March 2013 - International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts

Transcription

Table of Contents
2013 IABPA Officers
1
President’s Message
2
2013 IABPA Executive Board Introductions
3
TECHNICAL PAPER: The Development and Construction
of a Motorized Blood Droplet Generation Device (BDGD)
for Detailed Analysis of Blood Droplet Dynamics
Elizabeth Williams and Michael Taylor
14
Recent BPA Articles in the Scientific Literature
30
Organizational Notices
31
Training Opportunities
32
Editor’s Corner
36
Publication Committee/Associate Editors
37
Past Editors of the IABPA News/Journal of Bloodstain
Pattern Analysis
37
Past Presidents of the IABPA
37
2013 IABPA Officers
PRESIDENT
Patrick Laturnus
pat.laturnus@rogers.com
Vice President - Region I
Pacific
Don Schuessler
Vice President - Region II
Mountain
Leah Innocci
dschuessle@msn.com
linnoc1@gmail.com
Vice President - Region III
Central
Rex T. Sparks
Vice President, Region IV
Eastern
Anthony Mangione
rtsparks@dmgov.org
amangione@hamiltonpd.org
Vice President - Region V
European
Peter Lamb
Vice President - Region VI
Pacific Rim
Brett McCance
lambies1@hotmail.co.uk
brett.mccance@police.wa.gov.au
Secretary / Treasurer
Norman Reeves
Sergeant at Arms
Jeffrey Scozzafava
norman@bloody1.com
scozzafava@co.somerset.nj.us
Immediate Past President
Todd A. Thorne
Historian
Stuart H. James
tthorne@kenosha.org
Journal of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
jamesforen@aol.com
1
Vol. 29 No. 1 March 2013
President’s Message
We’re in our 30th year as the most influential organization in Bloodstain Pattern Analysis.
Our charter members gathered in November of 1983 and look at where we are today. I’m so
pleased and proud to be your President in 2013. Look at us now; we’ve come a long way…
from smoke and mirrors to empirical scientific evidence.
In keeping with our tradition, the 2013 IABPA Training Conference in San Diego promises
to be a great educational event at a fantastic venue. Carolyn Gannett and Lisa DiMeo are
working hard to make this year’s conference not only worthwhile but memorable. Please
contact them with your presentation ideas; we’re all looking forward to hearing from you.
The first impression I had of this organization was how helpful and open its members were.
At my first meeting (and ever since then), I’ve made contacts with not only leaders in the
field but also people who were interested in what I had to say. The strength of these contacts
provided a level of confidence that allowed me to venture into bloodstain pattern analysis
uninhibited. If you are a member of the IABPA, we hope that you will take advantage of our
incredible resources. If you are interested in BPA, we hope that you will join us in
maintaining one of the most helpful tools in forensics today.
Our members will note that the IABPA website now includes both current and back issues
of the Journal. This excellent reference material continues to grow and through current
research the published information lays a foundation for credible opinions. Please continue
to support the Journal, not only by reading but also by contributing. Your ideas are
important. Many thanks to Stuart James, our Editor.
The website gets a lot of hits during the day and we’re grateful for the amount of work that
it takes to keep it going. Please recommend it to anyone getting into the discipline and as a
member, use the member’s only area to your advantage. Many thanks to Joe Slemko, our
Webmaster.
I’m joined by an active executive board dedicated to not only maintaining our image but also
to improve the way we interact. We receive your inquires with great interest and satisfaction
that the system is working. Please don’t hesitate to contact us for any reason. We are
prepared to listen and to put new ideas or improvements on the agenda for our San Diego
meeting. On behalf of the IAPBA Executive Board, enjoy this edition of the Journal. Come
on down to San Diego, we can’t wait to see you again or for the first time.
Pat Laturnus
President IABPA
2
2013 IABPA EXECUTIVE BOARD INTRODUCTIONS
President
Patrick Laturnus
Pat is presently working as a private consultant in Ottawa, Ontario Canada. He started his
forensic career with the RCMP in 1975 and went on to become a Bloodstain Analyst in 1990.
He has always enjoyed opportunities to instruct and subsequently went on to be a full time
instructor. During that time Pat developed an understudy program based on his training. This
program has certified people as qualified bloodstain analysts not only in Ontario, but across
Canada and Internationally.
His career has taken him across Canada where he’s worked in 8 of the 10 Provinces. During
this time he’s been accepted as an expert witness in: Bloodstain Pattern Analysis, Fingerprint
Identification and Physical Comparisons. In addition he has taught and continues to teach
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis on an International basis.
He has written several bloodstain related articles and has appeared on radio and television.
Pat is the proud recipient of awards from the Provincial Government of Ontario (Amethyst and
Ovation), as well as winner of the Foster Award which is the highest honor bestowed by the
Canadian Identification Society. One of his most proud occasions came when he was also
awarded the honor of "Distinguished Member" of the International Association of Bloodstain
Pattern Analysts.
Since becoming a member of the IAPBA in 1990, he has benefited greatly by attending
conferences and meeting fellow bloodstain analysts. He has participated through support and
attendance, as well as serving as a Vice-President and an Ethics committee member.
3
Vice President, Region I
Pacific
Donald R. Schuessler, MS, CBPE
Donald has over thirty years’ experience in forensics, latent print examination and expert
witness testimony He retired from full time employment with the Eugene Police Department
Forensic Evidence Unit in 2005. Through his work as a Forensic Analyst and Deputy
Medical Examiner Investigator he has developed strong technical skills in all phases of crime
scene/death investigation and physical evidence examination. Don is a Charter Member of
the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts served its first Secretary
Treasurer and currently as the Co-Chair of the Certification Committee. Don has contributed
to four text books written on the subject of bloodstain pattern analysis/crime scene
reconstruction and has published articles in professional journals and newsletters such as the
FBI’s Crime Laboratory Digest and IABPA Newsletter. He obtained certification as a
Bloodstain Pattern Examiner through the International Association for Identification and
currently is the only individual to hold that certification in the State of Oregon.
4
Vice President - Region II
Mountain
Leah Innocci
Leah Innocci is a forensic scientist for the Wyoming State Crime Laboratory, serving the
criminal justice system for the state of Wyoming. She specializes in bloodstain pattern
analysis, latent fingerprint analysis, and crime scene Investigation.
In addition to her duties as IABPA Region II Vice-President, Leah has served as the Chair of
the Education Committee as well as Vice-President and President of the Rocky Mountain
Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (RMABPA). She serves as a member of the
Training and Education Committee for the Scientific Working Group on Bloodstain Pattern
Analysis (SWGSTAIN). She is a member of the International Association for Identification
(IAI) and the Rocky Mountain Division of the IAI. She has taught several classes in crime
scene management at the Wyoming Law Enforcement Academy.
Leah received her Associate’s degree in May 2010 from Laramie County Community
College and is currently working toward her Bachelor’s degree, majoring in Criminal Justice
with a Concentration in Pre-Forensic Science.
Leah is a proud veteran of the United States Army where she served as a Medical Laboratory
Technician. She lives in Cheyenne with her husband and three beautiful daughters.
5
Vice President - Region III
Central
Rex T. Sparks
Rex T. Sparks has a thirty seven year career in forensic science and crime scene processing
that began with the Story County, Iowa Sheriff’s Department. He is currently an
Identification Technician with the Des Moines, Iowa Police Department as well as a private
forensic consultant and also instructs forensic courses. He has a total of over 1800 hours of
training in forensic disciplines including bloodstain pattern analysis, crime scene and
shooting reconstruction, photography and advanced crime scene technology. Mr. Sparks has
completed basic/advanced bloodstain pattern analysis courses at Northwestern University in
Chicago, Corning, NY, Lincoln, Nebraska and Des Moines, Iowa. He has attended numerous
IABPA Annual Training Conferences including the International IABPA Conference in
Middelburg, Zeeland, the Netherlands. He is a graduate of the Iowa Law Enforcement
Academy.
6
Vice President, Region IV
Eastern
Anthony Mangione
Anthony became a member of the IABPA in 2002 and is currently serving his second term
as Vice President of Region IV (Eastern). He has previously served the IABPA as Sergeant
at Arms and, since 2008, has served on the SWGSTAIN Document Review Committee.
Anthony currently serves as Co-Chair of the IABPA Certification Research Committee.
Anthony has over 16 years of prior military experience, having served on active duty and
reserves in the US Army as an RTO, Infantry Scout, Drill Instructor, and Infantry Platoon
Sergeant. Anthony served with the 7th and 2nd Infantry Divisions and also served on the
Korean DMZ and in Central America. He was assigned to the 78th Division Special
Weapons Committee, then assigned to the US Army Drill Sergeant Academy at Ft. Dix, NJ
and served as an Instructor/Course Manager. After completing his tours of duty, Anthony
was employed in the private sector in various positions in private security and investigations.
Anthony has 23 years of law enforcement experience. In 1990, Anthony began his law
enforcement career as a patrol officer in Hamilton, New Jersey. During his career, Anthony
has had an extremely broad experience base from various law enforcement assignments –
including patrol, anti-crime unit, fugitive task force, narcotics/vice unit, training unit,
criminal investigations bureau and the crime scene unit. He has received thousands of hours
in advanced training in criminal investigations and crime scene investigation. Anthony also
completed the New York City Police Department’s Homicide Investigator Course.
Anthony’s training and experience in crime scene investigation began in 1993 when he was
trained as an evidence technician. He has since been involved in thousands of investigations
involving crime scenes of all types. In 2002, Anthony was promoted to Detective and is
currently the senior crime scene investigator at the Hamilton Police Division where he
designed, developed and implemented the Hamilton Police Division Crime Laboratory and
implemented the Digital Information Management System – and most recently, the design
and implementation of the Crime Scene Unit’s Mobile Crime Lab. Anthony is a certified
instructor and has taught law enforcement and forensic topics across the country. Anthony
was involved in the development of the Northeast Crime Scene Institute located in Somerset
County, New Jersey – where he currently serves as Chairman of the Education Committee
and as a staff instructor. He is also a member of the IAI, the New Jersey Division of the IAI,
NJAFS, the New Jersey Police Honor Legion, and the Italian-American Police Society.
7
Vice President - Region V
European
Peter Lamb
Peter Lamb started his career in 1970 as an assistant with the UK Home Office and did his
professional qualifications part time at the local university and on completion was promoted
to Reporting Officer status. He worked on all cases of offences against the person. Peter
began studying blood stain patterns in 1973 and enjoyed conducting research with blood. He
became a blood stain pattern trainer for the Forensic Science service and helped train many
of the experts in the UK and overseas.
Peter was awarded Fellowship of the Society of Biology for his work in Forensic Science
and later, also became a Fellow of the Forensic Science Society. He joined the IABPA so that
he could meet other experts and learn from them and contribute my knowledge and was
delighted to take over from Andre Hendrix as Vice President region V. In 2011 the UK
Government closed the Forensic Science Service and Peter became a self-employed
consultant.
8
Vice President - Region VI
Pacific Rim
Sergeant Brett McCance
Sergeant McCance is a Senior Forensic Investigation Officer and Team Leader with the
Western Australia Police Forensic Division. Sergeant McCance graduated from the Western
Australia Police Academy in 1996 and started his career in the Forensic Division in 2001,
which involves the attendance at scenes of both volume and major crime.
Sergeant McCance commenced his training as a bloodstain pattern analyst in 2004 and is still
active in scene attendance and case work for bloodshed events, being accepted by the
Western Australia Supreme Court, District Court and Coroners Court as an expert in the
scientific discipline. Sergeant McCance was the Forensic Division discipline manager for
bloodstain pattern analysis for two years and has delivered and coordinated internal training
courses for the Western Australia Police Forensic Division and national training courses for
policing and laboratory jurisdictions within Australia.
Sergeant McCance became a member of a national steering committee to standardize the
education and training of bloodstain analysts within Australia in 2006. In 2010, Sergeant
McCance became a member of SWGSTAIN on the Quality and Assurance sub-committee.
Sergeant McCance has also presented at national and international conferences and
symposiums on bloodstain pattern analysis and is currently undertaking studies towards a
Bachelor of Science in Crime Scene Investigation.
9
Secretary - Treasurer
Norman Reeves
Norman's initial bloodstain pattern analysis training occurred in 1975 and he has continued
to pursue that field of endeavor to this day. Norman is a founding member of the IABPA and
he was the first to testify in the area of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in New Jersey in 1983.
Norman was a certified instructor in New Jersey and he has lectured many times regarding
bloodstain pattern analysis and he has provided numerous testimonies in the New Jersey
Courts. He has also provided instruction of bloodstain pattern analysis in other jurisdictions.
Norman retired in 1991 and began consulting that resulted in examinations of bloodstains
in numerous jurisdictions throughout the world and subsequent testimony.
Norman was the Editor of the IABPA Newsletter in 1987-1989 and has been
Secretary/Treasurer of the IABPA since 1991. He was honored with the IABPA
Distinguished Member status in 1996.
Norman has hosted four IABPA Training Conferences with the most recent in Tucson,
Arizona in 2012.
10
Sergeant at Arms
Jeffrey Scozzafava
Jeff became a member of the IABPA in 2002 and has attended 9 of the previous 10 Annual
Training Conferences. Jeff has given multiple case presentations and has instructed several
workshops at IABPA conferences. Jeff has previously served the IABPA as Vice President
of Region IV (Eastern) Sergeant at Arms, Chair of the Internet Subcommittee, and member
of the SWGSTAIN Document Review Committee.
Jeff has 30 years of law enforcement experience. Beginning in 1983, Jeff served active
duty in the US Army as a Military Policeman. After completing his tour of duty, Jeff became
a New Jersey State Trooper, and retired from the State Police as a Detective Sergeant,
serving over half his career as a crime scene investigator.
Jeff works as a Detective for the Somerset County Prosecutor’s Office, assigned to the
Forensic Investigations Unit. He is also a member of the County’s Dive-Rescue Team,
Arson Task Force and the Police Shooting Response Team.
Jeff is a certified instructor and has taught forensic topics across the United States and
overseas. Jeff has instructed for the U.S. Department of Justice, John Jay College, NY, the
IAI, the New Jersey State Police and NJ Division of Criminal Justice. Jeff has testified as an
expert witness in Superior and Federal Courts regarding bloodstain pattern analysis,
fingerprint identification and crime scene investigation.
11
Immediate Past President
Todd A. Thorne
Todd A. Thorne is currently working in both the law enforcement and private communities.
Todd is well versed in Bloodstain Pattern Analysis, Forensic Photography, Evidence
Processing Techniques as well as Crime Scene Reconstruction. He is also a Latent
Fingerprint Examiner. Todd has a variety of published articles and photographs in these
disciplines. Todd has been working in the field of criminalistics for over 25 years and
continually offers expert testimony/consultation. He is a certified State of Wisconsin and
Illinois Instructor and has been on staff with the Nebraska Institute of Forensic Science. Todd
is a sought after speaker and is an adjunct instructor in the area of Forensic Science for
several colleges. In addition, he has served on the State of Wisconsin's Domestic
Violence/Sexual Assault Evidence Training Team. Todd has been a member of the Federal
Government's U.S. Department of Homeland Security, serving with the DMORT V Disaster
Response Unit. He operates Todd A. Thorne & Associates Forensic Consultants and
Photography Services, LLC, which has exposed him to both national and international cases.
Todd instructs throughout the country for The Lynn Peavey Company and has been called
upon for technical consultation/research by various entities.
He has also served the Wisconsin Association for Identification as President, Chairman of
the Board and has chaired numerous committees, The International Association of Bloodstain
Pattern Analysts as Region 3 Vice President, Associate Editor and The Kenosha Professional
Police Association as the secretary. Todd's hobbies include family activities, church
activities, camping and photography. He is married with 5 children.
12
Historian
Stuart H. James
Stuart H. James of James and Associates Forensic Consultants, Inc. is a graduate of Hobart
College where he received a BA degree in Biology and Chemistry in 1962. He received his
MT(ASCP) in Medical Technology from St. Mary’s Hospital in Tucson, Arizona in 1963.
Graduate courses completed at Elmira College include Homicide Investigation, Bloodstain
Pattern Analysis and Forensic Microscopy. He has completed more than 400 hours of
continuing education and training in Death Investigation and Bloodstain Pattern Analysis. A
former Crime Laboratory supervisor in Binghamton, New York, he has been a private
consultant since 1981.
Mr. James has instructed in Forensic Science at the State University of New York and
Broome Community College in Binghamton, New York. Additionally, he has taught basic
and advanced Bloodstain Pattern Analysis courses throughout the country and
internationally.
He has been consulted on homicide cases in 47 States and the District of Columbia as well
as in Australia, Canada, Germany, The Netherlands, Puerto Rico, South Korea and the US
Virgin Islands and has provided expert testimony in many of these jurisdictions in state,
federal and military courts.
Mr. James is a co-author of the text entitled, Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at
Crime Scenes and has contributed to other forensic texts including Introduction to Forensic
Science, Practical Fire and Arson Investigation and the Practical Methodology of Forensic
Photography. He is also a co-author of the revised Second Edition of Interpretation of
Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes and the Editor of Scientific and Legal Applications of
Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation both of which were published in 1998. He is a co-editor
with Jon J. Nordby of the text entitled Forensic Science – An Introduction to Scientific and
Investigative Techniques first published in 2002 with the third edition published in 2009. He
is also a co-author with Paul Kish and T. Paulette Sutton of the text entitled Principles of
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis – Theory and Practice published in 2005. Mr. James is a fellow
in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and a distinguished member of the
International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) and Historian as well as
the current editor of the quarterly Journal of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis.
13
TECHNICAL PAPER
The Development and Construction of a Motorized Blood Droplet Generation Device
(BDGD) for Detailed Analysis of Blood Droplet Dynamics
Elisabeth Williams1,2, and Michael Taylor1
Abstract
This work presents a motorized, mechanical blood droplet generation device (BDGD)
capable of generating and projecting reproducible blood droplets at a range of sizes,
velocities and directions relevant to a number of crime scene applications, particularly castoff and impact patterns. The BDGD has facilitated comprehensive, systematic, controlled
experimental work including a detailed analysis of the fluid dynamics of blood drops during
flight and impact. This level of control and reproducibility are impossible to achieve in
experiments using human-wielded weapons. The BDGD is complemented by an LED
lighting system, enabling droplet dynamics to be filmed with one or more high speed digital
video cameras. It features an automated blood application pump, ensuring a controlled blood
volume. The ability to generate and analyse blood drop dynamics in such a controlled
manner lends itself to the development of statistical models which can aid in the presentation
of objective bloodstain evidence.
Introduction
There is currently a dearth of controlled, systematic experimental work on blood droplet
behaviour, in the bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) literature. This means, for example, the
science under-pinning the use of predictive models to calculate the impact angle and the area
of origin of bloodstains is limited [1]. Blood droplets are generally thought to travel as
oscillating spheres, whose oscillations dampen after a time due to viscosity, with the
spherical shape ensured by the surface tension properties of the blood [2-4]. Recent studies
have utilized high speed video to examine the dynamics of falling droplets with regard to
droplet deformation on angled surfaces, the effects of gravitational and drag forces and
terminal velocity [5-7]. This level of analysis however, has not yet evolved to analysing
upwardly moving droplets, relevant to cast-off and impact patterns. While the effect of
gravity and drag can be modelled using equations which incorporate the physical properties
of blood and air, a variety of other factors including impact surface characteristics can
influence blood drop behaviour at crime scenes and thus systematic experimentation is
required.
One of the challenges for research into spatter patterns is generating consistently-sized
small droplets at higher velocities than a passive dropping experiment can achieve. To make
this possible we have designed and built a blood droplet generation device (BDGD). The
device is comprised of a motorized rotating disc, based on the concept of rotary atomisation,
to generate uniform droplet sizes. Rotary atomisation is one of many atomization techniques
employed in various industrial applications such as spray cooling and ink jet printing [8]. In
this process liquid is applied to a rotating disc. During rotation the liquid migrates to the
edge of the disc where it forms ligaments or sheets which disintegrate into droplets and
detach from the disc’s surface [8].
_________________________________________________________________________
1
Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), Christchurch, New Zealand
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Auckland, New Zealand
2
14
The design of the circular disc BDGD enables blood droplets to be projected at any angle
in the plane in which the disc is set. The direction of the device disc can be reversed, so that
stains created from upward-propelled droplets can be compared with those from downward
and horizontally propelled droplets.
The BDGD was primarily designed to study cast-off droplets. To determine the relevant
range of velocities for cast-off, preliminary biomechanical trials were conducted with the
assistance of motivated human volunteers swinging various weapons towards (‘forward
swing’) and away from (‘back swing’) a blood-soaked target. The weapon with the greatest
end-point velocity was the baseball bat which measured up to 15 m/s during back swing and
up to 36 m/s during forward swing [9]. A target velocity of 40 m/sec was chosen for the
maximum disc tangential velocity.
Droplet size can be controlled to an extent by controlling the volume applied. Droplets and
stains can be mapped and graphed relative to a global coordinate system and a high-intensity
backlighting system enables fine details of droplet dynamics to be captured with a high speed
video camera. Particular attention was given in the design to the health and safety
requirements of the laboratory.
Prototype Development and Preliminary Experiments
Preliminary droplet generation experiments were conducted using a prototype apparatus
comprising of a 200 mm diameter Formica disc with shallow surface grooves, attached to the
shaft of a 0.09 kW motor wired to a variable speed drive (VSD). The tangential velocity of
the disc perimeter was set to 10 m/s and blood applied to the surface via a syringe. The
droplets produced were smaller (0.2-0.4 mm in diameter) than those expected in cast-off,
which was attributed to the relatively small radius of the disc and correspondingly large
centripetal forces generated by the disc. A much larger disc diameter was therefore required
to obtain appropriate sized drops to model cast-off.
Design and Construction of Device
The final design, (Figure 1) included the following features:
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





A 6.0 mm thick, 600 mm diameter aluminum disc with stainless steel hub
A 0.3 kW motor with a drive shaft and pulley system
A variable speed drive (VSD) unit, controlled by a 10 turn potentiometer and on/off
switch to control the motor
A comprehensive framing system and weighted support base
A medical pump to apply blood to the disc
A safety cage
A high intensity LED array backlighting system
A 2.4 x 1.2 m frosted Perspex® diffuser screen, which doubled as a global coordinate
system (GCS) grid
Disc Size and Features
The diameter of the disc was chosen to be 600 mm, which represented a realistic size for
adequate control for tangential velocities up to 40 m/sec. The disc was cut from a sheet of 6
mm aluminium which provided a lightweight but strong structure capable of spinning
without flexing or oscillating. The disc had twelve evenly spaced, 170 mm long, 1.0 x 1.0
mm radial grooves milled into it from the disc perimeter to the centre. These were designed
to encourage the fluid to pool, rather than be randomly distributed around the disc as it
rotated. Aluminium radial veins were attached to the left edge of each groove (Figure 2) to
increase the volume of blood being propelled from the disc at each point on its circumference
and thereby produce larger droplets.
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Frame and Base of Device
The circumference of the 600 mm disc is 1885 mm, so the angular velocity required to
achieve a tangential velocity of 40 m/s, is 1273 revolutions per minute. Considering the
mass of the disc and the torque generated by these relatively high speeds, a comprehensive
framing system was constructed and the entire apparatus bolted to a solid support base to
eliminate any vibration and prevent any lateral movement. An adjustable work platform,
built to withstand heavy loads in the building industry, was used as the base (Figure 3). A
1.5 x 0.8 m, 20 mm Medium Density Fibre Board (MDF®) was attached to the platform with
12 screws. Prior to mounting, 15.0 mm nuts were counter-sunk into the board, to bolt the
machine frame to the MDF (Figure 3).
The frame was designed for maximum stability and to accommodate the motor and pulley
system. A platform to support the motor was attached to the rear of the frame and laterally
facing grooves were bored into the platform so the motor position could be adjusted to
tension the drive belt (Figure 4). Multistrut® construction framing was chosen to build the
frame because of its strength and versatility. Multistrut® can be pieced together using bolts
and spring nuts; the positions of which can be adjusted if required. Stainless steel angle
brackets were used to hold the frame together once the fixed positions were calculated.
A
B
C
Figure 1: Photograph showing the final design of the machine. Dimensions inset: A: height of diffuser screen = 2400
mm. B: width of diffuser screen = 1200 mm. C: Diameter of aluminum disc = 600 mm.
16
Figure 2: The surface of the straight-edged disc with radial grooves and veins.
Figure 3: The work platform and MDF board, with the Multistrut® frame bolted in place.
17
Pulley System, Drive Shaft, Motor and Hub
The direct drive arrangement between the motor and the disc used in the prototype was
inadequate for a device of larger dimensions. A larger motor was necessary for the fine
velocity control required and a pulley system with a fan belt and drive shaft was also
necessary for the speed and stability required. The motor was wired up to a variable speed
drive, which in turn was connected to a 10-turn potentiometer and an on / off switch, so the
speed of the motor could be controlled in fine increments.
The appropriate pulley sizes and drive shaft diameter were calculated to achieve the required
maximum tangential velocity of 40 m/s with increments of 0.1 m/s. A 26-5M-15 pulley was
fitted to the shaft of the motor and a 60-5M-15 pulley was attached to a 30 mm diameter, 50
mm long drive shaft. The pulleys and drive shaft were stainless steel. Two 30 mm pillow
block bearings were bolted to the angle brackets at the top centre of the frame, one at the
motor end and one at the disc end and the shaft threaded through (Figure 4). The length of
the belt to drive the pulleys was measured once these items were in place, the belt attached
and the position of the motor adjusted laterally to tighten the belt.
A two-piece circular stainless steel hub was machined to securely attach the disc to the
drive shaft and to prevent any torsion or oscillation of the disc. A bolt-hole matching that on
the disc (Figure 3) was drilled into the 20.0 mm thick, 255.0 mm diameter outer portion of
the hub and planed to sit flush with the rear surface of the disc (Figure 4). Half of the 40 mm
thick inner portion was bolted in a similar fashion to the outer portion, with the innermost 20
mm machined to a 60 mm diameter, with three grub screws securing it to the drive shaft
(Figure 4).
Figure 4: Multistrut® frame, with 0.3 kW motor, two pulleys and belt drive (left). Two pillow boxes
hold the 30 mm shaft, which attaches to the boss on the rear surface of the disc (right).
Velocity Control
The 0.3 kW, 3-phase, 4 pole motor was wired in delta configuration (240 V, AC, 3 phase)
and connected to a SEW Eurodrive Movitrac® variable speed drive (VSD) controller (Figure
5). The VSD controller was wired to a 10 turn potentiometer, via a 1.5 m cable, allowing the
operator to stand away from the machine. The potentiometer was mounted in a plastic box
with a rotary dial allowing fine control over the velocity and an on/off switch (Figure 6). The
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VSD had a digital display in Hz, so a calibration table was written correlating frequency with
the tangential speed of the disc perimeter. The VSD settings could be changed so that the
rotational direction of the disc could be reversed; this facilitated the generation of upward
and downward moving droplets. Velocity could be controlled to 0.1 m/s.
Figure 5: The VSD, cable and potentiometer with rotary dial and on/off switch.
Blood Application Pump
A KNF Neuberger® micro-diaphragm pump was used to apply blood to the disc in
controlled amounts. The flow rate of the pump was 3.8 ml/sec and it was approximately 150
x 50 x 50 mm in size (Figure 6a). The pump was wired up to a rotary switch (Figure 6b),
with eight time settings; 0.25 sec to 2 sec in 0.25 sec increments and an activation button
(Figure 6a).
Figure 6a: KNF Neuberger® pump, rotary switch
dial and activation button.
Figure 6b: KNF Neuberger® pump and circuit
board with rotary switch.
19
At the press of the button, the pump activates for the amount of time set by the rotary
switch; 0.95 ml in 0.25 sec, 1.9 ml in 0.5 sec, up to 7.6 ml in 2 sec. The pump was mounted
onto the device in an aluminum box, screwed to the frame of the safety cage (Figure 10), at
the right side of the disc (Figure 7b).
The fluid, which is usually pig blood, was placed on a heating plate behind the disc (Figure
7a), with the temperature of the blood set to whatever value was required for any given
experiment. A 5 mm plastic tube, insulated with Centurylon® pipe insulation, ran from the
blood source to the pump, where a second tube ran from the pump to the disc, held in place
by a bracket (Figure 7b). The pipe insulation ensured that the blood temperature remained
constant from the beaker to the disc. The pump was ‘bled’ (blood was pumped through the
tube into a waste beaker for 4 seconds) immediately prior to each test to ensure that any
effects of blood sitting in the tube for a time; such as a temperature decrease, settling of cells
or coagulation, were eliminated. A small plastic hose fitting was placed in the end of the
tube facing the disc, to control the direction of expelled blood.
Figure 7a: Blood in a beaker on an element at
the rear of the device with an insulated 5 mm
tube running from the beaker to the pump.
Figure 7b: The position of the insulated application
hose and pump for upward-moving trials: 20 mm
from the perimeter of the disc, 55 degrees from the
horizontal, 15 mm from the surface of the disc and
the pump (far right).
Diffuser Screen and Global/ Local Coordinate Systems
A diffuser, 2400 mm high and 1200 mm wide, was securely positioned 80 mm behind the
front surface of the disc, in the same plane as the disc. The screen was comprised of 6 mm
thick frosted Perspex®.
The diffuser screen served four functions; to diffuse the backlighting to create an even level
of illumination, to provide a surface for a global coordinate system (GCS) grid to be marked
on, to provide a surface to attach impact targets and to provide additional stability to the
machine.
The GCS was designed so that the positions of each droplet and resulting bloodstain could
be correctly plotted relative to each other and to the position of the disc. The grid
coordinates 0,0 in the x and y axes were located at the bottom left corner of the diffuser
screen, with the x coordinates increasing to the right and the y coordinates increasing in an
upward direction. The centre of the disc was located at x,y coordinates 1100, 990 mm. The
flight paths of blood droplets propelled from the disc were plotted according to their GCS
coordinates. The device can propel blood drops onto any surface to create test bloodstains.
Initial tests utilized Foamcore® strips cut in 2000 mm and 1200 mm lengths, 150 mm wide,
20
marked with the GCS coordinates and attached to the diffuser screen at 90 degrees (Figure
9).
The device and coordinate system were set up for droplet flight to be filmed with a high
speed video camera, positioned perpendicular to the diffuser screen. Image dimensions are
measured in pixels so a calibration scale, called a local coordinate system (LCS), was
constructed in order to plot droplet position relative to the GCS. A transparent Perspex® box
with a millimetre grid was placed in the same plane as the disc in front of the diffuser screen
and the camera focused in this plane (Figure 9).
Figure 8: The Perspex® diffuser screen with the global coordinate system (GCS) grid; in 100 mm
squares.
21
Figure 9: The local coordinate system (LCS) calibration grid being held against the surface of the diffuser
screen.
Safety Features
For safe practice while using the device, several features were added to the design. A
safety cage around the disc prevents any projectile accidently released from the rotating disc
to be flung toward any personnel or equipment. The cage also catches any blood being
released from the edge of the disc, preventing lab contamination and providing stability for
the diffuser screen. Lengths of stainless steel slotted angle iron were cut to appropriate
lengths and welded in the configuration seen in Figure 11 and bolted to the MDF board.
Clear Perspex® windows were cut to size to form a front cover, left side cover, top and
bottom as labeled in Figure 10.
In addition to the cage, the belt drive also required a cover to minimise the risk of injury from
fast moving, rotating parts. An aluminum sheet was screwed to a wooden semi-circular plate
and fastened over the belt and pulleys and clear Perspex® sheets were fastened to the cover
at right angles, preventing any contact with the belt while the device is in use (Figure 11).
22
Figure 10: Safety cage surrounding the disc, attached to the MDF board. A: Perspex front cover, B: right
side cover, C: bottom cover, D: Top cover with slit for diffuser screen.
Figure 11: The belt drive cover with the clear Perspex® walls.
23
Backlighting System
A high intensity backlighting system was required for the high speed camera to capture the
flight dynamics of small blood droplets travelling at high velocities at a sufficiently high
shutter speed to prevent motion blur and a small enough aperture for sufficient depth of field.
A four LED array system was assembled for this purpose and will be detailed in a separate
publication. An adjustable frame to hold the system was constructed from Multistrut®,
which enabled the positions of the LED arrays to be moved according to the area being
filmed. Figure 12a provides an illustration of the position of the backlighting frame relative
to the diffuser screen and the proximity of the LED arrays to each other; a configuration
which was shown to provide the most even illumination at the right intensity to film the
blood droplets being propelled from the disc (Figure 12b).
Figure 12a: LED array backlighting system on the
adjustable Multistrut® frame, bolted to the MDF
board.
Figure 12b: The illumination provided by the
backlighting system.
Performance Experiments
Experiments were conducted to determine whether the droplets generated by the device
were in the size and velocity ranges of those generated by human-wielded assault weapons
(Figure 13). In these initial validation experiments, the tangential velocity of the disc was set
to each of the four different velocities in Table 1. The volume of blood applied to the disc
was initially 0.98 ml and this was increased if it was found that the blood droplets were
smaller than those generated by the human-wielded weapons, until the volume made no
difference to the droplet size.
24
Results
Disc Velocity (m/s)
Blood Volume (ml)
6
10
20
30
0.98
0.98
1.9
2.85
Average Droplet
Diameter (mm)
0.9
0.6
0.26
0.18
Table 1 showing the range of droplet sizes for each velocity and blood volume.
Figure 14 shows five consecutive images of droplets being propelled at 6 m/s, with 0.98 ml
of blood applied to the disc. It was observed that as the disc rotated, blood travelled to the
disc perimeter and formed a ligament as it travels away from the disc. The ligament started
to break up when surface tension forces were no longer sufficient to provide the necessary
centripetal force to keep the blood on the disc. At this point individual droplets continued to
travel in the direction they were travelling at the instant of release from the ligament; on a
flight path tangential to the perimeter of the disc. Figure 15, an overlay of the images in
Figure 14, shows that initially this is a straight line trajectory; however it is assumed that this
trajectory will start to curve due to the forces of air resistance and gravity some time later.
During ligament breakup very small droplets can be observed between the larger droplets in
figures 15 and 16, while the average size of the larger droplets is similar; a standard deviation
of 0.16 was calculated for 200 droplets released at 6 m/s, recorded within 200 mm of the disc
perimeter.
Figure 13: Overlaid images of a kitchen knife being swung forcefully backwards by a human volunteer,
after being dipped in pig blood. Overlaid graphics illustrate the blood droplet trajectories.
25
Figure 16 provides a visual comparison of the droplet sizes summarized in Table 1,
projected at disc tangential velocities of 6, 10, 20 and 30 m/s with approximately the same
global coordinates. It is evident from these results that the device generates droplets smaller
than a human wielded baseball bat at 20 and 30 m/s. However it is unlikely to see shorter
weapons with tangential velocities in this range in practice, so this remains an acknowledged
limitation of the device.
Figure 14: Five still images taken every 0.000926 sec, of blood being propelled off the disc at 6 m/s, filmed
at 5400 frames per second at a shutter speed of 1/178000th of a second.
26
Figure 15: The five still images from Figure 14 overlaid, with inserted graphics illustrating the flight path
of each droplet, which in the initial flight phase, is tangential to the perimeter of the disc.
Figure 16: Still photographs of in-flight droplets generated by the device at 6, 10, 20 and 30 m/s.
27
Conclusions
The BDGD has proved to be capable of generating large numbers of reproducible droplets
in any planar direction, within the size and velocity ranges of cast-off from common humanwielded assault weapons relevant to blunt and sharp force trauma, with the exception of a
baseball bat being swung at greater than 20 m/s.
In controlled laboratory conditions, each independent variable in the system can be defined,
set at a predetermined value, and large numbers of droplets generated, stains created, and
results observed. The experimenter can then change one independent variable in that system,
keeping all others constant, test again under the new conditions and observe any changes in
the outcome variables and the frequency of those changes under the new conditions. An
example would be to compare the number of spines and scallops observed in stains created at
a given location under condition A, then increasing the tangential velocity of the disc by 3
m/s, and repeating the experiment. The device can generate a sufficient number of results to
quantitatively assess the effect of the manipulated independent variable (e.g. initial velocity)
on the dependent variables such as measurable stain characteristics. This approach enables,
for example, the systematic assessment of the relationship between the trajectory of a
constantly accelerating assault weapon swung in an arc, and the resulting cast-off pattern.
Utilizing the backlighting system and global coordinate system, the device can be used as a
vehicle to study and understand parabolic blood droplet trajectories and the limitations of the
straight line trajectory calculation methods. Blood droplet trajectories can be mapped and
plotted and databases of the dynamics of different sized droplets can be developed over time.
In case specific experimentation, the device can be used in hypothesis testing in a
systematic fashion, incorporating factors such as the effect of the impact surface on stain
formation, and subsequent impact angle calculation.
The enhanced back-lighting system provides the means to analyse the oscillation amplitude
of individual droplets, and the time to dampening for droplets created under a range of
conditions; velocities, drop sizes and viscosity values, so that the effect of oscillation on stain
formation and the accuracy of the subsequent impact angle calculation can be evaluated
experimentally.
While a simple concept and a relatively straightforward design, the BDGD provides an
effective vehicle to improve the scientific rigour behind bloodstain impact angle
reconstruction and can quantitatively test some of the fundamental principles of bloodstain
pattern analysis.
Acknowledgements
This project would not have been possible without the invaluable contribution from the
following people and organisations:
Dan Rahn Memorial Research Grant Committee, International Association of Bloodstain
Pattern Analysts (IABPA).
Dr. Sharon Walt, Dr. Ir. Ron McDowall, Ian Williams; Agcon Engineering Ltd, Drury, Peter
O’Gara; O’Gara Engineering, Graeme Harris, Scott Aimes, Jim Maclean, Julian Phillips,
Dave Read, Ken Brown, Dr Mark Jermy; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Canterbury, Gary Donaldson; Bretmar Transmission Company Ltd, Papakura, Multistrut(R)
Ltd, NZ. FreshPork NZ Ltd, Bay City Abattoir, Timaru.
The principal author (E.W) acknowledges receipt of a Dan Rahn Memorial research grant
which supported this study. The authors with to thank Dr Rachel Fleming and Gary Gillespie
for reviewing this manuscript.
28
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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NAS, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. The National Academies
Press, 2009. 2009.
Raymond, M.A., E.R. Smith, and J. Liesegang, The physical properties of blood - forensic
considerations. Science and Justice - Journal of the Forensic Science Society, 1996. 36(3): p. 153-160.
Bevel, T.a.G., Ross, Bloodstain Pattern Analysis with an Introduction to Crime Scene Reconstruction.
CRC Series in practical aspects of criminal and forensic investigations 1002 Boca Ralton: CRC Press
LLC, 2006.
Raymond, M.A., E.R. Smith, and J. Liesegang, Oscillating blood droplets - implications for crime
scene reconstruction. Science and Justice - Journal of the Forensic Science Society, 1996. 36(3): p.
161-171.
Hulse-Smith, L., N.Z. Mehdizadeh, and S. Chandra, Deducing drop size and impact velocity from
circular bloodstains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2005. 50(1): p. 54-63.
Knock, C. and M. Davison, Predicting the position of the source of blood stains for angled impacts.
Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2007. 52(5): p. 1044-1049.
Hulse-Smith, L. and M. Illes, A blind trial evaluation of a crime scene methodology for deducing
impact velocity and droplet size from circular bloodstains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2007. 52(1):
p. 65-69.
Liu, H., Science and Engineering of Droplets: Fundementals and Applications. 2000: William Andrew
Publishing. 527.
SWGSTAIN, S.W.G.o.B.P.A., Recommended Terminology. Forensic Science Communications, 2009.
11(2).
Bevel, T., Gardner, R.M.. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis with an Introduction to Crime Scene
Reconstruction. 3rd ed. 2008, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
MacDonell, H.L., Bloodstain Patterns. 2nd ed. 2005, Corning, NY: Laboratory of Forensic Sciences.
Williams, E., The Biomechanics of Blunt Force Trauma. Masters Thesis in Forensic Science,
University of Auckland, 2008, 2008.
Wonder, A., Blood Dynamics. Academic Press, 2008.
James, S.H., Kish, P.E., Sutton, T.P., Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: Theory and Practice.
2005, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; Taylor and Francis Group.
Fischer, W.C., Utilizing Bloodstains in Accident Reconstruction, in Scientific and Legal Applications
of Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation, S.H. James, Editor. 1998, CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL.
Serway, R.A.a.J., J.W, Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 8th Ed. Pacific Grove, CA. Brooks Cole,
2009.
29
Recent BPA Related Articles in the Scientific Literature
Praska, N., and Langenburg, G., Reactions of Latent Prints Exposed to Blood, Forensic
Science International, Vol. 224, Issue 1, pp. 51-58, January 2013.
Moret, S., Bécue, A. and Champod, C., Cadmium-free Dots in Aqueous Solution: Potential
for Fingermark Decection, Synthesis and an Application to the Detection of Fingermarks in
Blood on Non-Porous Surfaces, Forensic Science International, Vol. 224, Issue 1, pp. 101110, January 2013.
Sundarrajan, R. and Pathak, R., Investigating the Force Relative to Bloodstain Size and
Pattern, Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Vol. 6., No. 2, July-December,
2012.
Feia, A. and Novroski, The Evaluation of Possible False Positives with Detergents when
Performing Amylase Serological Testing on Clothing, J. Forensic Sci, January 2013, Vol 58,
No. S1.
Seashols, S. J., Cross, H. D., Shrader, D. L., and Rief, A., A Comparison of Chemical
Enhancements for the Detection of Latent Blood, J. Forensic Sci., January 2013, Vol. 58,
No. 1.
DeCastro, T., Nickson, T., Carr, Debra and Knock, C. Interpreting the Formation of
Bloodstains on Selected Apparel Fabrics, International Journal of Legal Medicine, Vol.27,
Issue 1, pp. 251-258.
Farrugia, K.J., Bandey, H., Savage, K., and NicDaéid, N., Chemical Enhancement of
Footwear Impressions in Blood on Fabric – Part 3: Amino Acid Staining
30
Organizational Notices
Moving Soon?
All changes of mailing address need to be supplied to our Secretary Norman Reeves. Each quarter
Norman forwards completed address labels for those who are members. Do not send change of
address information to the Journal Editor. E-mail your new address to Norman Reeves at:
norman@bloody1.com
Norman Reeves
I.A.B.P.A.
12139 E. Makohoh Trail
Tucson, Arizona 85749-8179
Fax: 520-760-5590
Membership Applications / Request for Promotion
Applications for membership as well as for promotion are available on the IABPA website:
IABPA Website: http://www.iabpa.org
The fees for application of membership and yearly dues are $40.00 US each. If you have not
received a dues invoice for 2013 please contact Norman Reeves. Apparently, non US credit
cards are charging a fee above and beyond the $ 40.00 membership/application fee.
Your credit card is charged only $40.00 US by the IABPA. Any additional fees are
imposed by the credit card companies.
IABPA now accepts the following credit cards:
Discover MasterCard
American Express Visa
31
Training Opportunities
April 8-12, 2013
Advanced Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
2151 LE Nieuw-Vennep
The Netherlands
Instructors: Martin Eversdijk and René Gelderman
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
E-mail: Info@lociforensics.nl
April 22-26 2013
Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course
(English)
Blutspureninstitut
Obergasse 20
61250 Usingen
Germany
Instructor: Dr. Silke Brodbeck, MD
Tel: +49-170-84 84 248
Fax: +49-6081-14879
April 29-May 3, 2013
Math and Physics for Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
Ontario Police College
10716 Hacienda Rd. Box 1190
Aylmer, Ontario, Canada
N5H 2T2
Instructor: Brian Allen
Tel: 519-773-4258
Fax: 519-773-5762
E-mail: Brian.Allen@ontario.ca
32
May 13-17, 2013
Visualization of Latent Bloodstain Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
June 3-7, 2013
Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course
(German)
Blutspureninstitut
Obergasse 20
61250 Usingen
Germany
Tel: +49-170-84 84 248
Fax: +49-6081-14879
June 17-21, 2013
The Fabrics of Bloodstain Pattern Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
September 9-13, 2013
Ontario Police College
10716 Hacienda Rd. Box 1190
Aylmer, Ontario, Canada
N5H 2T2
Instructor: Brian Allen
Tel: 519-773-4258
Fax: 519-773-5762
E-mail: Brian.Allen@ontario.ca
33
Basic Bloodstain Analysis Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
(German)
Blutspureninstitut
Obergasse 20
61250 Usingen
Germany
Tel: +49-170-84 84 248
Fax: +49-6081-14879
October 7-11, 2013
Fluid Dynamics of Bloodstain Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Instructors: Dr. Michael Taylor and Dr. Mark Jermy
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
October 14-18, 2013
(English)
Blutspureninstitut
Obergasse 20
61250 Usingen
Germany
Tel: +49-170-84 84 248
Fax: +49-6081-14879
34
November 18-22, 2013
Advanced Bloodstain Analysis Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
December 9-13, 2013
Visualization of Latent Bloodstain Course
Loci Forensics B.V.
Flierveld 59
The Netherlands
Fax: +31(0)20-8907749
December 9-13, 2013
Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Workshop
Specialized Training Unit
Miami-Dade Public Safety Training Unit
Doral, Florida
Contact: Toby L. Wolson, M.S., F-ABC
Miami-Dade Police Department
Forensic Services Bureau
9105 N.W. 25th Street
Doral, Florida 33172
Voice: 305-471-3041
Fax: 305-471-2052
E-mail: Twolson@mdpd.com
Articles and training announcements for the June 2013 issue of the Journal of Bloodstain
Pattern Analysis must be received before May 30th, 2013
35
Editor’s Corner
Congratulations to Pat Laturnus on his election as the 15th President of the IABPA and to
the elected Board members for 2013. They are featured in this issue of the Journal with
photographs and short bios.
Our publication is now entering its third year as the Journal of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
and the submission of research articles and case studies for peer review and publication has
been slow. You can easily see by the section “Recent BPA Articles in the Scientific
Literature” that I have been compiling for a long time. that authors are submitting articles to
other Journals rather than ours. Unfortunately, many of the BPA analysts in our organization
do not have direct access to these Journals and therefore do not have the opportunity to read
these articles.
I do appreciate the efforts of those of you who have submitted articles including Elisabeth
Williams and Michael Taylor for their contributions including a fine research article that is
published in this issue.
I have suggested in the past that presentations given at our Annual Training Conferences be
given priority consideration for publication. I would like some input from the membership on
ideas to generate more interest in submitting articles and how they can be implemented to
further expand the quality of our Journal.
Stuart H. James
Editor
jamesforen@aol.com
36
Publication Committee
Associate Editors
Barton P. Epstein
Carolyn Gannett
Paul E. Kish
Daniel Mabel
Jeremy Morris
Jon J. Nordby
Joe Slemko
T. Paulette Sutton
Todd A. Thorne
Past Editors of the IABPA News/Journal of Bloodstain Pattern
Analysis
Anita Y. Wonder
Norman Reeves
David Rimer
Toby L. Wolson
Paul E. Kish
Stuart H. James
1984-1985
1984-1989
1990-1996
1997-2000
2001-2003
2004-present
Past Presidents of the IABPA
V. Thomas Bevel
Charles Edel
Warren R. Darby
Rod D. Englert
Edward Podworny
Tom J. Griffin
Toby L. Wolson, M.S.
Daniel V. Christman
Phyllis T. Rollan
Daniel Rahn
Bill Basso
LeeAnn Singley
Iris Dalley
1983-1984
1985-1987
1988
1989-1990
1991-1992
1993-1994
1995-1996
1997-1998
1999-2000
2001-2002
2002-2006
2007-2008
2009-2010
The Journal of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis published quarterly in March, June, September, and December. 
2013. The International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts. All rights are reserved. Reproduction in
whole or in part without written permission is prohibited.
37

March 2013 - International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts

Transcription

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