1850 and believed in balanced powers and states' rights. In a tariff case {tariff of abominations}, he
supported state right to declare federal law unconstitutional {nullification, Calhoun}. Vice-president and senator
championed states' rights of veto and secession.
Alexandre Dumas (père) [Dumas (père), Alexandre]
novelist
France
1832 to 1850
La Tour de Nesle or Tower of Nesle [1832]; Count of Monte Cristo [1844]; Three Musketeers [1844]; Man in the Iron
Mask [1850]
George Sand [Sand, George] or Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin [Dupin, Amandine Aurore Lucie]
novelist
France
1832 to 1864
Indiana [1832]; Un hiver à Majorque or Winter in Majorca [1838: essay]; Haunted Pool [1846]; Fanchon the Cricket
[1864]
John Greenleaf Whittier [Whittier, John Greenleaf]
poet
USA
1832 to 1867
Moll Pitcher [1832]; Barefoot Boy [1855]; Skipper Ireson's Ride [1857]; Barbara Fritchie or Barbara Frietchie [1863];
Laus Deo or Praise to God [1863]; Snowbound [1866]; Maud Miller [1867]; Saddest Words [1867: in Maud Muller]
Charles Lyell [Lyell, Charles]
geologist
England
1833
Principles of Geology [1833]
He lived 1797 to 1875. Wind, water, pressure, and heat forces can make mountains, riverbeds, coastlines, and other
land shapes. Events observed in present explain events in past. World always has same laws {uniformitarianism}.
Jordan Mott [Mott, Jordan]
inventor
England
1833
coal stove [1833]
He lived 1768 to 1840 {coal stove}.
William Augustus Taylor [Taylor, William Augustus]
inventor
England
1833
balloon frame for house using 2x4 boards and nails [1833]
He lived 1818 to 1886 {balloon frame for house}.
Joseph Story [Story, Joseph]
lawyer
1833 to 1834
Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States [1833]; Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws [1834]
He lived 1779 to 1845 and wrote about bailments [1832], equity jurisprudence [1835 to 1836], equity pleadings [1838],
agency [1839], partnership [1841], bills of exchange [1843], and promissory notes [1845].
François Rude [Rude, François]
sculptor
Paris, France
1833 to 1836
La Marseillaise or Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 [1833 to 1836: on Arc de Triomphe]
Alfred de Musset [Musset, Alfred de]
playwright
France
1833 to 1837
Moods of Marianne [1833]; Fantasio [1834]; Don't Play with Love [1834]; Lorenzaccio [1834]; Caprice [1837]
Johannes Peter Müller [Müller, Johannes Peter]
physiologist/anatomist
Berlin, Germany
1833 to 1840
Handbook of Physiology [1833 to 1840]
He lived 1801 to 1858 and founded modern physiology. Sensation type depends on stimulated neurons, not on what
stimulates them {doctrine of specific nerve energies, Muller}.
Antonio Santa Anna [Santa Anna, Antonio]
president
Mexico
1833 to 1855
He lived 1794 to 1876, failed to end revolution in Texas, defeated France, and failed in Mexican War. Juarez exiled
him.
Hiroshige or Ando Hiroshige [Hiroshige, Ando] or Utagawa Hiroshige [Hiroshige, Utagawa] or Ichiyusai
Hiroshige [Hiroshige, Ichiyusai]
printmaker
Japan
1833 to 1857
Pheasant on a Snowy Hillside [1845]
He lived 1797 to 1858 and was of Ukiyo-e School of printmaking.
Otto I
king
Greece
1833 to 1862
He lived 1815 to 1867 and was from Bavaria.
Daniel Dunglas Home [Home, Daniel Dunglas]
spiritualist medium
Britain
1833 to 1886
Incidents of My Life [1863 to 1872]
Alfred, Lord Tennyson [Tennyson, Alfred, Lord]
poet
England
1833 to 1889
In Memoriam A.H.H. [1833: including Ring Out, Wild Bells]; Ulysses [1833]; Break, Break, Break [1842]; Lady of
Shallot [1843]; Eagle [1850]; Sweet and Low [1855]; Idylls of the King [1859]; Flower in the Crannied Wall [1868];
Charge of the Light Brigade [1880]; Locksley Hall [1886]; Crossing the Bar [1889]
Edward Bulwer-Lytton [Bulwer-Lytton, Edward]
novelist
England
1834
Last Days of Pompeii [1834]
Heinrich Lenz [Lenz, Heinrich]
physicist
Germany
1834
He lived 1804 to 1865 and invented Lenz's law [1834].
Jean-Jacques Pradier [Pradier, Jean-Jacques] or James Pradier [Pradier, James]
sculptor
France
1834
Satyr and Bacchante [1834: Rococo clay figures]
Georg Büchner [Büchner, Georg]
playwright
Germany
1834 to 1835
Woyzeck [1834]; Lenz [1835]
Theophile Gautier [Gautier, Theophile]
poet
France
1834 to 1838
Mademoiselle de Maupin [1834]; d'Une Nuit de Cléopâtre or One Night with Cleopatra [1838]
He lived 1811 to 1872 and was in Aesthetic Movement.
Horace Greeley [Greeley, Horace]
journalist
New York, New York
1834 to 1841
New Yorker [1834]; Log Cabin [1840]; New York Tribune [1841]
He lived 1811 to 1872 and founded new York Tribune, which advocated high tariffs, social reforms, peace, and
amnesty for the South. He later helped form the Liberal Republican Party, against Grant, for civil service reform and
just reconstruction. Greeley said, "Go west, young man".
Maria II
queen
Portugal
1834 to 1853
She lived 1819 to 1853 and defeated Miguel in Miguelist Wars.
Charles Jefferys [Jefferys, Charles]/Sidney Nelson [Nelson, Sidney]
composer
Ireland
1835
Rose of Allandale [1881]
Jeffreys lived 1807 to 1865. Nelson lived 1800 to 1862.
James J. Morier [Morier, James J.]
novelist
England
1835
Hajji Baba or Adventures of Hajji Baba of Isfahan [1835: stories]
Alexis de Tocqueville [Tocqueville, Alexis de]
historian
Paris, France/USA
1835
Democracy in America [1835]
Fanny Essler [Essler, Fanny]
ballerina
France
1835 to 1837
John James Audubon [Audubon, John James]
painter
USA
1835 to 1840
bird paintings [1835 to 1840]
He lived 1785 to 1851 and painted birds.
Samuel Morse [Morse, Samuel]
inventor
USA
1835 to 1840
telegraph [1835 to 1837]; Morse code [1840]
Angel Rivas [Rivas, Angel] or Angel de Saavedra, Duque de Rivas [Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, Duque de]
writer
Spain
1835 to 1841
Don Álvaro or La fuerza del sino or Don Alvaro or Power of Destiny [1835]; Romances históricos or Historical
Romances [1841]
Hans Christian Andersen [Andersen, Hans Christian]
storyteller/writer
Denmark
1835 to 1845
Thumbelina [1835: story]; Princess and the Pea [1835: story]; Little Mermaid [1836: story]; Emperor's New Clothes
[1837: story]; Steadfast Tin Soldier [1838: story]; Ugly Duckling [1844: story]; Red Shoes [1845: story]; Snow Queen
[1845: story]
He lived 1805 to 1875 and wrote fairy tales.
Honoré de Balzac [Balzac, Honoré de]
novelist
France
1835 to 1847
Eugenie Grandet [1833]; Le Père Goriot or Father Goriot [1835]; La Cousin Bette or Cousin Betty [1846]; Le Cousin
Pons or Cousin Pons [1847]
He lived 1799 to 1850 and wrote the Human Comedy series.
Mohammad Shah
shah
Persia
1835 to 1848
He lived 1810 to 1848 and was Qajar.
Ferdinand
emperor
Austria
1835 to 1848.12
He lived 1793 to 1875 and abdicated to Francis Joseph I, who soon gained absolute power. Metternich was Council of
State leader but resigned.
August Welby Northmore Pugin [Pugin, August Welby Northmore]
sculptor
London, England
1835 to 1852
Houses of Parliament furnishings [1835 to 1852]
Robert Browning [Browning, Robert]
poet
England
1835 to 1864
Pippa's Song [1835: in Paracelsus]; My Last Duchess [1842]; Incident of the French Camp [1842]; Home-Thoughts
from Abroad [1845]; Love among the Ruins [1852]; Grow Old Along with Me [1864]; Prospice [1864]
Justus von Liebig [Liebig, Justus von]
biologist
Munich, Germany
1835 to 1865
Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology [1840]; Organic Chemistry in its Application to
Physiology and Pathology [1842]
He lived 1803 to 1873 and described enzyme action chemically {law of the minimum}. He observed that plants use
nitrogen and carbon dioxide from air. He invented nitrogen fertilizer. He invented {Liebig condenser}. He silvered
mirrors [1835]. He invented beef extract [1865].
Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet [Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques]
statistician/astronomer
Brussels, Belgium
1835 to 1871
On Man [1835]; Anthropometry [1871]
He lived 1796 to 1874 and developed social and human statistics.
Stephen Austin [Austin, Stephen]
leader
Texas
1836
He lived 1793 to 1836. Texas formed Republic of Texas and revolted against Mexico but lost.
Thomas Cole [Cole, Thomas]
painter
England/USA
1836 to 1842
Course of Empire series [1836]; Notch in the White Mountains [1839: in the White Mountains series]; Voyage of Life
series [1842]
He lived 1801 to 1848 and founded Hudson River School of nature painting.
Mikhail Glinka [Glinka, Mikhail]
composer
Russia
1836 to 1842
Life for the Tsar [1836: opera]; Russlan and Ludmilla [1842: opera]
Nikolai Gogol [Gogol, Nikolai]
novelist/playwright/essayist
Russia
1836 to 1842
Inspector-General [1836: play]; Dead Souls [1842: novel]; Shinel or The Overcoat [1842: story]
Lucille Grahn [Grahn, Lucille]
ballerina
USA
1836 to 1845
She lived 1819 to 1907. The Danish ballet dismissed her [1841].
August Bourneville [Bourneville, August] or August Bournonville [Bournonville, August]
choreographer/ballet dancer
France/Denmark
1836 to 1849
La Sylphide [1836: music by Løvenskjold]; Napoli [1842: music by E. Halstead, Gade, and Paulli]; Le Conservatoire
[1849: including The Dancing School, music by H. S. Paulli]
William H. McGuffey [McGuffey, William H.]
editor
USA
1836 to 1857
McGuffey Eclectic Reader [1836 and 1857: collection]
Franz Liszt [Liszt, Franz]
composer
Hungary
1836 to 1860
Années de Pelerinage or Years of Pilgrimage [1836: tone poems]; Hungarian Rhapsodies [1846 to 1860]; Hungarian
Rhapsody No. 1 [1846: symphony]; Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 [1847: symphony]; Liebestraum No. 3 in A flat or
Love Dream No. 3 in A flat [1847]; Concerto No. 1 in E Flat [1849]; Hungarian Rhapsody No. 3 [1853: symphony];
Les Préludes [1854: tone poem]; Dante Symphony [1856]; Faust Symphony [1857]; Hungarian Rhapsody No. 4 [1857:
symphony]; Hungarian Rhapsody No. 5 [1860: symphony]
He lived 1811 to 1886 and composed symphonies and tone poems.
Sam Houston [Houston, Sam]
president
Texas
1836 to 1861
He lived 1793 to 1863, was president of Texas Republic [1836 to 1844], and was governor of State of Texas afterward.
As governor of Texas, he refused to secede from Union. Other leaders removed him from office [1861].
Roger B. Taney [Taney, Roger B.]
chief justice
USA
1836 to 1864
He lived 1777 to 1864 and became USA Supreme Court Chief Justice [1836 to 1864].
Joseph Plateau [Plateau, Joseph]
mathematician
Paris, France
1836 to 1883
Experimental and Theoretical Statics of Liquids under only Molecular Forces [1873]; stroboscope [1836]
He lived 1801 to 1883 and invented Plateau's problem.
Thomas Carlyle [Carlyle, Thomas]
historian
London, England
1837
French Revolution [1837]
He lived 1795 to 1881. Heroes make history {great man theory}, not social forces.
Louis J. M. Daguerre [Daguerre, Louis J. M.]
France
1837
He lived 1787 to 1851 and invented daguerreotype.
John Deere [Deere, John]
inventor
USA
1837
steel plow [1837]
He lived 1804 to 1886 {steel plow}.
Horace Mann [Mann, Horace]
educator
Massachusetts
1837
Isaac Pitman [Pitman, Isaac]
inventor
England
1837
phonographic shorthand [1837]
He lived 1813 to 1897 {phonographic shorthand}.
Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin]
president
USA
1837 to 1841
He lived 1782 to 1862. Eighth president was follower of Jackson, but Panic of 1837 caused his unpopularity. He
advocated Treasury system independent of banks.
William Whewell [Whewell, William]
philosopher
England
1837 to 1847
History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest to the Present Time [1837]; Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
Founded upon their History [1840 and 1847]
He lived 1794 to 1866. People make hypotheses and then check them by observation. These are two different
processes. Two inductions can lead to same cause, or two testimonies or experiments can state same fact {consilience,
Whewell}.
Bernard Bolzano [Bolzano, Bernard]
mathematician
Bohemia
1837 to 1850
Scientific Theory [1837]; Paradoxes of Infinity [1850]
He lived 1781 to 1848 and studied continuity and set theory. Real numbers in closed intervals can be in one-to-one
correspondence with real numbers in other closed intervals. Infinite sequences in closed intervals have limits {BolzanoWeierstrass theorem}. Truths can be a priori. Logic is about ideals, not about time or space.
Nathaniel Hawthorne [Hawthorne, Nathaniel]
novelist
USA
1837 to 1851
Twice Told Tales [1837]; Scarlet Letter [1850]; House of the Seven Gables [1851]
Ferdinand II
king
Portugal
1837 to 1853
He lived 1816 to 1885 married Maria II [1836].
Charles Dickens [Dickens, Charles]
novelist
England
1837 to 1861
Pickwick Papers [1837]; Oliver Twist [1837]; Nicholas Nickleby [1839]; David Copperfield [1850]; Christmas Carol
[1859]; Tale of Two Cities [1859]; Great Expectations [1861]
Victoria
queen
England
1837 to 1901
She lived 1819 to 1901 and was Hanover. Lord Melbourne and Palmerston were Prime Ministers in first half of her
reign, before her husband Prince Albert died. Disraeli and Gladstone were Prime Ministers during last half of her reign.
Her children married to ally with most of Europe. She had diamond jubilee [1897]. Her reign is Victorian Era.
Leigh Hunt [Hunt, Leigh]
poet
USA
1838
Abou Ben Adhem [1838]; Jenny Kiss'd Me [1838]
Isaac Ray [Ray, Isaac]
lawyer
USA
1838
Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity [1838]
He lived 1807 to 1881 and developed Doe-Ray insanity tests. Insanity is a fact for juries to decide.
Matthias J. Schleiden [Schleiden, Matthias J.]
anatomist
Jena, Germany
1838
Contributions to Phytogenesis [1838]
He lived 1804 to 1881 and invented plant cell theory. Cells are life units.
Theodor Schwann [Schwann, Theodor]
anatomist
Berlin, Germany
1838
Microscopic Research of the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants [1838]
He lived 1810 to 1882 and invented animal cell theory. Cells are life units.
John Lort Stokes [Stokes, John Lort]
discoverer
England/Australia/Tasmania
1838 to 1842
He lived 1812 to 1885. From England, he went to Tasmania, Gulf of Carpentaria, Adelaide, and Port Darwin.
Vincenzo Gioberti [Gioberti, Vincenzo]
philosopher
Italy
1838 to 1847
Theory of Natural Sovereignty [1838]; Introduction to the Study of Philosophy [1839 to 1840]; Moral and Civil
Principles of Italians [1843]; Modern Jesuit [1847]
He lived 1801 to 1852, was of Ontologism, and was premier of Sardinia-Piedmont [1848 to 1849].
Thomas H. Burgess [Burgess, Thomas H.]
biologist
England
1839
Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing [1839]
Experiment cannot induce blushing physically. Experiment can induce blushing only mentally. Trying to restrain
blushing only increases it.
Michel E. Chevreul [Chevreul, Michel E.]
psychologist
Paris, France
1839
On the law of simultaneous contrast of colors [1839]
He lived 1786 to 1889 and invented Chevreul's array of progressively darker gray strips, which showed edgeenhancement effects.
John Benjamin Dancer [Dancer, John Benjamin]
inventor
England
1839
microfilm [1839]
He lived 1812 to 1889 and invented microfilm.
William Henry Fox Talbot [Talbot, William Henry Fox]
USA
1839
He lived 1800 to 1877 and invented calotype.
Charles Barry [Barry, Charles]
architect
London, England
1839 to 1859
Houses of Parliament or Palace of Westminster [1839]; Big Ben [1859: Gothic clock]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow [Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth]
poet
USA
1839 to 1863
Psalm of Life [1839]; Wreck of the Hesperus [1841]; Village Blacksmith [1841]; Day Is Done [1845]; Evangeline
[1847]; Courtship of Miles Standish [1859]; Children's Hour [1860: poems]; Paul Revere's Ride [1861]; Excelsior
[1862]; Song of Hiawatha [1863: including Hiawatha's Departure]
Isabella
queen
Spain
1839 to 1868
She lived 1830 to 1904 and became queen at end of Carlist War [1839]. Carlists had revolted because her father
Ferdinand VII did not follow Salid Law of succession, which allowed male heirs only, but Carlists under Don Carlos
lost. She abdicated [1868].
Richard Henry Dana [Dana, Richard Henry]
novelist
USA
1840
Two Years before the Mast [1840]
Germain Henri Hess [Hess, Germain Henri]
chemist
Switzerland/Russia
1840
He lived 1802 to 1850 and noted enthalpy changes [1840].
Mikhail Lermontov [Lermontov, Mikhail]
poet/novelist
Russia
1840
Hero of Our Time [1840]; Poems [1840]
Pierre Joseph Proudhon [Proudhon, Pierre Joseph]
essayist
France
1840
What Is Property? [1840: essay]
He lived 1809 to 1865 and was anarchist. Property is theft. People are equal. Living and working in small communities
or cooperatives is best. For justice and equality, small farmers, integrated through contracts, are better than large
landowners.
Qa'ani or Mirza Habib Gha'ani Shirazi [Shirazi, Mirza Habib Gha'ani]
poet
Persia
1840
Elegy [1840]
Christoph Gudermann [Gudermann, Christoph]
mathematician
Munster, Germany
1840 to 1841
He lived 1798 to 1852 and worked with elliptic functions [1840 to 1841]. Elliptic functions are sums of converging
power terms.
William II
king
Netherlands
1840 to 1849
Louis Agassiz [Agassiz, Louis]
biologist
Neuchâtel, Switzerland/USA
1840 to 1851
Study of Glaciers [1840]; Essay on Classification [1851]
He lived 1807 to 1873. Species form hierarchies, with form laws {taxonomy, Agassiz}.
Gabriel Lamé [Lamé, Gabriel]
mathematician
Paris, France
1840 to 1859
Lessons on curvilinear coordinates and their diverse applications [1859]
He lived 1795 to 1870 and studied curvilinear coordinates [1840] and invented Lamé's differential equation.
Fernan Caballero [Caballero, Fernan] or Cecilia Bohl de Faber [Faber, Cecilia Bohl de]
writer
Spain
1840 to 1860
La Oreja de Lucifer y Otros Cuentos del Demonio or The Ear of Lucifer and Other Tales of the Devil [1840 to 1860:
stories]
Frederick William IV
king
Prussia
1840 to 1861
He lived 1795 to 1861 and put down 1848 Revolution. Treaty of Olmutz [1850] blocked his plan for German Union
with Austria by forming German Confederation, with Austria as leader.
Karl Rozenkranz [Rozenkranz, Karl]
philosopher
Germany
1840 to 1879
He lived 1805 to 1879 and was Hegelian.
William Henry Harrison [Harrison, William Henry]
president
USA
1841
He lived 1773 to 1841. Ninth president died soon.
Frederick Oakley [Oakley, Frederick]/John Reading [Reading, John]
composer
Germany
1841
Come, All Ye Faithful or Adeste Fidelis [1841: music is Portuguese Hymn]
Reading lived 1677 to 1764.
James Braid [Braid, James]
physician/surgeon
Britain
1841 to 1843
Neurypnology [1843]
He lived 1795 to 1860 and studied how to induce hypnosis.
John Tyler [Tyler, John]
president
USA
1841 to 1845
He lived 1790 to 1862. Tenth president became president when Harrison died. He was Whig but vetoed Whig bank
acts. He annexed Texas.
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard [Kierkegaard, Søren Aabye]
philosopher
Copenhagen, Denmark
1841 to 1849
On the Concept of Irony [1841]; Either/Or [1843]; Fear and Trembling [1843]; Philosophical Fragments [1844];
Concept of Anxiety [1844]; Stages on Life's Way [1845]; Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical
Fragments [1846]; Sickness unto Death [1849]
He lived 1813 to 1855, was Christian, and founded existentialism. He criticized Hegel's absolute consciousness, which
left out subjectivity and personality in favor of rationalism.
Epistemology
Truth is in self. Subjectivity gives truth.
Religion knows truth first by revelation and personal feeling {Religiousness A} and then by history and the eternal
{Religiousness B}.
Ethics
People should do good deeds for spiritual satisfaction alone, not to reach goal, gain reward, or avoid punishment
{double-mindedness}.
To act ethically, people cannot use objective standards, because choices are personal. People must develop self or
essence through ethics. Self makes choice and commits to idea or action.
People have sense of anxiety, dread, or anguish about having no control and facing life's vicissitudes {angst,
Kierkegaard}. People can try to avoid spiritual satisfaction {despair, Kierkegaard}, by denying God, by not thinking
about it, by trying to be someone else, or by suicide. Despair can lead to rejecting pleasurable life and discovering self.
People need faith, the opposite of despair or doubt, to avoid despair and suffering.
Mind
People's use of will to make choices with meaning and passion gives them self-interest and structure. People develop
themselves over life. People have essences, which try to come into existence and thus pass through three life stages:
aesthetic, ethical, and religious. Societies or political groups do not define people.
Sarah F. Adams [Adams, Sarah F.]/Lowell Mason [Mason, Lowell]
lyricist/composer
USA
1841 to 1858
Nearer, My God, to Thee [1841: music is Bethany, 1858]
Adams lived 1805 to 1848. Mason lived 1792 to 1872.
Jules Perrot [Perrot, Jules]
choreographer
St. Petersburg, Russia/France
1841 to 1858
Giselle [1841: created with Jean Coralli]; Pas de Quatre [1845: music by Cesare Pugni, for Taglioni, Cerrito, Grahn,
and Grisi]; Le Corsaire [1858]
He lived 1810 to 1882 and choreographed and danced at Imperial Theater.
Julius Robert von Mayer [Mayer, Julius Robert von]
chemist
Germany
1841 to 1867
He lived 1814 to 1878, studied energy conservation [1841], and showed that living things use chemical processes for
heat and power [1845]. Energy conservation is the only form in which axiom of causality is true.
David Livingstone [Livingstone, David]
discoverer
Scotland/Africa/Tanzania
1841 to 1873
He lived 1813 to 1873 and explored south Africa [1841], crossed Kalahari Desert, explored Zambesi River, reached
Luanda on Atlantic [1854], searched for source of Nile [1866], got to Lake Tanganyika, saw Victoria Falls, and went
down upper Congo. USA journalist Henry Stanley found him [1871] and said, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume." He died in
Africa.
Christian Doppler [Doppler, Christian]
physicist
Austria
1842
He lived 1803 to 1853 and discovered Doppler effect [1842].
Thomas Macaulay [Macaulay, Thomas]
poet
England
1842
Lays of Ancient Rome [1842: poem]
Carlo Matteucci [Matteucci, Carlo]
physiologist
Italy
1842
On a physiological phenomenon produced by contracting muscles [1842]
He lived 1811 to 1868. Muscle cells have electric current [1842].
James Clark Ross [Ross, James Clark]
discoverer
England/Antarctica/Arctic
1842
Johan Wilhelm Snellman [Snellman, Johan Wilhelm]
statesman
Finland
1842 to 1845
He lived 1806 to 1881 and was leader and Hegelian philosopher.
Giuseppe Verdi [Verdi, Giuseppe]
composer
Italy
1842 to 1896
Nabucco [1842]; Rigoletto [1851: opera]; Il Trovatore or The Troubadour [1853: opera]; La Traviata or The Woman
Who Strayed [1854: opera]; Masked Ball or Un Ballo in Maschera [1859: opera]; La Forza del Destino or Force of
Destiny [1862: opera]; Aida [1871: opera]; Requiem [1874: mass]; Othello [1887: opera]; Falstaff [1893: opera]; Stabat
Mater or The Mother Was Standing [1896: mass]
Bruno Bauer [Bauer, Bruno]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1843
Christianity Exposed [1843]
He lived 1809 to 1882 and was of Hegelian left wing.
Ada Lovelace [Lovelace, Ada] or Augusta Byron [Byron, Augusta]
mathematician
London, England
1843
Notes on the Analytical Engine [1843: notes about general purpose computers added to her translation of French
memoir on Babbage's Analytical Engine]
She lived 1815 to 1852. Calculating machines cannot be creative, but only do what program indicates {Lady Lovelace's
objection}.
Henri Labrouste [Labrouste, Henri]
architect
Paris, France
1843 to 1851
Bibliothèque Sainte Genevieve or Sainte Genevieve Library [1843 to 1851: Cast iron building]
Daniel Decatur Emmett [Emmett, Daniel Decatur]
composer
USA
1843 to 1859
Old Man Tucker [1843]; Blue Tail Fly or Jimmy Crack Corn [1846]; Dixie [1859]; Black Brigade [1863]
Karl Marx [Marx, Karl]
philosopher
Germany/Paris, France/London, England
1843 to 1867
On the Jewish Question [1843]; Toward the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right: Introduction [1843]; Holy Family:
Or a Critique of All Critiques [1844]; Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts [1844]; Theses on Feuerbach [1845];
German Ideology [1846: with Friedrich Engels]; Poverty of Philosophy [1847]; Communist Manifesto [1848: with
Friedrich Engels]; Class Struggles in France [1850]; Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte [1852]; Outlines of the
Critique of Political Economy [1858]; Contribution to a Critique of Political Economy [1859]; Theories of Surplus
Value [1863]; Wages, Prices and Profit [1865]; Capital [1867: Engels edited second and third volumes of 1884 and
1893]
He lived 1818 to 1883, was Feuerbach's and Bauer's student, and was Young Hegelian. He wanted to merge
Hegelianism with Enlightenment materialism. He began working with Engels [1844] and helped found Communist
League with Engels [1848]. He helped found First International Workingmen's Association [1864].
Economics
One person or group cannot affect market, though people create markets.
Market and capitalists {bourgeoisie} exploit workers {proletariat}. Capitalism and markets always tends to form
monopolies and create injustice. They take away freedom, prevent constructive social activity, cause competition, block
cooperation, and take labor products away from laborer to anonymous place. Bourgeoisie create new production forces.
Those forces control proletariat.
First basic production mode {feudalism, Marx} had landowners in control. Second mode {capitalism, Marx} had
industrialists in control. Third and final mode {socialism, Marx} will have wage earners in control.
Capitalism and private property are about profit making, not about people. Employers increase their profits by adding
capital, decreasing labor, and merging, to control the market and bankrupt other smaller businesses. More people
become unemployed and wages fall, which can lead to revolution.
Production level greater than wage level {surplus value} causes profit.
However, if surplus value theory is true, labor-intensive industries should have higher profits, but they do not. Actually,
different industry types have about equal profit.
To maximize profit, businesses try to keep wages low and employ few workers. Profit minimizes employment, and
workers are poor.
Economic system must change to allow human meaning and freedom, by removing social classes and allowing people
to produce under their will, under rule of proletariat {dictatorship of the proletariat}.
Only labor, not land or capital, has value {labor theory of value}. Capital and resources are indirect labor. Because
capitalistic systems discount labor, they make too much capital {overproduction}, have overproduction, and have
unsold goods, and economy has business cycles.
Epistemology
Social and economic relations {culture base} {base, culture}, particularly production ability, determine society's
beliefs, arts, laws, politics, government, institutions, morals, and religions {superstructure}. The superstructure and
social ideas {ideology, society} favor and are for society's ruling class.
Perception is interaction between subject and object, using the dialectic. The process can never be complete. To know
sensations and perceptions, you must use or apply them.
Because people and knowledge change over time as situations change, values change.
Ethics
Inhuman social and economic conditions cause alienation. Culture, religiosity, and materialism suppress expression of
spirit. Inhuman social and economic conditions also block people from getting basic needs. People cannot be free to
exercise their will or realize their essence. Life has no meaning.
Religion is an opiate and an illusion.
History
History is dialectical materialism applied to matter and man's relation to matter, which results in good production-mode
changes. Production modes determine philosophy, art, politics, and history.
History is deterministic.
The five history epochs are tribal communism, classical civilization, feudalism, capitalism, and communism. Epochs
have spirits, which determine people's actions, ideas, and environment. At historical periods, one class, such as
feudalism nobility or capitalism petty-bourgeoisie, dominates, because they optimize production.
Politics
Group creates state to allow one class to exploit another. Government is state's agent in this process. Dominant class
achieves and then maintains power.
However, the dialectic always maintains struggle between classes. Capitalism injustices lead to revolt of the masses.
Overcoming capitalist power requires revolution. After capitalist-system breakdown, proletariat will collectively
establish goals and produce accordingly. Dictatorship of proletariat is transition to state control of land and production
{communism, Marx}, which is the only alternative to capitalism.
John Stuart Mill [Mill, John Stuart]
philosopher/economist
Scotland/Britain
1843 to 1873
System of Logic [1843]; Principles of Political Economy [1848]; Essay On Liberty [1859]; Considerations on
Representative Government [1861]; Utilitarianism [1861]; Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy [1865];
Auguste Comte and Positivism [1866]; Subjection of Women [1869]; Autobiography [1873]
He lived 1806 to 1873, was James Mill's son, and was utilitarian, empiricist, and associationist. He tried to meld the
Enlightenment with romanticism.
Epistemology
Knowledge, including mathematics and logic, comes only from experience. People can know matter and objects only
as sensation loci.
Reasoning is induction or generalization {inductivism}. Reasoning can be good, middling, or poor.
Science laws can result from adding similar components {homopathic law} to obtain similar results. Science laws can
result from multiplying dissimilar components {heteropathic law} to obtain new properties.
Eliminating objects and events that have no effect can find true causes {Mill's methods}, by agreement, difference,
joint-agreement-and-difference, residues, or concomitant-variations methods.
Language feature, word, or phrase has connotation and denotation. Connotation is meaning and gives denotation.
Proper names do not have connotation, because they have no wider meaning and no defining attributes.
Associations can be real and actual or apparent and verbal ones.
Consciousness is only perception associations. It does not need intuition or subjective faculty.
Ethics
People seek only happiness. Other goals, such as virtue, are part of happiness or means to happiness.
The happiness of the greatest number is the best. Happiness requires liberty and free will. Wrong actions or things
cause less happiness.
Pleasures have qualitative differences. People must account for pleasure quality, as well as quantity.
Human nature is free and individual.
Mind
Mind can have experiences, memories, and hopes or desires, experienced by self.
Other humans seem to have consciousness, but how can mind know that there are other minds {Other, Mill}.
Politics
Society should provide the basic conditions for happiness. Society can nurture human nature.
Government can coerce individuals only to prevent harm to others {harm principle}.
Society must protect people's possessions. One possession is justice.
Hermann Ulrici [Ulrici, Hermann]
philosopher
Halle, Germany
1843 to 1875
Principle and Method of Hegelian Philosophy [1843]; God and Nature [1875]
He lived 1806 to 1884 and was Theist.
Richard Wagner [Wagner, Richard]
composer
Germany
1843 to 1882
Flying Dutchman [1843: opera]; Tannhäuser [1845: opera, including Arrival of the Guests at Wartburg]; Lohengrin
[1850: opera, including Wedding March or Bridal Chorus]; Tristan und Isolde [1865: tone poem]; Die Meistersinger
von Nurnberg [1868: opera]; Der ring der Nibelungen or Ring of the Nibelung [1869 to 1874: operas]; Das Rheingold
or Rhine Gold [1869: Ring first part]; Die Walkure or Valkyries [1870: Ring second part]; Siegfried [1876: Ring third
part]; Die Götterdämmerung or Twilight of the Gods [1877: Ring fourth part includes Death of Siegfried]; Parsifal
[1882: opera]
He lived 1813 to 1883. Operas had leitmotifs and chromaticism, with continuous melody, no melodic or poetic
repetitions, and no separate arias or recitativas.
Charles Goodyear [Goodyear, Charles]
inventor
USA
1844
rubber vulcanization [1844]
He lived 1800 to 1860 {rubber vulcanization}. He did not found or run Goodyear Rubber Company. Mesoamericans
vulcanized rubber [-1600].
Shaykh Ahmad-i-Ahsa'i or Shaykh Ahmad
leader
Iran
1844
He lived 1753 to 1826 and founded Shaykhi Shi'a religious movement. Shi'a believes that there were twelve Imams
starting with Ali ibn Abu Talib and ending with Muhammad al-Mahdi, who will return before judgment day as the
Mahdi or Mihdi. Shaykh Ahmad said he communicated with the coming Mahdi. Shaykh Ahmad or his successor
Siyyid Kazim predicted that the Mahdi was coming. Shaykhi began to search for Qa'im or Promised One of the Shiites
and said it was the Bab [1844]. One was Ali Muhammad or the Báb, who said he was the Mahdi and Persia executed
him [1850]. Bahá'í Faith comes from Shaykh Ahmad, Siyyid Kazim, the Báb, and then Bahá'u'lláh. Another was Haji
Karim Khan of Kirman, who escaped punishment and had no followers.
Horace Wells [Wells, Horace]
dentist
USA
1844
He lived 1815 to 1848 and first used nitrous-oxide anesthetic [1844] when he extracted his tooth.
Ali Muhammad [Muhammad, Ali] or The Bab [Bab, The] or Gate
philosopher
Iran
1844 to 1850
He lived 1819 to 1850, was Muslim, and announced that soon person was to come to unify all people [1844]. Later he
said he was Mahdi. Iranian government killed him [1850].
Giuseppe Mazzini [Mazzini, Giuseppe]
philosopher
Turin, Italy
1844 to 1858
Duties of Man [1844 to 1858]
He lived 1804 to 1872, was Hegelian, and founded Young Italy [1831].
Hermann Grassmann [Grassmann, Hermann]
mathematician
Germany
1844 to 1862
Theory of Linear Extension [1844]; Theory of Extension [1862]
He lived 1809 to 1877 and invented hypercomplex numbers {Grassmann variable}. Hypernumbers can represent
tensors, quaternions, matrices, determinants, and all number types. Grassmann variables anti-commute: m . n = - n . m.
He studied calculus of extension. Perhaps, space-time has extra, Grassmann dimensions to allow supersymmetry and
supergravity.
Kit Carson [Carson, Kit]
scout
West USA
1845
He lived 1809 to 1868 and fought against American natives.
Frederick Douglass [Douglass, Frederick]
biographer
USA
1845
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave [1845: biography]
Sarah Margaret Fuller [Fuller, Sarah Margaret]
feminist
USA
1845
Carlotta Grisi [Grisi, Carlotta]
ballerina
France
1845
Max Stirner [Stirner, Max] or Johann Schmidt [Schmidt, Johann]
philosopher
Leipzig, Germany
1845
Ego and Its Own [1845]
He lived 1806 to 1856 and was of Hegelian left wing. Personal egos are reality and should use ideas and things for
themselves. There should be no state, government, law, property, religion, family, ethics, or love. There should be no
compulsion.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning [Browning, Elizabeth Barrett]
poet
England
1845 to 1846
How Do I Love Thee? [1845: in Sonnets from the Portuguese]; Go from Me [1845: in Sonnets from the Portuguese]; If
Thou Must Love Me [1845: in Sonnets from the Portuguese]; Sonnets from the Portuguese [1846]
James K. Polk [Polk, James K.]
president
USA
1845 to 1849
He lived 1795 to 1849, was follower of Andrew Jackson, reduced tariffs, directed Mexican War [1845 to 1848],
annexed Texas [1845], settled trouble over Oregon Territory [1846], and got California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona
land [1848]. Treasury system became independent of banks.
George Gabriel Stokes [Stokes, George Gabriel]
mathematician
Ireland
1845 to 1849
Dynamical Theory of Diffraction [1849]
He lived 1819 to 1903 and invented Stokes theorem [1845], fluid-dynamics Navier-Stokes equations, and Stokes lines.
Navier-Stokes equations extend Newton's second dynamics law and linear constitutive stress relation.
Henry David Thoreau [Thoreau, Henry David]
essayist/political scientist
Boston, Masschusetts
1845 to 1849
Walden [1845]; On Civil Disobedience [1849: essay]
He lived 1817 to 1862 and was New England Transcendentalist. He advocated return to nature. He advocated nonviolent disobedience of unjust laws, and acceptance of punishment, to force repeal or modification.
Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond [Du Bois-Reymond, Emil Heinrich]
physiologist
Germany
1845 to 1877
Researches on Animal Electricity [1848 and 1860: two volumes]
He lived 1818 to 1896. Nerve cells have resting potential [1845] that decreases with nerve impulse. Nerves conduct
electricity. Nerve impulses transmit chemically [1877].
Leopold Kronecker [Kronecker, Leopold]
mathematician
Germany
1845 to 1887
On Complex Units [1845]; Foundation of an Arithmetic Theory of General Algebra [1882]; On the Concept of
Numbers [1887]
He lived 1823 to 1891 and helped develop intuitionism. He invented Kronecker delta function and studied fields
[1881].
Edward Hicks [Hicks, Edward]
painter
USA
1846
Peaceable Kingdom [1846]
Elias Howe [Howe, Elias]
inventor
USA
1846
lock stitch sewing machine [1846]
He lived 1819 to 1867 {lock stitch sewing machine}.
Edward Lear [Lear, Edward]
poet
USA
1846
Owl and the Pussycat [1846]
He lived 1812 to 1888 and wrote limericks and nonsense verse.
Elisha Graves Otis [Otis, Elisha Graves]
inventor
USA
1846 to 1852
railway safety brake [1846 to 1852]; elevator brake [1852]
He lived 1811 to 1861 {railway safety brake}.
John Ruskin [Ruskin, John]
critic/essayist
England
1846 to 1853
Modern Painters [1846: essay]; Seven Lamps of Architecture [1849: essay]; Stones of Venice [1853: essay]
He lived 1819 to 1900 and praised Arts and Crafts movement [1880 to 1900].
Franz von Suppe [Suppe, Franz von]
composer
Dalmatia/Austria
1846 to 1866
Poet and Peasant [1846: opera, includes the Poet and Peasant Overture]; Light Cavalry [1866: opera, includes the Light
Cavalry Overture]
Friedrich Engels [Engels, Friedrich]
philosopher
Germany/England
1846 to 1884
German Ideology [1846: with Marx]; Communist Manifesto [1848: with Marx]; Condition of the Working Class in
England [1844]; Socialism: Utopian and Scientific [1870]; Anti-Dühring [1878]; Dialectics of Nature [1875 to 1882];
Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State [1884]
He lived 1820 to 1895 and was Young Hegelian. He met Marx [1842], founded Communism [1848], and organized
revolutionary movements in Europe.
Epistemology
Practical results determine truth.
Metaphysics
Nature develops through dialectic {dialectical materialism}. Matter has opposites and contradictions, whose dialectic
gives motion and development to matter. Dialectic causes quantitative and then qualitative change. Change results in
loss or negation and thus leads to new things. Matter gives thought form, which is the dialectic. Matter came before
consciousness.
Politics
Society develops through dialectical materialism. History is struggle between classes.
Charlotte Brontë [Brontë, Charlotte]
novelist
England
1847
Jane Eyre [1847]
Emily Brontë [Brontë, Emily]
novelist
England
1847
Wuthering Heights [1847]
Placide Cappeau [Cappeau, Placide]/Adolphe-Charles Adam [Adam, Adolphe-Charles]
composer
France/USA
1847
O Holy Night [1847: translated by John Sullivan Dwight]
Cappeau lived 1808 to 1877. Adam lived 1803 to 1856.
Friedrich von Flotow [Flotow, Friedrich von]
composer
Germany
1847
Martha [1847: opera, including M'appari Tutt' Amor]
Henry F. Lyte [Lyte, Henry F.]/William H. Monk [Monk, William H.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1847
Abide with Me [1847: music is Eventide, 1861]
Lyte lived 1793 to 1847. Monk lived 1823 to 1889.
Karl von Staudt [Staudt, Karl von]
mathematician
Nuremberg, Germany
1847
Geometry of Position [1847]
He lived 1798 to 1867 and analyzed projective geometry without metric and without congruence.
George Boole [Boole, George]
mathematician
England
1847 to 1854
Mathematical Analysis of Logic [1847]; Investigation of the Laws of Thought, on which are founded the Mathematical
Theories of Logic and Probabilities [1854]
He lived 1815 to 1864 and studied symbolic logic and logic of classes or extensional logic. Arithmetic and algebras
have axioms and theorems allowing independent term or variable meanings. Axioms and theorems can be statements,
sets, classes, events, or durations. Syllogisms can use arithmetic notation, and algorithm can prove them {Boolean
algebra, Boole}. Boolean algebra has sets, union operation, intersection operation, complement operation, zero
element, and unit element. Arithmetic axioms hold for elements and operations.
Epistemology
Mind has ability to conceive class, designate individual class members by common name, perform other logical tasks,
and think logically {laws of thought, Boole}. Thought laws are innate and inherited.
Matthew Townsend [Townsend, Matthew]
inventor
England
1847 to 1856
latch needle for knitting [1847 to 1856]
He lived 1817 to ?. Knitting needles {latch needle} can open and close.
Stephen A. Douglas [Douglas, Stephen A.]
senator
USA
1847 to 1858
He lived 1813 to 1861 and debated Lincoln [1858]. He advocated Squatter Sovereignty, permitting slavery in territories
and allowing state applying for statehood to vote to be slave or free. At Freeport [1860], he said that territories can
exclude slavery by voting, lost southern-Democrat support, and lost presidential race against Lincoln.
Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis [Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp]
biologist
Hungary/Vienna, Austria
1847 to 1861
Etiology, Concept, and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever [1861]
He lived 1818 to 1865 and started hand washing in chlorine solution [1847].
Alexandr Herzen [Herzen, Alexandr]
philosopher
Russia/Paris, France
1847 to 1862
Who Is to Blame? [1847]; From the Other Shore [1848 to 1849]; My Past and Thoughts [1855]; Bell [1857 to 1862]
He lived 1812 to 1870 and was Hegelian historian. Chance causes all things to be contingent.
Francis Parkman [Parkman, Francis]
historian
USA
1847 to 1885
Oregon Trail [1847]; History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac [1851]; Montcalm and Wolfe [1885]
George Henry Corliss [Corliss, George Henry]
inventor
USA
1848
steam valve gear [1848]
He lived 1817 to 1888 {steam valve gear}.
Elizabeth Stanton [Stanton, Elizabeth]
feminist
USA
1848
She lived 1815 to 1902 and worked for women's rights.
Johann Strauss, Sr. [Strauss, Sr., Johann]
composer
Austria
1848
Radetsky March [1848]
William Makepeace Thackeray [Thackeray, William Makepeace]
novelist
England
1848
Vanity Fair [1848]
Jean Foucault [Foucault, Jean]
physicist
France
1848 to 1850
He lived 1819 to 1868, invented Foucault pendulum [1848], and studied refraction index [1850].
Robert Mills [Mills, Robert]
architect
Washington, DC
1848 to 1855
Washington Monument [1848 to 1885: concrete and iron obelisk]
Stephen C. Foster [Foster, Stephen C.]
composer
USA
1848 to 1865
Oh Susanna [1848]; De Camptown Races [1850]; Ah! May the Red Rose Live Alway! [1850]; Old Folks at Home or
Swanee River [1851]; My Old Kentucky Home [1853]; I Dream of Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair [1854]; Old
Black Joe [1860]; Beautiful Dreamer [1862]; Voices That Are Gone [1865]
Nasseroddin Shah
shah
Persia
1848 to 1896
He lived 1831 to 1896 and was Qajar. Amir Kabir was Premier [1848 to 1851].
Charles Bernard Renouvier [Renouvier, Charles Bernard]
philosopher
Paris, France
1848 to 1901
Republican Manual of the Man and Citizen [1848]; Dilemmas of Pure Metaphysics [1901]
He lived 1815 to 1903 and was Idealist. Belief is voluntary. Nature is indeterminate, finite, and relative.
Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin]
candidate
USA
1848.11
He lived 1782 to 1862 and ran for president as Free-Soil Party candidate.
Louis Napoleon or Napoleon III
president/emperor
France
1848.12 to 1870
He lived 1808 to 1873. After trying to become emperor in 1836 and 1840, he returned to France, and assembly elected
him president of Republic [1848], promising democracy and order. He dissolved legislature, crushed worker revolt, and
ended Second Republic. He founded Second Empire of France [1852]. He granted more power to legislature and
reigned in prosperity. He built Suez Canal [1859 to 1869], adventured in Mexico, got China Lands, fought Crimean
War, restored the pope, and controlled Papal States. He fought Franco-Prussian War [1869 to 1870], but Prussia
captured and deposed him.
Francis Joseph I or Franz Joseph I
emperor
Austria
1848.12 to 1916
He lived 1830 to 1916 and reorganized Austrian Empire [1867] as Austro-Hungary. He lost Lombardy and Venetia in
Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War, which Peace of Prague settled.
Arnold A. Berthold [Berthold, Arnold A.]
biologist
Berlin, Germany
1849
Transplantation of Testes [1849]
He lived 1803 to 1861 and studied hormones [1849] and transplantation.
Arthur Hugh Clough [Clough, Arthur Hugh]
poet
England
1849
Say Not the Struggle Nought Availeth [1849]
Richard Owen [Owen, Richard]
physician/naturalist
Britain
1849
On Parthenogenesis [1849]
He lived 1804 to 1892 and found horse intermediate fossils. All vertebrates have body plans based on repeating
vertebrae, which can evolve.
Arnold Ruge [Ruge, Arnold]
philosopher
Germany/England
1849
Religion of Humanity [1849]
He lived 1802 to 1880 and was humanist and Theist.
Nathaniel Currier [Currier, Nathaniel]
lithographer
USA
1849 to 1850
Way They Come from California [1849]; Son and Daughter of Temperance [1850]
Zachary Taylor [Taylor, Zachary]
president
USA
1849 to 1850
He lived 1784 to 1850. Before 1849, 12th president fought American Indians and fought in Mexican War.
Carlo Cattaneo [Cattaneo, Carlo]
philosopher
Lugano, Italy
1849 to 1855
History of the Revolution of 1848 [1849]; Triennial Archive of Italian History [1850 to 1855]
He lived 1801 to 1869 and was of Comtian School.
Gustave Courbet [Courbet, Gustave]
painter
France
1849 to 1855
Stone Breakers [1849]; Burial at Ornano [1849]; Interior of My Studio [1855]
Christian Hermann Weisse [Weisse, Christian Hermann]
philosopher
Leipzig, Germany
1849 to 1862
Future of the Protestant Church [1849]; Philosophical Dogmatics of Christian Philosophy [1855 and 1860 and 1862]
He lived 1801 to 1866 and was Theist. Being is free-personality self-production.
Edwin Booth [Booth, Edwin]
actor
USA
1849 to 1864
Claude Bernard [Bernard, Claude]
physiologist
Paris, France
1849 to 1865
Lessons on Phenomena of Life in Animals and Plants [1863]; Introduction to the study of internal medicine [1865]
He lived 1813 to 1878, studied pancreas [1849], studied liver and carbohydrates [1851], and noted curare's effects on
nerve transmission to muscle [1853]. Anesthetics affect single cell organisms, such as green slime mold, amoebae, and
paramecia [1875]. Internal environments {milieu interieur} can have constancies {homeostasis, Bernard}.
Frederick W. Faber [Faber, Frederick W.]/Henri F. Hemy [Hemy, Henri F.]/James G. Walton [Walton, James
G.]
England
1849 to 1871
Faith of Our Fathers [1849: music is Hemy's St. Catherine, 1864, as adapted by Walton, 1871]
Faber lived 1814 to 1863. Hemy lived 1818 to 1888. Walton lived 1821 to 1905.
James Russell Lowell [Lowell, James Russell]
poet
USA
1849 to 1888
Once to Every Man and Nation [1849: hymn]; On Democracy [1868]; Heartsease and Rue [1888: poems]
William III
king
Netherlands
1849 to 1890
Robert Bingham [Bingham, Robert]
inventor
England
1850
He lived 1824 to 1870 and invented dry collodion process. Process became efficient later [1871].
Sanford C. Faulkner [Faulkner, Sanford C.]
composer
USA
1850
Arkansas Traveler [1850]
Charles A. Saint-Beuve [Saint-Beuve, Charles A.]
poet
France
1850
Causeries du Lundi or Monday Chats [1850]
François Millet [Millet, François]
painter
France
1850 to 1855
Sower [1850]; Peasant Spreading Manure [1855]
He lived 1814 to 1875 and was of Barbizon School.
William R. Hamilton [Hamilton, William R.]
mathematician
Ireland/Scotland
1850 to 1856
Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic [1869]
He lived 1788 to 1856 and belonged to school of intuition. He invented quaternions and Cayley-Hamilton theorem. He
studied non-commutative algebras. His student was H.L. Mansel. People can know the finite, but people know the rest
by faith, based on Kant.
Millard Fillmore [Fillmore, Millard]
president
USA
1850 to 1857
He lived 1800 to 1874. 13th president tried to implement Fugitive Slave act, avoided foreign affairs, and tried to
advance Whig party. Later, he was Know-Nothing Party candidate.
Rudolf Clausius [Clausius, Rudolf]
physicist/chemist
Germany
1850 to 1865
He lived 1822 to 1888 and noted energy conservation [1850], studied gas kinetic theory, and invented virial theorem.
Entropy always increases [1865].
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz [Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von]
physiologist/physicist/inventor
Germany
1850 to 1867
Treatise on Physiological Optics [1856 to 1867]; On the Sensations of Tone [1863]; ophthalmoscope [1851];
ophthalmometer
He lived 1821 to 1894 and founded perceptual physiology {ophthalmoscope, Helmholtz}. He developed YoungHelmholtz trichromatic color-vision theory and studied lens accommodation. He first timed nerve-signal conduction
rate and muscle-action times [1850]. Speed at which electrical impulses travel along nerve fibers limits human reaction
time. Pitch discrimination depends on resonance {fixed pitch theory}.
Epistemology
People cannot know external physical events and only have neural signals. Neural signals from senses gain meaning
from learned associations, which depend on assumptions that can be incorrect. Perceptions are unconscious inferences.
People cannot experience or introspect how they perceive or think. People cannot know data on which brain bases
perceptions and beliefs. During perceptions and decisions to perform muscle movements, nerve signals switch. Body
sense receptors receive and analyze physical energies from outside world to make independent, simple, and
unnoticeable sensations, and brains learn to perceive objects and events that probably produced sensations {classical
theory of psychology}.
David F. Strauss [Strauss, David F.]
philosopher
Germany
1850 to 1874
Life of Jesus [1835]
He lived 1808 to 1874 and was of Hegelian left wing.
Moritz Lazarus [Lazarus, Moritz]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1850 to 1883
Leadership of the Prussians in Germany [1850]; Life of the Soul [1855 to 1857 and 1883]; Journal of National
Psychology and Linguistics [1860: with Heymann Steinthal]; Synthesis of Thoughts on National Psychology [1865]
He lived 1824 to 1903 and developed a new psychology {Folk Psychology, Lazarus} {Comparative Psychology,
Lazarus} [1854: with Heymann Steinthal].
Frederick Scott Archer [Archer, Frederick Scott]
photographer
USA
1851
He lived 1813 to 1857 and used wet collodion process.
James Prescott Joule [Joule, James Prescott]
physicist
England
1851
He lived 1818 to 1889 and studied heat in conductors. Work and heat are energies [1851].
Joseph Paxton [Paxton, Joseph]
architect
Sydenham, England
1851
Crystal Palace [1851: Three tiers of long parallel halls inside a glass and iron shell had a central entrance hall 35 meters
high with trees inside]
He lived 1801 to 1865. Crystal Palace was at Great Exhibition, the first World's Fair. In 1854, it moved to Hyde Park
until 1939. Sydenham is now in London.
Franz Grillparzer [Grillparzer, Franz]
writer
Germany
1851 to 1855
Libussa [1851]; Die Jüdin von Toledo or Jewess of Toledo [1855]
Danilo II
king
Montenegro
1851 to 1860
He lived 1826 to 1860 and became archbishop [1851].
Thomas U. Walter [Walter, Thomas U.]
architect
Washington, DC
1851 to 1865
Capitol Dome and Wings [1851 to 1865: Neoclassical]
Henry Longueville Mansel [Mansel, Henry Longueville]
philosopher
Scotland
1851 to 1866
Introduction to Logic [1851]; Metaphysics [1860]; Philosophy of the Conditioned [1866]
He lived 1820 to 1871 and was intuitionist and idealist.
Matthew Arnold [Arnold, Matthew]
poet
England
1851 to 1869
Dover Beach [1851: poem]; Culture and Anarchy [1869: essay]
He lived 1822 to 1888. People need liberal education, to know what is and what is best.
Edward Caswell [Caswell, Edward]/John Goss [Goss, John]
lyricist/composer
England
1851 to 1871
Christ Is Born in Bethlehem [1851: music, 1871]
Caswell lived 1814 to 1873. Goss lived 1800 to 1880.
Herman Melville [Melville, Herman]
novelist
USA
1851 to 1891
Moby Dick [1851]; Billy Budd, Foretopman [1891]
Kuno Fischer [Fischer, Kuno]
philosopher
Heidelberg, Germany/Baden, Germany
1852
System of Logic und Metaphysics [1852]
He lived 1812 to 1870 and founded neo-Kantian Heidelberg School or Baden School or Southwest German School.
Mind uses logic and other a priori tools to make things valid.
Peter Mark Roget [Roget, Peter Mark]
essayist
England
1852
Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases [1852: thesaurus]
Harriet Beecher Stowe [Stowe, Harriet Beecher]
novelist
USA
1852
Uncle Tom's Cabin [1852]
Alexandre Dumas (fils) [Dumas (fils), Alexandre]
novelist
France
1852 to 1858
Camille [1852]; Le Demi-Monde or Underworld [1855]; Le Fils Naturel or Natural Child [1858]
Ford Madox Brown [Brown, Ford Madox]
painter
England
1852 to 1865
Work [1852 to 1865: Pre-Raphaelite]
Arthur Michel Saint Léon [Saint Léon, Arthur Michel]
France
1852 to 1870
Stenochorégraphie [1852: book about choreography notation]; Coppelia or Girl with Enamel Eyes [1870: ballet with
music by Léo Delibes]
Rudolf von Jhering [Jhering, Rudolf von]
lawyer
Germany
1852 to 1889
Spirit of Roman Law [1852 to 1878]; Struggle for Justice [1872]; Instrument of Law or Law as a Means to an End
[1877 to 1883]; Jurisprudence in Jest and in Earnest [1884]; Intent to Possess [1889]
He lived 1818 to 1892 and was an international lawyer and Roman-law scholar.
Richard F. Burton [Burton, Richard F.]
historian
England
1853
Pilgrimage to Mecca [1853]
He lived 1821 to 1890 and translated Kama Sutra and Arabian Nights.
William Rankine [Rankine, William]
physicist
Scotland
1853
He lived 1820 to 1872, developed Rankine temperature scale, and invented first energy-conservation law.
Matthew Perry [Perry, Matthew]
commodore
Japan
1853 to 1854
He lived 1794 to 1858. Japan granted trade concessions to USA. He opened Japan to outside commerce and shipping,
soon followed by trade agreements with other nations.
Franklin Pierce [Pierce, Franklin]
president
USA
1853 to 1857
He lived 1804 to 1869. 14th president got Gadsen Purchase [1853] from Mexico in south Arizona. Sectionalism
increased with Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. The squatter controversy resulted in bloodshed.
Edward Caswell [Caswell, Edward]/Joseph Barnby [Barnby, Joseph]
lyricist/composer
USA
1853 to 1868
When Morning Gilds the Skies [1853 and 1858: Caswell translated from German, music is Laudes Domini, 1868]
Barnby lived 1838 to 1896.
Bartolome Mitre [Mitre, Bartolome]
leader
Argentina
1853 to 1870
He lived 1821 to 1906, changed constitution [1853], became president [1862 to 1870], and began reforms.
Charles Gounod [Gounod, Charles]
composer
Germany/France
1853 to 1882
Meditation on the First Prelude of Bach or Ave Maria [1853]; Faust [1859: opera]; Romeo and Juliet [1864: opera]; La
Redemption [1882: chorale]
Jenny Lind [Lind, Jenny]
soprano
Sweden
1854
Few Days [1854]
Florence Nightingale [Nightingale, Florence]
nurse
Crimea
1854
She lived 1820 to 1910 and founded hospitals in Crimean War, bettered soldier lives, and reformed nurse training to
emphasize cleanliness, knowledge, and organization.
Bertrando Spaventa [Spaventa, Bertrando]
philosopher
Naples, Italy
1854
Letter on the Doctrine of Bruno [1854]
Karl Weierstrass [Weierstrass, Karl]
mathematician
Germany
1854
On the Theory of Abelian Functions [1854]
He lived 1815 to 1897, used arithmetic concepts for mathematical analysis, and studied real number theory, analytic
and elliptic functions, and uniform convergence. He invented Weierstrass-Bolzano theorem [1854]. To remove
contradictions introduced by infinitesimals, he reformulated calculus using limits and exhaustion method. Elliptic
complex functions are sums of convergent power functions. Irrational numbers are rational-number-series
convergences.
Georg Bernhard Riemann [Riemann, Georg Bernhard]
mathematician
Germany
1854 to 1859
On the hypotheses that lie at the foundations of geometry [1854]; Theory of Abelian functions [1857]; On the number
of primes less than given magnitude [1859]
He lived 1826 to 1866. He studied non-Euclidean geometry, differential geometry, complex functions, multiple-valued
functions, mapping, prime-number theorems, analytic number theory, and singularities. He invented Riemann surfaces,
Riemann-Darboux integral, Riemann zeta function, Riemann mapping theorem, and Riemann hypothesis. Riemann
integrals are sums over infinity of step functions. All closed line segments have the same number of points. All points,
in plane touching Riemann sphere at South Pole, map to sphere points, with points at infinity mapping to North Pole.
Compact-plane points can thus map to limited, closed, and bounded surfaces.
Heymann Steinthal [Steinthal, Heymann]
philosopher
Germany
1854 to 1860
Journal of National Psychology and Linguistics [1860: with Lazarus]
He lived 1823 to 1899 and developed new psychology {Folk Psychology, Steinthal} {Comparative Psychology,
Steinthal} [1854], with Lazarus.
James Clerk Maxwell [Maxwell, James Clerk]
physicist
Britain
1854 to 1865
He lived 1831 to 1879, developed feedback-regulation mathematical formulas, and invented electromagnetism and
electromagnetic-wave laws [1865], using first-order partial-differential-equation systems. Mixing red, green, and blue
primary colors can make all colors [1854].
John Bartlett [Bartlett, John]
editor
USA
1855
Familiar Quotations [1855: dictionary]
Thomas Bulfinch [Bulfinch, Thomas]
writer
London, England
1855
Mythology [1855]
Arthur Cayley [Cayley, Arthur]
mathematician
England
1855
Determinants used before Matrices [1855]
He lived 1821 to 1895 and studied matrix theory and invariant theory.
Karl Fortlage [Fortlage, Karl]
philosopher
France/Germany
1855
System of Psychology [1855]
He lived 1820 to 1900. Source of existence is will.
Donald McKay [McKay, Donald]
inventor
Canada/USA
1855
clipper ship [1855]
He lived 1810 to 1880 {clipper ship}.
Joseph M. Scriven [Scriven, Joseph M.]/Charles C. Converse [Converse, Charles C.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1855
What a Friend We Have in Jesus [1855: music, 1868]
Scriven lived 1820 to 1886. Converse lived 1832 to 1918.
Anthony Trollope [Trollope, Anthony]
novelist
England
1855 to 1867
Barsetshire Chronicles [1855 to 1867: novels]; Warden [1855: Barsetshire Chronicles first novel]; Barchester Towers
[1857: Barsetshire Chronicles second novel]; Framley Parsonage [1861: Barsetshire Chronicles third novel]; Last
Chronicle of Barset [1867: Barsetshire Chronicles fourth novel]
Walt Whitman [Whitman, Walt]
poet
USA
1855 to 1870
There Was a Child Went Forth [1855]; Song of Myself [1855]; I Hear America Singing [1855]; Leaves of Grass [1855:
poems]; Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking [1859]; O Captain! My Captain! [1866 and 1881: in Memories of
President Lincoln]; When Lilacs Last in the Courtyard Bloom'd [1866 and 1881: in Memories of President Lincoln];
Noiseless Patient Spider [1868]; Ethiopia Saluting the Colors [1870]
Alexander Bain [Bain, Alexander]
philosopher
London, England
1855 to 1876
Senses and the Intellect [1855]; Emotions and the Will [1859]; Mind and Body [1872]; Mind [1876: journal]
He lived 1818 to 1903. Nearness in time and space, not causes or logic, causes idea associations.
Alexander II
czar
Russia
1855 to 1881
The Tsar liberator lived 1818 to 1881, was Romanov, and freed serfs [1861] but did not allow them to leave their
villages without permission. He started local assembly {zemstvo} and new judicial system. He fought Crimean War
over Russian influence in southeast Europe. Someone assassinated him.
Louis Pasteur [Pasteur, Louis]
biologist
Paris, France
1855 to 1883
Germ Theory and its Application to Medicine and Surgery [1878]
He lived 1822 to 1895 and studied yeast and fermentation [1855], developed pasteurization [1864], and developed
rabies vaccine [1883]. Organic molecules can have chirality. Cells come from cells, with no spontaneous generation.
Herbert Spencer [Spencer, Herbert]
philosopher
Britain
1855 to 1884
Principles of Psychology [1855]; Programme of a System of Synthetic Philosophy [1860]; Education [1861]; First
Principles [1862]; Principles of Biology [1864]; Study of Sociology [1873]; Principles of Ethics [1879]; Principles of
Sociology [1880]; Man versus the State [1884]
He lived 1820 to 1903 and was determinist. He developed a system {Social Darwinism} of thought and reality based on
evolution. He promoted and defended Darwin's theory. He believed in human progress, as necessary to natural, organic
society development. He emphasized individualism, laissez-faire economics, energy, optimism, and confidence.
Epistemology
Thinking relates two things {synthetic philosophy}, and so it is only real for phenomena. Outside phenomena, both
science and religion have unknowables.
Homogeneous things are unstable. Multiplying effects and segregating things lead to heterogeneity.
Incongruity between actual and expected explains humor {incongruity theory} [1860].
Ethics
Doing good makes life longer and better, integrates group more, and coordinates life better. Ethics depends on society
type. Laissez-faire economics is good. In evolution, pleasure associates with good, and pain associates with bad.
Evolution determines morality. Ethics involves adapting, without preventing others from adapting.
Metaphysics
Nature always seeks equilibrium and always becomes more diverse. Adaptation leads to acquiring new characteristics,
which can evolve. Evolution is matter integration and motion dissipation, moving from homogeneity to coordinated
heterogeneity. Dissolution is opposite of evolution. Life is continuous adjustment to external by internal. Survival of
fittest and struggle for existence are life principles.
Politics
Societies move toward perfection by evolution, like organism. Religious-military-monarchy and industrial-peacefuldemocracy are the two society types.
Theodor Mammsen [Mammsen, Theodor]
lawyer/historian
Berlin, Germany
1855 to 1885
History of Rome [1855 and 1885]
He lived 1817 to 1903 and was an international lawyer and Roman-law historian.
Heinrich Lissauer [Lissauer, Heinrich]
psychologist
Germany
1855 to 1890
Contribution on the Pathological Anatomy of Tabes dorsalis [1885]; Case of visual agnosia with contribution to theory
[1889]; Thalamus Lesions in Progressive Paralysis [1890: Lissauer's paralysis]
He lived 1861 to 1891, found tractus dorsolateralis or Lissauer's tract [1855], and invented model for visual recognition
[1890]. Patients can fail to form associations between memories and perceptions or fail to form perceptions {mindblindness} [1879].
Henry Bessemer [Bessemer, Henry]
inventor
England
1856
open-hearth process [1856]
He lived 1813 to 1898 and invented cheaper steel manufacturing process {open-hearth process}.
Pierre Larousse [Larousse, Pierre]
editor
France
1856
Larousse Dictionary [1856: dictionary]
Joseph Mazilier [Mazilier, Joseph]
choreographer
France
1856
Le Corsaire [1856: especially the pas de deux, music by Adolph Adam]
Hamilton Smith [Smith, Hamilton]
inventor
USA
1856
tintype or ferrotype
He invented tintype.
William Smith [Smith, William]
architect
Royal Deeside, Scotland
1856
Balmoral Castle [Gothic]
He lived 1817 to 1891. It is near Aberdeen.
Thomas Vernon Wollaston [Wollaston, Thomas Vernon]
anatomist
England
1856
Variation of Species [1856]
Karl Göschel [Göschel, Karl]
philosopher
Germany
1856 to 1857
Immortality: Psychology of the Bible [1856]; Hegel and His Time [1857]
He lived 1784 to 1862 and was of Hegelian right wing.
Rudolf H. Lotze [Lotze, Rudolf H.]
philosopher
Germany
1856 to 1881
Microcosmus: An Essay concerning Man and His Relation to the World [1856 to 1864]
He lived 1817 to 1881 and was Teleological Idealist.
Paul Gustave Doré [Doré, Paul Gustave]
painter/illustrator
France
1856 to 1887
Contes Drolatiques by Balzac or Droll Stories by Balzac [1856: illustrations]; Divine Comedy [1861 to 1868:
illustrations]; Scripture Reader in a Night Shelter [1865]; Paradise Lost [1866: illustrations]; Don Quixote in His
Library [1887]; Men Setting Their Watches by the Noon Gun
Charles Baudelaire [Baudelaire, Charles]
poet
France
1857
Flowers of Evil [1857]
James Buchanan [Buchanan, James]
president
USA
1857
He lived 1791 to 1868. 15th president dealt with slavery issues.
Gustave Flaubert [Flaubert, Gustave]
novelist
France
1857
Madame Bovary [1857: novel]; Three Tales [1872: stories]; Simple Heart [1872: Three Tales first story]; St. Julian the
Hospitaler [1872: Three Tales second story]; Aucassin et Nicolette [1872: Three Tales third story]
John Henry Hopkins, Jr. [Hopkins, Jr., John Henry]
composer
USA
1857
We Three Kings of Orient Are [1857]
William S. Pitts [Pitts, William S.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1857
Church in the Wildwood [1857]
Henry Thomas Buckle [Buckle, Henry Thomas]
philosopher
London, England
1858
History of Civilization [1858]
He lived 1821 to 1862 and developed evolutionary laws of history. History has three stages. Theological stage depends
on supernatural and has rule by priests. Metaphysical stage depends on concepts and has rule by judges. Positive or
scientific stage depends on experimental laws and has rule by businessmen.
Stanislao Canizzaro [Canizzaro, Stanislao]
chemist
Italy
1858
He lived 1826 to 1910 and defined the mole [1858], found atomic weights, and invented molecular formulas.
Joseph Fawkes [Fawkes, Joseph]
inventor
USA
1858
steam plow [1858]
He lived 1804 to 1886 {steam plow}.
Ivan Goncharov [Goncharov, Ivan]
writer
Russia
1858
Oblomov [1858]
Anton Rubinstein [Rubinstein, Anton]
pianist
Russia
1858
Melody in F [1858]
Rudolf Virchow [Virchow, Rudolf]
biologist
Germany
1858
Cell Pathology [1858]
He lived 1821 to 1902 and studied cell theory. Cells arise from each other over continual generations {Omnis cellula e
cellula}.
Charles Hermite [Hermite, Charles]
mathematician
France
1858 to 1864
On a new development in function series [1864]
He lived 1822 to 1901 and invented Hermitean operators and Hermite functions [1858 to 1864].
Jacques Offenbach [Offenbach, Jacques]
composer
France/Germany
1858 to 1866
Orpheus in the Underworld [1858: opera]; Tales of Hoffman [1864: opera]; Beautiful Helene [1864: opera]; Parisian
Life [1866: opera]
Ferdinand de Lesseps [Lesseps, Ferdinand de]/Alois Negrelli [Negrelli, Alois]
diplomat/architect
France/Austria/Egypt
1858 to 1869
Suez Canal [1858 to 1869: iron canal from Port Said on Mediterranean to Suez on Red Sea]
Negrelli lived 1799 to 1858 and was from Austria. Lesseps lived 1805 to 1894 and was from France.
Benito Juarez [Juarez, Benito]
president
Mexico
1858 to 1871
He lived 1806 to 1872, led War of Reform, opposed Santa Anna, and resisted attempt of Maximilian to set up French
Empire, He led after Emperor Maximilian was overthrown [1867] and changed constitution. He put down rebellion by
Diaz [1871].
Johann Strauss, Jr. [Strauss, Jr., Johann]
composer
Austria
1858 to 1899
Tritsch Tratsch Polka [1858]; Blue Danube [1867]; Tales from the Vienna Woods [1868]; Die Fledermaus or Flying
Mouse [1874: opera]; Emperor Waltz [1889]; Vienna Blood [1899: waltz]
He lived 1825 to 1899 and composed operettas.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff [Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert]
chemist/inventor
Germany
1859
spectroscope [1865]
He lived 1824 to 1887, discovered spectra absorption lines [1859], and discovered cesium and rubidium.
Henry Walter Bates [Bates, Henry Walter]
biologist
England
1859 to 1862
Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley [1862]
He lived 1825 to 1892, studied mimicry [1862] {Batesian mimicry}, and was a naturalist in Amazon [1848 to 1859].
George Meredith [Meredith, George]
novelist/poet
England
1859 to 1862
Ordeal of Richard Feveral [1859]; Modern Love [1862]
Alexander John Cusa [Cusa, Alexander John]
prince
Walachia/Moldavia
1859 to 1866
He lived 1820 to 1873, was prince of Romania [1859 to 1866], and led Danubian Principalities of Walachia and
Moldavia [1859].
Charles Robert Darwin [Darwin, Charles Robert]
naturalist
Britain
1859 to 1872
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection [1859]; Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
[1871]; Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals [1872]
He lived 1809 to 1882. He developed plant and animals evolution theory. Natural selection of variations leads to the
most-successful reproduction {survival of the fittest, Darwin}. Species evolved from earlier species, making branching
evolutionary trees. Evolution has caused changes without needing causer. Evolution has support from organism
location, because similar environments in different locations have different organisms, and similar, mutually accessible,
locations with different environments have similar organisms. Evolution has support from comparative anatomy,
because different species have similar hand bones, and species have vestigial structures. Evolution has support from
embryology, because segmented-worm and unsegmented-mollusc larvae are similar, and vertebrate embryos have gills.
Evolution has support from the fossil record, which shows intermediate forms. Changes have billions of years to
happen. Ancient rocks and environment differ from now, and fossil life forms differ from now. Current animals
adapted to present environment, not to ancient one. Finches of Galapagos Islands and barnacles were test cases.
He also studied emotions. Human emotional-response and facial-expression origins are pre-human species behaviors.
George Eliot [Eliot, George] or Mary Ann Evans [Evans, Mary Ann]
novelist
England
1859 to 1876
Adam Bede [1859]; Mill on the Floss [1860]; Silas Marner [1861]; Middlemarch [1872]; Daniel Deronda [1876]
Edward FitzGerald [FitzGerald, Edward]
poet/translator
England
1859 to 1879
Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat or Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam [1859 and 1879: translated poem]
He lived 1809 to 1883 and rhymed stanza first, second, and fourth lines {FitzGerald stanza}.
Pasquale Villari [Villari, Pasquale]
Florence, Italy
1859 to 1901
History of Girolamo Savonarola and His Times [1859 to 1861]; Letters from Meridionali Province [1875]; Niccolo
Machiavelli and His Times [1877 to 1882]; Barbarian Invasion in Italy [1901]
He lived 1826 to 1917, was Positivist, and studied history.
Giuseppe Garibaldi [Garibaldi, Giuseppe]
leader
Italy
1860
He lived 1807 to 1882 and unified Italy under his 1000 armed citizen followers {red shirts} by defeating Naples and
Sicily [1860]. He gave his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II.
Adolf Krupp [Krupp, Adolf]
manufacturer
Germany
1860
He lived 1812 to 1887 and started munitions factory.
Anna B. Warner [Warner, Anna B.]/Susan Warner [Warner, Susan]/William B. Bradbury [Bradbury, William
B.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1860
Jesus Loves Me [1860]
Anna Warner lived 1820 to 1915. Susan Warner lived 1819 to 1885. Bradbury lived 1816 to 1868.
William Dix [Dix, William]/Conrad Kocher [Kocher, Conrad]
composer
England
1860 to 1861
As with Gladness Men of Old [1860]
Dix lived 1837 to 1898. Kocher lived 1786 to 1872.
Matthew B. Brady [Brady, Matthew B.]
photographer
USA
1860 to 1865
He lived 1823 to 1896. His Civil War photographs used dry collodion process.
Robert Wilhelm Bunsen [Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm]
chemist/inventor
Germany
1860 to 1865
spectroscope [1865]; spectrum analysis
He lived 1811 to 1899, improved Bunsen burner [1860], and discovered cesium and rubidium. He discovered hydratediron-oxide antidote for arsenic poisoning.
Emily Dickinson [Dickinson, Emily]
poet
USA
1860 to 1865
I Never Saw a Moor or Chartless [1860 to 1865]; My Life Closed Twice Before Its Close [1860 to 1865]; Because I
Could Not Stop for Death [1863]; Tell All The Truth But Tell It Slant [1860 to 1865]; The Only News I Know [1860 to
1865]; Soul Selects [1862]
James S. Pierpont [Pierpont, James S.]
composer
USA
1860 to 1870
Jingle Bells [1860 to 1870]
Edmund Sears [Sears, Edmund]/Richard Willis [Willis, Richard]
lyricist/composer
USA
1860 to 1870
It Came upon a Midnight Clear [1860 to 1870]
Sears lived 1810 to 1876. Willis lived 1819 to 1900.
Werner Siemens [Siemens, Werner]
inventor
Germany
1860 to 1870
electric dynamo [1860 to 1870]
C. Mordaunt Spencer [Spencer, C. Mordaunt]/Charles Glover [Glover, Charles]
lyricist/composer
Ireland
1860 to 1870
Rose of Tralee [1912]
Spencer lived ? to 1888. Glover lived 1806 to 1863.
Boss Tweed or William M. Tweed [Tweed, William M.]
leader
New York, New York
1860 to 1870
He lived 1823 to 1878, controlled Tammany Hall as Democrat, and accumulated a fortune by graft.
Gustav Theodor Fechner [Fechner, Gustav Theodor]
philosopher/physicist
Germany
1860 to 1876
Elements of Psychophysics [1860]; Pre-school of Aesthetics [1876]
He lived 1801 to 1887. Sensation intensity is proportional to logarithm of stimulus {Weber-Fechner law, Fechner}
{Weber's law, Fechner}. Logarithmic scale measures sensation intensity: S = k * log(I) + A, where S = sensation, k =
relative-difference ratio, I = intensity, and A = absolute threshold. The law applies if sensations have categories
{category scaling}. To detect just noticeable difference in sensation at higher intensities, stimulus intensity must
increase in geometrical proportion. Sense qualities and psychological functions relate to stimuli {psychophysics,
Fechner}.
Aesthetics
Method of paired comparisons can judge aesthetic preferences.
Samuel Francis Smith [Smith, Samuel Francis]
lyricist/composer
USA
1860 to 1890
America or My Country, 'Tis of Thee [1860 to 1890]
Nicholas I
king
Montenegro
1860 to 1910
He lived 1841 to 1921 and helped Montenegro gain independence from Bulgaria and Ottomans [1878].
William Crookes [Crookes, William]
physicist/inventor
England
1861
spinthariscope
He lived 1832 to 1919 and invented cathode rays [1861] {spinthariscope}.
Julia Ward Howe [Howe, Julia Ward]/William Steffe [Steffe, William]
lyricist/composer
USA
1861
Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory or Battle Hymn of the Republic [1861: music is American camp meeting tune]
Howe lived 1819 to 1910. Steffe lived 1830 to 1890.
Henry Maine [Maine, Henry]
lawyer
London, England
1861
Ancient Law [1861: law history]
He lived 1822 to 1888 and studied change from status system to contract system.
Alexander Parkes [Parkes, Alexander]
inventor
England
1861
nitrocellulose plastic [1861]
He lived 1813 to 1890 {nitrocellulose plastic}.
Carl Spohr [Spohr, Carl]
composer
USA
1861
Band Polka [1861]
Ivan Turgenev [Turgenev, Ivan]
novelist
Russia
1861
Fathers and Sons [1861]
George Frederick Root [Root, George Frederick]
lyricist/composer
USA
1861 to 1862
Battle Cry of Freedom [1861]; Two Brothers or One Wore Blue, One Wore Gray [1862]
He lived 1820 to 1895 and wrote songs about the Civil War.
Thomas Jackson [Jackson, Thomas] or Stonewall Jackson [Jackson, Stonewall]
general
Virginia
1861 to 1863
He lived 1824 to 1863 and tied first Battle of Bull Run, won Shenandoah Valley Campaign, won second Battle of Bull
Run, and died at Chancellorsville.
Jefferson Davis [Davis, Jefferson]
president
South USA
1861 to 1865
He lived 1808 to 1889 and led Confederate States of America.
Abraham Lincoln [Lincoln, Abraham]
president/essayist/orator
USA
1861 to 1865
Emancipation Proclamation [1863]; Gettysburg Address [1864: oration]; Second Inaugural Address [1865: oration]
He lived 1809 to 1865. 16th-president election started Civil War. South believed it needed slaves to produce cotton,
which it exported for profit. He had trouble with divided cabinet, discontent over war, bad generals, and abolitionists.
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theater in Washington.
Emancipation Proclamation [1863] freed 4,000,000 slaves, mostly on cotton plantations. This act diminished states'
rights.
Charles Garnier [Garnier, Charles]
architect
Paris, France
1861 to 1875
Paris Opera House [1861 to 1875: Neo-Baroque theater]
Paul Pierre Broca [Broca, Paul Pierre]
surgeon/anthropologist
Paris, France
1861 to 1878
On the principal of cerebral localizations [1861]; New observation of aphasia produced by lesion in the posterior part of
second and third convolution of the left frontal lobe [1861]; Memoranda of Anthropology [1871 to 1878: three
volumes]
He lived 1824 to 1880, developed skull-measuring instruments, and studied prehistoric skull trephining. He first
described Cro-Magnon and Aurignacian man. He disproved theory {Celtic myth} that Celts constituted a racial group
with inherited characteristics [1866]. Frontal-lobe-third or inferior-gyrus damage {Broca's area, Broca} makes people
unable to speak [1861].
Victor Emmanuel II
king
Italy
1861 to 1878
He lived 1820 to 1878 and led wars of Risorgimento as Sardinia king, with Garibaldi as general. After victory over
Papal States, Florence was capital. He ruled as constitutional monarch.
Edward Burnett Tylor [Tylor, Edward Burnett]
anthropologist
England
1861 to 1881
Anahuac or Anahuac Civilization of Mexico [1861: Mexica was last Anahuac civilization, 1325 to 1521]; Researches
into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization [1865]; Primitive Culture [1871]; Anthropology
[1881]
He lived 1832 to 1917, studied folklore and societies {ethnology, Tylor} {ethnography, Tylor}, and founded social
anthropology. All humans have same mind type.
Religion is superstition and belief in spiritual beings or persons {animism, Tylor}. People see difference between living
and death, sleep, or trance and have dreams and visions of people and other living things, so they think everything has a
living soul, which can be independent of body.
Evil spirits can enter bodies. One spirit can become supreme. Magic and myth require narrative with rational
associations. Rational culture improves over time, but ancient superstitions still survive.
William I
king
Prussia
1861 to 1888
He lived 1797 to 1888 and was emperor of Germany [1871 to 1888] and king of Prussia [1861 to 1888]. His minister
was Bismarck. Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein [1864]. German Empire began [1871].
Friedrich Argelander [Argelander, Friedrich]
astronomer
Germany
1862
Bonner Survey [1862]
He lived 1799 to 1875 and found 300,000 star positions.
Pierre Beauregard [Beauregard, Pierre]
general
South USA
1862
He lived 1818 to 1893 and was Confederate general.
Guillaume Duchenne [Duchenne, Guillaume]
biologist
Paris, France
1862
Mechanism of Human Physionomy [1862]
He lived 1806 to 1875 and located innervated muscles for behaviors, gestures, and expressions. He studied locomotor
ataxia and tried electrical stimulation therapy.
Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.]
general
USA
1862 to 1865
He lived 1822 to 1885. After he fought at Shiloh in Virginia, Vicksburg in Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee, he
led Wilderness Campaign for the North, which led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia [1865].
Robert E. Lee [Lee, Robert E.]
general
South USA
1862 to 1865
He lived 1807 to 1872. Confederate general stopped march on Richmond in Seven Days battles, won second Battle of
Bull Run, fought to standstill at Antietam while trying to invade North, won at Fredericksburg, won at Chancellorsville,
lost at Gettysburg, fought Grant in Wilderness Campaign, endured siege at Petersburg, and surrendered at Appomattox
Courthouse [1865].
Alfred Clebsch [Clebsch, Alfred]
mathematician
Germany
1862 to 1866
Theory of Elasticity in Fields [1862]; On the Applications of Abelian Functions in Geometry [1864]; Theory of
Abelian Functions [1866: with Paul Gordan]
He lived 1833 to 1872 and studied genus of curves {Clebsch-Gordan coefficients}.
Ernst Haeckel [Haeckel, Ernst]
biologist
Berlin, Germany
1862 to 1868
Radiolaria [1862]; History of Creation [1868]
He lived 1834 to 1919 and studied marine invertebrates. Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny {theory of recapitulation}.
Sperm are mostly nucleic acid [1868].
Christina Rossetti [Rossetti, Christina]
poet
England
1862 to 1881
Goblin's Market [1862]; Pageant and Other Poems [1881]
William Stanley Jevons [Jevons, William Stanley]
economist/philosopher
England
1862 to 1882
General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy [1862: marginal-utility theory of value]; Coal Question [1865];
Theory of Political Economy [1871]; Principles of Science [1874]; State in Relation to Labour [1882]
He lived 1835 to 1882. He started the marginalist revolution [1871] and developed marginal-utility theory of value. He
advocated deductive science based on probability. In logic, he studied inclusive OR and developed logic of similar
objects.
Franz Brentano [Brentano, Franz]
philosopher
Germany/Austria/Italy
1862 to 1889
Several Senses of Being in Aristotle [1862]; Psychology of Aristotle [1867]; Psychology from the Empirical Standpoint
[1871]; Descriptive Psychology [1874]; Origin of Our Knowledge of Right and Wrong [1889]
Epistemology
Psychology is about mental states, which can be mental/intentional or physical/sensational.
Phenomena are physical, such as color, cold, sound, smell, or mental, such as presentations from senses or imagination,
emotion, judgment. Physical phenomena require object. Like language, mental phenomena can reference objects in
thought {intentionality, Brentano} and can be conscious or unconscious. The mental is about something else.
However, some conscious states are not representational, and some representations are not conscious.
Awareness relates to objects and events external to people and their awareness, so awareness has intentionality.
Subjective experiences refer to perceptions or mental ideas, independent of their external objects. Intention objects can
also be selves {psychological immanentism}.
All and only mental phenomena have intentionality {irreducibility thesis}. Mental states are always intentional
{Brentano's thesis} {aboutness}.
However, sensations seem not to be about something else.
Mental states are intentional states {propositional attitude, Brentano}. All intentional states are intentional, but not vice
versa. Intentional states causally relate to their objects, including non-existing objects.
Consciousness acts are constitutive powers of self and are subjective experiences. Intuition can describe all subjective
experience. Subjective experiences have classes {act psychology} {descriptive phenomenology} {phenomenognosis}
that find causal relations between phenomena.
Intentionality grounds object concepts.
Emotions and judgments use presentation with acts of judging or emoting.
Mind
Mental is personal and self-referencing. Mental phenomena cannot be physical phenomena.
Otto von Bismarck [Bismarck, Otto von] or Iron Chancellor
premier
Prussia
1862 to 1890
He lived 1815 to 1898 and was first chancellor. He started Austro-Prussian War [1866]. He organized Germany under
Prussia as North German Confederation. He started Franco-Prussian War [1869]. He created German Empire under
King William I. He passed social security and labor laws to block more socialism. Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed him
[1890].
Sarah Bernhardt [Bernhardt, Sarah]
actor
France/USA
1862 to 1912
Camille [1912]; Queen Elizabeth [1912]
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. [Holmes, Jr., Oliver Wendell]
chief justice/inventor
USA
1862 to 1932
stereoscope [1862]; Common Law [1881]
He lived 1841 to 1935. As USA Supreme Court Chief Justice [1902 to 1932], he emphasized human rights over
property rights.
Julia Ward Howe [Howe, Julia Ward]
poet
USA
1863
Battle Hymn of the Republic [1863: hymn]
Gregor Mendel [Mendel, Gregor]
biologist
März, Austria
1863 to 1866
Experiments in Plant Hybridization [1865]
He lived 1822 to 1884 and developed Mendel's inheritance laws by studying dominant and recessive characteristics of
pea-plant independent and discrete heredity units.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow [Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth]/John Baptiste Calkin [Calkin, John Baptiste]
lyricist/composer
USA
1863 to 1872
I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day [1863 to 1872: music is from Waltham and from Mainzer]
Calkin lived 1827 to ?.
Camille Saint-Saens [Saint-Saens, Camille]
composer
France
1863 to 1877
Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso [1863]; Danse Macabre [1874]; Omphale's Spinning Wheel [1871]; Samson and
Delilah [1877: opera]
He lived 1835 to 1921 and composed symphonies and operas.
Ismail Pasha or Ismail the Magnificent
pasha
Egypt
1863 to 1879
He lived 1830 to 1895 and was Ibrahim Pasha's son. Debt caused him to allow France and Britain to take over Egyptian
government. He sold Suez Canal [completed in 1869] to Britain [1876].
Ernest Renan [Renan, Ernest]
historian
Paris, France
1863 to 1881
History of the Origins of Christianity [1863 to 1881: seven volumes]
He lived 1823 to 1892 and studied Judaism and Christianity.
Eduardo Manet [Manet, Eduardo]
painter
France
1863 to 1882
Luncheon on the Grass [1863]; Olympia [1863]; Fifer [1866]; Bar at the Folies-Bergere [1882]
He lived 1832 to 1883 and was the first Impressionist, for whom painting itself was reality.
Mirza Huseyn Ali [Ali, Mirza Huseyn] or Baha'u'llah or Glory of God
philosopher
Baghdad, Iraq/Iran
1863 to 1890
Hidden Words [1857]; Book of Certitude [1863]; Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys [1870 to 1890]; Epistle to the
Son of the Wolf [1870 to 1890]; Most Holy Book [1870 to 1890]; Prayer and Meditations [1870 to 1890]
He lived 1817 to 1892 and was Babi. He then claimed he was the Promised One of all ages [1863]. He had to leave
Iran, and Ottomans imprisoned him in Acre, Lebanon.
Auguste Rodin [Rodin, Auguste]
sculptor
France
1863 to 1900
Man with the Broken Nose [1863: bronze mask]; Age of Bronze [1876: bronze]; Gates of Hell [1880 to 1917: bronze];
Thinker [1881: bronze]; Eve [1881: bronze]; Burghers of Calais [1884 to 1886: bronze]; Kiss [1886: bronze]; Balzac
[1893 to 1897: bronze]; Walking Man [1900: bronze]
Thomas Henry Huxley [Huxley, Thomas Henry]
biologist/paleontologist/philosopher
England
1863 to 1910
Man's Place in Nature [1863]; Lessons in Elementary Physiology [1866]; Animal Automatism and Other Essays
[1884]; Agnosticism [1893]; Methods and Results [1910]
He lived 1825 to 1895, was evolutionary theorist, and promoted and defended Darwin's theory.
Epistemology
People cannot know the Absolute.
Ethics
It is immoral to believe if one cannot justify the belief from what one knows.
Mind
Animals are machines but are conscious {conscious automata}. Consciousness does not cause anything
{epiphenomenalism, Huxley}.
George I
king
Greece
1863 to 1913
Numa Denys Fustel de Coulanges [Coulanges, Numa Denys Fustel de]
archaeologist
Paris, France
1864
Ancient City [1864]
He lived 1830 to 1889 and studied Greek and Roman morals, traditions, and religion in city-states.
Robert Lowry [Lowry, Robert]
lyricist/composer
USA
1864
Shall We Gather at the River [1864: music is Hanson Place]
John Henry Newman [Newman, John Henry]
essayist/cardinal
England
1864
Apology for His Life [1864: essay]
He lived 1801 to 1890. People need well-rounded liberal education, to know things and see relations between things.
Maximilian
emperor
Mexico
1864 to 1867
He lived 1832 to 1867. Napoleon III sent him to aid Mexican conservatives against Juarez. Someone killed him after
French soldiers left. He was brother of Francis Joseph II of Austria.
Frans Donders [Donders, Frans]
physiologist
Utrecht, Netherlands
1864 to 1870
On the anomalies of accommodation and refraction of the eye with a preliminary essay on physiologic dioptrics [1864];
Proceedings of the Community Meeting of the Koninlijke Academy of Science [1865]; Speed of Mental Processes
[1868]; Physiology of speech sounds, in particular those of the Dutch language [1870]
He lived 1818 to 1889 and studied eyes and reaction times.
Charles L. Dodgson [Dodgson, Charles L.] or Lewis Carroll [Carroll, Lewis]
storyteller/poet
England
1864 to 1871
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland [1864: story]; The Walrus and the Carpenter [1871: poem in Through the Looking
Glass]; Jabberwocky [1871: in Through the Looking Glass]; Through the Looking Glass [1871: story]; Father William
[1876: poem]; Hunting of the Snark [1876: poem]
Fyodor Dostoyevsky [Dostoyevsky, Fyodor]
novelist
Russia
1864 to 1880
Notes from Underground [1864]; Crime and Punishment [1866]; Idiot [1869]; Possessed [1872]; Brothers Karamazov
[1880]
Edvard Grieg [Grieg, Edvard]
composer
Norway
1864 to 1886
I Love You [1864: song]; Peer Gynt [1876: opera]; Piano Concerto in A Minor; Last Spring [1886: song]
John Graham Chambers [Chambers, John Graham]
boxer
England
1865
He lived 1843 to 1883 and invented Marquis of Queensberry rules for boxing [1865], published [1867].
Mary Mapes Dodge [Dodge, Mary Mapes]
writer
USA
1865
Hans Brinker or the Silver Skates [1865]
John Grote [Grote, John]
philosopher
England
1865
Philosophical Explorations [1865]; Examination of the Utilitarian Philosophy [1865]
He lived 1813 to 1866 and was Idealist.
Otto Liebmann [Liebmann, Otto]
philosopher
Stuttgart, Germany
1865
Kant and the Epigoni [1865]
He lived 1840 to 1912 and was of Marburg School of Immanent Philosophy. People cannot know things-in-themselves.
Algernon Swinburne [Swinburne, Algernon]
poet
England
1865 to 1866
Atalanta in Calydon [1865]; When the Hounds of Spring [1865: in Atalanta in Calydon]; Forsaken Garden [1865];
Garden of Proserpine [1866]; Triumph of Time [1866]; Poems and Ballads [1866: including Hymn to Proserpine]
Andrew Johnson [Johnson, Andrew]
president
USA
1865 to 1869
He lived 1808 to 1875. 17th president became president after Booth assassinated Lincoln. He proposed mild
Reconstruction for South, encouraged Seward to purchase Alaska from Russia [1867], and barely escaped
impeachment for trying to remove Stanton, Secretary of War, who was a radical Republican.
Sabine Baring-Gould [Baring-Gould, Sabine]/Arthur S. Sullivan [Sullivan, Arthur S.]
lyricist/composer
England
1865 to 1871
Onward, Christian Soldiers [1865: music is St. Gertrude, 1871]
Baring-Gould lived 1834 to 1924. Sullivan lived 1842 to 1900.
Jules Verne [Verne, Jules]
novelist
France
1865 to 1873
From the Earth to the Moon [1865]; Journey to the Center of the Earth [1871]; 20,000 Leagues under the Sea [1873];
Tour of the World in 80 Days [1873]
Henry Clay Work [Work, Henry Clay]
composer
USA
1865 to 1876
Marching Through Georgia [1865]; Grandfather's Clock [1876]
Johannes Brahms [Brahms, Johannes]
composer
Germany
1865 to 1880
Hungarian Dances [1865]; Waltz in A flat or Valse-Berceuse Célèbre [1865]; Cradle Song or Brahm's Lullaby [1868];
German Requiem [1868: mass]; Symphony Number One in C Minor [1876]; Academic Festival Overture [1880]
James H. Stirling [Stirling, James H.]
philosopher
England
1865 to 1881
Secret of Hegel [1865]; As Regards Protoplasm [1869]; Text Book to Kant [1881]
Anton Dvorak [Dvorak, Anton]
composer
Czech Republic
1865 to 1894
Slavonic Dance No. 1 or Bells of Zlonice [1865]; Songs My Mother Taught Me [1880]; Slavonic Dance No. 2 [1886];
Symphony No. 9 From the New World [1893: symphony]; Humoresque [1894: song]
Charles Sanders Peirce [Peirce, Charles Sanders]
philosopher/logician
USA
1865 to 1905
Harvard Lectures On the Logic of Science [1865]; On a New List of Categories [1867]; Questions Concerning Certain
Faculties Claimed for Man [1868]; Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives [1870]; Illustrations of the
Logic of Science [1877 to 1878]; Fixation of Belief [1877: in Illustrations of the Logic of Science]; How to Make Our
Ideas Clear [1878: in Illustrations of the Logic of Science]; Evolutionary Love [1893]; What is a Sign? [1894];
Reasoning and the Logic of Things [1898]; What Pragmatism Is [1905]
He lived 1839 to 1914 and started pragmatism or pragmaticism, as development of Kant. In mathematics, he developed
quantification theory [1878] and axiomatized pure mathematics using logic of relations.
Epistemology
Proposition is true if it corresponds to reality [1871]. However, people cannot experience reality. Direct, subjective, or
personal methods such as introspection, faith, will, and authority cannot reliably provide true beliefs. People cannot
idealize reality. Thinking only theoretically and logically cannot deduce reliable conclusions, because premises that
allow reasoning depend on ideals, not reality. The only method that can approach truth with better and better
probability is observing reality objectively, publicly, and scientifically {method of science} {science method}. Science
uses reasoning {abduction, reasoning} that can explain available evidence by making new, possibly generic,
hypotheses or inferences and testing them using public and objective techniques {inference to the best explanation,
Peirce}.
Scientific concepts state that operations cause observable consequences. Scientific statements make predictions to test.
A statement is true if its cause's predicted effect happens.
The same principle applied to belief makes belief clear. Belief practical effects can test belief {pragmaticism, Peirce}.
If belief results in good consequences, it is good belief.
People can be wrong about beliefs {fallibilism}. Truth takes time, to reach public consensus.
Relations can have one, two, or three positions. One-place relations are people's experiences. Two-place relations are
physical laws. Three-place relations are meaning, understanding, and consciousness.
Meaning is three-place relation among sign, observer, and interpretation {speculative grammar}. Meaning is
interpretation sign causes in observers {semeiotics}. Meaning depends on knowing or believing consequences.
Signs are singular terms. Sign classes are words {symbol, Peirce} {conventional sign}, pointers {index, Peirce}
{natural sign, philosophy}, or pictures {icon, Peirce}. Words can represent object category {type} or object example
{token, Peirce}. Words always refer to same object or event. Pointers {indexical word} {demonstrative word} {tokenreflexive} are pronouns and words about relative places or times and refer to something else. Indexicals can take
different sentence roles and can refer to different things. Icons represent actual or ideal object.
Metaphysics
Reality is efficient causes, of sense qualities or other effects. Reality is continuous {syncheism}, not discrete. Reality is
not deterministic {tychism}.
Roberto Ardigo [Ardigo, Roberto]
philosopher
Padua, Italy
1865 to 1909
Concourse of Religion [1865]; Science of Education [1893 and 1909]
He lived 1828 to 1920 and was of Comtian School.
Leopold II
king
Belgium
1865 to 1909
Paul Gordan [Gordan, Paul]
mathematician
Germany
1866
Theory of Abelian Functions [1866: with Alfred Clebsch]
Jesse James [James, Jesse]
outlaw
West USA
1866
Friedrich Albert Lange [Lange, Friedrich Albert]
philosopher
Iserlohn, Westphalia, Germany
1866
History of Materialism [1866]
He lived 1828 to 1875 and was of Marburg School of Immanent Philosophy.
Alfred Nobel [Nobel, Alfred]
inventor
Sweden
1866
dynamite [1866]
He lived 1801 to 1872. His trust provided for Nobel Prizes [1901].
Leopold von Sacher-Masoch [Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von]
writer/lawyer
Lemberg, Austria
1866
Don Juan of Kolomea [1866]
He lived 1835 to 1895 and studied if animal can be masochistic.
Nikolaus Otto [Otto, Nikolaus] or Nicholas Otto [Otto, Nicholas]
inventor
Germany
1866 to 1867
internal combustion engine using Otto cycle [1866 to 1867]
Alphonse Daudet [Daudet, Alphonse]
writer
France
1866 to 1869
Les lettres de mon moulin or Letters from My Windmill [1866 to 1869]
Joseph Lister [Lister, Joseph]
biologist
England
1866 to 1877
He lived 1827 to 1912, used carbolic acid on wounds to prevent infection [1866], and studied bacteria, antiseptics, heat
sterilization, and operative techniques [1877].
Bedrich Smetana [Smetana, Bedrich]
composer
Czech Republic
1866 to 1879
Bartered Bride [1866: opera]; Moldau [1875]; From My Life [1876]; My Fatherland [1879]
Carol I
prince
Romania
1866 to 1881
He lived 1839 to 1914. Romania gained independence from Ottoman Empire [1881]. Romania had pogroms and laws
against Jews.
Henry Hobson Richardson [Richardson, Henry Hobson]
architect
Chicago, Illinois
1866 to 1887
Richardson House [1866: Romanesque]; Trinity Church [1872 to 1877: Romanesque]; Marshall Field Wholesale Store
[1885 to 1887: Beaux Arts style seven-story building used iron and concrete and was dismantled in 1930]
Miguel II
king
Portugal
1866 to 1920
He lived 1853 to 1927 and abdicated [1920] when republic formed.
Louisa May Alcott [Alcott, Louisa May]
novelist
USA
1867
Little Women [1867]
Horatio Alger, Jr. [Alger, Jr., Horatio]
novelist
USA
1867
Ragged Dick [1867]
He lived 1832 to 1898 and wrote novels {Horatio Alger story} in which young man overcomes adversity and succeeds.
J. G. Hunting [Hunting, J. G.]
composer
USA
1867
Happy Uncle Joe [1867]
Thaddeus Stevens [Stevens, Thaddeus]
senator
USA
1867
He lived 1792 to 1868, was Senator, and wanted to punish South.
Charles Sumner [Sumner, Charles]
senator
USA
1867
He lived 1811 to 1874, was Senator from Massachusetts, and wanted to punish South.
Cornelius Vanderbilt [Vanderbilt, Cornelius]
businessman
New York
1867
He lived 1873 to 1942 and started New York Central railroad and shipping lines.
Joseph P. Webster [Webster, Joseph P.]/Sanford F. Bennett [Bennett, Sanford F.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1867
In the Sweet By and By [1867]
Webster lived 1819 to 1875. Bennett lived 1836 to 1898.
Benjamin Disraeli [Disraeli, Benjamin]
prime minister
England
1867 to 1880
He lived 1804 to 1881, was Conservative {Tory}, and passed Reform Bill, widening right to vote to workingmen. He
annexed Fiji Islands, Transvaal, and Cyprus. He fought Afghanistan and Zulu tribe in Africa. He bought control of
Suez Canal. He reduced Russian power in Balkans at Congress of Berlin. In 1874, he became Prime Minister again.
Mark Twain or Samuel Langhorn Clemens [Clemens, Samuel Langhorn]
novelist
USA
1867 to 1889
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County [1867: story]; Innocents Abroad [1869]; Tom Sawyer [1876]; Prince
and the Pauper [1882]; Huckleberry Finn [1884]; Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court [1889]
Phillips Brooks [Brooks, Phillips]/Lewis Henry Redner [Redner, Lewis Henry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1868
O Little Town of Bethlehem [1868]
Brooks lived 1835 to 1893. Redner lived 1830 to 1908.
Willkie Collins [Collins, Willkie]
novelist
England
1868
Moonstone [1868]
George Leybourne [Leybourne, George]
lyricist/composer
USA
1868
Man on the Flying Trapeze [1868]
Christopher Sholes [Sholes, Christopher]/S. W. Soule [Soule, S. W.]/G. Glidden [Glidden, G.]
inventor
USA
1868
typewriter [1868]
Bret Harte [Harte, Bret]
novelist
USA
1868 to 1869
Luck of Roaring Camp [1868]; Outcast of Poker Flats [1869]
Wilhelm Mannhardt [Mannhardt, Wilhelm]
anthropologist
Berlin, Germany
1868 to 1877
Spirits of the Corn [1868]; Tree-Worship of the Germans [1875]; Ancient Worship of Forest and Field [1877]
He lived 1831 to 1880 and studied customs and mythology.
John Muir [Muir, John]
naturalist
USA
1868 to 1890
Treasure of the Yosemite [1890]; Features of the Proposed National Park [1890]
He lived 1838 to 1942 and wrote about the beauty and meaning of nature, especially after visiting Yosemite [1868].
William E. Gladstone [Gladstone, William E.]
prime minister
England
1868 to 1894
He lived 1809 to 1898. Liberal passed Irish Land Act, enacted civil-service reform, started ballot vote, ended sale of
army commissions, reformed Parliament, and started public education. His career ended when he advocated Home Rule
for Ireland.
Edgar Dégas [Dégas, Edgar]
painter
France
1868 to 1895
Orchestra at the Opera [1868]; Prima Ballerina [1876]; Dancer at the Bouquet [1876]; Rehearsal in the Foyer of the
Opera [1895]
Claude Monet [Monet, Claude]
painter
France
1868 to 1906
River [1868]; Impression: Sunrise [1872]; Water Lilies [1906]
Mutsuhito or Meiji
emperor
Japan
1868 to 1912
Shogun had surrendered to Perry. In Meiji Restoration [1868], clans took capital, Kyoto, from shogun. Mutsuhito lived
1852 to 1912 and ruled Japan [1873 to 1912]. Capital moved to Edo (Tokyo). Emperor owned all land. Government
had prefectures. Conscription built army. Clans industrialized and built ships, weapons, and cotton mills. They studied
navigation and other western techniques.
Richard Blackmore [Blackmore, Richard]
novelist
England
1869
Lorna Doone [1869]
Eduard von Hartmann [Hartmann, Eduard von]
philosopher
Germany
1869
Philosophy of the Unconscious [1869]
He lived 1842 to 1906. The Absolute contains both idea and will, and will's pain and suffering always persists with idea
order and spirit.
Friedrich Miescher [Miescher, Friedrich]
biologist
Germany
1869
He lived 1844 to 1895 and discovered DNA in trout sperm [1869]. Blood carbon dioxide level regulates breathing.
Francesco De Sanctis [De Sanctis, Francesco]
philosopher
Italy
1869 to 1871
Critical essays [1869]; Critical essay on Petrarch [1869]; History of Italian Literature [1871]
Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.]
president
USA
1869 to 1877
He lived 1822 to 1885. 18th president allowed passage of harsh Reconstruction Act for South. He allowed legal tender
notes {greenback money} to stay in circulation after Panic of 1873, though gold and silver reserves backing the money
were low. He associated with dishonest politicians. His secretary of state was Hamilton Fish.
Auguste Renoir [Renoir, Auguste]
painter
France
1869 to 1881
Le Grenoullière or Froggery [1869: inn on river north of Paris]; Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette or Dance at the
Pancake Mill [1876]; Luncheon of the Boating Party [1881]
Francis Galton [Galton, Francis]
biologist
England
1869 to 1883
Hereditary Genius [1869]; English Men of Science [1874]; Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development [1883]
He lived 1822 to 1911 and studied human mental-property and physical-property genetics. He collected and classified
fingerprints {fingerprinting}. He studied human individual differences, using imagery, psychological questionnaires,
twin life histories, and family and talented-people educational backgrounds. He developed the correlation coefficient.
He participated in scientific exploration to unexplored Africa.
He discovered air pressure systems and invented weather maps [1875]. He invented a polyhedron {Galton's
Polyhedron} of possible structural forms to which organisms can jump. More intellectually gifted people have less
vivid imagery [1883].
John Augustus Roebling [Roebling, John Augustus]
architect
Germany/New York, New York
1869 to 1883
Brooklyn Bridge [1869 to 1883: iron bridge has span of 160 meters from Manhattan Island to Brooklyn]
He lived 1806 to 1869 and patented wire rope, used in suspension bridges.
Paul Verlaine [Verlaine, Paul]
poet
France
1869 to 1889
A la promenade or At the promenade [1869: from Fêtes galantes]; A la manière or In the manner [1869 to 1889: from
Parallèlement]; A la princesse Roukhine [1889: from Parallèlement]
Dmitri Mendeleyev [Mendeleyev, Dmitri]
chemist/physicist
Russia
1869 to 1890
He lived 1834 to 1907 and invented the periodic law and element periodic table [1869].
Pyotr I. Tchaikowsky [Tchaikowsky, Pyotr I.]
composer
Russia
1869 to 1893
Romeo and Juliet [1869 and 1880: ballet]; Piano Concerto No. 1 in B Flat Minor [1875]; Marche Slave Overture
[1876]; Swan Lake [1876: ballet]; Francesca da Rimini [1876: symphonic poem]; Violin Concerto in D [1878]; Eugene
Onegin [1878: opera]; Fourth Symphony [1878]; 1812 Overture [1880]; Fifth Symphony [1888]; Sleeping Beauty
[1889: ballet]; Queen of Spades [1890: opera]; Nutcracker [1892: ballet, including Waltz of the Flowers]; Sixth
Symphony or Pathetique [1893]
Marius Petipa [Petipa, Marius]
St. Petersburg, Russia
1869 to 1898
Don Quixote [1869: music by Ludwig Minkus, including the Pas de Deux]; La Bayadere or Temple Dancer [1877:
music by Ludwig Minkus, including Act IV, In the Kingdom of the Shades]; Sleeping Beauty [1890 and 1910: music
by Tchaikowsky]; Raymonda [1898: music by Glazounov]
He lived 1818 to 1910 and choreographed at the Imperial Theater.
Leo Tolstoy [Tolstoy, Leo]
novelist
Russia
1869 to 1899
War and Peace [1869]; Anna Karenina [1877]; Death of Ivan Ilyich [1884: story]; Kreutzer Sonata [1889: story];
Resurrection [1899]
Christian Johansson [Johansson, Christian]
ballet dancer/teacher
Russia/Sweden
1869 to 1903
Thomas Alva Edison [Edison, Thomas Alva]
inventor
USA
1869 to 1910
stock ticker tape [1869]; automatic telegraph [1872]; phonograph [1877]; carbon button microphone [1878];
incandescent light bulb [1879]; electric dynamo [1879]; electrical distribution system [1880]; experimental electric
railroad [1880]; Edison effect [1883]; silent movies [1893]; projector [1896]; storage battery [1900 to 1910]
He lived 1847 to 1931, found Edison effect [1883], and invented light bulb {light bulb}, movies, phonograph, and
electric generator {electric dynamo}. He projected kinetoscopes onto screens and showed vaudeville acts [1896].
Gustav Fritsch [Fritsch, Gustav]/Eduard Hitzig [Hitzig, Eduard]
biologist
Germany
1870
On the Electrical Excitability of the Cerebrum [1870]
Fritsch lived 1838 to 1927. Hitzig lived 1838 to 1907. They studied Broca's-area localized motor functions.
Shadworth H. Hodgson [Hodgson, Shadworth H.]
philosopher
England
1870
Theory of Practice [1870]
He lived 1832 to 1912, started New Realism, and emphasized stream of consciousness. People know things as
somethings. Physical events cause conscious events, but conscious events cause nothing. The future is the test of truth.
Thomas Nast [Nast, Thomas]
cartoonist
New York, New York
1870
He lived 1840 to 1902 and caricatured Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. He used donkey for Democrats and elephant
for Republicans.
Bernhard A. von Gudden [Gudden, Bernhard A. von]
biologist
Germany
1870 to 1874
Anomalies of the Human Skull [1870]; Experimental Studies of Skull Growth [1874]
He lived 1824 to 1886. After axons are cut, neuron cell bodies often die and disappear {retrograde cell degeneration}
[1870], providing method to study nerve pathways.
Henry George [George, Henry]
lawyer
USA
1870 to 1877
Our Land and Land Policy [1870]; Progress and Poverty [1877]
He lived 1839 to 1897, was against laissez-faire, and favored taxing only real estate.
Walter Flemming [Flemming, Walter]
biologist
USA
1870 to 1879
He lived 1843 to 1905 and studied mitosis [1870], meiosis, and chromatin role [1879].
Eadweard Muybridge [Muybridge, Eadweard]
photographer
England
1870 to 1880
He lived 1830 to 1904. His action photographs used dry collodion process.
Booker T. Washington [Washington, Booker T.]
founder/historian/biographer
USA
1870 to 1901
Up from Slavery [1901: autobiography]
He lived 1856 to 1915 and started Tuskegee Institute.
Alfred Russel Wallace [Wallace, Alfred Russel]
naturalist
Britain
1870 to 1903
Contributions of the Theory of Natural Selection [1870]; Geographical Distribution of Animals [1876]; Island Life
[1880]; On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism [1881]; Darwinism [1889]; Man's Place in the Universe [1903]
He lived 1823 to 1913 and independently developed evolution theory with survival of fittest. He studied animal
geography and life in Amazon River basin and Malay Archipelago.
Richard Dedekind [Dedekind, Richard]
mathematician
France
1870 to 1916
Essay on the Theory of Numbers [1870]
He lived 1831 to 1916 and studied fields, algebraic numbers, and irrational numbers.
Mikhail Bakunin [Bakunin, Mikhail]
anarchist/philosopher
Russia/Paris, France
1871
God and State [1871: including What is Authority?]
He lived 1814 to 1876. People should form voluntary cooperative groups with no private property {collectivism}.
Revolutions {anarchism} should end repression by politicians, give freedom, and end political power by bourgeois or
proletariat.
Phineas T. Barnum [Barnum, Phineas T.]
showman
USA
1871
He lived 1810 to 1891 and owned circus called "The Greatest Show on Earth". He organized American Museum of
freaks.
Ludwig Boltzmann [Boltzmann, Ludwig]
chemist
Austria
1871
He lived 1844 to 1906 and studied entropy and probability [1871].
Edward Eggleston [Eggleston, Edward]
novelist
USA
1871
Hoosier Schoolmaster [1871]
Joseph Funk [Funk, Joseph]
arranger
USA
1871
Swing Low, Sweet Chariot [1871: spiritual]
He lived 1778 to 1862. It is traditional.
Felix Klein [Klein, Felix]
mathematician
Germany
1871
On the So-called Non-Euclidean Geometry [1871]; Erlanger Program [1872: Erlanger is town in Germany]; Riemann's
Theory of Algebraic Functions and their Integrals [1882]
He lived 1849 to 1925 and set forth Erlangen program [1872]. He invented Klein's bottle and metric. In three
dimensions, all metric geometries are projective geometry augmented by a quadric {absolute, geometry} or a curve
related to absolute.
Jean N. Arthur Rimbaud [Rimbaud, Jean N. Arthur]
novelist
France
1871
Drunken Boat [1871]
Henry Stanley [Stanley, Henry]
discoverer
England/Africa
1871
He lived 1841 to 1904 and found Dr. Livingstone. Later, he helped Belgium rule Congo and Britain rule other African
lands.
James Abbott McNeill Whistler [Whistler, James Abbott McNeill]
painter
USA/England
1871 to 1877
Arrangement in Black and Gray: the Artist's Mother or Whistler's Mother [1871]; Nocturne in Black and Gold: the
Falling Rocket [1877]
Carl Menger [Menger, Carl]
economist
Austria
1871 to 1892
Principles of Economics [1871]; Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics [1883]; Theory
of Capital [1888]; Money [1892]
He lived 1840 to 1921, started the marginalist revolution [1871], and founded Austrian School. There was
Methodenstreit {methodological debate} between German Historical School and Austrian School [1884].
John William Strutt [Strutt, John William] or Lord Rayleigh [Rayleigh, Lord]
physicist
England
1871 to 1894
He lived 1842 to 1919, studied traveling waves, studied hydrodynamics {hydrodynamic similarity}, studied
frictionless-tube compressible flow with heat transfer {Rayleigh flow} [1885], discovered argon [1894], and described
light scattering [1871]. He calculated black-body radiation distribution at low and high frequencies {Rayleigh-Jeans
radiation}, with James Jeans [1900], which indicated that all energy goes into higher field frequencies over time
{ultraviolet catastrophe}, which is impossible.
Sarah O. Jewett [Jewett, Sarah O.] or Sarah O. Sweet [Sweet, Sarah O.]
essayist
USA
1871 to 1909
Spendthrift Doll [1871]; Bit of Foolishness [1881]; White Heron [1886]; Little Captive Maid [1891: Irish story];
Country of the Pointed Firs [1909]
Luther Burbank [Burbank, Luther]
biologist
USA
1871 to 1921
Burbank potato [1871]; Shasta daisy [1901]; July Elberta peach [1905 to 1910]; Santa Rosa plum [1905 to 1910];
Flaming Gold nectarine [1905 to 1910]; How Plants Are Treated to Work for Man [1921]
He lived 1849 to 1926 and developed new plant varieties.
John Wesley Hyatt [Hyatt, John Wesley]
inventor
USA
1872
celluloid plastic [1872]
He lived 1837 to 1920 {celluloid plastic}.
Johanna Spyri [Spyri, Johanna] or Johanna Heuser [Heuser, Johanna]
novelist
Switzerland
1872
Heidi [1872]
Georges Bizet [Bizet, Georges]
composer
France
1872 to 1875
L'Arlésienne or Woman from Arles [1872: opera]; Carmen [1875: opera]
Eugen Dühring [Dühring, Eugen]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1872 to 1875
Critical Study of Theoretical Principles of Mechanics [1872]; Course of Philosophy [1875]
He lived 1833 to 1871 and was Optimist, materialist, positivist, atheist, and utopian.
Heinrich Schliemann [Schliemann, Heinrich]
archaeologist
Germany/Troy, Asia Minor
1872 to 1876
He lived 1822 to 1890 and excavated Troy [1872 to 1973] and Mycenae [1876]. He found gold at Troy [1874]. He
discovered gold jewelry from -1550 at Mycenae [1876].
Friedrich Max Muller [Muller, Friedrich Max]
linguist/anthropologist
Germany/England
1872 to 1893
Lectures on the Science of Religion [1872]; Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion [1878]; Natural Religion
[1881]; Physical Religion [1890]; Anthropological Religion [1892]; Theosophy or Psychological Religion [1893]
He lived 1823 to 1900. Religion began as nature worship and personified natural forces. As Hindu, Greek, and Roman
Aryan languages changed, storytelling {mythology, Muller} began.
John Philip Sousa [Sousa, John Philip]
composer
USA
1872 to 1896
Moonlight on the Potomac [1872]; Semper Fidelis or Always Faithful [1888]; Washington Post March [1889];
Thunderer [1889]; Stars and Stripes Forever [1896]
He lived 1854 to 1932 and composed marches.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche [Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm]
philosopher
Germany/Basel, Switzerland
1872 to 1901
Birth of Tragedy [1872]; Untimely Meditations [1874]; Human, All too Human [1878]; Gay Science [1882 and 1887];
Thus Spake Zarathustra [1883 to 1885]; Beyond Good and Evil [1886]; On the Genealogy of Morals [1887]; Twilight
of the Gods or Twilight of the Idols [1888]; Case of Wagner [1888]; Antichrist [1888]; Ecce Homo or Behold Mankind
or Behold Humanity [1888]; Will to Power [1901]
He lived 1844 to 1900. Schopenhauer influenced him.
Aesthetics
Art can have restraint {Apollonian} or be free {Dionysian}.
Epistemology
People cannot know truth. All things are in flux, including truth. Therefore, all things must have continual study from
many perspectives, accounting for all cases and situations.
Ethics
Values should depend on world as it is, humans as they are, and all their possibilities. Morals are always changing as
world and people change.
People should accept material world and human life as they are. People should express their instincts, be fully alive,
have desire for power, and exercise power. People should feel free, powerful, creative, and independent {overman}
{superman}, by intellectually controlling and exercising their will-to-power as much as possible. For supermen, good
and evil are meaningless.
The best morality for the present time is morality for masters and free, independent persons. Only the strong ought to
survive and/or rule. Anything that delays arrival of the supermen is wrong or goes against nature.
Conventional morals and society are just escapes for the weak. People deny that anything is important or any action has
significance {nihilism, Nietzsche}. Nihilism, old values, old interpretations, and old thinking ways, such as theology
and metaphysics, are slave or herd morality for the powerless and weary. For example, the old value of sympathy
perpetuates the unfit. Old values make people sensitive to injury, inferiority, oppression, frustration, or humiliation, and
they react to them with hatred, tricks, and dishonesty {resentment} {slave mentality}.
Old values should have re-examination {transvaluation} {revaluation} to find relations to creative and powerful life
values.
Will and intellect oppose each other. People that can only will must suffer, as things thwart their will or they conflict
with others. Intellect should control will and engage in creative, powerful, and life-affirming activities.
Truth and happiness are not important, only expression of will-to-power.
Metaphysics
Irrational-force interactions {will-to-power} have no objective purposes and no structure and create and maintain
physical and biological worlds.
"God is dead" and does not exist.
Mind
People can only will. Therefore, they must suffer.
Politics
Society can develop people's awareness and activity.
Samuel Butler [Butler, Samuel]
novelist
England
1872 to 1902
Erewhon [1872]; Way of All Flesh [1903]
Ernst Mach [Mach, Ernst]
physicist/philosopher
Vienna, Austria
1872 to 1916
History and Root of the Law of the Conservation of Energy [1872]; Science of Mechanics: a Critical and Historical
Account of its Development [1883]; Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations and the Relation of the Physical to the
Psychical [1885]; Popular Scientific Lectures [1894]; Knowledge and Error [1905]; Space and Geometry in the Light
of Physiological, Psychological and Physical Inquiry [1906]; Principles of Physical Optics: an Historical and
Philosophical Treatment [1916]
He lived 1838 to 1916. He studied gas flow, sound speed, optic Doppler effect, shock waves, and perception {Mach
band, Mach}. He studied how observers relate to sensations and objects and studied reference frames.
Epistemology
Accelerations and rotations are relative to universe mean mass {Mach's principle, Mach}, and so relative to fixed stars.
Object and physical knowledge cannot depend on sensations, because methods by which people perceive determine
sensations. Science terms describe and predict {instrumentalism} but do not refer to physical objects, which people
cannot know.
Only sensory experience can verify science ideas {empirio-criticism}.
Enrico Cecchetti [Cecchetti, Enrico]
ballet dancer
Italy
1872 to 1927
He lived 1850 to 1928 and was balletmaster of Diaghilev's Ballet Russes.
Winslow Homer [Homer, Winslow]
painter
USA
1873
Morning Bell [1873]
Augusto Vera [Vera, Augusto]
philosopher
Naples, Italy
1873
Trendelenburg as Opponent of Hegel [1873]
Rutherford B. Hayes [Hayes, Rutherford B.]
president
USA
1873 to 1877
He lived 1822 to 1893 and was the 19th president.
Gus Williams [Williams, Gus]
composer
USA
1873 to 1878
German Polka [1873]; Belle of the Ball [1873]; Banner Song [1874]; See That My Grave Is Kept Clean [1878]
Walter Pater [Pater, Walter]
essayist
England
1873 to 1885
Studies in the History of the Renaissance [1873: essay]; Marius the Epicurean [1885: essay]
David Ferrier [Ferrier, David]
physician
Britain
1873 to 1890
Experimental researches in cerebral physiology and pathology [1873]; Croonian Lecture: Experiments on brain of
monkeys (second series) [1875]; Croonian Lectures on Cerebral Localisation [1890]
He lived 1843 to 1928 and developed operations to treat brain injuries and diseases. Cerebral functions are in fixed
brain areas.
Camillo Golgi [Golgi, Camillo]
biologist
Italy
1873 to 1909
Nerves of the Spinal Column [1873]
He lived 1843 to 1926 and found Golgi cells [1883] and Golgi apparatus [1909]. If silver chromate stains neural tissue,
some nerve cells stain black and become visible among unstained, transparent cells [1873].
Wilhelm Max Wundt [Wundt, Wilhelm Max]
psychologist
Germany
1873 to 1920
Principles of Physiological Psychology [1873 and 1920]
He lived 1832 to 1920 and founded experimental and physiological psychology. He studied attention, apperception,
sense processes, and reaction times. He trained himself in introspection [Wundt, 1873]. Melancholic and choleric
emotional types of Galen have strong emotional reactions, but phlegmatic and sanguine emotional types do not.
Epistemology
Ideas are mental processes, not objects. Mind combines units to make objects and perceptions {structuralism, Wundt}.
Pedro Alarçon [Alarçon, Pedro] or Pedro Antonio de Alarcon y Ariza [Alarcon y Ariza, Pedro Antonio de]
writer
Spain
1874
El Sombrero de Tres Picos or Three-Cornered Hat [1874]
Sophus Lie [Lie, Sophus]
mathematician
Germany
1874
Theory of Integrability Factors [1874]
He lived 1842 to 1899 and studied transformation groups and finite continuous groups {Lie group, Lie}.
Knowles Shaw [Shaw, Knowles]/George Minor [Minor, George]
lyricist/composer
USA
1874
Bringing in the Sheaves [1874: music in 1880]
Shaw lived 1834 to 1878. Minor lived 1845 to 1904.
Juan Valera y Alcala Galiano [Valera y Alcala Galiano, Juan]
writer
Spain
1874
Pepita Jimenez [1874]
Jacobus Van't Hoff [Van't Hoff, Jacobus]
chemist
Netherlands
1874
He lived 1852 to 1911 and studied stereochemistry and diamond structure [1874].
Léon Walras [Walras, Léon] or Marie-Ésprit-Léon Walras [Walras, Marie-Ésprit-Léon]
economist
France
1874
Elements of Pure Economics [1874]
He lived 1834 to 1910, created general equilibrium theory [1874], and founded Lausanne School. His student was
Vilfredo Pareto. He contributed to the marginalist revolution.
Carl Wernicke [Wernicke, Carl]
neurologist/psychiatrist
Germany
1874
Aphasic Syndrome [1874]
He lived 1848 to 1905, studied sensory aphasia and word-usage and word-choice disorders, and invented language
brain-flow diagrams. Alcoholics often have thiamine deficiency, which can cause encephalopathy.
William Kingdon Clifford [Clifford, William Kingdon]
England
1874 to 1877
Body and Mind [1874]; Ethics of Belief [1877]
He lived 1845 to 1879 and invented geometric product and Clifford algebras. He studied complex analysis. Addition
does not necessarily combine two units of same kind but instead defines relations, as in complex numbers or
hypernumbers. People have innate learning, which developed through evolution {evolutionary epistemology, Clifford}.
Mind grows by evolution {creative evolution}.
John Tyndall [Tyndall, John]
philosopher
England
1874 to 1879
Belfast Address [1874]; Fragments of Science: A Series of Detached Essays, Addresses, and Reviews [1879]
He lived 1820 to 1893 and studied science.
Modeste Mussorgsky [Mussorgsky, Modeste]
composer
Russia
1874 to 1880
Boris Godunov [1874: opera]; Pictures at an Exhibition [1874: symphony]; Night on Bald Mountain [1880: symphony]
Henry Sidgwick [Sidgwick, Henry]
philosopher
England
1874 to 1886
Methods of Ethics [1874]; Outlines of the History of Ethics for English Readers [1886]
He lived 1838 to 1900 and was Utilitarian. Only conscious states have value, because people experience and appreciate
them. Achievement, success, or satisfaction value transfers to conscious state.
Thomas Hardy [Hardy, Thomas]
novelist
England
1874 to 1895
Far From the Madding Crowd [1874]; Return of the Native [1878]; Mayor of Casterbridge [1886]; Tess of the
Durbervilles [1891]; Jude the Obscure [1895]
Emil Fischer [Fischer, Emil]
chemist
Germany
1874 to 1906
He lived 1852 to 1919 and studied enzymes and carbohydrate chemistry [1874 to 1906].
Calamity Jane or Martha Jane Canary-Burke [Canary-Burke, Martha Jane]
frontierswoman
South Dakota
1875
Thomas Eakins [Eakins, Thomas]
painter
USA
1875
Gross Clinic [1875]
Karl Verner [Verner, Karl]
linguist
Germany
1875
He lived 1846 to 1896. In all languages, sound changes follow same rules {Verner's Law} [1875].
Thomas Westendorf [Westendorf, Thomas]
composer
USA
1875
I'll Take You Home Again, Kathleen [1875]
Jean-Martin Charcot [Charcot, Jean-Martin]
neurologist/psychologist
France
1875 to 1877
On cerebral localizations [1875]; Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System [1877]
He lived 1825 to 1893 and studied multiple sclerosis, hysteria, hypnosis, and tabes dorsalis "shooting pains" {lightning
pains}.
Sidney Lanier [Lanier, Sidney]
poet
USA
1875 to 1881
Symphony [1875]; Song of the Chattahoochee [1877]; Marshes of Glynn [1879]; Ballad of Trees and the Master [1881]
Alphonso XII
king
Spain
1875 to 1885
He lived 1857 to 1885 and became king after Carlists revolted and lost.
Geronimo
chief
Arizona
1875 to 1886
He lived 1829 to 1909, led Bedonkohe band of Apache, was Apache chief, and fought USA army in Arizona until he
surrendered [1886], ending wars against Native Americans.
William Ernest Henley [Henley, William Ernest]
poet
England
1875 to 1891
Invictus [1875]; England, My England [1888 to 1891]
Henrik Ibsen [Ibsen, Henrik]
playwright
Norway
1875 to 1899
Peer Gynt [1875]; Doll's House [1879]; Enemy of the People [1882]; Wild Duck [1884]; Hedda Gabler [1890]; Master
Builder [1892]; When We Dead Awaken [1899]
Paul Rée [Rée, Paul]
philosopher
Germany/Italy
1875 to 1903
Psychological Investigations [1875]; Origin of the Moral Sentiments [1877]; Illusion of Free Will [1885]; Philosophy
[1903]
He lived 1849 to 1901. Morals depend on society.
Kwang Hsu
emperor
China
1875 to 1908
He lived 1871 to 1908. Of Ch'ing dynasty, he tried to reform China with Hundred Days reform [1898], but Tz'u Hsi
blocked reform, forced his resignation [1908], and became empress.
James Hickok [Hickok, James] or Wild Bill Hickok [Hickok, Wild Bill]
marshal/scout
Kansas
1876
Gerald Manley Hopkins [Hopkins, Gerald Manley]
poet
England
1876
Wreck of the Deutschland [1876]
William Thomson [Thomson, William] or Lord Kelvin [Kelvin, Lord]
physicist
England
1876
He lived 1824 to 1907, invented Kelvin temperature scale [1876], and studied thermodynamics.
Cesare Lombroso [Lombroso, Cesare]
philosopher
Turin, Italy
1876
Criminal Man During Autopsy [1876]
He lived 1835 to 1909, was Positivist, and studied criminology.
Louis Merante [Merante, Louis]
choreographer
France
1876
Sylvia [1876: music by Leo Delibes]
Midhat Pasha
grand vizier
Istanbul, Turkey
1876
He lived 1822 to 1883 and published a constitution for Ottoman Empire [1876].
Amilcare Ponchielli [Ponchielli, Amilcare]
composer
Italy
1876
La Gioconda or Mona Lisa [1876: opera]
J. Wellman [Wellman, J.]
composer
USA
1876
Branigan's Band [1876]
Randolph Caldecott [Caldecott, Randolph]
writer
England
1876 to 1886
Irving's Old Christmas [1876]; House that Jack Built [1878]; Diverting History of John Gilpin [1878]; Ride a
Cockhorse to Banbury Cross; Babes in the Wood; Frog He Would A-Wooing Go; Sing a Song for Sixpence [1880]
Robert Koch [Koch, Robert]
biologist
Wollstein, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
1876 to 1890
Anthrax [1877]
He lived 1843 to 1910, stained bacteria [1877], grew bacterial colonies [1890], studied anthrax [1876], tuberculosis,
and cholera, and developed tuberculin test [1890]. He developed Koch's postulates about disease.
Tewfik Pasha
pasha
Egypt
1876 to 1892
He lived 1852 to 1892 and reformed law and education. He lost some of Sudan to Britain.
Alexander Graham Bell [Bell, Alexander Graham]
inventor
USA
1876 to 1901
telephone [1876]; audiometer [1879]; photophone [1880]; metal locator [1881]; wax cylinders for recording [1886];
tetrahedral kite [1901]
Porfirio Diaz [Diaz, Porfirio]
president
Mexico
1876 to 1911
He lived 1830 to 1915 and increased foreign investment, but it only helped the wealthy. His term ended with
revolution.
Francis Herbert Bradley [Bradley, Francis Herbert]
philosopher
England
1876 to 1914
Ethical Studies [1876]; Principles of Logic [1883]; Appearance and Reality [1893]; Essays on Truth and Reality [1914]
He lived 1846 to 1924 and was utilitarian and Idealist.
Epistemology
Appearance has many objects in many relations. Relations can be independent of objects, be aspects of objects, or be
parts of whole system.
People experience the whole through appearances. Experience continually revises knowledge systems, and statements
are revisable {coherence theory of knowledge}.
Judgments assign predicates to reality.
People have direct knowledge only of perceptions and can build descriptions and conclusions about reality from them.
Logic itself is such conclusion and is mental system.
Ethics
Morality must provide people with unity, understanding, and goal for self {self-realization}. Pleasure seeking does not
supply goals. Kantian duty or rationality assigns role to self but not goal. Hegelian morality provides only duties in
context of society and history.
People should try to realize their best self {ideal morality}, using everyone's pleasures, all duties, all societies, and
analysis and reasoning about them.
Metaphysics
True reality is mental, eternal, self-experiencing, unified, and Absolute.
Mind
People are parts of the Absolute. The Absolute only appears to people in certain forms or appearances.
Henry Martyn Robert [Robert, Henry Martyn]
writer
San Francisco, California
1876 to 1914
Robert's Rules of Order [1876 to 1914: parliamentary procedure rules]
He lived 1837 to 1923, was general, and as engineer built Galveston Seawall.
Chief Joseph
chief
USA
1877
Joseph lived 1840 to 1904, was Nez Perce chief, and surrendered to USA [1877].
Crazy Horse/Dull Knife
surrender
Red Cloud Agency, South Dakota
1877
Crazy Horse lived 1840 to 1877 and was Oglala Lakota chief. Dull Knife lived 1810 to 1883 and was Northern
Cheyenne chief.
Paul Du Bois-Reymond [Du Bois-Reymond, Paul]
mathematician
France
1877
On the paradoxes of the infinitary calculus [1877]
He lived 1831 to 1889 and classified partial differential equations.
Mary A. Lathbury [Lathbury, Mary A.]/William F. Sherwin [Sherwin, William F.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1877
Day Is Dying in the West [1877: music is Chautauqua, 1877]
Lathbury lived 1841 to 1913. Sherwin lived 1826 to 1888.
George Henry Lewes [Lewes, George Henry]
philosopher
England
1877
Physical Basis of Mind [1877]
Lewis Henry Morgan [Morgan, Lewis Henry]
anthropologist
USA
1877
Ancient Society [1877]
He lived 1818 to 1881 and studied society types.
Chauncey Wright [Wright, Chauncey]
philosopher
USA
1877
Philosophical Discussions [1877]
He lived 1830 to 1875 and was evolutionist.
James A. Garfield [Garfield, James A.]
president
USA
1877 to 1881
He lived 1831 to 1881. 20th president opposed boss and Senator Roscoe Conkling and prosecuted frauds involving
mail routes {star route, Garfield}.
Henry Sweet [Sweet, Henry]
England
1877 to 1888
Handbook on Phonetics [1877]; Oldest English Texts [1885]; Icelandic Primer [1888]
Lev Ivanov [Ivanov, Lev]
Russia
1877 to 1892
Swan Lake [1877: music by Tchaikowsky, updated by Marius Petipa in 1895]; Nutcracker [1892: music by
Tchaikowsky]
Will S. Hays [Hays, Will S.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1877 to 1895
Roll Out! Heave Dat Cotton [1877]; Drummer Boy of Shiloh [1895]
Willy Kuhne [Kuhne, Willy]
physiologist
Heidelberg, Germany
1877 to 1900
On the red of the retina [1877]
He lived 1837 to 1900 and found rhodopsin retinal pigment {visual purple} in rod photoreceptors for twilight vision
[1877].
Alexius Meinong [Meinong, Alexius]
philosopher
Germany
1877 to 1910
Human Studies [1877 and 1882]; On Assumptions [1907 and 1910]
He lived 1853 to 1920 and was Brentano's student. Reality can be objects {Objektives} of intentions or states of affairs.
Word meanings are objects or objectives. Objectives or objects have analyzable properties {theory of objects} {object
theory}. Objectives or objects have existence and obey law of contradiction, which applies only to existing things.
Facts can refer to non-existent things, but law of contradiction does not apply.
Eduard Pfluger [Pfluger, Eduard]
physiologist
Bonn, Germany
1877 to 1910
Teleological Mechanics of Nature [1877]
He lived 1829 to 1910. Organisms have goal-directed feedback mechanisms to stabilize output.
Ferdinand Georg Frobenius [Frobenius, Ferdinand Georg]
mathematician
Germany
1878
He lived 1849 to 1917 and studied linear algebra [1878], series, and groups.
Ewald Hering [Hering, Ewald]
physiologist
Austria
1878
Theory of Light Sensing [1878]
He lived 1834 to 1918. Lung receptors signal distension, stop inspiration {Hering-Breuer reflex}, and partly control
respiration.
He explained brightness perception, color vision, afterimages, and complementary colors by starting from neutral point
and moving in anabolic or catabolic direction {opponent color theory, Hering}. Yellow does not subjectively appear to
mix green and red and is stable over intensity changes, so yellow is a primary-color complement. Eye-movement,
color-detection, and brightness-detection mechanisms are inborn. People see unique blue, unique green, and unique
yellow, because they affect all three cones and, at that wavelength, people perceive no other color mixed in. People do
not see unique red, because only two cones affect red.
Brain substance can contain memories, and memory is a material process, because memory survives unconsciousness
and sleep.
Lydia Liliuokalani [Liliuokalani, Lydia]
composer/lyricist
Hawaii
1878
Aloha Oe or Farewell to Thee [1878]
She lived 1838 to 1917 and was last queen of Hawaii [1891 to 1893].
Louis-Antoine Ranvier [Ranvier, Louis-Antoine]
anatomist
Paris, France
1878
Lessons on the histology of the nervous system [1878]
He lived 1835 to 1922 and studied neuron axons and conduction [1878].
Pablo de Sarasate [Sarasate, Pablo de] or Pablo Martín Melitón de Sarasate y Navascuéz [Sarasate y Navascuéz,
Pablo Martín Melitón de]
composer
Spain
1878
Zigeunerweisen or Gypsy Ways [1878]
Eugene Veron [Veron, Eugene]
philosopher
Paris, France
1878
Aesthetics [1878]
He lived 1825 to 1889. People should express what they feel {emotive theory of art, Veron}.
Hermann Munk [Munk, Hermann]
psychologist
Germany
1878 to 1879
He lived 1839 to 1900 used the term mind-blindness [1878] and found optic chiasm [1879].
James A. Bland [Bland, James A.]
composer
USA
1878 to 1881
Carry Me Back to Old Virginia [1878]; Oh, Dem Golden Slippers [1879]; In the Evening by the Moonlight [1880];
Colored Hop [1881]
Carl Gustav P. Laval [Laval, Carl Gustav P.]
biologist/inventor
Sweden
1878 to 1883
cream separator [1878]; centrifuge [1883]
William S. Gilbert [Gilbert, William S.]/Arthur Sullivan [Sullivan, Arthur]
lyricist/composer
England
1878 to 1888
H.M.S. Pinafore [1878: musical]; Pirates of Penzance [1879: musical]; Mikado [1885: musical, including A Wandering
Minstrel]; Ruddigore [1887]; Yeomen of the Guard [1888: musical]
Gilbert lived 1836 to 1911. Sullivan lived 1842 to 1900.
Humbert I
king
Italy
1878 to 1900
Vladimir Solovyov [Solovyov, Vladimir]
philosopher
1878 to 1900
Lectures on Godmanhood [1878]
He lived 1853 to 1900. People can realize their perfect human natures and so become like Jesus, both God and man
{godmanhood}. World-soul {Sophia} left God to make the world and will return to God as world progresses, a Gnostic
idea.
Van Alexander [Alexander, Van] or Al Feldman [Feldman, Al]
composer
USA
1879
A-Tisket A-Tasket [1879: adapted in 1920]
Felix Lincke [Lincke, Felix]
engineer/inventor
Germany
1879
mechanical relay [1879]
He lived 1840 to 1917 and studied feedback loops {mechanical relay}. Loops {feedback loop} can continuously
measure output {indicator, feedback}, modify feedback-loop input {executive organ, feedback}, connect indicator and
executive organ {transmitter, feedback}, and supply energy {motor, feedback}. Difference between intended goal and
indicator measurement modifies feedback-loop input, to bring system output nearer to goal.
Julio Roca [Roca, Julio]
leader
Argentina
1879
He lived 1843 to 1914 and defeated South American natives, opened south Argentina, set up federal system, and settled
boundary with Chile.
Robert Louis Stevenson [Stevenson, Robert Louis]
novelist/poet
England
1879 to 1889
Requiem [1879: poem]; Treasure Island [1883: novel]; Child's Garden of Verses [1885: poems]; Kidnapped [1886:
novel]; Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde [1886: novel]; Master of Ballantrae [1889: novel]
César Franck [Franck, César]
composer
Belgium/France
1879 to 1890
Les Beatitudes [1879]; Prelude, Choral, and Fugue [1884]; Variations Symphoniques [1885]; Symphony in D Minor
[1888]; Trois Chorales or Three Chorals [1890]
Gottlöb Frege [Frege, Gottlöb]
mathematician
Jena, Germany
1879 to 1892
Calculus of Concepts or Concept Script [1879]; Fundamental Laws of Arithmetic [1884]; Function and Concept
[1891]; Concept and Object [1892]; Sense and Reference [1892]
He lived 1848 to 1925, axiomatized counting numbers using equivalence and symbolic logic, and axiomatized
arithmetic. He founded axiomatic logic, using sets and propositions with quantifiers, to make the first propositional
calculus.
Epistemology
All mathematics is formal {logicism, Frege}. Numbers and arithmetic form logical systems {analytic system}. They
are not about intuition or empirical fact {synthetic system}.
Number is not an object property or subjective idea. Numbers are objective objects, and statements about numbers are
objective.
Number {number, Frege} is set of elements whose quantity is the number. For example, two is set of all pairs. Zero is
set of all sets having same number of elements as set of elements not identical to themselves. Classes have an element,
number of elements, and number of elements {successor, Frege} not identical to element.
Higher object or set category {ancestor, Frege} includes lower category {ancestral relation}.
Second-order logic needs this concept.
Symbol systems {propositional calculus, Frege} can show truth or falsehood of logical statements containing IF ...
THEN ..., AND, OR, and NOT, depending on clause truth. In particular, symbol system can express ideas of ALL,
SOME, ANY, EVERY, and NONE {quantification theory}. First-order predicate calculus, second-order predicate
calculus, and set theory can develop from propositional calculus.
Expressions {saturated expression} can be about objects and have completed senses. Expressions {unsaturated
expression} can be functions and need objects to complete them.
Language objects, concepts, features, phrases, or sentences {reference, Frege} can denote {bedeutung}. Logical
statement terms should have references.
Objects, concepts, or sentences can connote {sense, idea} {sinn}. Word sense is reference method used, so all words,
even proper names, have sense. Word sense is constant objective fact, not subjective idea.
Logic laws are not laws of thought.
Sentence is function with arguments and should be either true or false. Declarative sentence represents situation. Word
meanings and sentence structures supply conditions for understanding sentences {truth-condition, Frege}. Sentence
meaning is conditions that make sentence true {truth-conditional semantics, Frege} {model-theoretic semantics, Frege}
{Situation Semantics, Frege}. Only whole sentences have meaning.
Truth depends on objective-reality state that sentence depicts, not on mental judgments or ideas. Sentences with same
meaning can be in different forms.
Paul Cézanne [Cézanne, Paul]
painter
France
1879 to 1897
Self-Portrait [1879 and 1895]; Mont Sainte-Victoire Seen from Bibemus Quarry [1897]
He lived 1839 to 1906, was Post-Impressionist, and articulated foreground and background.
Henry James [James, Henry]
novelist
USA
1879 to 1904
Daisy Miller [1879]; Washington Square [1880]; Portrait of a Lady [1881]; Turn of the Screw [1898]; Wings of the
Dove [1902]; Ambassadors [1903]; Golden Bowl [1904]
Jean Henri Fabré [Fabré, Jean Henri]
entomologist
Paris, France
1879 to 1907
Souvenirs of Entomology [1879 to 1907]
He lived 1823 to 1915 and studied insect behavior and sense capacities.
Albert Pinkham Ryder [Ryder, Albert Pinkham]
painter
USA
1879 to 1919
Toilers of the Sea [1919: realist]; Dead Bird [1879: realist]
Joseph Breuer [Breuer, Joseph]
physician
Vienna, Austria
1880
Case of Anna O. [1880]
He lived 1842 to 1925, studied hysteria using hypnosis, and discussed catharsis. Vagus nerve controls breathing.
Semicircular canals are for balance.
James Martineau [Martineau, James]
philosopher
England
1880
Temple Not Made with Hands [1880]
He lived 1805 to 1900 and was Unitarian. Motivations are the basis of morals {agent-relative morality, Martineau}.
John Venn [Venn, John]
mathematician
USA
1880
On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of Prepositions and Reasonings [1880]
He lived 1834 to 1923 and invented Venn diagrams.
Guy du Maupassant [Maupassant, Guy du]
storyteller/essayist
France
1880 to 1884
Tallow Ball [1880: story]; Necklace [1883: story]; Piece of String [1884: story]; Miss Harriet [1884: story]
He lived 1850 to 1893 and was French Realist.
Alexander Borodin [Borodin, Alexander]
composer
Russia
1880 to 1890
In the Steppes of Central Asia [1880]; Prince Igor [1890: with the Polovtzian Dances]
Hermann Ebbinghaus [Ebbinghaus, Hermann]
psychologist
Germany
1880 to 1890
On Memory [1885]
He lived 1850 to 1909 and tried to find human-memory laws [1880 to 1890]. He invented novel syllables {nonsense
syllable, Ebbinghaus}, with vowel between two consonants, to ensure learning had no previous associations. Memories
can last for minutes or longer. Repetition strengthens memory. Memory content involves storing basic units, such as
shapes, sizes, motions, and qualities. Memory strength is number of stored or recalled units. Complex memories have
same laws as basic unit memories.
James Whitcomb Riley [Riley, James Whitcomb]
poet
USA
1880 to 1890
When the Frost Is on the Punkin [1880]; Little Orphan Annie [1885]; Raggedy Man [1890]
Colin K. Urquhart [Urquhart, Colin K.]
lyricist
USA
1880 to 1890
Far Above Cayuga's Waters [1880 to 1890: Cornell University. music is Annie Lisle]
Johannes van der Waals [van der Waals, Johannes]
physicist
Netherlands
1880 to 1890
Molecular theory of a substance composed of two different species [1890]
He lived 1837 to 1923, discovered Van der Waals forces [1880], and studied equilibrium matter states [1890].
Émile Zola [Zola, Émile]
novelist
France
1880 to 1898
Nana [1880]; Germinal [1885]; J'Accuse or I Accuse [1898]
He lived 1840 to 1902 and wrote in Naturalistic style.
Henry Adams [Adams, Henry]
novelist
USA
1880 to 1906
Democracy [1880: essay]; History of the United States of America [1889 to 1891]; Education of Henry Adams [1906:
history]
Gustav Fauré [Fauré, Gustav]
composer
France
1880 to 1915
Barcarolle No. 1 in A minor [1880]; Pelleas and Melisande [1903: opera]; Barcarolle No. 11 in G minor [1915]
Enrico Ferri [Ferri, Enrico]
philosopher
Turin, Italy
1880 to 1929
Criminal Sociology [1884]
He lived 1846 to 1929, was Positivist, and studied criminology.
Lou Dockstader [Dockstader, Lou]
composer
USA
1881
Colored Band [1881]
E. Emmert [Emmert, E.]
psychologist
USA
1881
Large Environment Effects on Afterimages [1881]
Visual afterimage has larger size if is thought to be far away and smaller size if it is thought to be nearby, so afterimage
apparent size directly relates to apparent distance {Emmert's law, Emmert}.
Josiah Willard Gibbs [Gibbs, Josiah Willard]
chemist/mathematician
USA
1881
Elements of Vector Analysis [1881]
He lived 1839 to 1903 and studied vectors and thermodynamic equilibrium in many-particle systems.
Billy Mortimer [Mortimer, Billy]/Dan Lewis [Lewis, Dan]
lyricist/composer
USA
1881
I Had But Fifty Cents [1881]
Dante Gabriel Rossetti [Rossetti, Dante Gabriel]
poet/painter
England
1881
Blessed Damozel [1881]; House of Life
He lived 1828 to 1882 and was painter.
Giovanni Verga [Verga, Giovanni]
writer
Italy
1881
House by the Medlar Tree [1881]
Chester A. Arthur [Arthur, Chester A.]
president
USA
1881 to 1885
He lived 1830 to 1886. 21st president passed Civil Service Act.
Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi [Bartholdi, Frederic-Auguste]
architect
Liberty Island, New York
1881 to 1886
Statue of Liberty or Liberty Enlightening the World [1881 to 1886: Iron statue is 50 meters tall, on a 50-meter pedestal,
and is copper over an iron and steel frame]
He lived 1834 to 1904. Eiffel built the frame. Liberty Island is part of New York City.
Adolf Bastian [Bastian, Adolf]
anthropologist/ethnologist
Germany
1881 to 1887
History of Ethnology [1881]; Perceived World under Differences of Folk Thought [1887]
He lived 1826 to 1905. Everyone has same brain physiology {psychic unity of mankind} and has same elementary
ideas {Elementargedanken}, so people differ only in culture and history. Societies develop from simple to complex
according to laws {genetic principle}, and societies have collective representations and folk ideas. Studying collective
representations and folk ideas from many cultures can reveal elementary ideas.
John Hughlings Jackson [Jackson, John Hughlings]
neurologist
Britain
1881 to 1887
Croonian Lectures on Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System [1881 to 1887]
He lived 1835 to 1911. He noted focal-epilepsy involuntary-movement sequences and deduced motor-cortex excitablearea spatial patterns. Patients can utter words or phrases under stress or during high emotion, though they cannot speak
voluntarily.
George Romanes [Romanes, George]
biologist
England
1881 to 1888
Animal Intelligence [1881]; Physiological Selection: An Additional Suggestion on the Origin of Species [1886];
Mental Evolution in Man [1888]
He lived 1848 to 1894. Animals learn by imitation [1886].
Alexander III
czar
Russia
1881 to 1894
He lived 1845 to 1894, was Romanov, and promoted peace and industry. The Black Hundred beat people and robbed
Jewish homes and shops.
Jules Massenet [Massenet, Jules]
composer
France
1881 to 1894
Herodiade [1881: opera]; Le Cid [1885: opera]; Manon [1893: opera]; Werther [1893: opera]; Thaïs [1894: opera]
Anatole France [France, Anatole] or Jacques Anatole François Thibault [Thibault, Jacques Anatole François]
novelist
France
1881 to 1908
Crime of Sylvester Bonnard [1881]; Penguin Island [1908]
Samuel Gompers [Gompers, Samuel]
founder
USA
1881 to 1924
He lived 1850 to 1924 and founded and led American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was against socialism and
profit sharing.
Thomas Masaryk [Masaryk, Thomas]
president
Prague, Czech Republic
1881 to 1937
Suicide [1881]; Foundations of Concrete Logic [1885]; Social Question [1898]; Spirit of Russia [1913]
He lived 1850 to 1937. He helped found Czechoslovakia [1918] and had problems with extremists.
Moritz Pasch [Pasch, Moritz]
mathematician
Germany
1882
He lived 1843 to 1930 and studied geometry foundations [1882], especially line and point interchangeability.
Sri Ramakrishna [Ramakrishna, Sri]
philosopher
India
1882
Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna [1882: about Tantric Buddhism]
He lived 1836 to 1886, followed Vedanta, and was a mystic. All religions are about uniting with God. People can be
divine by serving others and God, expressing one spirit. His student was Swami Vivekananda.
Loie Fuller [Fuller, Loie]
ballerina
USA
1882 to 1906
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov [Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai]
composer
Russia
1882 to 1907
Snow Maiden [1882: opera]; Capriccio Espagnole or Spanish Caprice [1887]; Scheherazade [1888]; Russian Easter
Overture [1888]; Ivan the Terrible [1892: opera]; Flight of the Bumblebee [1900]; Le Coq d'Or or Golden Rooster
[1907: opera]
Harald Hoffding [Hoffding, Harald]
philosopher
Denmark
1882 to 1910
Outlines of Psychology [1882]; History of Modern Philosophy [1894]; Human Thought [1910]
He lived 1843 to 1931 and was Relativist. Consciousness builds concept by synthesis. Concepts change over history as
science advances.
Joseph Pulitzer [Pulitzer, Joseph]
essayist/journalist
USA
1882 to 1911
René Lalique [Lalique, René]
designer
France
1882 to 1934
SS Normandie dining room and grand salon lighted glass walls and columns [1934: Art Deco]
He lived 1860 to 1945 and was jewelry maker instrumental in Art Nouveau and Art Deco. He worked in glass, enamel,
and stones.
Emilia Bazan [Bazan, Emilia]
writer
Spain
1883
Critical Issue [1883]
William F. Cody [Cody, William F.] or Buffalo Bill
showman/scout
USA
1883
Carlo Collodi [Collodi, Carlo] or Carlo Lorenzini [Lorenzini, Carlo]
writer
Italy
1883
Pinocchio [1883]
P. Percy [Percy, P.]
composer
USA
1883
Sambo's Double Shuffle [1883]
Osborne Reynolds [Reynolds, Osborne]
physicist
England
1883 to 1889
He lived 1842 to 1912 and studied hydraulics and hydrodynamics, especially turbulent flow and when fluid transitions
from laminar to turbulent flow {hydrodynamic stability} [1883 to 1889].
Carl Stumpf [Stumpf, Carl]
psychologist
Germany
1883 to 1890
Psychology of Sound [1883 and 1890]
He lived 1848 to 1936 and studied tone and music psychology {act psychology, Stumpf} at School of Graz. He studied
experimental phenomenology [Stumpf, 1890].
Thomas Hill Green [Green, Thomas Hill]
philosopher
England
1883 to 1895
Prolegomena to Ethics or Introduction to Ethics [1883]; Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation [1895]
Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera [Nájera, Manuel Gutiérrez]
writer
Mexico
1883 to 1898
Cuentos frágiles or Gossamer Stories [1883]; Cuentos de color de humo or Smoke-colored Stories [1898]
August Weismann [Weismann, August]
biologist
Germany
1883 to 1902
On Inheritance [1883]; Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems [1889]; Lecture on Descendency
Theory [1902]
He lived 1833 to 1914. Specialized cells carry genetic information {germ line} {germ plasm theory} [1883]. Selection
can operate at levels below and above organisms.
Wilhelm Dilthey [Dilthey, Wilhelm]
Berlin, Germany
1883 to 1910
Introduction to the Human Sciences [1883]; Poetry and Experience [1906]; Formation of the Historical World in the
Human Sciences [1910]
He lived 1833 to 1911 and was historian of culture. By studying other cultures and life, people can gain higher
understanding in world-view {weltanschaungen}, such as materialism, pantheism, vitalism, or idealism. People
understand history, writers, and artists by imagining their lives, cultures, and work's spirit {Verstehen, Dilthey}. Life
contains meaning and purpose, which continually change.
Emil Kraepelin [Kraepelin, Emil]
psychiatrist
Germany
1883 to 1927
Textbook of Psychiatry [1883 to 1927]; Directions of Psychiatric Research [1887]
He lived 1856 to 1926 and determined that manic-depressive psychosis [1899] and schizophrenia [1893] differ [1899].
Mental disorders can arise from metabolic or other defects that are not psychological adaptations. They show
neurological signs for different behavioral and psychological mental-disease syndromes. They associate with painful
symptom {distress} or impaired functioning {disability}. They involve behaviors that are persistent or repetitive, resist
modification, and do not remove anxiety sources.
Vito J. Volterra [Volterra, Vito J.]
mathematician/ecologist
Italy
1883 to 1930
Theory of Functionals and of Integral and Integro-Differential Equations [1930]
He lived 1860 to 1940 and studied integral equations [1883]. Mating, dying, or other-species effects cause predatornumber and prey-number change rates {Lotka-Volterra differential equations, Volterra} [1926]. In ecosystems,
predator and prey numbers can oscillate until reaching steady state, can continue to oscillate, or can become zero, so
species is extinct.
Svante Arrhenius [Arrhenius, Svante]
chemist
Sweden
1884
He lived 1859 to 1927 and studied electrolytic ion solutions [1884].
G. Clifton Bingham [Bingham, G. Clifton]/James Molloy [Molloy, James]
lyricist/composer
Ireland
1884
Love's Old Sweet Song [1884]
Molloy lived 1837 to 1909.
Ed Haley [Haley, Ed]/Robert A. Keiser [Keiser, Robert A.]
composer
USA
1884
While Strolling in the Park One Day [1884]
Joris Huysmans [Huysmans, Joris] or Charles-Marie-Georges Huysmans [Huysmans, Charles-Marie-Georges]
writer
France/Netherlands
1884
A Rebours or Against the Grain [1884]
He lived 1848 to 1907 and was Aesthetic and Decadent.
Helen Hunt Jackson [Jackson, Helen Hunt]
writer
USA
1884
Ramona [1884]
Henri Louis Le Chatelier [Le Chatelier, Henri Louis]
chemist
Paris, France
1884
General Statement of the Laws of Chemical Equilibrium [1884]
He lived 1850 to 1936 and invented Le Chatelier's reaction-direction principle [1884].
Théodule Ribot [Ribot, Théodule]
psychologist
Paris, France
1884
Diseases of Memory [1884]
He lived 1839 to 1916 and studied retrograde amnesia. Brain injury damages recent memories more than older ones
{Ribot's law, Ribot}.
Juventino Rosas [Rosas, Juventino] or José Juventino Policarpo Rosas Cadenas [Rosas Cadenas, José Juventino
Policarpo]
composer
Mexico
1884
Sobre las Olas or Over the Waves [1884: waltz]
George Eastman [Eastman, George]
inventor
USA
1884 to 1888
roll film [1884]; Kodak camera [1888]
He lived 1854 to 1932 and invented roll film and cameras.
Georges Seurat [Seurat, Georges]
painter
France
1884 to 1888
Bathers at Asnieres [1884 and 1887]; Side Show [1888]
He lived 1859 to 1891 and used color dots {Pointillism} {Divisionism}.
William Morris [Morris, William]
designer
England
1884 to 1896
Morris chair [1880 to 1890]
William Morris lived 1834 to 1896 and led Arts and Crafts movement.
Frederick T. Trouton [Trouton, Frederick T.]
chemist
England
1884 to 1902
Results of an Electrical Experiment [1902]
He lived 1863 to 1922 and studied vaporization entropy. Vaporization entropy is approximately 87 Joules/Kelvin per
mole for most liquids {Trouton's rule} [1884].
William James [James, William]
psychologist
USA
1884 to 1911
What is an emotion? [1884: with Carl Lange]; Principles of Psychology [1890]; Psychology: The Briefer Course
[1892]; Will to Believe [1897]; Human Immortality [1898]; Varieties of Religious Experience [1902]; Pragmatism
[1907]; Pluralist Universe [1909]; Meaning of Truth [1909]; Some Problems in Philosophy [1911]; Essays in Radical
Empiricism [1912]
He lived 1842 to 1910 and was pragmatist, radical empiricist, and Swedenborgian.
Epistemology
Things that people experience are real. Conjunctions {association, James} between perceptions and their parts organize
experience. Ideal forms or categories do not organize experience.
Hypothesis is true if consequences of believing it lead to personal well-being, success, and satisfaction {pragmatism,
James}. The best test of theory is what happens when using it. True beliefs have good practical effects in thinking and
acting. They help people, are profitable, correspond to actual events, or are expedient in most situations.
Useful hypothesis makes prediction about experience or behavior.
Statements do not have objective truth.
Sshort-term memory can last from seconds to minutes and be in current experience. Long-term memory can last for
days and require going back to the past.
Overt body behavior, especially in viscera, causes human and animal emotion, in response to internal or external
stimulation or perception {James-Lange theory of emotion}.
Fear of loud noises is innate, but conditioning and stimulus generalization cause most fears.
Sense and motor systems interact {ideomotor theory}, so actions have representations about their effects, and the
representations control further actions. Actions have predicted consequences.
Ethics
Will and attention seem to require effort, which indicates self-exerted force.
Will is active and purposeful consciousness. Belief requires effort of will {will-to-believe}. One then acts according to
one's beliefs.
Free will is active attention to choose or maintain belief and choose behavior.
The will-to-believe allows one to choose belief in situations in which one must choose belief, and so action, without
knowing consequences. Reason does not work in such situation.
Believing is good, because people might believe the truth, whereas avoiding error is not practical and cannot lead to
truth. People choose not believing when they fear trickery or mistakes, but it is better to have false hope than false fear.
People should not reject hypothesis if results are good. Therefore, people should believe in God.
Metaphysics
Pure experience is the only reality {radical empiricism}. Experiences contain knower {consciousness, James}, known
{perception, James}, and their relations. Living things both participate in pure experience and can reflect on it later.
Experience is neither mind nor matter {neutral monism, James}. Experience is pluralistic. Soul, self, Ideas, and matter
do not exist.
God is being and existence itself. Nothing else can determine God. Thus, God cannot not be, and so is necessary and
sufficient. Because necessary and sufficient, God is perfect and absolute. Because limitation is non-existence, God has
no limits from within or without and so is infinite. Because God is infinite, God is one and only one. Because God is
one and only, God is indivisible. God has no potentiality, because potential can lose or gain, thus contradicting
necessity and absoluteness. God contains all actuality already and is immutable. Because God has no limits, God is
boundless. If God has bound, God is in space and thus is composite. God is omniscient, because God knows all causes
as itself. God is pervasive and omnipresent, because God is present in all time. God is omnipotent for all things that do
not have logical contradictions. If God has physical substances or anything inside, they have cause other than God, so
God is non-physical and spiritual. If God is material, God has parts, which something not-God must combine, which is
contradiction. Therefore, God must be simple. God's nature or essence and existence or being must be the same.
Potential and actual, substance and accidents, being and activity, existence and attributes unite in God. Because God
has all attributes of persons, God is a person. Because God is object and subject of its activity, God is a living selfsufficient person. Because people have will and intelligence, God has them, because cause must have more than effect.
The object of those things in God is God itself. God wills itself, knows itself, and must do these things. God is eternal.
If God does not exist from the beginning, God needs a prior cause. If God is not present at end, God is not necessary. If
God has succession, God is mutable.
God can create being from non-divine substance or out of nothing. God can will to create, because everything outside
God can change. God creates to exercise his freedom and manifest his glory. God creates out of love, to make rational
creations that can know and love God. God implants the Ideas in us, but people perceive them from finite viewpoint.
Evil is negation, and so God cannot be evil. God permits evil in free beings but does not will it.
Mysticism is passive, transient, ineffable, and noetic.
Mind
Brain as whole makes continuous, personal, active, and changing experience {stream of consciousness, James}, which
is about near past and near future. The stream of consciousness can affect brain.
Person's individual experience can interact with other's experiences.
Mind can use different means in different situations to reach fixed goals.
An "I" {subjective self} thinks and knows. A "Me" {empirical self} {objective self} is the body {material self}, social
acts {social self}, and spirit or soul {spiritual self}, which has reasoning, will, goals, conscience, and sensory
experiences. Spiritual self attends, judges, and acts {active element}. The "I" is whole set of Me's, holds thoughts, and
is a special thought type that remembers, selects, unifies {unity, self}, and continues {continuity, self} into next such
thought, making stream of consciousness. "...thought itself is the thinker..."
Consciousness can cause attention {cause theory}, or brain can direct it {effect theory}.
William Morris [Morris, William]/John Ruskin [Ruskin, John]/Gustav Stickley [Stickley, Gustav]
designer
England/USA
1884 to 1916
Arts and Crafts [1884 to 1916]
Morris lived 1834 to 1896. Ruskin lived 1819 to 1900. Stickley lived 1858 to 1942. They started a craft style {Arts and
Crafts movement}.
Woodrow Wilson [Wilson, Woodrow]
college professor/president
USA
1884 to 1921
Congressional Government [1884]; Fourteen Points [1918]
He lived 1856 to 1924. 28th president [1913 to 1921] started New Freedom reforms. He sent Marines to Vera Cruz,
Mexico [1914]. He occupied Haiti and Santo Domingo [1914 to 1916]. He passed Farm Loan Act [1916]. He set up
Federal Reserve. USA became a creditor nation, as Allies paid in gold, sold their assets, and bought goods from USA.
He entered World War I [1917] after earlier neutrality. He presented 14 points for peace at Paris Peace Conference
[1919]. Republicans under Lodge blocked USA entry into League of Nations [1920]. His health broke while
campaigning [1920] and he died [1921].
Sarah Winchester [Winchester, Sarah]
owner/architect
San José, California
1884 to 1922
Winchester Mansion [1884 to 1922: Romantic-style wood house has eight stories and 160 rooms and cost five million
dollars]
Georg Cantor [Cantor, Georg]
mathematician
Halle, Germany
1885
Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers [1885]
He lived 1845 to 1918 and studied set theory, infinity, continuity, transfinite numbers, union, intersection, conjunction,
disjunction, bound, extension principle, abstraction principle, and one-to-one correspondence.
He invented continuum hypothesis. Cardinal-number series and ordinal-number series are infinite. Irrational numbers
in closed intervals are rational-number-series limits. Sets of limits can have sets of limits, and so on, to infinity.
Geometrical-figure or space topologies are points related by distance functions or limits. For any real number n, 2^n >
n.
Gottfried Daimler [Daimler, Gottfried]
inventor
Germany
1885
motorcycle [1885]
He lived 1834 to 1900 {motorcycle}.
Theodor Escherich [Escherich, Theodor]
biologist
Graz, Germany
1885
On Intestinal Bacteria of Infants [1886]; Escherichia coli discovered [1885]
William Dean Howells [Howells, William Dean]
novelist
USA
1885
Rise of Silas Lapham [1885]
William LeBaron Jenney [Jenney, William LeBaron]
architect
Chicago, Illinois
1885
Home Insurance Company Building [1885: first to use steel skeleton]
He lived 1832 to 1907. Home Insurance had ten stories.
Carl Georg Lange [Lange, Carl Georg]
psychologist/philosopher
Copenhagen, Denmark
1885
Emotions [1885]
He lived 1834 to 1900 and was materialist. Only humans can understand and use number system. Ability to use number
system and abstract space properties is innate. Emotion is bodily changes evoked by perceiving external stimuli.
Frank W. Meacham [Meacham, Frank W.]
composer
USA
1885
American Patrol [1885]
Hermann Amandus Schwarz [Schwarz, Hermann Amandus]
mathematician
Germany
1885
He lived 1843 to 1921 and invented Schwarz statistics criterion, Schwarz's inequality [1885], and Schwarz's paradox.
Joseph John Thomson [Thomson, Joseph John]
chemist/physicist
England
1885
He lived 1856 to 1940 and studied gas electrons and electrical conduction [1885].
Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover]
president
USA
1885 to 1889
He lived 1837 to 1908 and was 22nd president.
John T. McFarland [McFarland, John T.]/William J. Kirkpatrick [Kirkpatrick, William J.]
composer
Germany
1885 to 1895
Away in a Manger [1885 and 1895]
McFarland lived 1851 to 1913. Kirkpatrick lived 1838 to 1932. First two verses are anonymous [1885].
Karl Friedrich Benz [Benz, Karl Friedrich]
inventor
Germany
1885 to 1896
automobile [1885 to 1896]
Max von Frey [Frey, Max von]
physiologist
Göttingen, Germany
1885 to 1904
Journal of Mathematical Physics [1896]; Four Cutaneous Senses [1904]; heart-lung machine [1885]
He lived 1852 to 1932 and studied pain and touch sensations.
Josiah Royce [Royce, Josiah]
philosopher
USA
1885 to 1908
Religious Aspect of Philosophy [1885]; Philosophy of Loyalty [1908]
He lived 1855 to 1916 and was Idealist. The Absolute Mind includes all minds. Will properties or essence explain
motivation.
Ivan Bunin [Bunin, Ivan]
poet
Russia
1885 to 1920
Russian Requiem [1885 to 1920: poems]
Richard von Krafft-Ebing [Krafft-Ebing, Richard von]
neurologist
Germany
1886
Psychopathy of Sex [1886]
He lived 1840 to 1902 and studied syphilitic infection, which can cause insanity and paralysis.
Emma Lazarus [Lazarus, Emma]
poet
USA
1886
New Colossus [1886: on Statue of Liberty]
François Raoult [Raoult, François]
chemist
France
1886
He lived 1830 to 1901 and invented Raoult's vapor-pressure law [1886].
José Rizal [Rizal, José]
leader
Philippines
1886
He lived 1861 to 1896 and led independence from Spain movement.
William Stanley, Jr. [Stanley, Jr., William]
inventor
USA
1886
transformer [1886]
Adolph Strasser [Strasser, Adolph]
leader
USA
1886
He lived 1844 to 1939. American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed.
Julien Viaud [Viaud, Julien] or Pierre Loti [Loti, Pierre]
writer
France
1886 to 1897
Pêcheur d'Islande or Iceland Fisherman [1886]; Ramuntcho [1897]
James McKeen Cattell [Cattell, James McKeen]
psychologist
USA
1886 to 1902
Psychometric Investigation [1886]; Time of Perception as a Measure of Differences in Intensity [1902]
He lived 1860 to 1944, experimentally tried hashish, and measured reaction times and small perception differences
[1902].
James Ward [Ward, James]
psychologist
England
1886 to 1918
Psychology [1886]; Psychological Principles [1918]
He lived 1843 to 1925 and wrote psychology textbook.
Alphonso XIII
king
Spain
1886 to 1931
Arturo Toscanini [Toscanini, Arturo]
conductor
Italy
1886 to 1954
Edward Bellamy [Bellamy, Edward]
novelist
USA
1887
Looking Backward [1887]
George Trumbull Ladd [Ladd, George Trumbull]
psychologist
USA
1887
Elements of Physiological Psychology [1887]
He lived 1842 to 1921 and studied perception and behavior physiology.
Nicola Tesla [Tesla, Nicola]
inventor
Italy
1887
magnetic coil [1887]; rotating magnetic field [1887]
He lived 1856 to 1943 {magnetic coil}.
Ferdinand Tonnies [Tonnies, Ferdinand]
sociologist
Germany
1887
Community and Society [1887]
He lived 1855 to 1936. Human will depends on either instinctive force {essential will} or reasoned purpose or goal
{arbitrary will}. Communities {Gemeinschaft}, such as cities and states, can depend on essential will, to gain essential
needs. Societies {Gesellschaft}, such as families and neighborhoods, can form to reach goals.
Vincent van Gogh [van Gogh, Vincent]
painter
France
1887 to 1889
Self-Portrait [1887]; Wheat Field and Cypress Trees [1889]; Potato Eaters [1889]; Starry Night [1889]
He lived 1853 to 1890, was Post-Impressionist, and painted landscapes filled with emotion and bright colors.
Sergei Korsakoff [Korsakoff, Sergei]
neuropsychiatrist
Russia
1887 to 1893
Alcohol Paralysis [1887]; Diseases of Memory and Their Diagnosis [1890]; Textbook of Psychiatry [1893]
He lived 1854 to 1900, discovered amnesia type [1887], and studied Korsakoff syndrome [Korsakoff, 1887].
Arthur Conan Doyle [Conan Doyle, Arthur]
novelist
England
1887 to 1902
Study in Scarlet [1887]; Sign of the Four [1890]; Final Problem [1893]; Hound of the Baskervilles [1902]
He lived 1859 to 1930 and wrote stories about detective Sherlock Holmes and his assistant Dr. Watson.
August Strindberg [Strindberg, August]
playwright/novelist
Sweden
1887 to 1907
Father [1887]; Miss Julie [1888]; Inferno [1894]; Son of a Servant [1896]; Dream Play [1907]
Ferdinand
king
Bulgaria
1887 to 1918
He lived 1861 to 1948 and was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Bulgaria became independent [1908].
Edmund Gustav Albert Husserl [Husserl, Edmund Gustav Albert]
philosopher
Germany
1887 to 1937
On the Concept of Number [1887]; Philosophy of Arithmetic [1891]; Logical Investigations [1900 to 1901]; Lectures
on the Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness [1905]; Thing and Space [1907]; Ideas Pertaining to a Pure
Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy, First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology
[1913]; Cartesian Meditations [1931]; Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology [1935]
He lived 1859 to 1938, was a psychologist, read Frege, and became a philosopher. He developed phenomenology by
extending Brentano's intentionality theory.
Epistemology
People know knowledge types only by psychological effects {psychologism}, which are subjective experiences.
Psychology is about psychological effects and subjective experiences themselves and so about consciousness. People
cannot know physical scientific facts or how subjective experience relates to them. Psychology needs postulates, but
psychology cannot prove these fundamental ideas.
Logical structures exist independently of psychological activities, but people can only understand logical structures
from psychological effects.
To study mental processes and what is in conscious mind, start with no assumptions about perception, objects,
concepts, causes, or consequences. Suspend judgment {epoché, Husserl} about actual existence.
First, classify phenomena {phenomenology, Husserl} and then find their essences {eidos} and origins.
People have meaningful and logical object representations {intention, Husserl} in consciousness {phenomena,
Husserl}, which reflect universals or essences {noema}. People can experience and remember unique and individual
intentions in consciousness and consciousness itself {noesis}. Conscious acts are intentional and direct towards objects.
Phenomena are mental object representations {profile, Husserl}. Profiles are object-essence aspects. Essence is sum of
all possible profiles, and people find it by intuition {eidetic intuition} using intentions about profiles {transcendental
subjectivity} {transcendental ego, Husserl}. Finding object essence makes that essence, and so consciousness is
constitutive. Eidetic intuition both finds object essence and develops its existence {eidetic reduction}.
Phenomena have ontology, because they are in object essence. Intentions have ontology, because they are about object
essence. Knowing object essence relates phenomena to intentions {phenomenological reduction}. Provisional
connections {bracketing} {einklam-merung} are between objects and intentions, which both refer to noema. After
analyzing intentions, find all possible meaningful intentional relations {transcendental reduction}. Intentions cannot
refer directly to objects, because objects are not contingent, but intentions and subjects are contingent.
Phenomenology is better way to establish physical world facts. In Western world, science appears to be the only fact
source {objectivism, Husserl}. However, facts are intentions from conscious activity, and subjective experience is all
people can know about world. Empiricism should account for subject, observer, and methodology. Including life,
history, and society subjective experiences requires an epistemological phenomena theory, such as phenomenology.
Psychologically, numbers develop from counting set elements. Logically, numbers are symbols and wholes, which
people do not count but manipulate.
Awareness has unrepresented features and has space and time {horizon of awareness} {awareness horizon}. The
horizon is necessary to perception, meaning, and understanding.
Mind
Mind knows only phenomena appearances, not reality.
Egos or subjects are not consciousness or mental-experience physical objects but transcend both categories
{transcendentalism, Husserl}.
People's egos can know each other {the Other, Husserl}.
The living world {Lebenswelt} {life-world} is people's subjective natural state, before science and history, which has
essences upon which to build knowledge.
Conscious experience has viewpoint and object {intentionality, Husserl}.
Conscious experiences have many meanings and appearances, some sensory and some non-sensory {superposition,
Husserl}.
Imaginary objects have arbitrary properties, but perceived objects have definite and often more properties
{transcendence, Husserl}. Perceived objects have stable part relations {relational constancy}; have no affect from
interruptions or other perception changes, will or other mental states; allow perception by different senses {perceptual
invariance}; and allow improvement in perception {corrigibility}.
Perceived objects associate with objects in the past and future {temporality}, including themselves, and so have history
{retention} and expectations {protention}. Consciousness moments {primal impression} include past and future.
People know viewpoint or object changes by object comparisons at different times. Perceived objects have duration,
and events have monotonic order. Time is global and unitary. Events nest recursively.
People have lived-in bodies {leib, Husserl} and bodies as intentional objects {körper, Husserl}. Sensations relate to
proprioceptive and kinesthetic information from physical body, which allows action. Sense-organ and body movements
create egocentric space, which makes intentions and experience. The sense of self is implicit, not known by higherorder thought or itself.
Pain and color sensations {hyle} (material) are not intentional but are sense contents and lead to intentions and
consciousness.
Franz Boas [Boas, Franz]
anthropologist/linguist
Germany/USA
1887 to 1940
Principles of Ethnological Classification [1887]; On Alternating Sounds [1889]; Anthropology [1907: essay]; Mind of
Primitive Man [1910 and 1938]; Growth of Children, 1896 to 1904 [1911]; Culture and Race [1913]; Methods of
Ethnology [1920: essay]; Primitive Art [1927]; Anthropology and Modern Life [1928 to 1938]; General Anthropology
[1938: editor]; Race, Language, and Culture [1940]
He lived 1858 to 1942 and studied Pacific-Northwest native societies [1910]. He studied perception and sensation, such
as not hearing spoken sounds {sound blindness} and seeing color categories, and believed that contexts determined
them.
William Randolph Hearst [Hearst, William Randolph]
journalist
USA
1887 to 1940
He lived 1863 to 1951 and wanted war with Spain, opposed World War I and international dealings, and specialized in
sensationalism and scandal {muckraking} {yellow journalism}.
Frances Hodgson Burnett [Burnett, Frances Hodgson]
writer
England
1888
Secret Garden [1888]
Heinrich Hertz [Hertz, Heinrich]
physicist
Germany
1888
He lived 1857 to 1894 and invented radio waves [1888].
Johannes Rydberg [Rydberg, Johannes]
chemist
Germany
1888
He lived 1854 to 1919 and studied element emission lines, making Rydberg formula [1888].
Theodor Storm [Storm, Theodor]
writer
Germany
1888
Der Schimmelreiter or The White Horse Rider or The Dykemaster [1888]
Howard Pyle [Pyle, Howard]
writer
USA
1888 to 1892
Otto of the Silver Hand [1888]; Men of Iron [1892]
Eugene Field [Field, Eugene]
poet
USA
1888 to 1904
Little Boy Blue [1888]; Winken, Blinken and Nod or A Dutch Lullaby [1890]; Poems of Childhood [1904: including
Winken, Blinken, and Nod]; Winken, Blinken, and Nod [1904]
Gustav Mahler [Mahler, Gustav]
composer
Austria
1888 to 1909
Symphony 1 or Titan [1888]; Symphony 5 [1902]; Das Lied von der Erde or Songs of the Earth [1909]
He lived 1860 to 1911 and composed nine symphonies.
Walther H. Nernst [Nernst, Walther H.]
physicist
Germany
1888 to 1918
He lived 1864 to 1941, invented thermodynamic energy equation or Nernst equation [18], and studied matter at
absolute zero and thermodynamics, including photo chain reactions [1918].
Wilhelm II or William II
kaiser
Germany
1888 to 1918
He lived 1859 to 1941, led German Empire, dismissed Bismarck [1890], built commerce, took colonies, and built up
navy. He had Entente Cordiale with Britain and France. He formed Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia. He
formed Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austro-Hungary. He had to abdicate after World War I.
Erik Satie [Satie, Erik]
composer
France
1888 to 1924
Gymnopedies [1888]; Uspud [1892]; Entr'Acte or Intermission [1924]
Joseph Bertrand [Bertrand, Joseph]
mathematician
Paris, France
1889
Calculation of Probabilities [1889]
He lived 1822 to 1900. Because circle chords can have varying angles to tangents, for example perpendicular to radius
and parallel to tangent, different ways of selecting chords lead to different probabilities that chord is less than
inscribed-equilateral-triangle side {Bertrand's paradox}.
Thomas Alva Edison [Edison, Thomas Alva]/George Eastman [Eastman, George]
inventor
USA
1889
film strip
Edison lived 1847 to 1931. Eastman lived 1854 to 1932. They invented frame-lined celluloid strip {filmstrip}.
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel [Eiffel, Alexandre Gustave]
architect
Paris, France
1889
Eiffel Tower [1889: International-Exposition iron tower is tallest building in Europe at 350 meters, with four base
columns that merge 200 meters above ground into one tower]
He lived 1832 to 1923. Stephen Sauvestre [1874 to 1919] added design.
Gerhart Hauptmann [Hauptmann, Gerhart]
writer
Germany
1889
Before Sunrise [1889]
He lived 1862 to 1946 and was of German Naturalism.
Sonja Kowalewski [Kowalewski, Sonja] or Sophie Kowalewski [Kowalewski, Sophie] or Sofia Kovalevskia
[Kovalevskia, Sofia]
mathematician
Russia
1889
On the problem of rotation of solid body around fixed point [1889]
She lived 1850 to 1891 and studied elliptic functions and power-series sums.
Charles Mayo [Mayo, Charles]/William Mayo [Mayo, William]
doctor
USA
1889
Charles lived 1865 to 1939. William lived 1861 to 1939. They performed surgery at Mayo Clinic [1889].
Benjamin Harrison [Harrison, Benjamin]
president
USA
1889 to 1893
He lived 1833 to 1901, was 23rd president, was under control of Republicans in Senate, approved McKinley Tariff Act
for high tariffs, and held first Pan-American Conference.
Franz Carl Müller-Lyer [Müller-Lyer, Franz Carl]
psychologist
Germany
1889 to 1896
Optical Illusions [1889]; Concerning the Theory of Optical Illusions: on Contrast and Confluxion [1896]
He lived 1857 to 1916 and invented illusion {Müller-Lyer illusion, Muller-Lyer} [1889]. Mind uses both figure and
ground to perceive object {confluxion principle} {principle of confluxion}.
Hugo de Vries [de Vries, Hugo]
botanist
Netherlands
1889 to 1905
Theory of Mutations [1901]; Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation [1905]
He lived 1848 to 1935, studied evening-primrose mutations [1900], and developed inheritance laws based on cell
factors {pangenesis, de Vries} [1889]. Plants can jump from form to form, unconstrained by structures. Phylogenesis
results from species selection.
Charles I
king
Portugal
1889 to 1908
Armando Palacio Valdes [Valdes, Armando Palacio]
writer
Spain
1889 to 1911
La hermana San Sulpicio or Joy of Captain Ribo [1889]; La aldea perdida or Lost Village [1911]
Menelik II
king
Ethiopia
1889 to 1913
He lived 1844 to 1913 and became king with Italy's help.
Samuel Alexander [Alexander, Samuel]
philosopher
Australia/England
1889 to 1920
Moral Order and Progress [1889]; Space, Time and Deity [1920]
He lived 1859 to 1938, was New Realist, and developed evolutionary system.
Henri-Louis Bergson [Bergson, Henri-Louis]
philosopher
Paris, France
1889 to 1932
Essay on the Immediate Givens of Consciousness or Time and Free Will [1889]; Matter and Memory [1896]; Laughter,
an Essay on the Meaning of the Comic [1900]; Introduction to Metaphysics [1903]; Creative Evolution [1907]; Time
and Free Will [1910]; Two Sources of Morality and Religion [1932]
Epistemology
Consciousness can only know the present. However, people intuit continuous time, as irreversible, never-repeating, and
always-altering change {duration, Bergson}. People must feel psychological truth by instinct.
Memory interacts alive, current, and active mind and inert, past, and passive matter. Memory recollects past states
during present activity.
Perceptions are limitations to and uses for active life force.
Life and movement are beyond science, so philosophy is intuitions about life force, time, and matter.
Laughter happens when people see humans acting mechanically.
Ethics
Life and will are free and creative, make unpredictable products, have no purpose or end, and are just action. Creation
is good in itself. Action is for its own sake.
Metaphysics
Change is the basis of reality. The life force {élan vital, Bergson} causes purposeful evolution through change and
development against matter's passive resistance. The life force is dynamic, while matter is inert. Life and matter
necessarily oppose. Life tries to organize and unify matter into new forms while matter tends toward separateness.
Time is essence of life. Duration is dynamic and continuous and not a series of states.
Mind
Through acting, life has produced instinct and intellect. Intellect is passive. Instinct is active. Intellect can deal with
things as stable states, in separate objects or in series, explaining why matter appears as objects. Instinct deals with
things in time, by harmonizing and blending present and past states.
Richard Avenarius [Avenarius, Richard]
philosopher
Zurich, Switzerland
1890
Critique of Pure Experience [1890]
He lived 1843 to 1896 and was realist. All science ideas should be verifiable by sensory experience {empirio-criticism,
Avenarius}.
Joseph Chamberlain [Chamberlain, Joseph]
mayor
Birmingham, England
1890
He lived 1836 to 1914 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.
Carrie Jacobs-Bond [Jacobs-Bond, Carrie]
composer
USA
1890
I Love You Truly [1890]
Karl Lueger [Lueger, Karl]
mayor
Vienna, Austria
1890
He lived 1844 to 1910 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.
Alfred Marshall [Marshall, Alfred]
economist
Cambridge, England
1890
Principles of Economics [1890]
He lived 1842 to 1924 and invented equation relating money supply to income, utility and cost pricing {Cambridge
equation, Marshall}.
Pietro Mascagni [Mascagni, Pietro]
composer
Italy
1890
Cavalleria Rusticana or Rustic Chivalry [1890: opera]
Michael Nolan [Nolan, Michael]
composer
USA
1890
Little Annie Rooney [1890]
Giuseppe Peano [Peano, Giuseppe]
mathematician
Turin, Italy
1890
Mathematical Formulas [1890]
He lived 1858 to 1932. He invented logical notation, which Russell used. He studied axiomatic number systems. He
invented Peano's postulates about rational numbers, based on Dedekind's work. He used reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive axioms to derive rational numbers from natural numbers.
Max Reger [Reger, Max]
composer
Germany
1890
String Trio [1915]
He lived 1873 to 1916 and composed symphonies.
Jacob Riis [Riis, Jacob]
photographer
USA
1890
Studies of the Tenements of New York [1890]; How the Other Half Lives [1890]
He lived 1849 to 1914 and photographed slums.
William Robertson Smith [Smith, William Robertson]
historian
Scotland
1890
Lectures on the Religion of the Semites [1890]
He lived 1846 to 1894. Tribe kinship groups had sacred totem animals. Marriages were between groups.
Louis Sullivan [Sullivan, Louis]
architect
USA
1890 to 1899
Wainwright Building [1890: steel-framed first skyscraper, in St. Louis]; Carson, Pirie, Scott and Co. [1899: in Chicago]
He lived 1856 to 1924 and was father of modernism. He was of Chicago school and founded Prairie School of
architecture.
Edith Nesbit Bland [Bland, Edith Nesbit]
composer
England
1890 to 1900
Christmas Is Coming [1890 to 1900]
She lived 1858 to 1924. Lyrics are traditional.
Honoré Daumier [Daumier, Honoré]
painter
France
1890 to 1902
Good Samaritan [1890]; Don Quixote Attacking the Windmill [1902]
Anton Chekhov [Chekhov, Anton]
playwright
Russia
1890 to 1904
Boor [1890]; Sea Gull [1896]; Uncle Vanya [1899]; Three Sisters [1901]; Cherry Orchard [1904]
He lived 1860 to 1904 and wrote in Realistic style.
Claude Débussy [Débussy, Claude]
composer
France
1890 to 1913
Suite Bergamasque [1890: with Claire de Lune]; Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun [1894]; Nocturnes [1899]; Pelléas
et Mélisande [1902: opera]; La Mer or The Sea [1905]; Children's Corner [1908]; La Cathedral Engloutie or Cathedral
Beneath the Waves [1910]; Jeux or Games [1913: ballet]
He lived 1862 to 1918, was Impressionist, and used pentatonic and six-tone whole-tone scales.
Pierre Duhem [Duhem, Pierre]
philosopher
Paris, France
1890 to 1916
Evolution of Mechanics [1903]; Aim and Structure of Physical Theory [1905]; To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on
the Idea of Physical Theory from Plato to Galileo [1908]
He lived 1861 to 1916. Phenomena are effects from mathematical-theory complexes, not from single theories. Data sets
can have theories that vary greatly in assumptions {underdetermination} {Duhem-Quine thesis}.
James George Frazer [Frazer, James George]
anthropologist
Scotland
1890 to 1922
Golden Bough [1890 to 1915, abridged 1922]; Totemism and Exogamy [1910]; Folklore in the Old Testament [1918]
He lived 1854 to 1941 and studied myths and comparative religions.
Primitive people first believe in magic through similarity and in magic through contact. Magician has social power and
is often tribal chief. Later, people replace magic with spirits and so have animistic religion, in which they pray to or
propitiate beings. Kings arise, who are priests, have priests, or are gods themselves. Rituals and social behaviors follow
from beliefs.
Primitive thought links to magic. Magic can involve homeopathy, contagion, sympathetic magic, taboos, sorcery,
charms, voodoo dolls, and envoutement. Magic can involve showing gods what people want.
Primitive thought involved customs and institutions. Sacred marriages and orgiastic festivals encouraged fecundity,
fertility, and more crops. The saturnalia festival was period of anarchy each year, held in Rome and elsewhere.
Ceremonies for fertility, solar year, harvest, and king's death used fire, because the king represented the people, not like
a priest or magician.
Primitive thought involved souls. Bodies also have souls, which can leave body and return, through body openings.
Shadows and reflections can be souls. Souls can occupy portraits. Death is not real, because soul is separate.
Science later replaces religion.
Conway Lloyd Morgan [Morgan, Conway Lloyd]
psychologist
Britain
1890 to 1923
Animal Life and Intelligence [1890]; Introduction to Comparative Psychology [1894 and 1903]; Emergent Evolution
[1923]
He lived 1852 to 1936 and studied trial-and-error learning. He emphasized carefully observing behavior in natural
settings where conditions systematically vary. He advocated finding minimal behavior causes {law of parsimony}
{Morgan's canon} [1894], using higher concepts only if necessary. Evolution makes higher systems by emergence from
lower ones.
Constantine Cavafy [Cavafy, Constantine]
poet
Greece
1890 to 1933
Passions and Ancient Days [1903: including September 1903 and December 1903]
Wilhelmina
queen
Netherlands
1890 to 1948
Andrew Carnegie [Carnegie, Andrew]
businessman
Scotland/USA
1891
He lived 1835 to 1919, was steel manufacturer and philanthropist, and built 2800 libraries and Carnegie Hall in New
York City.
Christian von Ehrenfels [Ehrenfels, Christian von]
philosopher/psychologist
Austria
1891
On Gestalt Qualities [1891]
He lived 1859 to 1933. Shape or melody directly relates to sense-stimulation pattern, but perception infers and selects
figure {gestalt, Ehrenfels} from ground. Shape or object has constancies and change directions, and these are the mostbasic gestalt properties.
Hamlin Garland [Garland, Hamlin]
novelist
USA
1891
Main-traveled Roads [1891]
Charles Graham [Graham, Charles]
composer
USA
1891
Picture That's Turned to the Wall [1891]
Henry Sayers [Sayers, Henry]
composer
USA
1891
Ta-ra-ra Boom der-e or Ta-Ra-Ra-Boom-Dee-Ay [1891]
Charles Proteus Steinmetz [Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]
inventor
USA
1891
alternating current [1891]; Law of Hysteresis or Steinmetz's Law [1891]
Paul Gauguin [Gauguin, Paul]
painter
France
1891 to 1893
Women of Tahiti [1891]; Offerings of Gratitude [1893]
He lived 1848 to 1903 and was Post-Impressionist. He used folk art, stained glass, and flat picture with strong colors, in
pre-Renaissance style {synthetism, Gauguin}. His later work is his Tahitian period.
Arthur W. Pinaro [Pinaro, Arthur W.]
playwright
England
1891 to 1900
Times [1891]; Second Mrs. Tanqueray [1893]; Trelawny of the Wells [1900]; Gay Lord Quex [1900]
Rudyard Kipling [Kipling, Rudyard]
novelist/poet
England
1891 to 1902
Light that Failed [1891: novel]; Gunga Din [1892: poem]; Mandalay or Road to Mandalay [1892: poem]; Jungle Book
[1894: stories]; Recessional 1897 [1897: poem]; Captain's Courageous [1901: novel]; Kim [1901: novel]; Just So
Stories [1902: stories]
Joaquin Machado de Assis [Machado de Assis, Joaquin]
writer
Brazil
1891 to 1904
Heritage of Quincas Borba [1891]; Esau and Jacob [1904]
Paul Dresser [Dresser, Paul]
composer
USA
1891 to 1905
Pardon came Too Late [1891]; On the Banks of the Wabash [1897]; My Gal Sal [1905]
Oscar Wilde [Wilde, Oscar]
writer
England
1891 to 1905
Portrait of Dorian Gray [1891: novel]; Importance of Being Ernest [1895: novel]; Ballad of Reading Gaol [1898:
poem]; De Profundis or From the Depths [1905: essay]
Paul Ehrlich [Ehrlich, Paul]
doctor
Frankfurt, Germany
1891 to 1925
He lived 1854 to 1915. He used methylene blue as antimalarial drug [1891], trypan red and trypaflavin against
trypanosomiasis, acriflavine as antibacterial, arsenical compounds (Carbarsone) against amoebas, arsenical compounds
(Salvarsan and oxophenarsine) against syphilis bacteria [1907 to 1909]. He discovered drug resistance [1925].
Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller [Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott]
philosopher
Germany/England/USA
1891 to 1929
Riddles of the Sphinx [1891]; Studies in Humanism [1912]; Problems of Belief [1924]; Logic for Use [1929]
He lived 1890 to 1940, was Pragmatist, and wrote about ethics.
Susan B. Anthony [Anthony, Susan B.]
feminist
USA
1892
She lived 1820 to 1906 and worked for women's rights.
Harry Dacre [Dacre, Harry]
composer
USA
1892
Bicycle Built for Two or Daisy Bell [1892]
William Kennedy-Laurie Dickson [Dickson, William Kennedy-Laurie]
inventor
USA
1892
kinetoscope
He lived 1860 to 1935. Film was for viewing in window {kinetoscope, Dickson}. William Heise invented camera
{kinetograph, Heise} to make the film. Kinetoscope parlors showed slapstick comedy and pornography.
Rudolf Diesel [Diesel, Rudolf]
inventor
Germany
1892
diesel engine [1892]
George Francis Fitzgerald [Fitzgerald, George Francis]
physicist
Ireland
1892
He lived 1844 to 1894 and tried to measure electric wavelength. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts
in motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction} [1892].
Charles K. Harris [Harris, Charles K.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1892
After the Ball Is Over [1892]
Charles H. Hoyt [Hoyt, Charles H.]/Percy Gaunt [Gaunt, Percy]
lyricist/composer
USA
1892
Bowery [1892]
Gaunt lived 1852 to 1896. Hoyt lived 1859 to 1900.
John D. Rockefeller [Rockefeller, John D.]
businessman
USA
1892
He lived 1839 to 1915, headed Standard Oil Company, and started Rockefeller Foundation.
Ruggiero Leoncavallo [Leoncavallo, Ruggiero]
composer
Italy
1892 to 1897
Pagliacci [1892: opera]; La Bohème or The Bohemian [1897]
Jean Sibelius [Sibelius, Jean]
composer
Finland
1892 to 1903
En Saga [1892]; Finlandia [1899: symphony]; Valse Triste or Sad Waltz [1903: waltz]
Wilhelm Windelband [Windelband, Wilhelm]
philosopher
Heidelberg, Germany/Baden, Germany
1892 to 1903
Textbook of the History of Philosophy [1892/1903: including History of Ancient Philosophy and History of Western
Philosophy]
He lived 1848 to 1915, was Hegelian historian, and was of Heidelberg School, Baden School, or Southwest German
School. Sciences can generalize {nomothetic science} or individualize {ideographic science}.
Hendrik Lorentz [Lorentz, Hendrik]
physicist
Netherlands
1892 to 1904
He lived 1853 to 1928. He studied Zeeman effect [1892]. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts in
motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction, Lorentz} [1892]. He invented motion equations {Lorentz equations
of motion} for charged particles in electromagnetic fields [1895], whereas Maxwell's equations are for electromagneticfield changes. He invented Einstein-Lorentz transformations [1904].
William Osler [Osler, William]
surgeon
USA
1892 to 1905
Principles and Practice of Medicine [1892]; Fixed Period [1905]
Maurice Maeterlinck [Maeterlinck, Maurice]
playwright/essayist
Belgium
1892 to 1909
Pelléas et Mélisande [1892]; Monna Vanna [1902]; Bluebird [1909]
Vladimir M. Bekhterev [Bekhterev, Vladimir M.]
psychologist
Russia
1892 to 1913
Nervous Diseases in Separate Observations [1892]; Objective Psychology [1913]
He lived 1857 to 1927 and studied token economies [Bekhterev, 1913].
Abbas II
pasha
Egypt
1892 to 1914
Abdu'l-Baha
philosopher
Iran
1892 to 1921
He lived 1844 to 1921 and was Baha'u'llah's oldest son. Baha'u'llah appointed him to lead Bahaism [1892 to 1921].
Sergei Rachmaninoff [Rachmaninoff, Sergei]
composer
Russia
1892 to 1936
Prelude in C Sharp Minor [1892]; Second Piano Concerto [1900]; Prelude in G Minor [1901]; Second Symphony
[1907]; Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini [1936: symphony]
James M. Black [Black, James M.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1893
When the Roll Is Called up Yonder [1893]
Paul Laurence Dunbar [Dunbar, Paul Laurence]
poet
USA
1893
Sympathy [1893]
Vladimir I. Stepanov [Stepanov, Vladimir I.]
choreographer
Russia
1893
He lived 1866 to 1896 and developed ballet notation.
Francis Thompson [Thompson, Francis]
poet
England
1893
Hound of Heaven [1893]
Lew Wallace [Wallace, Lew]
novelist
USA
1893
Ben-Hur [1893]
Edvard Munch [Munch, Edvard]
painter
Norway
1893 to 1894
Scream [1893]; Madonna [1894]
Stephen Crane [Crane, Stephen]
novelist
USA
1893 to 1895
Maggie: A Girl of the Streets [1893]; Red Badge of Courage [1895]
Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover]
president
USA
1893 to 1897
He lived 1837 to 1908, was 24th president upheld the gold standard, broke Pullman strike with army [1894], forced
Venezuela boundary dispute to arbitration, and wanted low tariffs but got high tariffs from Congress.
Georg Elias Müller [Müller, Georg Elias]
psychologist
Germany
1893 to 1900
Experimental Contributions to the Science of Memory [1900: with Alfons Pilzecker]
He lived 1850 to 1934 and studied memory consolidation over time [1893: with Alfons Pilzecker].
Aubrey Beardsley [Beardsley, Aubrey]
illustrator
England
1893 to 1909
Bon-Mots Series or Witticisms Series [1893 to 1897]; Enter Herodias [1893]; Salome [1894]; Mysterious Rose Garden
[1895: in The Yellow Book]; Messalina and her Companion [1895]; Portrait of Miss Winifred Emery [1895: in The
Yellow Book]; Ave Atque Vale or Hail Brother Farewell or Hail and Farewell [1896: poem]; Antoinette at her
Dressing Table [1909]
Englebert Humperdinck [Humperdinck, Englebert]
composer
Germany
1893 to 1910
Hansel and Gretel [1893: opera]; Die Königskinder or The King's Children [1910: opera]
Giacomo Puccini [Puccini, Giacomo]
composer
Italy
1893 to 1910
Manon Lescaut [1893: opera]; La Boheme [1895: opera]; Tosca [1900: opera]; Madame Butterfly [1904: opera]; Girl
of the Golden West [1910: opera]
Katherine Lee Bates [Bates, Katherine Lee]/Samuel A. Ward [Ward, Samuel A.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1893 to 1913
America the Beautiful [1893 to 1913]
Bates lived 1859 to 1929. Ward lived 1847 to 1903.
Émile Durkheim [Durkheim, Émile]
sociologist
Paris, France
1893 to 1917
Division of Labor in Society [1893]; Rules of Sociological Method [1895]; Suicide: a Study in Sociology [1897];
Primitive Classification [1903]; Elementary Forms of Religious Life [1912]; Professional Ethics and Civic Morals
[1917]
Suicide happens in individuals dissociated from their groups {anomie, Durkheim}, who lose social rules or have socialrule conflicts. Social cohesion minimizes suicide risk {social cohesion theory}, but communities do not always have
values and beliefs adequate to current social problems.
Societies have behavior norms. Social institutions and relations, such as language, law, customs, values, traditions,
inventions, family, religion, and work, shape individual behavior and beliefs.
Religion and morals are main society parts, and all change together.
Religion is about the sacred, not magic, supernatural, or spirits. Community shares the sacred. Taboos separate sacred
from profane, by special places and days.
However, primitive peoples do separate natural and supernatural, and some do not have sacred things.
Totem is sacred, has totem symbol, and represents clan. Clans have larger groups {phratry, Durkheim}, and their
totems have groups. All things in life have categories, and categories have totems, so all things link to form unity.
Totemism is thus the first religion.
People feel power in totem {totemic principle}. The power is mana in Melanesia, manitou in North America, orenda, or
wakan. The power is not spirit or person. Soul is part of totemic principle and is conscience. Sacrifices are to share in
power.
Social events and ceremonies concentrate on totem but actually unify clan in shared excitement and joy. Rituals
reinforce idea of community. Rituals can be about death {piacular ritual} and allow society to heal.
Ancestor worship is about past souls and clans and leads to the idea of gods, which are for and about tribes, not clans.
Tribes often have supreme god.
Societies have principles not derivable from biology or psychology. Society is a collective of norms and is more than
sum of individual effects.
Oswald Külpe [Külpe, Oswald]
Würzburg, Germany
1893 to 1922
Basics of Psychology [1893]; Introduction to Philosophy [1898]; Lectures on Psychology [1922]
He lived 1862 to 1917 and was at Würzburg School of experimental psychology in Bavaria.
Before performing tasks, people prepare for doing any task, prepare for doing particular task, actively recall needed
information and possible responses, and select from among possible associations and responses.
Mental states such as confidence or doubt have no image, representation, or object {imageless thought, Külpe} and
cannot be sensations, images, volitions, or feelings {denkpsychologie} {thought psychology}.
William Butler Yeats [Yeats, William Butler]
poet
England
1893 to 1926
Song of Wandering Aengus [1893]; Long-Legged Fly; Responsibilities [1914]; Second Coming [1919]; Sailing to
Byzantium [1926]
He lived 1865 to 1939 and was Symbolist.
William Bateson [Bateson, William]
biologist
England
1894
Materials for the Study of Variation [1894]
He lived 1861 to 1926 and invented the word genetics for heredity study. Genes carry genetic information and are in
chromosomes. New species come from repeated-body-segment structure and number changes. Such modifications can
lead to similarity with existing part {homeosis, Bateson}. Parts can have jumps. For example, upper thoracic vertebrae
can have no ribs or lower cervical vertebrae can have ribs.
Anton Bruckner [Bruckner, Anton]
composer
Austria
1894
Ninth Symphony [1894]
He lived 1824 to 1896 and composed nine symphonies and string quartet.
Gabriele d'Annunzio [d'Annunzio, Gabriele]
writer
Italy
1894
Triumph of Death [1894]
Vincent d'Indy [d'Indy, Vincent]
musician
France
1894
He lived 1851 to 1931 and founded the Schola Cantorum early-music school [1894] in Paris as alternative to the Paris
Conservatory.
Arthur Evans [Evans, Arthur]
scientist
England
1894
He lived 1851 to 1941. He discovered Minoan palace at Knossos [1894] and restored it somewhat.
Joe Hayden [Hayden, Joe]/Theodore Mertz [Mertz, Theodore]
composer
USA
1894
Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight or Hot Times (In the Old Town Tonight) [1894]
Charles Lawlor [Lawlor, Charles]/James Blake [Blake, James]
composer
USA
1894
Sidewalks of New York or East Side, West Side [1894]
Lawlor lived [1852 to 1925].
Pierre Louys [Louys, Pierre]
writer
France
1894
Chansons de Bilitis or Songs of Bilitis [1894]
Thomas Stieltjes [Stieltjes, Thomas]
mathematician
Netherlands
1894
Researches on continuous fractions [1894]
He lived 1856 to 1894 and invented Stieltjes integral.
Kazimierz Twardowski [Twardowski, Kazimierz]
philosopher
Poland
1894
On the Content and Object of Presentation [1894]
He lived 1866 to 1938 and was Brentano's student. Phenomenon has content and object. The object of thought is not in
the thought, which has different content type. All thoughts are about objects, but objects do not have to exist. Actions
differ from products.
Charles L. Van Baar [Van Baar, Charles L.]
composer
USA
1894
Yale Society Two-Step [1894]
Frank Wedekind [Wedekind, Frank]
writer
Germany
1894 to 1895
Pandora´s Box: A Monstre Tragedy [1894: in the Lulu cycle]; Earth Spirit [1895: in the Lulu cycle]
Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro [Ricci-Curbastro, Gregorio]
mathematician
Italy
1894 to 1900
Methods of calculating absolute differentials and their applications [1900: with Levi-Civita]
He lived 1853 to 1925 and studied absolute differential calculus [1894]. He started tensors, spinors, invariance,
covariant, contravariant, version orientation-entanglement relation, and bivector wedge product.
Louis Lumiere [Lumiere, Louis]/Auguste Lumiere [Lumiere, Auguste]
director
France
1894 to 1903
sprocket holes in film strips; cinématographe [1894]; public film showing [1895]; Autochrome Lumière [1903: color
photography]
Louis lived 1864 to 1948. Auguste lived 1862 to 1954.
Santiago Ramon y Cajal [Ramon y Cajal, Santiago]
anatomist
Spain
1894 to 1904
Textbook of the Human and Vertebrate Nervous System [1894 to 1904]
He lived 1852 to 1934 and studied neurons and brain microscopic structure. Nerve signal goes from neuron axon to
next-neuron dendrite.
Alfred Dreyfus [Dreyfus, Alfred]
trial
France
1894 to 1906
He lived 1859 to 1935 and was French army officer. He had a German and Jewish background, so a faction accused
him of treason for passing secret documents, and a court convicted him [1894] {Dreyfus Affair}. His brother reopened
case [1897], which split France for nine years into military, royalist, Catholic, republican, socialist, and anti-cleric
factions. The state cleared him later [1906]. Dreyfus Affair spurred church and state separation.
Nicholas II
czar
Russia
1894 to 1917
He lived 1868 to 1917, was Romanov, and tried to keep the peace at Hague Conference. He lost Russo-Japanese War
[1905] and then faced Revolution of 1905, which established legislature or Duma. He blocked Duma with his premier
Stolypin but allowed some land reform. He led army in World War I. Rasputin came to control his family.
Revolutionaries killed him after Russian Revolution [1917].
Charles Dodgson [Dodgson, Charles] or Lewis Carroll [Carroll, Lewis]
mathematician
England
1895
What the Tortoise Said to Achilles [1895]
He lived 1832 to 1898 and studied symbolic logic. Assuming inference rule is not the same as assuming conditional
statement.
Guglielmo Marconi [Marconi, Guglielmo]
physicist/inventor
Italy
1895
radio [1895]
He lived 1874 to 1937 and invented wireless communication telegraphy, radio [1895], filters, amplifiers, and tuners
{radio, Marconi}.
Albert A. Michelson [Michelson, Albert A.]
physicist
USA
1895
He lived 1852 to 1931 and proved light speed is constant [1895].
John F. Palmer [Palmer, John F.] or Jack Palmer [Palmer, Jack]/Charles B. Ward [Ward, Charles B.]
composer
USA
1895
Band Played On [1895]
Ward lived 1865 to 1917.
Wilhelm Roentgen [Roentgen, Wilhelm]
chemist/physicist
Germany
1895
He lived 1845 to 1923 and discovered x-rays [1895].
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec [Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de]
painter
France
1895
At the Moulin Rouge [1895]
James Mark Baldwin [Baldwin, James Mark]
sociologist
USA
1895 to 1896
Mental Development in the Child and the Race [1895]; Consciousness and Evolution [1896]
He lived 1861 to 1934. People behave in different ways in the presence of others {social facilitation}. People can
acquire knowledge and build it into structure by adding more knowledge {genetic epistemology}.
Children learn to differentiate knower and known, in both themselves and others, and to reintegrate such knowledge.
Infants do not differentiate between subjects and objects or self and others {adualism}. They learn by observation and
imitation to see other behavior {projective behavior}, then do it and feel it {subjective behavior}, and then infer it in
others {ejective behavior}. Consciousness structure develops by this process until about age 13.
Ben Harney [Harney, Ben]
composer
USA
1895 to 1899
You've Been a Good Old Wagon but You've Done Broke Down [1895]; Mister Johnson Turn Me Loose [1896]; Cake
Walk in the Sky [1899]
Antonio Labriola [Labriola, Antonio]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1895 to 1901
In Memory of the "Communist Manifesto" [1895]; On Materialist History. Preliminary Elucidation [1896]; Discourse
on Socialism and Philosophy [1898]; From One Century to the Next [1901]
He lived 1843 to 1904, was of Comtian School, and was Spaventa's student.
Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky [Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E.]
novelist
Russia
1895 to 1903
Dreams of the Earth [1895: science fiction novel]
He lived 1857 to 1935. He invented equations {rocket equation} [1903] that calculate fuel mass to incrementally
increase rocket speed {delta-v} and exhaust velocity.
Hans Driesch [Driesch, Hans]
biologist/philosopher
France/Jena, Germany
1895 to 1905
History and Theory of Vitalism [1905]
He lived 1867 to 1941. Cell from 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell, or 16-cell frog embryo can develop into complete adult, which
can spawn complete children [1895]. Cell non-material transcendental order moves animal development toward
adulthood {entelechy, Driesch}.
Mozzaffar-oddin Shah
shah
Persia
1895 to 1907
He lived 1853 to 1907, was Qajar, and signed new constitution [1906].
Ramon Valle-Inclan [Valle-Inclan, Ramon]
poet/playwright
Spain
1895 to 1920
Divine Words; Silver Face; Femeninas or Women [1895]; Sonatas [1902 to 1905]; Aromas de leyenda or Aroma of a
Legend [1907: poem]; Águila de blasón or Eagle of Honor [1907: play]; La Marquesa Rosalinda [1913: play in verse];
La pipa de Kif or Marijuana Pipe [1919: poem]; Luces de Bohemia or Bohemian Lights [1920]
Herbert George Wells [Wells, Herbert George] or H. G. Wells [Wells, H. G.]
novelist
England
1895 to 1920
Time Machine [1895: science fiction novel]; War of the Worlds [1898: science fiction novel]; Outline of History
[1920]
Sigmund Freud [Freud, Sigmund]
psychoanalyst
Austria
1895 to 1939
Studies in Hysteria [1895: with Marcel Breuer]; Project for a Scientific Psychology [1898 to 1899]; Interpretation of
Dreams [1900]; Psychopathology of Everyday Life [1901]; Wit and its Relation to the Unconscious [1905]; Three
Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality [1906]; Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis [1909]; Totem and Taboo [1913];
Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis [1915 to 1917]; Beyond the Pleasure Principle [1920]; Ego and the Id
[1923]; Question of Lay Analysis [1926]; Civilization and Its Discontents [1930]; New Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis [1933]; Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety [1936]; Moses and Monotheism [1939]; Outline of PsychoAnalysis [1939]
He lived 1856 to 1939. He invented a psychodynamic topographic mental model [1900], with rational conscious
awareness, rational preconscious memories, and irrational unconscious desires. Later [1926 to 1933], he invented a
psychodynamic structural model, with id ("it" in German), ego ("I" in German), and superego ("above-me" in German).
Dreams have meaning, can be about infantile wishes and thoughts, and have understandable symbols. Dream has
images {manifest dream content}. Dreams have underlying ideas {latent dream content}, which are wishes, memories,
and fantasies about emotional reactions that happened in early infancy. Latent content transforms into manifest content
by condensation, displacement, dramatization, and representation, followed by secondary elaboration or revision
{dream work}. Dream work tries to evade latent-content censorship by choosing acceptable manifest content. Dream
transforms many or separated ideas into one image {condensation, dream}. Dream can attribute emotional significance
to unimportant object {displacement, dream}. Dream can transpose thought into imagery. Dream can represent abstract
ideas metaphorically by concrete images {representation, dream}. Dreams further distort or elaborate after waking
{secondary elaboration}. Symbolic representations {primal symbolism} can be consistent in human dreams. Such
symbols always have censored meaning, independent of manifest content, for example, symbols for male and female
genitalia. Repetitive dreams reenact traumatic episode in recent experience.
In diagnosing hysteria, he used free association to reveal unconscious desires and used proper interpretation to find
hysteria causes. Neurosis can result as people actively try not to remember painful, distressing, or stressful events or try
to repress desires, typically sexual desires {libido, Freud}, and become unconscious of their motivations {repression,
Freud}. Desires begin in infantile sexual molestation {seduction theory}, incestual feelings, or sexual desire
{polymorphous perversity}.
However, many supposed experiences are imaginary fantasies that started in early years, even in infancy.
Morals block instinctual motivations, causing conflict, which causes repression of motive into unconscious. Mind can
repress memories, fantasies, and thoughts associated with painful, embarrassing, or anxious emotions. Mind breaks
links between ideas and emotions, but mind cannot repress emotions, which build up unless released. From fear of
punishment, drives cause anxiety. Repression causes desires to express in unusual or pathological ways. Repression of
bad memories becomes available after age five.
Repression causes amnesia about childhood.
In neuroses, instinctual energy expresses itself in hysteria. If people can perceive what the ways actually mean, using
analysis supplied by trained person, pathology can stop {psychoanalysis, Freud}. Revealing underlying emotion and
drive can treat hysteria {abreaction, Freud}. He treated hysteria using hypnosis. Hypnosis can reenact experiences that
cause hysteria, to express emotions freely {catharsis, emotion}. In psychoanalysis, hypnosis involves identification.
Humor is mixture of incongruity, relief, and conflict theories [1905].
Sexual development starts in infancy with oral phase, then anal phase, and then sexual phase. Development can stop at
any stage. Young children love opposite-sex parent and hate same-sex parent {Oedipus complex, Freud}. Child
development can stop if rivalry with same-sex parent does not resolve through identification with parent. Child
development can stop if sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent do not transfer to sexual partner outside family.
Relationship between mother and child before this development stage affects oedipal impulses.
People start with unconscious instinctual energy {id}, for needs, drives, impulses, and emotions, which uses no logic,
ignores external reality, and depends on the pleasure principle. They develop rational conscious mental structures and
processes {ego, Freud}, which reject id, from id and adapt to maximize pleasure and minimize unpleasant. They
consciously learn morality, social values, and unconscious identification with parents and their values, which cause
conscience, shame, guilt, and internal standard that regulates moral conduct {super-ego} {ego-ideal}, which represses
bad thoughts and gets energy from id. Superego is part of ego and develops before age five or six {oedipal period}.
Judgments and prohibitions internalize {introjection, Freud} in early childhood, before child is able to question them.
Feelings of hostility towards either or both parents neutralize. Conscience originates in identifying with parents and
repudiating childhood. Later, teachers, admired friends, and social and moral education influence superego. Successful
personality development {ego strength} depends on defenses against instinctual drives and on adaptations to social
situations. People can learn to accept society external authority more than their internal drives and values {adaptation,
society}.
Unconscious mind contains repressed fantasies, memories, and thoughts, which can be self-destructive. Unconscious
impulses {death-wish} can wish to end individual existence.
People have instinctual sexual-drive libido. Sexual energy builds up in body with unmet biological needs {cathexis}.
Pleasure results when biological-need gratification discharges stored energy {pleasure principle}. Frustrating
gratification builds stored energy {hypercathexis} and causes unpleasure. Failure to protect peripheral receptors from
excessive or prolonged stimulation can cause unpleasure. Libido can channel into socially acceptable behavior
{sublimation, desire}.
Theology
Eros is life instincts of sex libido, hunger, and thirst. Thanatos is death instincts of aggression, self-destruction, and
sadism. Totems represent father, in oedipal conflict. Taboos represent, at first, renunciating incest. Religion involves
love and fear of God. God is like father to religious believers, who are like his children. People wish this state to be true
and so have illusion.
Émile Borel [Borel, Émile]
mathematician
Paris, France
1895 to 1946
Risk [1913]; Space and time [1921]; Treatise on calculation of probability and its applications [1924 to 1934];
Paradoxes of infinity [1946]
He lived 1871 to 1956 and studied functions using series and measure theory [1895], invented Heine-Borel theorem,
and helped develop intuitionism.
Henri Becquerel [Becquerel, Henri]
physicist
France
1896
He lived 1852 to 1908 and studied radioactivity [1896].
William Jennings Bryan [Bryan, William Jennings]
populist
USA
1896
He lived 1860 to 1925 and gave the "Cross of Gold" speech in defense of free silver coinage. Later, he defended
religious fundamentalism in Scopes "monkey trial".
William Kennedy-Laurie Dickson [Dickson, William Kennedy-Laurie]/Herman Casler [Casler, Herman]/Henry
Marvin [Marvin, Henry]/Elias Koopman [Koopman, Elias]
inventor
USA
1896
Biograph projector
Dickson lived 1860 to 1935. Casler lived 1867 to 1939. Biograph projector showed motion pictures on a large screen.
J. H. Ellis [Ellis, J. H.]
composer
USA
1896
Remus Takes the Cake [1896]
Fanny Farmer [Farmer, Fanny]
cook
USA
1896
She lived 1857 to 1915 and wrote first household cookbook [1896].
Paul Emil Flechsig [Flechsig, Paul Emil]
biologist
Leipzig, Germany
1896
Brain and Mind [1896]
He lived 1847 to 1929. Cortex association areas myelinate after birth, while sense and motor areas myelinate before
birth.
Umberto Giordano [Giordano, Umberto]
composer
USA
1896
La Mamma Morta or Dead Mother [1896: in Andrea Chenier. also in the film Philadelphia, 1993, sung by Peter
Gabriel]
A. E. Housman [Housman, A. E.]
poet
England
1896
Shropshire Lad [1896: poems]; When I Was One-and-Twenty [1896: in A Shropshire Lad]; Be Still My Soul [1896: in
A Shropshire Lad]; To an Athlete Dying Young [1896: in A Shropshire Lad]; On Wenlock Edge [1896: in A
Shropshire Lad]; Bredon Hill [1896: in A Shropshire Lad]; Loveliest of Trees [1896: in A Shropshire Lad]
Alfred Marks [Marks, Alfred]
composer
USA
1896
Sambo at the Cake Walk [1896]
Maude Nugent [Nugent, Maude]
lyricist/composer
USA
1896
Sweet Rosie O'Grady [1896]
Nugent lived 1877 to 1958.
Katherine E. Purvis [Purvis, Katherine E.]/James M. Black [Black, James M.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1896
When the Saints Go Marching In [1896]
Black lived 1856 to 1938.
Henryk Sienkiewicz [Sienkiewicz, Henryk]
novelist
Poland
1896
Quo Vadis or Whither Thou Goest [1896]
George M. Stratton [Stratton, George M.]
psychologist
USA
1896 to 1897
Some preliminary experiments on vision without inversion of retinal image [1896]
He lived 1865 to 1957. Distorting lenses make background appear to move at first, but soon users learn and background
becomes stationary [1896 to 1897].
Joseph Jastrow [Jastrow, Joseph]
psychologist
Poland
1896 to 1900
Community of Ideas of Men and Women [1896]; Fact and Fable in Psychology [1900]
He lived 1863 to 1944 and invented duck-rabbit illusion [1899], which relates to aspect perception using concepts.
Fatima
belly dancer
Chicago, Illinois
1896 to 1901
Danse du Ventre or Dance of the Wind [1896: film in Egyptian style]; Fatima, Muscle Dancer [1896: film]; Fatima's
Coochee-Coochee Dance [1901: film]
She performed at Chicago World's Fair.
Charles Booth [Booth, Charles]
sociologist
England
1896 to 1903
Life and Labour of the People in London [1896 to 1903]
Rubén Darío [Darío, Rubén]
poet
Nicaragua
1896 to 1905
Prosas Profanas or Profane Proses [1896: poems]; Azul or Blue [1905: collected works]; Cantos de Vida y Esperanza
or Songs of Life and Hope [1905: poems]
He lived 1867 to 1916 and began modernismo in Latin America [1899].
Alexander Scriabin [Scriabin, Alexander]
composer
Russia
1896 to 1910
Piano Concerto [1896]; Symphony No. 3 or Divine Poem [1903]; Poem of Ecstasy [1907]; Prometheus [1910]
Max Beerbohm [Beerbohm, Max]
essayist/caricaturist/critic
England
1896 to 1912
Works of Max Beerbohm [1896]; Happy Hypocrite [1897]; Zuleika Dobson [1911]; Christmas Garland [1912]
Richard Strauss [Strauss, Richard]
composer
Germany/Austria
1896 to 1912
Thus Spake Zarathustra [1896: opera]; Don Quixote [1897: opera]; Ein Heldenleben or Life of a Hero [1898: opera];
Till Eulenspiegel [1898: opera]; Don Juan [1889: opera]; Death and Transfiguration [1889: opera]; Salome [1905:
opera]; Elektra [1909: opera]; Der Rosenkavalier or Rose Cavalier [1910: opera]; Ariadne auf Naxos [1912: opera]
Vilfredo Pareto [Pareto, Vilfredo]
economist/sociologist
Italy
1896 to 1916
Course of Political Economy [1896 to 1897]; Manual of Political Economy [1906]; Textbook of General Sociology
[1916]
He lived 1848 to 1923 and studied social stability, talent, and governing class. If people have defined preferences
between all good and service pairs, Pareto optimum goods-and-services distribution happens, if no one person can
satisfy more preferences while leaving other people the same.
Politics
People's emotions or beliefs {residues}, of which there are six types, cause actions, which people then justify
{derivations}. Residues include need to associate with others, need to maintain social groups, and tendency to combine
things.
Paul Valéry [Valéry, Paul] or Ambroise-Paul-Touissaint-Jules Valéry [Valéry, Ambroise-Paul-Touissaint-Jules]
poet
France
1896 to 1920
La Soirée avec M. Teste or Evening with Mr. Teste [1896]; La Jeune Parque or Yellow Park [1917: long poem]; Le
Cimetière marin or Graveyard by the Sea [1920]
George Washington Carver [Carver, George Washington]
biologist/inventor
USA
1896 to 1923
peanut products [1897 to 1930]; crop rotation [1897 to 1930]
He lived 1864 to 1943 and developed soil improvements and new peanut, soybean, and cotton uses. He rotated peanuts
with cotton.
John Dewey [Dewey, John]
philosopher/educator
USA
1896 to 1938
Psychology [1887]; Study of Ethics [1894]; Reflex arc concept in psychology [1896]; School and Society [1907]; How
We Think [1910]; Democracy and Education [1916]; Human Nature and Conduct [1922]; Experience and Nature [1925
and 1929]; Quest for Certainty [1929]; Art as Experience [1934]; Logic [1938]
He lived 1859 to 1952, was pragmatist, and studied social and psychological processes of problem solving and inquiry.
In logic, he developed the idea of statement truth based on context {warranted assertibility}.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is about consummatory experience and secondary qualities.
Education
Children should learn by doing practical things and experiments and by having social experiences. In this way, they
learn how to solve problems. They can have more equality, with less social division. People learn by doing {theory of
inquiry}.
Epistemology
Inquiry involves having problem in a context, making hypothesis about solution, testing hypothesis in context, refining
hypothesis, and retesting. Inquiry is a way of adjusting to environment and is how people unify and order contexts.
Inquiry solves problem in context, so people can take proper action for that context. Inquiry can be useful for science,
society, and individuals.
Testing ideas involves observing effects {instrumentalism, Dewey}. If idea works or is good, people believe it, but only
in proper context. Theories give truths only about observable world. Truth is not final, eternal, or perfect but evolves
with time and environment. All knowledge can be false {fallibilism, Dewey}.
Ethics
Human action is for solving psychological and social problems. Through inquiry, people can grow in ability and
experience. Means and ends can unify.
Metaphysics
Human action shapes reality. Reality changes and grows.
Politics
Experienced empirically derived laws determine political values.
Democracy is an experiment to allow people and society to grow stably.
George M. Cohan [Cohan, George M.]
composer
USA
1896 to 1942
Hot Tamale Alley [1896]; Warmest Baby in the Bunch [1896]; Yankee Doodle Dandy or Yankee Doodle Boy [1904];
Little Johnny Jones [1904: musical, including Give My Regards to Broadway and Yankee Doodle Dandy]; Mary
[1905]; Mary's a Grand Old Name [1906]; Forty-five Minutes from Broadway [1906]; Grand Old Flag or You're a
Grand Old Flag [1906]; George Washington, Jr. [1906: including You're a Grand Old Flag]; Harrigan [1907]; Over
There [1917: song]; Yankee Doodle Boy [1942: in the film Yankee Doodle Dandy]
George Santayana [Santayana, George] or Jorge Agustín Nicolás de Santayana [Santayana, Jorge Agustín
Nicolás de]
philosopher
Spain/USA
1896 to 1952
Sense of Beauty [1896]; Sonnets and Other Verses [1896: poems]; Reason in Art [1903]; Life of Reason or the Phases
of Human Progress [1906]; Skepticism and Animal Faith [1923]; Realms of Being [1927 to 1940]; Last Puritan [1935:
novel]; Realm of Spirit [1940]; Persons and Places [1944 to 1952: autobiography]
He lived 1863 to 1952 and was skeptical.
Aesthetics
Beauty is pleasure in thinking about object and is object quality.
Epistemology
People unite instinct and reason in a form of common sense. People know only their immediate perceptions. People
have faith in them, animal faith. Mind perceives object essences {Critical Realism}.
Ethics
Religion is myth and untrue but is useful and has poetic beauty.
Metaphysics
Universe is mechanistic and materialist, but man must have faith in the unknowable, which is outside religion.
Politics
History realizes God's plan for man's salvation.
Michel Bréal [Bréal, Michel]
linguist
Paris, France
1897
Essay on Semantics [1897: Metaphors can cause language changes]
He lived 1832 to 1915. Metaphors are common.
Cesare Burali-Forti [Burali-Forti, Cesare]
mathematician
Italy
1897
Question about Transfinite Numbers [1897]
He lived 1861 to 1931. Ordinal numbers are well-ordered by definition. Ordinal-number sets must then have a greatest
ordinal number. However, the set can be infinite and not have greatest ordinal number. Therefore, infinite ordinalnumber sets cannot exist {Burali-Forti paradox}. Ordinal-number sets are higher-ordinal-number-set subsets.
Benny David [David, Benny]/Philip Braham [Braham, Philip]
lyricist/composer
USA
1897
Walkin' for Dat Cake [1897]
William H. Krell [Krell, William H.]
composer
USA
1897
Mississippi Rag [1897]
Arthur Lamb [Lamb, Arthur]/Henry W. Petrie [Petrie, Henry W.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1897
Asleep in the Deep [1897]
Petrie lived 1857 to 1925.
Gustave Le Bon [Le Bon, Gustave]
sociologist
Paris, France
1897
Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind [1897]
Stéphane Malarmé [Malarmé, Stéphane]
poet
France
1897
One Toss of the Dice Never Will Abolish Chance [1897]
Kerry Mills [Mills, Kerry]
composer
USA
1897
At a Georgia Campmeeting [1897: cakewalk]
Ted Morse [Morse, Ted]
composer
USA
1897
Coontown Capers [1897: cakewalk]
Morse lived 1873 to 1924.
Johnson Oatman, Jr. [Oatman, Jr., Johnson]/Edwin O. Exell [Exell, Edwin O.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1897
Count Your Blessings [1897]
Oatman lived 1856 to 1922.
Bram Stoker [Stoker, Bram]
novelist
England
1897
Dracula [1897: horror novel about vampire]
Vilhelm Erik Svedelius [Svedelius, Vilhelm Erik]
linguist
Sweden
1897
Analysis of Language [1897]
He lived 1816 to 1889. Event and relation communications differ in meaning and grammar. Relation communications
nest and invert phrases. Event communications can use word sequences in event order, with no transformations.
J. R. Todd [Todd, J. R.]
composer
USA
1897
Shuffling Coon [1897]
Ned Wayburn [Wayburn, Ned]/Stanley Whiting [Whiting, Stanley]
composer
USA
1897
Syncopated Sandy [1897]
Wayburn lived 1874 to 1942.
Sigbert J. M. Ganser [Ganser, Sigbert J. M.]
psychologist
Germany
1897 to 1898
On a peculiar hysterical state [1898]
He lived 1853 to 1931 and discovered prisoners who imitated psychotic behavior {Ganser syndrome} [1897 to 1898].
William McKinley [McKinley, William]
president
USA
1897 to 1901
He lived 1843 to 1901. 25th president insisted on the gold standard and worked for business interests with Mark Hanna,
Republican leader. After USS Maine sank in Havana, Cuba [1898], he instigated Spanish-American War, though Spain
wanted to avoid war. Spanish fleet lost at Manila Bay and later near Cuba. He obtained Hawaii. He started Open Door
Policy in China, allowing no foreign intervention, just trading. Currency Act [1900] ensured the gold standard.
Someone assassinated him.
Theodore Lipps [Lipps, Theodore]
Germany
1897 to 1903
Empathy, Inner Imitation and Sense-Feelings [1890 to 1910]; Foundation of Aesthetics [1903]
He lived 1851 to 1914. People can have a feeling of belonging to, and associating with, something else {einfuhlung}
{empathy, aesthetics} [1897]. Empathy explains aesthetics.
Arthur Pryor [Pryor, Arthur]
lyricist/composer
USA
1897 to 1905
Ye Boston Tea Party [1897]; Whistler and His Dog [1905]
Alfred Stieglitz [Stieglitz, Alfred]
photographer
USA
1897 to 1907
Hand Camera: its present importance [1897]
Havelock Ellis [Ellis, Havelock]
psychologist
USA
1897 to 1910
Psychology of Sex [1897 to 1910]
He lived 1859 to 1939. Psychotherapy can link cognitions and emotions, so thoughts can control emotions {rationalemotive therapy, Ellis}. Therapist argues and discusses {insightful countersuggestion, Ellis}, to attack patient's
irrational beliefs.
Henri Rousseau [Rousseau, Henri]
painter
France
1897 to 1910
Sleeping Gypsy [1897]; Exotic Landscape [1908]; Dream [1910]
David Hilbert [Hilbert, David]
mathematician
Germany
1897 to 1912
Report on Numbers [1897]; Foundations of Geometry [1899]; 23 Unsolved Problems of Mathematics [1900: at
International Congress of Mathematicians, Paris]; Elements and Principles of Mathematics [1912]
He lived 1862 to 1943 and studied formal systems, proof theory, metamathematics, and Erlanger Program. He studied
real numbers using connection, calculation, order, and continuity axioms. He invented Hilbert space and HilbertSchmidt theorem. He posed problems {Hilbert program} for 20th century mathematicians to solve [1900]. His tenth
problem {Entscheidungsproblem} asked if theorem-proving algorithms are possible. Integral equations and complete
orthogonal-system theories relate.
Epistemology
Mathematics can depend on proofs using symbol language {formalism, Hilbert}. Mathematics branches can be formal
and studied at higher level {metamathematics, Hilbert}, but do not need infinitely high level. Meaningful mathematics
is about finite objects and relations. The infinite hotel {Hilbert hotel} has an infinite number of rooms, so it has
infinitely many vacancies, no matter how many people.
Joseph Conrad [Conrad, Joseph] or Josef Korzeniowski [Korzeniowski, Joseph]
novelist
England
1897 to 1915
Nigger of the "Narcissus" [1897]; Youth [1898: story]; Lord Jim [1900]; Typhoon [1901]; Heart of Darkness [1902];
Nostromo [1904]; Secret Sharer [1910]; Under Western Eyes [1911]; Victory [1915]
Edwin Arlington Robinson [Robinson, Edwin Arlington]
poet
USA
1897 to 1921
Luke Havergall [1897]; Richard Cory [1916]; Man against the Sky [1916]; Miniver Cheevy [1921]
George Bernard Shaw [Shaw, George Bernard]
playwright
England
1897 to 1925
Devil's Disciple [1897]; Candida [1898]; Caesar and Cleopatra [1901]; Man and Superman [1903: includes the scene
Don Juan in Hell]; Major Barbara [1905]; Doctor's Dilemma [1906]; Androcles and the Lion [1913]; Pygmalion
[1916]; Heartbreak House [1919]; Back to Methuselah [1921]; Arms and the Man [1924]; Saint Joan [1925]
Charles Scott Sherrington [Sherrington, Charles Scott]
physiologist
Britain
1897 to 1946
Synapse [1897]; Integrative Action of the Nervous System [1906]; Mammalian Physiology [1919]; Reflex Activity in
the Spinal Cord [1932: with Richard S. Creed]; Man on His Nature [1942]; Endeavor of Jean Fernel [1946]
He lived 1857 to 1952, named neuron junctions "synapses", showed that transmission slowed there, and studied
antagonistic-muscle reciprocal innervation. He studied peripheral and spinal reflexes, including dog scratch reflex, and
relations between reflexes and behavior patterns.
He studied sense exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors. Exteroceptive distance receptors detect movements
and are at animal leading edges. Distance receptors receive stimuli far from physical source. Brains can build spacetime relations to represent environment. Interoceptive receptors receive stimuli where physical sources contact body
surface. Proprioceptive receptors receive stimuli from inside body.
Precurrent receptors initiate behavior, and non-precurrent receptor activity stops behavior. Behavior relies on body
hierarchical spatio-temporal subsystems that evolution built and linked for survival. Body-limit perception affects
behavior.
Organisms evolved to allow more exploration and autonomy, as distance receptors and brain integration evolved.
Organisms had more prey and predator knowledge. Anticipatory responses extended control over space and time, so
reaction time increased and immediate receptor responses lasted longer.
Theodor Herzl [Herzl, Theodor]
founder
Austria
1898
He lived 1860 to 1904 and started Zionist Movement to create Jewish state in Palestine.
William O'Hare [O'Hare, William]
composer
USA
1898
Levee Revels [1898]
Chauncey Olcott [Olcott, Chauncey]
composer
USA
1898
My Wild Irish Rose [1898]
Edmond Rostand [Rostand, Edmond]
playwright
France
1898
Chanticleer; Cyrano de Bergerac [1898]
He lived 1868 to 1918 and was Romantic.
Marie-Thérèse de Subligny [Subligny, Marie-Thérèse de]
ballerina
France
1898
Wilhelm Wien [Wien, Wilhelm]
physicist
Germany
1898
He lived 1864 to 1928 and studied black body radiation [1898].
Gabriel Tarde [Tarde, Gabriel]
sociologist
Paris, France
1898 to 1904
Social Laws [1898]; Outline of Sociology [1904]
Georges Melies [Melies, Georges]
director
France
1898 to 1912
La Caverne maudite or Cave of the Demon [1898: first double exposure]; Un Homme de tête or A Man's Head [1898:
first split-screen shot]; Cendrillon [1899: first dissolve]; Cinderella [1900]; Cabinet of Dr. Caligari [1919: first horror
film]
He lived 1861 to 1938 and used double exposure, stop action, speed changes, animation, dissolves, and fades.
Leo Frobenius [Frobenius, Leo]
historian
Halle, Germany
1898 to 1913
African Masks and Secret Societies [1898]; Voice of Africa [1913]
Scott Joplin [Joplin, Scott]
composer/pianist
USA
1898 to 1914
Swipsy [1898]; Banjo Rag Time [1899]; Maple Leaf Rag [1899]; Entertainer [1902: lyrics by John Brimhall]; Cascades
[1904]; Paragon Rag [1909]; New Rag [1912]; Magnetic Rag [1914]
He lived 1868 to 1917. Ragtime.
Vicente Ibanez [Ibanez, Vicente] or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez [Ibáñez, Vicente Blasco]
writer
Spain
1898 to 1918
La barraca or The Cabin [1898]; Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse [1918]
Rainer Maria Rilke [Rilke, Rainer Maria]
poet
Germany
1898 to 1923
Book of Images [1898 to 1906: four poem books]; Tale of Love and Death of Cornet Christopher Rilke [1906];
Duinese Elegies [1922]; Sonnets to Orpheus [1923]
Constantin Stanislavsky [Stanislavsky, Constantin]
actor
Moscow, Russia
1898 to 1936
Actor Prepares; Building a Character; Creating a Role; My Life in Art [1924]
He lived 1863 to 1938. He taught actors to interpret role subjectively {method acting}, rather use stylizations. He
cofounded, with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, the Moscow Art Theater [1898].
Jane Addams [Addams, Jane]
social worker
Chicago, Illinois
1899
She lived 1860 to 1935 and founded Hull House, settlement house.
Giovanni Capurro [Capurro, Giovanni]/Eduardo di Capua [Capua, Eduardo di]
lyricist/composer
Italy
1899
O Sole Mio or My Sunshine [1899]
Capurro lived 1825 to 1920. Capua lived 1865 to 1917.
Will Marion Cook [Cook, Will Marion]
composer
USA
1899
Darktown is Out Tonight [1899]
Charles N. Daniels [Daniels, Charles N.]
composer
USA
1899
You Tell Me Your Dreams [1899]
Sam Walter Foss [Foss, Sam Walter]
poet
USA
1899
House by the Side of the Road [1899]; Songs of War and Peace [1899]
Francis Gotch [Gotch, Francis]
biochemist
England
1899
He lived 1853 to 1913 and studied nerve impulse, which has refractory period [1899].
Harry Guy [Guy, Harry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1899
Belle of the Creoles [1899]
Joseph Howard [Howard, Joseph]/Ida Emerson [Emerson, Ida]
composer
USA
1899
Hello My Baby [1899: perhaps, composed by Maxwell Marcuse]
Howard lived 1878 to 1961.
Louis-Philippe Laurendeau [Laurendeau, Louis-Philippe]
composer
Canada/USA
1899
Daphne Schottische [1899]
Maurice Levi [Levi, Maurice]
composer
USA
1899
Ethiopian Mardi Gras [1899: cakewalk]
Edwin Markham [Markham, Edwin]
poet
USA
1899
Man with the Hoe [1899]
Pee Wee Russell [Russell, Pee Wee]
composer
USA
1899
Happy Mose [1899: cakewalk]
Alfred von Schlieffen [Schlieffen, Alfred von]
field marshal
Germany
1899
He lived 1833 to 1912. He formulated a military plan (Schlieffen Plan) to go through Belgium to Paris and defeat
France in 42 days.
Jean Schwartz [Schwartz, Jean]
composer
USA
1899
Dusky Dudes [1899: cakewalk]
Frederick Winslow Taylor [Taylor, Frederick Winslow]
engineer/inventor
USA
1899
Taylor-White process [1899: heat-treated steel tools, with Maunsel White]
He lived 1856 to 1915 {Taylor-White process}.
Theodore Moses Tobani [Tobani, Theodore Moses]
composer
USA
1899
Hearts and Flowers [1899]
Edward Elgar [Elgar, Edward]
composer
England
1899 to 1901
Enigma Variations [1899: symphony]; Pomp and Circumstance [1901: March No. 1]
Frank Norris [Norris, Frank]
novelist
USA
1899 to 1901
Blix [1899]; Pit [1903]; Octopus [1901]
Thorstein Veblen [Veblen, Thorstein]
economist
USA
1899 to 1904
Theory of the Leisure Class [1899]; Theory of Business Enterprise [1904]
Harriet Brooks [Brooks, Harriet]
physicist
Canada
1899 to 1907
She lived 1876 to 1933 and studied radioactivity and element transmutation [1899 to 1907]. She discovered radon and
nuclei recoil after radioactivity.
Shelford Bidwell [Bidwell, Shelford]
barrister
Britain
1899 to 1909
Curiosities of Light and Vision [1899]
He lived 1848 to 1909. Alternating flashing lights can make afterimages {Bidwell's ghost}.
Charles L. Johnson [Johnson, Charles L.]
composer
USA
1899 to 1909
Doc Brown's Cakewalk [1899]; Dill Pickles Rag [1906: two-step]; Tabasco [1909: rag time waltz]
Anna Pavlova [Pavlova, Anna]
ballerina
Russia
1899 to 1909
Autobiography [1922: book]
Harry Houdini [Houdini, Harry]
magician/escape artist
USA
1899 to 1926
Arnold Schönberg [Schönberg, Arnold] or Arnold Schoenberg [Schoenberg, Arnold]
composer
Austria
1899 to 1942
Verklarte Nacht or Transfigured Night [1899]; Erwartung or Expectation [1909]; Five Orchestral Pieces [1910];
Herzgewächse or Heart Growth [1911]; Pierrot Lunaire [1912]; Accompaniment to a Cinematographic Scene [1930];
Moses and Aron [1933]; Suite for Piano [1924]; Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte [1942]
He lived 1874 to 1951 and used tone-row technique.
George Edward Moore [Moore, George Edward]
philosopher
Britain
1899 to 1953
Nature of Judgment [1899]; Principia Ethica or Ethical Principles [1903]; Ethics [1912]; Philosophical Studies [1922];
Some Main Problems of Philosophy [1953]
He lived 1873 to 1958, was neo-realist, and developed criteria for meaning based on common sense.
Epistemology
Analysis of true common-sense propositions finds equivalent concepts and propositions. Experience and its object are
two separate things, and object is not mental.
Ethics
Goodness is basic, simple, unanalyzable, non-natural quality. Good does not depend on human reason, emotions, God,
or nature. The word "good" has no definition in terms of natural qualities, because natural qualities are good or bad
{naturalistic fallacy}. Confusing the good with particular objects or traits is invalid. Wrong and right are indefinable,
because they are fundamental.
Robert Sessions Woodworth [Woodworth, Robert Sessions]
psychologist
USA
1899 to 1954
On the Accuracy of Voluntary Movement [1899]; Dynamic Psychology [1918]; Contemporary Schools of Psychology
[1931]; Experimental Psychology [1938 and 1954]
He lived 1869 to 1962, measured individual differences, and invented objective emotional-stability tests.
L. Frank Baum [Baum, L. Frank] or Lyman Frank Baum [Baum, Lyman Frank]
writer
USA
1900
Wonderful Wizard of Oz [1900]
Will Cobb [Cobb, Will]/Gus Edwards [Edwards, Gus]
composer
USA
1900
I Can't Tell Why I Love You, But I Do [1900]
Cobb lived 1876 to 1930. Edwards lived 1879 to 1945.
Arthur Gillespie [Gillespie, Arthur]/Herbert Dillea [Dillea, Herbert]
lyricist/composer
USA
1900
Absence Makes the Heart Grow Fonder [1900]
Alexander Gorsky [Gorsky, Alexander]
choreographer
Russia
1900
Don Quixote [1900]
Abe Holzmann [Holzmann, Abe]
composer
USA
1900
Hunky Dory [1900: cakewalk]
Arthur Lamb [Lamb, Arthur]/Harry Von Tilzer [Von Tilzer, Harry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1900
Bird in a Gilded Cage or She's Only a Bird in a Gilded Cage [1900]
Von Tilzer lived 1872 to 1946.
J. B. Lampe [Lampe, J. B.] or Ribe Danmark [Danmark, Ribe]
composer
USA
1900
Creole Belles [1900: 2-Step]
Thomas Lipton [Lipton, Thomas]
businessman
Scotland/England
1900
He lived 1850 to 1931 and was tea merchant and started America's Cup sailboat racing.
Jacques Loeb [Loeb, Jacques]
biologist
Germany
1900
Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology [1900]
He lived 1859 to 1924. Simple animals have forced tropism movements. Animals move towards stimulus source
{positive tropism} or away from it {negative tropism}. Simple animals have paired receptors, such as eyes, which send
signals to paired muscles, such as legs. When both receptors send equal signals, tension balances between both
muscles, and animal moves in straight lines {tonus hypothesis}. However, tonus hypothesis is not true for simple or
higher animals.
Peter C. Lutkin [Lutkin, Peter C.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1900
Lord Bless You And Keep You [1900]
Alice Mack [Mack, Alice]/Andrew Mack [Mack, Andrew]
composer
USA
1900
Heart of My Heart or Story of the Rose [1900]
Carry Nation [Nation, Carry]
temperance worker
USA
1900
She lived 1846 to 1911 and used hatchet to destroy saloons.
Frederick Edward Weatherly [Weatherly, Frederick Edward]/George Petrie [Petrie, George]
lyricist/composer
USA
1900
Danny Boy [1900: music is Londonderry Air of 1855]
Weatherly lived 1848 to 1929.
Bert Williams [Williams, Bert]/George Walker [Walker, George]
composer
USA
1900
Voodoo Man [1900]; Blackville Strutters Ball [1900]
Williams lived 1874 to 1922. Walker lived 1873 to 1911.
Wilhelm Ostwald [Ostwald, Wilhelm]
chemist
Germany
1900 to 1902
He lived 1853 to 1932, studied chemical equilibrium [1900], reaction rates, and color, and invented Ostwald process
for nitric acid [1902].
Max Planck [Planck, Max]
physicist
Berlin, Germany
1900 to 1906
Theory of Heat Radiation [1906]
He lived 1858 to 1947 and found Plank's constant [1900]. He studied blackbody radiation, radiation absorption and
emission quantum theory, and electromagnetic radiation energy. Light has energy proportional to frequency. Blackbody
radiation intensity is proportional to temperature, because many oscillators with different, discrete frequencies cause
radiation [1900]. Sum of frequency intensities is not infinite.
Georg Simmel [Simmel, Georg]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1900 to 1911
Philosophy of Money [1900]; Sociology [1908]; Philosophical Culture [1911]
He lived 1858 to 1918, was Relativist, and studied event social interactions.
Andrei A. Markov [Markov, Andrei A.]
mathematician
Russia
1900 to 1913
He lived 1856 to 1922, invented probability theory using Chebyshev continued fraction [1900], and invented Markov
process [1913].
Billy Sunday [Sunday, Billy]
preacher
USA
1900 to 1920
Edward Curtis [Curtis, Edward]
photographer
USA
1900 to 1930
He lived 1868 to 1952 and took still and moving American-Indian pictures.
James Jeans [Jeans, James]
physicist
England
1900 to 1943
Dynamical Theory of Gases [1903]; Theoretical Mechanics [1906]; Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism
[1908]; Universe around Us [1929]; Mysterious Universe [1930]; Stars in their Courses [1931]; New Background of
Science [1933]; Through Space and Time [1934]; Physics and Philosophy [1943]
He lived 1877 to 1946. He calculated black-body-radiation distribution at low and high frequencies {Rayleigh-Jeans
radiation, Jeans} {Rayleigh-Jeans law}, with Rayleigh [1900]. All energy seemed to go into higher field frequencies
over time, which is impossible {ultraviolet catastrophe, Jeans}: energy density = 8 * pi * k * T / (lambda^4), where T =
temperature, k = Boltzmann constant, and lambda = wavelength.
Large-enough {Jeans mass} {Jeans instability} {Jeans length} interstellar clouds can collapse to form stars, depending
on temperature, mass, and density.
Two things that can interact share a feature. For example, things that interact gravitationally both have mass. Perhaps,
thoughts about perceptions relate to stimulus energies.
Victor Emmanuel III
king
Italy
1900 to 1946
He lived 1869 to 1947 and appointed Mussolini [1922]. He dismissed Mussolini [1943] to make peace.
Mohandas Gandhi [Gandhi, Mohandas] or Mahatma Gandhi [Gandhi, Mahatma]
leader
India
1900 to 1948
He lived 1869 to 1948 and led India nationalist movement. He was pacifist, followed strict abstinence, and used passive
resistance and hunger strikes. He first used non-violence {satyagraha} in South Africa to protest racism. He used same
practices in India against class system and colonialism. He advocated home industries and end to untouchable class.
Ethics
People should not hurt other living things. Persuasion, self-control, and self-denial are good, but the process requires
zeal for truth.
Maltbie D. Babcock [Babcock, Maltbie D.]/Franklin L. Sheppard [Sheppard, Franklin L.]
lyricist/composer
England
1901
This Is My Father's World [1901: music is modified traditional English melody, Terra Beata]
Babcock lived 1858 to 1901. Sheppard lived 1852 to 1930.
Euclides da Cunha [Cunha, Euclides da]
writer
Brazil
1901
Os Sertões or Rebellion in the Backlands [1901]
Walther von Dyck [Dyck, Walther von]
mathematician
Netherlands
1901
He lived 1856 to 1934 and combined equation group theory, group number theory, and infinite transformation groups
{abstract group theory} [1901].
Henri Lebesgue [Lebesgue, Henri]
mathematician
Paris, France
1901
On a generalization of the definite integral [1901]
He lived 1875 to 1941 and invented Lebesgue integral and Riemann-Lebesgue lemma, studied measure theory [1901],
and helped develop intuitionism.
Tullio Levi-Civita [Levi-Civita, Tullio]
mathematician
Padua, Italy
1901
Note on the resistance of fluids [1901]
He lived 1873 to 1941 and studied tensors.
John Pierpont Morgan [Morgan, John Pierpont]
financier
USA
1901
He lived 1837 to 1913 and financed railroads and U.S. Steel.
Frederic William Henry Myers [Myers, Frederic William Henry]
writer
Britain
1901
Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death [1901]
Ethelbert Nevin [Nevin, Ethelbert]
composer
USA
1901
Mighty Like a Rose [1901]
Thomas L. Tully [Tully, Thomas L.]
businessman
Los Angeles, California
1901
movie theater
Theodore Roosevelt [Roosevelt, Theodore]
president
USA
1901 to 1905
He lived 1858 to 1919. He led invading horsemen {Rough Riders} in Spanish-American War in Cuba [1898]. The 26th
president split big businesses with Sherman Anti-Trust Act. He encouraged conservation. He established Roosevelt
corollary to Monroe Doctrine and used money and threats in Latin America, especially at Santo Domingo in Caribbean.
He kept Open Door policy in China and mediated Russo-Japanese War. He founded Bull Moose Party.
Edward VII
king
England
1901 to 1910
He lived 1841 to 1910, was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and cooperated with Asquith in limiting House of Lords veto power.
His era is Edwardian Era. The next rulers in the family changed house name to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII,
George VI, and Elizabeth II.
Edward Bradford Titchener [Titchener, Edward Bradford]
psychologist
USA
1901 to 1915
Experimental Psychology: a Manual of Laboratory Practices [1901 and 1905]; Lectures on the Elementary Psychology
of Feeling and Attention [1908]; Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought Processes [1904]; Text-book
of Psychology [1909 to 1910]; Beginner's Psychology [1915]
He lived 1867 to 1927, studied sensation and attention, and trained in introspection. He invented Titchener-circles
illusion. He tried to catalog all mental elements, to find consciousness structure. Mind combines units to make objects
and perceptions {structuralism, Titchener}.
Gustav Stickley [Stickley, Gustav]
designer
USA
1901 to 1916
Mission [1901 to 1916]; Stickley [1901 to 1930]
He lived 1858 to 1942. Oak furniture design derived from English Arts and Crafts. Gustav Stickley and Roycroft
Community were in upstate New York State. Craftsman Magazine [1901] featured its designs.
Maurice Prendergast [Prendergast, Maurice]
painter
Canada/USA
1901 to 1923
Central Park, New York [1901]; Sunset and Sea Fog [1923]
Ralph Vaughan Williams [Williams, Ralph Vaughan]
composer
England
1901 to 1930
Linden Lea [1901: song]; Songs of Travel [1904]; In the Fen Country [1904]; Sea Symphony [1910]; Fantasia on a
Theme by Thomas Tallis [1910]; London Symphony [1913]; Job [1930]
Booth Tarkington [Tarkington, Booth]
novelist
USA
1901 to 1935
Monsieur Beaucaire [1901]; Penrod [1914]; Magnificent Ambersons [1918]; Seventeen [1918]; Alice Adams [1935]
Thomas Mann [Mann, Thomas]
novelist
Germany
1901 to 1947
Buddenbrooks [1901]; Death in Venice [1911]; Confessions of Felix Krull Confidence Man [1922]; Magic Mountain
[1924]; Dr. Faustus [1947]
Hughie Cannon [Cannon, Hughie]
composer
USA
1902
Bill Bailey, Won't You Please Come Home [1902]
Augustine P. Conniff [Conniff, Augustine P.]
lyricist
USA
1902
Alma Mater or Holy Cross, Old Holy Cross [1902: music is Maryland]
Giambattista de Curtis [de Curtis, Giambattista]/Ernesto de Curtis [de Curtis, Ernesto]
lyricist/composer
Italy
1902
Torna a Surriento or Come Back to Sorrento [1902]
Paul Drude [Drude, Paul]
physicist
Germany
1902
He lived 1863 to 1906 and studied metal free electrons [1902].
Peter Kropotkin [Kropotkin, Peter]
anarchist/philosopher
Russia
1902
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution [1902]
He lived 1842 to 1921 and was communist and anarchist. State, law, police, courts, armies, teachers, capitalists, and
parents aid ruling class. Rulers rule for themselves, not the people. Anarchism is against such authoritarianism. People
left alone will be peaceful, cooperate, and produce. Living in communes, with property sharing and no
authoritarianism, is best.
John Masefield [Masefield, John]
poet
England
1902
On Growing Old [1902]; Sea-Fever [1902: in Salt-Water Ballads]; Cargoes [1902: in Salt-Water Ballads]
Paul Natorp [Natorp, Paul]
philosopher
Marburg, Germany
1902
Plato's Ideas [1902]
He lived 1854 to 1924 and was of Marburg School of Immanent Philosophy.
Lilla Cayley Robinson [Robinson, Lilla Cayley]/Paul Lincke [Lincke, Paul]
lyricist/composer
USA
1902
Shine Little Glow Worm or Glow Worm [1902]
Lincke lived 1866 to 1946.
John Singer Sargeant [Sargeant, John Singer]
painter
USA
1902
Mrs. Knowles and Her Children [1902]
Ren Shields [Shields, Ren]/George Evans [Evans, George]
lyricist/composer
USA
1902
In the Good Old Summertime [1902]
Shields lived 1868 to 1913.
Owen Wister [Wister, Owen]
novelist
USA
1902
Virginian [1902]
Beatrix Potter [Potter, Beatrix]
writer/storyteller
England
1902 to 1905
Tale of Peter Rabbit [1902]; Tale of Squirrel Nutkin [1903]; Tailor of Gloucester [1903]; Tale of Two Bad Mice
[1904]; Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle [1905]
Bob Cole [Cole, Bob] or Robert Cole [Cole, Robert]
composer
USA
1902 to 1906
Under the Bamboo Tree [1902]; Countess of Alagazam [1906]
Edith Nesbit [Nesbit, Edith]
writer
England
1902 to 1907
Five Children and It [1902]; Railway Children [1906]; Enchanted Castle [1907]
Edwin S. Porter [Porter, Edwin S.]
director
USA
1902 to 1907
Life of an American Fireman [1902]; Great Train Robbery [1903]; Uncle Tom's Cabin [1907]
He lived 1869 to 1941 and used close-ups and crosscutting.
James Barrie [Barrie, James]
playwright
Scotland
1902 to 1908
Admirable Crichton [1902]; Peter Pan [1904]; What Every Woman Knows [1908]
Julius Bernstein [Bernstein, Julius]
biochemist
Germany
1902 to 1912
Investigations into the Thermodynamics of Bioelectrical Currents [1902]; Electrobiology [1912]
He lived 1839 to 1917 and measured nerve-impulse conduction speed [1902]. Neural ion concentrations change slightly
during nerve impulses and cause nerve potential differences and action potentials {membrane theory} [1902 to 1912].
Local electric current flows between axon resting region and impulse region and causes depolarization {local circuit
hypothesis}. This was idea of Ludimar Hermann.
Hermann Cohen [Cohen, Hermann]
philosopher
Berlin, Germany
1902 to 1912
Logic of Pure Cognition [1902]; Ethic of Pure Will [1904]; Aesthetics of Feeling [1912]
He lived 1842 to 1918 and founded Marburg School of Immanent Philosophy. To approach truth, mind creates
categories, such as science, ethics, and law, and does so in context of culture.
Tamara Karsavina [Karsavina, Tamara]
ballerina
Russia
1902 to 1912
Thamar [1912]
H. B. Blanke [Blanke, H. B.]
composer
USA
1902 to 1913
Cubanola [1902]
Maxim Gorky [Gorky, Maxim] or Alexander Peshkov [Peshkov, Alexander]
storyteller/playwright/novelist
Russia
1902 to 1913
Twenty-six Men and a Girl [1899: story]; Foma Gordeyev or Gordeyev Family [1899: novel]; Chelkash [1895: story];
Decadence [1902: play]; Lower Depths [1902: play]; Malva [1906: story]; Mother [1906: novel]; Life of Klim Samgin
[1925 to 1936: novels]; My Childhood [1913: biography]
Benedetto Croce [Croce, Benedetto]
philosopher
Rome, Italy
1902 to 1917
Philosophy of the Spirit [1902 to 1917]; Notes on Aesthetics: Four Lessons [1917]
He lived 1866 to 1952 and was idealist.
Aesthetics
Art is individual and not categorizable but embodies universals in individuality. Art is to make beautiful objects
embodying artist feelings. Art involves imagination, which conceives images to express subjects or objects. It needs no
skill. Art enjoyment comes from pleasure that people feel inside as they form same perfect underlying image that they
observe.
Epistemology
People use intuition to know particular things and other things that have no concepts.
Metaphysics
Spirit has four aspects: aesthetic, economic, ethical, and logical.
Grazia Deledda [Deledda, Grazia]
storyteller
Sardinia, Italy
1902 to 1922
After the Divorce [1902: story]; Elias Portolu [1903: story]; Mother [1922: story]
She lived 1875 to 1936 and wrote in Verismo style.
Robert LaFollette [LaFollette, Robert]
senator
Wisconsin
1902 to 1924
He lived 1855 to 1925 and was Progressive governor and senator from Wisconsin. His program was Wisconsin Idea.
He led Progressive Party in 1924.
André Gide [Gide, André]
novelist
France
1902 to 1926
Immoralist [1902]; Straight Is the Gate [1909]; Counterfeiters [1926]
Charles Horton Cooley [Cooley, Charles Horton]
sociologist
USA
1902 to 1927
Human Nature and the Social Order [1902]; Social Organization [1909]; Social Process [1918]; Life and the Student
[1927]
He lived 1864 to 1929 and studied primary groups and how self relates to groups.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov [Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich]
physiologist
1902 to 1927
Work of the Digestive Glands [1902]; Conditional Reflexes [1927]
He lived 1849 to 1936 and studied neurosis, peripheral nerves, digestion physiology, classical conditioning, and
reflexes.
Contradictory stimuli can disturb balance between nervous-system excitatory and inhibitory processes, and personality
affects whether neurosis develops.
Vagus nerve controls blood pressure, and four nerves control and vary heartbeat rhythm and intensity. Depending on
saliva and food, tasting food {sham feeding} can release gastric juice, which has enzymes {enterokinase}.
Dogs associate neutral stimulus with reflex. Conditional reflex forms more easily if unconditional stimulus, such as
food, follows conditional stimulus, such as bell, than if they are simultaneous or if conditional stimulus follows
unconditional stimulus. Conditional reflex forms more easily if conditional stimulus is nearer in time to unconditional
stimulus. Conditional stimulus that starts just before unconditional stimulus is as effective as conditional stimulus that
started long before unconditional stimulus and lasted until just before. More intense conditional and unconditional
stimuli cause greater conditioned responses. Training conditional stimulus allows testing similar conditional stimuli to
investigate animal sense discriminations. External inhibition, internal inhibition, new environments, and new stimuli
affect conditioning. If conditional and unconditional stimuli no longer pair, conditioned reflex gradually decreases.
Maintaining conditioned reflex requires regular reinforcement. Conditioned reflex is similar to other reflexes.
Conditional reflex formation is adaptation whereby animal can survive better in changing environment.
Maurice Ravel [Ravel, Maurice]
composer
France
1902 to 1928
Pavane pour une Infante Défunte or Pavane for a Dead Infant [1902: dance]; Rhapsodie Espagnole or Spanish
Rhapsody [1908: symphony]; Valse Nobles et Sentimentales or Noble and Sentimental Waltz [1911: waltz]; Ma Mere
l'Oye or Mother Goose [1911: ballet]; Daphnis et Chloe [1912: ballet]; La Valse or Waltz [1914 and 1920: waltz]; La
Tombeau de Couperin or Fall of Couperin [1917 and 1918]; Pictures at an Exhibition [1922: orchestration]; Bolero
[1928: symphony]
Alfred Binet [Binet, Alfred]
psychologist
Paris, France
1903
Experimental Study of Intelligence [1903]; Development of Intelligence in Children [1916: with Theodore Simon]
He lived 1857 to 1911 and developed Binet intelligence scale and intelligence quotient.
Marie-Antoine Carême [Carême, Marie-Antoine]
chef
France
1903
He lived 1783 to 1833, was chef to Talleyrand and Alexander I of Russia, and carved marzipan, fat, and sugar {pièce
montée}.
Marie Sklodowska Curie [Curie, Marie Sklodowska]
physicist
Poland/France
1903
She lived 1867 to 1934 and discovered radium [1903].
Auguste Escoffier [Escoffier, Auguste]
chef
France
1903
Guide Culinaire oe Culinary Guide [1903]
He served courses from menu and used stock, at Ritz Hotel.
Richard Gerard [Gerard, Richard]/Harry Armstrong [Armstrong, Harry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1903
Sweet Adeline [1903]
Gerard lived 1876 to 1948. Armstrong lived 1879 to 1951 and was a boxer.
Helen Adams Keller [Keller, Helen Adams]
biographer
USA
1903
Story of My Life [1903: autobiography about experience of being blind]
Eddie Leonard [Leonard, Eddie]/Eddie Munson [Munson, Eddie]
lyricist/composer
USA
1903
Ida, Sweet as Apple Cider [1903]
Glen MacDonough [MacDonough, Glen]/Victor Herbert [Herbert, Victor]
composer
USA
1903
Toyland [1903]
MacDonough lived 1870 to 1924. Herbert lived 1859 to 1924.
Tom Turpin [Turpin, Tom]
composer
USA
1903
St. Louis Rag [1903]
Josef Franz Wagner [Wagner, Josef Franz]
lyricist/composer
USA
1903
Under the Double Eagle [1903]
He lived [1856 to 1908].
Kate Douglas Wiggin [Wiggin, Kate Douglas]
novelist
USA
1903
Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm [1903]
Wilbur Wright [Wright, Wilbur]/Orville Wright [Wright, Orville]
inventor
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
1903
controlled powered airplane flight [1903]
Wilbur lived 1867 to 1912 {controlled powered airplane flight}. Orville lived 1871 to 1948.
Jack London [London, Jack]
novelist/essayist
USA
1903 to 1908
Call of the Wild [1903]; Sea Wolf [1904]; White Fang [1906]; To Build a Fire [1908]
Korbinian Brodmann [Brodmann, Korbinian]
biologist
Germany
1903 to 1909
Comparative Localization Studies on the Neocortex in their Differentiation on the Basis of Cell Density [1909]
He lived 1868 to 1918 and mapped 52 cortical areas [1903 to 1908].
Edward Lee Thorndike [Thorndike, Edward Lee]
psychologist
USA
1903 to 1911
Educational Psychology [1903]; Animal Intelligence [1911]
He lived 1874 to 1949 and studied learning, education, testing, and animal intelligence. He studied instrumental
learning, law of effect, law of exercise, law of readiness, operant conditioning, puzzle-box, reinforcement, and learning
transfer [Thorndike, 1911]. Imitation is seeing action, remembering it, and then doing it.
Karl Schwarzschild [Schwarzschild, Karl]
physicist
Germany
1903 to 1916
He lived 1873 to 1916 and used general relativity to model static universes {Schwarzschild space-time} and stars
[1916]. He found Schwarzschild limit. Schwarzschild [1903], Tetrode, and Fokker developed perfect absorption to
renormalize Maxwell's equations.
Leos Janacek [Janacek, Leos]
composer
Czech Republic
1903 to 1926
Jenufa [1903: opera]; Taras Bulba [1918: opera]; Glagolitic Mass [1926]
Isadora Duncan [Duncan, Isadora]
modern dancer/choreographer
USA
1903 to 1927
My Life [1927]
She lived 1878 to 1927 and choreographed modern expressive dances.
Marcus Loew [Loew, Marcus]
theater owner
USA
1903 to 1927
He lived 1870 to 1927 and built arcades and movie theaters.
Pierre Janet [Janet, Pierre]
psychologist
Paris, France
1903 to 1929
Neuroses and Fixed Obsessions and Psychoasthenia [1903]; Major Symptoms of Hysteria [1907]; Psychological
Healing [1925]; Evolution of Memory and the Notion of Time [1929]
He lived 1859 to 1947 and studied neuroses, psychasthenia, anxiety states, phobias, obsessional disorders, and
dissociation.
Neurosis reduces integration {sentiment d'incomplétude} among psychological functions, which ordinarily form
hierarchy. People can have dependency wish {amae, Janet}.
All human communities use logical inference as thinking basis.
Hugo von Hofmannsthal [Hofmannsthal, Hugo von]
writer
Germany
1903 to 1933
Elektra [1903: Richard Strauss opera]; Der Rosenkavalier or Rose Cavalier [1911: Richard Strauss opera]; Ariadne auf
Naxos [1912: Richard Strauss opera]; Arabella [1933: Richard Strauss opera]
John Lang Sinclair [Sinclair, John Lang]
lyricist/composer
USA
1903 to 1936
Eyes of Texas [1903: University of Texas theme song became a hit in 1936]
He lived ? to 1947.
Pablo Picasso [Picasso, Pablo]
painter
Spain
1903 to 1943
Old Guitarist [1903]; Les Demoiselles d'Avignon or Young Women of Avignon [1907]; Ambroise Voillard [1910];
Still Life with Chair Caning [1912]; Three Musicians [1921]; Mother and Child [1921]; Three Dancers [1925];
Guernica [1937]; Bull's Head [1943: sculpture]
He lived 1881 to 1973, had a Blue period, and then had a Rose period. He used shaded wedges and open spaces
{Cubism} and pasted collages.
Jacques Hadamard [Hadamard, Jacques]
mathematician
France
1903 to 1945
Mathematician's Mind or Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field [1945]
He lived 1865 to 1963 and studied functionals [1903], characteristic equations and helped develop intuitionism.
Juan Jimenez [Jimenez, Juan]
poet
Spain
1903 to 1953
Complete Perfectionist: A Poetics of Work; Three Hundred Poems, 1903-1953 [1953]
He lived 1881 to 1958. Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío influenced him.
Irving Berlin [Berlin, Irving] or Isidore Baline [Baline, Isidore]
composer
Russia/USA
1903 to 1962
Babes in Toyland [1903: musical with Victor Herbert]; Marie from Sunny Italy [1907]; Everybody's Doin' It [1911];
Alexander's Ragtime Band [1911]; Play a Simple Melody [1913: from Watch Your Step]; Watch Your Step [1914:
musical]; Girl on the Magazine Cover [1915: from Stop Look and Listen]; I Love a Piano [1915: from Stop Look and
Listen]; Century Girl [1916: musical with Victor Herbert]; Oh How I Hate to Get up in the Morning [1918: from Yip
Yip Yaphank]; Mandy [1919: from Yip, Yip, Yaphank]; Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody [1919: from Ziegfield Follies];
(I'll See You In) C-U-B-A [1920]; Tell Me Little Gypsy [1920: from Ziegfeld Follies]; Say It with Music [1921: from
1st Music Box Revue]; Lady of the Evening [1922: from Music Box Revue 1922]; All Alone [1924]; Who [1924: from
Music Box Revue]; Lazy [1924]; Always [1925]; Song Is Ended [1927]; Blue Skies [1927: from the musical Betsy and
in the film the Jazz Singer]; My Mammy [1927: from the Jazz Singer]; Toot, Toot, Tootsie [1927: from the Jazz
Singer]; Shaking the Blues Away [1927: from Ziegfeld Follies of 1927]; Puttin' on the Ritz [1928: from the movie
Puttin' on the Ritz]; How about Me [1928]; Little Things in Life [1930]; Let Me Sing and I'm Happy [1930: sung by
Jolson]; Face the Music [1931: musical]; How Deep Is the Ocean [1932]; Say It Isn't So [1932]; I'm Playing with Fire
[1932]; Soft Lights and Sweet Music [1932: from Face the Music]; Easter Parade [1933]; Harlem on My Mind [1933:
from As Thousands Cheer]; Yesterdays [1933]; Not for All the Rice in China [1933: from As Thousands Cheer];
Maybe It's Because I Love You Too Much [1933]; Supper Time [1933: from As Thousands Cheer]; How's Chances
[1933: from As Thousands Cheer]; Heat Wave [1933: sung by Ethel Waters from As Thousands Cheer]; Isn't This a
Lovely Day [1935: from Top Hat]; Cheek to Cheek [1935: in the film Top Hat]; Top Hat [1935]; Top Hat, White Tie
and Tails [1935: from the film Top Hat]; Let's Face the Music and Dance [1935: from the movie Follow the Fleet];
Follow the Fleet [1936]; You're the Top [1936: from the film Anything Goes]; Change Partners [1937: from the movie
Carefree]; I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm [1937: from On the Avenue]; God Bless America [1938]; Now It Can
Be Told [1938: from Alexander's Ragtime Band]; White Christmas [1941: from Holiday Inn]; This Is the Army [1942:
musical]; Easter Parade [1942: from the film Holiday Inn]; Holiday Inn [1942: including White Christmas]; White
Christmas [1942: from Holiday Inn]; Be Careful, It's My Heart [1942]; Annie Get Your Gun [1946: musical, including
Anything You Can Do, Doin' What Comes Naturally, Girl That I Marry, I Got the Sun in the Morning, There's No
Business Like Show Business, They Say It's Wonderful]; Girl That I Marry [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; I Got
Lost in His Arms [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; I've Got the Sun in the Morning [1946: from Annie Get Your
Gun]; My Defenses Are Down [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; They Say It's Wonderful [1946: from Annie Get
Your Gun]; Doin' What Comes Natur'lly [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; You Can't Get a Man with a Gun [1946:
from Annie Get Your Gun]; Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better) [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; There's No
Business Like Show Business [1946: from Annie Get Your Gun]; Couple of Swells [1948: from Easter Parade];
Steppin' Out With My Baby [1948: from the film Easter Parade]; Shine on Your Shoes [1948]; It Only Happens When I
Dance with You [1948: from Easter Parade]; Miss Liberty [1948: musical]; Call Me Madam [1950: musical]; Best
Thing for You (Is Me) [1950: from Call Me Madam]; It's a Lovely Day [1950: from Call Me Madam]; You're Just in
Love [1950: from Call Me Madam]; Count Your Blessings instead of Sheep [1954: from the film White Christmas];
Mr. President [1962: musical]
He lived 1888 to 1989. His piano had a lever to shift the keyboard and thus transpose music. He composed using
mostly black keys.
Bertrand Arthur William Russell [Russell, Bertrand Arthur William]
philosopher
Britain
1903 to 1969
Principles of Mathematics [1903]; On Denoting [1905: in Mind]; Principia Mathematica or Principles of Mathematics
[1910 to 1913: about symbolic logic, with Whitehead]; Problems of Philosophy [1912]; Our Knowledge of the External
World [1914]; Logical Atomism [1918]; Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy [1918]; Analysis of Mind [1921];
Outline of Philosophy [1927]; Analysis of Matter [1927]; Marriage and Morals [1929]; ABC of Relativity [1935 and
1958]; Inquiry into Meaning and Truth [1940]; History of Western Philosophy [1945]; Human Knowledge: Its Scope
and Its Limits [1948]; Logic and Knowledge [1956]; Why I Am Not a Christian [1957]; Autobiography [1967 to 1969]
He lived 1872 to 1970 and was neo-realist. In logic, he developed theories of types, classes, and descriptions, to
distinguish between logical and grammatical proposition subjects. He invented method of stating problems in logical
symbols {philosophical logic}, to transform ordinary language into propositions. He axiomatized counting numbers
and logic {logicism, Russell}.
Epistemology
Philosophy is about meaning and therefore language and logic. Philosophy also uses science. "What science cannot tell
us, mankind cannot know."
Mathematics does not assert anything about physical world, only about logic and language.
Mind can know mental facts based on language or logic {knowledge by description, Russell}. These facts can be true
or false. Mind has special relation to certain mental objects such as perceptions, introspections, and certain memory
types {knowledge by acquaintance, Russell}. These are not about truth. Knowledge by description depends on objects
known by knowledge by acquaintance, which provides definitions and meanings by representation.
Propositional functions form a hierarchy {proposition types}, based on variable and function categories. Variable type
is one level below propositional-function type {theory of types, ramified} {ramified theory of types}. Propositional
functions cannot apply to selves {theory of types, Russell}. Function types can be equivalent to first-order functions
{axiom of reducibility, Russell}.
Existence, identity, and predication differ. Proper nouns identify individual things. Predicates identify object classes.
Existence and description are separate and independent. Asserting existence {theory of descriptions} {descriptions
theory} requires class descriptions of subject and predicate. Existences are not individual things, subjects, or predicates.
Asserting quantification requires subjects or descriptions, not predicates. Quantifiers do not apply for all functions or
types. Phrases like "the x" {definite description} indicate unique existence. Phrases like "an x" {indefinite description}
indicate non-unique existence.
Meaningful-proposition subjects can refer to objects that do not exist. Descriptions do not refer to anything, so
knowledge does not need acquaintance.
Numbers are classes of classes, and so mathematics can be a logical system.
Sentence symbols {incomplete symbol} can have meaning only in context.
All conditions define class {comprehension axiom}. This axiom is not consistent, because class can be about all things
not in the class {Russell paradox, Russell}. Instead of "class", use the word "function" in these statements.
People have innate postulates, allowing inferences.
If statements change truth over time, change has happened. Something began or changed shape, size, position, or
orientation.
Beliefs, wants, and desires relate person to proposition {propositional attitude, Russell}.
Appearances that radiate from objects go to minds and become sense-data, which are external to mind but phenomenal.
Sense-data cause mental images, which are how appearances exist in nervous systems. Mental images can also arise
from within mind. Sensed appearances relate to other appearances, so brain can distinguish them from unsensed
appearances, which have no such relations.
Intention objects are not mental objects but physical objects.
People feel assent or dissent to belief content.
Ethics
Desire starts behavior, and satisfaction ends behavior.
Metaphysics
Reality is elementary predicates or sensations, which are either instantaneous or outside time {logical atomism,
Russell}. Logical analysis can discover these logical atoms, which are independent and are neither physical nor mental
{neutral monism, Russell}. Complex things, physical and mental, come from logical atoms by logical methods. Logical
atoms radiate from physical event to cause appearances.
However, negative statements, independence, and exclusion cause problems for logical atomism, as does the possibility
of logical analysis for complex statements like beliefs.
Mind
Mind can acquaint with itself as subject {ego, Russell}. Mind is not the set of all received appearances.
Theron Catlen Bennett [Bennett, Theron Catlen]
composer
USA
1904
St. Louis Tickle [1904]
Granville Stanley Hall [Hall, Granville Stanley]
psychologist
USA
1904
Adolescence [1904]
He lived 1844 to 1924 and studied many children.
William H. Hudson [Hudson, William H.]
novelist
England
1904
Green Mansions [1904]
William Kindt [Kindt, William]
composer
USA
1904
Wabash Cannonball [1904: sung in 1943]
Andrew Sterling [Sterling, Andrew]/Kerry Mills [Mills, Kerry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1904
Meet Me in St. Louis [1904]
Sterling lived 1874 to 1955. Mills lived 1869 to 1948.
James R. Angell [Angell, James R.]
psychologist
USA
1904 to 1905
Psychology: An Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness [1904 and 1905]
He lived 1869 to 1949 and founded Chicago functionalist school {functionalism, Angell}. He emphasized
physiological processes underlying cognition and behavior. Reaction times depend on both sense and muscle reaction
times. Practicing reduces individual reaction-time differences.
Herbert Spencer Jennings [Jennings, Herbert Spencer]
zoologist
USA
1904 to 1906
Contributions to the Study of the Behavior of Lower Organisms [1904]; Behavior of the Lower Organisms [1906]
He lived 1868 to 1947 and studied invertebrates.
Alfred Noyes [Noyes, Alfred]
poet
England
1904 to 1906
Barrel-Organ [1904]; Highwayman [1906]
O. Henry [Henry, O.] or William Sydney Porter [Porter, William Sydney]
storyteller
USA
1904 to 1907
Friends in San Rosario [1903: story]; A Retrieved Reformation [1903: story]; Cabbages and Kings [1904: stories]; Cop
and the Anthem [1904: story]; A Municipal Report [1904: story]; Gift of the Magi [1905: story]; After Twenty Years
[1905: story]; Compliments of the Season [1906: story]; Furnished Room [1906: story]; Four Million [1906: stories,
including The Gift of the Magi, The Cop and the Anthem, After Twenty Years, Compliments of the Season, and The
Furnished Room]; Trimmed Lamp [1907: stories including The Last Leaf and The Pendulum]; Pendulum [1907: story];
Last Leaf [1907: story]; Ransom of Red Chief [1910: story]
Herta Ayrton [Ayrton, Herta] or Hertha Ayrton [Ayrton, Hertha] or Sarah Marks [Marks, Sarah]
physicist
England
1904 to 1908
She lived 1854 to 1923 and determined that removing air from streetlamps and shaping arc ends prevented hissing in
electric arcs, with William Edward Ayrton.
Ernst Zermelo [Zermelo, Ernst]
mathematician
Germany
1904 to 1908
He lived 1871 to 1956 and invented Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory [1904 to 1908]. Infinite sets can contain sets with no
elements in common. Methods to choose one element from each set must exist {axiom of choice, Zermelo}. If sets
have no defined choice function, sets must use axiom of choice.
Lincoln Steffens [Steffens, Lincoln]
novelist
USA
1904 to 1909
Shame of the Cities [1904]; Upbuilders [1909]
Hector Hugh Munro [Munro, Hector Hugh] or Saki
essayist
England
1904 to 1912
Reginald [1904]; Reginald in Russia [1910]; Chronicles of Clovis [1912]
Charles Ives [Ives, Charles]
composer
USA
1904 to 1914
Third Symphony or the Camp Meeting [1904]; Three Places in New England [1914: symphony]; In Flanders Fields
[1919: lyrics by McCrae. part of Three Songs of War]
Ludwig Prandtl [Prandtl, Ludwig]
physicist
Germany
1904 to 1920
He lived 1875 to 1953. Flow has two regions. One is potential flow, with incompressible and non-rotating fluid. The
other is thin boundary layer next to tube or obstruction, where there are viscous effects and where surface interacts
thermally and mechanically with fluid [1904]. Wing induces drag as it lifts {lifting line theory, Prandtl} [1920].
Alexander A. Bogdanov [Bogdanov, Alexander A.] or Malinovsky
philosopher
Moscow, Russia
1904 to 1922
Empirio-Monism [1904 to 1906]; Socially Organized Society: Socialist Society [1919 to 1922]
He lived 1873 to 1928 and led "proletarian culture". He emphasized science {tektology} of organizations in general.
Frank Bunker Gilbreth [Gilbreth, Frank Bunker]/Lillian Moller Gilbreth [Gilbreth, Lillian Moller]
engineer
USA
1904 to 1924
He lived 1868 to 1924. She lived 1878 to 1972. They studied industrial production methods and quality controls. He
studied job-task times and motions {time-and-motion study, Gilbreth}. He analyzed motions into elements {therblig}.
Pio Baroja y Nessi [Baroja y Nessi, Pio]
writer
Spain
1904 to 1928
La lucha por la vida or Struggle for Existence [1904]; La busca or The Quest [1922]; Mala hierba or Weeds [1923];
Aurora roja or Red Dawn [1924]; Memórias de un hombre de acción or Memoirs of a Man of Action [1913 to 1928]
He lived 1879 to 1956, was Basque, and was of Generation of '98.
Elie Cartan [Cartan, Elie]
mathematician
France
1904 to 1945
Exterior differential systems and their geometric applications [1945]
He lived 1869 to 1951 and studied hypercomplex numbers, Lie group theory, differential geometry [1904], and exterior
derivatives.
Maxfield Parrish [Parrish, Maxfield]
painter
USA
1904 to 1962
Air Castles [1904]; Daybreak [1920]; Knave of Hearts [1925: book]; Brown and Bigelow calendars [1937 to 1962]
He lived 1870 to 1966 and was Art Nouveau.
Guillaume Apollinaire [Apollinaire, Guillaume]
poet
France
1905
Alcools or Alcohols [1905]
Vincent Bryan [Bryan, Vincent]/Gus Edwards [Edwards, Gus]
composer
USA
1905
In My Merry Oldsmobile [1905]
Bryan lived 1883 to 1937. Edwards lived 1879 to 1945.
Franz Lehar [Lehar, Franz]
lyricist/composer
Hungary/Austria
1905
Merry Widow [1905: musical]
Heinrich Mann [Mann, Heinrich]
writer
Germany
1905
Professor Unrat [1905]
Baroness Emmuska Orczy [Orczy, Baroness Emmuska]
novelist
France
1905
Scarlet Pimpernel [1905]
Jules Antoine Richard [Richard, Jules Antoine]
philosopher
France
1905
He lived 1862 to 1956. Integers are describable in words with a finite number of letters. An integer exists that is the
least integer not describable in 100 or less letters. However, that phrase has less than 100 letters {Richard's paradox}
[1905].
Andrew Sterling [Sterling, Andrew]/Harry Von Tilzer [Von Tilzer, Harry]/Vincent Bryan [Bryan, Vincent]/Gus
Edwards [Edwards, Gus]
composer
USA
1905
Wait 'Til the Sun Shines, Nellie [1905]
Sterling lived 1874 to 1955. Von Tilzer lived 1872 to 1946. Bryan lived 1883 to 1937.
Harry H. Williams [Williams, Harry H.]/Egbert van Alstyne [Alstyne, Egbert van]
composer
USA
1905
In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree [1905]
Alstyne lived 1878 to 1951.
Antoni Gaudí [Gaudí, Antoni]
architect
Barcelona, Spain
1905 to 1907
Casa Mila or La Pedrera or Quarry [1905 to 1907: Art Nouveau apartment building]; Parque Güell or Güell Park [1900
to 1926]
Jules Henri Poincaré [Poincaré, Jules Henri]
Paris, France
1905 to 1908
Science and Hypothesis [1905]; Foundations of Science [1908]
He lived 1854 to 1912, helped develop intuitionism, and studied function theory, differential equations, orbits, and
combinatorial topology. He found special-relativity equations [1905]. He showed how to keep distances constant as
observed from different constant motions in flat space-time {Poincaré motion} {inhomogeneous Lorentz motion}, by
lengthening light-cone along space dimensions and shrinking light-cone along time dimension. After systems reach
largest phase-space region, they can return to all smaller regions over times much longer than universe age {Poincaré
recurrence}.
Epistemology
Mathematical thinking is purely mental and so can reveal what is essential in mind. Unconscious thinking has preceded
insight. Mind unconsciously selects possible solutions using innate or consciously formulated rules. Thinking appears
to move in one direction and has purpose. Aesthetic value is an important creativity component.
Thinking converges on truth, but absolute truth is unattainable. Statement is possibly true if it is not necessary that it is
not true. Contradictions are necessarily not true. Statements that do not involve contradiction state logical possibility.
Not all contradictions are apparent. Nature contains contradictions, so contradictions can state possibilities.
Science decides what is naturally possible and naturally impossible. Epistemic possibility is what is consistent with
human knowledge states. Possible truth is true in at least one possible world. Necessary truth is true in all possible
worlds. Possibility and necessity are arbitrary rules about word use. Concept meaning depends on possible and
impossible.
Definition can quantify over all class objects {vicious-circle principle, Poincaré} {impredicative definition, Poincaré}
or not include them {predicative definition, Poincaré}.
Anton Breinl [Breinl, Anton]/Harold Wolferstam Thomas [Thomas, Harold Wolferstam]
doctor
Germany/England
1905 to 1909
Report on trypanosomes, trypanosomiasis and sleeping sickness [1905]
Breinl lived 1880 to 1944 {sleeping sickness, drug}. Atoxyl kills trypanosomes [1905], which cause human
trypanosomiasis. Thomas studied yellow fever.
Michael Fokine [Fokine, Michael]
Russia
1905 to 1912
Dying Swan [1905: music by Saint-Saens and dance by Anna Pavlova]; Les Sylphides [1909: ballet blanc with music
by Chopin]; Prince Igor [1909]; Scheherazade [1910: music by Rimsky-Korsakov]; Firebird [1910: music by
Stravinsky]; Petrouchka [1911: comic ballet with music by Stravinsky]; Le Spectre de la Rose or Spirit of the Rose
[1912: especially the pas de deux, music by von Weber]
Max Weber [Weber, Max]
sociologist
Germany
1905 to 1914
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism [1905]; Theory of Social and Economic Organizations [1912]; Economy
and Society [1914]
He lived 1864 to 1920. Social norms reflect meanings in human actions. Social actions reflect ethics, not economics.
Ethics
Ethics depends on responsibility. People want to have higher status.
Politics
Stabilizing factors for society are group traditions, common laws, constitutional law, and absolute value standard. Real
or supposed personal qualities, such as sanctity, courage, heroism, character, savior, wisdom, and insight are
destabilizing factors. Primitive societies have traditional religion, and societies that had crisis have rationalized
religion. Protestant ethics underlie capitalism. Authority types are traditional, charismatic, and bureaucratic-rationallegal. Authority is attitude or norm. Authority does not necessarily have power to cause behavior in others. Legitimate
power depends on tradition, person's charisma, or law and reason.
Theodore Simon [Simon, Theodore]
psychologist
France
1905 to 1916
Development of Intelligence in Children [1916: with Binet]
He lived 1872 to 1961 and invented intelligence test [1905], Binet-Simon Scale, with Binet.
Sun Yat-sen
president
China
1905 to 1919
He lived 1866 to 1925 and founded Kuomintang [1905]. After defeating Ch'ing Dynasty, he became president [1911].
He left the government of warlords in north China [1919] and went south, where he organized Kuomintang. He split
with Communists [1927].
Zoltan Kodaly [Kodaly, Zoltan]
composer
Hungary
1905 to 1920
Adagio for Viola and Piano [1905]; Serenade for Two Violins and Viola [1920]
Frederick Frost Blackman [Blackman, Frederick Frost]
biologist
England
1905 to 1922
Optima and Limiting Factors [1905]; Problem of Plant Respiration considered as a Catalytic Process [1922]
He lived 1866 to 1947 and studied light and dark photosynthesis [1905].
George O. Curme [Curme, George O.]
linguist
USA
1905 to 1935
Grammar of the German Language [1905 and 1922]; College English Grammar [1925]; Grammar of the English
Language III: Syntax [1931]; Grammar of the English Language II: Parts of Speech and Accidence [1935]
He lived 1860 to 1948 and wrote about syntax.
Albert Einstein [Einstein, Albert]
physicist
Germany/USA
1905 to 1935
Can a Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? [1935: with Boris Podolsky and
Nathan Rosen]
He lived 1879 to 1955, discovered photoelectric effect [1905], invented special relativity [1905], and analyzed
Brownian motion [1905]. He developed general theory of relativity [1915]. He predicted Bose-Einstein condensation
[1924]. He stated Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) ideas [1935]. Crystal vibrations and rotations cause high heat
capacity.
Aristide Maillol [Maillol, Aristide]
sculptor
France
1905 to 1936
La Méditerranée [1905 to 1923]; La Nuit or Night [1909]; Young Woman Seated [1936: bronze]
Haakon VII
king
Norway
1905 to 1957
He lived 1872 to 1957 and became king after Norway and Sweden split [1905].
Lee De Forest [De Forest, Lee]
physicist/inventor
USA
1906
vacuum tube amplifier [1906]
He lived 1873 to 1961 and invented vacuum tube amplifiers [1906] {vacuum tube amplifier}.
Maurice Frechet [Frechet, Maurice]
mathematician
France
1906
Abstract Spaces [1928]
He lived 1878 to 1973 and studied function spaces and topology [1906], introducing metric spaces [1906].
William Jerome [Jerome, William]/Jean Schwartz [Schwartz, Jean]
lyricist/composer
USA
1906
Chinatown, My Chinatown [1906]
Jerome lived 1865 to 1932. Schwartz lived 1878 to 1956.
Upton Sinclair [Sinclair, Upton]
novelist
USA
1906
Jungle [1906]
George Albert Smith [Smith, George Albert]
inventor
England
1906
He invented kinemacolor.
Georges Sorel [Sorel, Georges]
philosopher
Paris, France
1906
Reflections on Violence [1906]
He lived 1847 to 1922. Changing society requires revolution. Worker control of capital {syndicalism, Sorel} is best.
Charles A. Zimmermann [Zimmermann, Charles A.]/Alfred Hart Miles [Miles, Alfred Hart]
composer
USA
1906
Anchors Aweigh [1906: USA Naval College]
Zimmermann lived 1861 to 1916. Miles lived 1883 to 1956.
Ernest Flagg [Flagg, Ernest]
architect
New York, New York
1906 to 1908
Singer Building [1906 to 1908: iron skyscraper is 200 meters tall]
Henri Matisse [Matisse, Henri]
painter
France
1906 to 1910
Joy of Life [1906]; Harmony in Red [1908]; Conversation [1909]; Dance [1910]
He lived 1869 to 1954 and was Expressionist and Fauvist.
Henry Ford [Ford, Henry]
inventor
USA
1906 to 1913
assembly line [1906 to 1913]; standardized parts [1913]; mass production [1913]
He lived 1863 to 1947, built automobiles, opposed unions, and started Ford Foundation.
Edward Dunsany [Dunsany, Edward]
playwright
England
1906 to 1918
Time and the Gods [1906]; Land That Time Forgot [1918]
John McTaggart Ellis McTaggart [McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis]
philosopher
Scotland
1906 to 1921
Some Dogmas of Religion [1906]; Nature of Existence [1921]
He lived 1866 to 1925 and was Idealist. Events can have sequence {A-series} past, present, and future or sequence {Bseries} before and after. Reality has souls, which can love. Time is unreal, and universe has no change.
Martin A. Nexo [Nexo, Martin A.]
novelist
Scandinavia
1906 to 1921
Pelle the Conqueror [1906 to 1910]; Ditte, Daughter of Mankind [1917 to 1921]
Roald Amundsen [Amundsen, Roald]
discoverer
Norway/Arctic/Antarctic
1906 to 1926
He lived 1872 to 1928 and sailed Northwest Passage [1906]. He lost race to North Pole [1909]. He found South Pole
[1911]. He flew over North Pole [1926].
Frederick M. Taylor [Taylor, Frederick M.]
economist
USA
1906 to 1929
Some Chapters on Money [1906]; Principles of Scientific Management [1911]; Guidance of Production in a Socialist
State [1929]
He lived 1855 to 1932, advocated market socialism, and studied management {Taylorism}. He studied job-task times
and motions {time-and-motion study, Taylor}.
Roscoe Pound [Pound, Roscoe]
lawyer
USA
1906 to 1936
Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice [1906]; Theory of Interests [1921]
He lived 1870 to 1964 and was dean of Harvard Law School [1916 to 1936]. He wrote about patterns of living together
of actual people. Law must determine between conflicting interests. Law is tool for social engineering.
Ruth St. Denis [St. Denis, Ruth]
ballerina
USA
1906 to 1939
Unfinished Life [1939]
She lived 1879 to 1968 and combined theater and dance.
Arthur Anderson [Anderson, Arthur]/Howard Talbot [Talbot, Howard]
composer
USA
1907
Land Where the Best Man Wins [1907: from The Girl Behind the Counter of Lew Field]
Talbot lived 1865 to 1928.
Ada R. Habershon [Habershon, Ada R.]/Charles H. Gabriel [Gabriel, Charles H.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1907
Will the Circle Be Unbroken? [1907]
Habershon lived 1861 to 1918. Gabriel lived 1856 to 1932.
Joel Chandler Harris [Harris, Joel Chandler]
storyteller
USA
1907
Uncle Remus [1907: stories]; Brer Rabbit [1907: story in Uncle Remus]; Brer Fox [1907: story in Uncle Remus]; Brer
Bear [1907: story in Uncle Remus]
Ross Granville Harrison [Harrison, Ross Granville]
inventor
England
1907
tissue culture [1907]
He lived 1870 to 1959 {tissue culture}.
William Myddleton [Myddleton, William]
composer
USA
1907
Down South [1907]
Hastings Rashdall [Rashdall, Hastings]
philosopher
England
1907
Theory of Good and Evil: A Treatise on Moral Philosophy [1907]
He lived 1858 to 1924. The whole system of goods adds value to each good {ideal utilitarianism}.
James Scott [Scott, James]
composer
USA
1907
Kansas City Rag [1907]
John Millington Synge [Synge, John Millington]
playwright
Ireland
1907
Playboy of the Western World [1907]
Napoleon LeBrun [LeBrun, Napoleon]
architect
New York, New York
1907 to 1909
Metropolitan Life Insurance Tower [1907 to 1909: masonry and iron tower is 213 meters tall]
Mohammad-Ali Shah
shah
Persia
1907 to 1909
He lived 1872 to 1925, was Qajar, and cancelled new constitution.
John Burroughs [Burroughs, John]
naturalist
USA
1907 to 1910
Camping and Tramping with Roosevelt [1907]; In the Catskills [1910]
William Graham Sumner [Sumner, William Graham]
sociologist
USA
1907 to 1910
Science of Society [1910: with Albert G. Keller, published in 1927]; Folkways [1907]
He lived 1840 to 1910 and studied customs and mores.
Henri Pieron [Pieron, Henri]
psychologist
Paris, France
1907 to 1913
Physiological Problem of Sleep [1913]
He lived 1881 to 1964, founded French experimental psychology, and studied sleep. He claimed to find hypnotoxin or
sleep-promoting substance [1907, with Rene Legendre], in cerebrospinal fluid.
Mariano Azuela [Azuela, Mariano]
writer
Mexico
1907 to 1916
María Luisa [1907]; Los fracasados or The defeated [1908]; Mala Yerba or Ill Weed [1909]; Andrés Pérez, maderista
or Andrés Pérez, supporter of Madero [1911]; Los de abajo or Underdogs [1915]; Los caciques or Political Leaders
[1916]
Felix Hausdorff [Hausdorff, Felix]
mathematician
Germany
1907 to 1919
Principles of Set Theory [1914]; Dimension and Outer Measure [1919]
He lived 1868 to 1942, invented generalized continuum hypothesis [1907], and invented Hausdorff space.
Vaslav Nijinsky [Nijinsky, Vaslav]
Poland/Russia
1907 to 1919
Afternoon of a Faun [1912: angular poses, music by Debussy]; Rite of Spring or La Sacre du Printemps [1913: music
by Stravinsky]
He lived 1890 to 1950. Afternoon of a Faun uses Greek-frieze setting as a tableau.
Edward Alsworth Ross [Ross, Edward Alsworth]
sociologist
USA
1907 to 1919
Sin and Society: An Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity [1907]; Social Psychology: An outline and source book [1919]
George David Birkhoff [Birkhoff, George David]
mathematician
USA
1907 to 1933
Asymptotic Properties of Certain Ordinary Differential Equations with Applications to Boundary Value and Expansion
Problems [1907]; Relativity and Modern Physics [1923: with R. E. Langer]; Aesthetic Measure [1933]
He lived 1884 to 1944, invented Birkhoff's theorem [1909], proved Poincaré's Last Geometric Theorem [1913],
discovered ergodic theorem [1931 to 1932], studied asymptotic series, and helped develop quantum logic.
Maria Montessori [Montessori, Maria]
educator
Rome, Italy
1907 to 1949
Children's House [1907]; Montessori Method [1916]; Absorbent Mind [1949]
She lived 1870 to 1952 and started school for children, emphasizing coordination, senses, and freedom. Children want
to learn and discover things for themselves. Children have creative energy. Teachers allow children to express
themselves freely. Teachers provide possibilities for action to children, rather than dictating, lecturing, or using set
tasks. Children are valued individuals.
Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki [Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro]
philosopher
Japan
1907 to 1949
Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism [1907]; Essays in Zen Buddhism [1927 to 1934]; Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra
[1932]; Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on Japanese Culture [1938]; Japanese Spirituality [1944]; Introduction to Zen
Buddhism [1949]; Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana; Shinran's Kyogyoshinsho: Collection of Passages Expounding
the True Teaching, Living, Faith, and Realizing the Pure Land
He lived 1870 to 1966 and translated many Buddhist books into English.
Australian
ballot
USA
1908
By 1908, all states used secret ballot {Australian ballot}.
Nora Bayes [Bayes, Nora]
composer
USA
1908
Shine on Harvest Moon [1908]
George Botsford [Botsford, George]
composer
USA
1908
Black and White Rag [1908]
Florence Lawrence [Lawrence, Florence]
actor
USA
1908
She lived 1886 to 1938 and was the Biograph girl and the Imp girl.
Émile Meyerson [Meyerson, Émile]
philosopher
Paris, France
1908
Identity and Reality [1908]
He lived 1859 to 1933. People search for physical laws.
Hermann Minkowski [Minkowski, Hermann]
mathematician
Russia/Germany
1908
He lived 1864 to 1909 and unified space and time {space-time, Minkowski} in four dimensions [1908]. Light travels at
45-degree angle to make a light-cone, inside which events can affect future events and past events can affect point.
Distances between events involve positive time and negative distances: s^2 = t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2.
Jack Norworth [Norworth, Jack]/Albert Von Tilzer [Von Tilzer, Albert]
lyricist/composer
USA
1908
Take Me Out to the Ball Game [1908]
Norworth lived 1879 to 1959. Von Tilzer lived 1872 to 1946.
Michael J. Shea [Shea, Michael J.]/John F. Shea [Shea, John F.]
composer
USA
1908
Notre Dame Fight Song [1908]
Elmer Ambrose Sperry [Sperry, Elmer Ambrose]
inventor
USA
1908
gyroscopic compass [1908]
He lived 1860 to 1930 and invented gyroscopic compass.
Henry Van Dyke [Van Dyke, Henry]
lyricist/composer
England
1908
Joyful, Joyful, We Adore Thee [1908: music is Hymn to Joy by Ludwig van Beethoven]
Percy Wenrich [Wenrich, Percy]
composer
USA
1908
Memphis Rag [1908]
Manuel II
king
Portugal
1908 to 1910
Harvey Cushing [Cushing, Harvey]
biologist
USA
1908 to 1912
Pituitary Body and its Disorders [1912]
He lived 1869 to 1939, stimulated brains and elicited sensation without movement [1908], and described Cushing's
syndrome [1912].
Henrietta Swan Leavitt [Leavitt, Henrietta Swan]
astronomer
USA
1908 to 1912
She lived 1868 to 1921. Cepheid-variable brightness varies directly with logarithm of period {period-luminosity
relationship} [1908 and 1912].
Lucy Maud Montgomery [Montgomery, Lucy Maud]
writer
Canada
1908 to 1915
Anne of Green Gables [1908]; Anne of Avonlea [1909]; Anne of the Island [1915]
Amadeo Modigliani [Modigliani, Amadeo]
painter/sculptor
Italy/France
1908 to 1917
Jewess [1908: painting]; Head [1912: sculpture]; Caryatid [1914: sculpture]; Moise Kisling [1915]; Nude [1917]
He lived from 1884 to 1920.
Enrico Caruso [Caruso, Enrico]
tenor
Italy
1908 to 1921
He lived 1873 to 1921 and sang opera music.
Luitzen E. J. Brouwer [Brouwer, Luitzen E. J.]
mathematician
Netherlands
1908 to 1924
Unreliability of the Logical Principles [1908]; Intuitionistic Reflections on Formalism [1927]
He lived 1881 to 1966, tried to define numbers, and helped develop quantum logic. He helped develop the idea that
mathematics requires mental constructions for truth {intuitionism, Brouwer} [1924]. Unconstructed and non-existent
things cannot be the basis for truth. Infinities cause excluded-middle-law contradiction, so mathematics cannot use this
law.
Edward Morgan Forster [Forster, Edward Morgan]
novelist
England
1908 to 1924
Room with a View [1908]; Howard's End [1910]; Passage to India [1924]
Kemal Ataturk [Ataturk, Kemal]
leader
Istanbul, Turkey
1908 to 1938
He lived 1881 to 1938 and led Young Turks who restored constitution to Ottoman Empire [1908]. He was general in
World War I and then organized Nationalist Party. He defeated invasion by Greece at Smyrna [1922], abolished
sultanate [1922], and founded Turkey [1922]. He obtained peace at Lausanne Conference [1923] and then westernized
Turkey.
Kenneth Grahame [Grahame, Kenneth]
novelist
England
1908 to 1939
Wind in the Willows [1908]; Reluctant Dragon [1939]
Coco Chanel [Chanel, Coco] or Gabrielle Chanel [Chanel, Gabrielle]
businesswoman
France
1908 to 1970
She lived 1883 to 1971 and created perfumes.
Muhammad Iqbal [Iqbal, Muhammad]
poet/philosopher
India
1908 to 19348
Development of Metaphysics in Persia [1908]; Secrets of the Self [1915: poem]; Book of Eternity [1934]
He lived 1876 to 1938, was Islamic, and combined Neoplatonism and Aristotle. The One is the first mover or cause of
all existence.
Carl Beck [Beck, Carl]/W. T. Purdy [Purdy, W. T.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1909
On Wisconsin [1909: University of Wisconsin]
Frans Alfons Janssens [Janssens, Frans Alfons]
biologist
Germany
1909
Theory of Crossing-over [1909]
He lived 1863 to 1924 and studied crossing-over.
Joseph F. Lamb [Lamb, Joseph F.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1909
Sensation Rag [1909]
Keith Lucas [Lucas, Keith]
biochemist
England
1909
He lived 1879 to 1916 and studied nerve impulse, with Francis Gotch. Nerve impulse is all-or-nothing, with refractory
period afterward [1909].
Andrija Mohorovicic [Mohorovicic, Andrija]
geologist
Croatia
1909
He lived 1857 to 1936, studied seisomology, and discovered [1909] discontinuity at crust and mantle {Mohorovicic
Discontinuity, Mohorovicic}.
Stanley Murphy [Murphy, Stanley]/Percy Wenrich [Wenrich, Percy]
lyricist/composer
Ireland/USA
1909
Put on Your Old Gray Bonnet [1909]
Murphy lived 1875 to 1919.
Robert E. Peary [Peary, Robert E.]
discoverer
USA/Arctic
1909
He lived 1856 to 1920 and discovered North Pole and north Greenland.
J. Russel Robinson [Robinson, J. Russel]
lyricist/composer
USA
1909
Sapho Rag [1909]
Peyton Rous [Rous, Peyton]
biologist
USA
1909 to 1910
Sarcoma of the common fowl [1910]
He lived 1879 to 1970 and discovered first oncovirus, Rous sarcoma virus [1909].
Andrei Bely [Bely, Andrei]
writer
Russia
1909 to 1912
Silver Dove [1909]; Petersburg [1912]
Giacomo Balla [Balla, Giacomo]
painter
Italy
1909 to 1913
Street Lamp [1909]; Dog on a Leash [1912]; Rhythms of a Bow [1912]; Abstract Speed [1913]
He lived 1871 to 1958, was Futurist, and used Cubist ideas.
Robert Barany [Barany, Robert]
physiologist
Austria
1909 to 1913
On the Ear Labyrinth [1906]; Tests [1910]; Clinic on the Vestibular Apparatus [1913]
He lived 1876 to 1936 and studied ear labyrinth functions.
William Howard Taft [Taft, William Howard]
president
USA
1909 to 1913
He lived 1857 to 1930. 27th president broke up trusts, intervened in South America at Nicaragua, had high tariffs,
favored some businesses, and started income tax, postal savings system, and parcel post. He later was USA Supreme
Court Chief Justice.
Thomas Hunt Morgan [Morgan, Thomas Hunt]
biologist
USA
1909 to 1915
Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity [1915]
He lived 1866 to 1945, studied gene linkage, and invented linkage maps, using fruit flies [1909 to 1915]. Genes are in
chromosomes.
Shelton Brooks [Brooks, Shelton]
composer
Canada/USA
1909 to 1917
Some of These Days [1909: sung by Sophie Tucker]; Darktown Strutters Ball [1917]
W. C. Handy [Handy, W. C.] or William Christopher Handy [Handy, William Christopher] or Father of the
Blues
composer
USA
1909 to 1917
Memphis Blues [1909 and 1912]; St. Louis Blues [1914]; Yellow Dog Blues [1914]; Beale Street Blues [1917]
He lived 1873 to 1958 and composed blues.
Daniel Jones [Jones, Daniel]
England
1909 to 1918
Pronunciation of English [1909]; Outline of English Phonetics [1918]
He lived 1881 to 1967 and invented International Phonetic Alphabet. Cardinal vowels have different articulation
places, such as tongue height, mouth front or back, and rounded or unrounded lips.
Serafin Alvarez Quintero [Quintero, Serafin Alvarez]/Joaquin Alvarez Quintero [Quintero, Joaquin Alvarez]
writer
Spain
1909 to 1919
Papá Juan: centenario or Father John: hundredth anniversary [1909]; Los mosquitos [1928]; Los galeotes or Galley
Slaves [1900]; Las flores or Flowers [1901]; Malvaloca [1912]; La calumniada or Calumny [1919]
Joaquin lived 1873 to 1944. Serafin lived 1871 to 1938.
Archibald E. Garrod [Garrod, Archibald E.]
biologist
England
1909 to 1923
Inborn Errors of Metabolism [1923]
He lived 1857 to 1936 and studied genetics [1909].
Ahmad Shah
shah
Persia
1909 to 1924
He lived 1898 to 1930, was Qajar, and revolted and defeated Mohammad-Ali Shah.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin [Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich]
founder
Russia
1909 to 1924
Materialism and Empirio-Criticism [1909]; Philosophical Notebooks [1929]
He lived 1870 to 1924. He led Russian Revolution [1917] and Bolshevik party. He fought Mensheviks in civil war
[1917 to 1919]. He started Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. He founded Comintern or Third
International [1919], to spread Marxism by uniting all Communist countries. He tried New Economic Policy [1922],
allowing private enterprise to save economy.
Politics
Leninism was the idea that imperialism preceded capitalism downfall, and a strong Communist Party must guide the
proletariat.
Bronislava Nijinska [Nijinska, Bronislava]
ballerina
Russia
1909 to 1924
Les Biches or Bad Girls [1924: music by Poulenc, Concerto Grosso in D for Strings]
Serge Diaghilev [Diaghilev, Serge]
Russia
1909 to 1929
He lived 1872 to 1929 and founded Ballets Russes. Ballets Russes included Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina,
Nijinska, Vaslav Nijinsky, Serge Lifan, Ninette de Valois, Leonid Massine, and George Balanchine.
Charles Samuel Myers [Myers, Charles Samuel]
psychologist
Britain
1909 to 1937
Text Book of Experimental Psychology [1909]; Mind and Work [1920]; Industrial Psychology in Great Britain [1926];
In the Realm of Mind [1937]
He lived 1873 to 1946 and studied work habits.
Van Wyck Brooks [Brooks, Van Wyck]
historian/critic
USA
1909 to 1947
Finders and Makers series [1909 to 1947: history]
Frank Lloyd Wright [Wright, Frank Lloyd]
architect
USA
1909 to 1959
Robie House [1909: in Chicago]; Taliesin [1911 and 1925: in Spring Green, Wisconsin]; Imperial Hotel [1916 to 1922:
in Tokyo]; Fallingwater [1934, 1938, and 1948: Ohiopyle or Bear Run, Pennsylvania]; Johnson Wax Building [1936 to
1939: in Racine, Wisconsin]; Taliesin West [1937: in Scottsdale, Arizona]; Guggenhiem Museum [1956 to 1959: in
New York]; Marin Civic Center [1957: in San Rafael, California]; Organic Architecture [1939: book]
He lived 1867 to 1959 and used Cubist ideas. Horizontal houses {prairie house} integrate with surroundings. Welldesigned houses {Usonian house} can be affordable.
Robert Baden-Powell [Baden-Powell, Robert]
founder
England
1910
He lived 1857 to 1941 and started Boy Scouts.
Lucien Denny [Denny, Lucien]
composer
USA
1910
Red Devil Rag [1910]
William Dillon [Dillon, William]/Harry Von Tilzer [Von Tilzer, Harry]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910
I Want a Girl Just Like the Girl [1910]
Dillon lived 1877 to 1966. Von Tilzer lived 1872 to 1946.
Abraham Flexner [Flexner, Abraham]
biologist
USA
1910
Experimental poliomyelitis in monkeys: active immunization and passive serum protection [1910: with Paul A. Lewis];
Medical Education in the United States and Canada [1910]
He lived 1866 to 1959. He studied polio [1910].
Bill Hansen [Hansen, Bill]/Filippo D. Marchetti [Marchetti, Filippo D.]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910
Fascination or Valse Tzigane [1910]
Marchetti lived 1831 to 1902.
Iraj Mirza [Mirza, Iraj] or Iraj Mirza Jal'ul Mamalik [Mirza Jal'ul Mamalik, Iraj]
poet
Germany
1910
Book of the Veil [1910: in Farsi]
Ren Shields [Shields, Ren]/Bert Leighton [Leighton, Bert]/Frank Leighton [Leighton, Frank]
USA
1910
Steamboat Bill [1910]
Shields lived 1868 to 1913.
Ernst Steinitz [Steinitz, Ernst]
mathematician
Germany
1910
Algebraic Theory of Fields [1910]
He lived 1871 to 1928 and studied algebraic field theory.
Tell Taylor [Taylor, Tell]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910
Down by the Old Mill Stream [1910]
William Tracey [Tracey, William]/Lewis F. Muir [Muir, Lewis F.]
composer
USA
1910
Play That Barber Shop Chord [1910]
Muir lived 1883 to 1915.
Stanford White [White, Stanford]/Charles Follen McKim [McKim, Charles Follen]
architect
New York, New York
1910
Great Hall of Penn Station [1910: Beaux Arts Neoclassical building was dismantled in 1964]
White lived 1853 to 1906. McKim lived 1847 to 1909.
Beth Slater Whitson [Whitson, Beth Slater]/Leo Friedman [Friedman, Leo]
composer
USA
1910
Let Me Call You Sweetheart [1910]
Friedman lived 1869 to 1927.
Rida Johnson Young [Young, Rida Johnson]/Victor Herbert [Herbert, Victor]
lyricist/composer
USA/Ireland
1910
Ah, Sweet Mystery of Life [1910: also in the film Naughty Marietta, 1935]
Young lived 1869 to 1926. Herbert lived 1859 to 1924.
Zane Grey [Grey, Zane]
novelist
USA
1910 to 1912
Heritage of the Desert [1910]; Riders of the Purple Sage [1912]
He lived 1872 to 1939 and wrote western stories.
Thornton W. Burgess [Burgess, Thornton W.]
writer
USA
1910 to 1913
Old Mother West Wind [1910]; Adventures of Reddy Fox [1913]
John Bunny [Bunny, John]/Flora Finch [Finch, Flora]
actor
USA/England
1910 to 1915
Bunnygraphs or Bunnyfinches or Bunnyfinchgraphs [1910 to 1915]
Bunny lived 1863 to 1915. Finch lived 1869 to 1940. They were in comic one-reelers, with fat erring husband and
shrewish wife.
Francisco Villa [Villa, Francisco] or Pancho Villa [Villa, Pancho]
revolutionary
Mexico
1910 to 1915
He lived 1878 to 1923, helped Madero in Mexican Revolution, controlled north Mexico with Emil Zapata, and took
Mexico City [1915]. Later, he raided USA border.
Gilbert Anderson [Anderson, Gilbert] or Max Aronson [Aronson, Max] or Broncho Billy
actor
USA
1910 to 1918
Bronco Billy series [1910 to 1918: 400 silent movie westerns]
Oswald Veblen [Veblen, Oswald]
mathematician
England
1910 to 1918
Projective Geometry [1910 to 1918: with John Wesley Young, 2 volumes]
He lived 1880 to 1960 and axiomatized geometry using ideas of point and order.
James Brockman [Brockman, James]/Abe Olman [Olman, Abe]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910 to 1920
Down among the Sheltering Palms [1910 to 1920]
Olman lived 1888 to 1984.
Vernon Castle [Castle, Vernon]/Irene Castle [Castle, Irene]
ballroom dancer
USA
1910 to 1920
Fox Trot; Castle Walk; Maxixe; One Step; Two Step
He lived 1887 to 1918. She lived 1893 to 1969.
Howard E. Johnson [Johnson, Howard E.]/Theodore Morse [Morse, Theodore]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910 to 1920
M-O-T-H-E-R [1910 to 1920]
Johnson lived 1887 to 1941. Morse lived 1873 to 1924.
Papa Jack or George Vital Laine [Laine, George Vital]
drummer/arranger
USA
1910 to 1920
He lived 1873 to 1966 and played Dixieland.
Sam M. Lewis [Lewis, Sam M.]/Joe Young [Young, Joe]/Jean Schwartz [Schwartz, Jean]
lyricist/lyricist/composer
USA
1910 to 1920
Rock-a-bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody [1910 to 1920]
Lewis lived 1885 to 1959. Young lived 1889 to 1939. Schwartz lived 1878 to 1956.
Manuel Perez [Perez, Manuel] or Manole Perez [Perez, Manole]
cornetist
USA
1910 to 1920
He lived 1871 to 1946 and played Dixieland.
Ed Rose [Rose, Ed]/Abe Olman [Olman, Abe]
lyricist/composer
USA
1910 to 1920
Oh Johnny, Oh Johnny, Oh! [1910 to 1920]
Rose lived 1875 to 1935. Olman lived 1888 to 1984.
Shepherd Ivery Franz [Franz, Shepherd Ivery]
neuropsychologist
USA
1910 to 1923
Functions of the Anterior and Posterior Association Areas of the Cerebrum [1910]; Handbook of Mental Examination
Methods [1912]; Nervous and Mental Re-education [1923]
He lived 1874 to 1933 and studied focal cerebral-cortex lesions, frontal-lobe functions, motor-center variability, and
aphasia.
Anton Webern [Webern, Anton]
composer
Austria
1910 to 1928
Six Pieces for Orchestra [1910 and 1928: symphony]
Hoot Gibson [Gibson, Hoot] or Edmund Richard Gibson [Gibson, Edmund Richard]
actor
USA
1910 to 1929
Pride of the Range [1910: western]
Tom Mix [Mix, Tom] or Thomas E. Mix [Mix, Thomas E.]
actor
USA
1910 to 1929
Pride of the Range [1910: western]
Buddy Bolden [Bolden, Buddy]
trumpeter
USA
1910 to 1930
He lived 1877 to 1931 and played Dixieland, New Orleans, and blues.
Kid Ory [Ory, Kid] or Edward Ory [Ory, Edward]
trombonist/composer
USA
1910 to 1930
He lived 1886 to 1973 and played Dixieland and New Orleans Revival: New Orleans Tailgate Trombonists.
Cass Gilbert [Gilbert, Cass]
architect
New York, New York
1910 to 1931
Woolworth Building [1910 to 1913: iron skyscraper is 260 meters tall]; George Washington Bridge [1925 to 1931: iron
and concrete suspension bridge connects New York and New Jersey across Hudson River]
Ignace Paderewski [Paderewski, Ignace]
pianist
Poland
1910 to 1932
Alfred North Whitehead [Whitehead, Alfred North]
Britain/USA
1910 to 1938
Principia Mathematica or Principles of Mathematics [1910 to 1913: with Russell]; Enquiry Concerning the Principles
of Natural Science [1919]; Concept of Nature [1920]; Principle of Relativity with Applications to Physical Science
[1922]; Science and the Modern World [1925]; Religion in the Making [1926]; Process and Reality [1929]; Adventures
of Ideas [1933]; Modes of Thought [1938]
He lived 1861 to 1947 and was idealist. He studied logical analysis, axiomatized logic, and developed logicism. Events
can relate {process, Whitehead}. Relations and events transform object properties. Objects are always changing
properties or property values. Reality is about such changes {process philosophy, Whitehead}. Since no properties exist
for significant times, processes and relations are more important than matter, time, and position. All things interconnect
and continually adjust to environment {philosophy of organism, Whitehead}. Higher properties emerge from lower
systems. God is always becoming, and this unifies universe. Qualities are not substances but are mind-activity results.
Wassily Kandinsky [Kandinsky, Wassily]
painter
Russia/Dresden, Germany/Munich, Germany
1910 to 1939
Improvisation 7 [1910]; Compositions [1911 to 1939: I to X]; Concerning the Spiritual in Art [1912: book]
He lived 1866 to 1944, led Die Brucke or the Bridge, and was the first non-objective or non-representational painter
{non-representational art} {non-objective art, Kandinsky}. He was Fauvist. He, Franz Marc, and other German
expressionists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) [1911 to 1014].
Charles Evans Hughes [Hughes, Charles Evans]
judge
USA
1910 to 1941
Supreme Court of the United States [1928]
He lived 1862 to 1948 and was USA Supreme Court Associate Justice [1910 to 1916 and 1930 to 1941].
Yvette Guilbert [Guilbert, Yvette]
singer
France
1910 to 1944
She lived 1865 to 1944 and spoke her songs.
Ramana or Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharishi [Ramana Maharishi, Bhagavan Sri]
philosopher
Arunachala, Tamil, India
1910 to 1950
Essence of Instruction [1910 to 1950]; Hymn to Arunachala [1910 to 1950]
He lived 1879 to 1950 and was Tantric Buddhist.
Junichiro Tanizaki [Tanizaki, Junichiro]
writer
Japan
1910 to 1950
Tattooer [1910]; Reed Cutter [1932]; Captain Shigemoto's Mother [1950]
Igor Stravinsky [Stravinsky, Igor]
composer
Russia
1910 to 1965
Firebird [1910: ballet]; Sacre du Printemps or Rite of Spring [1913: ballet]; Soldiers Tale [1918]; Oedipus Rex or
Oedipus the King [1927: opera]; Symphony of Psalms [1930]; Orpheus [1947: ballet]; Petrouchka [1947: ballet];
Rake's Progress [1951: opera]; Cantata [1952]; Septuor or Composition for Seven Voices [1953: chorale]; Agon or
Struggle [1953 and 1957: chorale]; Pulcinella [1965]
He lived 1882 to 1971 and used serial technique.
Roberto Assagioli [Assagioli, Roberto]
psychologist
Italy/USA
1910 to 1973
Psychosynthesis: A Manual of Principles and Techniques [1965]; Act of Will [1973]
He lived 1888 to 1974. Will and self connect {psychosynthesis}, because self acts through will in all sensations,
emotions, desires, imaginings, thoughts, and intuitions [1910].
Ernst Barlach [Barlach, Ernst]
sculptor
Germany
1911
Man Drawing a Sword [1911: Post-Impressionist wood sculpture]
Eugen Bleuler [Bleuler, Eugen]
psychiatrist
Zurich, Switzerland
1911
Dementia Praecox [1911]
He lived 1857 to 1939 and studied schizophrenia and hysteria. Schizophrenia begins in adolescence or early adult life,
is endogenous, and gets progressively worse if untreated [1911].
Marc Chagall [Chagall, Marc]
painter
Russia/France
1911
I and the Village [1911: Cubist and Romanticist]
L. Wolfe Gilbert [Gilbert, L. Wolfe]/Lewis F. Muir [Muir, Lewis F.]
composer
Russia/USA
1911
Waiting for the Robert E. Lee [1911]
Gilbert lived 1886 to 1970. Muir lived 1883 to 1915.
Ejnar Hertzsprung [Hertzsprung, Ejnar]
astronomer
Germany
1911
He lived 1873 to 1067 and studied star classification and evolution {Hertzsprung-Russell diagram} [1911].
Nishida Kitaro [Kitaro, Nishida]
philosopher
Kyoto, Japan
1911
Inquiry into the Good [1911]
He lived 1870 to 1945, started Kyoto School, and tried to unite Zen Buddhist and Western philosophy, especially that
of James and Bergson.
Cecil Macklin [Macklin, Cecil]
lyricist/composer
USA
1911
Tres Moutarde or Too Much Mustard [1911]
Robert Michels [Michels, Robert]
political scientist
Marburg, Germany/Italy
1911
Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy [1911]
He lived 1876 to 1936 and studied skill and privilege, loyalty, and power. Political parties tend toward oligarchy,
authoritarianism, and bureaucracy {iron law of oligarchy}.
Robert A. Milliken [Milliken, Robert A.]
physicist
USA
1911
He lived 1868 to 1953 and measured electron charge [1911].
George A. Norton [Norton, George A.]/Maybelle E. Watson [Watson, Maybelle E.]/Ernest M. Burnett [Burnett,
Ernest M.]
composer
USA
1911
My Melancholy Baby [1911]
Heike Kammerlingh Onnes [Onnes, Heike Kammerlingh]
physicist
Netherlands
1911
He lived 1853 to 1926 and discovered superconductivity [1911].
Peter D. Ouspensky [Ouspensky, Peter D.]
philosopher
Moscow, Russia
1911
Third Organon [1911]
He lived 1878 to 1947 and followed Gurdjieff {Fourth Way School}.
Ernest Rutherford [Rutherford, Erne

Outline of History of Notable Persons September 3, 2014 SOCI

Transcription

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