Opening the mind - Wofford College
Transcription
Opening the mind - Wofford College
1 INTA ET LG M TIS F U INA H A. D. 1854 ON S U O RIB Opening the mind The 2007 Wofford College Community of Scholars 2 The Community of Scholars was made possible by the vision and generosity of the Fullerton Foundation, Gaffney, South Carolina Program Director and Grant Coordinator Dr. Charles D. Kay Department of Philosophy kaycd@wofford.edu 2007 Research Fellows Committee Dr. C.L. Abercrombie Dr. Sally A. Hitchmough Dr. Nancy B. Mandlove Dr. Angela B. Shiflet Dr. Bryan G. Splawn © 2007 Wofford College Quintessential...A Wofford Education Wofford College is committed to a quintessential undergraduate education within the context of values-based inquiry. As a learning community, we are united by the unfettered pursuit of knowledge and the creative search for truth. 3 Table of Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................................5 Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion..............................................................................7 Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry.........................................................................9 Vibrational Characterization of cis- and trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne Astin Bellamy ’09, History...........................................................................................................11 Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period: The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands Elise Boos ’08.................................................................................................................................13 Community, Theatre and the South African Indian Experience in KwaZulu-Natal: Ronnie . ........ Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure Mary Beth Broadwater ’08...........................................................................................................15 An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany Lindy Bunch ’09............................................................................................................................17 Comparison of the Portraitures of Mary I and Elizabeth I of England Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History..............................................................................19 The Great Debate: American Intervention in World War II, September 1939 to December 1941 Dr. G. R. Davis, Department of Biology....................................................................................21 Rats Diets Jessie Davis ’08..............................................................................................................................23 Coming to Greenville — The Salvation Army’s History and Continuing Impact in Greenville, South Carolina Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy.......................................................25 Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations: Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Fine Arts.......................................................................27 Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape Painting in the Italian Renaissance Kishan Govind ’08........................................................................................................................29 Limited intermittent access to a highly palatable food combined with chronic mild stress induces overeating in laboratory rats. Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry...................................................................................................31 Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne 4 Stephen Harris ’08........................................................................................................................33 The Emerging Church in The American South Research abstracts Ryan Hill ’08 Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers...................................................................................................35 Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Department of Mathematics.......................................................37 Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages...........................................39 Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian and German Exiles to China during WW II Vanessa Lauber ’08.......................................................................................................................41 Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden Robynn Mackechnie ’08...............................................................................................................43 Does scheduled access to a highly palatable carbohydrate-rich food trigger binge eating in laboratory rats? Patrick McCain ’08........................................................................................................................45 African-American Soldiers in World War II Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History................................................................................47 “I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence” Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century Feminist Thought: A Documentary Collection Geoff Taylor ’09.............................................................................................................................49 Energy in My Pocket Mariel Willenberg ’09, History...................................................................................................51 The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel: A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala Claudia Winkler ’07, German, History......................................................................................53 The German Healthcare System: Past, Present, and Future Abstracts.........................................................................................................................................55 5 2007 Community of Scholars Instilling a culture of undergraduate research W ith the assistance of a grant from the Fullerton Foundation, Wofford has developed a faculty/student research program: The Community of Scholars. Committed to the ideal that scholarly pursuits should be both individual and communal, the program stresses crossdisciplinary discussion and fertilization of ideas among researchers focused within their academic disciplines while remaining alert for connections and insights from other fields. Undergraduate fellows undertake original projects in a variety of disciplines, including the sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences, working under the mentorship of faculty fellows from all parts of the College. Throughout the summer, Fellows gather at weekly luncheons, dinners, and coffee hours, discuss their progress, and share ideas and suggestions. Results of previous summer research projects have been presented at local and national conferences, as well as published in peer reviewed journals. We look forward to similar success from this year’s work. This summer, for the first time, fellows spent their time together in Wofford’s newlycompleted Village residences. With apartmentstyle living, fellows spent more time together and had more opportunities to share with faculty over informal dinners, barbeques, or just Frisbee. In the spirit of community, and in recognition of the broader community of which this is a small part, fellows also worked at a Habitat for Humanity site in Spartanburg, and developed a fall program on immigration — including a screening of the awardwinning documentary “Crossing Arizona” and by a visit from the director, Dan DeVivo — which was open to the public. What follows are highlights and abstracts of the research completed during the 2007 Community of Scholars session, but the program really has to be experienced to be understood. 6 S cholars at Work and Play 7 Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion My project links academic discussions of two issues of particular concern for Christian thought in recent years, in hopes of shedding light on both of them. Those two topics are the problem of evil (theodicy) and the secularization of society. A key challenge facing any Christian theodicy is to address the question of how and when God acts against the evil of the world. American theologian Marjorie Suchocki writes that Christian writers have tended to seek “the reason and resolution of [such] sorrows at the edges [or ends] of history,” Figures 1 & 2: Michelangelo, Creation of Adam & Jan Provoost, The Last Judgment namely by turning to God’s activity in creation and the afterlife (or endtime) for answers to the suffering of this life. While instructive, Suchocki’s statement omits attention to what has been the other major Christian focus in dealing with the problem of evil over the centuries, the life and death of Jesus. That is Figure 3: Grünewald, Crucifixion to say, Christian thinking on the problem of evil has traditionally contained some mixture of protological (related to creation,) Christological, and eschatological (referring to the end of time) elements. 8 However, in the modern period there have been major challenges to these ways of addressing the problem of evil, in part because of the weakening place the Christian narrative holds in our society’s imagination. It is here that the recent work on the topic of secularization by 2007 Templeton Prize winner Charles Taylor is helpful. (With its $1.5 million award, the Templeton is equivalent to a Nobel Prize in religion.) Taylor writes that in the modern world we have a different sense of time than that of previous eras in the West, namely that of “simultaneity.” By this he means that in earlier periods the present moment was primarily viewed through reference to a “higher time,” i.e., the past and future events of the Christian narrative. However, because of the vast changes in Western society in the last 200 years, many no longer have this vertical, transcendent frame of reference. Rather, our focus is horizontal in nature, on the present, the here and now, and on what is happening simultaneously. In his work on this topic, Taylor draws upon the thought of Benedict Anderson, for whom one of the prime examples of this modern sense of simultaneity is the act of masses all reading the same newspaper on a given day. A striking image of this phenomenon is found in Citizen Kane: Anderson quotes the philosopher Hegel’s observation that reading the morning paper could be seen as serving for many modern people “as a substitute for morning prayers.” While for some, this focus on the constant march of the ephemeral here and now results in a turning away from religious belief, others try to reinterpret their Christian faith within this new context. For example, some recent theologians have centered their approach to the problem of evil on God’s action neither in the past (creation or Christ) nor the future (endtime), but rather in the present. I have coined the word “enestological” for such theodicies to serve as a complement to the well-established terms protological, Christological, and eschatological. This new sort of theodicy has clear appeal for many, given its emphasis on a God working in the present to fight against the tragedies and injustices of our world. However, representatives of this type of theodicy, for a number of reasons, dismiss the afterlife as a major component of a Christian approach to the problem of evil. This lack of allowance for significantly transcending the outcomes of the here and now leaves in its train troubling questions for this theodicy with regard to the existence of so much unredeemed evil throughout the long expanse of human history. 9 Vibrational Characterization of cis- and trans- hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry Introduction: The interaction of light with matter has many fascinating aspects. This interaction allows us to be warmed by the sun, creates a blue sky, reflects our image from a mirror and causes electrons to flow in photovoltaic materials. In this project we are examining the interaction of low energy infrared light with small organic molecules. Light of a specific wavelength can cause molecular vibrations (the bending and stretching of atoms) as the molecule absorbs light. The vibrational motion of molecules caused by infrared light provides a unique identification for a molecule similar to the fingerprint of a person. The two molecules we studied have not been fully characterized vibrationally. These compounds, known as ene-diynes, decompose at room temperature and consequently are not commercially available. Ene-diynes prove to be important because they undergo a cyclization reaction that makes them reactive towards DNA when they are incorporated into larger molecules. This project will help to identify the vibrational motions that these two compounds undergo. Experimental: The preparation of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne in our lab was done by Community of Scholars researcher Ryon Hamilton. This is a multi-part synthesis that takes about a week to perform. A successful synthesis results in several hundred micrograms of the compound. In previous studies, the vibrational spectra of these compounds were recorded from a thin film of the compound. Recording the vibrational spectrum in this way results in significant interactions between molecules, producing broad absorption bands and often significantly shifts the frequency of vibration. In this study we sought to examine the vibrational spectrum of the isolated molecule. Isolation was accomplished by trapping the molecules in solid argon (an inert matrix). This technique results in sharp vibrational structure for the isolated molecule, observed in the infrared spectrum. 10 Vibrational Spectroscopy: Typical molecules absorb infrared light, storing the energy as vibrational motion. Molecules only vibrate at discrete frequencies and so consequently absorb only certain wavelengths of light. A vibrational spectrum is obtained by shining several wavelengths of light on a molecule and detecting which wavelengths are absorbed. At the left is a portion of the vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3ene-1,5,-diyne in an argon matrix at 18 K. The positive going peaks occur as the molecule absorbs light energy associated with a particular vibration of the molecule. The atomic motions of several of the vibrations are shown with red vector arrows. Negative going bands in the spectrum are due to an impurity in the synthesis that has been subtracted away. Theoretical Modeling: To determine which motions in the molecule are associated with a particular vibration, quantum chemical calculations were undertaken as part of this project. Computationally the energy of attraction between atoms is calculated and the most stable molecular structure (of lowest energy) is found. From the lowest energy structure the vibrations of the molecule can be determined using a model of simple harmonic motion (similar to a ball attached to a spring). Specifically for this study the molecular geometry and vibrational frequencies of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne were investigated using a method called density functional theory. More than a dozen variations of this theory were examined to determine the best theory to fit our experimental frequencies. The best fit to experiment resulted in the identification of fifteen vibrational bands in cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne. No experimental vibrations differed by more than twenty cm-1 from the calculated energy at the best level of theory. In some instances the theory did remarkably well at identifying minor aspects of the vibrational spectrum as is seen in the vibrational spectrum above for the terminal C-H bending vibrations around 650 cm-1. 11 Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period: The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands Ashtin Bellamy ’09, History During the 2007 interim trip to Japan, I was able to visit Hiroshima and observe how the atomic bombs of World War II have affected the relationship between the United States and Japan. In my project, I researched another effect of the war that challenged the diplomatic efforts of these countries. After the war, the Ryukyu Island chain, which includes Okinawa, was removed from Japanese control to the trusteeship of the United Nations, which granted all administrative rights of the islands to the United States. The United States’ military presence in the Ryukyus allowed Japan to go without any defense forces of its own throughout the 1960s. After much pressure from Japanese citizens and the islanders themselves, the United States government negotiated with the Japanese government for the reversion of the Interim ’07 in Japan Ryukyus in 1972. The agreement permitted the United States to maintain some non-nuclear military facilities in the Ryukyus. Japanese citizens were the first to inspire interest in reversion. They claimed that the Ryukyuans were culturally part of the Japanese nation and should be returned to their home country. The more important reason for the Japanese to support reversion was their fear of weaponry, especially nuclear weapons. The United States military had admitted to storing biological and chemical weapons in Okinawa, and had permitted visits of nuclear-powered submarines into the ports there. The Ryukyuan locals were responsive to Japanese influence to support reversion; they staged protests and established the Okinawa Reversion Council. Like many Japanese, they feared the biological and chemical weapons they knew the United States military had stored so close to their homes. Some islanders were indifferent or against reversion, because they had prospered under an economy improved by the presence of Americans. While the Ryukyuans felt uneasy about living under foreign administration, they had never had a higher standard of living. The Japanese government also desired to get back the territory they had lost through their defeat in the war. To regain the Ryukyus would give the government the power to ban or at least regulate any weapons stored on the bases. At the same time, the conservative Japanese government had to consider that regaining the Ryukyus would lessen United States investment in defense there. By not having to invest in their own defenses, the Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato on a visit to the Ryukyus in 1969 12 Japanese economy had risen to third among industrialized nations. The United States military base at Okinawa At first, the United States government was completely opposed to reversion. Having the free use of bases in the Ryukyus was essential to the security of not only the United States, but Japan as well, at least as long as the Vietnam War continued. If Japan could no longer depend upon United States military protection, the Japanese would begin to build up their own defense forces. After Japanese behavior in World War II, Americans were not ready and trusting of Japan enough to allow this to happen. Throughout the 1960s, in an effort to weaken the protest for reversion, the United States government provided more aid to the Ryukyuans and increased their civil liberties to enhance their quality of life. This went so far as to restrict Japanese aid to the Ryukyus in order to convince the islanders that they were better off living under United States administration. Eventually, the United States government could not ignore some of the ways in which reversion could be favorable. With the right negotiations, the United States could return the islands but retain some rights to the military bases. In this case, the United States government could save some of the money it had been pouring into the Ryukyus without completely losing its security position in Asia. The Japanese conservative party in power had a strong point in its demands for reversion. If they were unable to convince the United States to give back the islands, the Japanese people might turn against them, and vote the party out of office in favor of leftists, who had ties to the Soviet Union and Communist China. Losing the Ryukyus would be far less unfortunate for the United States government than losing a relationship with a Japanese government it The Ryukyus island chain sits southwest of mainland could trust. Japan and is closer to Shanghai, China, and Taipei, Taiwan. The Ryukyuan stamp in 1970 featured Japanese characters as well as a line demonstrating the link between the Ryukyus and Tokyo. In 1972, the United States formally returned the Ryukyu Islands to Japanese control. The previous year, the two nations agreed that the United States would continue to maintain nonnuclear military facilities as well as 43,000 troops in Okinawa. The Ryukyuans referred to the event as “Yuugawai” — a change of era. 13 Community, Theatre and the South African Indian Experience in KwaZulu-Natal: Ronnie Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure Elise Boos ’08 On November 16, 1860, the S.S. Truro docked in Durban and 342 Indians began new lives as indentured servants on the struggling sugar plantations along the western coast of the British colony of Natal. Slavery having been abolished in the British Colonies and the indigenous Zulu “relatively secure in their tribal economy”1 , the British colonist, believing the manual labor below them, sought cheap labor to resurrect the sugar industry. Such labor came in the form of indentured servants from India. Between the years 1863 Indians harvest sugar cane, Natal, 1870 and 1864 the export of sugar rose from £26,000 to £1,000,000. Ships would run the route from India to Durban for years to come. As the community of indentured and ex-indentured Indians grew, a market for new commodities appeared and Muslims from the Indian state of Gujarat quickly made the voyage to South Africa to fill the niche. The British colonists’ elation over the flourishing sugar crop came to a halt as Indian merchants and farmers began underselling and outgrowing their British counterparts. Pressure applied to the Natal government over the unwanted competition would result in the first of many legislative acts meant to preserve white dominance. Indian rickshaw puller employed by a Indian movement would be hindered and monitored, their land taken member of the Legislative Council of away, their freedom Natal - 1890. taxed. They would be denied representation, education and freedom of speech. The Indian community was a diverse community. They spoke Tamil, Hindi, Gujarati, and Telugu; came from Calcutta, Bombay, Madras; were Muslim, Christian and Hindu; were indentured, free, lower and middle class, educated and illiterate. They would have to present their case as one “Indian” Passive Resisters and followers march down the main community, struggle to maintain their unique cultural street of Durban, in protest against the anti-Indian identities and reach across ethnic boundaries to form Land Act of 1946. alliance with other populations. And in the process, some would claim, set an example of resistance, especially non-violent resistance, that other oppressed groups in South Africa would build upon. 1 Meer, Fatima. Portrait of South African Indian (Durban: Avon House, 1969) 7. 14 Community of Scholars Initially I planned for my summer research to address the Indian experience in South Africa during the Apartheid era. I quickly discovered though that the complexities of that era, coupled with the diversity of the Indian population in South Africa, made that a very difficult and broad task. It was by chance that in my early research I came across the mention of the Shah Theatre Academy. A theatre group started in Durban by several prominent South African Indian dramatists, including Ronnie Govender, who were frustrated by the Eurocentric paradigm of South African theatre at the time and with the lack of theatre relevant to the Indian community, their goal was “the creation of politically relevant plays with indigenous settings”2 , and that goal would find realization in Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure. I proceeded to use that play as a window into the Indian community and situation in the 1960’s and 1970’s, preparing the historical and socio-political context of the play, examining the political questions that it raised, and the South African Indian patois and issues of Indian identity that Govender employed. Scene from Rabinidranath Tagore’s Kings of the Dark Chamber While very much a part of the Black Consciousness theatre movement taking form in South Africa in the 1950’s and 1960’s, Indic theatre has been widely overlooked by scholarly works on Black Consciousness and alternative theatre, often because of the diversity of the Indic works and the wealth of stage and township theatre in the 1960’s and 1970’s by African playwrights, which naturally reached a larger audience. Indic theatre spans many generations, from the early reproduction of classical Hindu myths to later vernacular production of Indian epics. Very few of the early Indic plays were ever recorded or published, and unfortunately the same can be said for the reactionary Indic theatre in the 1960s and 1970s. As consequence I was forced to rely on secondary accounts of other Indic productions. Finally, it has been suggested that the written text and the live performance were read quite differently, or at the very least, with less intensity. While the written text is powerful and politically charged, it was received by the audience as “entertainment”. Its subtle message was not lost however and it was The Lahnee’s Pleasure’s subtle didacticism that allowed Govender to simultaneously entertain and challenge- posing the questions on the tips of the tongues of the Indians in a public arena and laced with laughter. 2 2 Schauffer, Dennis. “In The Shadow of the Shah: The Indic Contribution to our developing South African Culture.” Indic Theatre Monograph Series, No 2 (Durban: Asoka Theatre Publications, 1994) 16. 15 An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany Mary Beth Broadwater ’08, German My experience studying in Berlin, Germany during the spring of 2007 was helpful to my research this summer. I lived with a host mother and her two sons whose father is a Turkish immigrant. Both sons are fluent in German and speak very little Turkish but to fellow Germans they would appear to be foreigners. Having already selected my topic for the Community of Scholars, I gained an interesting perspective on how the capital city with its large Turkish population promotes integration. Most of the 2.7 million people of Turkish descent living in Germany immigrated since 1961 while a large number were born in Germany to those immigrants. Turkish nationals and Germans of Turkish descent are the largest minority within Germany, making up 8 % of the population. Turkish immigrants came as guest workers when West Germany suffered from a labor shortage in the 1950s and 1960s. Through Germany’s labor recruitment program, men from Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and elsewhere, worked long hours in factories or coal mines. Unlike other foreign workers who returned home when the program ended, the Turks were hesitant to go home because of economic and political instability in Turkey. In addition to their long work days, Germany’s expectations that they return home allowed the first generation, male guest workers, no opportunity to integrate in German society. For example they had difficulties with tasks such as shopping, practicing their religion, communicating with the host nation, and remaining connected to their home countries. On average, they lived apart from their families for 8-10 years. Their wives and children later immigrated as the second generation of Turks in Germany. These families came from rural farming villages and resettled in industrial cities within Germany. Integration was challenging as they lived in Germany with little knowledge of the language or culture. One aspect of German-Turkish integration is granting citizenship to those who have lived in Germany for many years or who were born in Germany and have no ties to Turkey. On the one hand, many Germans feel that immigrants should successfully integrate themselves before being granted citizenship. Turkish immigrants, however, believe easier access to citizenship would give them a feeling of acceptance and allow them to better integrate in German society. An additional conflict arises with the education of Turks. Turks believe that Germany’s education system 16 does not give fair treatment to all students. Turkish families for example, cannot pay for their children to attend preschool. Therefore as they enter the 1st grade, these children already lag behind the native students in language ability. This disadvantage persists throughout their school years, because despite learning German in the schools, the children still speak Turkish at home. The language issue becomes a particular problem when the children enter 6th grade. By this time, students are placed on separate tracks. The best students go to grammar school (Gymnasium) and take “Abitur” tests in their final year which allow them to attend a university. Most children from immigrant backgrounds are put on lower tracks which offer no opportunity for higher education and limit job prospects. This lack of education leads to a majority of unskilled workers in the Turkish population, who are unable to find work. Turks cheering for Germany at the 2006 World Cup A final issue facing, not just Germany, but the entire European Union, is the consideration of Turkey’s entry into the Union. Membership talks have been delayed and a partnership is now being considered instead. For the 3.6 million Turks living within the EU, the idea of membership represents being one step closer to acceptance. Most Turks favor this idea but feel less hopeful as they hear more conflicting political rhetoric. One Turkish-German voices the common opinion that Germany will be “saddled with the same problems” for which he left Turkey. Many believe that admitting Turkey would lower the standard of living in Germany, as the EU would pay $37 billion annually to aid the new member country. Interesting Facts about Integration for German-Turks • The term guest worker (Gastarbeiter) is commonly used to describe this immigrant population although over 75% did not come during the recruitment period. • Immigrants may join political parties but may not create their own. • There are public sector jobs available only to German and EU citizens, i.e. teachers, police officers, and administrators. • The notion that integration should occur before citizenship contradicts granting such citizenship to late settlers from Russia and East Europe who can claim citizenship when moving to Germany. • With 93 percent of German-Turks claiming the Muslim faith, over 2400 mosque communities now exist. • The Döner Kebap, a food invented by Turks in Germany, has become what Germans might call typical or even traditional German food. Making A Döner Kebap 17 Mary I of England Lindy Bunch ’09 The insolent joy, the bonfires and banqueting, which were in London, and elsewhere in England, when that cursed Jezebel was proclaimed queen, did witness to my heart that men were become more than enraged; for else how could they have so rejoiced at their own confusion and certain destruction? For what man was there of so base judgment (supposing that he had any light of God) who did not see the erecting of that monster to be the overthrow of true religion, and the assured destruction of England, and of the ancient liberties thereof ? And yet, nevertheless, all men so triumphed, as if God had delivered them from all calamity. — John Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women Mary I of England is better known to many as “Bloody Mary” or Elizabeth I’s older sister. For Protestant reformers such as John Knox, she was seen as being the epitome of evil. However, she was a queen in her own right and ruled England for five years (1553-8). Due to the brevity of her reign and a few very unpopular choices, Mary’s reign has been denigrated and largely ignored by historians. Her religious fervor and attempts to bring England back to Catholicism after Henry VIII’s break with Rome have caused her to be seen as nothing more than a failure. However, in recent years a reevaluation of Mary has begun to occur, with most now viewing her as one of England’s most tragic figures. It was this point of view that inspired me to focus my summer research on her. Not only was she the first regent queen of England, she was also said by many who knew her to be a kind albeit religiously intense woman. Her difficult life intrigued me. As a young woman, she was declared illegitimate by her father and stripped of her title. As a queen, she so desperately wanted to have a child that she had several phantom pregnancies, the last of which turned out to be a type of stomach cancer which led to her death. With such a hard life, it is no small wonder that her reign was also fraught with problems. As both an art history and history major, I decided to focus on the art historical part of her reign as well as the historical. Portraiture, especially of leaders, has always been just as much propaganda as veristic representation; for this reason, I chose to work on the largely unstudied area of Marian portraiture. Because 18 of the problems of her youth, few portraits of Mary as a young girl exist. Also, due to the brevity of her time on the throne, her portraiture does not even approach the scale of her sister. The portraits, portrait medals, and manuscript illustrations that are available depict a woman motivated by an intense desire to restore the “true faith.” She does not attempt to engage in the kind of metaphorical works that will later be picked up by Elizabeth, instead choosing to use simple symbols to represent her faith, her marriage, and her Tudor lineage. In the portrait on the right by Anthonis Mor, Mary is depicted with a red rose, a symbol of the Tudors and also of her Christian name. The large jewel she is shown wearing, which appears in most of her other portraits, was given to her by her husband in honor of their marriage. Upon her death in 1558, Elizabeth ascended the throne and largely undid Mary’s actions. In later works, especially one titled Allegory of the Tudor Succession by Lucas de Heere, the Elizabethan propaganda machine clearly attempts to depict the reign of Mary as turbulent, unsuccessful, and papist. In this work, Mary and her husband, Philip II of Spain, are shown on the viewer’s left with Mars, Roman god of war, at their heels. While there is some debate, it appears that the background shows a view of Rome. On the right side of the work, Elizabeth I is portrayed quite differently. Followed by an allegorical representation of peace, the juxtaposition of the two sisters deliberately portrays Mary poorly in order to bolster the image of Elizabeth. This sort of work shows how, over time, Mary was slowly denigrated to being nothing more than “Bloody Mary.” 19 The Great Debate: American Intervention in World War II, September 1939 to December 1941 Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History In the twenty-seven months between Hitler’s invasion of Poland and the Japanese attack on American forces at Pearl Harbor, the United States engaged in perhaps the most extensive and wide-ranging debate in its history over the appropriate role for the U.S. in world affairs. My project has been to collect the many speeches and articles in this “great debate.” My goal is to edit and publish excerpts from these works in book form for use in undergraduate history classes. During the first few months of the war, the focus of the debate was revision of the Neutrality legislation passed by Congress earlier in the 1930s. The purpose of this legislation was to prevent the involvement of the U.S. in any future war, a direct reaction to the consensus view that American involvement in the First World War had been a mistake. But the unprovoked aggression of Nazi Germany led many Americans to fear that the law treated both aggressor and victim the same. While President Franklin D. Roosevelt stated at the start of the war, “This nation will remain a neutral nation,” he added: “Even a neutral cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience.” The debate thus came down to this: should the U.S. assist those resisting aggression, and if so, how much? While the sides in the debate traditionally have been divided into interventionists and isolationists, the reality is much more complex. The debate obliterated party lines and ideological divides. Democrats and Republicans supported aid to Britain (including both presidential candidates in 1940, FDR and Wendell Willkie), while many Americans on both the left and the right opposed any American involvement. The fundamental divide was between those who argued for an expansive, even global, definition of American interests, and those who saw the U.S. as a hemispheric power with hemispheric interests in the tradition of the Monroe Doctrine. The former argued that Americans could no longer act as if world events did not matter to them; technology and a global economy had created a smaller world, in which it mattered very much to Americans what happened in Europe and Asia. The latter maintained that a policy of “America First” could effectively protect the U.S. from any military threat, and that it was unjustifiable intervention in the world’s affairs that presented the true danger to American interests. 20 Interestingly, all participants in the debate seemed to agree upon the important issues that were at stake: the need for national unity, the preservation (and spread) of democracy, the economic well-being of the country. But they disagreed vehemently over which course of action would best serve those interests. Interventionists argued that an Axis-dominated world would of necessity turn the U.S. into an armed camp and thus destroy individual liberty and democratic government in the U.S., and plunge the U.S. into an “Fellow Americans, there is no even deeper depression than that of the previous decade. compromise — the world will be Isolationists countered that the demands of fighting a global, dominated by free men or it will be total war would inevitably destroy democracy and prosperity dominated by enslaved men. We at home. While most Americans agreed that spreading throughout the world what FDR called “the four freedoms” cannot appease the forces of evil.” was an admirable goal, isolationists argued it could not be — Wendell Willkie, May 7, 1940 done by war, but only by example. This foremost spokesman of the anti-intervention group was the famous aviator, Charles Lindbergh. Consistently throughout this period, Lindbergh opposed active American involvement in the European war. Other outspoken opponents of intervention included former president Herbert Hoover, Republican Senators Robert Taft and Gerald Nye, and socialist leader Norman Thomas. Ultimately, the most important interventionist was President Roosevelt himself. But he also had support from prominent Republicans like Frank Knox and Henry Stimson (who in 1940 joined FDR’s administration as Secretary of the Navy and Secretary of War, respectively). “We have always been ready to fight against the interference of foreign powers in our affairs... It is only when we are asked to take part in the quarrels of foreign countries that we divide.” — Charles Lindbergh, Oct. 13, 1940 As Britain’s plight grew increasingly dire in 1940 and 1941, the willingness of the American public to assist the British increased, with even the most outspoken opponents of active involvement conceding that aid to Britain was justifiable. Eventually, in March 1941, Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act, which gave FDR the power to give military assistance to those opposing Axis aggression. Critics charged that the law virtually made the U.S. a belligerent, but the country remained seriously divided over the question of whether or not the U.S. should actively participate in the European war. Ironically, although the war in Asia had received scant attention in the Great Debate, it was only the shock of the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan that ended the debate and put the U.S. decisively on the path to world power. 21 Rats Diets Dr. G. R. Davis, Department of Biology In humans, dieting is a form of limiting one’s access to food, especially to highly palatable foods which tend to be high in carbohydrates and fats. Often dieters develop cravings for the very foods that they avoid, and when they “break their diet” they overeat (binge eat) on the highly palatable food. Likewise, stress may alter the eating patterns of humans, and dieters may be more likely to break their diet in response to stress. Because these factors are difficult to study under tightly controlled conditions in humans, there is a great need for an animal model in which feeding behaviors can be studied while carefully manipulating the availability and palatability of foods and controlling the degree to which animals are stressed. Like several other labs around the country, we are interested in identifying conditions that trigger episodes of binge eating in laboratory rats and examining how stress affects food intake in laboratory rats. Specifically, in our 2007 Community of Scholars research, we asked: How is the intake of a highly palatable sweet food (Froot Loops®; FL) affected by limiting the access to that food, and combining that limited access with stress? We conducted experiments on 80 laboratory rats, 40 under non-stressed conditions (Robynn’s rats) and 40 which were subjected to a variety of stressors (Kishan’s rats.) Robynn and Kishan investigated how food intake was affected by restricting access to a highly palatable high carbohydrate food (Froot Loops®) and whether stress altered their intake of this food. We patterned our experiments very closely upon the research described by R.L. Corwin of Penn State University for the non-stressed rats. Like Dr. Corwin and her colleagues, we divided our non-stressed rats in to four groups of 10 rats each. The control group was provided free access to an unlimited amount of rat chow every day. For 28 consecutive days, Robynn measured the daily intake of chow for these rats. A second group, in addition to all the chow they could eat, was offered Froot Loops for 2 hours every day. This group was designated R7 because they had regular access to Froot Loops for two hours each day 7 days a week. For R7, Robynn measured the daily chow intake and also the amount of Froot Loops consumed daily. A third group called R3, received Froot Loops 3 days each week for two hours on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Corwin has shown that this schedule causes binge eating in rats given 100 % fat (Crisco.) We want to know if this schedule triggers binge eating on Froot Loops. The fourth group of rats received Froot Loops on an irregular schedule and were designated as the I group. 22 The major findings from Robynn’s non-stressed rats are: 1) Rats exhibit excellent daily caloric intake regulation (unlike humans.) 2) We found no evidence of binge eating. 3) Rats given Froot Loops every day did not weigh more than control rats maintained exclusively on rodent chow. 4) Surprisingly, rats given intermittent access to Froot Loops on an irregular schedule or three days per week cumulatively consumed fewer calories and gained less weight than other groups of rats. Essentially, Robynn found that unstressed rats do not binge eat on Froot Loops. Her results sharply contrast with the findings of Corwin (2003) who described binge eating on Crisco in non-stressed rats. This suggests that the tendency to binge eat depends at least in part on the nature of the palatable food provided. Robynn’s results also reveal the limitations of using an animal model to make predictions about human eating behaviors. For example, it is well documented that easy access to highly palatable foods leads to overconsumption and weight gain in humans. Thus, rather than attempt to use rats to predict human behaviors, maybe we should ask how it is that rats are able to minimize overeating and weight gain when tempted with highly palatable foods. With this knowledge, it may be possible to develop means by which humans might emulate the eating patterns of rats! The major finding from Kishan’s stressed rats are: 1) Stressed rats consumed fewer calories and gained weight less rapidly than non-stressed rats. (This observation confirmed that the stressors we used were effective.) 2) Stressed rats over-eat only if access to Froot Loops is intermittent, that is on MWF. This may be binge eating and seems to coincide with the tendency of humans to overeat on highly palatable foods that are not always available. 3) Stressed rats with daily access to FL do not over-eat. When projected to humans, many of whom live in some degree of stress, Kishan’s results suggest that regularly eating small amounts of highly appealing foods is preferable to avoiding them most of the time and then succumbing to the temptation periodically which could result in bouts of extreme overconsumption. Kishan’s and Robynn’s experiments have been summarized in research posters that will be presented in April 2008 at the annual meeting of the Association of Southeastern Biologists, and in July 2008 in Paris, France at the international meeting of the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behaviors. Of course, over the summer additional questions emerged. For example, it may be that how quickly an animal or person eats may influence how much they can eat before “getting full.” We’ve designed an experiment to be conducted during the fall of 2007 to get an answer to this question. Thus the research conducted with the support of the Fullerton Foundation for the Community of Scholars will extend into the next semester with the involvement of another student who has demonstrated a strong interest in this area of research. The health consequences of excessive weight are well known and provide strong justification for basis research such as we report here. Much remains to be learned about the mechanisms that contribute to overeating in humans. Although there are obvious limitations to using rats as model organisms, these animals may provide insights that may lead to treatment strategies for humans who tend to overeat and thus become overweight or obese. 23 Coming to Greenville — The Salvation Army’s History and Continuing Impact in Greenville, South Carolina Jessie Davis ’09 The Salvation Army has a long history in Greenville, SC, starting with a failed establishment in 1888, and then its permanent foundation in late fall of 1904. This research paper investigates the history of the Salvation Army in Greenville and the current social impact of the Army. I also investigated the racial climate of Greenville at the time in order to understand the racial tensions that are not focused on in Salvationist history. Although the Salvation Army has many national programs such as the Kettle Campaign and Angel Tree, this research concentrates on the Army specifically in Greenville and the programs and progressions that make it unique. Some of these programs are highlighted here. The Salvation Army building on East Broad Street was the first Salvation Army specific building in the state of South Carolina. From this beginning, the other Salvation Army programs were started such as the Citadel church, shelters, etc. Gathering of Salvation Army workers meeting in the early 1900s on East Court Street Salvation Army Citadel Church in 1952 The Bruner Children’s Home The Bruner Children’s Home, named after financial contributor and long time volunteer Nell Bruner, was started in 1906 by Miss Sarah Davis. However, as she aged she became unable to continue the work and asked the Salvation Army to take over the home, which they did in June 1917. Brigadier Mary E. Bebout took command of the home and many children, mostly orphans in the beginning, were raised in the home under staff members that served more as “godparents.” The home strived to make lives normal for all of its children and had many success stories such as the famous Justice triplets. In 1949, the Bruner Home was closed and the children transferred to the care of the Children’s Center in Greenville. 24 Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital The Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital was established in May 1908 by Captain Mary Milton and A. Palmer. It was originally started to aid troubled mill workers (textile mills were the main industry in Greenville) and girls who were “in trouble”. The hospital was a vital resource for the Greenville community because of its state of the art infant wards, lights, infant elevators, and even a school of nursing. However, the Great Depression put a tremendous strain on Salvation Army funding and the hospital had to be sold, but continues to Nurses at the Emma Moss Booth Memorial operate as the St. Francis Hospital in Vandry Heights. Hospital in 1925 The Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club In 1938, Mr. P.D. Meadors, a Greenville candy manufacturer decided to start the Red Shield Boys Club because he caught some boys breaking into his candy store and felt that they needed positive reinforcement rather than punishment. Meetings were started in the back of the Broad St. location of the Salvation Army and Lieutenant Robert Burchett was the first officer assigned to help run the Boys Club. The club continued to be focused on “building citizens” and in 1948 officially became called the Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club. By 1950 the Club occupied the The current Salvation Army facility and bus on whole Army building and so in 1969 the Club was able to Owens Street move to its present location on Owens Street. It continues to provide after school and summer tutoring and recreation of all sorts to area Greenville children, transporting them on their buses. The Kroc Community Center Joan Kroc, the widow of the McDonald’s founder Ray Kroc, died in 2003 and left $1.6 billion to the national Salvation Army. This money is being used to build and sustain Ray and Joan Kroc Community Centers across the country. Greenville was one of the first nine cities to be approved to receive one of these community centers. All locations are required to raise $15 million to prove community commitment to the project, and then they will get Joan Kroc the $50 million grant to build the facility and sustain programs. Greenville currently lacks $600,000 to complete its $15 million, and thus leads the nation in fundraising, making it probable that Greenville will have the first Ray and Joan Kroc Community Center in the country. The facility is to be the new home of the Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club as well as contain a 16-court tennis complex, golf training academy, swimming center, computer center, tutoring, day care, fine arts, adult education services, etc. It will also be built in conjunction with a new elementary school, A.J. Wittenberg Elementary School. The Center is projected to open in the spring of 2008 off of Academy Street in West Greenville. 25 Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations: Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy Saying to a fellow student, I’m feeling like I really can’t cope, and hearing “I feel the same way,” it sort of relieves a lot and makes you realize maybe you’re not as abnormal as you perceive yourself to be. ~ “Callie” This book-in-progress focuses on the experiences of women writing doctoral dissertations. The study is designed to help faculty and students better understand how to facilitate the process of writing a dissertation. There has been little research undertaken to understand the factors that act as aids and barriers to the process of writing a dissertation. While the primary goal of the study is to help students who are currently preparing for or writing a dissertation, the issues have significance for administration of doctoral programs and for doctoral faculty, since considerable costs are reflected in students extending the dissertation process past the usual timeframe. The quotation from “Callie” above indicates that dissertators are likely to benefit from hearing stories of others who have struggled on similar paths. In fact, a feeling that “nobody understands me” was expressed by participants in nearly all the interviews. It is therefore hoped that this book, by sharing stories from women across the globe and in diverse disciplines, will help each reader understand that she is not so unlike others and that the territory she treads does not have to be entirely new and strange. In addition, it is hoped that each reader will gain insight, inspiration, and guidance from detailed stories of the struggles and successes of other women. Damian, Woman Writing The researchers originally included men as well as women in the study, but early interviews suggested that women experience the dissertation in unique ways. 26 Anschutz, Woman Writing at a Table In addition, a critical incident storytelling approach was used to engage participants in describing an incident that stood out in their minds about the dissertation process. Transcripts of the interviews were read and analyzed with a hermeneutic analytic approach framed by the German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer. Participants who were currently dissertating or who had completed a dissertation within the last four years were interviewed. Each interview employed Socratic questioning and dialogue, which consisted of asking participants to define key concepts, i.e. “What, to you, is a dissertation?” and then asking follow-up questions based on the response. The goal was to reach the participant’s deepest and richest beliefs on the issues, including beliefs of which she may not have been explicitly aware. W hen you start you think, oh, I’m going to answer an enormous question and make such a difference. But that’s just not true. You’re going to answer maybe a part of a question, or you’re going to add to the body of knowledge about a question that others are working on. But that kept me up at night, you know? ~ “Mary” Themes that emerged will serve as the focus for chapters in the finished book. These include: Mystery of the Dissertation Process; Isolation of the Student Role; and Transformation of Personal Relationships. Mystery for many participants was caused by a lack of guidance from faculty and a lack of helpful literature to assist students in preparing and planning for such a lengthy written work. Isolation was often caused by uncommunicative advisors and by family and friends who meant well but simply failed to understand how to be supportive, or lost patience when the process went on for multiple years. Relationships were transformed Vermeer, Woman Writing a Letter in positive and negative ways. Participants reached new understandings and sympathies with partners and children, but also lost friends who resented how much the dissertation took away from what would otherwise have been time spent together. Despite many negative experiences, every participant emphasized the hope they had managed to find during the writing process; also, those who had completed the dissertation expressed immense pride and a great sense of accomplishment. This study is co-authored by Dr. Jeanne Sorrell of George Mason University. 27 Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape in the Italian Renaissance. Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Fine Arts The Project: Over the next 24 months, I will consolidate my work on the topic of Renaissance landscape painting into a book-length manuscript, with the preliminary title Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape in the Italian Renaissance. This summer, with the support of the Fullerton Foundation, I was able to bring myself upto-date with recent research in the field of landscape studies. I will present some of my summer research in a paper titled “Take thyself to Venus’ Realm: Landscape and Medicine in Renaissance Italy,” to be delivered in Chicago in March 2008 at the Renaissance Society of America Conference. Giorgione, The Tempest, c1501 With its large foreground figures, this work might not look to modern eyes like a landscape painting, but in 1521 it was described simply as “the little landscape… with a tempest, a gypsy woman and a soldier.” Descriptions like this show us that we cannot use our own genre categories to understand what a Renaissance viewer would have classified as a landscape. Polidoro da Caravaggio, Landscape, San Silvestro at Quirinale, 1525’ The most renowned art theorist of the 16th Century, Giorgio Vasari, wrote of Polidor’s landscapes that they were “executed with supreme grace and judgment. For Polidoro… executed landscapes and groups of rocks and trees better than any other painter.” Polidor was extremely interested in ancient art, and in his paintings at S. Silvestro, one sees a new interest in “classicizing” landscape, evident in both the heroic scale and the likeness to ancient Roman wall painting. *Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Painters, Sculptors and Architects, Two Volumes, translated by Gaston du C. de Vere (1927, reprinted 1996), I.893. 28 Description of the Proposed Book Landscape was not acknowledged as a distinct genre of art until the late fifteenth Proposed table of contents: century and, even after it was recognized, Chapter One: Contemporary vs. Renaissance Theories of discussions of the genre in artistic theory Landscape Painting and the Material Reality of Landscape are brief. Because of this, it is difficult to in the Renaissance understand what audiences and theorists Chapter Two: The Salutary Doctrine and the Sensual thought about the new genre. To reconstruct Justification for Landscape Painting their views I look closely at a variety of texts from antiquity, the late Middle Ages Chapter Three: Parerga to Paragone, Ancient to Early and the Renaissance, including artistic Modern: The Renaissance Reading of Ancient Texts on treatises and descriptions, love poetry, Landscape Painting and treatises on medicine and feminine Chapter Four: The Feminine Language of Landscape beauty. Proceeding chronologically, the Painting first chapter of my text will demonstrate Chapter Five: A Concluding Case Study: Giorgio how medieval and renaissance medicine Vasari’s Theory of Landscape: Giorgio Vasari’s Theory of shaped the understanding of landscapes as Landscape objects providing sensual pleasure. Then I will consider how the eager assimilation of ancient texts in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries molded attitudes towards the genre of landscape painting. Next, I will demonstrate how, having been defined in antiquity and the Middle Ages as sensual, colorful, irrational, foreign and pleasurable, landscape begin to be discussed as a feminine genre. Finally, I will examine the writings of the most prolific mid-sixteenth century writer on art, Giorgio Vasari, in order to show how my analysis is borne out in actual Renaissance descriptions of art. Ultimately, through consultation of a wide variety of sources, a coherent notion of landscape will emerge. Renaissance writers value landscape for its colorful, mimetic details and skillful spatial illusions, yet, paradoxically, they denigrate it for these same things. Thus landscape is categorized as a “feminine” genre, ornamental and allowing great artistic virtuosity to be displayed, but potentially deceptive in its sensual allure. Marc Antonio Raimondi, The Dream of Raphael c. 1507-10 This print brings together many elements that delighted 16th Century viewers: night scenes, reflected light, fantastic monsters and nude women. As such, it should be compared to Giorgione’s The Tempest (figure 1). Both are works that bring together elemental and atmospheric effects (lightening, fire), with human flesh in a natural setting. 29 Stress Induces Overeating in Laboratory Rats Kishan Govind ’08 This summer I spent 10 weeks working on a Community of Scholars research project using rats as an animal model to explore the effects of stress and limited access to a highly palatable food on binge-eating. I wanted to know whether rats will binge-eat (overeat when satiated) on a food they really like (Froot Loops®) and when they are under stress. To determine whether rats were binging, we had to measure their food intake daily for 28 consecutive days. It was essential to know exactly how much chow and Froot Loops they ate during each 24 hour period. Placing Froot Loops on top of the cage with the chow pellets would not work because they would fall through and get lost in the bedding. We spent a considerable amount of time developing the method of giving the rats Froot Loops. We needed a method of Froot Loops distribution that made it easy to take measurements of Froot Loops and was easy for the rats to access. After 3 weeks of pilot studies, we found that Froot Loops threaded on an acrylic rod was the best way to satisfy our criteria. We spent a considerable amount of time each day, during our experiment, making “Froot Loops kabobs” for the next day—this was a tedious and time-consuming method. A major aspect of my experiment that took much effort to develop and Above, me ardently making Froot Loops shish kabobs for our rats, one of which is seen in the picture on the right. Above, some completed Froot Loops® shish-kabobs refine was the stresses we were imposing upon the rats. The stresses used were tilted cage, wet bedding (similar to sleeping in a wet sleeping bag), continuous light for 36 hours, and water deprivation followed by an empty bottle. The biggest problem we encountered was with the cage tilt. We brainstormed many ways of doing this: tilting every cage with individual cardboard boxes or PVC pipes, etc. Finally Dr. Davis came up with the idea of tilting the racks upon which the rat cages sat. When we tried it, the tilted racks worked perfectly, because the walls the racks leaned against and the clamps eliminated instability. 30 We saw that the stressed rats ate less than the non-stressed rats, but the only rats that binge ate were the ones that were stressed and received Froot Loops three days a week (they ate much more on days that they received Froot Loops than on days that they did not get Froot Loops). This suggests that neither stress nor limited access, by themselves, cause over-eating, but instead both are necessary for bingeeating to Above, me giving our rats these shish-kabobs during an take place. experiment This is pertinent because it indicates that if humans who are worried about over-eating simply eat either a little bit of what they like each day or try to reduce their stress levels they will be able to keep from bingeeating. This has been a valuable experience for me, because before this summer I had not had an opportunity to do research. The research method of learning is different from conventional lecturing, and I knew this. I was not sure if this was a method of learning I was interested in for the sake of future projects. I have learned that I do enjoy this aspect of science, and will hopefully be able to venture into this realm in the near future, in or after medical school. I have picked up useful skills such as conquering small obstacles in the development of an experiment using the materials you have around you, the care and use of laboratory animals, and using statistical and dataplotting software. Tilted cages 31 Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry Introduction: The importance of photochemistry to life cannot be overstated. The photosynthetic process that harvests energy from the sun is necessary to support advanced life on our planet. The process of human vision is initiated by a photochemical event: the absorption of light by cis-retinal to form trans-retinal. This photochemical isomerization is a model we can use to investigate the photochemistry of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne. The planar structure of this compound is important as a component of a class of antitumor-antibiotic molecules capable of cleaving DNA. From this work we have observed the photoisomerization of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne to trans-hex-3ene-1,5-diyne at room temperature, however we observe photoreactivity that indicates a non-reversible change in cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne occurring in the solid at low temperatures (20 K). Synthesis: cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne is not a commercially available compound and must be synthesized by a two step mechanism involving the palladium-catalyzed coupling of trimethylsily acetylene to cis-dichloroethylene followed by a deprotecting step using tertiary butyl ammonium fluoride. The reaction progress is followed by thin layer chromatography, NMR spectroscopy and GC/ MS spectroscopy. Spectroscopic Identification: After synthetic preparation of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne the compound was characterized using two types of molecular spectroscopy. First the compound was investigated using a combination of gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (below). This analysis showed the reaction solution to be a mixture of two compounds in similar concentrations with mass 74 amu and 147 amu respectively. The mass spectroscopy is extremely useful for determining the atoms present in a molecule, but is limited in identifying the molecular geometry. 32 Every molecule vibrates in a unique way, through the stretching and bending of chemical bonds. The vibrational spectrum of a molecule is a molecular fingerprint that can uniquely identify a molecule. The vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3ene-1,5-diyne was recorded for the first time as a low temperature solid during this project (spectrum left). The identification of the molecular vibrations of this molecule was aided by a match to a theoretically calculated spectrum. The downward bands are due to the impurity hexamethyl disiloxane. Photochemistry: The photochemical reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was studied by irradiating the low-temperature solid sample and the room temperature gas sample with the UV radiation (250 nm, 100 W) mercury arc lamp. The photochemical changes were monitored by observing the changes in the vibrational spectrum. Frame (a) below shows the decrease of vibrational band intensity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne as it is reacted away upon exposure to UV radiation. The growth of photoproducts is observed as the growth of new vibrational bands (Frame (b) below). A continued increase in band intensity is observed with a longer exposure to UV radiation. Interestingly the gas phase photoirradiation produces exclusively the trans isomer while photoirradiation of the low temperature solid produces the trans isomer along with other, yet to be determined photoproducts. 33 The Emerging Church in the American South Stephen Harris ’08 I used to consider myself a hip, “with-it” person. With an ear to the underground, I thought I knew what trends were coming and going. But when I worked at the Jammin’ Java coffee shop in Columbia, SC, last summer, I was late to the game in catching onto the religious lives of my co-workers. When they said they were Christians, and that they loved their church, I naively assumed they went to the typical Southern Baptist, mainline, or non-denominational church. But they soon corrected me, and (without offending my religious traditions) they explained that their church was one where dialogue and questioning of Christian doctrine was not only accepted, but encouraged in order to grow in the journey of a transforming faith. They said that their church was focused more on community than services, and that their focus was to create authentic, intimate friendships, based not just on religious similarities, but based on Christ’s command to love everyone. They spoke of a special focus on social justice, and the need to realize and be part of the present Kingdom of God. This, and many of the other things they said was very different from the religious climate I was used to, and this got me interested. After doing some preliminary research, I found that the type of church they were describing falls under the Emerging Church movement. I quickly learned that the Emerging Church is disputed and controversial. Some say that it is the second coming of the Early Church, while others say it will cause the destruction of “true” Christianity. One of the main causes of this problem is that there are as many definitions of the Emerging Church as there are Emergents. My first goal was to create a comprehensive definition of the Emerging Church that would provide an accurate portrayal of this movement. I also quickly learned that the Emerging Church was a new breed of churches. Having lived in the “Bible Belt” my whole life, I quickly realized that for better or for worse, Southerners are typically not open to new ways of religious expression. The collision of the old way of Christianity and a new way created the second goal of my research: to examine how the Emerging Church deals with and fares in the South. To facilitate my research, I read numerous books ranging in subject from the Emerging Church to Postmodernity to religious conditions in the South. I visited Emerging Churches in my area, which included The Quest in Augusta, SC, Warehouse 242 and Threshold Church in Charlotte, The Shack in Columbia, and Emmaus Way in Durham, NC. While at these churches, I interviewed pastors and leading figures in the Emerging Church Movement. From all of this, I was able to create my definition, which says that because of Postmodernism’s recent influences, a new stream of church has been created, 34 which is popular among mainly 18-30 year olds in large cities. These Emerging Churches have a focus on knocking down barriers which create non-essential differences and unnecessary conflict, they create authentic, intimate communities of Christians, and they strive to make their lives holistically spiritual. Emergent leaders typically come from Evangelical backgrounds, which traditionally are not open to new expressions of faith. Emergents take issue with this resistance to new things, and create their own churches that are less suspicious of change. Emerging Churches are typically autonomous, with no hierarchical links to other churches, although there are some exceptions. The closest thing to a para-Emerging Church organization is a loose confederation of church leaders called Emergent Village, which has been described as a conversation, not a governing body. As for my second goal, I found that the biggest difference in the Southern Emerging Church is that Southerners will typically have a conservative religious background, which creates a unique set of challenges for Emerging Churches. The Emerging Church, by definition, conflicts with Southern Evangelical culture, which has become the civil religion of the South. Southern religious culture is often stifling and too focused on tradition and lifeless rituals for many young people. Because of the collision of Postmodern religion and Evangelical culture, the Emerging Church has faced a myriad of challenges in the South, including: the nature of salvation, the definition of the Gospel, and the need for progressive social justice. The Community of Scholars program has been a great opportunity for me. It was my first chance to do real, independent, and in-depth research. By looking at the Emerging Church and South, I was able to learn many things about our religious past, the present condition of faith, and the future of the nature of Church. 35 Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers Ryan Hill ’08, Mathematics Is there such a thing as perfection? In ancient Greek numerology, certain numbers were called perfect because of a property of the sum of their divisors. Many famous mathematicians, including Euclid, Euler, Mersenne, and Fermat, have studied perfect numbers. Mathematicians use a special function that determines the perfection of a number. The divisor function, σM), gives the sum of all the divisors of a positive integer M. If σ(M) = 2M, then M is perfect. What if σ(M) ≠ 2M? This summer I looked at integers that produced an error term from this equality. In March 1973, R.P. Jerrard and Nicholas Temperley of the University of Illinois published an article in Mathematics Magazine titled “Almost Perfect Numbers.” They defined F(M) = 2M – σ(M). If F(M) = 0, then M is perfect. When F(M) > 0, M is called perfect-plus and when F(M) < 0, M is called perfect-minus. Jerrard and Temperely investigated the properties of perfect-minus-one (PM1) and perfect-plus-one (PP1) numbers. They showed that PM1 numbers are odd squares greater than 1,382,511,906,801,025 with at least seven distinct odd prime factors, and that no multiple of a PM1 number is PM1. For PP1 numbers, they showed that every power of 2 is PP1, but did not find any other examples. Four years later in The American Mathematical Monthly, Sidney Kravitz proposed a discussion on perfect-plus-two (PP2) numbers. K. Inkeri from the University of Turku, Finland, provided the discussion, noting that “All the pp2 numbers, which have at most two distinct prime factors, are given by n = 2k-1(2k + 1) where 2k + 1 is prime (k ≥ 1).” He also pointed out that if a PP2 number is given by 2apk then k = 1. My research this summer corroborated Inkeri’s findings, giving more detailed analysis of the results. While Inkeri showed all PP2 numbers of at most two distinct primes must be given by n = 2k-1(2k + 1), I refined his results to show that k must be 36 power of 2. I also noted that 2k + 1 is called a Fermat Number. Recall that in the case of PP2 numbers, 2k + 1 must be a prime number, and thus is actually a Fermat Prime. As of January 2007 there are only five known Fermat Primes; therefore only five PP2 numbers of at most two distinct primes have been identified. I also elaborated on Inkeri’s results. Using a contradiction argument, I showed a number of the form M = 2npk is PP2 if and only if k = 1 and p is a Fermat Prime. Furthermore, if p and q are odd primes such that q ≥ p2 + 1, then no PP2 number can be of the form 2npq. The figure to the right shows the first few lines of this proof. Partial results have been found for the case when p < q < p2 + 1. While the majority of my work focused on PP2 numbers, I also discovered a pattern of F(M) when M is of a particular form. If M = 2a-1(2a + b), where 2a + b is prime, then F(M) equals b + 1. In order for 2a + b to be prime, b must be odd, thus, F(M) will be even, with one exception. When b = 0, F(M) = 1. I’ve had an amazing time this summer. This was my first experience in serious mathematical research, and I feel that I have a better understanding of full time research. Since Wofford does not offer classes in Number Theory, this project gave me a taste of a completely different field of mathematics. I feel this summer has helped to prepare me for whatever schooling or career I choose. The Community of Scholars has also given me new and stronger friendships with my fellow students and professors. I am filled with pride whenever I hear my friends who are doing research at other institutions say how jealous they are of Wofford’s Community of Scholars. The chance to experience and learn about areas outside of my field while at the same time conducting my own research has been as rewarding as it has been fascinating. 37 Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Mathematics Virtually every incoming college student is familiar with the Pythagorean Theorem from their high-school geometry class; this theorem states that, given a right-angled triangle, the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides (called legs) of the triangle is equal to the square of the longer side (called the hypotenuse) of the triangle. A few years ago I incorporated into my freshmen-level liberal arts mathematics course a three-week module of activities based on the Pythagorean Theorem; my goal of this section was to enable students to become aware of “what mathematicians do”. The students are led through a series of activities stressing three key concepts: discovering, conjecturing and proving. In the first activity, pairs of students are asked to identify triangles in the classroom building and to measure the lengths of each side of the triangle. Students present their examples along with their measurements and we look at the pattern that we observe: if a triangle appears to have a right angle, the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides of the triangle is approximately equal to the square of the longer side; conversely, if the triangle does not have a right angle, this property does not seem to hold. This activity may seem simple but, in fact, it represents “what mathematicians do”: they observe the world around them and discover patterns which lead to conjectures about the nature of mathematical reality. In my students’ case, the pattern they observed led them to form the conjecture: the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides of the right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the longer side of the triangle. Notice that our observation of the pattern we discovered in the triangles and the conjecture we formed differ slightly! Most students correctly observe that one reason for the difference is that our measurements may be inaccurate. However, here is an uncomfortable possibility that mathematicians must face when creating conjectures: what if the conjecture itself is incorrect? In our case, even if one could accurately measure the sides of one right-angled triangle and demonstrate the conjecture is correct, that provides no guarantee that all right-angled triangles have this same property. We need an argument that 38 demonstrates the correctness of the conjecture, regardless of which triangle we’re observing. This final step, creating an argument that convinces the audience of the correctness of the conjecture, is the essence of mathematics, a process known as a proof. How did we prove our conjecture? With a geometric argument! We first discuss how the squares of the two shorter sides of the triangle actually represent the area of the two smaller squares formed from the shorter sides of the triangle (see the figure) and the square of the hypotenuse is represented by the area of the largest square. Now, proving the Pythagorean Theorem geometrically means showing that the sum of the areas of the two smaller squares is exactly the same as the area of the largest square; one way to show this is to cover both areas with identical shapes. For example, the same four triangles and a small square will cover both the large square and the two smaller squares simultaneously. The students are then asked to demonstrate this proof to two individuals who are not in the class (for example, roommates or parents) and to write a two-page response on this activity. The response should include a detailed explanation of how the proof was demonstrated to the individuals, their reactions to the explanation, the student’s thoughts on teaching this idea, and how this activity helped them to understand more fully the Pythagorean Theorem itself, the mathematical concept of “proving” an idea, and the concept of “what mathematicians do”. The students have one week to turn in the assignment; during this week, we complete more activities on applying the Pythagorean Theorem to real-world problems and on discovering extensions of the theorem (such as Fermat’s Last Theorem, a conjecture stated hundreds of years ago but only proved within the last decade!) After the students have completed the assignment, Most of the students felt that they understood the theorem better by using a hands-on approach to the proof and by presenting the material to another person. The increase in their self-confidence as a result of explaining a mathematical idea to another person was clearly apparent! Each of semester assessments show that the majority of students express a greater appreciation for mathematicians as a result of these activities. 39 Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian and German Exiles to China during WWII Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages While completing research for a project on literature by Austrian and German women writing about their lives during WWII, I came across recent memoirs by women and men detailing their experiences as Austrian and German exiles to Shanghai, China during WWII. While most of the world closed its doors to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, Shanghai, occupied by the Japanese, was letting in refugees without visas or passports. Most of the nearly 20, 000 who fled to China between 1938 and 1941 spent their last savings for transport to China and many lived there in extreme poverty. Their first months or years were spent in refugee housing, set up by Western Europeans and Russians already working and living in Shanghai. While many individuals, such as doctors, lawyers, teachers, business people, hairstylists, musicians, builders, and cooks could find employment within this community, some had to reinvent themselves in order to survive. Most lived in the area of Hongkew, or the Ghetto, which was controlled by the Japanese. In 1945, after the war ended, most survivors had no place to which to return, and emigrated instead to countries which had loosened their emigration laws, such as Australia, Canada, and the United States. For most, their difficult journey to China, their losses at home and during exile, the consequences of the Holocaust Above: Jetlagged, at the Wiener Library. for themselves and for their extended families, the murder of most of their family members and friends back home, and the years of starvation and poverty, took its toll on their mental and physical health. The memoirs I discuss in my project are by those who physically survived their time in exile, and by those who had the opportunity and courage to recall and share their personal experiences with readers today, often fifty years after leaving China. Since there is little or no current comprehensive work on this body of literary work, I decided to focus my research this summer on the social history of this Germanspeaking Jewish exile community; more specifically, on the common experiences shared by men and women displaced by war. My current research took me to the Wiener Library in London, England, which houses a substantial collection of materials on Austrian and German Jews, especially on those in exile. I was able to find some documents, personal accounts by survivors, and more secondary literature on this topic. With the help of these materials, and other books ordered through the Wofford Library, I attempt to reconstruct the history of events concerning this large exile movement to China, thereby giving a context to recurrent themes expressed in this collection of memoirs. Some of the themes common to this collection of memoirs include basic shared experiences such as the sense of loss, alienation, loneliness, and mourning in exile, illness, starvation, and often, a reassessment of individual and communal moral conduct in light of pure physical survival. More complex themes 40 emerge, such as how romantic and idyllic notions of China in the authors’ imagination and early childhood memory differ greatly from the reality of living in abject poverty as foreigners in Japaneseoccupied China, men’s, but especially women’s, reproductive health and choices during this difficult time in exile, and community formation through a shared traumatic experience rather than through traditional social networks based on employment and social status. Most tragic to me was the expression of mourning for the loss of childhood written in memoirs as experienced by children and teenagers coming of age during this time. It gave me hope, however, to learn from numerous sources that the exile community found joy and hope in the creation of numerous theater groups, bands, classical music groups, choirs, cabarets, and literary circles. The authors of these memoirs have a story to tell about the terrible and long-lasting consequences of war, the human condition under extreme conditions, and the power of literature to enable readers to experience this unique time in history. Selected Related Works in English: • Ursula Bacon. Shanghai Diary. A Young Girl’s Journey from Hitler’s Hate to War-Torn China. Milwaukee Press, 2002. • Ernest G. Heppner. Shanghai Refuge.: A Memoir of the World War II Jewish Ghetto. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. • Ingrid, Jacoby. My Darling Diary. A wartime journal – Vienna 1937-39, Falmouth 1939-44. Cornwall: United Writers1998. • Rena Krasno. Strangers Always: A Jewish Family in Wartime Shanghai. Berkeley, CA: Pacific View Press, 1992. • Vivian Jeanette Kaplan. Ten Green Bottles. The True Story of One Family’s Journey from War-Torn Austria to the Ghettos of Shanghai. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 2002. • Sigmund Tobias. Strange Haven: A Jewish Childhood in Wartime Shanghai. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999. • Film Documentary: Dana Janklowics-Mann and Amir Mann. Shanghai Ghetto. 2002. (Available through Netflix) • Film Documentary: Paul Rosdy and Joan Grossman. The Port of Last Resort. Zuflucht in Shanghai. 1998. (Available through Netflix) 41 Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden Vanessa Lauber ’08 Arriving in the early morning hours at the Duke of Devonshire’s estate, Chatsworth, as the new head gardener, the young Joseph Paxton climbed the gate, walked the grounds, set the landscapers to work, and met his future wife — all before breakfast. A largely self-educated man, Paxton, during both his time as head gardener and as a publisher of horticultural periodicals, pioneered the nineteenth Gardenesque style of landscape design that emphasized gardening with a mind to the scientific principles of the cultivation of plants. For Paxton, landscape design became both a science and art, in which the beauty of plants cultivated after studying their environmental and climatic needs would come together in a unified presentation of the natural world’s grandeur. Though Paxton’s notoriety arose largely from his work on the Chatsworth estate and his later achievements in architecture, the contribution of Paxton to gardening that I have been studying involves his work in promoting its expansion beyond the realm of the wealthy aristocrat to that of the average working and middle class individual, who could cultivate his garden and in turn himself. It was in fact only in the nineteenth century that the garden truly became accessible to those outside of the land-owning aristocrats. Public gardens offered a retreat for the working public, an oasis of nature in the midst of bustling cities and industrialized filth. With burgeoning industrialism came for many, particularly in the newly expanding middle classes, an increase in disposable income and leisure time. As a result, people were also able to cultivate their own gardens — a growth in interest representative of their own expanding power. In response to the interest in botany and horticulture, experienced professional gardeners began offering horticultural guides outlining the fine points of cultivation. Unique in his contribution to the horticultural periodicals that proliferated in the mid-nineteenth century, Paxton stated in his introduction to Paxton’s Magazine of Botany and Register of Flowering Plants, published from 1834-1849, that he wished to surmount the “formidable barrier facing those who have had little practical experience or opportunity for observation” by providing intelligible and practical 42 reference offered at an affordable price. In addition to articles on principles of horticulture and calendars of operations, his periodical included in every issue four colored plates introducing exotic plants collected around the world and instructions for cultivating them in England. In the wealth of information that Paxton was able to make accessible, he in many respects succeeded in his goals for the periodical, converting his extensive experience into accessible instruction. Among his ambitions for the magazine, Paxton implied hopes that in improving the quality of British gardens, he could in fact help to improve the quality of the British person. Indeed, in a series of articles published in the periodical’s sixth volume, entitled “Familiar Hints to Young Gardeners on Mental Improvement,” Paxton draws a direct correlation between the activities of a properly instructed gardener and the aspects of self-improvement so prized by Victorian culture. As typified by his early morning gate-climbing, Paxton’s rise from humble beginnings and enthusiastic subsequent ambition in the fields of gardening, architecture, politics, investment, and public service through self-improvement mark him as what can be considered the epitome of the Victorian — seeking ways through application to improve himself and those around him. My research as part of the Community of Scholars has been comprised of examining Paxton’s periodical, using his work as a lens to examine the role of gardening in defining a new identity for the middle classes in the shifting social structure and burgeoning industrialism. The results of this summer’s work will lead into research I will be conducting as a senior capstone project, examining the activities of nineteenth-century plant hunters, whose exploration brought back to Britain— to professional gardeners such as Paxton and to his readers — exotic plants that even in serving as a distraction and relief from urban industrialism, were constant reminders of the expansive reach of British influence. 43 Does the Effect of Scheduled Intermittent Access to a Highly Palatable Carbohydrate Rich Food Trigger Binge Eating in Laboratory Rats? Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Biology As a junior biology major at Wofford College, I became interested in research during a semester course, Introduction to Research (Bio 250). In this course the class and professor choose a topic to explore through an experiment as well as reading and presenting scientific publications. Community of Scholars provided an opportunity for research that is rare to undergraduates. I was involved in the research process from beginning to end. I chose the topic and designed the experiment, as well as analyzing the data and presenting the findings of my research. Community of Scholars also provided me the opportunity to build a relationship with my advising professor. I met with him daily throughout the 10 week program. This program promoted individual attention with a professor that is knowledgeable in the research topic and also allowed time to build a personal relationship. Not only did he provide guidance on the project, we also discussed the best hiking trails, politics, and my future endeavors. My future plans are to pursue a career in the field of nutrition either in private practice as a nutritionist or to work towards a Ph.D. in nutrition. The topic I chose incorporates my interest in this field so that it also functions to provide experience in the field of nutrition research. Dieting is common in our society and much attention is focused on diet and nutrition in the consumer market. Fundamentally, dieting is limiting access to food, especially that which is highly pleasurable since that food tends to be high in carbohydrates and fats (i.e. cake, cookies, etc.). Often dieters develop cravings In the picture on the right, I can be seen weighing one of the 40 rodent chow meals that were provided daily to the laboratory rats. The Froot Loops® were also weighed daily so that the 24 hour intake could be monitored. for the very foods that they avoid, and when they allow themselves to eat the food that they are restricting themselves from, they overindulge. This overeating, if out of control, can constitute binge eating. The factors associated with binge eating are difficult to study under tightly controlled conditions in humans, so there is a great need for an animal model in which feeding behaviors can be studied. This project will use laboratory rats to further develop an animal model of binge eating. The protocol was followed from another publication Corwin et al. 2003. 44 The experiment spanned over the course of 28 days, in which laboratory rats were given Froot Loops® on various feeding schedules. There were four groups: the control group never received them, the regular daily access group received Froot Loops® 7 days per week, the regular access 3 group got them on Monday, Wednesday, and Fridays, and the irregular access groups received Froot Loops® on a varying schedule such that there were 0 to 4 days between their Froot Loops® exposure. In the picture on the left the test food, Froot Loops®, is in the front of the picture and I am working on one of the statistical programs that interpret the data. Based on the results rats do not binge eat on Froot Loops®. Rather, on the days which they do not receive the highly palatable food, they consume fewer calories. Since humans typically regulate their food intake based on volume instead of caloric intake, the rats are not a good model for binge eating. Here a rat is eating a meal of Froot Loops® from a rod that is placed on top of his cage. Robynn Mackechnie explaining the rat experiment to Dr. A.K. Anderson. 45 The importance of African-American soldiers in World War II Patrick McCain ’08 My summer research focused on the importance of African-American soldiers in World War II. Black Americans fought and died in every war the United States have waged and, until 1948, they did so in segregated units. In order to get first-hand accounts of serving in a segregated military, I interviewed white and black veterans, seeking to record their feelings about ‘separate-but-equal’ service to America, as well as some of their memories of the war. Unfortunately, I initially had a difficult time locating prospective interviewees. Then there were problems with scheduling to meet with some veterans. And though my focus is on African-Americans in the war, most of those I interviewed this summer were white veterans who could provide some insight into segregation, but who could not speak to the opinions and feelings of black veterans. While only one-third of the veterans I contacted arranged to speak with me, I have discovered others who are willing to meet with me over the next few months. I have scheduled interviews into the Fall semester to bring my project to completion. My hope is that these veterans’ experiences are not simply recorded… and forgotten. Perhaps we can find some parallel between the overt racial discrimination of our past and the less obvious sexual prejudice of our day. During World War II, the government sent the message that racial inequalities are justifiable. Black and white citizens were kept from serving their country together in fully integrated units; racism effectively trumps patriotism was the message. Today, the military’s “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy insinuates that homophobia trumps patriotism. In the interviews, I had a few standard questions that varied, depending on the veteran’s ethnicity. I asked white veterans to describe their unit cohesion and how the integration of blacks would have affected it. Not surprisingly, most were reluctant to speculate. Since some of the veterans stayed in the military after World War II had ended, I asked about integration. Phil Piazza told me that blacks “were good soldiers” and the process of integration “was a smooth transition.” The majority of white veterans did not see black soldiers, but Ralph Wieneke did: “I was born and raised in Winnipeg, [Manitoba]. I didn’t see a black man until I was twelve [years old]. I saw a black man in Europe; he was in the Armored Infantry.” White veterans agreed that their units— some of them composed of Jews, Italian-Americans, German-Americans, and even Japanese-Americans from all areas of the country— bonded. As Wieneke told me, “You depend on each other [when in battle].” 46 When interviewing African-American veterans, I am more interested in learning what segregated units were like. How did blacks bond in their units? What, if any, were the positives of segregated units? What were the negatives? Given the overwhelming racism of the day, was service easier with segregation? What, if anything, was lost through integration? Did you prefer segregation or integration? Are you aware that there was an integrated crew commanded by an African-American during World War II (it was the USS Booker T Washington commanded by Captain Hugh Mulzac)? Until I interview more AfricanAmerica veterans, I do not feel comfortable generalizing the answers to these questions. The black veterans I have interviewed so far currently have different opinions regarding segregation than they did during the war. Today, it seems, only a racist would prefer segregation. I must acknowledge that was not necessarily the case in World War II. I consider all those I interviewed to be true patriots. I do not place one veteran’s service above another’s because of race or any other reason. However, I would be remiss if I did not extol the service of African-Americans in our military, especially during a war in which enemy combatants were better cared for. I believe black patriots have best expressed their love for and devotion to America through military service, and through service in World War II they made a connection between oppression and racism at home and war abroad. I also believe that military service inspired many AfricanAmericans to seek and eventually claim a place in their country. These veterans have told us much about ourselves. We can use power to destroy, control, terrorize, and subjugate those who are thought to be less than ourselves. America did this to her wartime foes, both soldiers and civilians. American society did the same to ethnic minorities before, during, and after World War II. Fortunately, times have changed. Even so, we must neither forget nor ignore America’s darker days. Let us recall the words of Winston Churchill: “Remember that we are on the stage of history, and that whatever our station may be, and whatever part we have to play, great or small, our conduct is liable to be scrutinized not only by history but by our own descendents.” 47 Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century Feminist Thought: A Documentary Collection Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History “I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence.” Caroline Norton, a woman of the English upper classes, married her husband George in 1827. The stormy and unhappy marriage produced three sons and continuous acrimony, mostly over lack of money. After a failed attempt to convince a jury that leading politician Lord Melbourne had engaged in adultery with Caroline, George shut the doors against his wife and moved the children out of her reach. Rodrick After the adultery trial was over, I learnt the law as to my children — that the right was with the father; that neither my innocence nor his guilt could alter it; that not even his giving them into the hands of a mistress, would give me any claim to their custody. The eldest was but six years old, the second four, the youngest two and a half, when we were parted. I wrote, therefore, and petitioned the father and husband in whose power I was, for leave to see them - for leave to keep them, till they were a little older. Mr. Norton’s answer was, that I should not have them; that if I wanted to see them, I might have an interview with them at the chambers of his attorney. What I suffered on my children’s account, none will ever know or measure. Mr. Norton held my children as hostages, he felt that while he had them, he still had power over me that nothing could control. Norton, faced with the reality that under English law she “did not exist” as an autonomous individual and therefore had no legal rights to her children or even to her own earnings as a writer, began a lifelong pursuit of changes in the legal code. In 1839 her efforts helped frame the law that allowed wives to petition for custody of their young children in the case of marital separation, and in 1857 England passed laws making it possible under limited circumstances for women to sue for divorce in civil court. Caroline’s decision to make her own personal life a catalyst for legal reform was a painful one, coming as it did in the midst of a failed marriage and in the context of women as private rather than public individuals. Well I know how many hundreds infinitely better than I, more pious, more patient, and less rash under injury, have watered their bread with tears. ... My plea to attention is that, in pleading for myself I am able to plead for all these others. For this, I believe, God gave me the power of writing. To this I devote that power. I abjure all other writing, till I see these laws altered. This project take selections from Caroline Norton’s writings on marriage, infant custody, and divorce and places them in the context of a wide variety of other primary documents, including her correspondence with Lord Melbourne, debates within Parliament over proposed reforms, and 48 commentary from contemporaries, both supporters and detractors of Norton’s efforts. Although she adamantly denied any connection to 19th century feminist movements — which ranged from more radical arguments about sexual equality to the increasingly popular conception of separate but equally important spheres for men and women — much of her writing focuses on the call for basic human rights that characterizes many strands of feminist thought. This project will result in a volume of primary source materials to be used as a teaching tool for a variety of courses to introduce students to issues of gender, law, justice, and politics. My husband has a legal copyright of my works. Let him claim this! Caroline Norton, English Laws for Women in the Nineteenth Century (1854) 49 Energy in My Pocket Geoff Taylor ’09 In my particular case, the research for the Community of Scholars (COS) began in the weeks of summer before the actual dates of the COS. I had chosen to do a project comparing the French and American Nuclear Programs, but while undertaking the research, much to my chagrin, I was not fluent enough to read the technical and political writings necessary. Soon the project became focused on a local event. In Aiken, SC, the US government is building a facility called the Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel Fabrication Facility (MFFF). This facility was spawned from a 2000 agreement between Russia and the United States to reduce the stockpile of weapons-grade plutonium in both countries. This facility converts this plutonium into fuel that can be used in commercial nuclear reactors to make electricity. One could say that my research chose a project for me rather than being able to choose my own project for research. For my research I had two major sources of data: governmental release on the internet and Thinking hard while doing research personal interviews. I quickly found that there was a huge amount of material available, and I would have to go through what I found to ascertain what would actually be of use. As a French/Math double major, I hoped to work both of my majors in to the research I would be doing this summer. In essence I succeeded. I found a good deal out about nuclear reactor physics which includes some math, and my French was helpful as the French themselves are very involved in this particular project. The overall feel of the community is important too: it is a fairly tight-knit group of people. The guys in the apartment all got along well together, and almost every day for the first few weeks, there were discussions on politics, religion, and any other important (and unimportant) subject. There were several cookouts throughout the summer, and everyone had a good time when they came. The professors and the students had a good rapport also. Each student is kind of mentored by a professor. The professor will help the student with the research or with the presentation of the research, and sometimes the professor and the student will be conducting experiments together. The community meals were also a time when everyone came together to share his or her struggles and successes. Each week, at least once, the entire community would sit down for a lunch or dinner and talk with people in the community with whom they did not often interact. Students would commonly talk to other professors (I quickly found that it is very important to have a thorough understanding of one’s own 50 project as certain professors have a tendency to grill you about your project) and other students who also shared their research. For me the summer was a good chance to perform undergraduate research in a relaxed but still serious and academically rigorous setting. I particularly benefited from the mentoring that was set up. I found my own project and many other projects to be fascinating, and I certainly would choose to be a member of the Community of Scholars in the future. Grilling out at the Apartment 51 The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel: A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala Mariel Willenberg ’09, History My research this summer focused on a translation of the document La Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala. Ayala’s work remains a first hand historical account of the years of Pedro the Cruel’s reign of Castile and Leon from 1334 to 1369. Ayala’s history remains a key to the nature of Pedro the Cruel’s kingship and the justifications behind his eventual overthrow and murder. Pedro the Cruel’s history held within this document is full of intrigue and murder. At the beginning of his reign, plagues, church schisms, and constant unification warfare were just a few of the problems Pedro faced. Another problem was Pedro’s family. Pedro had numerous half brothers who felt a blood right to high government positions. The first half of Pedro’s reign was consumed with regional warfare. Yet, the remainder of Pedro’s reign was dominated by warfare with his half brother Enrrique. As Ayala documents, at the beginning of this three year battle Pedro was victorious at the battle at Najera and maintained a strong alliance with England. However, Pedro’s greed, numerous murders, and international debts led to his ultimate downfall. After being captured in Montiel castle, King Pedro attempted to negotiate with a knight named Mossen Beltran to help in his escape. Beltran, however, revealed the king’s plan to Enrrique. Upon his arrival to the inn where he was meant to meet the knight, Pedro was stabbed by Enrrique in the face until his death. Pedro’s reign, as Ayala reveals, was at a stressful point in history. Plagues, church schisms, and economic tensions wore down on the kings of Europe. However, Pedro the Cruel’s constant want for gold and control of Spain and his indebtedness to his previous and current allies only served to increase the tension between the nobles and their king. With numerous outside problems, subjects turned to blame the man who was meant to be a vessel of God. As a result, regardless of medieval 52 traditions in absolute divine monarchs, his subjects found hope in a new king, his half brother Enrrique. As a result, the King Don Pedro was murdered in the hope of a kingship to alleviate these outside issues rather then worsening them with constant war, greed, and murder. This experience with a 700 year old medieval Spanish document was incredible. Out of this 200 page piece, I chose to translate in to English the last 100 pages of Ayala’s history. The hardest part of this process was the differences between medieval Spanish and the modern Spanish language. As a result, I purchased the Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish 2nd edition compiled by Lloyd A. Kasten and Florian J. Cody (The Hispanic Seminar of Medieval Studies: New York, 2001). Overall, to compile a usable English portion of this primary history was a rewarding experience. Although a worthwhile experience, I have discovered that my project is very rough and needs a much longer session than ten weeks (possibly years). However, a complete 200 page translation with proper Spanish archive aid, numerous translators, etc. is something that in a few years I hope to further develop for publication. Below is a portion of my translation to give an idea of the overall style this medieval document has given to the story of Don Pedro the Cruel. Chapter v. What the king don Pedro did to kill Pero Aluarez of Osorio and the sons of Ferrand Sanchez of Valladolid, and the capture of the archdeacon don Diego Arias Maldonado, and it that he endured then. After that the king being some days in Leon saw that he did not want to return to don Pero Nunnez of Guzman, who was in his castle in Auiados, the king departed of Leon for Valladolid where he found out how the Count don Enrrique and those that came with him had entered in Castilla, and they killed the Jews of Nejara and of other places. And the king being in Valladolid departed of Medina of the River Seco, and he went to a village that is two leagues from Valladolid to eat, that they call Villa Nubla. And Pero Aluarez of Osorio ate that day with Diego Garcia, master of Calatraua, in his inn, and it was Lent. And having eaten they arrived and the king ordered two crossbowmen of arms, the said Iohan Diente, and the other Garci Diaz of Aluarrezin, and another man of the house of the king that they call Rey Goncalez d’Atienca. And at the table where the said Pero Aluarez was, they killed him, and later they cut off his head. And don Diego Garcia of Padilla, master of Calatraua, didn’t know any of this, before he had great fear. And also as soon as Pero Aluarez of Osorio was dead the king gave the governorship of Leon to Suer Perez of Quinnones, who was the rival of Pero Nunnez of Guzman. And that day he made to arrest the two sons of don Ferrandez Sanchez of Valladolid that came there, one they called Garci Ferrandez, and the other Iohan Sanchez. And then the king departed from there, and went for Valladolid, and the next day he made them to kill the king in Valladolid which he suspected from a conversation with don Pero Nunnez by some letters that he found that they had sent to him, but they apologized to him. And the king left Valladolid, and went to a place and city that they call Duennas, and did seize in arriving there the archdeacon don Diego Arias Maldonado, saying that he received letters from the Count don Enrrique, and he killed him in Burgos after eight days. 53 The German Healthcare System: Past, Present, and Future Claudia Winkler ’08, German, History, Economics While I was studying abroad in Germany in the fall of 2006, I took an Economics course that required me to research a particular aspect of the German social market economy. I chose the healthcare system by chance and became fascinated with the topic as I realized that the insurance scheme that I had always regarded as an ideal system was laden with problems. I decided to extend the research I had started in Germany by proposing it as a Community of Scholars project and developing it into a comprehensive overview of the German healthcare system, its present challenges, and its outlook for the future. I began my project with the origins of the German health insurance scheme, focusing on the social and political environment in which Germany’s revolutionary system was engineered. I then surveyed the insurance scheme’s structure, as an understanding of its financing and its beneficiaries is essential to comprehending the difficulties facing Germany’s healthcare today. Last, I put special emphasis on the current challenges to the system, as these issues will determine the long-term success of Germany’s healthcare plan. I have compiled this information in a paper which I hope will facilitate future cross-comparisons of countries’ healthcare systems. This inquiry should lead to a better conception of a system that can provide basic healthcare to all people while simultaneously remaining efficient. Points of Interest Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) Photo Courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica Online History To understand the German healthcare system fully, I intended to discover how it originated. Little did I know when I began this part of my research that I would soon stumble upon a historiographical debate. As it turns out, historians have been in conflict for years over why Otto von Bismarck, unifier and first chancellor of Germany, decided to push for the Social Insurance Laws of 1881, including the compulsory health insurance law. Some biographers claim that it had always been Bismarck’s long-term goal to provide social assistance to the poor, sighting as proof his sympathy towards Silesian weavers suffering under a free market system in the mid-1860s. Others downplay the Chancellor’s social consciousness and instead attribute his social insurance policy to an intricate plot devised to defeat socialism. After researching both the social and political environment of the mid to late 19th century, it seems that both Bismarck’s genuine concern for social problems and his distrust of socialism factored into his reasoning behind the proposal 54 of the Social Insurance Laws. At the time, Germany was in such a poor social and political state that Bismarck had no choice but to take action. It is in this context that Germany’s healthcare system was born and has been virtually unchanged since. Current Challenges How long the German healthcare system can continue to go unchanged is a legitimate question. In the last several decades, problems have arisen that have put the system in jeopardy. While controllable issues like mismanaged funds are part of the problem, uncontainable issues such as changing demographics are also creating challenges. Birthrates in Germany have been on a steady decline for years, but the biggest shock regarding these statistics came after Reunification in 1990. While women in West Germany already had a relatively low birthrate, Eastern German women were having nearly double the amount of children per woman. After Reunification, East German women were faced with economic uncertainties, greater personal freedoms, and less government support for women with children, and therefore many opted not to have children at all. As a result, Germany has the lowest birthrate of all European Union nations. Germany: Age Structure 2006 Graph Courtesy of the Statistisches Bundesamt Germany’s low birthrate, however, is not the sole problem. It is this fact in conjunction with the aging population that is threatening the vitality of the German healthcare system. Life expectancies keep climbing in Germany, as they are all over the world, and the percentage of the population that is 65 years and older (20%) is already equal to the percentage of those 19 and younger. Population projections for the year 2050 suggest that the percentage of the over 65 population (33%) will be more than double that of the under 19 population (15%). Because health insurance premiums are paid by employees (1/2) and employers (1/2), these projections imply that the healthcare system is headed toward disaster. The low birthrates will cause a reduction in the number of individuals in the workforce while the over-aging population will cause healthcare costs to continue climbing, thereby creating a huge gap between the amount of money paid into the system and the amount paid out in benefits. 55 Abstracts Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion A key challenge for any Christian theodicy is the question of how and when God acts against the evil of the world. Theologians have tended to focus on one or more of three parts of the Christian narrative when discussing this, i.e., creation, the life of Jesus, and the “end” of time. Put another way, these works have contained some mixture of protological, Christological, and eschatological elements. However, major challenges have emerged in the modern world for each of these approaches, in part because of the weakening place of the Christian narrative in our society’s imagination. Various writers have responded by emphasizing God’s primary activity vis-à-vis evil as being located in the present. That is to say, recent years have seen the emergence of theodicies with a strong enestological focus. Despite the appeal of this sort of theodicy, there are major concerns in its eschewing of any eschatological reckoning of evil. Through this theodicy’s deep linkage to the notion of “simultaneity,” there is no allowance for significantly transcending the outcomes of the here and now. This leaves in its train troubling questions about the existence of so much unredeemed evil throughout the long expanse of human history. Vibrational Characterization of cis- and trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne is a straight chain unsaturated hydrocarbon, notably associated with the Bergman Cyclization reaction. The vibrational spectroscopy of both cis and trans isomers were recorded as thin films in a 1967 study by Okamura and Sonheimer (JACS 89, 5991.) In this earlier study five vibrational bands in the cis isomer and four vibrations in the trans isomer were identified. In our current study cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was synthesized and its vibrational spectrum recorded in a low temperature rare gas matrix. This isolated environment, along with density functional quantum chemical calculations, has resulted in a more complete vibrational description of the molecule. Vibrational frequencies for fifteen molecular vibrations in the cis isomer have been identified along with two combination/overtone bands. Some significant differences between the thin film vibrations and the matrix-isolated vibrations are noted. Density functional calculations show the best agreement with experiment using the three-parameter hybrid functional of Becke, Lee Yang and Par (B3LYP) with a 6-311G++(3df,3pd) basis set. Synthesis of the trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was only accomplished by photoisomerization of the cis isomer. This resulted in a vibrational spectrum that was overlaid with the more abundant cis isomer. Only one significant vibration in the trans isomer was identified. Work to purify the trans isomer is underway. 56 Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period: The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands Ashtin Bellamy ’09, History After any major war, the nations involved face many challenges in rebuilding their relationship, one such challenge being territorial disputes. My project analyzes one example of this involving the United States and Japan after World War II. Using New York Times articles from 1955-1972 as well as government documents from the Foreign Relations of the United States series covering this same time period, I have researched how the United States and Japan contended for control of the Ryukyu islands, where Okinawa is located. After defeat in World War II, Japan forfeited the islands to the trusteeship of the United Nations, which granted the United States sole administrative power over the Ryukyus. It was not until 1972 that the United States and Japan were able to agree upon the terms of reversion of the islands to Japanese governance. My paper examines how each party involved in the fight for and resistance to reversion played a significant role in the process. This includes the citizens of mainland Japan, the Ryukyuans, the Japanese government, and the United States government. This paper analyzes an often overlooked chapter in postwar United States-Japanese relations. Community, Theatre and the South African Indian Experience in KwaZulu-Natal: Ronnie Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure Elise Boos ’08 Indians first arrived in the British Colony of Natal in 1860 to work the sugar plantations as indentured servants. As the Indian population proceeded to grow, competition arose between Indian and colonial merchants and farmers. This prompted the colonial government to enact legislation ensuring white dominance, legislation which would intensify under the apartheid regime and consistently deny South African Indians of their basic rights. If theatre is an art which holds a mirror to society, the Indic theatre of South Africa was no exception. The objective of this research was to document ways in which Ronnie Govender, a South African Indian playwright, integrated the sociopolitical and cultural atmosphere of the Indian community in the 1960’s and 1970’s into his 1972 satire The Lahnee’s Pleasure. Govender’s use of Indian patois, nostalgic references to tattered cultural traditions, class frictions within the Indian community and the delicate issue of individual resistance against white dominance classifies The Lahnee’s Pleasure as indigenous, socio-politically conscious theatre, despite its stage presentation as a comedy. Govender’s subtle diadactism allowed him to simultaneously entertain and challenge by posing in a public arena the questions that were on the tips of the tongues of the Indians, doing so in a humorous manner. Through further research, I hope to be able to demonstrate the correlation between the intensification of the didactic nature of Indic theatre and the intensification of anti-apartheid efforts. 57 An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany Mary Beth Broadwater ’08, German This paper identifies the challenges and solutions of integration for German-Turks in Germany. Since 1961 Turkish nationals and Germans of Turkish descent have become the largest minority within Germany. Turkish immigrants came as guest workers during West Germany’s labor shortage. The guest worker program brought men from countries with high unemployment in the 1950s. Unlike other foreign workers who returned home when the program ended, the Turks were hesitant to return because of Turkey’s economic and political instability. For families who chose to reunify in Germany, integration was challenging as they lived in Germany with little knowledge of the language or culture. My paper explores some forms of integration considered for German-Turks such as recent updates to citizenship laws, a highly criticized education system, and Turkey’s hope of entry into the European Union. “Comparison of the Portraitures of Mary I and Elizabeth I of England” Lindy Bunch ’09 This summer I attempted to gain a greater understanding of the portraiture of Mary I of England. Much of her historical record lies in the shadow of Elizabethan propaganda and therefore has been widely unstudied. In recent years a reevaluation of Mary’s life and reign has begun; however, the study of her portraiture unfortunately still consists primarily of brief mentions in relation to her father, Henry VIII, or her sister, Elizabeth I. Because of this, much of my research this summer has been an attempt to compile and study all of the information currently available regarding her portraiture. I focused primarily on her painted portraits, although I one day hope to pursue a more complete study of her manuscript illustrations as well. While I was able to make some meaningful discoveries this summer, this is a project I hope to pursue as a thesis in graduate school. The Great Debate: American Intervention in World War II, September 1939 to December 1941 Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History My project was to gather and organize documents related to the “Great Debate” over U.S. intervention in World War II, from the outbreak of the European war in September 1939 to the attack on Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941. Ultimately, I plan to make this collection the basis of a book in the Bedford Series in History in Culture. The book will be designed for use in college-level classes in 20th Century U.S. History, American Diplomatic History and the U.S. History survey. The “Great Debate” is perhaps the most significant public debate on foreign policy that the United States has ever engaged in. This debate had the effect of scrambling easy political categories; there were liberal isolationists and conservative isolationists, liberal internationalists and conservative internationalists. Elected officials, academics, private citizens, newspaper editors, members of organized interest groups and many others addressed fundamental questions about the nature of American society and the role it should play in the world. The debate ranged from sober to demagogic, encompassing the full range of opinion in the country during a turning point in both American and world history. In many ways, it set the stage for the world we live in today. 58 Coming to Greenville—The Salvation Army’s History and Continuing Impact in Greenville, South Carolina Jessie Davis ’08 My summer research investigated the history of the Salvation Army in Greenville, SC and its social impact today. The Army was founded by William Booth in the slums of London in 1865 and its mission has always been a two-fold one: Christian evangelicalism and social welfare. The Salvation Army first arrived in Greenville, SC in 1888, although its permanent establishment was not until 1904 by Ensign Mrs. J.W. McSheehan and Cadet Pearl Hewitt. The first Salvation Army specific building in South Carolina was completed in the summer of 1907 on East Broad Street and the Army has continued to be a driving force in Greenville ever since. This research focuses on work specific to the Greenville area. These areas of focus include shelters, Bruner Children’s Home, Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital, Rural Outreach, the Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club, and the Men’s Fellowship Club. Today, the Salvation Army continues to have a significant impact on the Greenville area as investigated through my volunteering in Salvation Army facilities, especially the shelters and Boys and Girls Club. I also researched Greenville’s racial history in order to answer questions that arose during my volunteering that the Army either could not or would not answer. The Army’s significance seems to only be increasing. With the endowment left to the national Salvation Army by Joan Kroc, Greenville is expected to be the first city to open its endowed Ray and Joan Kroc Community Center. Therefore, the Greenville Salvation Army not only has a deeply rooted history in the area, but a firm grip on community impact as well. Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations: Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy This book-in-progress focuses on the experiences of women writing doctoral dissertations. The study is designed to help faculty and students better understand how to facilitate the process of writing a dissertation. There has been little research undertaken to understand the factors that act as aids and barriers to the process of writing a dissertation. While the primary goal of the study is to help students who are currently preparing for or writing a dissertation, the issues have significance for administration of doctoral programs and for doctoral faculty, since considerable costs are reflected in students extending the dissertation process past the usual timeframe. 59 Around the Drum Ivy Farr ’08 Last year, I traveled as one of Wofford’s Presidential International Scholars to developing nations around the world: Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Egypt, France, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, and Vietnam. I kept a daily journal of the places I went, the people I met, the experiences I had. My project, “Around the Drum,” is a collection of essays that attempt to share those experiences, the impressions they made on me at the time, and the impact they have had on my life back in the United States. The essays vary in topic: some are stories of my own shaky confidence and naiveté, others are testaments to those who manage to keep a positive attitude despite overwhelming adversity. But they are all tied together as lessons I learned in an unconventional classroom. Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape Painting in the Italian Renaissance Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Art History Over the next 24 months, I will consolidate my work on the topic of Renaissance landscape painting into a book-length manuscript, with the preliminary title Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape in the Italian Renaissance. This summer, with the support of the Fullerton Foundation, I was able to bring myself up-to-date with recent research in the field of landscape studies. I will present some of my summer research in a paper to be delivered in Chicago in March 2008 at the Renaissance Society of America Conference. The paper will be titled “Take thyself to Venus’ Realm: Landscape and Medicine in Renaissance Italy.” Limited intermittent access to a highly palatable food combined with chronic mild stress induces overeating in laboratory rats. Kishan Govind ’08, Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Dr. G.R. Davis, Department of Biology To investigate conditions which promote over-eating, we asked whether scheduled limited access to Froot Loops® in combination with Chronic Mild Stress (CMS) which produces symptoms of depression in laboratory rats could trigger episodes of binge eating. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 8 groups of 10 rats each that were subjected to CMS (n=40) or not (n=40). All rats received ad libitum rodent chow and water. C(ontrol) animals did not receive FL during the 28 day experiment. R7 rats received ad libitum FL 2-4 pm every day. R3 rats received FL on MWF. I(rregularly scheduled) rats received FL on 12 of 28 days. CMS animals (CS, R7S, CS and IS, n= 10 each) were exposed to stressors (prolonged photoperiod, water deprivation, wet bedding, and tilted cage) repeated weekly for 4 weeks. FL intake was measured from 2-4 pm. Daily chow intake was measured at 4 pm (lights off.) By Day 10, CMS rats weighed less than non-stressed rats (the expected effect of CMS on weight gain.) Daily and cumulative caloric intake did not differ for CS and R7S rats (approximately75-100 kcal/day) but was less than that of non-stressed C and R7 animals. By the second week of CMS, R3S rats consumed significantly more (~120 kcal/day) on MWF than CS and R7S rats and did not compensate for this increased intake on days when FL were unavailable. IS rats often consumed fewer calories on days after FL access. Thus, only MWF access combined with CMS produced overeating on FL. 60 Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was synthesized using a palladium-coupled reaction starting with cis-dichloroethylene and two equivalents of trimethylsilyl acetylene to prepare 1,6-bistrimethylsilylhex-3-ene-1,5diyne. This product was converted to cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne by reaction with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride in ethylene glycol. The final reaction product proves to be a mixture of the desired product and significant quantities of hexamethyl disiloxane. In the infrared studies the impurity is subtracted from the sample spectrum. The vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was recorded in a low-temperature argon matrix, providing a complete vibrational characterization of this molecule. Density functional calculations gave vibrational frequencies that were within twenty wavenumbers of the experimentally measured frequencies for the eight most prominent vibrations. Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was examined for its photochemical reactivity at 250 nm, both in the gas phase and under low-temperature matrix isolation conditions. The photoreactivity was monitored by GC/ MS and IR spectroscopy. In the gas phase the primary photoproduct is trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne. In the low-temperature matrix the photoreactivity, monitored by IR spectroscopy produces trans-hex-3-ene-1,5diyne, but also produced at least one other significant photoproduct. The new photoproduct is observed by vibrational spectroscopy and its identity is still under investigation. In neither case was the low energy isomer benzyne formed. The Emerging Church in The American South Stephen Harris ’08 My research began with two main goals in mind. My first concern was to create my own definition of the Emerging Church, and after arriving at my own definition, I wanted to see how the Emerging Church exists and copes with a region which seems to be antithetical to Emerging ethos: the American Southeast. Because of Postmodernism’s recent influences, a new stream of church has become popular among 18-30 year olds in large cities. This is the Emerging Church. These Emerging Churches have a focus on knocking down barriers that create unnecessary conflict, they create authentic, intimate communities, and they strive to make their lives holistically spiritual. By definition, the Emerging Church conflicts with the Southern Evangelical culture, which has become the civil religion of the South. Southern religious culture is often stifling and too focused on tradition lifeless rituals for many young people, which drives the growth of the Emerging Church. Because of the collision of Postmodern religion and Evangelical culture, the Emerging Church has faced a myriad of challenges in the South, including: the nature of salvation, the definition of the Gospel, and the need for progressive social justice. 61 Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers Ryan Hill ’08 Let σ(M) denote the sum of the divisors of a positive integer M and define a function F(M) = 2M – σ(M). If F(M) > 0, M is perfect-plus. If F(M) < 0, M is perfect-minus. In particular, if F(M) = 2, M is perfectplus-two (PP2). For example, 215(216+1) is PP2. This paper corroborates and extends the work of K. Inkeri in the April 1977 edition of The American Mathematical Monthly. Specifically, we show that a number of the form M = 2npk is PP2 if and only if k = 1. Furthermore, if p and q are odd primes such that p < q and q ≥ p2 + 1, then no number of the form M = 2npq is PP2. Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Department of Mathematics This paper describes a collection of activities on “what mathematicians do” which I created and implemented into a freshmen-level mathematics course for liberal arts majors. Students learn geometric proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem and are asked to teach the theorem and one of its proofs to two individuals not in the class. Students then write a response paper explaining their understanding of the proof, their reactions to teaching it, the reactions of the individuals to whom it was taught, and how this activity helped them to understand the mathematical concept of proving a theorem and the idea of “what mathematicians do”. Most students report an increase in self-confidence as a result of successfully explaining a mathematical idea to another person. Additionally, students write about a new-found admiration for mathematicians and others that teach. Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian and German Exiles to China during WWII Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages My project explores common themes in memoirs by Austrian and German exiles to Shanghai, China during WWII in a socio-historical context. While most of the world closed its doors to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, Japanese-occupied Shanghai let in 20,000 European refugees, many of whom had no visas, between 1938 and 1941. Refugees survived in the area of Hongkew, or the Ghetto, which was controlled by the Japanese. In 1945, most survivors emigrated to countries which had loosened their emigration laws, such as Australia, Canada, and the United States. Some of the themes common to these memoirs include basic shared experiences such as the sense of loss, alienation, and mourning in exile, illness, starvation, and often, a reassessment of individual and communal moral conduct in light of pure physical survival. More complex themes emerge, such as how romantic and idyllic notions of China in the authors’ imagination and early childhood memory differ greatly from the reality of living in abject poverty as foreigners in Japanese-occupied China, men’s, but especially women’s, reproductive health and choices during this difficult time in exile, and community formation through a shared traumatic experience rather than through traditional social networks based on employment and social status. 62 Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden Vanessa Lauber ’08 Drawing from the writings of Joseph Paxton, mid nineteenth-century landscape gardener and architect, this research examines the role of gardening in defining a new identity for the middle classes in the shifting social structure and burgeoning industrialism. Paxton pioneered the Gardenesque style of landscape design that emphasized gardening with a mind to the scientific, as well as the aesthetic principles of the cultivation of plants, playing an active role in the development of public parks as an escape from urban industrialism. Through his periodical, Paxton’s Magazine of Botany and Register of Flowering Plants (1834-1849), which featured cultivation guides accompanied by colored plates for plants imported from around the world, Paxton wished to surmount the “formidable barrier facing those who have had little practical experience or opportunity for observation” by providing intelligible and practical reference at an affordable price. Implied in Paxton’s writing was the idea that improving the quality of British gardens would in turn help to improve the quality of the individual, drawing a direct correlation between the activities of a properly instructed gardener and the aspects of self-improvement so prized by Victorian culture. Does scheduled access to a highly palatable carbohydrate-rich food trigger binge eating in laboratory rats? Kishan Govind ’08, Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Dr. G.R. Davis, Department of Biology To investigate conditions which promote over-eating, we asked whether scheduled limited access to Froot Loops® (FL; 3.8 kcal/g) could trigger episodes of binge eating in laboratory rats as reported for a high fat food (Corwin, 2004). Male Sprague-Dawley rats matched for body weight and overnight FL consumption were assigned to 4 groups of 10 rats each: C(ontrol) animals did not receive FL during the 28 day experiment. R7 rats received ad libitum FL 2-4 pm every day. R3 rats received FL on MWF. I(rregularly scheduled) rats received FL on 12 of 28 days. FL intake was measured from 2-4 pm. All rats received ad libitum rodent chow (3.3 kcal/g) and water. Daily chow intake was measured at 4 pm (lights off.) Daily energy intake ( ~100kcal/day), cumulative caloric intake for 28 days, and body mass were not different for C and R7 rats. R3 and I rats consumed ~100 kcal daily when FL were provided and thus did not over-eat. By week 2, R3 and I rats consumed significantly fewer calories (~80 kcal) on days when FL were unavailable. Cumulative caloric intake and body mass for R3 and I rats were significantly less than C and R animals. During 2 hour access periods, R7, R3, and I rats consumed ~25 kcal in FL whereas C rats consumed <5 kcal of chow. Thus, none of the access schedules resulted in over-eating which suggests that binge eating depends at least in part upon the food characteristics (energy density, macronutrient content, etc.) 63 African-American Soldiers in World War II Patrick McCain ’08 The focus of my project is African-American soldiers in World War II, though I interviewed (and continue to interview) WWII veterans of all ethnicities. I believe the bravery, valor, and patriotism demonstrated by black soldiers in WWII contributed greatly to the eventual integration of the entire military. It is important for Americans to understand that changes regarding race in the military reflected larger societal changes happening in the United States. Military history tends to be very popular, but too often it is told from the perspective of military and/or civilian leadership. Without dismissing such histories as undesirable my goal is to present the accounts of individual veterans who were not wellknown, but to whom Americans owe much gratitude. I want to preserve the feelings, thoughts, memories, and struggles of these men and women of the Greatest Generation. As World War II veterans fall victim to age and infirmity, society risks the loss of these stories and experiences forever. By investigating the processes by which African-Americans adjusted to and resisted their conditions, I hope to facilitate an understanding and appreciation of 20th century American social history. “I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence” Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century Feminist Thought: A Documentary Collection Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History This project has culminated in a book proposal to be submitted for consideration in Bedford-St. Martins’ “Bedford Series in History and Culture.” Caroline Norton, a woman of the English upper classes, married her husband George in 1827. The stormy and unhappy marriage produced three sons and continuous acrimony, mostly over lack of money. After a failed attempt to convince a jury that leading politician Lord Melbourne had engaged in adultery with Caroline, George shut the doors against his wife and moved the children out of her reach. Caroline, faced with the reality that under English law she “did not exist” as an autonomous individual and therefore had no legal rights to her children or even to her own earnings as a writer, began a lifelong pursuit of changes in the legal code. In 1839 her efforts helped frame the law that allowed wives to petition for custody of their young children in the case of marital separation, and in 1857 England passed laws making it possible under limited circumstances for women to sue for divorce in civil court. Caroline’s decision to make her own personal life a catalyst for legal reform was a painful one, coming as it did in the midst of a failed marriage and in the context of women as private rather than public individuals. This proposed book will take selections from Caroline Norton’s writings on marriage, infant custody, and divorce and supplement them with a wide variety of other primary documents, including her correspondence with Lord Melbourne, debates within the parliamentary House of Commons over proposed reforms, and commentary from contemporaries, both supporters and detractors of Caroline’s efforts. The resulting volume will be a teaching tool that can be used in a variety of courses to introduce students to issues of gender, law, justice, and politics. 64 Energy in My Pocket Geoff Taylor ’09 The final product of my Community of Scholars research is a twenty page paper in four parts entitled “Energy in My Pocket.” The first part of the paper is an overview of the nuclear era from 1939 to the present, including a section on the current status of the nuclear industry worldwide. The second part addresses energy sources other than nuclear power, comparing and contrasting these against nuclear power. These sources are solar power, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass (biofuel) energy, hydroelectric power, petroleum, coal, and natural gas. The third part addresses the nuclear cycle and the importance of Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX). The final part of the paper is the conclusion that it would greatly behoove the US to continue to operate the MOX Fuel Fabrication Facility (MFFF) to fabricate MOX fuel by recycling nuclear waste after the MFFF has served its current purpose of converting weapons-grade plutonium into MOX fuel. Greeks of the Upstate Dr. Deno Trakas, Department of English Because there is a fairly large Greek community in Spartanburg, and because my paternal grandfather was the first Greek to settle here (in 1900), Hub City Writers Project asked me to write a book about my family and the Greeks of the Upstate. I have spent the last year and a half reading historical, sociological, and literary accounts of twentieth century Greek history and the history of Greek immigration; interviewing Greeks of the Upstate; traveling to Greece, where I spent three days in Arahova, the village where my Trakas grandparents and other local Greeks came from; and, with the help of my family and friends, remembering revealing anecdotes about four generations of Greek-Americans in this area. My book explores the difficulties of assimilation and notes the successful adjustments that Greeks have made to become integrated into their communities in the Upstate. It looks at the tension between wanting to hold on to heritage and wanting to be accepted by the dominant culture, and the way that tension changes from generation to generation. It examines the importance of the Greek Orthodox Church as a unifying force in the Greek community, as well as the natural diminishment of ethnic culture that comes with the passage of time. 65 The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel: A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala Mariel Willenberg ’09, History My research focuses on an English translation of the Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala. This 700 year old medieval Spanish document holds a primary historical account of the history of the King Don Pedro the Cruel from the start of his reign at the age of sixteen until his murder at the hands of his half-brother at the age of thirty-five. This piece remains a vital account of the reasoning and justifications of his citizenry’s rejection of his reign even under the medieval pre-Enlightenment tradition of divine, absolute monarchs. Through a translation of this primary source, one receives the reasoning behind the revolt against the King Don Pedro. His greed, countless and brutal murders, and endless debt ridden warfare all are accounted in detail through Ayala’s history and shed light on the final rejection of this divine absolute king. I view this work as a rough translation of half of this vital history which reveals the evils that made the King Don Pedro worthy of the title “The Cruel” and the justifications for the rejection of the unquestioned divinity of this visibly ruthless king. This is a project that needs a much longer session than ten weeks (possibly years) and a complete 200 page translation in to English with proper Spanish archive aid, numerous translators, etc. is something that in a few years I hope to look in to and further develop for publication. The German Healthcare System: Past, Present, and Future Claudia Winkler ’08, German, History My study provides an overview of the socialized healthcare system in Germany and shows how and why social programs work or fail in a given political and social climate. I examine the German system’s formation in relation to the socio-political history to better understand the environment that fostered the introduction of the Social Insurance Laws of 1881. This is followed by a survey of the current structure of the German healthcare scheme, which provides a context for the difficulties facing Germany’s healthcare today. The healthcare system faces several current challenges and problems, such as a budget drain caused by unnecessary expenditures, as well as shifting demographics. The reunification of Germany has also contributed greatly to these challenges, such as low birthrates, on which my paper focuses. East Germany’s sudden integration into West Germany caused many East German women to be unsure of their futures. Because many women chose to remain childless the birthrates dropped significantly. Meanwhile, the German population has continued to grow older, creating a gap between those paying into the system and those collecting benefits. This challenge in particular is important because it is simultaneously the most threatening to the future of Germany’s healthcare system and the hardest to solve through political action.