harem human nature review scarem

Disney’s “attractability” and the
aesthetics of the grotesque
How the grotesque aesthetics functions to create the “attractability” of early
Disney animations.
Daphne Velenturf
2
Photo used on the front page; Eisenstein and Disney at the Disney Studio, 1930 (Eisenstein Cabinet). Eisenstein
about his meeting with Disney; “When we met each other in person, we met like old acquaintances” (Eisenstein
1988, p.1).
Disney’s “attractability” and the
aesthetics of the grotesque
How the grotesque aesthetics functions to create the “attractability” of early
Disney animations
Author: Daphne Velenturf
Student number: 2072017
E-mail: d.velenturf@gmail.com
Thesis supervisors: prof. dr. A.M.A. van den Oever & dr. A. van Noortwijk
Master thesis Culture Arts and Media
Specialization: KCM Film
Groningen, 25-08-2015
How does the grotesque function in the “attractability” of early Disney animations?
3
Preface
Finally here it is, my master thesis on the grotesque attraction of Disney, inspired by Sergei
Eisensteins and my own a fascination for film. Finally is an understatement, it has taken me
far longer to finish this thesis then I had expected. I would like to take this opportunity to give
thanks to all those who have supported me throughout this process.
I would like to thank my sisters, Anne and Marie-Louise Velenturf who have supported me
throughout my studies in various ways. They have always been willing to talk about the
obstacles I ran into, study related or personal. They have let me rant about the thesis time and
again. And they have set an example of persistence each in their own way. Without them I
would probably have given up somewhere along the way.
I would like to thank my friends for their endless support as well. They provided much needed
talks and words of encouragement.
Most of all I feel I owe thanks to professor dr. Annie van den Oever, who never seemed to
lose faith in the positive outcome of this thesis. Even when I disappeared from the university
to work for a year, I was more than welcome to come back. Time and again I have walked
into her office in despair and without motivation, only to walk out smiling and with a plan of
action. I could not have done this without her.
Enjoy,
Daphne Velenturf
4
Table of contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................6
I - Occasion .....................................................................................................................................6
II - Relation to standard post-war studies on grotesque art .............................................................7
III - Historical value and productivity ...............................................................................................8
IV - Hypothesis ..............................................................................................................................10
V - Early Disney .............................................................................................................................11
1: Theoretical framework and Method ..............................................................................................15
1.1 - Eisenstein on Disney..............................................................................................................16
1.2 - Post war theories of the Grotesque .......................................................................................20
Kayser, 1957 .............................................................................................................................20
Bachtin, 1965 ............................................................................................................................22
Carroll, 2003 .............................................................................................................................26
1.3 - Method of analysis ................................................................................................................28
2: Analyses according to Kayser ........................................................................................................ 30
2.1 Structural accounts of the grotesque in Disney animations......................................................30
2.2 Syntheses: cartoon shorts and feature animation films ...........................................................39
3: Analyses according to Bachtin .......................................................................................................41
3.1 Grotesque bodies of characters in Early Disney ....................................................................... 41
3.2 Effects of the grotesque bodily element: ‘Rabaissement’ in early Disney animations ...............57
4: Analyses according to Carroll ........................................................................................................ 59
4.1 Grotesque beings and their effective states in early Disney .....................................................59
4.2 Disney the entertainer.............................................................................................................68
5: Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 71
5.1 Synthesis of findings: How does the grotesque function in the “attractability” of early Disney
animations? .................................................................................................................................. 72
5.2 Further research......................................................................................................................75
Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix I – Filmography Corpus ......................................................................................................78
Appendix II – Filmography of Walt Disney 1948-1921........................................................................ 80
5
Introduction
I - Occasion
During the master program of KCM on film we were introduced to the grotesque as a study
field of studies in the Humanities that can offer a wide variety of productive insights in the
discipline of film. Today the aesthetics of the grotesque is said to be omnipresent; e.g. Carroll
(2003) claims it can be found in all genres and it comes in all shapes and sizes. This lively
field that combines aesthetics with the study of psychological effects spiked my interest and
led me to the current thesis. To finish the master course I wrote an essay on the grotesque
attraction of Disney. During my search for an interesting subject I found an unfinished essay
by Sergei Eisenstein (1989 – 1948) discussing Disney as ground to research the survival of
animism and totemism. Eisenstein is an inspiring writer; his descriptions of film are both
vivid and highly insightful on a theoretical level, enabling the reader to connect to abstract
concepts by his evocative examples. For instance, when he discusses animism, the giving of
life to lifeless objects, he compares the process to something every one of us has experienced;
bumping into a chair in the dark. One would curse the chair, as though it were a living being
(Eisenstein 1988). His specific manner of describing the aesthetics of early Disney animation
led me to the specific subject of this thesis.
For Eisenstein, Walt Disney (1901 – 1966), along with David Griffith and Charlie Chaplin,
belonged to a select group he considered outstanding masters of cinema. Their influence had
been proven by their ability to attract viewers all over the world (1988, p. x). The work of
these filmmakers formed grounds to work on his central problem the “Grundproblem” in
which he attempted to solve the mystery of the so-called “attractability” of art. Eisenstein
coined the term “attractability” in his “Grundproblem” research to refer to the dual function
he saw in true art works. “Attractability” stands for both attractiveness and affectiveness in a
work of art. Based on the work of Griffith Eisenstein investigated the history of the close-up.
The theme infantilism was researched based on the work of Chaplin, because it “conditioned
also the imaginary of his films, and the behavior of the screen characters” (1988, p. xi).
Disney gave grounds and material for ‘an analysis of the survival of animism and totemism in
modern consciousness and art’. Eisenstein saw this principle in the entire animated world
created by Disney (1988, p. xi). In 1935 Eisenstein finally concluded that; “The dialectic of
works of art is built upon a most curious ‘dual-unity’. The effectiveness of a work of art is
built upon the fact that there takes place in it a dual process: an impetuous progressive rise
6
along the lines of the highest conceptual steps of consciousness and a simultaneous
penetration by means of the structure of the form into the layers of profoundest sensuous
thinking. The polar separation of these two lines of aspiration creates that remarkable tension
of unity of form and content characteristic of true art-works” (1988, p. III).
Even after 1935 Eisenstein continued his work on Disney. And as common with his work,
Eisenstein did not restrict himself to the questions at hand, he expanded his views on the
master of cinema and so did his writing. Time and again he returned to Disney, but never
organized a completed essay. Jay Leyda (1910-1988) has made these texts accessible to the
western world. Leyda was an American avant-garde filmmaker and film historian, he was
known for his work on American, Soviet and Chinese cinema. He knew Eisenstein personally;
because of his work on A Bronx Morning (1931) he was given the opportunity to attend the
National Film School in the U.S.S.R. where he studied with Eisenstein. Furthermore he
assisted Eisenstein in his work on the aborted Bezhin Meadow (1938) project (Bordwell &
Thompson 2010, p.291). Leyda edited Eisensteins writing on Disney and has bundled them in
a small book; Eisenstein on Disney. Published in 1988 the book offers the text in a logical
order for reading; although the introductory pages were written later than the earliest
fragments written it is still placed as the first part of the book. Except for this rough
arrangement the fragmentary character of Eisensteins draft writing is preserved in the book.
II - Relation to standard post-war studies on grotesque art
The studies of Wolfgang Kayser (1957) 1, Michael Bachtin (1965) and Noël Carrol (2003) are
defining for the post-war research of the grotesque art. Both the research of Bachtin and
Carrols relate to that of Kayser. Kaysers research defined the grotesque as an aesthetic
category. To fully understand the theory of Bachtin and Carrol, Kaysers work cannot be
omitted. Although there are many more studies on grotesque aesthetics, these three studies
will be pivotal to my research, because they can be viewed as the standard works and because
they can be related to Eisenstein’s essay on Disney.
Eisenstein does not mention the grotesque as an aesthetic category in his (drafted) essay on
Disney. However his description of the formal aspects in Disney’s animations will inevitably
remind an insider of these three standard studies of grotesque aesthetics. Many of the
descriptions of the aesthetics of early Disney animations read like the post-war theory on the
grotesque. “In Disney they turn into each other. One of the devices of comedy is the
1
Kaysers work was originally published in 1957, for this research I used an English translation of the book,
published in 1981.
7
literalization of a metaphor” (Eisenstein 1988, p.39). This reminds us of Bachtin’s theory, as
the literalization of the metaphor is formalized in the body of the characters. While exploring
the attractions of the animations, Eisenstein depicts many characteristics that we would now
name grotesque. For instance, Eisenstein’s discussion of Mickey Mouse dancing and singing:
“And then reaching for a high note, the arms shoot up far beyond the limits of their normal
representation. In tone with the music, they stretch far beyond the length allotted to them”
(Eisenstein 1988, p.10). This suggests a clear transgression of our ontological boundaries, one
of the basic trademarks of the grotesque that can be found in the theory of Wolfgang Kayser,
Michael Bachtin and Noël Carroll. In his effort to explain the effects of Disney’s attractions,
Eisenstein relates animism to animation and therefore the texts show many connections to
Carrols theory. For instance: “In Disney’s works on the whole, animals substitute for people”
(Eisenstein 1988, p.33). Eisenstein names the animated humanized animals which are all
fusion figures as described by Noël Carroll (2003, p. 296).
Each of these three standard studies on grotesque art offer their own input on the different
aspects of the problem central to my research. I will elaborate on these studies and
Eisenstein’s essay later on in my theoretical framework. This will then lead to determining the
method of this research.
III - Historical value and productivity
In the essay for the master course I studied a broad range of material, exploring several
Disney works marking explicit technological progress, in order to include the effects of the
modernization (or digitalization) of animation techniques while studying the aesthetics. While
this broad view on the subject offered many interesting angles, it lacked focus and thus depth.
The essay asked for further, more focused and profound research.
Consequently in this dissertation I will do a case study focusing on the aesthetic category of
the grotesque in early Disney animations following up on Eisensteins work on the subject. His
essay will determine the framework for the material to be studied. These two factors will give
clear focus to the research. By only studying the early work of Disney the thesis gains focus
because there it more unity in the style of animation. Furthermore it excludes the influence of
technological development, which would lead to a whole different research. The combination
with the essay of Eisenstein yields historical value for the dissertation. The work of Eisenstein
on Disney has not been related to the aesthetic category of the grotesque before.
8
Confronted with a thesis including Disney and Eisenstein one may ask if it is new and
productive? Disney has been studied extensively, but just as the work of Eisenstein on the
subject; the aesthetics of early Disney animations have not been framed in the aesthetic
category of the grotesque before. Some characters such as witches or monsters have been
referred to as grotesque as an adjective. Studying the function of grotesque aesthetics in the
creation of the attraction of Disney is new.
The aesthetics are involved in studies on the underlying message of Disney animations and in
critiques on Disney’s portrayal of race, ethnicity gender and nature. The bulk of the studies
found focus on the development of the Disney enterprise, here we find the early animations
referred to as the starting point and as subject of a legal battle with Charles Mintz (Bordwell
& Thompson 2010, p.150). Eisenstein has also been studied extensively and the essay in
question has been cited in many books that offer an overview of his oeuvre. These citations
are used in descriptions of Eisenstein’s life and personality or as part of research of other
theory by Eisenstein. In Eisenstein rediscovered (1993) by Ian Christie and Richard Taylor,
the habit of Eisenstein to sketch is described as a source of insight in his writings. Later on the
analysis focusses mainly on Eisenstein’s personal life, reflected by his drawings. It becomes
particularly personal when Eisenstein’s “hitherto repressed sexuality” (Christie e.a. 1993, p.
23) is discussed; “One at least of these creates and extensive tableau of male coupling around
a central figure identifiable as a self-portrait” (Christie e.a. 1993, p. 23). In The Cinema of
Eisenstein, Bordwell discusses Eisenstein’s concept “ecstacy” as part of an elaborate
description of synthesis in cinema. Furthermore Eisenstein’s fascination for the closed drawn
line is mentioned while describing his theory on film form (Bordwell 1993, chapter 5). These
concepts are part of Eisenstein’s essay on Disney, but his analysis of Disney and the attraction
of animation as such is not researched nor described. Other publications use the citations from
the essay in a similar way, it is mentioned in biographies and sometimes the concepts are used
to support clarification of other theory. But the study of Eisensteins ideas on the animated line
and the effects of the aesthetics in Disney’s early animations, bundled in the book Eisenstein
on Disney remains shallow. There are no questions asked considering his essay about Disney
in particular or Eisenstein’s ideas on animation in general. Perhaps they are put aside because
it is an unfinished work.
9
IV - Hypothesis
I will start from the hypothesis that the specific “attractability” of early Disney animations
can be explained in terms of the grotesque function in it. Disney animations have specific
formal features in which grotesque aesthetics performs a key role in terms of attraction and
entertainment. It is the relation between the grotesque aesthetics and the content of the
animations that may be the cause of the attraction of Disney. In light of Eisensteins essay on
Disney aesthetics and “attractability”; and taking the current theory on the grotesque into
account, the following question is central to my research;
How does the grotesque function in the “attractability” of early Disney animations?
With regard to “attractability”; this neologism was coined by Eisenstein in light of solving
his “grundproblem”, his study of Disney’s animations was part of this 2. It is preferred over
the more common attraction not only because this thesis is inspired by Eisenstein, but also
because, as explained before, it refers to a dual function in art works. It stands for both
attractiveness and affectiveness of a work of art. The latter, affectiveness is not to be confused
with effectiveness; which refers to the capacity of achieving any type of results. Affectiveness
is more specific; it refers to the capacity to evoke emotions. This relates the term to the
standard studies on the grotesque of Kayser, Bachtin and Carroll. Their work ultimately
focusses on the affects of the grotesque aesthetics. There for the term highlights the relation
between Eisenstein’s study of Disney’s animations and our post-war theory on the grotesque
and more importantly; it is functional to the current research.
With regard to the grotesque; the term in this central question refers to a large field of studies,
all with their own value. However, as discussed above, this research will be done according to
the standard studies of Kayser (1957), Bachtin (1965) and Carrol (2003). All relate to each
other and can be related to Eisenstein’s discussion of Disney’s animations. The dual function
“attractability” refers to can also be traced in these standard theories on the grotesque
aesthetics. As mentioned above, all three focus on the affects of the grotesque aesthetics.
Kayser views the grotesque as an aesthetic category that estranges our world. It instills a fear
of life, because our world view has become inapplicable (1965, p 185). Bachtin’s theory
revolves around revitalizing laughter, the final step in the process of ‘rabaissement’, elicited
by the grotesque bodily element. Most notably Carrol specializes in the affects of the
grotesque aesthetics. The family relations between the affects of the grotesque aesthetics are
2
See also the related essays Montage of Attractions of 1923 and 1924.
10
the core of his theory. In chapter 1, in the theoretical framework, these studies will be
discussed at length. This theoretical review will then result in the method of analysis. With
regard to early Disney animations; the following part will elaborate on the subject and define
what will be viewed as such.
V - Early Disney
This thesis will focus on early Disney animations, although this already suggests a lot, we
must define what will be viewed as early Disney animations. Furthermore a specific corpus of
animations must be selected to give focus to the research and to align with Eisensteins essay
on Disney.
Walt Disney started his career in the Kansas City in 1919, with Ub Iwerks. The first years of
his career were not very successful, till in 1927 the Disney Brothers Studios were producing
the “Oswald the Rabbit” series. However Disney lost the leading character to Charles Mintz
in a legal battle. This forced the studio to come up with a new character, resulting in the
creation of Mickey Mouse. The character starred in Steamboat Willy (1928), the first cartoon
to incorporate the new sound technology. Inspired by the Jazz Singer (1927), Disney had put
himself to the task of making a cartoon with synchronised sound. It proved to be a big success
and it put Disney ahead of the competitive animation business of the 1930s (Bordwell &
Thompson 2010, p.150). The studio was also one of the first to use three-strip Technicolor
technique, and it created the first feature length animation; Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
(1937). This innovative approach is characteristic to Disney’s work and for his position in the
animation business.
The selected titles should give a good intersection of Disney’s innovative work while
corresponding with the time period in which Eisenstein studied Disney. In the context of
solving his “grundproblem” Eisenstein wrote about Disney during the 1940s. He discussed a
wide variety of Disney’s animations, with special attention the Mickey Mouse Series, the Silly
Symphonies and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The premiering dates of these
animations provide a timeframe from the 1920s till the 1940s, in which we will look at early
Disney material to be studied.
During these years Disney produced mostly short animations, with sound, in black and white
or Technicolor. The Silly Symphonies, a series of 75 short animations, were of particular
interest to Eisenstein. From these series The Skeleton Dance (1929) and Merbabies (1938)
will be included, because particularly these two are discussed at length by Eisenstein in his
11
essay on Disney. Besides this Disney’s iconic Mickey Mouse series can of course not be
omitted. The series featured continuing characters, unlike The Silly Symphonies that were
more singular. The whimsical mouse was accompanied by well-known characters such as
Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy and Pluto that would later have their own spin off
cartoons. Form these series Steamboat Willie (1928), The Karnival Kid (1929) and Playful
Pluto (1934) will be studied. Furthermore Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) is an
important work to be included. This animation was the first full-length cell animated feature
in colour motion picture of Disney and in history. The work marks the transition into Disney’s
post-war work, producing full length features; including Bambi (1942), Alice in Wonderland
(1949) Cinderella (1950) and Peter Pan (1953).
These early Disney animations are all drawn by hand and have a prominent soundtrack. My
analyses of the films have shown that except for that of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,
the dialogue in these animations is subservient to the aesthetics. The films are first and
foremost narrated by body language of the characters, music and sound effects. The
movements of the characters literalize the emotions and communications. A strong soundtrack sets the mood, guiding the viewer to the desired interpretations. Below I will give a
more detailed introduction of the works to be studied to introduce my analyses of the
grotesque aesthetics of early Disney animation.
The Skeleton Dance (1929)
The skeleton dance is the first animation in the silly symphonies series and therefore a logical
starting point. This short was produced in black and white with the use of stop motion
animation technique. This animation features a graveyard where the skeletons of the deceased
come alive. The viewer is introduced to the atmosphere of the animation by a screen filling
enlargement of an owl; giving the impression of an extreme close-up. As the clock strikes
twelve, a series of nocturnal animals that are both comical and horrific are featured. Then the
skeletons come alive, at first just one, and then suddenly four appear. As the music begins,
they start dancing around, displaying a macabre celebration. The skeletons use each other’s
bodies as though it were musical instruments. In tune with the rhythm of the sound-track, one
rhythmically strikes the bones of another as though he were a xylophone. The skeletons fall
apart and reassemble, into one body. When the rooster crows, signalling daybreak, the
skeletons panic and quickly run off to return to the grave.
12
Merbabies (1938)
By selecting Merbabies for this research the later work in the Silly Symphonies productions is
included. Furthermore Eisenstein was fascinated by these miraculous creatures and refers to
the animation numerous times in his essay on Disney. The short was produced with the
technicolor technique. This animation features the Merbabies as leading characters, who
miraculously appear from the bubbles of breaking waves of the ocean. They are childlike in
both their behaviour and appearance. The Merbabies decent to the bottom of the ocean where
they lead a circus of sea creatures that pretend to be the animals we know in our human
circuses. The circus has octopuses that pretend to be elephants, snails that pretend to be sea
lions, a tiger fish that pretends to be his mammal version and many more morphed animals.
They show many performances and then at the sneeze of a whale, the Merbabies return to the
surface where they disappear by bursting bubbles.
Steamboat Willie (1928)
Inspired by the Jazz Singer (1927), Disney committed to producing the first fully
synchronized sound cartoon, this resulted in Steamboat Willie. Steamboat Willie features
Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and antagonist Pete. Steamboat Willie is selected for the
research because it is the first appearance of characters that are seen throughout the series.
The way the characters are features in this animation has become iconic. Their formal
structures are repeated throughout the whole series. Furthermore this animation is symbolic
for Disney’s innovative approach to animating.
The animation begins with the iconic scene of Mickey whistling a tune at the bridge of a boat.
Pete quickly comes around to kick him of the bridge, he is not in charge. Mickeys trips on a
piece of soap and falls buttocks first in a bucket of water. He is mocked by a parrot and
quickly responds by throwing a bucket on its head. In the next scene Mickey hauls a cow
aboard and Minnie misses the boat. She is hauled aboard with a hook, while the boat sails on.
Once on the boat, Minnie’s guitar and music are eaten by a goat; Mickey solves the problem
by turning the goat into a record player. This leads into song and dance; while many other
animals are played like instruments. The party is over when Mickey is caught by Pete, and
thrown into the galley to peel potatoes.
The Karnival Kid (1929)
Steamboat Willie¸ does not show much of Minnie, therefore The Karnival Kid is included in
the research because she is featured in the animation more elaborately. This animation
13
features Mickey as hotdog salesmen at the carnival. He gets infatuated by Minnie who
performs as a shimmy dancer at the carnival. He tries to sell her hotdogs, however these
behave like actual little dogs. They try to run off and make Mickey’s move on Minnie very
unsuccessful. Later that night Mickey returns to Minnie’s trailer to perform a song. Minnie is
quite impressed; however the cat is annoyed by all the noise and throws a radiator at his head.
Once again Mickey’s chances with Minnie are ruined.
Playful Pluto (1934)
To include Mickey’s iconic buddy Pluto the dog, Playful Pluto is included in the research.
Furthermore this offers another view at Mickey’s formal structure. In Playful Pluto Mickey is
doing some chores around the house and garden. Pluto, clumsy as he is, creates all kinds of
chaos. He throws around the leaves that Mickey had just raked together. He goes on to fight
the garden hose, swallow a flashlight and run into the house while panicking over the ingested
flashlight. He runs straight through the screen door, leaving a hole that lets in many flies.
Mickey tries to catch them with sticky paper but it is Pluto who gets tangles in it. The
animation ends with both Mickey and Pluto tangled in sticky paper, laughing on the floor.
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)
This animation is included in the research because it marks Disney’s transition into the
production of feature films. Furthermore Eisenstein discusses parts of the animation in his
essay on Disney. This way a more general image of Disney’s work can be created while
staying true to the timeframe provided by the essay.
The animation is based on the German fairy tale recorded by the brothers Grimm. With this
feature animation film Disney wanted to expand his market. The well-known film is about
Snow White; a princess who has a very jealous stepmother. When Snow White becomes ‘the
fairest of them all’ and a prince falls in love with her, the queen orders a hunter to kill her. He
lets her escape and Snow White is led to refuge with the seven dwarfs thanks by the endearing
critters of the woods. When the queen finds out Snow White is still alive she disguises herself
as an old hag and poisons an apple to kill her step daughter with. The critters warn the dwarfs
and they rush back home to chase away the old hag. Although they succeed, and the old hag
falls of the mountain, it is already too late. The dwarfs are very sad and they put Snow White
in a glass casket. The prince eventually finds Snow White, and kisses her. As a result of the
kiss, Snow White coughs up a piece of apple and comes back alive. After this all is well and
she can leave with the prince to live happily ever after.
14
1: Theoretical framework and Method
The case study of the material mentioned above will be done according to the leading
theoretical material in today’s grotesque research field. Eisenstein’s work on Disney will
provide a basis to work with throughout the thesis. Therefore in this chapter I will do a
theoretical study of the most important sources, starting with the Eisenstein’s pivotal findings.
Because he never finished the essay, he has not structured his work. Over time he changed his
research angle, and several themes return throughout the book. I will give this more structure
by categorizing his findings and depicting where questions are left or answers are untenable
given today’s film research. Eisenstein’s pivotal findings will be framed within the theory of
respectably Kayser, Bachtin and Carroll. Their theories substantiate the presence of grotesque
aesthetics and the functioning of the grotesque in Disney. Furthermore they connect with the
findings of Eisenstein. Their theories will be used to analyse the different aspects of the
grotesque, which will be explained more elaborate in the method of analyses (p. 27). The
overview of Eisenstein’s research will be followed by a short theoretical study of their work,
meant as a tool for the analysis, not to define the grotesque. I will focus on their core view of
the grotesque and depict their key themes. Furthermore I will give a clear view on what will
be most important to the current research and what will be used in the method of analysis. In
this first chapter I will focus on the questions; which basis has Eisenstein left us for a study of
the grotesque in early Disney focussed on “attractability”? And in light of Eisenstein’s
essay; how can the standard studies on the grotesque of Kayser, Bachtin and Carroll form a
heuristic in a method of analysis for such a research.
On the subject of defining the grotesque I join the writers before me whom have decided the
grotesque is in its essence undefinable. This form of art is the tradition to challenge the
existing categories and definitions. Annie van de Oever is one of them, in de grotesque
tegentraditie she writes ‘Ik zou hier willen betogen dat in het groteskenonderzoek de
problematische verhouding van groteske kunst tot de traditie zeker zinvol kan worden
bestudeerd, maar niet zinvol kan worden <opgelost> in termen van een <
afbakeningsprobleem>, omdat – en merkwaarding genoeg is dit maar door weinig
beschouwers opgemerkt – groteske kunst juist ook de pogingen tot onderbrenging,
categorisering en bepaling van betekenis van waarde ondermijnt’. In Harphams preface of the
1982 edition of on the grotesque he goes through several ways to approach a problem or an
idea to demonstrate how impossible it is to grasp the grotesque. He shows it ‘cannot be
15
defined formally, thematically, affectively or even by relation to other concepts’ (xxiv). “Even
though there is no clear consensus about what the grotesque exactly is it is productive to study
the effects of its many forms as it is a great way to test the effects of formal structures that
transgress our ontological boundaries”.
1.1 - Eisenstein on Disney
With Eisenstein as the starting point of this thesis we must first look at his most important
findings on Disney. His work on Disney, as organized by Jay Leyda, is separated in 5 pieces,
4 parts, separating certain time period in which he worked on the problem and a 5th,
containing extra notes, as an appendix. Parts I and II, written 1940 and 1941, are introductory
pages and the first exploration of the problem. In the third part, written by the end of 1941
Eisenstein returned to the problem and he reorganized his research.
In the first two parts Eisenstein focusses on the creativity of Disney, the omnipotence in form
and content, the complete synthesis between form and music and the animations as an escape
from capitalistic American life. Eisenstein admires the creativity of Disney and he writes;
Disney creates on conceptual level of man not yet shackled by logic, reason, or experience
(1988, p.2). In this we already find the link to the grotesque as he notes that Disney is
completely limitless on a conceptual level. Disney’s creativity transgresses all ontological
boundaries of our world. As Eisenstein describes; “Disney (and it's not accidental that his
films are drawn) is a complete return to a world of complete freedom (not accidentally
fictious), freed from the necessity of another primal extinction”(1988, p.3). In this is of course
the origin of the omnipotence of his world in both form and content. “How much (imaginary!)
divine omnipotence there is in this”(1988, p.3)!. Eisenstein finds this omnipotence on three
levels, in the animated line, in the creatures and in the abilities of the creatures. The animated
line is remarkable in itself, especially when we look at the time in which Disney worked with
this technique. A line, drawn on paper, we know as an unchangeable form, comes to life
through animation and changes its form constantly. Thus we find the grotesque in the core of
Disney’s filmmaking technique. Here we have a being represented in drawing, a being of a
definite form .. which behaves like the primal protoplasm, not yet possessing a ‘stable’ form.
His work on the animated line led Eisenstein to the theme of ‘protoplasmaticness’ that would
result in effects in the viewer on a physiological level. However as Leyda remarks; ‘the idea
of ‘intercellular’ memory, appears not at all heretical in light of the latest discoveries in
genetics and cytology’ (1988, p. xi).
16
Disney’s animated lines form all kinds of creatures; fish, mammals and birds. These creatures
do not restrict themselves to their given form, they are omnipotent; they substitute for or are
mixtures of other creatures. As Eisenstein writes; “The animals in Merbabies substitute for
other animals: fish – for mammals. In Disney’s works on the whole, animals substitute for
people. The tendency is the same: a displacement, an upheaval, a unique protest against the
metaphysical immobility of the once and forever given” (1988, p.33). Here Eisenstein finds
fusion figures and metamorphosis in Disney. In his “protest against the metaphysical
immobility of the ones and forever given” we find Carrolls transgression of ontological
boundaries.
Besides their transgression of ontological boundaries in their zoology, Eisenstein also finds
grotesque abilities in Disney’s creatures. “Disney’s beasts, fish and birds have the habit of
stretching and shrinking” (1988, p.4). Whenever needed the creatures will stretch and shrink,
a symptomatic ability found in all early Disney animations. Here the creatures switch easily
between the very large or gigantic and the very small, two different grotesque subcategories
described by Carroll. This ability is often used by the creatures to reach complete synthesis
between form and music. Eisenstein finds this characteristic as he describes Mickey Mouse;
“The hands echo the music as only the movements of Disney’s characters are capable of
echoing a melody. And then reaching for a high note, the arms shoot up far beyond the limits
of their normal representation. In tone to the music, they stretch far beyond the length allotted
them” (1988 p.10).
The last focal point, the escape from American life is heavily tainted by political views. With
a background in Marxist Leninist communism, Eisenstein can be expected to reject the
democratic capitalist lifestyle of America. He writes; “And you see how the drawn magic of a
reconstructed world had to arise at the very summit of a society that had completely enslaved
nature - namely, in America. Where, at the same time, man had become more merciless than
in the stone age, more doomed than in prehistoric times, more enslaved than during the slave
owning era”(1988, p3). This political view returns many times in Eisenstein’s essay, however
this is not a thesis about the political differences between the USSR and America mirrored in
film. Interesting for this research is Eisenstein’s remark that these animations are formed in a
time of change and friction, as is often seen with grotesque art in general.
Furthermore the effect on the viewer as an escape from daily life is important to the current
thesis. An escape from daily life can be found in entertainment which leads us to Carroll. He
17
explains the grotesque is a ready source of intense emotion and novelty (2003 p.309), making
the grotesque form very productive to the growing entertainment industry. Besides being a
filmmaker, Disney is a businessman, and is therefore more than likely to exploit such an
opportunity. Furthermore as an animator, as Carroll has also pointed out, he had afforded the
freedom for imaginative invention through drawing, which perhaps predisposed Disney
towards the grotesque as well (2003 p.293). The theory of Kayser and Bachtin can also be
connected to this escape from daily life as both theories hold liberating aspects of their own.
Kayser views the grotesque as a way to enable the viewer to see their word differently, to
overcome fears and boundaries and ultimately to imagine new possibilities. Bachtin views the
grotesque as a way to liberate man from all inhuman necessity’s that direct the prevailing
concept of the world.
In the third part of Leyda’s book we find Eisenstein’s return to the problem. He reorganizes
his research and tries different angles to explain the effects on the viewer. Eisenstein had
some sources to base his explanations on such a theory from Freud and Lenin, although he is
mainly dismissive of their findings, for obvious reasons more explicitly on Freud (1988,
p.46). Time and again he approached the themes animism and totemism, in relation to fire and
ecstasy. This part of his work is gravely unstructured and clearly unfinished; it is more a
collection of different notes and ideas. Below, I will try to organize his most dominant views.
Animism
Eisenstein views Disney as a direct embodiment of animism; the belief that all entities,
animals, plants and lifeless objects possess a spiritual essence. He writes; “The animated
drawing is the most direct manifestation of … animism! That which is known to be lifeless, a
graphic drawing, is animated. Drawing as such – outside an object of representation! – is
brought to life. But furthermore and inseparably, the subject - the object of representation – is
also animated: ordinary lifeless objects, plants, beasts – all are animated and humanized”
(1988, p.43).Eisenstein connects this animism to fire as it is a much used metaphor for the
external appearance of the soul. The contour of fire is like the enclosed line typical for
Disney’s animations; plasmatic and omnipotent (p. 42). This way Eisenstein searches for an
explanation for the attraction of Disney’s form. Combining Heraclitus, Hegel and Lenin leads
him to; “Fire is an image of coming into being, revealed in a process” (1988, p.47). And so
fire, or omnipotent form, such as the animated line of Disney, functions as a metaphor for the
“all- (omni-) possible phenomena and forms” (1988, p.47). According to Eisenstein, through
this form man can capture the sensation of ecstasy; “the sensing and experiencing of the
18
primal 'omnipotentence' -the element of 'coming into being' –'the plasmaticness' of existence,
from which everything can arise” (1988, p46). Because man craves this sensation he will
always search for something to resemble it, and this would make Disney’s formal traits
attractive as it connects to this deep trait of the primal psyche.
Totemism
Eisenstein finds two stages of totemism in Disney’s animations. Totemism goes through three
stages knowing; factual unity of animal and man, unity of animal and man in totemistic belief,
the comparison of animal and man. Disney is on the first stage in the sense that the creatures
in the animations are both animal and human, or as Carroll would say; fusion figures or
humanized. As Eisenstein describes; “The peacock and parrot, the wolf and horse, the night
stand and dancing flame of Disney are actually simultaneously and identically both animal (or
object, or bird) and a human” (p.53). The third stage, the comparison of animal and man is
reversed in Disney. “The gamecock is a plastic metaphor of .. an aggressive, cocky fighter.
Taken in reverse and literally” (p.49). Eisenstein explains that this literalization of the
metaphor, “the absence of a transference and figurative sense” (p.49), causes the comical
effect. In another part on totemism, this imersion of the self is connected to ecstasy as was
done with animism. Eisenstein describes Disney as 'pure formal ecstasy’. Here the comical
effect is attributed to the fact that “the process of ecstasy is represented as an object:
literalized, formalized” (p.42).
Summarizing, Eisensteins work can be viewed in two categories; identification of Disney’s
creative and resulting formal characteristics and exploration of their effects on the viewer.
Above we have found several formal qualities of Disney revolving around its omnipotence
that connects naturally to the grotesque. It provides a detailed basis to work with, however
Eisensteins work on understanding the attraction of these characteristics is far less satisfying.
The work is incomplete and untenable given today’s research. The immersion of the self and
comparing with animals in the explorations animism and totemism in Disney will be useful to
the current research, as it leads us to Carrolls fusion figures. Eisenstein’s description of the
literalization of the reversed metaphor also asks for supplementation of Carrolls work.
Eisensteins does not come to a full understanding of the effects of omnipotent form through
the themes animism and totemism or the theory on the attraction of fire. As mentioned before
his explanation of ‘protoplasmaticness’ and ‘intercellular’ memory, is not heretical anno
2015. The sensation of ecstasy connects to the work Kayser and Bachtin; to fertility and the
possibility of a better world. Their work would give a more detailed and viable explanation of
19
the affects of experiencing omnipotent form. All and all today’s research will provide a more
specific analysis of the different aspects of this characteristic of Disney’s work.
1.2 - Post war theories of the Grotesque
Kayser, 1957
Wolfgang Kayser was the first to formulate a theory on the grotesque that established it as an
aesthetic category. Grotesque art had always been viewed in light of the classical tradition.
The romantic era, the second half of the 18th century, emphasized intense emotion triggering a
new appreciation for emotions such as apprehension, horror and terror and awe. This period
resulted in extensive dissolution of the traditional views. This combination gave way to the
grotesque aesthetics to be re-appreciated and considered from a theoretical point of view and
it could be given meaning other than subversive, disorderly, objectionable etc. For Kayser this
period of renewed appreciation was most important to draw from for his theory (v. d. Oever,
2003, p. 10).
Kaysers standard work on the grotesque Das Groteske: seine Gestaltung in Malerei und
Dichtung appeared in 1957. This work has been of great value to most grotesque studies in the
20th century. His study follows the evolution of the term grotesque and is set up
chronologically; following centuries of artwork containing grotesque elements (v. d. Oever,
2003, p. 10). His research resulted in similarities in grotesque manifestations bridging time
periods and disciplines. Based on this Kayser concluded the term had grown from proper
designation to an aesthetic category because it denotes a creative process a work and a
particular effect within the spectator.
Kayser views the grotesque as the estranged world, that is; our world. The structure of the
grotesque makes our world seem threatening because what we knew before is no longer
reliable. (Kayser, 1981, p.185). It is not the artwork itself that has to be threatening; its effect
on our world is what instils an uncanny feeling in the spectator. The artwork shows the
spectator that his reality is unreliable by contradicting our rationalism and ontological
categories. Because of this our survival rules no longer apply, facing the spectator with the
fear of not knowing how to survive in this estranged world. (Kayser, 1981, p.185). Taking the
viewer suddenly into the realm of the unknown, the fearful, the repulsive, the unnatural, the
dark, the demonic and the disorderly, the grotesque elicits a fear of present life, more than
death, as truth suddenly seems unreliable. For Kayser suddenness and surprise are essential to
20
the grotesque. It is <a pregnant moment> – <a situation that is filled with ominous tension>.
According to Kayser, while the grotesque suddenly takes the viewer into an unknown fearful
world it can also elicit laughter (Kayser, 1981, p.187). Because we can’t understand this new
world it can seem absurd to us giving way to a bitter, cynical laughter. This has little to do
with fun though, according to Kayser it expresses our incapability to grasp and understand our
world.
This uncanny, fearful, powerless experience is not as negative as it seems, according to
Kayser it holds a “secret liberation”. (Kayser, 1981, p.187). Because we have experienced the
grotesque we have faced the ‘dark forces which lurk in and behind our world’, we know what
is hiding in the darkness capable of changing our truth. By exposing the dark it can be
overcome, once liberated of the fear of the unknown we can face its challenges, enabling us to
enjoy its limitless possibilities.
Following his research Kayser has found six recurrent themes leading to the grotesque
experience. Kayser has listed them in the summary of his book ‘The Grotesque in Art and
Literature’. First on the list of recurrent forms and motifs are the monsters (Kayser, 1981,
p.182) like the demons from the biblical apocalypse. Next are the animals, specifically the
creeping and nocturnal animals that “inhabit realms apart from and inaccessible to man”
(Kayser, 1981, p.182). Among these grotesque animals are the snakes, owls, toads, spiders
and bats. The plant world also offers grotesquery’s for instance when the jungle is so wild it
seems to become one with the animal world. The fourth theme consists of tools that come
alive and/or fuse with organic elements. In human beings, Kayser finds the final two themes
on his list; starting with those deprived of life, but not entirely lifeless. These are the puppets,
marionettes and automata with faces like masks. In the same group, with similar macabre
content, are the grinning skulls and moving skeletons. Last are the insane people, in which
human nature has taken on threatening form. In the case of the puppets, it is as though an
outside force has taken over a lifeless body, in the insane person, an outside force seems to
have overtaken the soul (Kayser, 1981, p.182).
In sum, Kayser standard study has raised the term grotesque from proper designation to an
aesthetic category. His study is the basis for the studies of Bachtin (1965) and Carrol (2003).
Kayser views the grotesque as an aesthetic that is a play with the absurd that estranges our
world. It takes the viewer intro the realm of the unknown and fearful. Because we cannot
understand this world, what we knew before is no longer reliable. Suddenness and surprise are
21
an important aspect of this experience. This new world can elicit a bitter laugh, only because
we have no other response. Kayser has listed 6 recurrent themes that are predisposed toward
this sort of content. These will be used in a systematic search for grotesque forms in the early
Disney material as selected in the introduction. This way the presence of the grotesque
aesthetics early Disney animations can be demonstrated. The current thesis revolves around
the affects of these formal aspects namely; the functioning of the grotesque in the attraction of
Disney. The pregnant moment, the estrangement of our world and our resulting liberation of
fears of the unknown are all effects taking place within the viewer. Given the comical nature
of the early Disney animations, and laughter being underexposed in Kaysers study; the studies
of Bachtin and Carrol will be more productive in explaining the affects. However Kayser does
offer a preliminary view on the presence and functioning of the grotesque aesthetics in
Disney. The application of Kaysers study in the current research will be further discussed in
the method of analyses (p. 27)
Bachtin, 1965
Bachtin found the true nature of the grotesque in its purest form in the folk culture of carnival.
The folk culture of carnival is a collection of protocols and rituals based on laughter. By
contrasting the classical world, filled with rules, politics and ceremonies it offered a different
nonofficial world in which all medieval people participated (Bachtin, 1965, p.6). According to
Bachtin carnival feasts were a temporary liberation of the prevailing truth (1965, p.10).
Bachtin views this as a second life for people. The elite class system has pushed the carnival
culture into the unofficial realm. This deepened the meaning of the culture and it became “the
expression of folk consciousness, of folk culture” (1965, p.6). Carnival offered an escape for
people from all classes from the official world. Official feasts were marked by the established
truth, organized and unchanging. Carnival feasts by contrast were the liberation of the
established truth; “Carnival was the true feast of time, the feast of becoming, change and
renewal” (1965, p.10). In this cultural movement lies the essence of Bachtin’s theory on the
grotesque. For Bachtin the grotesque is an aesthetic of hope and renewal. Through the
grotesque aesthetic experience the acquainted world becomes alien (in Kayserian terms) and
because of this it discloses the possibility of a different world. This different world has the
possibility of being a better and friendlier world. The existing world is broken down and then
can be regenerated and renewed (1965, p.48).
For Bachtin there is no room within the definition of the grotesque for an alien inhuman
power ruling the world. Instead “the grotesque liberates man from all inhuman necessity’s
22
that direct the prevailing concept of the world” (1965, p.49). In prevailing concepts through
time, necessity has claimed to be stable, serious, timeless and unconditional. However the
prevailing concept of necessity always changes over time. The grotesque destroys the
pretences of necessity using laughter from the carnival spirit. By destroying the prevailing
concept of necessity the human consciousness, thought and imagination become available for
new possibilities (1965, p.49).
Following his analysis of the representation of the human body in the work of Rabelais,
Bachtin found it to have a subversive, contrasting relation to the classical bodily canon (v. d.
Oever, 2003, p.60). He notes that the concept canon can’t be applied as a specific group of
consciously established rules, norms and proportions in the representation of the human body.
The grotesque aims to break such rules, it is ‘non-canonical by its very nature’ (Bachtin,
1965, p.30). The term is used in a wider sense of representation. Even though Bachtin
distinguishes two canons; the classic and the grotesque, he notes that they are never truly
separated or changeless, because both forms interchange various elements and change over
time (Bachtin, 1965, p.30).
The classical canon, based on the canon of antiquity, represents the body as a ‘strictly
completed, finished product’ (Bachtin, 1965, p.29). This body is strictly singular and has no
connection to other bodies. This body is healthy and perfectly proportioned, it is smooth and
closed off; signs of its natural unfinished character are not represented. It has no bumps or
wounds, it doesn’t conceive or give birth, nor does it struggle with age, death or disease. It is
as far away from both womb and grave as possible. “The accent was placed on the completed,
self-sufficient individuality of the given body” (Bachtin, 1965, p.29). The eyes, mouth and
nose and the lower abdomen have an expressive characterizing function, they do not represent
the inside of the body or bodily functions. The higher bodily functions and features expressing
individuality are emphasized. In this fashion the classical bodily canon is used to represent the
exalted idealistic, spiritual and intellectual ideas.
In the grotesque imagery the body “reflects a phenomenon in transformation, an as yet
unfinished metamorphosis, of death and birth, growth and becoming” (1965, p.26). This body
is incomplete as it is in the process of changing. It is not separated from other bodies like the
classical body. It is outgrowing itself and transgresses boundaries of itself and other bodies.
Parts of the body that are open, the mouth, genitalia, eyes and ears are emphasized. It has
23
bumps and warts and wounds. It is heavily disproportioned; gigantic, minuscule or partially
mixed.
Contrasting the classical canon, the grotesque body is often either close to the womb or to the
grave; it is pregnant or giving birth, emerging from the womb or dying. The imagery will
often feature both at the same time in one or two bodies. In such an image we see two
characteristic traits of the grotesque; a strong relation to time by showing transience while
being ambivalent. It shows time by featuring a metamorphosis that is contradictory, both
beginning and end of a process, otherwise separated by time, are pictured simultaneously. As
an example, Bachtin refers to the terracotta collection of Kerch; featuring old senile pregnant
hags, laughing hysterically. “This is a typical and very strongly expressed grotesque. It is
ambivalent. It is pregnant death, a death that gives birth” (1965, p.25).
The imagery of the grotesque body seems repulsing and frightful; however the bodily element
is deeply positive in Bachtin’s theory. This body is never individualized; it is connected to
other bodies and spheres of life (1965, p.19). It represents life as one cosmic whole, including
death. In Bachtin’s theory the principle of the body should not be interpreted as a
physiological body. It is not found in the biological individual or in the bourgeois ego but in
the people as a whole, ‘who are continually growing and renewed’ (1965, p.19). This body
does not deny its origin in and connection to the material and earth. The manifestations of life
as described above; the bumps, warts, wounds and giving birth do not refer the individual but
indicate the connection to the continually changing cosmic whole. They refer to the whole of
life, to the “collective ancestral body of all the people” and not the individual. They signify
the themes of the grotesque bodily life knowing; “fertility, growth, and a brimming-over
abundance” (1965, p.19). Decay or degradation in one body thus indicates renewal in the
people as a whole.
The distinction between these two representational canons, the grotesque and the classical,
became the core of Bachtin’s study (v. d. Oever, 2003, p. 61). Bachtin found the core of the
grotesque to be degradation or ‘rabaissement’. The classical bodily canon represents the
exalted idealistic, spiritual and intellectual ideas. The grotesque bodily canon brings these
intangible ideas back to the body and then degrades them by focusing on the lower bodily
functions. In this concept the body is used to materialize the subject, the intangible idea, to
bring it back into the flesh (Bachtin, 1965, p.20). This body, this flesh is where this idea is
lowered; it comes back down to earth. As the idea is brought back onto the grotesque body it
24
is degraded by the focus on the lower bodily functions because it is linked with the people’s
laughter. This laughter degrades and materializes. Lowering and degradation do not have
negative or humiliating character. Here they have ‘an absolute and strictly topographical
meaning’ (Bachtin, 1965, p.21). As the exalted is brought downward it reconnects with the
element earth. In Bachtin’s heuristic this is where the opportunity for renewal lies.
‘Degradation here means coming down to earth, the contact with earth as an element that
swallows up and gives birth at the same time. “To degrade is to bury, to sow and to kill
simultaneously, in order to bring forth something more and better” (Bachtin, 1965, p.21). In
the grotesque imaginary death and renewal are part of life's eternal movement. “The grave is
related to the earth's life-giving womb” (Bachtin, 1965, p.50). Because death is part of life it
is no longer frightening, because death is no longer an end but a new beginning (Bachtin,
1965, p.50).
In sum; Bachtin finds the grotesque in its purest form in the folk culture of carnival. The
grotesque bodily element has a central role in Bachtin’s theory; it can be viewed as a tool in
the method of ‘rabaissement’, the method that lowers the exalted idea or concept. Bachtin’s
positive view on the grotesque compliments Disney’s joyful world, Bachtin’s grotesque
bodily canon, the ‘rabaissement’ and continuous growth and renewal can be seen throughout
the animations. The most obvious examples of these are the bodies of dark and evil characters
like the skeletons, witches and monsters. But also the protagonist characters, such as Mickey
Mouse, have grotesque bodies. Mickey is both mouse and human (a mixture better explained
by Noël Carroll, whom will be discussed later), his bodily features are dramatically
exaggerated. Besides this his body is able to stretch far beyond the limit we would expect.
Mickey features emphasis on lower bodily functions; his belly is big and round and responds
to his surroundings as much as his face does. Bachtin’s study provides a clear heuristic to this
research to analyse the grotesque bodies in Disney’s animations. Eisenstein’s research has
singled out many of these grotesque bodily features and shown they are characteristic for
Disney’s work. He has also reviewed Disney as an escape from daily American, capitalist
society. Analysing the grotesque bodily element in Disney will show how the method of
‘rabaissement’ lowers the exalted ideas of the American society of the 1920s to 1940s. This
leads to the escape from daily American, capitalist society, as Eisenstein has found. This way
Eisenstein’s findings are related to the post war theory on the grotesque. Furthermore the
method of the ‘rabaissement’ is only achieved through revitalizing laughter; an affect.
Therefore analysing the grotesque bodies of Disney’s characters will provide a better
25
understanding of the “attractability” of the animations. The application of the heuristic
provided by Bachtin will be further explained in the method of analyses (p.27).
Carroll, 2003
In 2003 Noël Carroll has written a pivotal definition of the grotesque aesthetics its strategies
and its functions; The grotesque today, preliminary notes toward taxonomy. By comparing the
amount of grotesques available in his childhood and in contemporary media a clear
conclusion can be made; the grotesque is one of the leading formats in today’s mass art and
entertainment industry. Contemporary media supplies audiences with an abundance of
grotesques through video-games, film, theatre, comic books and TV. Whether or not one
thinks this is true depends on what you count as grotesque (Carroll, 2003, p. 291-294). It
depends on your definition of grotesque. With this problem Carroll starts his reflection on the
grotesque.
Carroll recognizes that the grotesque fulfils many different functions in contemporary media
culture. To name and organize all these different function would be an endless task. The
structural account of the grotesque offers and alternative approach to the problem. In his
attempt to define the grotesque Carroll explores the hypothesis that the genus of the grotesque
can be characterized structurally. Meaning the grotesque as a whole can be better
distinguished and explained through structure rather than function. This will lead to the
different strategies in which the grotesque is displayed. This account can then be used to
characterize functionally certain kind or species of the genus of the grotesque (Carroll, 2003,
p. 295).
According to Carroll, grotesque figures are all violations of our standing categories or
concepts; they are subversion’s of our common expectations of the natural and ontological
order. Carroll distinguishes 4 recurring strategies to realize the structural principle of
grotesque; disproportioning, fusion, formlessness and gigantism (2003, p. 296).
Carroll limits the grotesque to beings, things that are perceived animated. For lifeless objects,
for example buildings or music and arguments the term grotesque can only be used
metaphorically. This can be informative, but Carroll wants to make clear they are not literal
instances of the grotesque. The restriction of the notion of the grotesque to violations of our
ontological and biological categories aims to exclude violations of moral concepts (2003, p.
297).
26
According to Carroll the grotesque elicits three effective emotional states; horror, comic
amusement and awe. A creature can be counted as grotesque horrific when it fits the criteria
of harmfulness and repulsiveness. Just harmfulness will not elicit the emotional state of
horror, for then a soldier carrying a gun would be grotesque. To be repulsive the creature must
have some form of impurity. For example vomit, pieces of flesh or blood, these are
experienced as impure because they confuse categorical distinctions such as; me/not me,
living/dead and inside/outside me (2003, p.300).
Besides horror, the grotesque can also elicit the emotional state comic amusement. To
theorize this effect Carroll uses the incongruity theory of humour. According to this theory the
amusement must be directed at something particular that is perceived to be incongruous.
Incongruities that elicit comic amusement often violate, transgress, problematize or jam our
ontological and biological categories (Carroll, 2003, p.303). Comic amusement by
incongruity is wider than the grotesque, it is not restricted to animated beings. Carroll does
distinguish between both, for his theory, grotesque comic amusement by incongruities can
only be accounted to animated beings (2003, p.303). Incongruity can only be experienced as
comic when it is perceived as unthreatening. We experience film through the identification
with the characters. In the case of a threat we do not fear for our own lives but for that of the
character. A grotesque incongruity can be experienced as comic when it is not threatening to
the characters (2003, p.305).
Finally the grotesque can elicit the emotional state of awe and wonder. The state of awe is
triggered by grotesque beings that transgress our knowledge of nature. “The miraculous defies
our conception of nature” (2003, p.307). The horrific and the comic grotesque elicit reactions
to reject the being. Disgust and laughter are rejecting reactions to expel the being from our
body. The grotesque miraculous is different, we are astonished by the unlikeliness of what we
see, yet we accept and take it in. The difference is the fact that we do not experience the
miraculous as threatening. The possibility of a being to be perceived as miraculous depends
on the way it is presented in relation to the character (Carroll, 2003).
In sum, according to Carroll the grotesque beings violate our standing categories or concepts;
they are subversion’s of our common expectations of the natural and ontological order. The
structural principle of the grotesque is realized by recurring strategies such as; deformation,
disproportioning, fusion, formlessness and gigantism (2003, p. 296). The studies of Kayser
and Carroll both depict similar structural principles. Carrolls study is an addition to Kaysers
27
study with regard to the affective states elicited by the grotesque. According to Carrolls
standard work, the structural principles of the grotesque can elicit 3 affective states: horror,
comic amusement and awe and wonder.
Eisensteins work on Disney depicts many of Carrolls structural principles. However on the
affective states Eisensteins work was unsatisfying. The grotesque horrific, grotesque comic
amusement and the grotesque miraculous are omnipresent in Disney’s work. Framing Disney
in the grotesque theoretical perspective according to Carroll, will result in a more complete
explanation. Furthermore it must not be forgotten that Disney was an entrepreneur. In light of
this aspect of Disney’s artistic endeavour, Carrolls study is an asset to this research because it
incorporates the value of the grotesque to mass art and the entertainment industry. The
analysis of early Disney animation according to Carroll will focus on the affective states of
the grotesque. This will prevent a repetition of the analysis according Kayser because it
depicts similar structural principles. The application of the standard work of Carroll in this
research will be further discussed in the method of analysis below.
1.3 - Method of analysis
In chapters 2, 3 and 4, I will do analyse the early Disney animations selected in the
introduction, in the three clusters; Kayser, Bachtin and Carroll. Under the first cluster I will
search for grotesque forms in Disney’s world according to Kaysers 6 themes. In his summary
of his book ‘The Grotesque in Art and Literature’ he summarizes them, knowing; monsters,
animals, the plant-world, tools that come alive and/or fuse with organic elements, people
deprived of life and the insane. The examples found in this systematic search of the early
Disney material can then be linked to the implications on the viewing experience in
accordance with his theory. In Kaysers view the grotesque takes us suddenly to an estranged
world. It takes the viewer to the realm of the unknown, the fearful, the repulsive, the
unnatural, the dark, the demonic and the disorderly. He sees a secret liberation in this, by
exposing the evil it can be overcome. A systematic search will confirm the presence of the
grotesque aesthetics in Disney and lead to a better understanding of the effects of these forms
in relation to the viewing experience of the animations.
The bodies of Disney’s creatures show many grotesque abilities, as they are designed to
express all reactions of the character and to echo music. They stretch and shrink, withstand
the most awful accidents and have many more supernatural abilities. In chapter three these
bodies will be analyzed according to Bachtin’s theory, firstly because it offers a clear heuristic
28
on the grotesque body on a formal level. But more importantly the functioning of the
grotesque bodily element in his study offers a connection to a more profound insight. This
body performs a pivotal role in Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’, a process that became the core of
his theory. Within it, the bodily element is deeply positive as it stands for fertility, growth and
renewal, complementing Disneys work perfectly. In chapter one this theory will be explained
extensively. In the analysis according to Bachtin we will look for the trademarks of his
grotesque bodily element in the bodies of the creatures found in the early Disney material.
The examples will then be connected to Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’, resulting in a better
understanding of the effects of grotesque form in Disney’s animations.
In chapter four the early Disney material will be studied according to Noël Carroll. In ‘The
grotesque today, preliminary notes toward taxonomy’ Carroll offers a different categorization
than Kayser on different grotesque beings. Carroll categorized 4 strategies to realize the
structural principle of the grotesque, knowing; disproportioning, fusion, formlessness and
gigantism. The study material will be searched for examples of these strategies. Furthermore
Carroll has described three emotional states that the grotesque can elicit, knowing; horror,
comic amusement and awe and wonder. This will complement very well with questions left in
Eisensteins work. Although he has pointed at many grotesque forms, he was far less able to
explain the effects in the viewer. Therefore Carrolls theory on emotional states will be most
productive in explaining the grotesque function in the “attractability” of Disney.
Finally, the results of these three analyses will be incorporated in the explanation of the
functioning of the grotesque in the “attractability” of early Disney animations. This will be
the main body of the concluding chapter; besides this it will contain suggestions for following
research.
29
2: Analyses according to Kayser
In this chapter I will research the early Disney animations according to Kaysers theory on the
grotesque. Kaysers grotesque is the estranged world, a play with the absurd and an attempt to
invoke and subdue the demonic aspect of the world (Kayser, 1981). The estranged world is
not what we see in the work of art but the effect of it on the perception of our own world.
Suddenly the viewer is taken in to the realm of the fearful, the repulsive, the unnatural, the
dark, the demonic and the disorderly. This results in our own world and truth to become
unreliable, instilling a fear of life in us.
2.1 Structural accounts of the grotesque in Disney animations
To find Kaysers grotesque in the early Disney animations I will search for examples of the six
recurrent themes as mentioned in his summary of “the grotesque in art and literature” (1981).
I will search for the monsters, the animals, the plant-world, tools that come alive and/or fuse
with organic elements, people deprived of life and the insane. I will separate the animations in
4 parts searching for examples of the structural account in The Skeleton Dance, Merbabies,
the Mickey Mouse series and Snow white and the seven dwarfs. The Mickey Mouse series
will be clustered to, as described in the introduction, prevent repetitive descriptions.
The monsters
Under the monsters we search for mythological and biblical creatures, such as demons,
griffins, sphinxes, chimeras, rocs. These creatures combine parts that we would otherwise
separate in different species of animals or plants. This formal principle can be traced back to
the Domus Aurea in Rome and is, justly, continuously included in theory on the grotesque.
Harpham, Carroll and Bachtin have also included it in their description. Harpham writes ‘In
all the examples I have been considering, the sense of the grotesque arises with the perception
that something it illegitimately in something else. … things that should be kept apart are fused
together’(1982, p.13). Besides the mixture of species, Bachtin also includes the fushion of
different moment in life of the body. Carroll focusses on the formal structures much like
Kayser does, naming this strategy as fusion figures. According to him the use of these
structures can elicit the emotional states of horror, comic amusement and awe and wonder.
Kayser theory is more limited; his grotesque does not cause gay laughter in the initial
encounter. Perhaps a cynical laugh, but first and foremost is has a threatening aspect. The
structure causes a “pregnant moment”, “a situation that is filled with ominous tension”(1981,
30
p.184) Later on we can overcome the fear and estrangement of our own world, but this
liberating result is not achieved through comical harmless creatures. Kaysers themes exclude
these beings that Carroll includes through his theory on comic amusement.
Only a few examples of Kaysers monsters can be found throughout Disney’s early
animations. In the Silly Symphonies series, in Merbabies, we find the leading characters, the
Merbabies (still 1). These little creatures are half human toddler or baby and have a tail that
could be both fish and plant. The tail is shaped as a fish tail, however because of the fluent
movements and color it can also be interpreted as plant material. This formal structure is
similar to the mixture of elements we find in the ‘plant boys’ and fauns and nymphs
represented in the frescoes found in Rome. Purely formal, these creatures fit Kaysers monster
category perfectly, however when we review their effects on the viewer it becomes a stretch.
The Merbabies are the viewer’s guide into a magical circus on the bottom of the sea. This is a
carefree world, and the viewer is taken through it in a flowing colorful animation. This
animation does not suddenly shock the viewer or instill a fear of life. It elicits a liberating
laughter, not a cynical one.
Still 1
Still 2
In the Mickey Mouse series we find Pete the Cat, staring in Steamboat Willie. Pete was
originally designed as a bear and therefore exceedingly big. Because of this mixture of species
Pete can be viewed as a hybrid. Because of his aggressive nature we can link him to other
monsters and hybrids from mythology (still 2). However this does seem like a stretch, Pete is
also silly, and his threats never result in serious consequences. Perhaps when one viewed their
first Mickey Mouse animation Pete could still bring ominous tension to the screen. But
halfway through Steamboat Willie we already know that Pete is more bark than bite. The
narrative does not pay attention to his aggression and even Mickey Mouse, who is half his
size, is never startled for too long by this giant.
31
In Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs we find the exceedingly small dwarfs. Although not
specifically monstrous these creatures can be placed on Kaysers monster category because
they are mythical creatures.
The animals
In the category animals we search for the creeping and nocturnal animals that ‘inhabit realms
apart from and inaccessible to man’ (Kayser, 1981, p.182). Among these grotesque animals
are the snakes, owls, toads, spiders and bats. These animals do not transgress ontological or
biological boundaries as the monsters did but signal that the situation is unnatural or unsafe
for a character to be in.
The Skeleton Dance of the Silly Symphonies series opens with a sequence featuring and owl,
bats, a spider, a wolf and two black cats. The owl is first, the animation starts with a close up
of his eyes, luring through the screen at the viewer (still 3). As the ‘camera’ zooms out we see
the whole owl, inflating him-self to be even more threatening. Soon after the owl is startled by
the tree it is sitting in, breaking his threatening guise. (More on the tree under ‘the plants’).
After this the animation features a cemetery overlooked by a church, from the tower bats fly
towards the viewer, soon followed by a spider crawling across the screen (still 4). The next
shot shows the contour of a dog, which would later appear as Pluto, howling at the full moon,
as though he were a frightening wolf. The inflating and deflating, while howling, leads to
comicality, breaking down all his credibility as a frightening wolf. Last are two black cats,
fighting on top of two tombstones. They hiss and spit at each other and pull on each other’s
nose. In western culture black cats are considered an omen of death and bad luck, however
these cats are having an infantile fight, which breaks down their mystical effect.
These animals are all black with just eyes that can be distinguished from their contour,
emphasizing their dark nature, their belonging in the nocturnal environment. They symbolize
for the viewer that this is surely not a place for man to be, creating an initial tension
throughout the animation. Initial is an important aspect to mention here. Although these
animals fit Kaysers category in their formal structure and initially in their effects, they are
also made to be comical. The initial frightening aspect is followed by comicality, destroying
any ominous tension they could have created. So although these creatures fit Kayser formally,
they cannot be connected to Kaysers further category.
32
Still 3
Still 4
Still 5
Still 6
In Merbabies of the Silly Symphonies series many animals are featured in the underwater
circus. Placing these in Kaysers animal category does not quite fit either. They are animals
that suddenly take us into an absurd world, into a place where people would not naturally
come. But they are gay circus animals, playing and frolicking around (still 6). There is no
ominous tension to speak of in this animation, as we are looking for attractiveness, and effect
ultimately within the viewer, Kayser theory has little productive value in this instance. Kayser
discusses a fearful effect of the grotesque and considering comicality only the cynical laugh,
which is absent in this animation. The same applies for the Mickey Mouse series, at best we
find some insects (still 5). Such as the fly in Playful Pluto, but again it does not really produce
a pregnant moment. It is part in a clumsy struggle of Pluto, who gets stuck to the sticky paper
which was meant for said fly.
In Snow White and the Seven dwarfs we do find a few of Kaysers grotesque animals such as
bats, vultures and a raven (still 9, 10). Some of the most famous animals in this animation are
the critters and deers, helping snow white when she first gets lost in the woods (still 7). These
animals can surely be named grotesque, however they do not fit Kaysers theory like the
animals in the Mickey Mouse series and silly symphonies. They will be discussed in the
analyses under the analysis according to Bachtin and Carroll as their theory will be more
productive for the current research in these instances.
33
Still 7
Still 8
Still 9
Still 10
The bats, vultures and the raven all show up at moments when danger arises for Snow White.
The bats appear, while snow white is panicking through the woods. They complement the
impact of the hunter’s confession that her stepmother wants to have her killed. Just now snow
white was picking wildflowers on a sunny day in the woods. But now everything has
changed; her world is no longer the same. The bats formalize this sudden change, invoking
the demonic aspects of her estranged world.
Later on the raven is witness to the stepmothers change into the witch. An important moment
in the film, it is the rise of a terrible threat to Snow White. This moment is surrounded by
grotesque form, in the stepmother herself, and in the mise en scène. It is dark, there is a skull,
a poison is brewing and the raven is watching. The raven has yellow eyes, reflecting the literal
poison in this scene, giving it a repulsive quality. It is an animal known in Christian and
western culture in general as a symbol of bad luck, evil and death. Thus it is no surprise that
the evil stepmother is accompanied by it. It formalizes the uncanny in this scene,
complements the ominous tension of the moment and takes the viewer into the realm of the
fearful. Later on the stepmother, by then transformed into the old witch, comes to the house of
the dwarfs to offer Snow White the poisonous apple. In this scene we see two vultures
watching over the proceedings. As the witch gets closer to her goal, getting Snow White to eat
the apple, they lower their heads and look at each other in eager anticipation Snow Whites
34
death. In this instance as well the animals, the vultures formalize imminent danger, a sudden
change about to happen.
The plant-world
Still 11
Still 12
Still 13
Still 14
Under the plant world we search for examples where nature seems to erase the difference
between animals and plants (Kayser, p.183). Above the tree in the opening sequence of The
Skeleton Dance was mentioned while considering the Owl. Here it can be categorized as an
instance of Kayser plants that come alive. Still 11 shows a tree forming a human arm and
hand with its branch. It tries to grab the owl, startling the animal. This fits Kaysers category,
however as discussed above, due to comical effect, it also loses its effect rather quickly.
Images 12 and 13 and 14 show instances of Kaysers grotesque plant theme during snow white
panicked rush through the woods. Besides the bats that were discussed above, the woods seem
to come alive and try to capture her. Logs in the water turn into vicious crocodiles and
branches form hands that try to grab her. These living threatening plants add to the uncanny
atmosphere of this moment. As discussed above, snow white’s world has suddenly changed.
These forms draw the viewer into Snow Whites threatening world, into the realm of the
fearful, the dark and demonic.
35
The tools that come alive and/or fuse with organic elements
In this category we look for examples that transgress the boundaries between the mechanic
and the organic. They are the machines that come alive, or those that merge with a living
being (Kayser, 1981).
In the Mickey Mouse series we find some examples of this phenomenon. In ‘steamboat willie’
the boat itself comes alive, the chimneys move up and down while blowing smoke (still 15).
The whistles of the boat whistle along with the music and when one forgets to play its not, the
others remind him by kicking (still 16). Later on the boat picks up Minnie Mouse, the hook
hauling her about, moves to lift her skirt, and grabs her undergarments (still 17). On the boat a
goat eats Minnie’s sheet music and guitar. Luckily when the goat is treated as an organ by
turning his tail, it can still play music (still 18). This merges the goat with a mechanic devise.
Mickey gets inspired and the same follows with many more animals, they are all played as
musical instruments, creating several fashions between animal and instrument. In ‘Playful
Pluto’, Pluto gets into a struggle with the garden hose and while doing so it seems to fight
back (still 19). Also the water meter, in still 20, goes wild and seems to be more living than
strictly mechanics. Furthermore Pluto swallows a flashlight, and while it lights the dog from
inside, this mechanical devises merges with the dog (still 21).
These instances have the same problem as mentioned discussing the examples of the animals
and the monsters in the silly symphonies and the Mickey Mouse series. They can be fitted into
Kaysers theory formally, although it is a stretch. The mechanical objects come alive but do
not ‘unfold a dangerous life of their own’ as he describes in his summary (1981, p.183). These
instances too elicit gay laughter, not a cynical one. When considering their effects Kayser
offers little productive answers for the current research. The theory of Bachtin and Carroll
will fit these phenomena’s better.
Still 15
Still 16
36
Still 17
Still 18
Still 19
Still 20
Still 21
People deprived of life
Under the deprived of life, Kayser focusses on human bodies that are reduced to puppets,
marionettes and automata (1981, p.138). However the theme has changed over time, Kayser
writes “Even the grinning skull and the moving skeleton are motifs the macabre content of
which structurally aligns them with the grotesque” (1981, p.184). The Dance of Death is also
discussed as a source of influence and according to Kayser it can enrich the vocabulary of the
grotesque if it would “slough off its didactic skin” (1981, p.184). Bases on this we can
categorize the skeletons of The Skeleton Dance of the Silly Symphonies under the deprived of
life. They are moving skeletons; we know that ones they were human bodies with flesh, now
clearly biologically deprived of life, yet moving. Disney shows what Kayser had asked for;
the skeletons perform a dance of death without a didactic skin. However here too it would be
a stretch to make Kaysers further theory productive, as the skeletons are a caricature of the
37
horrific beings they represent. Supported by the chancing mood of the music they sneak
around, one moment frightening, the next comical. As the music changes so does their
posture, in stills 23 and 24 the switch between horrific and comical is clear to see.
Still 22
Still 23
Still 24
The insane
The insane includes people in which the human nature has taken on a threatening form; an
outside force seems to have overtaken the soul (1981, p.184). In this category we can place
the evil queen from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This stepmother, queen and witch
transforms herself into an old hag because of mad jealousy. Before the transformation in an
old hag, her clothing, eyes and mouth give her a threatening guise (still 25). She wears and
impressive cape making her look bigger than she naturally would be. Her eyes are poisonous
green and frames by dark lines and strict eyebrows. Her mouth holds a cynical grin
throughout the film, nearly grinding her teeth, giving her a controlling, mad and frustrated
look. During her transformation, evil forces completely take hold of her. Although she only
takes the form of an old hag to disguise herself, it also reveals her true form, as it reminds us
of evil witches (still 26).
38
Still 25
Still 26
2.2 Syntheses: cartoon shorts and feature animation films
By finding examples of the forms and motifs of Kaysers themes it has been established that
there are many grotesqueries in Disney’s early animations. Many of the grotesque forms
found in Disney are either difficult to place within the themes or not at all. Even though
Kaysers theory does not fit all grotesqueries found, this analysis has brought productive
results.
According to Kayser “the word grotesque applies to three different realms - the creative
process, the artwork itself, and its reception” (1981, p.180). For all animations considered
Disney’s work fits into the first two of these realms. As Eisenstein has described, Disney
liberates himself of all boundaries of our world in his creative process (1988). While doing so
he also plays with the dark and absurd, breaking down its boundaries. This has led to
animations, the artworks an sich, that are structurally clearly grotesque. Disney’s work is a
play with the absurd and estrangement of our world. A goose can also be an instrument, the
dead can dance and bodies can be completely transformed.
The categorization of the grotesque forms in the material, marked as early Disney animations,
according to Kaysers themes has also revealed an important division. Disney is consistent in
his boundless creativity and in the structure of his forms, however there is a remarkable
change in the effects of these forms when he switches from cartoons to feature films. The
short animations or cartoons, the pre-war work; in this research represented by the Silly
Symphonies and the Mickey Mouse series, are comical and for all ages, including adults. The
feature animation films, the post-war work; in this research represented by Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs, are for children and more serious.
The pre-war cartoons, contain some of the grotesque strategies covered in Kaysers themes;
some beings, tools and plants, but categorizing these as such is a stretch. These fit partially,
but Kaysers theory would not provide complete understanding of the reception of these
39
aesthetics. The situations surrounding these grotesqueries are not serious, do not hold
ominous tension and are never very threatening. Kaysers ‘unheimliche’ is not found in these
comical cartoons. Here Disney does not leave the viewer in the absurd and unknown,
questioning his own world. These instances of the grotesque, and many more to be found in
Disneys work, belong to the comical grotesque. They elicit a gay, liberating laughter, not a
cynical one. This aspect of the grotesque is under-represented in Kaysers theory. Reviewing
their effects based on Bachtin’s theory on the grotesque body and Carrolls theory on the
emotional effects of these aesthetics will be far more productive for the current research.
In the post-war work, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, more grotesqueries are found that
function in the way Kayser had described. Although little examples can be found, during the
crucial moment the grotesque forms are involved. They create sudden fearful moments, give a
strong contrast and are explicitly threatening. Snow whites fled through the woods, the queen
that brings her and apple as an old hag; these are situations about life and death, that estrange
the viewers world. We do not expect a (step) mother to want to kill her (adopted) daughter.
40
3: Analyses according to Bachtin
While searching for examples of Kaysers themes many grotesque forms in Disney’s
animations have been found that were difficult to place, among them are many characters with
grotesque bodies. Analyzing them according the Bachtin will show their pivotal role in the
effects of the grotesque forms of Disney. As our main question revolves around an effect
within the viewer, this will be most productive for the thesis.
I will search the animations for signs of bodies that are open, connected to others, unfinished,
transforming and disproportioned. The grotesque bodily elements will be searched by looking
at the early Disney animations one by one. However some will be grouped to prevent
repetition; Disney has the habit of recycling formal elements and the Mickey Mouse series
has continuous characters.
3.1 Grotesque bodies of characters in Early Disney
The skeleton dance (1929)
The Skeleton Dance (1929) starts with the owl, whom is introduced through his eyes. The
animation starts with a screen filling, enlargement of these eyes (still 27). This gives the
impression of an extreme close-up, a popular technique in the 1920s. His pupils grow and
shrink and the eyes blink. As the pupils switched size so does his body, as discussed before he
grows and shrinks while he hoots eerily through the night. With this movement his body
switches between exceedingly big and small (still 28, 29). When he is frightened by the tree
trying to grab his head, his neck stretches far beyond what we would expect to be possible
(still 30).
Still 27
Still 28
The bats and the spiders are featured after the owl and they share the owl’s large bulging eyes,
besides this they have a very large mouth with big teeth. Following Bachtin’s theory these
creatures would not be named grotesque because they are nocturnal, as in the analyses
41
according to Kayser. According to Bachtin we can name the owl, bats and spider grotesque
because of the exceedingly large size of their mouth and eyes (and the owl’s body). This is a
disproportioning and it emphasizes the openness of their body (Bachtin, 1965).
Still 29
Still 30
After this we encounter the dog growing excessively big and small while howling at the
moon. Next we see the cats that show several grotesque qualities. Among them one that is the
same as that of the owl and the dog; while hissing at each-other their body grow big and
small, stretching and shrinking, causing their bodies to be disproportioned. Furthermore they
have excessively big eyes and a large mouth. They are spitting at each-other and pull on eachothers nose. When they stretch the nose, the tail shrinks, as though they are connected. Here
we witness a literal connection between the higher and the lower bodily stratum.
Of course we also encounter the dancing skeletons, with the most obvious grotesque bodies of
this animation. They are living dead; we only see the inside of the body as the outside is no
longer existent. The body is completely open, large gaping holes in the skull for eyes and a
big forever grinning smile. One skeleton jumps towards the screen making the viewer literally
enter his mouth (still 31). On skeleton uses another as a xylophone, playing music on its
bones. As he bangs the head of the skeleton functioning as a xylophone towards the ground
more and more emphasis is put on the rump. Emphasis on the playing skeletons rump is
created by his pelvis and spine moving up and down, as though detached from his rib case.
The bodies of the skeletons lose their form while dancing, they can shrink and sway although
the bones are expected to be stiff (still 32). The bodies fall apart multiple times, and merge
with each-other (still 33, 34). These are grotesque bodies, close to the grave, past even
moving as one, clearly not singular.
42
Still 31
Still 32
Still 33
Still 34
In this animation we find several instances of the extreme close-up for instance a spider
crawling across the screen, the eyes of the owl, the skeleton jumping towards the viewer and a
skeleton dancing towards the viewer snapping its teeth together. According to van den Oever,
“a (extreme) close-up on an enormous (wide) screen creates a distortion of the natural
proportions and as such, is a disturbance to our perceptual and cognitive system”(2009, p. 9) .
As the skeleton jumps towards the viewer, the inherent close-up results in a heavily
disproportioned head. Van den Oever covers a spider as seen in this animation in her
discussion, as a result of the close-up the spider is no longer a spider, but a monster (2009, p.
9). Close-ups such as these instances and resulting disproportioning turn any normal being
into a “monster” let alone these nocturnal creatures. The close-ups utilize the impact of the
distorted and disproportioned causing emotional shock in the viewer (2009, p. 8). Considering
this it must be remembered that these animations were originally viewed on cinema screens.
These instances must have been a shocking experience for the audience especially given the
time the animation premiered. Although even today close-ups still cause confusion in our
ontological categorization, in 1929 this sort of technique was still a novelty. With an audience
not yet desensitized to this medium, this was an extra shocking experience.
The creatures in The Skeleton Dance share a specific trait; they are all creatures that are
connected to the dark and death according to mythology. With his formal strategies, Disney
clearly performs a form of, what Bachtin has described as, ‘rabaissement’ in this animation.
43
Disney formalizes the exalted idea of the fearfulness of death through well-known symbolic
creatures, and connects these to the lower bodily functions. They all have excessively big eyes
and a gaping mouth. For Bachtin the gaping mouth is pivotal “of all the features in the human
face, the nose and mouth play the most important part in the grotesque image of the body”
(1965, p.316). “This is the most ‘vivid expressions of the body as not impenetrable but open”
(1965, p.339). An open mouth is a symbol of entrance to ‘the depths of the body’ (1965,
p.339). Here the old dies and the new is born, this is a place of renewal, the open mouth can
be viewed as an open womb (1965, p.339). The big bulging eyes are there to frame the mouth,
as an affirmation of the grotesque body transgressing its individual boundaries. They are a
manifestation of bodily tension; it “seeks to go out beyond the body’s confines” (1965,
p.316). As the open mouth can be connected to the womb and thus to the act of birth, the
bulging or popping eye, as a typical sign of suffocation, can be connected to “death throes”
(1965, p.353). By connecting these lower bodily functions to these symbolic creatures, the
exalted idea they represent, the fearfulness and mystery of death, is broken down. The further
comicality of these instances will be discussed under the analysis according to Carroll.
Merbabies (1938)
In Merbabies of the Silly Symphonies we find the grotesque bodies of the leading characters,
the Merbabies. As discussed under the analysis according to Kayser, their bodies are a
mixture of human and fish or plant. Considering these bodies according Bachtin’s heuristics
asks for a more detailed description. The bodies of the Merbabies have many grotesque bodily
features. As mentioned before, their upper bodies have the traits of a toddler. Important parts
of this bodily structure according to Bachtin are their short, compact and plump proportions.
The combination of this body with their large heads causes disproportioning. The head on its
own is heavily disproportioned; they have huge eyes, an excessively big forehead, a tiny
mouth and almost no chin (still 36). This emphasis the openness of the body as was the case
with the nocturnal creatures in The Skeletons Dance.
Still 35
Still 36
44
Almost matching their big heads in size is their lower bodily stratum. They have a big round
belly that is emphasized by their posture; their upper body seems to drag behind the belly
while their swimming. Their mermaid like tail shifts throughout the animation between
covering and exposing the buttocks. In many shots it only covers the legs and the front of the
pelvis, exposing the buttocks are exposed (still 35). This lower bodily stratum is emphasized
as it constantly sways back and forth while they swim or dance, disrupting the vertical
hierarchy of the body.
The Merbabies come in a big group and are all exactly the same. They literally function as
one, as a shoal of fish. In the beginning of the animation they are a chaos, ascending to the
bottom of the sea, they form a perfect string, synchronizing their movements. This reinforces
the openness and connectedness already created by their other grotesque bodily features. It
opposes the classical bodily canon, these bodies are nog singular.
This body simultaneously refers to innocence through the formal feature of a toddler and to
the seductiveness and fertility of the mythical mermaid. According the myth, the mermaid is
anything but innocent. There are several myths Merbabies can be connected to; Enki, god in
the pantheon of Mesopotamia whom is male, strong and god of the underwater and the Greek
sea-daemons who lured sailors onto the rocks. Most familiar today are the mermaids of the
middle ages where the church would use them as a symbol of evil and seduction. From this
time the stories of sailors originate who portrayed mermaids as perfect classical seductive half
naked woman with a fishtail. In the Merbabies bodies Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’ process is
applied, in two ways, the body is turned upside down and the meaning of its form is made
ambiguous. The lower bodily stratum is so large and dominating in expression it seems to
take over the role of the upper stratum. Furthermore there is an emphasis on the innocent bare
buttocks instead of seductive breasts the myth would have us expect. The body partially
mimics the mythical mermaids, but instead of a curving fertile adult female body it is a young
innocent children’s body, without obvious gender. The turning of the body is a movement
inherent to grotesque according to Bachtin. “All of them thrust down, turn over, push
headfirst, transfer top to bottom, bottom to top, both in the literal sense of space, and in the
metaphorical meaning of the image” (1965, p.370). As described in the theoretical
framework, this has a topographical meaning; it reconnects the exalted idea with the earth
where it can be renewed (1965, p.21). Besides the turning of the body its formal meaning is
made ambiguous by mixing contrasting formal features. A. van den Oever has described this
form of the down-ward swing in Grimassen in de nachtspiegel (2010); the exalted myth is
45
brought back onto the body and then mixed with contrasting form. In this instance the body of
the mythical mermaid is mixed with the characteristic of a toddler. The resulting incongruity
elicits a vitalizing subversive laugh. These are the customs of the carnival culture of
mediaeval times, to explain further we must first look into the circus animals that accompany
the Merbabies below the sea.
Circus animals
The Merbabies lead a circus with a variety of marine life performing in it. These animals have
reshaped their bodies to mimic mammals traditionally found in human circuses. Because of
this transformation their bodies have become grotesque. Three main features of the grotesque
bodily as described by Bachtin are at work in these circus animals; an emphasis on open
orifices of the body, ambiguity and deformation.
All are shown as soon as the animals are introduced parading in, as though the circus is
coming to town, it is a parade of grotesquery’s. Eisenstein was fascinated by these flexible
beasts; “Disney’s beasts, fish and birds have the habit of stretching and shrinking. Of mocking
their own form, just as the fish-tiger and octopus elephant of Merbabies mock at the
categories of zoology. This triumph over the fetters of form is symptomatic” (1988, p.4) (still
37). There are seahorses, acting as the mammal variant, galloping through the water. They
have gained front legs with proper hooves. A big fish follows whom has become a big drum,
it is inflated, its face is humanized; the eyes are bulging out en the mouth is emphasized, it is
thick and red. Many fish follow with these exaggerated faces; all are stand-ins for other
species or objects such as horses, camels, balloons and clowns. The octopuses pretending to
be elephants use their tentacles, otherwise below their body, to make a trunk and tail (still 38).
With it they have inverted the vertical hierarchy of their bodies. This sort of movement is
inherent to grotesque according to Bachtin, as described above considering the Merbabies.
With it the meaning of their form and natural specie is made ambiguous. One of the octopuses
is stepping on a fish that stands in as a stool; they perform the classic circus act of the
enormous elephant on a little stool (still 39). As the octopus trots around on the fish it is
heavily deformed. Under the pressure the eyes bulge out and as the octopus slips and falls, the
fish is completely flattened. The body of the fish is made grotesque by this deformation and
disproportioning.
46
Still 37
Still 38
Still 39
Still 40
One of the Merbabies is a lion tamer, and has a few big fish in the circus ring. The enormous
size of the ‘lions’ mouths is emphasised by a close-up and by the contrasting size of the
Merbabies. A screen filling shot features its teeth and tongue (still 40). His big eye is bulging
out of the side of its head. A similar form is featured at the end of the animation. A huge
whale is sleeping and encounters the little snail pretending to be a sea lion. A screen filling
close-up only shows a part of its mouth and eye, as though only this small part of this
enormous animal would fit into the shot (still 41). As it opens it fills the screen from top to
bottom. These instances have the same distorting and disproportioning as the close-ups in The
Skeleton Dance caused by the close-up. They disturb the viewer’s perceptual and cognitive
system causing an emotional shock in the viewer (2009, p. 8).
The whole shot emphasizes the sheer size of the animal, but also the openness of the body
because of the focus on the eye and mouth. The snail-sea lion, unaware of its presence,
wiggles its tail against the whale’s nose, causing it to sneeze. As the whale gasps for air, the
mouth opens wide and the smaller sea creatures struggle to not be sucked in (still 42). The
open mouth is like a tunnel surrounded by teeth leading to the dark abyss. A few of the
Merbabies are nearly sucked in and as it exhales they are shot out, through the air. In these
47
scenes we encounter the gaping mouths again, a formal structure repeatedly seen throughout
the Disney animations and discussed above considering The Skeleton Dance.
Still 41
Still 42
This scene also feature a grotesque strategy that is new to the current analysis; the giants.
According to Bachtin giants are strongly related to appetite (1965, p.343). This relates to the
mouth, which is as discussed above a symbol of entrance to ‘the depths of the body’ (1965,
p.339). Another symbolic meaning discussed by Bachtin of the mouth comes from medieval
times, where the gates of the underworld were portrayed as gaping jaws. In the situation with
the sleeping whale described above, the Merbabies and other sea creatures are indeed nearly
sucked into the abyss. The giant, the gaping mouth, his bulging eye and the creatures nearly
devoured compose as a heavily grotesque image.
In this animation Disney repeats the formal principles as has been seen with the nocturnal
animals and skeletons in The Skeleton Dance. Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’ process is applied in
many different images. The myth of the depths of the ocean are materialised in the grotesque
bodies of the merbabies and sea-creatures. The bodies are then disproportioned, deformed and
opened. Again we encounter the big eyes and gaping mouths referring to the depths of the
body. These formal aspects cause de-symbolization and ambiguity; ultimately they elicit
subversive laughter, bringing down the exalted idea of the mythical ocean. The silly
symphonies are full of grotesque imagery; what about the mickey mouse series?
The Mickey Mouse series
The analysis of the Silly Symphonies has already showed a few repeating formal strategies.
Disney has a specific style of drawing and therefore these strategies show up in the Mickey
Mouse series as well. Naturally these will be discussed less extensively, only that which is
new and productive will be covered at length. Opposed to the silly symphonies the Mickey
Mouse series have continuous characters, some more developed than others. By extension
these bodies have a continuous formal structure throughout the series even though they take
48
on different roles. Therefore this part will not focus on the separate titles knowing Steamboat
Willie (1928), The Carnival Kid (1929) and Playful Pluto (1934), but will be organized
according to characters, to prevent repetition.
Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse was designed after his creator Walt Disney, Eisenstein had the pleasure of
witnessing this technique. “As later becomes clear, his method is as follows: Disney himself
acts out the ‘part’ of Mickey for this or that film. A dozen or so artists stand around him in a
circle, quickly capturing the hilarious expressions of the posing and performing boss” (1988,
p.1). Disney himself was a very elegant man, as fashion of the time dictated, always neatly
dressed. This sort of appearance was a norm to strive for. At the time etiquette was considered
very important, children were educated in these manners and there were even handbooks on
how to conduct oneself as a lady or gentleman. Mickey Mouse is caricature of this gentleman,
of this appearance that was considered respectable. With several carnivalesque grotesque
formal features, Mickey Mouse lowers this exalted idea of the gentleman.
Still 43
Still 44
Especially in the early animations, Mickey hardly speaks, originally because of technical
limitations. Talking characters were not yet as easily made as they are today. Combined with
advanced animating techniques of Disney, Mickey’s body became extremely expressive.
Starting with his head; Mickey’s distinctive smile opens his mouth completely, it is featured
throughout the animations (still 43). The gaping jaws have been discussed related to The
Skeleton Dance and Merbabies. Here too it refers to the depths of the body. And again the
gaping mouth is framed by bulging eyes and the characteristic big Mickey Mouse ears (1965,
p.317). Mickey’s eyes are often so big they cover most of the front of its head, including the
forehead (still 44). They bulge to the front, only the nose sticks out further.
49
Still 45
Still 46
Mickey’s body is mainly characterised by his expressive round belly. The body is
disproportioned, the belly is big, the arms and legs extremely thin and the hands and feet are
huge. The big belly is emphasized by its size compared to the other limbs, and by its
expressiveness. Mickey pushes it to the front; his posture is the similar to that of the
Merbabies. Mickeys belly is al more advanced than that of the Merbabies, it can stretch and
shrink and expands and deflates to extreme sizes (still 45, 46), much like the nocturnal
animals in The Skeleton Dance. Furthermore the belly echoes the music that accompanies the
animations. In The Karnival Kid Mickey has a hotdog stand with hotdogs that behave more
like little dogs. As he whistles for them to heal, his belly expands and shrinks. In Steamboat
Willie the Cat pulls on Mickey’s belly, it stretches out; Mickey gathers up his belly and stuffs
it back in his pants. This emphasis on the belly draws attention to the lower bodily stratum.
The combination of Mickey’s expressive belly and large feet and the references to the lower
bodily stratum in mickeys face turn the body upside down. In Mickey’s grotesque body the
procedure of the ‘rabaissement’ is carried out. Mickey’s bodily formal structure functions
very similar to that of the mediaeval jester or court fool van de Oever has described in
‘Grimassen in de nachtspiegel’. The jester wears a hat with bells on his head, those are his
pants. The bare pudgy face in this hat is his buttocks. Just as the jesters face Mickeys mouth
and eyes, the face, refers to the depths of the body, turning the characteristic big ears into feat.
The nose sticking out functions as a phallus symbol, referring to the act of sexual intercourse,
one of the three acts of life of the grotesque body (1965, p.353). This completes the
disturbance of the vertical hierarchy. Similar to the Merbabies, the body is not only turned
upside down the meaning of the form is also ambiguated. The reference to the idea of the
exalted gentleman in Mickey’s appearance is contrasted by his infantile behaviour.
50
Minnie Mouse
The body of Minnie Mouse functions similar to that of Mickey Mouse. Instead of the
gentleman her body mimics the socially exalted idea of a lady. She wears a dress, high heels,
and has long lashes. Even more so this idea is found in her posture, for instance she folds her
hands and lowers her eyes in modesty.
Minnie is designed after Mickey and has the same formal features. She has an expressive
belly, thin arm and legs and has big feet, hands and ears. The features of her appearance are
all heavily exaggerated. Her eye lashes are extremely long and her heels are far too big,
giving her even bigger feet. And like Mickeys her body brings down the exalted idea of the
exemplary lady by the process of Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’ (1965). Her mouth is always open
referring to the depths of the body. In The Karnival Kid, this is emphasized as she bites into
one of Mickeys hot dogs. She opens her mouth even wider and drools as she takes a big bite.
This greediness refers to a big apatite which is linked to the depths of the body by Bachtin, as
has been discussed considering the giants related to Merbabies. As described above
considering Mickey, Minnie’s body is turned upside down by the features of her head and the
belly.
Furthermore Minnie refers to the act of sexual intercourse (1965, p.353). In Steamboat Willie,
her dress is lifted to lift her aboard by her undergarments. Overall the dress sticks up through
the animations Steamboat Willie (still 17) and The Karnival Kid (still 47). This draws
attention to the lower bodily stratum. Furthermore in The Karnival Kid, Minnie digs into her
stoking’s to find some pennies for the hotdog she buys from Mickey.
Still 47
51
Pete
In Steamboat Willie we find Pete, a very large threatening cat. Originally Pete was designed
as a bear; however as the main antagonist of Mickey he was defined as a cat. This makes his
giant size somewhat of an accident, but no less grotesque. Pete has trouble to fit into the boat
and towers above the tiny Mickey. Not only is Pete tall he is also very heavy and carries a big
belle. By contrast to Mickey Pete looks dirty and ragged, which combined with his size gives
him a threatening appearance. According to Bachtin his big sized belly refers to depths of the
body. Furthermore Petes size categorizes him as a giant; as discussed above associated with a
large appetite. In Steamboat Willie Pete performance confirms this by greedily eating a large
piece of chew-tobacco.
Pluto
The animation Playful Pluto includes the famous dog of Mickey Mouse in this research. Pluto
was designed through the same technique as Mickey. As Eisenstein described; “No less full of
life are the Wolff, the Bear, the Hound (the coarse partner of the refined Mickey); again not
accidentally full of life, he comes from Walt’s first cousin who, in contrast to him, is chubby,
coarse and clumsy”(1988, p.1). Pluto’s head, like many other characters in the Mickey
Mouse series has extremely exaggerated features. His mouth eyes and ears re huge, so much
that the head is disproportioned. And again, as has been discussed above, this refers to the
lower bodily function or the depths of the body. His mouth is wide open with his tongue
hanging out through most of the animation. The expressive ears and bulging eyes frame the
mouth.
As seen in The Skeleton Dance and Merbabies, Playful Pluto also features an extreme closeup of the dog’s head and a fly (still 5). This results in a disproportioning of Pluto’s head and
the fly. The deformation of Pluto’s head is comparable to that of the whale lions in
Merbabies. The fly is a repetition of the formal structure of the spider in The Skeleton Dance.
The both have the shocking effects in the viewer as discussed above.
Furthermore Pluto’s body is reversed by his hindquarters that outrun the front of his body. By
his clumsiness Pluto’s body is overthrown by this dominant back. Combined with the features
of the head the procedure of the ‘rabaissement’ is carried out. However considering Pluto in
such a way is a stretch as he does not represent or degrade an exalted concept. Pluto is a
supporting act, as prop creating situation that reinforce Mickeys function.
52
The Cow
Like Pluto there are more animals that function in a similar way. They have plenty of
grotesque qualities in their grotesque body, but no primary function in the animations. These
are the grotesque extras in the Mickey Mouse series. The nocturnal animals and circus
animals in the Silly symphonies can be accounted to the same group. In Steamboat Willie the
animals that are played as musical instruments perform a similar function. Another
reoccurring formal structure is the cow; found in Steamboat Willie and The Karnival Kid.
Designed as many of Disney’s characters; her limbs are very thin, her feet and head are very
plump and the body has the ability to stretch and shrink as needed (stills 48, 49). In Steamboat
Willie the cow is stuffed with hay to haul her aboard. To do so she is hoisted in a belt; in The
Karnival Kid the cow reappears in a similar position. In both animations the cow hangs upside
down in the belt, putting emphasis on the lower bodily stratum, most notably the full utters.
Furthermore the Mickey Mouse series recycle a few grotesque formal features from the Silly
Symphonies. In The Skeleton Dance two cats pulled each other’s nose, which shortened their
tail, creating a direct connection between the upper en lower bodily stratums. In The Karnival
Kid this is repeated, Mickeys nose is pulled, which shortens his tail.
Still 48
Still 49
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
The grotesque bodies in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs can be divided in roughly 4
categories; Snow White, the evil queen or stepmother, the dwarfs and the critters.
Snow White
At first sight Snow White looks perfect, a spotless image of youth and beauty. However if we
consider her exterior from Bachtin’s perspective we find that she has a few grotesque
characteristics. Looking closer, Snow White has an eerily perfect styling, het look borders on
the uncanny (still 50). Her exterior is human but unnatural. This comes from her face, there
53
are no marks on it, it is completely smooth. Her mouth is very small, yet draws attention by its
bright red colour. The mouth is always perfectly shaped regardless of circumstances. Her eyes
are unnaturally round and big and too far apart according to natural standards. Furthermore
she has nearly no nose; only her nostrils are drawn as little arches. This makes for a
disproportioned head, making it grotesque according to Bachtin. Only the eyes and the mouth
draw attention, referring to the depth of the body.
Still 50
Still 51
The evil queen and old hag
Disney provides no clearer image of Bachtin’s description of the grotesque body then the evil
queen or Snow Whites stepmother. In one character we find a healthy, seemingly young
queen and an old hag. During the animation film she transforms, combining both poles in one
image. But let’s start at the beginning, with the still young queen.
Before her transformation, the queen has a tall, strict and threatening appearance. Her face has
exaggerated features; her mouth is very red and always seems displeased. Her eyes are very
large, have a poisonous green colour and framed by dark lines. Her pupils are up against the
top of her eyes, emphasizing her angry look. Furthermore her eyebrows are unnaturally long
and close to her eyes, forming and extreme frown (still 25).
To poison Snow White the queen needs a disguise and so she transforms herself into an old
hag. As discussed in the theoretical framework the grotesque will often feature both the young
and old in one image. This shows a strong relation to time and ambivalence, two traits marked
by Bachtin as indispensable to the grotesque realism. In her transformation, the queen
combines the old and the new, for a moment the imagery shows both (still 51). As she goes
through metamorphosis she substantiates the grotesque bodily image of Bachtin. She is as he
described “a phenomenon in transformation, an as yet unfinished metamorphosis, of death
and birth, growth and becoming” (1965, p.24).
The acquired body of the old hag is also extremely grotesque. Her eyes are bulging out, and
54
frames by dark lining. The mouth is open and has little teeth in it. Her nose is huge and
crooked with a large wart on top of it. The face is clearly old with wrinkles, a sunk in mouth
and the bones sticking out. This body is close to the grave, it is open and transgressing its own
boundaries (still 26).
The animals
The critters in Snow white have faces similar to that of Mickey Mouse. They are animals but
have human facial features, their mouths and eyes are very big. As discussed before this
emphasises the openness of the body and refers to the depths of the body. Furthermore the
animals function as one, as they clean the house they work in perfect harmony. This
emphasises the connectedness of the bodies, these are not individuals they are one with each
other and snow white the like. Furthermore these animals are humanized, and have an
important function eliciting the emotional state of awe and wonder. This will be further
discussed according to Carroll in the next chapter. Important to the analysis according to
Bachtin is the fact that this effect places Snow White on a pedestal, the animals and dwarfs
nullify the ‘rabaissement’ of Snow Whites body.
Still 52
Still 53
The dwarfs
The bodies of the dwarfs are exceedingly small and therefore are a deformation. Their whole
bodies are squatty, the torso is relatively big and the arms and legs are short and thick. The
heads are very big compared to their overall size. The deformation is especially present in
their faces; which all emphasize a different personality. The face and body have many
features referring to the lower bodily stratum. All have big pink noses, viewed by Bachtin as a
phallus symbol. The dwarfs all have different but big and bulging eyes depending on their
personality, grumpy has very dark eyes frames in thick eyebrows and sleepy’s eyes look as
though he hasn’t slept in months. Their cheeks are thick and chubby and the mouths are open
al lot, not just to speak but as a result of different emotional responses. Furthermore they have
55
a big round belly, which they seem to follow, similar to the posture of the Merbabies. These
bodies are bulging and open and transgress their own boundaries. Like the animals the bodies
of the dwarfs function in as one (still 53).
The strong grotesque features of the queen and Snow White contrast throughout the animation
film. The queens face contrasts the face of Snow White; one always positive the other always
negative. Snow Whites pupils are at the bottom of her big round eyes, those of the queen at
the top. Snow Whites eyebrows are very high above her eyes and short, those of the queen
very close to the eyes and very long. Further along, post transformation, the two have an even
stronger contrasting exterior. The old hag, old and evil and Snow White young and innocent.
This contrast becomes especially clear in the scene where Snow White is offered the
poisonous apple by the old hag (still 54).
Still 54
According to Bachtin the grotesque body I never individual, the grotesque is about renewal on
a universal scale. Therefore these two characters can be viewed as one, in which Snow White
represents the new and fertility and the old hag the old and death. This results in the
‘rabaissement’ or lowering and renewal of the exalted idea of the nobility, of the monarchy.
However as this is idea is also embodied by snow white the animation simultaneously
reinforces these inhuman necessity’s that direct the prevailing concept of the world (Bachtin,
1965, p10). This is reinforced by the critters and the dwarfs whom adore Snow White.
Especially the dwarfs contrast her eerily perfection with their horrific grotesque forms.
Furthermore Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has a didactic content; on how to be an
exemplary lady. Contrary to Minnie Mouse Snow White, who is embodying the idea in this
animation, never lowers this dogma. It is reinforced; Snow White is adored by the critters and
the dwarfs for behaving in exemplary fashion. Together with the strengthening of the nobility
and monarchy, Snow White has a confusing, contaminated if you will, use of the grotesque
aesthetics.
56
3.2 Effects of the grotesque bodily element: ‘Rabaissement’ in early Disney
animations
Reviewing the grotesque bodily element in the early Disney animations has led to many
grotesque bodies and several instances of Bachtin’s ‘rabaissement’. It has been found in
Merbabies, in the Merbabie characters and the animals in their circus, lowering the myth of
the mermaids and the mystery of the deep ocean. In The Skeleton Dance, in the nocturnal
animals and in the dancing Skeletons, who lower the exalted concepts of death. And in the
Mickey Mouse series, most notably in Mickeys and Minnies body; which lower the
exemplary lady and gentleman. The ‘rabaissement’ has also been found in Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs, in which a lowering of the monarchy can be found. But besides the
downward swing, this animation also featured an upward swing. Snow White is adored by the
dwarfs and critters, placing her above all others, by which she reinforces instead of, as
Bachtin writes, liberates man from all the necessities that direct the prevailing concepts of the
world (Bachtin, 1965, p.10).
The analysis according to Bachtin point to a similar division as was found in the analyses
according to Kayser. The pre-war cartoons can be viewed as a post-medieval carnavalesque
world. In these animations Disney takes the viewer into a world where he is liberated, through
identification with the leading characters into a carnavalesque feast. For a moment, while
watching these animations the viewer is liberated of the everyday life; the viewer can laugh
about the expectations society forces upon them. As Eisenstein described; Disney (and it's not
accidental that his films are drawn) is a complete return to a world of complete freedom. In
this world everything is reversed, and anything can be something the viewer would have
never expected. There are no rules or consequences and anyone can take part.
In Snow White this liberation is found throughout the film created by the effective states of
awe and wonder. In Snow White the viewer can forget about the limitations of normal life,
because in this world there are magical animals and dwarfs to help out when all seems lost.
Even though this animation has serious content, a stepmother trying to kill her step daughter,
the viewer is taken away by the limitless possibilities. Instead of the horrific reality, the
viewer can indulge in awe and wonder. However Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
eventually do reinforce the necessities directing traditional life. Eventually the monarchy is
reinforced and the animation takes a firm didactic standpoint on the exemplary lady. This
combination of the liberating feeling and the reinforcement of dogmas is contradicting. The
viewer is distracted by the effective emotional state of awe and wonder. Disney uses the
57
grotesque formal features in very different ways in his post-war feature films then in his prewar cartoons. The formal features remain very similar, the underlying message and outcome
has completely change. The emotional effective states play a pivotal role in this, which will be
further discusses in the following chapter the analysis according to Carroll.
58
4: Analyses according to Carroll
In this chapter the early Disney animations will be analysed according to Carroll. According
to Carroll the grotesque is realized mostly by four recurring structural principles; Fusion,
disproportion, formlessness and gigantism (Carroll, p.297). Most of these structures have been
discussed in slightly different form in the analyses according to Kayser and Bachtin.
Therefore they will not be discussed at length again, as it would only lead to unproductive
repetition. Carroll, as has been discussed before, is most productive to the current thesis
because of his model on the affective states the grotesque can elicit knowing; horror, comic
amusement and awe. Especially the last two will be very important as they fill out the
questions left by Kayser, Bachtin and Eisenstein. Their work has not elaborately covered the
emotional impact of the grotesque or Disney in specific. Furthermore, Carroll has more focus
on the entertainment value of the grotesque whereas Bachtin and Kayser focus more on the
aesthetics and social value and impact.
Therefore this chapter will focus on the effective states the grotesque can elicit. Carrolls
structural accounts will be mentioned, and only further discussed if it is productive to the
current thesis. The analysis will be organized according to titles and beings.
4.1 Grotesque beings and their effective states in early Disney
The Silly Symphonies
The Skeleton Dance clearly has grotesque beings such as the disproportioned nocturnal
animals and the living skeletons. The animals stretch and shrink far beyond our biological
expectations. The skeletons violate our standing categories and confront the viewer with
impurity by their ambiguity between categorical distinctions. They are alive and dancing, but
as they are only a skeleton they should be dead. Furthermore the present the viewer with the
inside of their body confusing the distinction between inside and outside the human body
(Carroll, 2003, p.300). While viewing The Skeleton Dance the viewer is thrown back and
forth between the effective states of horror and comic amusement.
The close-up on the beginning of the animation of the owl’s eyes elicits the effective
emotional state horror (still 27). According to Carroll horror is an emotion created by a
combination of fear and disgust. The owl is a nocturnal animal its association with darkness
leads to fear. In Kaysers words; this is an animal living in a place where humans should not
59
be; the owl takes the viewer out of their comfort zone. Disgust in this instance comes from the
extreme close-up of the eyes, forcing the viewer inside the eyes, confusing our categorical
distinction between inside and outside the body. Disney guides these formal elements with the
appropriate music, as we see the owl, the music is threatening, leading the viewer to the
desired effective emotional state. In the following show the owl creates comic amusement.
According to Carroll, comic amusement is created by incongruity and absence of threat. The
owl is shocked by the tree branch trying to grab him. The comic amusement is created by the
incongruity in the owl; though it was fearsome it is now frightened himself. This incongruity
also takes away the threat towards the audience, leading the viewer into a relieved laughter.
Furthermore Disney’s narration does not dwell on the shock of the owl, the animation quickly
moves on to the next scene.
The Skeletons elicit comic amusement and horror in a similar alternating fashion. As
discussed the skeletons have the trademarks of disgust, as they confuse living and dead en and
inside and outside the human body. This provides the possibility of eliciting horror but The
Skeleton Dance is not continuously horrific. The alternation is created by the attention of the
narrator on the threatening aspects of the skeletons. One moment the skeletons are walking in
a threatening way, guided by fearsome music the viewer is invited to dwell on the awful
possibilities of a dead body walking around. As the music changes and the treading of the
skeleton, so does the effective state elicited (still 23, 24). Disney masterfully switches
between both, capturing the viewers’ attention time and again by the shock the switch
provides.
Merbabies is a play with the absurd, something completely impossible, yet we are more than
ready to take it all in. Eisenstein admired this Disney creation; “To what depth of untouched
nature is it necessary to dive with bubbles and bubble-like children in order to reach such
absolute freedom from all categories, all conventions” (1988, p.2). Indeed Merbabies is
complete freedom of all ontological categories. The Merbabies are fusion figures, they are
biological and ontological hybrids; a combination of plant or fish and human, a humanlike
creature living beneath the water. Furthermore they are heavily disproportioned, they are
exceedingly small. The sea creatures are biological and ontological hybrids; they are
pretending to be mammals and objects. They mix species and behaviour that are otherwise
distinct. The viewer accepts the impossibility of this notion because of the two affective states
that are elicited by this animation knowing; comic amusement and awe. The animation invites
the viewer in by the latter, by the miraculous appearance of the Merbabies as they emerge
60
from ocean waves foaming on rocks. As they emerge they are accompanied by playful exited
music, signalling to the viewer something wonderful is about to happen. Slowly but surely
they emerge, tempting our curiosity. The build up from rock to bubbles to Merbabies
engenders and appreciative stance, the viewer is ushered by the presentation to take this in
(Carroll, 2003, 307). These creatures are inexplicable, and therefore transgress our ontological
boundaries which could also elicit laughter or horror. But the Merbabies have an endearing
appearance; guided by music this eliminates the possibility of eliciting horror. Furthermore
the in this first instance the Merbabies are presented as a natural thing, there is not incongruity
and therefore the viewer is not invited to laugh.
As the Merbabies decent to the depths of the ocean and start leading the circus, comic
amusement takes over. Although the characters are deformed and transgress all categorical
boundaries this is a fearless world. The characters are highly impossible, their features are
exaggerated, their bodies are deformed and they have anomalous abilities. Carroll uses clowns
to exemplify this sort of grotesque structure in his discussion of grotesque forms that can elicit
comic amusement (2003, p.303). The fish, discussed in the analyses according to Bachtin,
pretending to be a stool trampled by the octopus pretending to be an elephant should
realistically get heavily wounded (still 39). But he is fine, his body deforms and reforms and
the narration glosses over it. Combined with the cheerful music guiding the scene invites the
viewer to laugh opposed to being shocked.
Still 55
Disney is a master at steering the viewer’s emotion. The Merbabies are endearing, and the
viewer will therefore easily identify with these characters, or at least be worried about their
safety. But the viewer is never put in the affective state of horror during this animation, not
even when one of the Merbabies get in between the gaping jaws of the whale pretending to be
a lion. As Carroll explains, horror created by fear and disgust must be directed at something.
As the viewer identifies easily with the Merbabies the emotional reaction of horror would be
61
directed at the whale pretending to be a lion. But the lion is not repulsive, although he is a seacreature he does not look wet of slimy, there is no disgust (still 55).
Furthermore the whale is not threatening, although his eye bulges out it does not look angry or
otherwise threatening in any way. In this animation Disney has masterfully created a place
filled with many incongruities in which there is no fear or disgust. Combined with cheerful
music creates an environment in which the grotesque formal structure can only promote
laughter and astonishment.
The Mickey Mouse series
Mickey Mouse, by designs is a fusion figure he is a biological hybrid, a mixture of human and
mouse. Mickey is disproportioned and his body displays many anomalous abilities throughout
the Mickey Mouse series. Mickey is a comedian, a clown; he is capable of eliciting the
affective state of comic amusement in any situation.
Mickey’s body and those of his fellow characters is created by an enclosed line, originally
drawn by hand on paper. As discussed in the theoretical framework, Eisenstein paid special
attention to this unchangeable form, coming alive and changing constantly. When we take the
time in which the first Mickey Mouse animation premiered into consideration, this technique
was subverted the common expectations, it was a violation of the standing concepts. Perhaps
this phenomenon was so fascinating to Eisenstein because of this novelty. Disney has given
the contour of Mickey’s body exceptional abilities, it can stretch and shrink. By result
mickeys arm body adapts to any given situation. For instance the body not only echo music it
adapts to it. In Eisenstein’s words; “and then reaching for a high not, the arms shoot up far
beyond the limits of their normal representation” (1988, p10). This anomalous ability of
mickeys form is a source of incongruity; it provides the basis for most comic amusement
elicited by this character.
Mickey goes through much physical abuse and many accidents during the Mickey Mouse
series. For instance in Steamboat Willie, where Pete grabs Mickey, which stretches out his
belly far beyond what we think is possible. Mickey reshapes his belly by putting it back into
his pant after which he is kicked down the stairs by Pete. Mickey falls down the stairs, slips
on a piece of soap and lands in a bucket of water. Naturally he should be injured, but there are
no consequences, only the parrot laughing at him. After a brief encounter with the parrot, the
62
animation moves on. In The Karnival Kid, Mickey’s nose is pulled by the cat, it stretches out
far beyond what we think is possible.
But he is not physically hurt, only surprised, perhaps indignant. Mickey corrects the stretched
nose by pulling his tail, that seems directly connected, and this reshapes the nose (still 56).
After this the animation moves on to the next attraction. These instances show anomalous
physical abilities that subvert our standing concepts, according to Carroll this can serve as a
source of incongruity that can yield laughter. Disney puts his characters through many of
these clownish accidents and abusive situations, but never invites to dwell on the pain. With
this he meets the second requisite named by Carroll for the affective state of comic
amusement; the absence of fear. The characters never appear to be in real danger.
Still 56
Mickey has a strange relation to other animals. He himself looks like a mouse but takes the
place of a person, a human. He is surrounded by animals, in Steamboat Willie it is livestock,
The Karnival Kid includes many circus animals and in Playful Pluto he owns a pet dog. This
in its own causes a conflicting situation, between the humanized mouse and the animals that
actually perform the role of animals. This strange relation problematizes our standing
concepts. It is a source of incongruity capable of promoting laughter.
In reality Steamboat Willie confront the viewer with heavy animal abuse as they are played as
instruments. As the duck is played as a trumpet its neck is stretched far beyond what we think
is possible. The pig’s tails are pulled so they’ll squall in the rhythm of the music. The mother
pig, the cat and the cow get a similar treatment of Mickey. But as the animation has a gay and
careless atmosphere it is perceived as a happy scene and the deformation of the animals is
only funny. Disney does not invite the viewer to dwell on the possible physical damage. The
animals have the anomalous ability to bounce back into shape and the viewer can enjoy the
amusement.
63
Playful Pluto mainly features Mickey and his pet dog Pluto; a well-known couple and
generally excepted. However when we look closer, it faces us with a weird proposition. A
humanized mouse with a pet dog is a clear violation of our standing expectations of the
natural and ontological order. Even in his human role, this combination is strange. Pluto is far
too big a pet for Mickey, the image of these two together displays fusion, disproportion and
gigantism. Yet we accept this, and the resulting incongruity is received by laughter. A
proportionally similar sized dog this size would be received with fear and horror given Pluto’s
disproportions in reality. But this is Disney’s world, in which the viewer will accept this
absurdity because he is distracted by continuous attractions that elicit the affective state of
comic amusement. Furthermore the animation never gives any reason to dwell on the
improbableness or the monstrous of this situation (Carroll, 2003).
Minnie has the similar design of the enclosed line, and thus her body has the same adaptive
abilities as Mickey’s does. Minnie is also a fashion figure, a biological hybrid, a mixture of
human and mouse. He body also has the anomalous abilities of Mickey but the elicitation of
comic amusement by incongruity stems from a different perspective. As discussed in the
analysis according to Bachtin, Minnie mocks the exemplary lady. Incongruity is mainly
created in the way the exemplary lady is presented through Minnie. Minnie confirms this
standing concept by her shy and fragile posture and behaviour. However simultaneously she
problematizes this with other aspects of her behaviour. Her undergarments are showing most
of the time because of her dress sticking up. Besides this in both The Karnival Kid and in
Steamboat Willie, her dress is pulled up. This is of course improper and it subverts our
standing concept of the exemplary lady. Disney pays special attention to this improper
behaviour of Minnie by giving her some special abilities. For instance; when she pays for the
hotdog in The Karnival Kid, she pulls money from her stockings. Her digging for a coin is
emphasized by a rumbling metal sound. This problematizes her role as a lady, but the sound is
also incongruous with the material we expect the stocking to be made out.
Snow white and the Seven Dwarfs
Snow white incorporates all three affective states described by Carroll; comic amusement,
horror and awe (2003). Awe and wonder are found throughout the animation, directed at
Snow White. She is designed to be adored; she is introduced by Disney in a scene that builds
up the affective state of awe in the viewer. The scene is comparable to the instances Carroll
describes when he explains how scenery, character reflexion and music cooperate to elicit the
64
effective state of awe and wonder (2003). Snow White is first seen scrubbing the stairs of the
castle, in ragged clothes. While she is working she sings a song and white doves fly around
her. The doves pay attention to her, and answer her questions. As she stands over a well, she
is framed by flowers (still 57). Next the prince is introduced, arriving on a white horse.
Although he cannot see her, he hears her singing and he cannot resist. He climbs the wall to
get to her and join her in song. She runs of but beneath the balcony he sings a song to
proclaim his love. Snow white enters the balcony to look and again she is frames by flowers
and the doves. The music becomes les calm, violins set in dramatic and romantic tunes. The
whole scene revolves around snow white, all admiration and romance is directed at her,
eliciting an affective state of awe directed at her.
Still 57
Still 58
Still 59
Throughout the film Disney repeats this time and again; Snow White is staged multiple times
in a way that elicits the affective state of awe. For instance when Snow White stays with the
dwarfs she tells them about her love for the prince (still 58). Surrounded by the dwarfs she
sings her song. While music from violins set in a romantic tune the dwarfs gaze upon her. In
the background the forest critters stare at her, dreaming away by her romantic song. Several
close-ups of dwarfs, all infatuated in their own way, are followed by a complete shot of the
snow white, on a stool singing (still 59). All attention is directed at Snow White, bathing in
the light of the fireplace. All suggests that Snow White is something to admire, she is
astonishing and baffling. The narration, character suggestion and the music all function
conscientiously to elicit the affective state of awe in the viewer, directed at snow white.
65
Comic amusement is mainly elicited in this animation through the silly dwarfs and the
adorable forest critters. The dwarfs take one the role of clowns al in their own way. The
dwarfs are disproportioned in their body size and shape and in their faces. Overall they go
through many accidents, they trip or get hit in the head, and they bump into each other and
fall down stairs. Similar to Mickey Mouse their bodies have the anomalous ability to
withstand all this physical abuse and never seem to get hurt. Like Dopey, clumsiest of all the
dwarfs, he is sent up the stairs to find out what is hiding in their house. When he sees Snow
White moving underneath the blankets, he falls down the stairs from pure shock. The other
dwarfs confuse Dopey for something monstrous that has come down the stairs. While they
manage to get outside, Dopey is left inside. Dopey tries to escape the monstrous phenomenon
he has just found upstairs. Struggling to open the door that is kept shut by the other dwarfs
outside he breaks the door handle. He is launched backwards into pots and pans while outside
the other dwarfs make a run for it. As Dopey follows the outside he is entangles in pots and
pans (still 60). The other dwarfs lunge at him and start beating (still 61). When they finally
figure out it is only Dopey, the narration just continuous.
Still 60
Still 61
No attention is paid to the accidents that have just happened. Because of this the viewer can
freely enjoy the silliness of the scene; Disney does not invite to dwell on the possible physical
harm. In these instances Disney follows the same principle as he did with Mickey Mouse. He
has his characters go through the most clumsy accidents and then just moves on to the next
attraction. The dwarfs are used for this kind of entertainment throughout the film, proving a
break in between other more serious scenes. For instance after the queens transformation into
an old hag, a particularly horrific scene, the dwarfs are features in a party, dancing around
silly. The scene is ended with Sneezy and Dopey in one jacket to make a man tall enough for
Snow White to dance with. Eventually Sneezy has to sneeze and launches dopey into the air.
The gayness of the scene is the complete opposite of the horrific scene before it. With this
Disney throws the viewer back and forth between affective emotional states with the use of
grotesque form. These switches recapture the viewers’ attention time and again.
66
The forest critters are fusion figures, they are humanized animals. The have natural animals
bodies, but they have humanized facial features. The forest critters provide comic amusement
in a different way than the dwarfs. The animals help Snow White to clean the house of the
dwarfs. Their behaviour does not accord with the fact that they are animals. Their tails
become brooms and antlers become clothing racks. They can do dishes, sweep, wash clothing
and even put together a floral arrangement. These actions are obviously subversions of our
standing concepts and expectations of the natural order. Besides this the scene features
naughty animals, two chipmunks sweep the dirt under the rug. They are corrected by Snow
White immediately and they decide to sweep the dirt into a crack in the baseboard. This leads
to a fight with the mouse that lives in it. This shows the didactic aspect of Snow White, neatly
covered up by entertainment created through grotesque form; in this instance with an affective
state of comic amusement.
The animals follow snow white around throughout the animation. They are applied in the
narration build-up that elicits a sense of awe and wonder. They are around Snow White to
reflect the desired response. They are there to adore and obey Snow White, in this sense they
function as props. Their humanized grotesque facial expressions make is easy for the viewer
to understand them and incorporate their emotional state within themselves. Like the dwarfs
the animals are present as Snow White sings a song about her love. They are part of the
allusion created by the co-operating narration, composition and music that elicits the affective
state of wonder directed at snow white. The animals are applied in a similar way as they lead
Snow White through the woods to the house of the dwarfs. They frolic around her, while they
lead Snow White down a path with wondrous nature. The music sets in; the orchestra plays a
hopeful and triumphant tune. The tour end on top of a hill, the view is blocked by bushes. The
animals pull back the branches so Snow White can see. Down the hill lies the little cottage of
the Dwarfs, a small creek flows in front of it, and sunrays shine down through the thick forest.
While butterflies flutter through the air a harp plays a wondrous tune. The shot lasts quite lone
giving the viewer a moment to enjoy the wondrous sight. Snow White exclaims agreeably “oh
its adorable”. The animals function in this scene as an enhancement of the wondrous nature,
assisting to the sense of awe and wonder that is elicited.
Horror is strongly present in Snow White, in this animation for the first time Disney does not
break it down. Perhaps as a result of the feature film, the horror has become more serious. The
viewer is only comforted by alternation between affective states; Disney does not leave his
viewers frightened for too long. But the object of horror, the queen, although defeated in the
67
end, is never ridiculed as was done with the skeletons and nocturnal animals in The Skeleton
Dance.
The queen elicits an affective state of horror even before her transformation into an old hag.
She is threatening because she wants to kill Snow White, the leading character with whom the
viewer identifies. But as Carroll describes, only threatening is not enough to elicit horror, the
being must also be impure or toxic (2003, p.300). As has been discussed in the analyses
according to Bachtin, the eyes of the queen draw the attention of the viewer in, because of
their size and the framing strict eyebrows (still 25). The eyes have a toxic green colour, giving
the queen an impure appearance.
The transformation into an old hag results in a body that is even more impure, even more
toxic. The eyes become bigger and more present, her nose grows big and has a big wart on top
of it. Her mouth hardly has any teeth and her fingers become bony and even more claw-like.
The skin is pale as though she is already dead. In Carrolls words; it is not the sort of thing you
would want to touch (2003, p. 300). Her exterior has become truly repulsive. The combination
of this impure exterior is combined with threat toward Snow Whites life. Horror is elicited
with this formula in five instances. The first is when the queen is told by the magic mirror that
she “is not the fairest of them all”. Immediately the queen becomes horrific, emphasis is put
on her toxic exterior as she exclaims Snow Whites name in anger. Later on the queen tells the
hunter to kill Snow White; such a demand makes the queen a threatening character. In this
scene great emphasis is put on the poisonous green eyes, a combination that elicits horror.
During her transformation the impurity of the queen only becomes stronger. The scene
resonates with imminent danger for Snow White although she is not in the scene. The tension
is build up through each of these instances and comes to a climax when the old hag arrives at
the dwarfs’ house of offer the poisonous apple. During this meeting the contrasts between
their faces emphasize the impurity of the old hag. Finally the affective state of horror is found
as the dwarfs chase the old hag up the mountain, eventually resulting in her death. During the
chase the dwarfs are threatened, they risk their safety to defeat the old hag.
4.2 Disney the entertainer
This analysis has focussed on the affective states the grotesque forms elicit in early Disney. It
has revealed that Disney is a master at composing content, form, sound and music in a way
that elicits strong emotions. Disney is an entertainer and the grotesque aesthetics are essential
to his entertainment strategy.
68
Disney’s emotional impact starts with the design of the characters. The difference between the
innocent characters and the evil characters is simplified by Disney with the use of grotesque
form. With a grotesque deformation the innocent characters are given the facial structure of
infants. The Merbabies, the forest critters, Mickey Mouse and Snow White, are all endearing
creatures. The humanized face makes it easy for the viewer to recognize the emotions and
therefore it becomes easy to identify with these creatures. They speak to a primal urge within
the viewer; an infant is innocent and it would be immoral if harm would be done to it, it
should be kept safe. The evil characters are given strict and angry facial features. They are
dark, big and strong. Furthermore clothing signals evil, Pete wears a ragged pants and the evil
queen wears a cape that emphasizes her strict exterior. With these faces as a basis for
identification with the characters, the grotesque can easily create a strong reaction. As Carroll
discusses, emotion are not just a matter of brute feelings, like pain. They possess cognitive
elements as well (Carroll, p.298). With the design of the characters Disney has simplified this
cognitive process. A character, which is undoubtedly innocent, signalled by grotesque form,
which is threatened, is immediately an intense experience. Such a threat becomes personal in
a way; it speaks to our deepest moral convictions. Disney does not let the viewer doubt
between good and evil, and with the help of music and composition, the desired affective state
is easily elicited.
The pre-war cartoons mainly function on quick switches between comic amusement, horror
and awe. The affective states are never very serious; these animations are a gay escape from
daily life. The affective state of horror is quickly switched for comic amusement. The viewer
is only teased with a short moment of horror, that which seemed terrifying is ridiculed
immediately after. In the Mickey Mouse series Disney goes from one incongruity that yields
laughter to the next. The characters are put through accidents and the strangest situations. This
could yield horror but Disney never lets the viewer dwell on the possible harm done. The
characters in these animations all have a constantly changing form, which adapts as needed.
This gives the characters anomalous physical abilities to withstand anything. Disney’s
narration moves on to the next attraction and the viewer is distracted by the next shock of an
instance eliciting comic amusement, horror or wonder.
In Snow White the content and with it the affective states become more serious. In this film
the viewer is no longer relieved as much from the horrific. The frightening and horrific queen
and old hag remain frightening although she is defeated at the end of the film. Snow White is
not as liberating as the pre-war cartoons. Snow White holds a different agenda; it has a
69
definite didactic aspect on how to behave as a lady. This is easily accepted by the viewer
because it is neatly wrapped in entertainment. Snow White is presented as an example to be
admired; she is the focus of the affective state of awe and wonder. Little lessons, on how to be
good, are presented through the animals. These lessons are covered by the comic amusement
elicited by the silly forest critters.
Regardless of the content of the animation Disney keeps the viewer entertained by strongly
elicited affective states. These are switched constantly; there is never a moment to reconsider
the reaction the viewer is guided into by the careful orchestrated combination of grotesque
form, music and content. This provides a whirlwind of emotional effects within the viewer.
By providing new emotional shocks constantly, Disney reacquires the attention of the viewer
time and again. In Eisenstein’s words, Disney keeps the viewer in a state of ecstasy by
proving one attraction after the other.
70
5: Conclusion
In this research I have tried to find out how the grotesque functions in the “attractability” of
early Disney animations; “attractability” refers to both attraction and affectiveness of Disney
animations. The work of Sergei Eisenstein was an inspiration for this research as he has
described Disney’s use of form that emulates our post war theory on the grotesque. As
discussed, Eisenstein has already found several characteristics in Disney that match our post
war theory on the grotesque. He notes that Disney is completely limitless on a conceptual
level. Disney’s form is omnipotent, he found this on three different levels; in the animated
line, in the creatures and in the abilities of the creatures. Furthermore Eisenstein viewed the
work of Disney as an escape of American daily life. Although tainted by political convictions,
Eisenstein made a great observation that correlates with the post wart theory on the grotesque.
Unfortunately Eisenstein had little sources to draw from to explain the affects of the grotesque
form in Disney’s animations. He found some input by Freud and Lenin, but it did not lead to a
satisfactory conclusion.
Eisenstein used theory and myth on fire, animism and totemism to understand Disneys formal
use. He found the animations to be a direct embodiment of animism; the belief that all
entities, animals, plants and lifeless objects possess a spiritual essence. Furthermore
Eisenstein found two stages of totemism in Disney’s animations. Totemism goes through
three stages knowing; factual unity of animal and man, unity of animal and man in totemistic
belief, the comparison of animal and man. Disney is on the first stage in the sense that the
creatures in the animations are both animal and human, or as Carrol would say; fusion figures
or humanized. The third stage, the comparison of animal and man is reversed in Disney. “The
gamecock is a plastic metaphor of .. an aggressive, cocky fighter. Taken in reverse and
literally” (1988, p.49). Eisenstein explains that this literalization of the metaphor, “the
absence of a transference and figurative sense” (1988, p.49), causes the comical effect.
Eisenstein only had limited sources because the research of these aesthetics was not as
developed as it is today. Eisensteins work emulates the post-war theory on the grotesque. This
led me to framing the aesthetics of Disney in the grotesque theoretical perspective. According
to my hypothesis this would result in a better understanding of the functioning of the
grotesque in the “attractability” of Disney’s early animations.
71
5.1 Synthesis of findings: How does the grotesque function in the
“attractability” of early Disney animations?
In light of the essay of Eisenstein on Disney aesthetics and “attractability” and considering
the standard studies on the grotesque led me to the central research question;
How does the grotesque function in the “attractability” of early Disney animations?
Eisensteins essay can be related to the standard studies on the grotesque by Kayser, Bachtin
and Carrol. According to their theory different aspects of the aesthetics of the grotesque in
Disney’s early animations have been analysed. Combined these analyses create a complete
understanding of the attraction and affectiveness of these aesthetics.
Analysing early Disney animations started with the analyses according to Kayser. The
animations were searched for forms and motives divided in 6 themes that are predisposed to
the grotesque content. This analysis confirmed the presence of the grotesque in the Disney
animations. However many of Disney’s creatures with substantial grotesque aesthetics were
difficult or impossible to categorise according to Kaysers themes.
Especially the creatures in the earliest short cartoons, although clearly grotesque, did not
transfer Kaysers “unheimliche”. They did not estrange our world in the sense that it would
elicit a fear of life. Because of the way Disney plays with the absurd, they did not manifest a
“pregnant moment”. Kaysers essential element suddenness was found; Disney surprises time
and again with absurdity. Categorising these creatures according to Kaysers themes seemed a
stretch because their surroundings are comical, they elicit a gay laughter. This type of free
comicality is not covered by Kayser, as he only incorporates a cynical laugh. Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs did show more characters that could be categorised according to Kaysers
grotesque themes. Although not many examples were found, the crucial moments of the
animations did show Kaysers grotesque. In this feature film the grotesque creates ominous
tension. The analysis was not very productive in light of understanding the affective states in
the viewer. It did however point out a division in the effects of the grotesque form in Disney’s
early work. Consequently from there on I have divided the early Disney animations in the prewar cartoons and the post-war animations or work.
Bachtin offered a heuristic that incorporates the gay comedy. In the analyses according to
Bachtin the grotesque bodies of Disney’s characters were researched. It showed that Bachtins
72
‘rabaissement’ process is carried out through the bodies if the characters in the pre-war
cartoons. The characters bodies embody an exalted, intangible idea, such as; the gentleman,
the exemplary lady, the mystery of the deep ocean or death. These are formalized in the body,
brought back to the flesh; they are sewn. Within the body the exalted idea is mixed with
references to the lower bodily stratum. The Disney characters have big mouths, eyes and ears.
Their bellies and buttocks are emphasized, they are disproportioned and deformed, they show
morphing, gigantism or are exceedingly small. Besides this, the bodies of Disney’s characters
reverse the vertical hierarchy of the body. The expressive bellies became heads and because
of a big mouth and nose, the faces became buttocks. In it the down-ward swing was found.
Many of these formal strategies are repeated in the animations time and again in different
characters. Disney showed to exploit the endless variations that are easily created with the
grotesque aesthetics. The resulting degradation of these bodies elicits a liberating revitalizing
laughter. Through this process Disney may liberate the viewer from “all inhuman necessity’s
that direct the prevailing concept of the world” (1965, p.49). Or as Eisenstein described in his
politically tainted manner; “an instant of complete release from everything connected with the
suffering caused by the social conditions of the social order of the largest capitalist
government” (1988, p.8). Based on this I can conclude that the pre-war cartoons function as a
post-medieval carnavalesque world to the modern day civilian.
Although in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs similar grotesque bodies are featured and the
film also shows this ‘rabaissement’ there is a clear difference. In this feature animation the
grotesque form is not just used to liberate the viewer. The animation also holds a didactic
aspect on how to behave as an exemplary lady. While the pre-war cartoons only degraded the
exalted ideas, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs reaffirms exalted ideas.
The analyses according to Carroll revealed the entertaining strategy of Disney. Based on
Carrolls theory the structural aspects of the grotesque Disney were reaffirmed as most were
already identified in the analysis according to Kayser and Bachtin respectively. Therefore in
this analysis I focussed on the affective states these structural accounts elicit the grotesque
form in Disney elicits knowing; comic amusement, horror and awe and wonder. It showed
that Disney uses grotesque form to throw the viewer back and forth between different
effective states. The pre-war cartoons showed some awe and wonder but mainly a mix horror
and comic amusement. Furthermore the intervals were short and the horrific is always
ridiculed. In these animations Disney never leaves the viewer in fear and never invites to
dwell on the possibility of physical harm of the characters. Comic amusement is created by
73
sources of incongruity such as animals that behave like humans or subvert their natural
behaviour in another way and (horrific) accidents that are ignored by the narration. In Snow
White and the Seven Dwarfs, the intervals of affective states are longer and the elicited
emotions become more serious. In this animation the horrific remains frightening, it is not
degraded.
Furthermore this analysis has shown that Disney has simplified the cognitive process of an
emotional response. He has given his good characters the facial features of an infant and his
bad characters have features that are clearly threatening; they are toxic or are giants. This
speaks to a primal sense, the viewer does not need to doubt whether the good (infantile)
character needs to be kept safe. Besides this the desired effective state is reflected in the
characters response and in the music. Disney assists the viewer through grotesque form and
music to go from one affective state to the next. This way the attention of the viewer is
captured time and again, keeping him entertained.
How does the grotesque function in the “attractability” of early Disney animations?
In sum, it has become clear that the grotesque aesthetics are omnipresent in early Disney
animations and it performs a pivotal role in their “attractability”.
In terms of affectiveness, using grotesque form enables Disney to liberate the viewer from the
necessities of daily life because it functions as a tool to degrade intangible and exalted ideas.
Disney’s animations can be viewed, in the terms of Bachtin, as a post-medieval carnavalesque
world. With the grotesque aesthetics Disney composes strong affective states in his
animations. The grotesque aesthetics are used to facilitate the affective states elicited by the
animations, because it simplifies the cognitive aspect of the emotional response. The viewer is
guided through the desired affects; the viewer never needs to doubt what response would be
appropriate.
In terms of attractiveness, the grotesque aesthetics make Disney’s entertainment easily
accessible. With his clever use of grotesque aesthetics, his animations speak to a primal
instinct in all people and the formal comedy is understood by all cultures and ages. It has also
provided Disney with endless possibilities, although it cannot be omitted that Disney has
recycled many formal strategies throughout his animations. Nevertheless it is safe to say that
the grotesque aesthetics supported Disney’s need for innovation and his venture in the
competitive animation and entertainment industry of his time. With the grotesque aesthetics
74
Disney could successfully adapt his entertainment to the shifting public opinion and to
different audiences enabling him to expand his reach in the market. Finally, even though
Disney targeted a different audience and has changed the desired outcome when transitioning
into features films, the formal strategy remained the same.
5.2 Further research
The method of analysis set out for this research has proven to be productive. It has resulted in
a better understanding the function of the grotesque aesthetics in the “attractability” of
Disney animations. It has related Eisensteins work on Disney to the study of the grotesque
and has made his essay productive. A limited theoretical framework has given focus to the
research, although the analyses could have benefitted from more sources on the aesthetics of
the grotesque.
It would be interesting to research how the Disney entertainment industry has adapted since
1937. Even though Walt Disney is no longer around, his formal principles can still be found
in Disney films. The content of the animations has adapted through the years to the public
opinion; today Disney princesses are emancipating and in general the animations show a more
liberal view on gender roles. It would be interesting to research the influence of these changes
on the use of form in the animation. Besides this animation techniques have gone through
enormous changes over the years. It would also be interesting to research these changes on the
formal strategies invented by Walt Disney.
Furthermore my method of analyses can be used to research the “attractability” of other
animations and animators. In his time, Disney was a pioneer in the animation industry, but
today his work is emulated by many players in entertainment. It would be productive to
research such artists from the grotesque theoretical perspective, in terms of the study of
animation in general and for the grotesque research field.
75
Bibliography
Bachtin, M. (1965). Rabelais and his World. Massachusetts: The M.I.T Press.
Barrier, M. (2007). The Animated Man: A Life of Walt Disney. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Bordwell, D., Thompson, K. (2010). Film Art, An Introduction. New York: The McGraw-Hill
Companies Inc.
Bordwell, D., Thompson, K. (2010). Film History, An Introduction. New York: The McGrawHill Companies Inc.
Bordwell, D. (1993). The Cinema of Eisenstein. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: Harvard
University Press.
Carroll, N. (2003). The grotesque today: Preliminary notes toward a taxonomy. In Frances S.
Connelly (Ed.), Modern Art And The Grotesque (pp. 291-311). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Carroll, N. (1999). Film, Emotion and genre. In Plantinga, C. and Smith, G. (Eds.),
Passionate Views, Film, cognition and emotion. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Christie, I.(edt.), Taylor, R.(edt.). (1993). Eisenstein rediscovered. London: Routhledge.
Eisenstein, S. (1995). Beyond the Stars: The memoirs of Sergei Eisenstein, selected Works
volume IV. Calcutta: Seagull Books.
Eisenstein, S., Leyda, J. (1988). Eisenstein on Disney. Calcutta: Seagull Books.
Harpham, G. (1982). On the grotesque, strategies and contradictions in art and literature.
Princeton: Prince University Press.
Cheu, J. (2013). Diversity in Disney films: critical essays on race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality
and disability. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.
Kayser, W. (1981). The grotesque in Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Kayser, W. (1957). Das Groteske: Seine Gestaltung in Malerei Und Dichtung. Oldenburg
etc.: Stalling.
LaValley, A., Scherr, B. (2001). Eisenstein at 100: A Reconsideration. New Brunswick, N.J.:
Rutgers University Press.
Oever, A. van den. (2003). "Fritzi" En Het Groteske. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij.
76
Oever, A. van den. (2010). Monstration and the monstrous, The Grotesque in the very
beginning and at the very end. In F. Casetti (Ed.) and J. Gaines, V.(Re.) In: Proceedings of the
XVI International Film Studies Conference-Permanent Seminar on History of Film Theories.
Dall’inizio, alla fine. Teorie del cinema in prospettiva/ In the Very Beginning, at the Very
End. Film Theories in Perspective. Udine: Forum, 2010, pp. 229-242
Oever, A. van den. (2010). Grimassen in de nachtspiegel of de rabaissement als techniek
tegen de klassieke geschiedschrijving. In Bindels en Van Melick (Eds.), Frictie of non-frictie,
(pp. 61-82). Rimburg: Huis Clos
Oever, A. van den. (2013). The medium-sensitive experience and the paradigmatic experience
of the grotesque, “Unnatural,” or “Monstrous”. Leonardo, Vol. 46, No.1, 88-89
Schickel, R. (1997). The Disney Version. The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt Disney.
Chicago: Elephant Paperbacks
Strauven, W. (2006). The cinema of attractions reloaded. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University
Press.
Taylor, R.(edt., trans.), Powell, W.(trans.). (1998). The Eisenstein reader. London: Britisch
film institute.
Watts, S. (2001). The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Columbia,
MO: University of Missouri Press.
Weishaar, S. (2012). Masters of the Grotesque. Jefferson, North Carolina, London:
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.
77
Appendix I – Filmography Corpus
This appendix was constructed based on the Internet Movie Database: www.imdb.com.
Title: The Skeleton Dance
Released: 1929
Director: Walt Disney
Runtime: 6 minutes
Film series: Silly Symphonies
Producer: Walt Disney
Music composed by: Carl Stalling, Edvard Grieg
Viewed: Computer monitor
Title: Merbabies
Released: 1935
Director: Rudolf Ising, Vernon Stallings
Runtime: 9 minutes
Film series: Silly Symphonies
Producer: Walt Disney Productions, Harman-Ising Pictures
Music composed by: Scott Bradley
Viewed: Computer monitor
Title: The Karnival Kid
Released: May 23, 1929
Directors: Walt Disney, Ub Iwerks
Runtime: 8 minutes
Film series: Mickey Mouse series
Producer: Walt Disney
Music composed by: Carl Stalling
Viewed: On screen
Title: Steamboat Willie
Released: July 29, 1928
Directors: Walt Disney, Ub Iwerks
Runtime: 8 minutes
Film series: Mickey Mouse series
Producer: Walt Disney, Roy O. Disney
Music composed by: Wilfred Jackson, Bert Lewis
Viewed: Computer monitor
78
Title: Playful Pluto
Released: 1934
Director: Burt Gillett
Runtime: 8 minutes
Film series: Mickey Mouse series
Producer: Walt Disney Productions
Music composed by: Frank Churchill, Paul Smith
Viewed: Computer monitor
Title: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
Released: December 21, 1937
Directors: David Hand, Larry Morey, Wilfred Jackson, Ben Sharpsteen, Perce Pearce,
William Cottrell
Runtime: 83 minutes
Producer: Walt Disney Productions
Music composed by: Frank Churchill, Leigh Harline, Paul J. Smith
Viewed: Computer monitor
79
Appendix II – Filmography of Walt Disney
1948-1921
This appendix was constructed based on the Internet Movie Database: www.imdb.com. It
follows the films by Disney, in reversed chronological order, from 1948 till 1921. This
timeframe was chosen in light of the beginning of Disney’s career and the date of death of
Sergei Eisentein.
1948
Daddy Duck (Short) (producer)
Tea for Two Hundred (Short) (producer uncredited)
Mickey Down Under (Short) (producer)
Drip Dippy Donald (Short) (producer)
Seal Island (Documentary short) (producer)
The Big Wash (Short) (producer)
Mickey and the Seal (Short) (producer)
They're Off (Short) (producer)
So Dear to My Heart (producer)
Three for Breakfast (Short) (producer)
1947
Soup's On (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Blue Note (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Fledgling (Short) (producer)
Chip an' Dale (Short) (producer)
Inferior Decorator (Short) (producer)
Mail Dog (Short) (producer)
Cat Nap Pluto (Short) (producer)
Foul Hunting (Short) (producer)
The Trial of Donald Duck (Short) (producer uncredited)
Mickey's Delayed Date (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Purchase (Short) (producer)
Bongo (Short) (producer)
Blame It on the Samba (Short) (producer)
Mickey and the Beanstalk (Short) (producer)
Bumble Boogie (Short) (producer)
Wide Open Spaces (Short) (producer)
Little Toot (Short) (producer)
Bootle Beetle (Short) (producer)
Melody Time (producer - uncredited)
Crazy with the Heat (Short) (producer)
Pecos Bill (Short) (producer)
Donald's Dilemma (Short) (producer)
The Legend of Johnny Appleseed (Short)
(producer)
Clown of the Jungle (Short) (producer)
Trees (Short) (producer)
Donald's Dream Voice (Short) (producer)
Bone Bandit (Short) (producer)
Figaro and Frankie (Short) (producer)
Sleepy Time Donald (Short) (producer)
Straight Shooters (Short) (producer)
Rescue Dog (Short) (producer)
80
Pluto's Housewarming (Short) (producer)
The Flying Gauchito (Short) (producer)
Old Sequoia (Short) (producer)
1946
Canine Patrol (Short) (producer)
After You've Gone (Short) (producer)
Cured Duck (Short) (producer)
All the Cats Join In (Short) (producer)
Hockey Homicide (Short) (producer)
Blue Bayou (Short) (producer)
No Sail (Short) (producer)
Double Dribble (Short) (producer)
The Legend of Coyote Rock (Short) (producer)
Song of the South (producer)
Duck Pimples (Short) (producer)
Frank Duck Brings 'em Back Alive (Short)
(producer)
Tuberculosis (Documentary short) (producer)
Canine Casanova (Short) (producer)
Defense Against Invasion (Short) (producer)
Californy er Bust (Short) (producer)
Bath Day (Short) (producer)
Donald's Crime (Short) (producer)
Lighthouse Keeping (Short) (producer)
African Diary (Short) (producer)
Dumb Bell of the Yukon (Short) (producer)
The Eyes Have It (Short) (producer)
Casey at the Bat (Short) (producer)
Dog Watch (Short) (producer)
Johnnie Fedora and Alice Bluebonnet (Short)
(producer)
The Clock Watcher (Short) (producer)
Peter and the Wolf (Short) (producer)
Tiger Trouble (Short) (producer)
The Martins and the Coys (Short) (producer)
The Whale Who Wanted to Sing at the Met (Short)
(producer)
Wet Paint (Short) (producer)
The Purloined Pup (Short) (producer)
Donald's Double Trouble (Short) (producer)
Squatter's Rights (Short) (producer)
In Dutch (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Kid Brother (Short) (producer)
A Knight for a Day (Short) (producer)
1944
The Three Caballeros (producer - uncredited)
Donald's Off Day (Short) (producer)
First Aiders (Short) (producer)
How to Play Football (Short) (producer)
The Plastics Inventor (Short) (producer)
Springtime for Pluto (Short) (producer)
Commando Duck (Short) (producer)
Contrary Condor (Short) (producer)
Donald Duck and the Gorilla (Short) (producer)
1945
The Cold-Blooded Penguin (Short) (producer)
How to Play Golf (Short) (producer)
Trombone Trouble (Short) (producer)
81
How to Be a Sailor (Short) (producer)
Stop That Tank! (Documentary short) (producer uncredited)
The Pelican and the Snipe (Short) (producer)
Bellboy Donald (Short) (producer)
How to Fish (Short) (producer)
1943
Pluto at the Zoo (Short) (producer)
British Torpedo Plane Tactics (Documentary short)
(producer)
Sky Trooper (Short) (producer)
Pedro (Short) (producer)
How to Swim (Short) (producer)
Chicken Little (Short) (producer)
The Olympic Champ (Short) (producer)
Home Defense (Short) (producer)
The Vanishing Private (Short) (producer)
The Old Army Game (Short) (producer)
How to Play Baseball (Short) (producer)
The Winged Scourge (Documentary short)
(producer)
T-Bone for Two (Short) (producer)
Bambi (producer - uncredited)
Figaro and Cleo (Short) (producer)
Reason and Emotion (Short) (producer)
Out of the Frying Pan Into the Firing Line (Short)
(producer)
Victory Vehicles (Short) (producer)
Donald's Gold Mine (Short) (producer)
Victory Through Air Power (Documentary)
(producer - uncredited)
Food Will Win the War (Documentary short)
(producer)
Fall Out-Fall in (Short) (producer)
The Sleepwalker (Short) (producer)
Private Pluto (Short) (producer)
Donald's Garden (Short) (producer)
The Flying Jalopy (Short) (producer)
The Army Mascot (Short) (producer)
Pluto and the Armadillo (Short) (producer)
Donald Gets Drafted (Short) (producer)
El Gaucho Goofy (Short) (producer)
Donald's Snow Fight (Short) (producer)
Donald's Tire Trouble (Short) (producer)
Symphony Hour (Short) (producer)
Education for Death: The Making of the
Nazi (Short) (producer)
Pluto Junior (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Birthday Party (Short) (producer)
The Spirit of '43 (Short documentary) (producer)
The New Spirit (Documentary short) (producer)
The Grain That Built a Hemisphere (Documentary
short) (producer)
The Village Smithy (Short) (producer)
All Together (Short) (producer)
1942
Donald's Decision (Short) (producer)
Aquarela do Brasil (Short) (producer)
Der Fuehrer's Face (Short) (producer)
1941
The Art of Self Defense (Short) (producer)
82
7 Wise Dwarfs (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Dream House (Short) (producer uncredited)
Chef Donald (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Donald's Vacation (Short) (producer)
The Thrifty Pig (Short) (producer)
Put-Put Troubles (Short) (producer)
The Art of Skiing (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Bone Trouble (Short) (producer)
Donald's Camera (Short) (producer)
Mr. Duck Steps Out (Short) (producer)
Dumbo (producer - uncredited)
Billposters (Short) (producer)
Lend a Paw (Short) (producer)
Tugboat Mickey (Short) (producer)
Old MacDonald Duck (Short) (producer)
Donald's Dog Laundry (Short) (producer)
Orphans' Benefit (Short) (producer)
The Riveter (Short) (producer)
Truant Officer Donald (Short) (producer)
Pinocchio (producer - uncredited)
Early to Bed (Short) (producer)
The Nifty Nineties (Short) (producer)
1939
Canine Caddy (Short) (producer)
The Standard Parade (Documentary short)
(producer)
A Good Time for a Dime (Short) (producer)
Baggage Buster (Short) (producer)
A Gentleman's Gentleman (Short) (producer)
Golden Eggs (Short) (producer)
Officer Duck (Short) (producer)
The Autograph Hound (Short) (producer)
Donald's Penguin (Short) (producer)
The Pointer (Short) (producer)
The Little Whirlwind (Short) (producer uncredited)
Sea Scouts (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Playmate (Short) (producer)
Beach Picnic (Short) (producer)
Timber (Short) (producer)
Donald's Cousin Gus (Short) (producer)
The Reluctant Dragon (producer - uncredited)
The Hockey Champ (Short) (producer)
Ugly Duckling (Short) (producer)
1940
Goofy and Wilbur (Short) (producer)
Pantry Pirate (Short) (producer)
The Practical Pig (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Fire Chief (Short) (producer)
Society Dog Show (Short) (producer)
Goofy's Glider (Short) (producer)
Donald's Lucky Day (Short) (producer)
Fantasia (producer - uncredited)
Mr. Mouse Takes a Trip (Short) (producer)
1938
Window Cleaners (Short) (producer)
Mother Goose Goes Hollywood (Short) (producer)
83
Ferdinand the Bull (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Magician Mickey (Short) (producer)
Donald's Golf Game (Short) (producer)
Don Donald (Short) (producer)
Farmyard Symphony (Short) (producer)
The Worm Turns (Short) (producer)
Brave Little Tailor (Short) (producer)
1936
Mickey's Parrot (Short) (producer)
More Kittens (Short) (producer)
The Whalers (Short) (producer)
Mother Pluto (Short) (producer)
The Fox Hunt (Short) (producer)
The Country Cousin (Short) (producer)
Good Scouts (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Elephant (Short) (producer)
Polar Trappers (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Three Blind Mouseketeers (Short) (producer)
Wynken, Blynken & Nod (Short) (producer)
Donald and Pluto (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Trailer (Short) (producer)
Toby Tortoise Returns (Short) (producer)
Donald's Nephews (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Circus (Short) (producer)
Moth and the Flame (Short) (producer)
Alpine Climbers (Short) (producer)
Donald's Better Self (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Rival (Short) (producer)
Boat Builders (Short) (producer)
Moving Day (Short) (producer)
Self Control (Short) (producer)
Thru the Mirror (Short) (producer)
Three Little Wolves (Short) (producer)
1937
Elmer Elephant (Short) (producer)
Lonesome Ghosts (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Grand Opera (Short) (producer)
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (producer uncredited)
Orphans' Picnic (Short) (producer)
Donald's Ostrich (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Polo Team (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Quin-puplets (Short) (producer)
The Old Mill (Short) (producer)
1935
Clock Cleaners (Short) (producer)
Broken Toys (Short) (producer)
Hawaiian Holiday (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Cock o' the Walk (Short) (producer)
Modern Inventions (Short) (producer)
Three Orphan Kittens (Short) (producer)
Little Hiawatha (Short) (producer)
Music Land (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Amateurs (Short) (producer)
On Ice (Short) (producer)
Woodland Café (Short) (producer)
Pluto's Judgement Day (Short) (producer)
Moose Hunters (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Fire Brigade (Short) (producer)
84
Mickey's Garden (Short) (producer)
The China Shop (Short) (producer)
Who Killed Cock Robin? (Short) (producer)
1933
The Cookie Carnival (Short) (producer)
The Night Before Christmas (Short) (producer)
Water Babies (Short) (producer)
Giantland (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Kangaroo (Short) (producer)
The Pet Store (Short) (producer)
The Robber Kitten (Short) (producer)
The Steeplechase (Short) (producer)
The Golden Touch (Short) (producer)
The Pied Piper (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Service Station (Short) (producer)
Puppy Love (Short) (producer)
The Band Concert (Short) (producer)
Lullaby Land (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Man Friday (Short) (producer)
Old King Cole (Short) (producer)
The Tortoise and the Hare (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Gala Premier (Short) (producer)
1934
Mickey's Mechanical Man (Short) (producer)
Two-Gun Mickey (Short) (producer)
The Mail Pilot (Short) (producer)
The Dognapper (Short) (producer)
Three Little Pigs (Short) (producer - uncredited)
The Goddess of Spring (Short) (producer)
Father Noah's Ark (Short) (producer)
Mickey Plays Papa (Short) (producer)
Ye Olden Days (Short) (producer)
Peculiar Penguins (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Mellerdrammer (Short) (producer)
Orphan's Benefit (Short) (producer)
Birds in the Spring (Short) (producer)
The Flying Mouse (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Pal Pluto (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Steam Roller (Short) (producer)
The Mad Doctor (Short) (producer)
The Wise Little Hen (Short) (producer)
Building a Building (Short) (producer)
Servants' Entrance (cartoon sequence)
1932
The Hot Choc-late Soldiers (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Good Deed (Short) (producer)
Gulliver Mickey (Short) (producer)
Santa's Workshop (Short) (producer)
The Big Bad Wolf (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Babes in the Woods (Short) (producer)
Funny Little Bunnies (Short) (producer)
Playful Pluto (Short) (producer)
Parade of the Award Nominees (Short) (producer uncredited)
Camping Out (Short) (producer)
The Klondike Kid (Short) (producer - uncredited)
The Grasshopper and the Ants (Short) (producer)
The Wayward Canary (Short) (producer)
Shanghaied (Short) (producer)
85
Touchdown Mickey (Short) (producer)
The Cat's Out (Short) (producer)
Bugs in Love (Short) (producer)
Mickey Steps Out (Short) (producer)
The Whoopee Party (Short) (producer)
The Busy Beavers (Short) (producer)
King Neptune (Short) (producer)
The Delivery Boy (Short) (producer)
Trader Mickey (Short) (producer)
The China Plate (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Nightmare (Short) (producer)
The Moose Hunt (Short) (producer)
Flowers and Trees (Short) (producer)
Mother Goose Melodies (Short) (producer)
Just Dogs (Short) (producer)
The Castaway (Short) (producer)
Mickey in Arabia (Short) (producer)
Traffic Troubles (Short) (producer)
Musical Farmer (Short) (producer)
Birds of a Feather (Short) (producer)
The Bears and Bees (Short) (producer)
The Birthday Party (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Revue (Short) (producer)
Barnyard Olympics (Short) (producer)
1930
The Mad Dog (Short) (producer)
Minnie's Yoo Hoo (Short) (producer)
The Grocery Boy (Short) (producer)
Playful Pan (Short) (producer)
The Duck Hunt (Short) (producer)
Pioneer Days (Short) (producer)
The Bird Store (Short) (producer)
Winter (Short) (producer)
The Picnic (Short) (producer)
1931
The Gorilla Mystery (Short) (producer)
The Ugly Duckling (Short) (producer)
The Chain Gang (Short) (producer)
Mickey's Orphans (Short) (producer)
Monkey Melodies (Short) (producer)
Mickey Cuts Up (Short) (producer)
Night (Short) (producer)
The Beach Party (Short) (producer)
The Shindig (Short) (producer)
The Fox Hunt (Short) (producer)
Midnight in a Toy Shop (Short) (producer)
The Barnyard Broadcast (Short) (producer)
Arctic Antics (Short) (producer)
The Spider and the Fly (Short) (producer)
The Fire Fighters (Short) (producer)
The Clock Store (Short) (producer)
Frolicking Fish (Short) (producer)
Fishin' Around (Short) (producer)
The Cactus Kid (Short) (producer)
Egyptian Melodies (Short) (producer)
Fiddling Around (Short) (producer)
Blue Rhythm (Short) (producer)
Cannibal Capers (Short) (producer)
86
The Barnyard Concert (Short) (producer)
Poor Papa (Short)
Autumn (Short) (producer)
Oh What a Knight (Short)
Summer (Short) (producer)
Plane Crazy (Short) (producer)
Hungry Hoboes (Short)
1929
Ozzie of the Mounted (Short)
The Merry Dwarfs (Short) (producer - uncredited)
Ride 'Em Plowboy (Short)
The Haunted House (Short) (producer)
Sagebrush Sadie (Short)
Hell's Bells (Short) (producer)
Bright Lights (Short)
Jungle Rhythm (Short) (producer)
Rival Romeos (Short)
Springtime (Short) (producer)
Africa Before Dark (Short)
El terrible toreador (Short) (producer)
The Ol' Swimmin' Hole (Short)
The Skeleton Dance (Short) (producer)
Neck 'n' Neck (Short)
Wild Waves (Short) (producer)
Harem Scarem (Short)
The Jazz Fool (Short) (producer)
The Plowboy (Short) (producer)
1927
Mickey's Follies (Short) (producer)
Rickety Gin (Short)
Mickey's Choo-Choo (Short) (producer)
Empty Socks (Short)
The Karnival Kid (Short) (producer)
The Banker's Daughter (Short)
The Barnyard Battle (Short) (producer)
The Ocean Hop (Short)
When the Cat's Away (Short) (producer)
All Wet (Short)
The Opry House (Short) (producer)
Great Guns (Short)
The Barn Dance (Short) (producer)
The Mechanical Cow (Short)
Oh Teacher (Short)
1928
Trolley Troubles (Short)
The Gallopin' Gaucho (Short) (producer)
Alice in the Big League (Short) (producer)
Sky Scrappers (Short)
Alice the Beach Nut (Short) (producer)
Hot Dog (Short)
Alice the Whaler (Short)
Steamboat Willie (Short) (producer)
Alice's Medicine Show (Short) (producer)
Sleigh Bells (Short)
Alice in the Klondike (Short) (producer)
Tall Timber (Short)
Alice's Channel Swim (Short) (producer)
The Fox Chase (Short)
87
Alice's Picnic (Short) (producer)
1925
Alice's Knaughty Knight (Short) (producer)
Alice in the Jungle (Short)
Alice's Three Bad Eggs (Short) (producer)
Alice Rattled by Rats (Short) (producer)
Alice's Circus Daze (Short) (producer)
Alice Plays Cupid (Short) (producer)
Alice's Auto Race (Short) (producer)
Alice the Jail Bird (Short)
Alice in the Alps (Short) (producer)
Alice Chops the Suey (Short) (producer)
Alice the Collegiate (Short) (producer)
Alice's Tin Pony (Short) (producer)
Alice at the Rodeo (Short) (producer)
Alice Picks the Champ (Short) (producer)
Alice at the Carnival (Short) (producer)
Alice Wins the Derby (Short) (producer)
Alice Foils the Pirates (Short) (producer)
Alice Is Stage Struck (Short) (producer)
Alice the Golf Bug (Short) (producer)
Alice Loses Out (Short) (producer)
Alice's Egg Plant (Short)
1926
Alice Solves the Puzzle (Short) (producer)
Clara Cleans Her Teeth (Short) (producer)
Alice Gets Stung (Short) (producer)
Alice the Lumberjack (Short) (producer)
Alice the Toreador (Short) (producer)
Alice's Brown Derby (Short) (producer)
Alice Cans the Cannibals (Short) (producer)
Alice's Spanish Guitar (Short) (producer)
Alice Helps the Romance (Short) (producer)
1924
Alice Cuts the Ice (Short) (producer)
Alice the Piper (Short) (producer)
Alice the Fire Fighter (Short) (producer)
Alice and the Three Bears (Short) (producer)
Alice in the Wooly West (Short) (producer)
Alice Hunting in Africa (Short) (producer)
Alice in Slumberland (Short) (producer)
Alice Gets in Dutch (Short)
Alice's Monkey Business (Short) (producer)
Alice the Peacemaker (Short)
Alice Charms the Fish (Short) (producer)
Alice and the Dog Catcher (Short) (producer)
Alice's Orphan (Short) (producer)
Alice's Fishy Story (Short) (producer)
Alice's Mysterious Mystery (Short)
Alice's Wild West Show (Short)
Alice's Little Parade (Short) (producer)
Alice's Spooky Adventure (Short) (producer)
Alice's Balloon Race (Short) (producer)
Alice's Day at Sea (Short) (producer)
Alice on the Farm (Short) (producer)
88
1923
Alice's Wonderland (Short) (producer)
Martha (Short) (producer)
1922
Cinderella (Short) (producer)
Tommy Tucker's Tooth (Short) (producer)
Puss in Boots (Short) (producer)
Goldie Locks and the Three Bears (Short)
(producer)
Jack the Giant Killer (Short) (producer)
Jack and the Beanstalk (Short) (producer)
The Four Musicians of Bremen (Short) (producer)
Little Red Riding Hood (Short) (producer)
1921
Cleaning Up!!? (Video short)
Did You Ever Take a Ride Over Kansas City Street
'In a Fliver' (Video short)
Kansas City's Spring Clean-up (Short)
Kansas City Girls Are Rolling Their Own
Now (Video short)
89