Turkish bath

Turkish bath
For other uses, see Turkish Bath (disambiguation).
A Turkish bath or hammam (Turkish:
hamam,
A Turkish bath in Valencia, Spain
Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse, constructed in the 16th century,
Iran. Part of the bathouse is being used as a tea house
Arabic: ,‫الحمام‬ḥammām) is the Turkish[1] variant of the
Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient rian Turkish bath is dry; in the Islamic hammam the air is
often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will
steam.
often take a plunge in a cold pool after the hot rooms; the
In Western Europe, the “Turkish bath” as a method
Islamic hammam usually does not have a pool unless the
of cleansing and relaxation became popular during the
water is flowing from a spring. In the Islamic hammams
Victorian era. The process involved in taking a Turkish
the bathers splash themselves with cold water.
bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing prac- The Victorian Turkish bath was described by Dr Johann
Ludwig Wilhelm Thudichum[3] in a lecture to the Royal
tices.
Society of Medicine given in 1861, one year after the first
The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room (known
Victorian Turkish bath was opened in London:
as the warm room) that is heated by a continuous flow
of hot, dry air, allowing the bather to perspire freely.
Bathers may then move to an even hotter room (known
The discovery that was lost and has been
as the hot room) before they wash in cold water. Affound again, is this, in the fewest possible
ter performing a full body wash and receiving a massage,
words: The application of hot air to the hubathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of
man body. It is not wet air, nor moist air, nor
relaxation.[2]
vapoury air; it is not vapour in any shape or
The difference between the Islamic hammam and the
Victorian Turkish bath is the air. The hot air in the Victo-
form whatever. It is an immersion of the whole
body in hot common air.
1
2
2 ARCHITECTURE
1.1 Sexuality and the hammam
Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case,
evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of
ritual purification according to Islam. For example, in
most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for
full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less
preferable in the Islamic faith, which finds bathing under running water without being fully submerged more
appropriate.[6]
Hamam of the Sultan at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.
Example of a hamam interior, showing water buckets and tilted
floor
1
Public bathing in the Islamic
context
One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer. It is customary
before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two
Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a full-body cleansing,
and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands, and feet with
water.[4] In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure
soil or sand is also permissible.[5] Often, hammams are
located close to mosques and other places for prayer for
those who wish to perform deeper cleansing.[6]
Al-Ghazali, a prominent Muslim theologian writing in the
11th century, wrote Revival of the Religious Sciences, a
multi-volume work on dissecting the proper forms of conduct for many aspects of Muslim life and death. One of
the volumes, entitled The Mysteries of Purity, details the
proper technique for performing ablutions before prayer
and great ablutions after physical activities deemed unclean, such as sex or defecation.[7] For al-Ghazali, the
hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions
that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for
men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam. The major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazali’s estimation is nakedness. In his work
he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided. "… he
should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard
against the touch of others.”[8] He focuses extensively in
his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and after urination. He writes that nakedness
is decent only when the area between the knees and the
lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, only
the face and the palms are appropriate. According to
al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam
could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is
a controversial space.[9] Ritual ablution is also required
before or after sexual intercourse.[10] Knowing that, May
Telmissany, a professor at the University of Ottawa, argues that the image of a hyper-sexualised woman leaving
the hammam is an Orientalist perspective that sees leaving or attending the hammam as a sign of pre-eminent
sexual behaviour.[11]
2 Architecture
The hamam combines the functionality and the structural elements of its predecessors in Anatolia, the Roman
thermae and baths, with the Central Asian Turkic tradition of steam bathing, ritual cleansing and respect of
water [12] It is also known that Arabs built versions of
the Greek-Roman baths that they encountered following
their conquest of Alexandria in 641. From the 10th century, Turkish kingdoms began to proliferate in Anatolia
in lands conquered from the Byzantine Greeks, leading
eventually to the complete conquest of the remnants of
the old empire in the 15th century. During those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the
3
An ancient Roman Bath in Algeria, Aquae Flavianae, situated in
Khenchela, dating from the time of the Flavian Dynasty.
The Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı ordered by Roxelana and
constructed by Mimar Sinan in Istanbul
Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan (1489–1588), such as
the stand-alone 1584 "Çemberlitaş Hamamı", the bath in
the complex of the 1558 Süleymaniye Mosque (both in
Constantinople) and the bath of the Selimiye Mosque in
Edirne were particularly influential.
An ancient hamam from Granada, in Spain.
The Ağa hamamı from Istanbul in Turkey.
Like its Roman predecessor a typical hamam consists
of three basic, interconnected rooms: the sıcaklık (or
hararet -caldarium), which is the hot room; the warm
room (tepidarium), which is the intermediate room; and
the soğukluk, which is the cool room (frigidarium). The
main evolutionary change between Roman baths and
Turkish baths concerned the cool room. The Roman
frigidarium included a quite cold water pool in which patrons would immerse themselves before moving on to the
warmer rooms. Medieval Muslim customs put a high priority on cleanliness but preferred running water to immersion baths, so the cold water pool was dispensed with.
Also, the sequence of rooms was revised so that people
generally used the cool room after the warmer rooms and
massages, rather than before. Whereas the Romans used
it as preparation, the Ottomans used it for refreshment
(drinks and snacks are served) and recovery.
The sıcaklık usually has a large dome decorated with
small glass windows that create a half-light; it also contains a large marble stone called göbek taşı (tummy stone)
at the center that the customers lie on, and niches with
fountains in the corners. This room is for soaking up
steam and getting scrub massages. The warm room is
used for washing up with soap and water and the soğukluk
is to relax, dress up, have a refreshing drink, sometimes
tea, and, where available, a nap in a private cubicle after
the massage. A few of the hamams in Istanbul also contain mikvehs, ritual cleansing baths for Jewish women.
two cultures (Hellenised Roman and Anatolian Turkish)
had tremendous influence on each other. Moving beyond
the reuse of the Greek baths (for example Byzantine Bath
(Thessaloniki)) in their new lands, new bath were constructed as annex buildings of mosques, the complexes
of which were community centres as well as houses of The hamam, like its precursors, is not exclusive to men.
worship.
Hamam complexes usually contain separate quarters for
The Ottomans, in particular, became prolific patrons of men and women; or males and females are admitted at
baths, building a number of ambitious structures, par- separate times. Because they were social centers as well
ticular in Constantinople after it became their capital in as baths, hamams became numerous during the time of
1453.[13] The monumental baths designed by Renaissance the Ottoman Empire and were built in almost every Ot-
4
4 IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
toman city. On many occasions they became places of Sinan; it was named after Süleyman the Magnificent. It
entertainment (such as dancing and food, especially in the is part of the complex of the Suleymaniye Mosque.
women’s quarters) and ceremonies, such as before weddings, high-holidays, celebrating newborns, beauty trips.
Several accessories from Roman times survive in modern hamams, such as the peştemal (a special cloth of 4
silk and/or cotton to cover the body, like a pareo), nalın
(wooden clogs that prevent slipping on the wet floor,
4.1
or mother-of-pearl), kese (a rough mitt for massage),
and sometimes jewel boxes, gilded soap boxes, mirrors,
henna bowls and perfume bottles. Traditionally, the
masseurs in the baths, tellak in Turkish, were young men
who helped wash clients by soaping and scrubbing their
bodies.
In different countries
Cyprus
After the defeat and dismemberment of the Ottoman
army in the early 20th century, the role of tellak boys was
filled by adult attendants.[14]
3
3.1
Turkish baths in Istanbul
Ağa Hamamı
Ağa hamamı is a historical Turkish bath located on TurHamam Omerye Baths, Omerye, Cyprus
nacıbaşı Street in the Taksim Square neighbourhood of
Istanbul. It was constructed by İbrahim Ağa in 1454.
The site’s history dates back to the 14th century, when it
stood as an Augustinian church of St. Mary. Built with
3.2 Çağaloğlu Hamamı
stone, with small domes, it is historically placed at around
the time of Frankish and Venetian occupation, approxiThe Cağaloğlu Hamam, finished in 1741, is the last mately the same time that the city acquired its Venetian
hamam to be built in the Ottoman Empire.
walls. In 1571, the Ottoman Turkish ruler Mustafa Bilal
Geldosh Pasha converted the church into a mosque, believing that it was where the Khalifa Umar rested during
3.3 Çemberlitaş Hamamı
his visit to Lefkosia.
Most of the original building was destroyed by Ottoman
Çemberlitaş Hamamı is a historic Turkish bath on Diartillery although the door of the main entrance still bevanyolu Street in the Çemberlitaş neighbourhood of Islongs to the 14th century Lusignan building, and remains
tanbul. It was constructed by Mimar Sinan in 1584.
of a later Renaissance phase can be seen at the northeastern side of the monument. In 2003 the [EU] funded
a bi-communal UNDP/UNOPS project, “Partnership for
3.4 Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı
the Future”, in collaboration with Nicosia Municipality
and Nicosia Master Plan.
The Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı, Ayasofya Haseki
Hamamı, is a Turkish hamam that was commissioned by Another historically important Turkish bath, dating to the
the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I’s consort, Hürrem Sultan 14th century in Nicosia, is the Büyük Hamam.
and constructed by Mimar Sinan during the 16th century
in Istanbul. It was built on the site of historical Baths
of Zeuxippus for the religious community of the nearby
4.2 Egypt
Hagia Sophia.
Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire, and the hamams
of Cairo and other major cities like Alexandria are evidence of the unique Ottoman legacy. There used to be as
Süleymaniye Hamam is a historic Turkish bath in İstan- many as 300 hamams in Cairo. As of 2012, only seven
bul. The building, situated on a hill facing the Golden remain. Two of them, located in the El Hussien and Khan
Horn, was built in 1557 by Turkish architect Mimar el-Khalili districts are closed.
3.5
Suleymaniye Hamam
4.4
Morocco
5
ten occupy irregularly shaped plots to fit them seamlessly
into the city’s design. They are significant sites of culture
and socialisation as they are integrated into medina, or
city, life in proximity to mosques, madrassas (schools)
and aswaq (markets). Magda Sibley, an expert on Islamic public baths writes that second to mosques, many
specialists in Islamic architecture and urbanism find the
hammam to be the most significant building in Islamic
medinas.[15]
4.4.2 Function: gendered social space
Király Baths building on Ganz Street, Budapest
4.3
Hungary
Budapest, the City of Spas has four working Turkish
baths, all from the 16th century and open to the public: Rudas Baths, Király Baths, Rácz Thermal Bath, and
Császár Spa Bath (reopened to the public since December
2012).
4.4
Morocco
Public baths in Morocco are embedded into a socialcultural history that has played a significant role in both
urban and rural Moroccan cities. These public spaces
for cleansing grew rapidly as Islamic cultures assimilated
to the bathing techniques widely used during the Roman
and Byzantine periods.[6] The structure of Islamic hammams in the Arab world varies from that of what has been
termed the traditional “Roman bath.” Additionally, since
Morocco (unlike Egypt or Syria) was never under Ottoman rule, its baths are not technically Turkish although
guide books might refer to them as such. This misnomer
can be due in part to the Arabic use of the word hammam,
which translates to “bathroom” or “public bath place” and
can be used to refer to all baths, including those in the
Turkish and Roman design.
4.4.1
Hammams are gendered spaces where being a woman or
a man can make someone included or “other.” Therefore,
they represent a very special departure from the public
sphere in which one is physically exposed amongst other
women or men. This declaration of sexuality merely by
being nude makes hammams a site of gendered expression. One exception to this gender segregation is the presence of young boys who often accompany their mothers
until they grow old enough to necessitate attending the
male hammam with their fathers.[16] The separation from
the women’s hammam and entrance to the male hammam
usually occurs at the age of 5 or 6.[10]
As a primarily female space, women’s hammams play
a special role in society. Valerie Staats finds that the
women’s hammams of Morocco serve as a social space
where traditional and modern women from urban and rural areas of the country come together, regardless of their
religiosity, to bathe and socialise.[17] While al-Ghazali
and other Islamic intellectuals may have stipulated certain
regulations for bathing, the regulations, being outdated
and fundamental, are not usually upheld in the everyday
interactions of Moroccans in the hammam. Staats argues
that hammams are places where women can feel more at
ease than they feel in many other public interactions.[18]
In addition, in his work “Sexuality in Islam,” Abdelwahab Bouhiba notes that some historians found evidence of
hammams as spaces for sexual expression among women,
which they believed was a result of the universality of nudity in these spaces.[19]
Architectural attributes
Hammams in Morocco are often close to mosques to facilitate the performance of ablutions. Because of their
private nature (overt nudity and gender separation), their
entrances are often discreet and the building’s façade is
typically windowless. Vestiges of Roman bathing styles
can be seen in the manifestation of the three-room structure, which was widespread during the Roman/Byzantine
period.
4.4.3 Orientalism and representations of Turkish
baths
Moroccan and Arab hammams in general are not widely
researched among Western scholars.
In the writingsthatthato exist, the hammam is often portrayed to be a
place of sexual looseness, inhibition and mystery. These
Orientalist ideas paint the Arab “other” as mystical and
sensuous, lacking morality in comparison to their West[20]
“Orientals” were seen as backward
In Morocco, hammams are typically smaller than Ro- ern counterparts.
and
opposite
to
western
rationality.[21]
man/Byzantine baths. While it may be difficult to identify
a hammam from the face of the structure, the hammam The picture to the right emphasises the fantastical imagiroof betrays itself with its series of characteristic domes nations of the hammam as Western artists painted them.
that indicate chambers in the building.[15] Hammams of- This painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, “The
6
5
INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN EUROPE
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, “Le Bain Turc”
Turkish Bath,” is an example of the depiction of these
spaces as magical and sexual. There are several women
touching themselves or one another sensually while some
dance to music played by the woman in the centre of the
painting.
4.4.4
Hammams in Morocco today
A hammam towel of 1,80 m x 1 m.
[23]
Tourism guides encourage tourists to visit traditional Mo- hammams are operating in the Ancient part of the city.
roccan baths as part of their visits to the country. Although hammams in certain communities are still widely
• Hammam al-Sultan built in 1211 by Az-Zahir
used by locals, many of them have been subsumed by
Ghazi.
vibrant tourist economies that tout “Moroccan Turkish
• Hammam al-Nahhaseen built during the 12th cenBaths” as part of an authentic tourist experience in the
tury near Khan al-Nahhaseen.
country. Hotels that cater to Westerners have begun creating their own hammam experience for customers, with• Hammam al-Bayadah of the Mamluk era built in
out the “hassle” of venturing into local cities.
1450.
4.5
Syria
An old legendary story says that Damascus once had 365
hammams or “Turkish baths”, one for each day of the
year. Originally part of an ancient Roman tradition, hammams were absorbed by Islam to such an extent that many
became almost annexes to nearby mosques. For centuries, hammams were an integral part of community life,
with some 50 hammams surviving in Damascus until the
1950s. As of 2012, however, with the growth of modernisation programmes and home bathrooms, fewer than
20 Damascene working hamams had survived.[22]
• Hammam Yalbugha built in 1491 by the Emir of
Aleppo Saif ad-Din Yalbugha al-Naseri.[24]
• Hammam al-Jawhary, Gammam Azdemir, Hammam Bahram Pasha, Hammam Bab al-Ahmar, etc.
4.6 India
Delhi, Hyderabad and Bhopal have multiple working
Turkish Baths, which were started during the Mughal period in the early 16th century.[25][26][27][28][29]
According to many historians, the northern city of Aleppo
was home to 177 hammams during the medieval period 5 Introduction to Western Europe
until the Mongol invasion when many vital structures in
the city were destroyed. Until 1970, around 40 hammams Turkish baths were introduced to the United Kingdom by
were still operating in the city. Nowadays, roughly 18 David Urquhart, diplomat and sometime Member of Par-
7
Urquhart’s influence was also felt outside the Empire
when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first
Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street,
Brooklyn Heights, New York, most probably on 3 October 1863.[33] Before that, the United States, like many
other places, had several Russian baths, one of the first
being that opened in 1861 by M.Hlasko at his Natatorium
at 219 S. Broad Street, Philadelphia.[34]
• Istanbul, a hotel hamam
• Hammam al-Nahhasin in Aleppo
• Hamam hot chamber
• Aleppo Citadel, hammam
Turkish bath in London
• Turkish Bath in St. Petersburg
• Turkish Bath, interior
liament for Stafford, who for political and personal reasons wished to popularise Turkish culture. In 1850, he
wrote The Pillars of Hercules, a book about his travels in
1848 through Spain and Morocco. He described the system of dry hot-air baths used there and in the Ottoman
Empire, which had changed little since Roman times. In
1856, Richard Barter read Urquhart’s book and worked
with him to construct a bath. They opened the first modern Turkish bath at St Ann’s Hydropathic Establishment
near Blarney, County Cork, Ireland.[30] The following
year, the first public bath of its type to be built in mainland
Britain since Roman times was opened in Manchester,
and the idea spread rapidly. It reached London in July
1860, when Roger Evans, a member of one of Urquhart’s
Foreign Affairs Committees, opened a Turkish bath at 5
Bell Street, near Marble Arch.
• Detail, hamam in Valencia
During the following 150 years, over 600 Turkish baths
opened in the country, including those built by municipal
authorities as part of swimming pool complexes, taking
advantage of the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site.
• 'After the Bath', by Jean-Léon Gérôme
As of September 2013 there were just twelve Victorianstyle Turkish baths remaining open in Britain,[31] but hotair baths still thrive in the form of the Russian steam baths
banya (sauna) and the Finnish sauna. Many of Britain’s
Turkish baths have been re-purposed, using the decorative style for other means such as places to stay, restaurants and events venues.[32]
Similar baths opened in other parts of the British Empire. Dr. John Le Gay Brereton, who had given medical
advice to bathers in a Foreign Affairs Committee-owned
Turkish bath in Bradford, travelled to Sydney, Australia,
and opened a Turkish bath there on Spring Street in 1859,
even before such baths had reached London. Canada had
one by 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in
1874.
• Fountain in the Ibrahim Sirag el-Din hammam
• Turkish bath in art
• Bath house scene by Behzād, 1495
• Hussein Fazil Enderuni’s Women’s Bath from the
Zanan-Name, 18th century
• Baigneuses, oil on canvas, Jean-Léon Gérôme
(1824-1904)
• Le Hamam by Jean-Léon Gérôme
6 See also
• Bath house
• Culture of the Ottoman Empire
• Gellért Baths
• Jjimjilbang, the Korean equivalent
• Onsen and sentō, the Japanese equivalents
• Sauna
• Steam shower
• Süleymaniye hamam
8
7
8 PRIMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Notes and references
[1] Cosgrove, J. J. (2001) [1913], Design of the Turkish Bath,
Books for Business, ISBN 978-0-89499-078-6
[2] “Hammam” by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Jahan-i Tibb,
Volume 7, Number 1, July–September 2005, Central
Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Department of
Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy, pages 12–17.
[19] Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab (1985). Sexuality in Islam. Saqi
Books. p. 167.
[20] Staats, Valerie (1994). “Ritual, Strategy, or Convention:
Social Meanings in the Traditional Women’s Baths in Morocco”. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 14 (3):
1–18. doi:10.2307/3346678.
[21] Said, Edward (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage
Books.
[3] “The Turkish bath” by J L W Thudichum, Transactions of
the Royal Medical Society, 1861, page 40.
[22] Hammaming in the Sham: A Journey through the Turkish
Baths of Damascus, Aleppo and Beyond, Richard Boggs,
Garnet Publishing Ltd.
[4] Rahim, Habibeh (2001). “Understanding Islam”. The
Furrow 52 (12): 670–674.
[23] Alepo hammams
[5] Reinhart, Kevin (1990). “Impurity/No Danger”. History
of Religions 30 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1086/463212.
[24] Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Humphreys, Andrew
(2004). Syria & Lebanon. Lonely Planet. p. 186. ISBN
978-1-86450-333-3.
[6] Sibley, Magda. “The Historic Hammams of Damascus
and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments”. The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy
Architecture.
[7] Ghazali, Abu Hammid (1975). The Mysteries of Purity: Being a Translation with Notes of the Kitāb Asrār
Al-ṭahārah of Al-Ghazzāli’s Iḥyāʼ ʻulūm Al-dīn. Lahore:
Muhammad Ashraf.
[8] Ghazali, Abu Hammid (1975). The Mysteries of Purity: Being a Translation with Notes of the Kitāb Asrār
Al-ṭahārah of Al-Ghazzāli’s Iḥyāʼ ʻulūm Al-dīn. Lahore:
Muhammad Ashraf. p. 51.
[9] Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab (1985). Sexuality in Islam. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 62.
[25] “Turkish bath centre defunct at Nizamia general hospital”.
siasat.com. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
[26] “Where are those Turkish baths?". The Times of India.
11 June 2004. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
[27] “Centre keen on hammam”. The Times of India. 27
November 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
[28] “Hyderabad Attractions”. The New York Times. 12 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
[29] Syed Zillur Rahman, Hammam – Past and Present,
Newsletter of Ibn Sina Academy 2012, Volume 12 No 1:
10-16
[10] Joseph, Suad; Afsaneh Najmabadi (2003). Encyclopedia
of Women & Islamic Cultures. Leiden: Brill.
[30] Shifrin, Malcolm (3 October 2008), “St Ann’s Hydropathic Establishment, Blarney, Co. Cork”, Victorian
Turkish Baths: Their origin, development, and gradual decline, retrieved 12 December 2009
[11] Nkrumah, Gamal (23 July 2009). “Tales from the Hammam”. Al-Ahram Weekly.
[31] “Victorian-style Turkish baths still open in the UK”. Victorianturkishbath.org. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
[12] The Guide of Turkish Baths.
[32]
[13] Hamams in Islamic tradition (cyberbohemia.com)
[33] The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 3 October 1863
[14] (Yilmazkaya & Deniz 2005) discusses occasional licentious activity
[34] To Philadelphians on behalf of the Natatorium & Physical
Institute. p. 11. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
[15] Sibley, Magda; Fodil Fadli (2009). “Hammams in North
Africa: An Architectural Study of Sustainability Concepts
in a Historical Traditional Building”. 26th Conference on
Passive and Low Energy Architecture.
8 Primary bibliography
[16] Kilito, Abdelfettah; Patricia Geesey (1992). “Architecture and the Sacred: A Season in the Hamam”. Research
in African Literatures 23 (2): 203–208.
[17] Staats, Valerie (1994). “Ritual, Strategy, or Convention:
Social Meanings in the Traditional Women’s Baths in Morocco”. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 14 (3):
1–18. doi:10.2307/3346678.
[18] Staats, Valerie (1994). “Ritual, Strategy, or Convention:
Social Meanings in the Traditional Women’s Baths in Morocco”. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 14 (3):
1–18. doi:10.2307/3346678.
• Allsop, Robert Owen (1890), The Turkish bath: its
design and construction, Spon
• Cosgrove, J. J. (2001) [1913], Design of the Turkish
Bath, Books for Business, ISBN 978-0-89499-0786
• Gazali, Münif Fehim (2001), Book of Shehzade,
Dönence, ISBN 978-975-7054-17-7
• Toledano, Ehud R. (2003), State and Society in
Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-53453-6
9
• Yilmazkaya, Orhan; Deniz, Ogurlu (2005), Turkish
Baths: A Light Onto a Tradition and Culture (2 ed.),
Çitlembik, ISBN 978-975-6663-80-6
9
External links
• Michael Palin at Turkish baths in Istanbul - BBC
(From Pole to Pole) uploaded by BBC Worldwide
to YouTube
• The Turkish Bath Experience
10
10
10
10.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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Hassan Al-Silverburg, Cloj, A. B., Egsan Bacon, Nakon, Muzoben, Will Beback, Lambiam, Nishkid64, Mukadderat, NewTestLeper79,
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10.2
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10.3
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