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College
Admission
THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
FOR COLLEGE ADMISSION COUNSELING
and
6 African American Students’ Multiple
Transitions Following Hurricane Katrina
16 Crisis Management: Changing Times for Colleges
24 Creating a Community of Scholars
on the Edge of Disaster
34 College Can Be Killing: United States College
and University Responses to Student Suicide
During the 20th Century and Early 21st Century
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www.nacacnet.org
IN THIS ISSUE
“Y
ou have to jump into disaster with both feet.” –Chuck Palahniuk
The Editorial Committee gathered last March to brainstorm special issue topics at a
time when gun violence, super storms and sequestration dominated the media. We briefly attempted
to focus on issues more specific to college admission, but given the national mood surrounding the
events in Newtown and Hurricane Sandy, we found ourselves continuously circling back to this larger
concept of “disaster.”
The
Merriam-Webster
dictionary
We can surely learn from one
defines
“disaster” as: “something that happens suddenly and causes much suffering or loss to
another’s experiences, and our
many people; something that has a very bad
individual stories also serve as a
effect or result; a complete or terrible failure.”
We embrace each of these definitions in this
reminder that disaster can provide
special issue, touching on “disasters” that are
opportunities… the moments that
national, institutional and personal in scope. And while every genera-
challenge us allow us to see our work
tion surely believes the times they are living in are unique, it feels as
though disasters of every type are occurring with increasing (and
with new eyes, a renewed sense of
alarming) frequency in these early years of the 21st Century. How we
purpose, and an appreciation for the
respond to disaster does not just define us as individuals, it defines
calm waters of our lives that we tend
us as educators—our students are ever watchful, learning from our
actions. The Editorial Committee hopes this issue will provide some
to overlook until disaster strikes.
insight into managing disasters, both large and small, better equipping
each of us for when the next physical or proverbial storm hits.
computer. Finally, we chose colleagues to highlight for “Faces in the
Anne Edmunds opens the issue by sharing her experience during
Crowd” who have each experienced disasters in their workplaces,
Hurricane Katrina as both a New Orleans native and employee of an
with the hope that their stories of resilience in the face of catastrophe
institution that eventually enrolled many evacuees. Lori Patton Davis
are encouraging.
and Shametrice Davis follow by using Katrina as a jumping off point for
their thoughts on expanding disaster-related transition theory—they
assert that we should consider not just emergency preparedness, but
also the emotional wellbeing of students knowing how anxiety and
depression can persist and inhibit academic success long after the initial traumatizing event has passed. Lonnie Booker, Jr. speaks to crisis
management more broadly, encouraging institutions to be proactive in
developing flexible response plans now, knowing we can no longer view
these events as rare or an anomaly.
Our goal with this special issue of the Journal is to balance personal testimonials, research and practical advice for educators
responding to a range of “disasters” in their jobs. We’ve all experienced them and you may have your own reflections to share—
we’d like to encourage you to do so on the Journal Facebook page
or through the NACAC Exchange. We can surely learn from one
another’s experiences, and our individual stories also serve as a
reminder that disaster can provide opportunities. Whether battling the aftermath of a super storm or simply working with the
The issue also touches on personal tragedies and how we as educators,
new Common Application, the moments that challenge us allow
institutions and individuals may respond to them. Peggy Brandt Brown
us to see our work with new eyes, a renewed sense of purpose,
provides a comprehensive overview of student suicides at colleges and
and an appreciation for the calm waters of our lives that we tend
universities over time and highlights some actions institutions might
to overlook until disaster strikes. We hope you enjoy this issue
take for future suicide prevention. Jason Klugman gives us a closer
and gain some advice on how to approach your next disaster.
look at his work with low-income, high-achieving students for whom
“disaster” can be an every day occurrence, whether it is through failing
schools, financial instability or simply the inability to gain access to a
ii
| winter 2014 JOURNAL OF COLLEGE ADMISSION
Lauren E. Cook, Editorial Committee Chair
W W W. N A C A CN E T.ORG
College
Admission
The Journal of College Admission (ISSN 0734-6670) is
published quarterly (winter, spring, summer, fall) by the
National Association for College Admission Counseling,
1050 N. Highland Street Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201.
Its subscription price is $65 per year (four issues). Periodicals
Postage Paid at Arlington, VA 22201-9998
and additional mailing offices.
POSTMASTER:
Send changes of address to NACAC,
1050 N. Highland Street, Suite 400 Arlington, VA 22201.
The Journal of College Admission is published by the National
Association for College Admission Counseling, an education
association of high school counselors and college admission
and financial aid officers serving students during the transition
between high school and college. Material published in the Journal
of College Admission is neither endorsed by nor official policy of
the National Association for College Admission Counseling.
THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
FOR COLLEGE ADMISSION COUNSELING
Editorial Committee
NUMBER 222
Lauren Cook, Chair
Associate Dean of Admission • Mount Holyoke, MA
Winter 2014
FEATURES:
Anne Aubert-Santelli
Senior Assistant Director of Admission
University of Southern California, CA
6
Charlie Hungerford
Associate Director of Admission • Southwest Baptist University/
Mercy College of Nursing and Health Sciences, MO
Expanding Transition Theory: African American Students’
Multiple Transitions Following Hurricane Katrina
Jeffrey Neill
Director of College Counseling • Western Reserve Academy, OH
by Lori D. Patton and Shametrice Davis
Matthew Ogawa
Associate Director of Admissions • Oregon State University
16Crisis Management: Changing Times for Colleges
Lindsey Ringenbach
Associate Director of Admissions • Meredith College, NC
by Lonnie Booker, Jr.
Kellie Stewart
School Counselor • WT Woodson High School, VA
24
Creating a Community of Scholars on the Edge of Disaster
Administrative and Communications Staff
Sarah S. Cox • Assistant Director of
Editorial and Creative Services
Joyce E. Smith • Chief Executive Officer
by Jason Klugman
John McGrath • Deputy Executive Director
34College Can Be Killing: United States College Shanda T. Ivory
Director of Communications, Publications and Technology
Kristen Garman
Associate Director of Communications, Publications and Technology
and University Responses to Student Suicide During the 20th Century and Early 21st Century
Daisy Kinard • Production Coordinator
by Peggy Brandt Brown
Kate Sigety • Communications Coordinator
NACAC Nondiscrimination Statement:
The National Association for College Admission Counseling
adheres to a policy of nondiscrimination in all of its activities,
programs and practices, and pledges to treat people equally
with concern for age, gender, race, creed, disabling conditions,
national origin, sexual orientation, or political affiliation.
Copyright © 2014 by the National Association for
College Admission Counseling. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
2014 Board of Directors
Katy Murphy • Bellarmine College Preparatory, CA • President
Jeff Fuller • University of Houston, TX • President-Elect
Jim Rawlins • University of Oregon, OR • Past President
Directors
David Allen • Global College Counselors, Ltd., United Kingdom
Marie Bigham • Greenhill School, TX
Fran Cubberley • Delaware County Community College, PA
Larry Griffith • UNCF, Gates Millennium Scholars Program, DC
Debi Hudson • St. Teresa’s Academy, MO
Jerry Pope • Niles North and Niles West High Schools, IL
Brian Prescott • Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education,
(WICHE), CO
Kim Chaffer Schroeder • Transylvania University (KY)
Steve Syverson • Lawrence University, WI
Tom Weede
Brandy Candler • Ivy Tech Community College (IN)
Coordinator of the Affiliate Presidents Council
Joyce E. Smith • NACAC, VA • Chief Executive Officer
printed on recycled paper
DEPARTMENTS:
2
oPEN FORUM
Katrina: Reflections on the Wake of a Storm
by Anne Edmunds
OPEN FORUM
Katrina: Reflections on the Wake of a Storm
H
urricane Katrina. For those af-
campus and expressed my sympathies that
fected by her, especially those in
Belmont could not be of assistance. I then
my hometown of New Orleans, life
called a colleague at Vanderbilt University
will forever be delineated as before or after
(TN) to see if and how they were handling
“the storm.”
similar inquiries, since their fall semester
began at the same time as ours.
On Monday, August 29, 2005, I reported
to work as associate director of admis-
Midday Tuesday, I reached my parents by
sions at Belmont University (TN). The fall
calling Tulane Hospital on a landline. My
semester had begun on August 24, so
father had ventured out Monday afternoon
we were busy welcoming new students
to check on our house, which fortunately
to campus, helping them settle into their
sustained only superficial damage. Our
classes and college life.
neighborhood was on high ground, which
turned out to be an additional blessing as
My parents had chosen to evacuate north
the streets of New Orleans started flooding.
to Tulane Hospital rather than out of the
While a bit uneasy knowing my parents
city (which they have promised to do for
were stranded in a building surrounded by
all future hurricanes). My mother called
rising flood waters, I was reassured that
Monday morning, after the eye of the
they were safe and in better circumstances
storm had passed over New Orleans, to
than many others.
inform me they had lost power, but were
fine. By Monday evening, cell service in
By Wednesday morning, Belmont had
the affected areas had gone out, leaving
a plan to enroll Katrina evacuees. The
me unable to reach my parents and admit-
decision for President Bob Fisher was as
tedly a bit anxious.
simple as considering how he would want
other colleges to respond if the situation
Tuesday morning, I received a phone call
were reversed. Institutions in New Orleans
Belmont asked Katrina
students to submit an
application for admission and
waived the application fee.
We accepted copies of any
supporting documentation
they could provide, but
required none. We spoke
with students about their
academic program interests
and helped them look through
available classes. Deans
and department chairs
made seats available for
Katrina students. Professors
welcomed the displaced
students in their classes and
made accommodations for
them to make up the work
they missed.
at work from the father of a local Nashville
were clearly out of commission, so col-
student who was admitted to Belmont and
leges across the country stepped up to
chose to enroll as a freshman at Tulane
serve students. I called back the father to
University in New Orleans. On Saturday,
share with him our plan.
at Belmont helped me feel like I had
to campus in the morning and later that
Louisiana was my recruiting territory, so I
out of control.
afternoon asked them to evacuate. Unsure
led the admission efforts to welcome Ka-
of when Tulane would reopen, the father
trina students, as they came to be called,
some control, when things seemed so
August 27, Tulane welcomed new students
2
by Anne Edmunds
Belmont asked Katrina students to
inquired whether his son could enroll at
to Belmont. As a New Orleanian, I had a
submit an application for admission
Belmont for the fall. I politely explained
special connection with the students that
and waived the application fee. We
that since that day was the last day of our
contacted Belmont. I greeted every evac-
accepted copies of any supporting
drop/add period, we were no longer ac-
uee—students, family and friends—who
documentation they could provide, but
cepting students, as enrolling in classes so
walked through our doors with a big hug.
required none. We spoke with students
late would put students at a disadvantage
As the oldest child, I was personally busy
about their academic program interests
for the semester. I shared that I grew up
acting as command central for my family
and helped them look through available
in New Orleans five blocks from the Tulane
regarding Katrina. Professionally, my work
classes. Deans and department chairs
OPEN FORUM
made seats available for Katrina students.
Profe s s or s welcomed the displaced
s tudent s in their clas s e s and made
accommodations for them to make up the
work they missed.
The director of student financial services
met individually with each Katrina student
to discuss payment options. If tuition had
already been paid to the student’s home
campus, Belmont did not charge the
student. If payment had not already been
made, we charged the student Belmont
tuition and sent the payment to their home
campus. While some institutions offered
Katrina students free tuition, Belmont’s
While we enrolled displaced students, we
in the workplace was inappropriate, but I
decision to collect tuition stemmed from a
also reached out to Belmont students
now believe that such expressions of raw
desire to help the affected institutions get
with permanent addresses in the areas
emotion with your colleagues serve as
back on their feet financially.
impacted by Katrina. We asked how their
reminders that we are humans, not just re-
families and friends weathered the storm,
sources who do the work of the university.
A couple of Katrina students chose to en-
offering comfort and counsel. Through
roll at Belmont that fall for programmatic
these conversations, we were able to
When disaster strikes, reach out to victims
reasons. Most were either from Nashville or
ascertain whether a family’s financial situ-
and let them know you care, want to help
had a personal connection to the Nashville
ation changed in a way that might warrant
and are sending prayers. They may not be
area and were thus easily able to secure
adjustment of the student’s financial aid
able to respond promptly, or be able to ac-
housing. Like most campuses in the fall
and payment arrangements.
cept your help, but they will know someone
semester, our campus housing was at full
cared enough to reach out. I will never
occupancy. Yet, we managed to find space
When a disaster impacts a fellow em-
forget those friends and colleagues who
on campus for five students, while direct-
ployee, providing a listening ear can be a
took a moment to let me know they cared.
ing others to available off-campus options.
great source of comfort for them. I started
each morning in the office of my then
In the early morning hours of Saturday,
Belmont granted Katrina students 10
supervisor, Dean of Enrollment Services
September 3, my parents safely arrived at
business days beyond the last day of drop/
Kathy Baugher, providing the latest update
my home in Nashville. After a helicopter
add to make a final decision whether they
on my family’s situation. Despite all that
evacuation from Tulane Hospital, they
wished to remain enrolled. As each day
was going on at the beginning of the fall
had rented a car with one of my father's
after the storm unfolded, students contem-
semester, Kathy patiently listened to me
orthopedic residents who was able to
plated their options. Some chose to enroll
share my story, along with the emotions
continue his residency at Vanderbilt Uni-
at two local colleges to reach a full load
I was experiencing, so I could get on with
versity Medical Center.
of classes they needed for their degree,
the day’s work.
while others decided to take the semester
In late September, Dean Baugher hosted
off. In the end, Belmont hosted 29 Katrina
While I was providing an update to the
a gathering in her home for the Katrina
students and distributed $206,665 to Dil-
provost on our intake of Katrina students,
students and Belmont students from the
lard University, Loyola University, Tulane
he inquired about my family. His question
affected Gulf Coast areas. I cooked jam-
University, University of New Orleans, and
caught me off guard and my eyes began
balaya and baked king cakes. An academic
Xavier University of Louisiana.
to tear up. I’d always thought that crying
dean from Mobile, AL made her seafood
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
winter 2014 JOURNAL OF COLLEGE ADMISSION |
3
gumbo. We asked the students how they
to the fall of 2005, or even the spring of
were doing. I learned not to be afraid to
2006, but might show up later, perhaps
ask someone who has lived through a trau-
unexpectedly and on our college campuses.
matic experience how they are doing. They
may prefer not to share their story but they
The impact of a disaster does not last for
will know that you cared enough to ask.
a mere moment, a season or a year. It’s
As a faith-based institution, we prayed for
a forever life-changing experience, which
the Katrina students. These students were
in and of itself is not always a bad thing.
wrestling with the ramifications of Katrina
That which does not kill us makes us
amid the challenges of collegiate life, for
stronger. Students who show up on our
some at an institution in which they had
college campuses having experienced
not planned to enroll.
disaster have the power to remind us to
not take life for granted. As educators, we
At the end of the Fall 2005 semester, we
must find a way to help students move
offered best wishes to our Katrina stu-
through and past disaster.
dents as they made their way back to the
path they were on before the storm. One
Colleges and universities strive to create an
student remained at Belmont to pursue
environment in which students can develop
a specific degree we offered, despite our
their full potential. When disaster strikes,
very strong encouragement to return to
individuals move to the bottom of Maslow's
help rebuild New Orleans.
Hierarchy of Needs pyramid. I witnessed
Should you visit my hometown, which many
after the storm. Meeting physiological and
this regression with family and friends
The impact of a disaster does
not last for a mere moment, a
season or a year. It’s a forever
life changing experience, which
in and of itself is not always
a bad thing. That which does
not kill us makes us stronger.
Students who show up on
our college campuses having
experienced disaster have the
power to remind us to not take
life for granted. As educators,
we must find a way to
help students move
through and past disaster.
of you did for the 2011 NACAC Conference,
safety needs became their primary focus.
you will find most of the physical wounds
By opening our doors to displaced students,
letters of recommendation and, in some
caused by Katrina have since healed. How-
colleges across the country allowed Katrina
cases, only a suitcase full of clothes and
ever, many of the emotional wounds caused
students to make their way back up the
personal items.
by disaster never fully heal. My family
pyramid to belonging and then esteem, in
reunited in New Orleans for Christmas in
the hopes that they might one day move
Katrina’s powerful winds may have not lit-
2005. Driving across Lake Ponchartrain
towards achieving self-actualization.
erally touched me, but they left me forever
into New Orleans, I caught my first-hand
changed. I’ve shared with many that the
glimpse of the wrath Katrina left four
I am stickler for documentation. I delight
week of Hurricane Katrina was one of the
months earlier and was reminded of what
in following rules—but there are no rules
most stressful times of my life. Yet, I recall
I had tried to repress. In August 2008,
for something like Katrina. When disaster
feeling blessed that my family was spared
when Hurricane Gustav headed for the Gulf
strikes, routine rules must be adapted to
the blow Katrina dealt so many and at the
Coast, I observed emotional wounds reopen
prioritize what’s important, like taking care
same time grateful I had the opportunity
among those who experienced Katrina.
of people. In this case, we took care of
to serve others, specifically the displaced
Recalling the details for this piece gave me
students who had neither transcripts nor
students who found their way to Belmont.
an appreciation for the courage needed for
students to write about a painful experience
for their college essays.
For at least four years after the storm,
several high school counselors included a
Katrina explanation letter along with their
school information. These letters served
Anne Edmunds is currently the associate vice
president for graduate and international admission at
Webster University (MO). Prior to her work at Webster,
she worked in college admission for 12 years at
Belmont University (TN). She earned a BA in math and a
MEd in higher education administration from Vanderbilt
University (TN) and an EdD in higher education
administration from The University of Alabama.
as reminders that the impact of the storm
on a student may not have been limited
4
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by Lori D. Patton and Shametrice Davis
Expanding Transition Theory:
African American Students’
Multiple Transitions
Following Hurricane Katrina
Prior to historic incidents, such as Hurricane Katrina and mass gun violence at Virginia Tech and
Northern Illinois University, Langford (2004) argued that the dearth of literature regarding critical
incidents on college campuses was due to the fact that “institutions of higher education are often
regarded as sanctuaries, protected environments where young people explore great ideas in a
collegial atmosphere and make lifelong friendships” (2). Many college and university officials are
now realizing the importance of emergency preparedness plans to address critical incidents as they
arise. Ensuring that plans are in place during critical incidents is important given that major issues
may emerge, such as incurring costs, damages to physical property, displaced students, and the
overall psychological well-being for members of the university community (Mangan 2008; McCarthy
and Butler 2003).
Distasters Affect Cost; Cost Affects Recovery
other university members. This is an unfortunate misstep, as
Incurring costs due to critical incidents heavily influences the rate of
Meichenbaum (1995) argues that anxiety experienced after a
progress in which a university can restore normalcy. Graumann et al.
critical incident can last several years and have a significant im-
(2005) estimate that the total cost associated with Hurricane Ka-
pact on a student’s ability to achieve academic success. Davis,
trina is $125 billion. In 2008, a massive flood caused major damage
Grills-Taquechel and Ollendick (2010) posit that students who
to the University of Iowa campus, including a $25 million scientific-
are displaced as a result of a natural disaster on campus expe-
research building containing millions of dollars of equipment and
rience higher levels of trauma, distress, posttraumatic stress
materials (Mangan 2008). Students may also face costs associated
syndrome (PTSS), and depression. The findings of their study
with critical incidents. Massive incidents may require students to
indicate that housing and property were the most prevalent
extend their graduation timelines, which could lead to the need for
stressors for students affected by Hurricane Katrina. Most sig-
more financial aid. Due to their need for aid, some students may
nificant is the fact these students continued to feel high anxiety
choose to accept loans, which ultimately contribute to debt accrual
and depression even after being placed at a host institution.
(Mangan 2008). The plight of faculty is often a neglected topic in
In this study, we examine the experiences of college students
scholarship on critical incidents; however, there were major finan-
who were displaced following Hurricane Katrina. In particular,
cial consequences for faculty members who became displaced as
we consider what their experiences reveal about the process of
a result of Hurricane Katrina or lost millions of dollars in research
transition and offer implications for how Schlossberg, Waters
equipment (Fogg 2005). Community organizations, such as mental
and Goodman’s (1995) transition theory might be expanded.
health agencies and disaster relief organizations, are also typically
drained after a major incident on a college campus (McCarthy and
Students’ Plights with Critical Incidents
Butler 2010).
Research has slowly shifted away from the university as a primary
unit of analysis in studying critical incidents to a unit that is
While extant literature heavily focuses on preparedness, dis-
smaller in nature: the student (Davis et al. 2010; Robertson
semination of information and the financial efficiency with
2008; McCarthy and Butler 2003; Patton 2008). The range
which the college restores normal function and operations, less
of students affected by various critical incidents is vast and
attention is given to the emotional wellbeing of students and
very diverse; however, in regards to the most significant natural
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
7
disaster in the history of the United States, Hurricane Katrina,
Theoretical Framework
African Americans are undoubtedly among the most heavily af-
Schlossberg et al. (1995) established a “transition theory” for
fected college student population. The Southern region of the
adults. They defined a transition as “any event, or non-event
US is where the majority of the nation’s historically black col-
that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions,
leges and universities (HBCUs) are located, three of which are
and roles” (27). To understand the meaning individuals assign
in New Orleans. The National Association for Equal Opportunity
to a transition, the type, contexts and impact of the transition
in Higher Education reported that more than 9,100 students at-
must be considered. Schlossberg et al. (2006) noted transi-
tending HBCUs (in addition to thousands of faculty and staff)
tions extend over a period of time where the individual moves
were directly displaced by Katrina (as cited in Chew et al. 2005).
from preoccupation to integration with the transition. This
Current literature has capitalized on this fact by illuminating the
progress is benchmarked with the language of “moving in”;
experiences of African American students during and after this
“moving through”; and “moving out” (Schlossberg 1989). The
historic natural disaster. Chew et al. (2005) elaborate on African
progress of the transition and the individual’s ability to cope
American students’ academic plight as a result of Katrina as they
with the transition rests on four factors: 1) self (personal and
attempted to complete highly-specific degrees in allied health
demographic characteristics, and psychological resources);
care but faced barriers with curriculum equivalencies. While
2) situation (the timing and expectation (or lack thereof) of
academics were essential to African American students’ experi-
the event); 3) support (available social advocacy from friends,
ences during Katrina, these issues were secondary to the stress
family and colleagues); and 4) strategies (coping responses
of finding housing and property in the wake and aftermath of the
that manage and control the meaning of the problem). These
storm (Davis et al. 2010).
factors are referred to as “The 4 S System” (Schlossberg et
al. 1995). In the case of African American students, transition
The aforementioned literature reveals student struggles and
theory is timely because it takes into consideration the life-
the transitions associated with critical incidents. Robertson
altering situations caused by Hurricane Katrina and the influ-
(2008) composed a documentary based on research conducted
ences of context in students' meaning-making process (Schuh
with African American students who were heavily affected by
and Laanan 2006).
Katrina. Seventeen students who attended two HBCUs in New
Orleans were interviewed about their “pre-hurricane, hurricane,
Types of Transitions
and post-hurricane experiences” (Robertson 2008, 395).
Schlossberg et al. (1995) outline three types of transitions: an-
Robertson’s research underscores an under-examined aspect of
ticipated, unanticipated and nonevent. The first step in transition
African American students’ experiences with Katrina: multiple
rests on identifying how it surfaces in one’s life. Anticipated transi-
transitions. The students’ multiple transitions are central to the
tions, such as marriage and childbirth “comprise those normative
purpose of this article, which is to better understand the nature
gains and losses or major alterations of roles that predictably occur
of several transitions, stemming from one unanticipated event.
in the course of the unfolding life cycle” (Schlossberg et al. 1995,
A dual focus is placed on the students and universities in an
29). Unanticipated transitions are unscheduled events that are
effort to provide suggestions for how colleges and universities
also unpredictable. They are typically negative in nature; often
can better support students experiencing multiple, simultaneous
characterized as disruptive, traumatic or crisis-like in nature, such
transitions. Therefore, the main research question for this study
as divorce, loss of job and premature deaths of family members
was how African American students constructed meaning of their
(Schlossberg et al. 1995). Hurricane Katrina also exemplifies
multiple transitions during and following the Hurricane Katrina
an unanticipated transition, particularly because warnings of the
storm. Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman’s (1995) transition
event (although late) were known, but the impact and results of
theory serves as an effective framework through which to exam-
the storm were unpredictable, as was the massive damage and the
ine the nuances of African American students’ multiple transi-
city’s lack of preparation.
tions with Hurricane Katrina. This article places a microscope on
8
both the individual experience and organizational response from
The third type of transition is classified as a nonevent or a change
campuses to expose the student voice and illuminate how col-
the individual expected to happen, but did not transpire. The lack
leges and universities can better prepare and execute emergency
of change causes a transition as a result of the nonevent, e.g., “the
plans in the future.
marriage that never occurred, the promotion that never material-
ized, the child who was never born” (Schlossberg et al. 1995, 29).
Methodology
The three different transition types are significantly influenced by
Knack et al. (2006) note, “Natural disasters provide a unique opportu-
the context in which they occur, making the experience of transi-
nity for studying a large group of diverse individuals who experienced a
tions unique to every individual.
single traumatic event” (176). The findings of this study emerged from
a larger data set that examined the experiences of African American
Context
students affected by Hurricane Katrina. Phenomenology (Moustakas
Central to understanding the complex nature of life transitions
1994), was used to answer the following research question: How do
is acknowledging the context of how, where and to whom the
African American students make meaning of their multiple transitions
transition happens (Schlossberg et al. 1995). If a transition
experienced as a result of Hurricane Katrina?
happens specifically to an individual (e.g., job loss) that context
is significantly different than if a transition occurs for a dear
New Orleans, LA, was the study site. Participants were recruited
friend or family member of the same individual. Said differently,
using key informants (Patton 2002), including two faculty mem-
if a transition is intrapersonal versus interpersonal, that context
bers and two student affairs administrators. Findings from 10
heavily influences the effects for an individual. Context is also
undergraduate interviews will be highlighted (seven women, three
inclusive of the setting in which transitions arise. The location
men) representing two historically black institutions and one
in which transitions arise shapes the way individuals manage the
predominantly white institution in New Orleans. The participants
Transition theory provides a frame through which Hurricane Katrina
was experienced, but stops short of a focus on multiple transitions
that occur simultaneously for individuals. We consider how the
theory might reflect how people make meaning of transitions that
are amazingly complex, particularly the impact of multiple transitions
experienced by African American students during Hurricane Katrina.
subsequent life changes and the ultimate impact the transition
ranged from first-year students to seniors and acknowledged Hur-
leaves on their lives.
ricane Katrina had affected their educational experiences.
Impact
Data Collection and Analysis
The most essential aspect of a transition is the impact it leaves on
The lead author conducted interviews with all participants. Each
the individual’s life (Schlossberg et al. 1995). Schlossberg et al.
individual, semi-structured interview, lasted approximately one to
state, “Thus, when an event—a partner’s business transfer involv-
two hours in length. Extensive notes were taken to inform and
ing a geographical move—creates problems for an individual, we
revise questions from the interview protocol and to serve as a re-
need to look not only at the type and context but also at the impact
source during the data analysis process. Each interview transcript
of the event on the individual’s relationships, routines, assump-
was thoroughly reviewed and subjected to an individual analysis.
tions about self and the world, and roles” (33). Evaluating the
Participants’ voices were foregrounded and salient quotes were
difference between an individual’s relationships and actions before
identified to capture students’ experiences with transition in rela-
and after a transition is one way of measuring impact.
tion to Hurricane Katrina. Data were organized into meaningful
clusters and all repetitive information was removed (Patton 2002).
Transition theory provides a frame through which Hurricane
Upon generation of final themes, the data were then examined
Katrina was experienced, but stops short of a focus on multiple
through the lens of Transition Theory. Themes were organized in
transitions that occur simultaneously for individuals. We consider
a chronological manner, to illustrate the nature of multiple transi-
how the theory might reflect how people make meaning of tran-
tions stemming from one unanticipated event.
sitions that are amazingly complex, particularly the impact of
multiple transitions experienced by African American students
To ensure trustworthiness participants were invited to review their
during Hurricane Katrina.
transcripts for accuracy, make revisions and to share additional
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
9
thoughts. Peer debriefers, all having similar research interests
Trigger
in Hurricane Katrina, knowledge of transition theory and a broad
This prevailing lack of perceived threat ended once students
understanding of African American college students were helpful
learned the severity of the storm and later that the levees
in the interpretations of data.
broke. The extent of the damage across the entire city and
surrounding region was displayed through media outlets and
Limitations
immediately invoked feelings of fear and loss. Thoughts of
Researcher subjectivity is often present in qualitative inquiry,
friends, family and self-survival pervaded students’ minds. Ja-
especially if the researcher has experience with the phenomenon
son remembers the quickness with which his survival instincts
being studied. Both authors had strong feelings regarding the way
kicked in when he had to “talk his way onto a public bus”
in which the catastrophe was handled from government, media
for a ride out of town closer to family. Feelings of frustration
and political standpoints. The use of bracketing to identify and
emerged as a major theme in the data once students realized
acknowledge our personal assumptions and biases (Moustakas
the extent of damage and lack of resources. Many students
1994) helped to mediate preconceived notions related to the
reported feeling like “FEMA did nothing” and they were left on
politics surrounding Hurricane Katrina.
their own to figure out how to relocate and remain safe. Doing
just that brought a number of transitions the students had to
Findings
navigate, from transferring to a new institution to figuring out
The findings of this study are highlighted through Transition
how to survive with the minimal belongings remaining intact
Theory. The main themes are constructed in chronological order of
after the storm.
the research participants’ experiences moving in, moving through
and moving out of the multiple transitions resulting from Katrina.
Transition 1: Selection of New Institution; Moving In
The context and impact of the transitions, as well as the students’
Support systems. The first transition described by students
reliance upon the 4 S System (situation, self, support, and strate-
affected by this devastating hurricane encompasses the pro-
gies) are interwoven throughout the discussion.
cess of leaving the home institution and finding another at
which to continue their studies. The most important factor
Situation: Lack of Perceived Threat
in this transition was the level of convenience. One student
The majority of students did not take the initial warnings regarding
discussed how he decided to attend an institution nearby due
Hurricane Katrina seriously, making it an unanticipated event and
to its proximity to his hometown and family in Arkansas. A
subsequent transition. The perceived threat was fairly minimal, as
second significant factor was cost, as several students simply
many students mentioned previously heeding evacuation recom-
picked the cheapest institution that either matched or de-
mendations only for the storm to barely cause any damage to their
creased the level of expenses at their home institution. Ryan
homes and belongings. Chayla explains, “My initial thoughts were
referenced having friends and family in the area as a major
that it wasn’t gonna be that bad. You know. They always make it
reason for picking a specific institution to transfer to: “My
seem a big deal which it can be, but it’s not gonna be that bad. We’ll
uncle called who lives in Kansas City, MO and he told me that
go back to school on Monday.” Deidra further demonstrates this lack
the University of Kansas in Lawrence was taking students. So
of perceived threat: “I really just didn’t take it seriously because I
I decided to go.” A less common, but still significant factor
had been through a couple of supposed hurricanes that never came,
in selecting a transfer institution was the options available for
so I didn’t plan on leaving.” However, the students who were not
majors and degrees, as described by Leslie: “I decided to go
originally from Louisiana did react more quickly to the warnings. Ja-
there because it had my major and it was closest to my house.
son, an out-of-state student, started packing as soon as he watched
It was easiest to get to.”
the mayor on television, advising residents to evacuate. “I’m used to
tornados myself, but I don’t really deal with hurricanes.”
The convergence of convenience and degree options is evident in
Leslie’s reasoning and other students had several factors come
Given this lack of perceived threat, students did not take an abun-
similarly together as well. Ultimately, weathering the ensuing chaos
dance of belongings with them as they left for safer destinations.
of Katrina made these students have to use grounded, convenient
Most students only packed a few items, including one or two pairs
rationales during this first transition. Undergirding the outcomes
of pants, shirts and shoes. A couple of students did think to quickly
of these decision-making processes were the various forms of
pack up computers and other technology-related items. However,
support and resources (cost; convenience; public transportation;
most only had the bare essentials.
proximity of family and friends) available to the students.
10 | winter 2014 JOURNAL OF COLLEGE ADMISSION
Transition 2: Adjusting to New Institution; Moving Through
phase of transition. They contend that personal and demographic
Self. Three themes surfaced as essential to the interviewees’ ex-
characteristics shape how a person views life. For the interviewees,
periences adjusting to their new transfer institutions: 1) feelings of
their identity as African American students started to become a
being “thrown in” 2) subpar living conditions and 3) racial tensions/
point of contention at their transfer institution shortly after arriv-
support. When students first arrived to their transfer institution,
ing. The racially tense interactions occurred on both smaller scales
they were immediately thrown into that school’s processes and
(i.e., clashes with roommates and professors) and larger levels
culture, without an orientation or any guidance. This was done
(i.e., campus traditions, pervasive culture). Angela describes her
hastily, leaving students bewildered and feeling unwelcome. The
experience with racial tensions on the broader campus level:
following quotes from Angela poignantly demonstrate her experi-
There was a lot of racial tension at [new university]. I guess they
ence with these three themes:
had a pink and gold confederate flag that they would fly and a
When we got there it was pretty much you were thrown into
lot of the blacks took offense to that. And they were saying, no
registration. Like you go through this big line, name, did you
this is a southern tradition, this is tradition. It was a big uproar
apply, alright, you’ve been accepted, alright, pick your classes,
and they had students protesting. They were outside the football
meal plan, housing, ok, take your ID picture, etc. Then it’s like
stadium at the game and they had people throw stuff at them
you’re thrown, ok bye. And we thought, it’s such a big campus,
and call them [racial expletive]s and tell them to go back to
they could’ve done more.
wherever the hell they came from.
Once students quickly received information regarding registration and other
various campus procedures, they had to make a slower and significantly
more uncomfortable adjustment to living in the campus residence halls.
The living conditions at some transfer institutions were perceived as subpar;
students complained of overcrowding, cold water and poor food options.
However, other institutions housed students in residence halls that could
likely be condemned by the local health department.
Once students quickly received information regarding registration
Dealing with the racial tensions in addition to the multiple other
and other various campus procedures, they had to make a slower
stressors present while attending a transfer institution proved
and significantly more uncomfortable adjustment to living in the
difficult for some interviewees. Trying to stay focused on their
campus residence halls. The living conditions at some transfer
studies and remembering that attending the transfer institution
institutions were perceived as subpar; students complained of
was temporary helped students continue to move through this
overcrowding, cold water and poor food options. However, other
arduous second transition. Numerous strategies were employed
institutions housed students in residence halls that could likely be
by the interviewees as they navigated multiple transitions while
condemned by the local health department. And these students
also managing several stressors (i.e., residence hall conditions and
were paying the transfer institution, which made it even more dif-
racial tensions).
ficult to navigate such awful rooms:
They put us in these horrible dorms. These old dorms that
Strategies. Goodman et al. (2006) postulate that individuals
weren’t even used. Electrical sockets just messed up. Ventila-
often take on different coping mechanisms to move in, through
tion in the bathroom wasn’t working. We were shoved in like
and out of transitions. These coping mechanisms include:
three to a room and we had to pay for housing too. We’re like,
1) information seeking 2) direct action 3) inhibition of action
wait you’re making a profit off of us (Angela).
and 4) intrapsychic behavior (Goodman et al. 2006). To cope
with the rising racial tensions at their transfer institutions, some
As students settled into their respective transfer institutions and
interviewees took direct action, as evidenced by Angela’s preced-
slowly adjusted to the residence halls and campus culture, mul-
ing quote above. Protesting the confederate flag likely helped
tiple forms of racial tensions began to surface. Goodman et al.
students channel and manage their stress that resulted from
(2006) assert that the third “S”, Self, is significant during this
such tension.
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
winter 2014 JOURNAL OF COLLEGE ADMISSION | 11
Other students employed the use of what Goodman et al. (2006)
Although it was not without some difficulty, the students mostly
call intraspsychic behavior—the use of a source of inner strength,
described their return back to the home institution as a relief to
such as spirituality. Spirituality is by far the most heavily relied
be back in a familiar environment where they had friends and were
upon source of strength and perseverance for students in this
knowledgeable of the campus culture and traditions. While return-
study. Faith in a higher power that everything would be ok and they
ing to their institution brought feelings of reprieve and significantly
would eventually return to their home institutions and home city
reduced stress and anxiety for the interviewees, acknowledging the
of New Orleans propelled these students through and out of the
extensive damage and desolate climate of the city of New Orleans
incredibly difficult times endured throughout these multiple transi-
proved to be a much more painful process.
tions. The environment of the church served as a place of refuge
and serenity for Jason: “Churches are doing more than FEMA’s
Transition 4: Returning to New Orleans
doing. You could tell the church what you really needed and they
“The devastation here is too great. They don’t have the help they
would fight to get it for you.”
need.” Jason used these words to describe his initial reaction to seeing the city upon returning from his transfer institution. It was vividly
Utilizing the effective strategies of spirituality and drawing on
clear to interviewees that the status of people who were poor and/or of
support from the church and family and friends, interviewees
color ranked dismally low on the federal government’s list of priorities.
continued on the path of moving through the difficult transitions
Students described vacant streets, empty storefronts and damaged
occurring at their transfer institution. But it was not the culmination
houses and restaurants as the picture of a once vibrant, culturally di-
of seemingly endless transitions stemming from Hurricane Katrina,
verse, energetic city with a spirit so infectious that tourists often came
as the students would have to endure two more: the transition
to live permanently. Public transportation was nonexistent and venues
back to their home institutions and the transition back to the city
that used to be open until 4:00 a.m. were now closed and dark by
of New Orleans.
9:00 p.m. Ironically, the transition of leaving New Orleans juxtaposed
against coming back to a decimated version of it left interviewees
Transition 3: Adjusting Back to Home Institution; Moving Out
with a huge appreciation for the spirited city. Students took solace in
As the interviewees began to move out of the multiple tran-
a higher purpose associated with being back in New Orleans:
sitions they experienced in the aftermath of the storm, they
But after this you really appreciate what kind of city that you
moved into the new adjustments of being back in familiar
live in. It’s so liberal. It’s so much culture, so much history.
territory. The interviewees’ experiences with returning to their
And it’s a lot of fun here, not just nightlife and drinking. It’s
home institution were mostly positive, with one saying she ap-
art museums and the French Quarter, like taking a day trip to
preciated that her institution actually provided an orientation
the French Quarter. Or going to see the old plantations or just
to ease students into some of the changes that occurred as a
walking through uptown. It’s a lot of beauty here and I really
result of the storm. The residential assistants in the campus
appreciate that. And I think that I’m meant to be here. I feel as
halls were trained to be emotional supports for students as
if I’m purposed to be here (Angela).
they transitioned back to a long-forgotten routine. Other resources cited as immensely supportive for this transition were
Discussing the transition of moving back to their home institution
the offices of student programming/involvement and multi-
and to the city ignited more feelings of frustration for the interview-
cultural affairs. The services helped students restore balance
ees, particularly with the government and the media portrayals of
and normalcy in their lives after a traumatic experience. Most
African Americans. From a political standpoint, students argued that
importantly, the interviewees felt wholly welcomed back into
the situation would never have risen to the level it did, had it been
their black community both on and off campus. Ryan talks
affluent whites as the majority of detrimentally affected residents.
about his decision to ultimately return to New Orleans and not
Race and class were referenced as major contributing factors to the
stay at his transfer institution, despite knowledge of the long
extent of damage to families and lack of available public resources
road to the city’s complete recovery:
and support. Furthermore, the way various media outlets chose to
The main reason why I decided not to stay was because I felt
depict African Americans in the city significantly upset Jason:
sick. Not sick from the university but sick because I felt like I
They did a good job of making us look bad. They showed the
was alone. On campus I felt alone because like my roommates
stealing, they say we were stealing. But why? I don’t understand
were white. It was hard connecting with the black people up
that. You’re dealing with a crisis with a huge flood and you’re
there because I just didn’t know them. So that was the main
showing people stealing stuff. That’s not even necessary. To me
reason why I wanted to come back.
it was blown out of proportion.
Students were also upset at the perceived bias present in media
rights movement for millennial college students and many will
portrayals of Katrina aftermath. They believed the media placed
use their experience with the storm and the powerful impact it
mercy on white people who were stealing and looting as opposed
had on their lives to advance the visibility of the black community
to calling blacks “criminals” and “outlaws.” Leslie discussed how
(Patton 2008).
newspaper pictures of white people stealing were accompanied by
captions such as “trying to survive,” while pictures of black people
Implications and Discussion
stealing had captions conveying notions of looting. She said, “[Ap-
Three implications surface from the findings of this study. On a
parently] black people were looting, but white people were just
broader level, colleges and universities must have a willingness
trying to make it.” Feelings of anger, betrayal and confirmation of
to work with community and accreditation organizations to ensure
blacks as inferior to the government continually surfaced during
seamless transitions for students regarding their academic major
interviews regarding the students’ transitions back to New Orleans.
and degree requirements. At a more local level, the participants’
experiences with transferring to new institutions shed light on the
However, these frustrations did not trump the interviewees’ ex-
importance of host institutions providing thorough orientation ser-
citement to be home and begin the work of rebuilding the city
vices for displaced students. Lastly, we encourage future research
and reforming the community. Several students talked about this
on transition theory and the nuances of experiencing multiple
tragedy as a “blessing in disguise” as it awakened them to the
transitions that stem from one unanticipated event.
importance of appreciating relationships and not relying on materialistic assets. Jason described the storm as a defining moment in
Collaboration among Institutions, Community Resources and
history, and likened it to the civil rights movement of the 1960s.
Accreditation Agencies
Others took solace in the way the storm exposed the façade of
Upon understanding the destructive magnitude of Katrina, sev-
equal treatment and opportunity in America:
eral colleges and universities opened their doors to displaced
It [Hurricane Katrina] helped people realize what’s really going
students. The haphazard nature of this process is not being cri-
on behind America’s façade—that it may look like everything
tiqued, as it was the first time institutions experienced a natural
is great and magnificent but when you get into the inner city
disaster of that level. Now that such an event has occurred and
there’s still problems that need to be addressed. There’s still
the nation is wary of recurrence, suggestions for how to best
poverty. There’s still racism that’s going on (Ryan).
cross-collaborate are sorely needed. Rather than only work with
Three implications surface from the findings of this study. On a broader level,
colleges and universities must have a willingness to work with community and
accreditation organizations to ensure seamless transitions for students regarding their
academic major and degree requirements. At a more local level, the participants’
experiences with transferring to new institutions shed light on the importance of host
institutions providing thorough orientation services for displaced students. Lastly,
we encourage future research on transition theory and the nuances of experiencing
multiple transitions that stem from one unanticipated event.
In acknowledgment of the importance of examining the impact
similar organizations, institutions must work with accreditation
of these multiple transitions (Schlossberg et al. 1995), it is clear
bodies to develop flexibility regarding curriculum equivalencies to
the African American students affected by this tragedy will not
avoid graduation delays and permanent attrition, especially when
forget the indelible imprint it left on their collegiate experience.
it comes to advanced professional degrees (Chew et al. 2005).
Simply carrying this imprint is not enough for these students,
Similarly, institutions must develop policies to communicate
as they want to use this experience to better the plight of condi-
and cooperate with one another, to ensure adequate services for
tions for blacks in urban America. They want to join the fight in
displaced students. Prevention of overcrowding and substandard
exposing the façade of colorblind belief systems and an inclusive
rooming accommodations can be addressed through sharing of
government. Hurricane Katrina sparked a contemporary civil
resources and space.
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
Colleges and universities must also work with governmental
to interact with other members of the campus community will
agencies, such as FEMA and financial aid officials, to se-
allow stories to be exchanged, as well as information sharing to
cure additional resources for displaced students. Students
occur. Higher education institutions in New Orleans were un-
expressed concern about not having adequate resources and
doubtedly changed as a result of the storm and these changes
higher education institutions must act as advocates by secur-
should be communicated immediately and efficiently. While the
ing monies to be allocated to displaced students. Developing
Internet is obviously a key tool for effective communication in
emergency preparedness plans that include collaboration with
these situations, opportunities for in-person communication
local, governmental and federal agencies can help ensure that
regarding new policies or procedures for the home institutions
students receive sufficient resources from academic and liv-
could increase efficiency.
ing accommodation standpoints. Also important to recognize
are community mental health resources (McCarthy and Butler
Critique of Schlossberg’s Transition Theory
2003). If campus counseling services are inundated, then uni-
Transition theory served as an effective framework with which to
versity officials should be aware of community health resources
ground the findings derived from this study. Particularly, the four
and services to which they can refer displaced students. This
S’s helped illuminate the nuances of students’ experiences with
is especially important, given the high levels of trauma and
the multiple transitions brought on by the storm. Additionally, the
anxiety typically experienced by displaced students (Davis et
different coping mechanisms outlined as various strategies in this
al. 2010).
theory proved salient to the interviewees’ discussions of moving
in, through and out of the various transitions. However, missing
Orientations for Displaced Students at Host from this theory are specifics regarding what entails the experience
and Home Institutions of navigating multiple transitions all stemming from one unantici-
Students reported feelings of confusion and disorientation
pated event.
when trying to navigate the new host institution. Although
some institutions did provide initial orientations for displaced
Goodman et al. (2006) readily acknowledge that multiple
students, it is clear that ongoing assistance and clarification are
stressors can exacerbate the impact of a single transition for an
needed beyond a one-time session. Orientation packets includ-
individual, but what about when multiple stressors are combined
ing lists of resources, offices and people on campus will assist
with or arise from an individual having to experience several
students in making smoother transitions to the new institution.
transitions at once? Because this is not addressed in transition
Orientation sessions should also include members of the host
theory, the authors of this article suggest future research adapt
campus communities, so they have a greater understanding of
this theory to include elements of multiple transitions. Integral
their responsibilities to share resources and the situations from
to describing multiple transitions are the accompanying stress-
which the displaced students are coming. Some participants
ors that come with these transitions, such as the racial tension
in this study experienced tensions with their new roommates
students in this study experienced during their second transition
and a lack of integration into the larger campus community.
to a new institution. This area for future research may result in
Feelings of hostility can be mitigated through formal opportuni-
an augmentation of this important theory that is so significant to
ties for the host campus community to come together with the
student affairs practice.
displaced students to make sense through dialogue about all
the changes occurring (Patton 2008).
Conclusion
While extant literature regarding critical incidents on college
Host institutions should create support groups for the displaced
campuses takes a segmented approach of either studying
students to decrease feelings of isolation and enhance connections
the university or student experiences, this article uniquely
with others experiencing similar transitions. Developing forums
looks at the convergence of both the university and student
for meaningful conversations in a safe space will ease the abrupt
as units of analyses. By focusing on the larger framework of
nature of several transitions converging simultaneously. Authentic
university preparedness and organizational response in addi-
empathy and understanding can be experienced for displaced
tion to underscoring the essence of individual African American
students if they are connected with each other.
student experiences, this research puts forth recommendations
that address concerns for both. Examining the intersection of
Lastly, students found orientations upon the return to their
student experiences with the organizational responses of col-
home institution to be helpful as well. Opportunities for students
leges and universities allows institutions to construct emergency
preparedness plans that place student needs at the forefront
of the discussion. The essence of African American college
students’ experiences with Hurricane Katrina have been highlighted through Transition Theory, showing the importance of
integrating theory into practice as student affairs professionals
are primary contacts for students in crises.
Lori D. Patton is associate professor in the
higher education and student affairs program in
the Indiana University School of Education. Her research agenda focuses on African Americans
in postsecondary contexts, critical race theory
applied to higher education, college student
development and the influence of campus
environments on student experiences.
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Students: The Making of a Documentary.”
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392-401.
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Burruss, G. W. 2010. “Critical Incident
Preparedness and Response on Postsecondary Campuses.” Journal of Criminal
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Patton, L. D. 2008. “Transforming Human
Crises into Teachable Moments to Enhance
Student Learning.” About Campus. 12(6): 2-8.
by Lonnie Booker, Jr.
Crisis Management:
Changing Times for Colleges
Crises have shocked several college and university campuses and, in the aftermath, many of these
institutions have begun to look for ways to respond effectively. In recent years, higher education has
been shocked by violence on college campuses, including campus assaults (Lewis 2007) and several
campuses, such as Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) and Northern
Illinois University, have dealt with tragedies related to student-initiated shootings or man-made
disasters. Much of higher education treats crises as rare occurrences or as anomalies and therefore
generally is not equipped or prepared to respond. Besides preventing or minimizing catastrophic
events that could have negative effects on the institution, having established crisis management
plans are integral to policy and admission (Coombs 2007). Institutions and departments develop
flexible crisis plans, administrators should understand their role during crises and departments
should strive to continuously learn to prepare for events.
Introduction
lege campuses: sexual assault, stalking, campus dating violence,
Institutions of higher education have long been viewed as sanctuar-
hate crimes, hazing, celebratory violence (riots), attempted suicides,
ies and marketplaces of ideas. In recent years, higher education
suicides, murder/suicides, manslaughter, aggravated assault, arson,
has been traumatized by violence on several college campuses,
and attack on faculty and staff. For instance, college campuses are
in which the most severe incidents have resulted in unimaginable
home to residence halls and offices (i.e., admission and financial
school shootings (Lewis 2007). Thus, it has become readily ap-
aid) and employ a large number of young adults, faculty and staff
parent and quite sobering that the potential for students bringing
whom the institution is legally and morally responsible to protect.
firearms on campus and opening fire on their fellow peers is now a
A university’s legal obligation to protect its employees, staff and
reality. Nonetheless, there is a perception held by universities (used
students suggests that campus and department administrators must
interchangeably with colleges) that crises happen only to other insti-
develop a crisis plan to address a crisis event to protect students,
tutions and even the impact of the crisis event will be small because
faculty and staff, the related community, and the institution (Zdzi-
the institution will be protected from crisis due to their size (Mitroff
arski, Rollo and Dunkel 2007). This duty of care adds a dimension
2001). Thus, this false perception may be harmful if it is shared by
to crisis planning that separates institutions of higher education
the higher education culture (Mitroff, Diamond and Alpaslan 2006;
from business and civic organizations. Crisis planning is believed to
Nicklin 2000).
reduce mortality and property damage in the event of such an occurrence. With proactive planning and preparation, institutions can
There are two types of crises that can occur at institutions of higher
substantially limit both the duration of and the damage incurred as
education: man-made and natural disasters (Lindell, Prater and
the result of major crises (Mitroff 2001).
Perry 2007). While man-made disasters are events initiated by
people, natural crises are occurrences ranging from earthquakes,
Research is limited on crisis management planning in higher educa-
tornadoes, hurricanes, and floods (Lerbinger 1997; Lindell, Prater
tion because many institutions of higher education have written their
and Perry 2007). Unlike man-made disasters, natural crises are
crisis management plans after a crisis event occurred; a reactive
often predictable. Cole, Orsuwan and Ah Sam (2007) suggest that
approach to crisis that seems to typify crisis management. This
there are 13 man-made disaster event categories applicable to col-
reactive posture is creating environments unequipped to handle
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
either man-made or natural disasters that ultimately threaten safety
be adaptable to handle various crisis events (Booker 2011). To be
on college campuses. Institutions of higher education must take
fair, institutions and administrators cannot plan for every possible
initiative to develop crisis management plans that outline steps to
disaster that can occur on a campus. Therefore, a proper risk as-
maintain a safe campus learning environment. Currently, institutions
sessment should be conducted.
of higher education are underprepared and unprepared to create
well-structured crisis management policies and procedures to ad-
Risk assessments are tools used to identify potential risk that could
dress a man made or natural crisis event on campus (Coombs 2007;
disrupt or harm the institutions, as well as the admission depart-
Mitroff, Diamond and Alpaslan 2006).
ment. In essence, risk is the probability and frequency of a hazard
occurring, including the amount of exposure to others and property
With this in mind, the purpose of this article is to offer information
that effects the department directly or indirectly (Haddow, Bullock
on how to create a flexible crisis plan for the admission department,
and Coppola 2008; Broder and Tucker 2012). The risk assessment
leadership roles and continuous learning process. Additionally, this
process is complex because of dissonant views about what consti-
article addresses the department’s leadership roles during a crisis
tutes a “hazard” among institutions and/or departments (Canton
event. Lastly, the need for continuous learning is addressed.
2007). Because many institutions focus on hazards and events that
they have been exposed to before, they neglect other possible risks.
Flexibility of Crisis Management Plans
A risk assessment, in other words, allows for a critical acknowl-
The National Response Framework (NRF) is the established set of
edgement of other possible risks, which forces the department to
guidelines that can be used to respond to a terrorist attack, disaster,
construct an all-hazard plan.
catastrophe, or emergency/crisis event on a national scale. The NRF
is comprehensive and flexible so it can be applied to all emergencies
An effective department crisis management plan should be linked
that require a response from campus personnel (internal) or from
to the institution’s overall crisis management plan. The plan should
the community (external). In essence, the NRF is a crisis manage-
address the course of action and identify who can activate the plan,
ment plan for organizations and schools to use to respond to crisis
followed by specific action steps (Zdziarski 2006). Smits and Ally
events (United States Department of Homeland Security 2008).
(2003) indicated that departments are complex systems that vary
Currently, the NRF contains five chapters that address roles and
in size, resources and technology. These variables, consequently,
responsibilities, response actions, response organization, planning,
make it impossible to create a one-size-fits-all plan for all institu-
and additional resources. In higher education settings, a crisis is
tions. Planning for a crisis event makes it possible to handle the
an unpredictable event that can critically impact a university’s per-
crisis at the beginning, during and after the event. Somers (2009)
formance and generate negative outcomes (Coombs 2007). For a
challenged the current belief that a step-by-step planning process
college, a crisis can have dramatic consequences for the institution
is required in crisis planning. He articulated that the development
and stakeholders (Coombs 2007). Consequences of the crisis can
of plans through internal processes that are geared toward a spe-
range from financial loss, property damage and tarnished reputation
cific organization is the preferred method. The plan should identify
to injury or death of stakeholders (students, faculty or staff). It is
strategies to obtain and deploy resources and equipment as needed.
important to note a majority of the literature on crisis management
To identify weaknesses in the plan, the department should conduct
pertains to primary and secondary schools rather than postsecond-
regular training and exercises. After each training session, there
ary institutions.
should be an evaluation to assess what worked and what did not
work—for example, conducting a debriefing after the training ses-
Mitroff, Diamond and Alpaslan (2006) described crisis management
sion to discuss the process of utilizing the plan and what should be
in higher education as more than just an emergency preparedness
addresses in the next training. This critical step is often overlooked
plan. In essence, crisis management plans should address a variety
or omitted (Mitroff 2001 and 2004).
of crisis events. The main purpose of a crisis management plan is to
uncover weaknesses in the current emergency system. For instance,
Leadership Roles
evacuation plans must take into account staff and who staff reports
The NRF indicates that a crisis management plan should be
to: both critical to the design of crisis management plans. Once
comprehensive, with clear assignments for leadership and should
these weaknesses are identified, there should be a key and col-
include a review and evaluation component supported by training
lective effort to remedy these weaknesses. The department should
and coordination among all departments in the institution. This
not view crisis management as a set of strategies for an anticipated
requires all participants understand the role of the leadership or
event or the reaction to an unexpected event; rather, the plan should
administration in crisis management. Therefore, crisis and leader-
ship are closely related (Bion and Hart 2003). The crisis planning
that these hazards pose, leaders or decision-makers can devise
process begins with the organizational leader’s perception of risk
appropriate response strategies. Risk assessment should be con-
and a decision to seek ways to prevent or reduce the effects of a
ducted prior to planning and the assessment should be included
crisis event (Smits and Ally 2003). If there is no commitment by
in the actual plan (Luecke and Barton 2004; Mitroff and Anagnos
leadership or top administrators, there will be no successful planning
2001). Risk assessments are methods used to evaluate risk, con-
(Kiernan 2005). Mitroff (2004) posited that crisis management is
sequences and perceived probabilities of a crisis event that would
a reactive term and crisis managers address crises in the post-crisis
impact or affect a particular organization, institution or city (Had-
phase. Crisis leadership is proactive and crisis leaders seek to iden-
dow, Bullock and Coppola 2008; Lindell, Prater and Perry 2007).
tify crises and prepare a plan for responding to various crises. There
According to Kaplan and Garrick (1981), Haimes (2004) and
is limited research on the response by leadership during a crisis
McGill, Ayyub and Kaminskiy (2007), risk analysis should answer
event, despite the critical aspect of leadership in the crisis response
six questions related to risk assessment and risk management: a)
(Devitt and Borodzicz 2008). Leadership competencies should be
the potential causes of harm b) specific consequences of concern
clearly understood and utilized in the phases of a crisis.
c) how likely are pairings of cause and consequences d) what can
be done to reduce the potential for undesirable consequences or
Examination of leadership competencies that are revealed during
increase the potential for favorable outcomes e) real options and
each phase of the crisis management process provides a framework
their tradeoffs in terms of associated benefits, cost and risk f)
for a course of action for acquiring knowledge and providing an
and the impacts of current decisions on future options. Risk is
outline for decision making (Pennings and Grossman 2008; Wooten
the combination of threat to a system’s weakness (vulnerability)
and James 2008). The first phase of this process, signal detection,
and the undesirable outcomes (consequences) stemming from the
requires leaders to sense early warning signs that indicate the pos-
interaction with the event (threat).
Examination of leadership competencies that are revealed during each phase
of the crisis management process provides a framework for a course of
action for acquiring knowledge and providing an outline for decision making
(Pennings and Grossman 2008; Wooten and James 2008). The first phase
of this process, signal detection, requires leaders to sense early warning signs
that indicate the possibility of a crisis. In the second phase, prevention and
preparation, leaders are expected to prevent or avoid the crisis, as well as
prepare for a possible crisis event.
sibility of a crisis. In the second phase, prevention and preparation,
An asset-driven analysis estimates the consequences of a man-
leaders are expected to prevent or avoid the crisis, as well as prepare
made or natural crisis event. According to Lave (2002), an asset-
for a possible crisis event. The third phase requires containment
driven approach seeks to identify vulnerable or weak points that can
of the crisis event by keeping it from spreading to other parts of
result in injury or death for students, faculty and staff, and/or the
the institution and the surrounding community. During the recovery
destruction of property. The focus of the asset-driven approach is
phase, the leaders and stakeholders employ plans designed to re-
on finding and correcting vulnerabilities, regardless of the specific
gain stable operations. In the fifth phase of crisis management, the
type of event. Threat-driven or event-driven approaches begin with a
leadership promotes learning by looking at the crisis from all angles
predetermined or known event. Event-driven approaches are appro-
(Wooten and James 2008). The leadership must evaluate the risk
priate for exploring events that are well understood and occurrences
or vulnerability of a crisis event for the organization.
that can be reliably predicted from historical data. However, such
approaches fall short in that they do not take into consideration
Risk and Vulnerability Assessment
emerging or unrecognized threats or natural events for which there
In planning for emergencies, leaders and stakeholders must make
are no documented data or information (Aven 2008; McGill et al.
decisions regarding where to allocate limited resources. By identi-
2007). An asset-driven approach brings all possible threat scenarios
fying hazards that threaten the community and evaluating the risks
to the forefront in an attempt to reduce uncertainty. The challenge
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
for any risk analysis is to construct a set of events for analysis and
the two crisis events of Hurricane Katrina and September 11, 2001.
training general enough to be studied in a short amount of time
The research problem focused on the leaders of organizations and
but specific enough to support plans for unknown events (Haddow,
how they dealt with very complex situations. Primarily, the focus on
Bullock and Coppola 2008); Lindell, Prater and Perry 2007). There
volatile environments indicated the need to have effective strategies
must be an appropriate balance between precision planning and
to avoid a crisis event and to manage the event as it was occurring.
decision support (Aven 2008).
The themes that emerged were a lack of vision for plans and a lack
of ability to solve the problem or crisis. The lack of vision indicated
Continuous Learning
that scenario planning for both crisis events went unimplemented,
Waugh and Streib (2006) indicated that collaboration is required
indicating that the possibility of an event occurring to that magni-
in dealing with hazards and disasters through crisis and emergency
tude was inconceivable.
management in an organization. However, due to lack of understanding of crisis management during and after Hurricane Katrina,
As for the lack of problem-solving skills in a crisis event in an event
organizations began to incorporate crisis management. Most insti-
such as Hurricane Katrina, Moats et al. (2008) showed that leader-
tutions have followed this pattern by making crisis management a
ship in decision-making action was not occurring during the event.
major part of their operations through training (Waugh and Streib
In essence, the leaders in New Orleans could not react and make
2006). However, many institutions do not recognize the need for
a decision because they did not know when or how to make one.
crisis management and are gradually accepting the concepts. At the
The study indicated that both scenario planning and SBT are good
root there has to be a leadership and subordinate strategy change
systems to incorporate to address shortages in the organization’s
for new strategies to combat hazards to be effective. All institu-
crisis management plans. After the storm, the city learned from the
tions should be self-sufficient, as much as possible, due to the time
crisis event and prepared for the next crisis event.
lapse before outside help arrives. To have useful and effective plans,
organizations must learn through a continuous learning process.
Moynihan (2009) suggested that much of crisis learning focuses
Therefore, the learning process would use the concepts of organiza-
on the intercrisis, defined as learning from one crisis to prepare for
tional learning (OL) and organizational development (OD) practices.
another. He posited that OL takes place at this time. Specifically,
learning occurs when there is a gap between what the organization
Organizational Learning
expected and the outcomes; these gaps are identified and corrected
Organization Learning (OL) is not unique to learning organizations;
(Argyris and Schon 1996).
learning occurs in every organization (Easterby-Smith, Crossanand
Nicolini 2000). According to Levitt and March (1988), OL is learn-
Organizational Development
ing that can have some form of influence that originates from history
According to Werner and DeSimone (2009), Organizational Devel-
and can affect the current routines of the organization and guide its
opment (OD) is a process used to enhance the effectiveness of an
behavior. Huber (1991) claimed that OL consists of four constructs:
organization and the well-being of its members through planned
knowledge acquisition, information distribution, information inter-
interventions. For OD to be effective in the organization there must be
pretation, and organizational memory. Knowledge acquisition is the
some form of transformation or change. OD is geared for long-term
course of action in which knowledge is obtained. Informational distri-
learning and benefits for the organization. OD broadens the perspec-
bution is critical because departments in an institution may develop
tive of the organization by envisioning the entire organization as a
new information that could help the entire organization. Organizations
learning organism and analyzing the performance and development
must be able to interpret the received information. The interpretation
of the organization (Wright 2009). OD has deep roots in psychology,
depends on the organization’s departments. Huber (1991) indicated
so there was a move from the product to the people who work within
that there should be a common interpretation from all departments.
the organization. This new focus included issues such as the environ-
The cause of inaccurate and nonlearning situations could be lack of
ment in which the people work, how to encourage creative knowledge
organizational memory (Starbuck and Milliken 1988). Organizations
and the subgroups in the organization working together to maintain a
must learn by continuously deploying these constructs over a period
stable and functioning organization (Burke 1994).
of time. When members of an organization are involved in the four
constructs, their learning reaches the organizational level.
Early OD efforts primarily focused on the individual employee’s
interactions within the organization or department and not the en-
Moats, Chermack and Dooley (2008), for instance, applied two
tire organization (Senge 1990). As a result, smaller organizations
concepts of scenario planning and scenario-based training (SBT) to
began to look for help to solve their development issues and larger
organizations sometimes created internal departments to address OD
Second, stakeholders, students, faculty, staff, and administration
problems. As organizations started to focus on human issues, they
should work toward a common goal, which would be the protection of
also recognized the need to relate those issues to business functions
everyone on and around the campus. Third, leaders must support the
(Bradford and Burke 2005), recognizing that if their development
change by motivating participants and moving the bar to a higher level.
includes the complete organization, there will be a smoother transition from learning to development. This shift is critical as it relates to
The third step is refreezing. Lewin (1947) posited that this step
institutions of higher education and crisis management because not
should be done only after changes have been implemented to en-
everyone knows or understands crisis management. Despite organiza-
sure the changes will stay in place over a period of time. Refreezing
tions’ recognition of the effects of crisis events on their organization,
should stabilize the new changes by reinforcing them through the
many are not prepared to manage a crisis.
new policies and procedures (Robbins 2003).
Wang (2008) connected crisis management, OL and organizational
Organizations may experience some anxieties that stem from the
change to strengthen the ability of organizations to address a crisis
changes. Thus, these changes will require the organization to learn
and the way it changes the organization. Wang posited that, be-
new procedures. As a result of these new procedures, the organiza-
cause OL and crisis management are basically linked, learning is
tion could suffer possible momentary ineffectiveness and confusion.
taking place before a crisis, during a crisis and after a crisis. To be
In essence, this fear and resistance to change (Schein 1985) is a
equipped to handle the many types of crisis, an organization should
part of the learning process. Thus, the level of fear associated with
evaluate the OL process and look at what was learned. Moreover,
the learning process must be lower than the level of confidence
there should be an understanding by the organization that continu-
required for true change to occur. In the case of crisis management
ous learning requires behavioral change.
in higher education, there is no magical formula or plan that will
In the case of crisis management in higher education, there is no magical formula
or plan that will address all crisis events… Yet, proactive crisis management plans
must become the norm for universities because man-made and/or natural-made
disasters are becoming increasingly frequent at institutions of higher education.
Behavioral Change
address all crisis events. Some institutions could suffer hardships
Schein (1985) cited Lewin’s three-step behavior change model of
when implementing crisis management plans. Yet, proactive crisis
unfreezing, movement and refreezing. Unfreezing requires changing
management plans must become the norm for universities because
of the behavior of the existing ideology. An example of unfreezing
man-made and/or natural-made disasters are becoming increasingly
could be the thought that administrators and/or stakeholders believe
frequent at institutions of higher education.
they would not experience a crisis event on their campus. The process of changing behavior involves three steps: a) to motivate the
Recommendation and Conclusion
organization to prepare for the change b) to build trust and recognize
The following recommendations, bases on the findings of a study,
that the change is good for the organization and c) to build trust
are offered to address the need of college stakeholders including
among decision-makers and administrators who actively participate
admission department.
with the organization. In the unfreezing step, if an organization’s
beliefs do not change, the organization may fail (Robbins 2003).
Have a Plan
The comprehensive crisis management should include management
The second step, movement, requires the organization/institution
plans for the admission department. These plans should address the
to move to a new level of stability. Educational institutions are just
academic needs of all students. One issue that should be addressed
as vulnerable to a crisis event as corporate America. Thus a crisis
is the protection of students' private information. Currently, admis-
management plan should address all hazards as critical. Lewin
sion departments house current and future student information on
(1947) provided three steps to meet this process need. He indi-
computer servers. These servers can be affected by loss of electricity
cated that administrators and decision-makers should first persuade
and someone hacking into the schools system. Moreover, a person
students, faculty and staff that the plan is beneficial to them.
could enter the system and possibly change grades of students.
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
After the institution has experienced a major crisis event on campus,
The first step in crisis management planning is for the stakehold-
many of the departments may have issues with securing student infor-
ers of the institution to agree on what constitutes a crisis for their
mation. In order to secure the information institutions should consider
institution, man-made or natural; leadership has a strong influence
modifying how and where the information is stored. A committee
and understands their role during and response to a crisis.
should discuss what the crisis management plan should look like from
an admission perspective. An example of this could be to house sensi-
Institutional as well as departmental leadership plays a critical role
tive information at an offsite secured server. The information that is
in how learning is transferred to crisis management plans and how
stored on this server should be backed up from the campus storage on
the department responds to a crisis event. It is through learned
regular bases. However, who is responsible for the back of the system
experiences from previous institutional responses to crises that
and how often the system is backed up and sent to the offsite server
leadership learns for the next crisis event. Data analysis revealed
should be explained in the departments plan.
leadership is critical to crisis management planning and response,
specifically leadership roles and responsibilities (Booker 2011).
Crisis Leadership Training
Each person in a position of leadership must understand his or
Crisis leadership training would provide top administrators the
her specific role and responsibilities during a crisis event. Many
knowledge and skills necessary to make decisions in times of crisis.
leaders understand their current roles in normal circumstances
This training could facilitate discussion on improving and imple-
but have limited knowledge of their roles and responsibilities dur-
menting a department crisis management plan. Most important,
ing a crisis.
the administrators could gain valuable information about their role
and responsibilities during a crisis event. Leadership competencies
The results of this study clearly show learning is continuous; it does
should be clearly articulated and utilized throughout the phases of a
not begin or end in relation to a crisis event. Learning occurs in
crisis. The training could allow other administrators to learn through
planning, training and execution of the response to a crisis event.
experiential learning from other administrators who have experienced
Both the plan and the leaders who execute it should be flexible to
crisis events on campus. As one study participant shared, “I’ve had
adjust to particular challenges in a crisis.
my experience in the trenches with some smaller type of crisis”
(Booker 2011). The experiences discussed and subsequently utilized
The institutional response to a crisis event is just as important as
by other administrators would help to develop campus leadership.
the crisis management plan. Given that many institutions have not
When administrators and leaders support crisis management, deci-
experienced various crisis events, a carefully developed plan will
sions are faster, safer and more effective (Caywood 1997).
allow the institution and administrators to operate within a set of
parameters, providing a swift and precise response to the crisis.
Regular Staff Training
Time has supplied experienced administrators with knowledge of
Training staff in crisis management on a regular basis would allow
how to address a crisis event, but emerging institutional leaders
for a swifter and more precise responses by the department. The
are not being systematically trained in campus crisis management.
department’s staff is critical in the response to a crisis because
Higher education institutions should take advantage of the experi-
many of them will be on the scene or in proximity. Training this group
ence of current leaders and insist on increased crisis management
on how to handle the beginning of a crisis event could mitigate dam-
training for new leaders. Experience may be a good teacher, but
ages to property and injuries to people. The staff could report the
it is important that new leaders are prepared through training and
event and provide critical information need to aid in the response.
education to meet their first crisis event on campus.
The importance of the initial response to a crisis is the basis for
training staff to handle crisis events. Training should be mandatory
and conducted annually, either online or face-to-face. Providing
online training would require fewer financial resources in a more
accessible fashion to all staff. Face-to-face training, while useful,
would be more labor intensive because it would require a training
facilitator; potential scheduling issues could arise.
Conclusion
Dr. Lonnie Booker received his PhD from Texas A&M
University–College Station in higher education administration
and a certification in homeland security from the Bush School
of Public Policy. His research and scholarly interests include
campus safety and institutional crisis management planning.
He has amassed more than 13 years of law enforcement
experience currently. He is the director/assistant professor of
emergency management for Kansas Wesleyan University.
The purpose of this article is to discuss how colleges and universities
admission should construct and have a plan for crisis management.
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by Jason Klugman
Creating a Community
of Scholars on the
Edge of Disaster
•
The electricity has been off for two months.
•
We’re out of food this week.
•
The roof is leaking, and we don’t have the money for repairs.
•
My father died in prison last week; he contracted TB a few months ago.
•
I’m pregnant.
•
One of our football teammates was shot over the weekend.
•
I haven’t had a Spanish teacher all year.
•
We’re on our fourth substitute in chemistry.
•
My mother lost her job.
•
The laptop that you gave me was stolen.
•
We were in lockdown yesterday and couldn’t make it to SAT prep.
—Events reported by Princeton University Preparatory Program Scholars, 2008–2013
It is a wonder that our students are able go to school, let alone gain
Trenton, our state’s capital, is just 12 short miles away, yet is a
admission to college and earn degrees.
world apart. Amid the concentration of state office buildings and
a shiny new courthouse are crumbling reminders of its industrial
For the past 13 years, Princeton University (NJ) has been involved
heyday, neighborhoods deep in abject poverty and a desperately
in a unique effort to identify and prepare outstanding high school
under-funded school system with a high school that performs
students from low-income families for selective college success. The
among the 20 worst in the state on the 11th grade state exams.
Princeton University Preparatory Program (PUPP) began in reaction to the broken pipeline for low-income, high-achieving students
Each spring, we work with our school partners to identify the
to elite colleges and universities. PUPP launched with the best
best and brightest students from demographic groups that are
of intentions and the brightest idea—financial aid alone was not
traditionally underrepresented in our nation’s elite colleges and
enough to ensure collegiate success for these students. Instead, an
universities. Many are the first in their families to aspire to attain
investment in educational preparation and cultural capital is needed
college degrees and their success on state exams and in the
to open doors and create a pathway for high potential, low-income
classroom in ninth grade puts them in a category all their own.
students to be successful in college and beyond. This investment
The application process is like a mini college admission process,
must be carefully crafted to meet the broad needs of students in
with short answer questions, a writing sample (applicants spend
low-income communities—students who often face challenges that
up to two hours to write two original essays) and small group
can verge on the disastrous at any moment. To think strategically,
interviews. For many of these students, it is the first time they
and act intentionally, we consider disasters in a range of categories
have been gathered and recognized for being among the highest
that are often fluid, co-existing and cumulative. In this article, I
achieving in their peer group.
share some experiences with disasters and ways in which we work
to help our scholars achieve their best future.
Our partner schools offer vastly different educational opportunities for
our scholars and we work to create a community of scholars bound
Princeton partners with six local high schools that span from the
together by their shared vision of collegiate opportunity and future
well-healed environs of our local college town to Trenton, NJ.
success. The scholars also have many other characteristics in com-
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
mon: most are eligible for free or reduced lunch; most live in rented
AP exam, breaking up with a first boyfriend or girlfriend, or even
apartments or multi-generational homes; and more than half speak
getting a rejection letter from a top-choice school, do not figure
a second language with their parents. Together, they work to deftly
into our equations. We think about disasters the way the National
negotiate the strains of adolescent lives lived, to borrow a phrase from
Weather Service categorizes hurricanes via the Saffir-Simpson
Mike Rose (author of Lives on the Boundary) on the boundaries—of
Hurricane Wind Scale or tornadoes using the Fujita-Pearson
success and failure, sickness and health, life and death.
scale. The larger the number, the higher the intensity and potential for damage.
After we select a cohort of scholars (typically a total of 24 ninth
graders from our partner schools), we begin with a mandatory
As we know, sometimes storms lose strength as they travel through
orientation session which includes a presentation about the goals
land, but their intensity can vary based on how quickly they move
and expectations of PUPP, our “Priority Skills” and our “Dress
up or down the coast—creating new kinds of ratings—like Super
Code.” We end the first night of orientation with the signing of
Storm Sandy, which lost the wind power of a Category 1 hurricane,
a contract—between the scholar, a parent or guardian and me,
yet did more damage to the Jersey Shore than previous Category
in my role as director. We often refer to the contract when we
1 storms. We compare this to the lasting aftermath of any num-
talk with our scholars about their academic performance and our
ber of small disasters that impact our scholars’ daily lives. And,
shared expectations. But we also think of it as our shared commit-
understanding the collective force of any combination of disasters
ment ,not just to their academic preparation, but to their health
is critical for educators who work to develop students whose
and well-being, and, by extension, to the health and well-being of
problem-solving skills take them far beyond end-of-course, high
members of their families.
stakes exams.
We end the first night of orientation with the signing of a contract—between the
scholar, a parent or guardian and me, in my role as director. We often refer to the
contract when we talk with our scholars about their academic performance and our
shared expectations. But we also think of it as our shared commitment, not just to
their academic preparation, but to their health and well-being, and, by extension, to
the health and well-being of members of their families.
Our experiences with PUPP scholars and their families, schools
Categorization helps us prepare for the real-time events that shape
and communities have greatly informed our professional knowl-
the lives of our scholars. Like the way the Federal Emergency
edge about what it really takes to bridge the enormous gap that
Management Agency (FEMA) prepares for a storm or an insurance
separates talented, low-income students from elite college success.
company braces for the financial impact of a natural disaster, we
To achieve our goals, PUPP offers rigorous academic preparation,
use our knowledge of what can go wrong and how to best organize
including the six-week summer institutes our scholars participate
ourselves to meet the challenge of serving our scholars as they
in for three years, our after-school academic sessions and our
prepare for college and live their lives.
weekend cultural enrichment events. We also take care to provide
personalized college admission and financial aid guidance and
We rarely use the term “disaster” with our scholars, but help
support to scholars and their families. We think of it as a “high
them work through difficult times, sometimes from crisis to crisis,
touch” model deliberately designed to engage in our scholars’ lives
while also maintaining our ethic of care and a level of consistency
to buttress their goals and ambitions for future educational and
and normalcy for our scholars. When students are admitted into
professional success.
PUPP, we offer them and their families our general expertise with
anything they need. Sometimes, families are timid or too proud
Still, the various programmatic aspects of PUPP are not enough
to ask for help and many just do not expect the help to be avail-
for some of our scholars in the most delicate situations. When we
able. Others take us up on the offer right away—everything from
think about so-called disasters of adolescence and high school,
negotiating a payment plan with the local energy company to
things like earning a “C” on a report card, earning a “2” on an
shopping for groceries and home essentials to providing attorney-
supported guidance through the new “deferred action” program for
undocumented students (and other family members). Some of our
Personal/Family Disaster 1.0:
Parent/guardian laid off from
unskilled factory work or seasonal
construction position.
Parent’s car breaks down the morning
of an important test/interview/ regular
day of school causing student to miss
test/interview/school/work.
The electricity was turned off due
to overdue bills caused by lay
-offs at parent's job, or family
is in food emergency due to the
same set of circumstances.
Family is evicted from home.
Scholar is kicked out of her home after
father learns that she is pregnant.
Death of a parent/guardian or sibling
may place scholar “in danger of
homelessness.”
daily work has nothing directly to do with the college preparation
mission that guided the founding of our program. But, over time,
we have recognized that to do college preparation correctly, we
cannot ignore the lived experiences, challenges, hurdles, crises,
and disasters that our scholars and their families face.
Charting our own disasters looks something like this:
Academic Disaster .25:
Academic Disaster .5:
Academic Disaster 1.0:
Facility Disaster 1.0:
Facility Disaster 2.0:
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
Scholar does not have an official photo
ID because a: the family is moving
(again) and items are boxed up; B: the
school has not issued new IDs this year;
or C: the family does not have enough
documentation to cover the required
points for a state-issued ID; or D: all of
the above; and cannot take the ACT/SAT
when scheduled.
AP Biology classroom is moved to a
“non-lab” classroom due to building
re-organization limiting all access to
actual, inquiry-based science labs (and,
as a result, AP English courses are now
taught in science classrooms).
Scheduling of honors classes for
10th graders is uncoordinated in new
rotating block schedule and students
are restricted to taking two of four
possible honors classes.
AP course is canceled due to low
enrollment (having resulted from
restrictions on access to honors
courses the year prior).
but we hope there will be an opportunity somewhere down the
Math/science/Spanish teacher goes
on permanent disability (or never
shows up) leaving scholar without
a trigonometry/chemistry/Spanish II
teacher—and no substitute is hired.
Scholar has an undiagnosed learning
difference and cannot gain access to
appropriate testing and services.
Library computers are unavailable
because of district-wide virus that goes
unattended to for weeks.
Library computers are unavailable due
to budget cuts that limit the hours of
the media center staff.
Recent rains (and under-maintained
roof) cause leaking and roof/ceiling
damage in the library limiting access
to facilities and create inaccessible
stairways and classrooms begin to
grow mold.
Entire wings of buildings are closed off
due to unsafe conditions.
Academic disasters happen all the time. Tests are failed, teachers are absent for days (or weeks or months) and calculators are
stolen—yet our resilient cohorts work through the challenges. They
may miss out on a key set of concepts in physics or trigonometry,
line for them to make it up. The native Spanish speakers are typically able to coast through two years of Spanish with or without a
teacher, and we provide extra tutoring to prepare them to take (and
pass) the AP Spanish test. In many cases, we arrange for focused,
individualized tutoring. In others, scholars seize opportunities to
take or re-take a course online or at the local community college.
A few of our partner schools work collaboratively with other local
universities to offer dual enrollment programs for high-achieving
students who “max out” on the offerings at their home school.
Category 2 Academic Disasters occur less frequently: final grades
do not meet expectations; parents get divorced; relationships end;
principals are re-assigned; budgets are cut; and counselors are let
go. The merry-go-round of school reforms in our partner schools
shifts teachers and administrators from classroom to classroom,
building to building, from block scheduling to rotating schedules
to mandatory test preparation and more. Through it all, the PUPP
team works to manage anxiety, advocate for extra credit or help to
make new arrangements for mail, transportation and completion
of financial aid forms.
We work through these challenges with fortitude and knowing
glances. We have the numbers for local social service organizations at the ready. We have cell phone numbers for teachers and
vice principals and our deep relationships with our school partners
allows us extraordinary access to our scholars in school—to help
answer. He did, however, have four younger siblings living in the
change their class schedules, to send out transcripts, or to provide
house and they were starting to worry that, with winter coming,
that replacement calculator.
they weren’t going to have electricity.
After that, things get a little tricky.
This news set into motion what I like to call our “Emergency
Response Plan.” The PUPP counselor and I began to mobilize
Family Disasters: A Sampling
our resources to work with Samir’s mother and his family. We
When parents split up or families feud, students often bear the
purchased battery-operated “touch lights” and lanterns for the
brunt of picking up the pieces. A home destroyed in a fire is
house and some blankets, while opening negotiations with the
not the end of the world, but the loss of property and the sta-
local energy company and connecting Samir’s family with local
bility a home represents can be especially devastating to high
service organizations that provide emergency support for utility
school students. Family illness, job loss (or benefit reduction) or
bills. At the same time, Samir began a new college essay, one that
the threat of deportation can all be destabilizing factors in our
explained how the lack of power in his home in Trenton was noth-
scholars’ lives. The more academically talented and engaged our
ing compared to his escape from the Sudan and his experiences
scholars are, the more likely there will be an expectation that
in a refugee camp. Now a junior at a top-ranked small liberal arts
they will work to solve the problem—everything from providing
college, Samir had an experience we often think of as we work to
child care for younger siblings, to accompanying parents to doc-
manage crises as they emerge; he inspires our current scholars to
tor appointments, to filing paperwork for benefits, or getting a
develop their natural resilience and grit. We also know where to get
part-time job to help contribute to the family bank account. The
the best deals on “touch lights” and which camping lanterns offer
stories of these young people growing up “too fast” are plentiful
the best light for studying.
and not unique to our work.
I’m pregnant:
The lights are out:
The latest reports on childbirth in the US, from the National
Every fall, when our partner schools are closed for a holiday or profes-
Center for Health Statistics, show that teenage pregnancy has
sional development session, we host mandatory college admission
been on the decline for more than a decade. Alas, over the past
workshops for our senior class. Often, we provide a school bus to pick
dozen years, the PUPP community has had its fair share of teen
up scholars at their local schools and bring them to the university
mothers. Those who become pregnant in high school enter an
where we can work in a computer lab to edit and revise essays, com-
extremely precarious zone for which the pathway to high school
plete applications and consider the range of opportunities. One such
and college completion becomes increasingly more treacherous.
morning, in the fall of 2010, found me stopping at the home of one of
Fortunately, most of our young mothers continue to make their
our scholars who had missed the bus. We have a not-so-sophisticated
way through high school graduation and into college, with a few
method of calling and texting and updating each other when scholars
earning degrees within six years.
aren’t where they are supposed to be, so, as I drove through Trenton,
I got word that Samir had missed the bus.
In the summer of 2011, we found out from one of our rising juniors, Cassandra, not only was she pregnant, but her father had
A colleague found Samir’s address for me and gave me general
kicked her out of her home and she was now staying with her
directions to his home in Trenton. I pulled up at his house, knocked
half-sister in the next town over. Again, we went into Emergency
on the door and waited for him to answer. When he did, he said that
Response mode. We made sure that her older sister was going
his alarm didn’t go off and he was grateful that I was there to take
to be able to provide the support she needed—a safe and stable
him to the college admission workshop. He asked if I could wait a
home for her junior and senior year. We worked carefully to make
few minutes while he got his stuff together. As I stood on his porch,
sure Cassandra could remain in her high school and not inter-
I noticed that the lights were out throughout the house and, as Samir
rupt her academic progress. We continued almost “business as
left, he blew out a candle that had been burning in the living room.
usual” with her—and we celebrated her ability to remain focused
throughout the remainder of that summer institute and into her
On our drive to Princeton, I asked Samir about the lights. Non-
junior year of high school.
chalantly, he informed me that the power had been turned off for
over a month, since his mother lost her night job. I asked what the
Cassandra displayed a tremendous amount of grit and determina-
family was doing about it, and he demurred. He did not have an
tion during her last two years of high school. Working in concert
with her child’s father (and his family) and her older sister, she
university surplus and helped with the clothing and home goods
was able to care for her child, maintain her grades, and receive
drive for him and his family. But, his junior year, another Category
necessary food and supplies and childcare. Upon completion of
5 befell his family. His father, who was serving time in a local state
her final PUPP Summer Institute in 2012, she began working at
correctional facility, contracted tuberculosis while incarcerated. In
a local grocery store to further provide for herself and her child.
short order, he passed away while behind bars. Before he went to
prison, he had shown this scholar where he kept the firearm in the
After Cassandra committed to a local state university, we worked
house—and told him that it was his job to protect the family now.
with her to make sure all of her paperwork was submitted, verified
and approved. We wrote third-party letters to support her request
Another scholar, Stephanie, a current first-year student at another
for independent status and had numerous conversations with her
top-ranked small liberal college, began her application essay for
school’s financial aid office and with the state. When her first
PUPP with a vivid description of a house-full of chaos and com-
semester of college began, we helped purchase books for her to
motion—governed by the alcoholism that impacted her mother
bridge the gap in funding caused by administrative delays. We
and grandmother. As a ninth grader, she was in foster care and
still hear from Cassandra regularly, as she works through getting
later, during her sophomore year, she was adopted by her foster
independent status from the state—a separate process than the
mother. By the time senior year rolled around, her foster mother
federal government or local university. And we will continue to
got married and moved her family out of state and the scholar,
support her as she becomes increasingly independent, moving
not wanting to leave her school community, went back to live with
into a state-supported apartment with her child this winter and
her grandmother. Sometimes we need a flow chart to follow the
continuing on her pathway to a college degree.
individual stories. Through it all, Stephanie maintained her place
The latest reports on childbirth in the US, from the National Center for Health
Statistics, show that teenage pregnancy has been on the decline for more than
a decade. Alas, over the past dozen years, the PUPP community has included
our fair share of teen mothers. Those who become pregnant in high school enter
an extremely precarious zone for which the pathway to high school and college
completion becomes increasingly more treacherous.
[We do this kind of direct alumni support for other scholars as
among the top students in our program—perhaps one of the top
well—those who did not quite understand that although their
scholars we have worked with since our inception in 2001.
financial aid at their elite college was covering tuition, room and
board had to be earned through work-study funds. Many start
Before leaving for college, Stephanie hosted an intervention at her
college with barely enough to buy sheets and a blanket. So we
grandmother’s home to try to make some lasting change in their
loan them laptops, or help them purchase new ones. We have
lives. The results were short-lived, however. A few months into
purchased airplane tickets and even taken a few of our scholars to
her first year of college (where she is on full financial aid), her
move in to their campuses for orientation. We use alumni support
birth mother passed away. Once again, Stephanie was called upon
funds to buy the first round of college textbooks. Thank goodness
to manage the proceedings. For her first Thanksgiving in college,
for Amazon Prime!]
she stayed on campus—organizing a potluck with international
students on her floor. We have not yet heard what the plans will be
Multiple disasters:
for winter break, but our work with Stephanie—and with all of our
As teachers and counselors, all of us have had the grim duty to
scholars—does not end with their acceptance to college. It cannot
support our students through disasters—fires, joblessness, the
end there. We are contractually bound to continue.
death of a close family member—a parent, grandparent, guardian,
etc. One scholar managed his way through two of these upper
Community Disasters:
category disasters in high school. The first, a home fire that sent
Super Storm Sandy
his mother and three siblings to live with his grandmother, was
In the fall of 2012, just over a week before our fall college tour,
challenging, for sure. We gave him a replacement laptop from the
wide swaths of Central and Coastal New Jersey were devastated
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
by Hurricane Sandy. Homes were lost, roads were flooded and
and permission slips, and, where needed, granola bars, juice boxes,
communities in our area (Mercer County, NJ) were typically without
fruit, and water. Thankfully, the trip went off without any issues.
power and access to fuel for periods of time ranging from 24 hours
to two weeks. At Princeton, the university’s back-up generators and
Closing Thoughts
reserve fuel allowed the university to remain partially open to serve
The PUPP College Tour is a hallmark of our program. PUPP Scholars
students who stayed on campus during our fall break (the timing, as
visit upwards of 30 campuses over their three years in our program.
far as super storms go, could not have been better for the university
With generous support from a corporate sponsor, the scholars on the
as most of the students were off campus during break). So, the
tour get their “PUPP hoodie” and after the tour, you are guaranteed
university opened its doors, electrical outlets and dining halls to
to see it worn with pride over the course of the winter and into
local EMS staff and volunteers. Meanwhile, we were scheduled to
spring. For some, the trip is the first time they stay overnight in a
host our mandatory orientation meetings for our annual overnight
hotel room. For all, the opportunity to visit the hallowed grounds
college tour—one in Princeton and one at Trenton Central High
of institutions like Johns Hopkins University (MD), Georgetown
School. Unfortunately, Trenton was one of the communities hit hard
University (DC), Brown University (RI), Wesleyan University (CT),
by power outages following the storm; the high school—and many
and Mount Holyoke College (MA) allow them to envision an entirely
of the homes of our scholars—were without power for more than a
new and different future for themselves. On tour, we meet up with
week. As power was haphazardly restored in the county, classmates
our alumni to check in with them about their experiences—and they
and extended family members began checking in on each other.
share their stories of awkward cross-cultural moments and eye-
Homes that had power became emergency shelter for those without,
opening observations with a rapt audience of their younger selves.
and many were forced to take a week or more off work.
We host a study hall one evening for scholars to stay on top their
When we prepare to meet a new cohort of PUPP Scholars, to take
them through our orientation process, we do a field-survey of sorts.
We take a look at their family structure and do a computer survey
to understand the resources they have at home. We examine their
academic record and note any idiosyncrasies that might exist.
Since the university was officially closed for a week, all non-
school work, and we meet with admission officers who ultimately
essential employees were instructed to stay home. Each passing
will hold a piece of the key to each of their futures.
day, the PUPP team connected with each other and with our
scholars to make sure everyone was safe, warm and had food to
When we prepare to meet a new cohort of PUPP Scholars, to take
eat. We postponed our orientation program and rescheduled for
them through our orientation process, we do a field-survey of sorts.
one night in Princeton. Most of our seniors and juniors were able
We take a look at their family structure and do a computer survey
to connect with us and each other to make it to campus for the
to understand the resources they have at home. We examine their
meeting. We stocked up on extra food supplies and told students
academic record and note any idiosyncrasies that might exist. Did
to bring any electronics that they needed to charge—and to bring
they come to orientation with multiple family members? Are they
family members.
currently living in a multi-generational home? Perhaps there’s a
grandparent who is actually “in charge.” Or, is their Spanish teacher
Most of the scholars who were set to go on the college tour were
actually a long-term substitute? Once we lay this groundwork, we
able to come to the meeting with parents, neighbors or other schol-
keep our attention focused not just on their academic development
ars. We reviewed the expectations of the trip, our plan for separate
or the expansion of their knowledge of the world around them, but
hotels for boys and girls (a lesson for another reflection), and we
we observe how they participate with their peers, how they relate
distributed the itinerary and the beloved PUPP hooded sweatshirts.
to our faculty and engage with our summer undergraduate teach-
After the meeting, we encouraged families to take home whatever
ing assistants and our school year graduate teaching fellows. We
they needed. The scholars that could not make it were visited in
obtain their progress reports and report cards. We manage their
person by members of the PUPP staff who brought the paperwork
test preparation. We communicate with their teachers and parents
and collaboratively address issues that emerge. We want to ensure
Note: I am grateful to the PUPP scholars who allow me into their
that we are ready for any unforeseen hurdles.
lives and agreed to share their stories and to QuinnShuana FelderSnipes, PUPP Counselor, and my colleague Kathleen Nolan for
We know for some of our scholars, those who face the most
treacherous Category 4 and 5 disasters, it could actually be the
lower-order disasters that send them into a tailspin. A scholar feeling the pain and heartache of a death in the family or the loss of a
family home could bounce back with amazing resilience, but when
they face a bad grade or a hiccup in their schedule or when their
mother’s car will not start on the morning of the SAT, sometimes
those are the most important spaces for our intervention.
Knowing how our scholars respond to crises within the framework
their critical feedback on this essay.
Notes:
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php
Fujita-Pearson Tornado Intensity Scale
http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/storms/fujita.html
Pregnancy Rates for U.S. Women Continue to Drop
by Sally C. Curtin, M.A., Joyce C. Abma, Ph.D., and Stephanie J. Ventura, M.A., National Center
for Health Statistics; and Stanley K. Henshaw, Ph.D., Guttmacher Institute
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db136.pdf
Rose, Mike. (1989). Lives on the Boundary. New York: Free Press.
of our categories allows us to anticipate how they might face the
next challenge. The categories are a tool that helps us think systematically about a scholar’s life experiences, struggles and levels
of grit. Indeed, all of this information adds to our ability to effectively guide our scholars (and sometimes their peers and siblings)
through the college admission process. If we can understand their
responses to lived experiences as low-income high-achieving high
school students, we are better positioned to offer sound and strategic advice through the creation of a college list and application
Jason Klugman is the director of the Princeton
University Preparatory Program (PUPP) and a
lecturer and program associate with Princeton’s
Program in Teacher Preparation. He earned his
doctorate in Education, Culture and Society from the
University of Pennsylvania. He has broad expertise
in urban education, college access and success,
and teacher preparation.
essay, and in the preparation of financial aid materials. Ultimately,
this attentiveness affords our scholar the space to make decisions
informed by our knowledge of their journey and the collective wisdom revealed by the experiences of the PUPP community.
All of the recent attention on “college readiness” and “college
for all” is encouraging, focusing our national awareness on the
low levels of college attainment for disadvantaged students. But
catchy slogans and extra test preparation are not nearly enough to
meet the full range of needs of students whose daily experience
is often characterized by the symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder. A college tour can serve as both an encouraging journey
to possible futures and a depressing trip to places that will never
be fully explored. When school reform measures double down on
remediation, restrict access to advanced courses, or disregard the
impact of poverty and social isolation on students, no amount of
cheerleading will help bridge the college knowledge (to college attainment) gap. We need efforts that engage in nurturing the whole
child. We need to have serious sets of expectations that match
the opportunities provided. We need to stop engaging in polarizing
debates about excuse-making and test scores and realize that our
nation’s future success rests in our ability to provide opportunities
for each child to meet his or her full potential. In order to better meet their needs, we need to create comprehensive support
networks that, rather than leaving no child “untested,” would truly
find ways to leave no child behind.
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
Student
Search Service®
Enrollment
Planning Service™
Segment
Analysis Service™
Transformed
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for Today’s
Enrollment
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– Strategically locate students
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students who will succeed and persist at your institution.
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best suited for them, Search helps find students, focus
recruitment and improve marketing ROI.
Learn how you can use College Board Search at:
collegeboard.org/collegeboardsearch
© 2013 The College Board.
13b-8183
Spring 2014
new Fair !
City
PITTSBURGH
Date(s)
Thursday, February 6
Friday, February 7
VENUE
NACAC welcom
es Columbus in
to
the Spring 2014
schedule.
David L. Lawrence Convention Center, Pittsburgh, PA
DoubleTree by Hilton Miami Airport Convention Center,
Miami, FL
Irving Convention Center at Las Colinas, Irving, TX
Austin Convention Center, Austin, TX
Reliant Center, Houston, TX
MIAMI
Sunday, February 9
DALLAS/FT. WORTH
AUSTIN
HOUSTON
Monday, February 10
Tuesday, February 11
Thursday, February 13
Tuesday, February 18
Agricenter International, Memphis, TN
Wednesday, February 19
GREATER MEMPHIS
TAMPA
Sunday, February 23
Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, FL
LOUISVILLE
Sunday, March 2
Kentucky International Convention Center, Louisville, KY
CHARLOTTE
Sunday, March 9
The Park Expo and Conference Center, Charlotte, NC
GREATER RALEIGH
Tuesday, March 11
Raleigh Convention Center, Raleigh, NC
ATLANTA
Sunday, March 16
Georgia World Congress Center, Atlanta, GA
ROCHESTER
Sunday, March 16
Monday, March 17
Rochester Riverside Convention Center, Rochester, NY
SYRACUSE
Tuesday, March 18
SRC Arena, Onondaga Community College, Syracuse, NY
SPRINGFIELD
METRO DETROIT
Sunday, March 30
Monday, March 31
Monday, March 31
Tuesday, April 1
Eastern States Exposition (The Big E), West Springfield, MA
Suburban Collection Showplace, Novi, MI (NEW LOCATION)
WEST MICHIGAN
Wednesday, April 2
DeVos Place Grand Rapids, MI
HARTFORD
Thursday, April 3
Friday, April 4
Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, CT
COLUMBUS
Saturday, April 5
Greater Columbus Convention Center, Columbus, OH
(NEW FAIR)
CLEVELAND
Sunday, April 6
Wolstein Center, Cleveland, OH
NEW YORK
Sunday, April 6
Jacob K. Javits Convention Center of New York,
New York, NY
BUFFALO
MONTGOMERY CO.
Tuesday, April 8
Wednesday, April 9
Wednesday, April 9
Thursday, April 10
Buffalo Niagara Convention Center, Buffalo, NY
Montgomery County Agricultural Center, Gaithersburg, MD
HONOLULU
Thursday, April 10
Hawaii Convention Center, Honolulu, HI
PRINCE GEORGE’S CO.
Friday, April 11
Prince George's Sports and Learning Complex,
Landover, MD
SAN DIEGO
Wednesday, April 23
San Diego Convention Center, San Diego, CA
NEW JERSEY
Wednesday, April 23
Thursday, April 24
Meadowlands Exposition Center (at Harmon Meadow),
Secaucus, NJ
VENTURA/TRI-COUNTY
Thursday, April 24
Ventura County Fairgrounds, Ventura, CA
PROVIDENCE
Saturday, April 26
Rhode Island Convention Center, Providence RI
NASHVILLE
Sunday, April 27
Music City Center, Nashville, TN
ORANGE COUNTY
Sunday, April 27
Anaheim Convention Center, Anaheim, CA
INLAND EMPIRE
Tuesday, April 29
Ontario Convention Center, Ontario, CA
GREATER LOS ANGELES Thursday, May 1
What are th
e
NACAC Natio
nal
College Fairs
?
Every year, m
ore than 675,
000
students and
parents attend
the
National Asso
ciation
for College Ad
mission Coun
seling’s
(NACAC) Natio
nal College Fa
irs
seeking
information ab
out colleges,
universities
and other post
secondary inst
itutions.
National Colle
ge Fairs allow
st
ud
ents to
interact with ad
mission repres
en
ta
tives
from a wide ra
nge of postseco
ndary
institutions to
discuss course
offerings,
admission and
financial aid re
qu
irements,
college life in
general, and ot
her
information pe
rtinent to the co
llege
selection proces
s.
Other fair offe
rings include
workshop
sessions, oneon-one attent
io
n at the
Counseling Ce
nter and othe
r
college
related servic
e information
at the
Resource Cent
er.
These events
are free and
open
to the public
.
Pasadena Convention Center, Pasadena, CA
BOSTON
Thursday, May 1
Friday, May 2
Boston Convention & Exhibition Center (BCEC), Boston, MA
SAN FRANCISCO
Saturday, May 3
Cow Palace, Daly City, CA (NEW LOCATION)
There is still time to register for a spring National College Fair!
Exhibitors* – www.nacacnet.org/ncfregistration
Students – www.gotomyncf.com
*Exhibitor Registration for Fall 2014 NCF and PVAs opens February 2014. Register by the Early Bird Deadline (July 10, 2014)!
by Peggy Brandt Brown
College Can Be Killing:
United States College and
University Responses to
Student Suicide During the
20th Century and
Early 21st Century
If you or someone you know is thinking about suicide,
contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at
1-800-273-TALK (1-800-273-8255).
In the United States during the latter 20th Century and early 21st Century, suicide was the third
leading cause of death among youth ages 15 to 24. Responses of American colleges and universities
to student suicide evolved over that period. At one time, the academic community denied suicide
was a problem for their students. The 1978 PBS broadcast College Can Be Killing was influential
in changing the way the event of a college student’s suicide was managed on American campuses.
As the century progressed, admission and student affairs staff, both as individuals and professions,
began to recognize the reality of student suicide and started combating a denial of suicide as a
problem on American college and university campuses. In the 21st Century, the development of
computer technology and the Internet made a difference. Main issues were liability, written protocols
and plans, parent notification, mandatory counseling and/or withdrawal, and limitations of access to
the means to kill one’s self.
Suicides at colleges and universities in the US have been a con-
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
cern of campus student affairs administrators and chief executive
tion (CDC), during the late 20th Century in the US, suicide was
officers. Sandeen (1991) stated that a good deal of student af-
the third leading cause of death among youth ages 15 to 24, a
fairs leaders’ time is spent dealing with crises. The first crisis he
statistical grouping that includes traditional college student ages
mentioned was suicide. Each suicide could bring untold, negative
(Kachur et al. 1995). Suicide was exceeded only by unintentional
publicity to an institution. If the failure of a student to attain a de-
injury and homicide for this age group. “Despite the stability of
gree could be considered to be an institutional failure, how much
the national suicide rate over recent decades, rates for teens and
more was a suicide on campus?
young adults increased dramatically from 1950 to 1990,” (Kachur
1
et al., 17) from 4.5 suicides per 100,000 to 13.5 per 100,000
The responses of American colleges and universities to student sui-
for persons 15–24 years of age. CDC reported persons under age
cides have changed over time. Once, student suicide was considered
25 accounted for 15 percent of all suicides in 1992 and that year,
to be a national problem, but not one at local campuses (Hendrickson
more young people from 15 to 24 years old died from suicide than
and Cameron 1975). During in the 1980s, institutions became more
from cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth defects, stroke, pneumo-
proactive in training student affairs, health services, counseling, and
nia, influenza and chronic lung disease combined.
housing staffs to address issues related to the prevention of suicides
(Jobes et al. 1997). One of the markers of the change was a suicide
“Campus student suicides arouse much public interest and con-
that occurred at Northwestern University (IL) in Chicago in 1977 and
cern because the act itself is perceived to be a rejection of all
was featured in a Public Broadcasting System (PBS) special, College
that university life strives to be for bright and ambitious young
Can Be Killing (Hirsh 1978). In this study, the broadcast was used as
adults” (Silverman 1993, 330). The problem of suicide was a part
a point from which to examine changes in how the event of a student’s
of college and university life. The act of suicide disrupted normal
suicide was managed on college and university campuses in the US
campus life (Silverman) and had a ripple effect throughout the
during the 20th Century and as the US moved into the 21st Century.
institution (Pruett 1990). Students, faculty and staff questioned
Three lawsuits against colleges and universities by parents of students
what they could have done to have prevented the suicide (Hipple,
who committed suicide and the number of mass killings in the US
Cimbolic and Peterson 1980). Media attention was focused on the
were the markers of change at the beginning of the 21st Century.
campus (Hipple) and questions were raised about the mission of
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
the school and how that mission was being fulfilled (Silverman).
the University of Michigan in 1934 (Raphael, Power and Berridge
Families of the victims (Jamison 1999) and parents of other
1937). The study was concerned with why the students killed
students wondered how the death could have happened, whether
themselves, and did not discuss the prevention of suicides or how
their own children were at risk, and what the school was doing to
the school should respond to such an event in the future.
keep the surviving students safe (Rickgarn 1994).
During and immediately after World War II, there was a hiatus
To understand how the responses of colleges and universities
in the study of suicides at American colleges and universities
changed during the 20th and 21st Centuries, literature relating to
(Slimak 1990).
the event of a college student’s suicide in the US was reviewed.
The Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC) database
During the 1960s and 1970s
was searched, as were the databases for the American Association
By the early 1970s, numerous studies had been done on the rates,
of Suicidology, the National Library of Medicine, the National Insti-
reasons and characteristics of college students who attempted
tute of Mental Health (NIMH), The Jed Foundation, and the larger
or completed suicide (Temby 1961; Braaten and Darling 1962;
college and university professional organizations. Internet searches
Bruyn and Seiden 1965; Seiden 1966; Peck and Schrut 1971;
of college and university websites were conducted. Additionally, a
Mishara, B.L., Baker and Mishara, T.T. 1976). However, responses
copy of the PBS broadcast College Can Be Killing (Hirsh 1978)
of colleges and universities to such events were not mentioned
was reviewed. Interviews were conducted with several practicing
until Hendrickson and Cameron’s 1975 study of a random sample
student affairs professionals in the US.
of 90 deans of students at two and four-year colleges and universi-
ties. The researchers found:
This study is concerned with how colleges and universities in
A serious gap was evidenced by the deans of students between
the US responded to student suicides and how those responses
their perception of the problem of suicide on their home cam-
evolved during the 20th Century and are dealt with today. Some
puses, and the realities of the situation (352)… Significantly
limitations to this study are that the literature made no distinc-
fewer administrators perceived student suicide as a local com-
tions between full- and part-time students. Rarely mentioned was
pared to a national problem, and their recognition of suicide on
whether the college studied was a two- or four-year institution.
their campuses was significantly lower than state data would
The epidemiology of student suicides or the psychological, social
suggest… implementation of [suicide] preventive measures on
or medical reasons students end their lives are not examined.2
home campuses was minimal (354).
Comparisons of suicide treatment and prevention programs and
the various elements and achievements of such programs on cam-
This same lack of attention was seen in several of the texts and
puses are not addressed in this study.
handbooks relating to student affairs and counseling of the time.
3
In Student Personnel Services in Higher Education (Shaffer and
During the Early 20th Century
Martinson 1966), student suicide was not addressed in the chap-
One of the earliest comprehensive studies about people killing
ters on counseling, mental health or housing. In The Counseling
themselves was in 1857 (Durkheim 1857, trans. 1951) and one
of College Students (Seigel 1968), suicide was mentioned four
of the first known analyses of student suicide in the US was
times, three times as parts of statistical lists and once in one
published in 1928 by R.S. Cavan. In January and February of
paragraph written on the characteristics of suicidal students. That
1927, 20 student suicides occurred in US colleges and secondary
paragraph began with “Few suicidal cases were reported” (28).
schools, so many that newspapers and periodicals considered the
The Counseling Center in Higher Education (Gallagher and Demos
phenomenon to be a “suicide wave” or “epidemic” (Cavan 1928,
1970) had a brief but meaningful description of how the psychi-
263). Cavan declared the cases were treated with a great deal
atric consultant was to deal with suicidal students although the
of hyperbole by the daily papers with spectacular headlines and
term “depressed” was used much more than “suicidal.” In a book
full column accounts on front pages often with a summary of all
for residence hall staff published in 1969, out of 215 pages, only
preceding cases. After a brief analysis, Cavan concluded student
three short paragraphs were devoted to how to recognize and deal
suicides were not taking place at a rate far removed from the norm
with suicide threats and attempts (Powell et al. 1969).
for that age group. In response to the 1927 events, the first study
of suicide on American college campuses was published in 1932
The approach appearing frequently in the literature and that seemed
(Slimak 1990). One of the first studies of student suicide on a
to be the standard way colleges or universities responded to sui-
single campus was undertaken after five suicides happened at
cide attempts or threats was watchful waiting and hospitalization
(Raphael et al. 1937; Temby 1961; Ross 1969; Grollman 1971;
the broadcast was remembered by American college and university
Baker, H.S. 1978). Temby recommended that if a suicide attempt
staff as divergent as a media librarian in Texas to the director of a
or threat was made, “there is an excuse to call someone, police-
counseling center at a national university in the Midwest. Bernard
man or doctor, who can arrange to have the person taken where he
and Bernard (1985) mention the broadcast in their chapter of Cop-
[sic] can be treated or hospitalized immediately. But short of an
ing with Death on Campus. Rickgarn (1994) used the broadcast
actual attempt or threat, the course may have to be one of watchful
as part of his discussion of myths surrounding student suicide.
and tactful waiting” (150).
He stated, “While there was a considerable amount of excellent
information [in the broadcast]… the main impression was that one
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Center for Studies
school was the ‘good guys’ and the other school was the ‘bad
of Suicide Prevention was established in 1966 and stimulated inter-
guys’… it created a fear in the mind of administrators who could
est in the subject of suicide (Seiden 1971). By the 1970s, suicide
see their reputations being placed on the line should a similar
prevention centers began to develop in communities across the US
production be made about their school” (92).
(Seiden; Motto et al. 1974; Shneidman 1976).4 The formation of the
American Association of Suicidology followed the first national con-
After the Broadcast (1980s to Early 1990s) ference on suicidology held in 1968 (Davis 1983). By 1972, efforts
After the broadcast of College Can Be Killing, a flurry of articles
by some colleges and universities were expanding by offering crisis
was published relating to the issue of student suicide. The tone
intervention courses including suicide prevention techniques (Hoffer
of many of the articles changed. Although the questions of rates
1973; Whitaker and Slimak 1990). Resident assistants were being
and predictors of student suicide were still discussed (Heinrichs
trained in those crisis intervention techniques and telephone hot
1980; Kraft 1980; Schwartz 1980; Wright, Snodgrass and Em-
lines usually staffed by volunteer students were being established to
mons 1984), other articles appeared which dealt with specific
deal with suicide calls (Hoffer; Sivert 1973; Knott 1973; Sims and
responses a campus should do in the event of a student’s death
Bell 1973). But in 1971, only 66 American colleges and universi-
by suicide or other means. A comprehensive plan for campuses
ties5 offered therapy by professional psychologists and psychiatrists
to use in the event of a suicide was presented (Hipple, Cimbolic
in campus clinics (Grollman 1971). and Peterson 1980). Some step-by-step guidelines appeared to
The one-hour broadcast described events surrounding the suicide of a
Northwestern University student and included scenes of the discovery of her
body in her dormitory’s parking lot and at her graveside services. The broadcast
compared the knowledge and reactions of Northwestern officials to those of
staff from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. There were interviews with
students who had thought of or had attempted suicide who talked about the
loneliness and isolation they felt on their campuses.
The Broadcast of College Can Be Killing (1978)
be used by college student affairs staff in response to any type of
In 1978, the Public Broadcasting System (PBS) presented a tele-
sudden death of a student (Crafts 1985; Halberg 1986). One was
vision documentary called College Can Be Killing (Hirsh 1978).
written specifically for responding to suicides (Butler and Statz
The one-hour broadcast described events surrounding the suicide
1986). These were similar to Donohue’s (1977) work, which was
of a Northwestern University student and included scenes of the
one of the first to address, such basics as family notification, news
discovery of her body in her dormitory’s parking lot and at her
releases and planning memorials although Donohue did not men-
graveside services. The broadcast compared the knowledge and
tion suicide as a form of student death.
reactions of Northwestern officials to those of staff from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. There were interviews with students
Several articles dealing with student death were published in the
who had thought of or had attempted suicide who talked about the
NASPA Journal (Jacobs and Towns 1984; Wright et al. 1984; But-
loneliness and isolation they felt on their campuses. Prevention
ler and Statz 1986; Charles and Eddy 1987). For the first time,
efforts on both campuses were examined. Twenty-five years later,
there appeared discussions about how colleges and universities
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
should respond to deaths on campus. Jacobs and Towns (1984)
During the Later 1990s and Charles and Eddy (1987) advocated grief education training
In January 1989, the US Public Health Service issued the Report
for student assistants in residence halls. A call was made for “a
of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide in “response to the
comprehensive program designed to sensitize and prepare student
public demand for action to end these tragic events (high rates of
personnel professionals, residential living staff, paraprofessionals,
youth suicide in the U.S.)” (1989a, 3). This four-volume report
faculty, and the general student population to prevent suicide and
of commissioned papers, summaries and commentary provided a
to recognize and react to potentially suicidal students” (Wright
wealth of information and recommendations for action to people
et al., 62). This was very different indeed from of the “watchful
concerned with the issue of youth suicide (US Public Health Ser-
waiting and hospitalization” responses (Temby 1961) of the period
vice 1989a, 1989b, 1989c, 1989d).
before the 1970s.
As part of the response to the 1989 report, the number of ar-
However, research published in 1980 and 1986 showed many
ticles relating to student suicide greatly increased in the 1990s.
American colleges and universities still were not establishing
Two searches of the ERIC database using the same data strings
systems to deal with student suicide. Bernard and Bernard
were conducted for this study (see Table 1). The first revealed
(1985) surveyed 87 accredited university and college counseling
that between 1966 and 1981 (15 years), 14 articles on student
centers in the US between 1975 and 1978 about those schools’
suicide were listed. Using the same search criteria for between
responses to students’ threats or attempts of suicide. “Many of
1992 and 2000 (eight years), 69 articles on student suicide
the institutions indicated that they consider a wide spectrum of
were recovered.
possible reactions to an instance of suicidal behavior, ranging
from ignoring it completely to dismissing the student” (110).
Increased numbers of specialized journals concerned with suicide
Of the 87 responding institutions, 56 indicated they would take
started publication. These included Death Studies; Suicide and
no official action or would make suggestions of some sort in
Life-Threatening Behavior; Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Interven-
response to suicide threats and 42 would do the same in re-
tion and Suicide Prevention; and Omega: an international journal
sponse to suicide attempts (Bernard and Bernard). In the mid
for the study of dying, death, bereavement, suicide and other
1980s, only one university in a random sampling of Big Ten7 and
lethal behaviors.
Big Eight Conference schools provided evidence of policies or
8
Table 1. ERIC Data Base Comparison
systematic procedures associated with the suicide of a student
(Butler and Statz 1986). That school had a policy statement,
Using deliminators
1966 to 1981
1992 to 2000
specific death report forms and defined follow-up procedures. “It
Higher
73,576
82,819
Education
290,219
211,485
also provided its residence hall staff with a brief list of the myths
and telltale signs associated with suicidal behaviors, but provided
no systematic training to either residence hall or student affairs
staff” (17).
By the late 1980s, at many American schools, a student who attempted suicide on campus would be removed from campus pending
a psychological evaluation by a qualified counselor or doctor. This
Combined (higher + education) 65,888
75,293
Student
93,848
79,393
Suicide
412
1,072
Combined (higher + education) 14
and (student + suicide)
69
Source: ERIC Data Base on TexSearch, conducted October 2000
response was justified by a perceived need to protect and respect the
mental well-being of roommates, friends and classmates of the sui-
Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior became available online. The
cidal student (Sherrill 1989). Concerns with legal issues and liability
specialized journals also published special issues such as Omega’s
surfaced especially as they related to violations of client confidentiality
on elderly suicide (Volume 42, #1, 2000–2001) and “Right to Die
and failure to adequately protect students (Yarris 1996). Postvention,
versus Sacredness of Life” (Volume 40, #1, 1999–2000).
a term created in the 1970s by Shneidman, was used to “describe
the help and intervention of others that is needed by all survivors of
The term suicidology was created by Shneidman (2001) and
suicide (attempters, families of suicides, friends, associates, etc.)”
became part of the Oxford English Dictionary. The Comprehen-
(Rickgarn 1994, 165). Models for campus postvention to take place
sive Textbook of Suicidology, all 650 pages of it, was published
after a suicide or other types of violent death on campus began ap-
by three leaders in the field (Maris, Berman and Silverman
pearing in the literature with increasingly detailed models appearing
2000). Books were devoted specifically to the issue of college
in the 1990s (Swenson and Ginsberg 1996).
student suicide (Rickgarn 1994; Whitaker and Slimak 1990).
Student suicide was given attention in textbooks for student
suicide research (Rogers 2001). Even more disturbing was that
affairs students and professionals (Komives, Woodard and As-
the journal for the American College Health Association (ACHA)
sociates 1996; Rentz 1996).
published only one article about the issue of suicide between
1997 and May 2001 (Barrios et al. 2000). The ACHA had been
In a phone interview with the author on November 22, 2000, Mor-
the leader in research on college student suicide, funding some
ton M. Silverman, director of Student Counseling and Resource
of the first research (Braaten and Darling 1962) and publishing
Service at the University of Chicago, stated a significant destigma-
many articles relating to the subject.
tization of mental health problems by American society in the late
20th Century led to improvement in awareness and acceptance
“University and college administrations are now somewhat
of the issue of suicide on campus. Therefore, due to increased
more aware of the prevalence mental illness in their under-
acceptance of all types of mental health issues, more people were
graduates and graduate students and increasingly shaken into
concerned and aware of the potential of a student committing sui-
action by the too-frequent suicides of young people. But they
cide. At the University of Chicago, the counseling center was not
are not nearly aware or active enough” (Jamison 1999, 262).
the only place on campus that provided intervention and support.
Rickgarn (1994) also expressed his concern that the academic
Coaches, trainers, writing tutors, campus ministers, housing staff,
community, administrators, faculty, staff, and students, were
and others spotted suicidal people and interventions could happen
denying that suicide continued to be a problem. And it was
all over the campus. This same redundancy of efforts was noted
still a problem. Although the number of high school youth who
by John Hipple, counselor and associate professor of counseling
seriously considered suicide at least once in the previous 12
psychology at the University of North Texas, in an interview with
months had dropped between 1991 and 2001 (from 29 percent
the author on October 10, 2000. And Harvard University (MA)
to 19 percent) and who planned to attempt suicide (from 18.6
Morton M. Silverman, director of Student Counseling and Resource Service at
the University of Chicago, stated a significant destigmatization of mental health
problems by American society in the late 20th Century led to improvement in
awareness and acceptance of the issue of suicide on campus. Therefore, due
to increased acceptance of all types of mental health issues, more people were
concerned and aware of the potential of a student committing suicide.
planned to create an “intentionally redundant” support network
percent to 14.8 percent), the number who attempted suicide
so suicidal students would not escape detection and could receive
stayed the same (CDC 2002).
help (Gose 2000).
By the late 1990s, some colleges and universities had developed
Still there was a disturbing trend in the paucity of articles pub-
detailed plans and procedures to use in the event of student
lished in the journals for student affairs practitioners in the late
suicide (Mitchell, Elmore and Fygetakis 1996). An example was
1990s. From 1997 through April 2001, there were no articles
at the University of North Texas in Denton, Texas. All resident
relating to suicide in either the NASPA Journal or the Journal of
staff from the desk clerks to the central housing administra-
College Student Development, the journals for the two largest
tion was given spiral flip booklets specifying what the person
generalist associations for student affairs professionals in the US
in that job was to do in the event of a major emergency in the
during the late 20th Century. The American Counseling Asso-
halls (University of North Texas Housing Department 2000).
ciation’s Journal for Counseling and Development published four
The emergency response procedures were based on a four-page
articles relating to suicide in 2000 and the first half of 2001.
document created by housing staff, campus police, health center
Two were concerned with schizophrenia and suicide (Schwartz,
personnel, the university’s legal counsel and the vice president
R. C. 2000; Schwartz and Cohen 2001). One dealt with “ratio-
of student affairs office. Of the 12 events listed in the flipbook,
nal” suicide, a term appearing in the literature in the 1980s and
a full page layout was devoted to what to do if a suicide attempt
encompassing physician-assisted suicides (Rogers, Gueulette
takes place while a person was on duty. The title of the page was
et al. 2001). The fourth discussed theoretical grounding and
Suicide Threats and Attempts.
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
Into the 21st Century
State University (CA), Louisiana Technical College), schools
As American society moved into the 21st Century, the problem of
(Sandy Hook Elementary School, Columbine High School, Red
suicide among its youth did not go away. In 2010, suicide still was
Lake High School, West Nickel Mines Amish Elementary School)
the third most common cause of death in the US for youth ages
and public places or places where people gather (Wedgwood Bap-
15 to 24 following unintentional injuries (including motor vehicle
tist Church, Oak Creek Sikh Temple, Aurora, CO movie theater,
crashes) and homicide, although the actual number of suicides de-
Westroads Mall in Nebraska, Tucson, AZ supermarket parking lot,
creased compared to those in 1980 (5239 in 1980 versus 4600
Washington DC Navy Yard). Many of these events ended with the
in 2010) (CDC 2012). Some research claimed, “The suicide
killers either allowing themselves to be killed by police (suicide
rate for students at four-year colleges is the US is half the rate of
by cop or copicide: AAS 2013) or committing suicide with the
matched groups in the general US population” (Schwartz, A. J.
gun they used to murder their victims. These events heightened
2006b, 356) at 6.5 suicides per 100,000 students (Schwartz,
the awareness that all individuals on campus needed to know the
A. J. 2006b, 344). However, that still meant an estimated 1,100
signs of mental distress and what to do when people exhibited
college students would die by their own hand each year (The Jed
these signs.
9
Foundation/NMHA 2002).
A number of academic journal articles and monographs appeared
The responses of American colleges and universities continued
addressing legal issues, college and university liability and col-
to evolve. Part of the impetus to change was fueled by several
lege student suicides (Lake and Tribbenesee 2002; Franke 2004;
high profile lawsuits involving American colleges and universities
Moran 2006. Pavela 2006a; Westefeld et al. 2006; Gray 2007;
(Shin v. Massachusetts Institute of Technology–MIT; Schieszler v.
The Jed Foundation 2008; Baker, T. 2009; Kalchthaler 2010).
Ferrum College; and Jain v. the State of Iowa [the University of
Katchthaler’s extensive review of current case law attempted “to
Iowa]) where families of students who committed suicide sued
determine when a college could be held liable for its failure to
their schools. Another high profile event was the 1998 suicide of
prevent a student suicide” (900). She addressed two questions:
a chemistry graduate student at Harvard University (MA) which
1) What role should colleges and universities play in addressing
received far-reaching press coverage in the US and internation-
student suicide? and 2) What liability will and should colleges incur
ally. It marked the “fifth suicide within the [Harvard] University
in this role? (896–897). The review included lengthy discussions
community during the 1997–98 academic year and the second
of the Shin, Jain and Schieszler cases and their results.
suicide within the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences… It
is also the second death in the chemistry department in two
Change did begin. In 2009 the NASPA Journal published the
years” (Harvard Crimson 1998). The student’s graduate adviser
results of The Status of Crisis Management in NASPA Member
was Nobel laureate Elias J. Corey and the student was “widely
Institutions. “In the 2001 study, the five types of crises institu-
known and well liked, and was by all accounts the golden boy of
tions reported most frequently included: fire (91.8 percent),
the Corey (research) group, perhaps the finest synthetic organic
student death (89.0 percent), sexual assault (87.7 percent),
chemistry laboratory anywhere in the world” (Hall 1998). In one
suicide (85.6 percent), and campus disturbance or demon-
of the suicide notes the student left, he claimed his death was
stration (84.2 percent). The five types of crises institutions
in part because ''professors here have too much power over the
reported most frequently in the 2007 study included: student
lives of their grad students” and the university needed to ''provide
death (90.3 percent), fire (90.0 percent), infectious disease
protection for graduate students from abusive research advisers”
(87.0 percent), suicide (86.4 percent), and evacuation of build-
(Hall 1998). This suicide in August 1998 was followed by Shin’s
ings (86.4 percent)” (emphasis, author’s) (Catullo, Walker and
suicide at MIT in April of 2000 and her parents’ January 2002
Floyd 2009, 309).
wrongful-death lawsuit against MIT and several administrators
and employees. Both of these events at major universities in the
Although the percentage of reporting suicide changed little, of
US received wide spread news coverage and put college students’
the 158 reporting universities, 57 had contingency plans to deal
suicides into the forefront of American thought.10
with student suicide in 2001 and nine more added such plans by
2007. “The respondents were made aware that a contingency plan
From 1999, a series of mass shootings plagued the US. These
indicated there was a separate written procedure or checklist that
occurred at colleges and universities (Virginia Tech, Northern
addressed the specifics of that crisis” (Catullo, Walker and Floyd
Illinois University, Oikoas University (CA), Santa Monica College
2009, 310). And between 2000 and 2013, the NASPA Journal
(CA), University of Alabama, University of Arizona, San Jose
published 11 articles with suicide in the title.
During the same time period the American College Health Asso-
generated numerous studies (CCMH 2013a) about the mental
ciation’s journal yielded 116 articles when suicide was entered in
health of US college students.
the search field. Twenty-four had suicide in the title. In the sixth
issue published in 2006, there were four articles relating to student
Plans of action for colleges and universities were discussed in
suicide one of which discussed whether or not institutions should
several reports (The Jed Foundation/NMHA 2002; Francis 2003;
withdraw students who threaten or attempt suicide (Pavela 2006b)
Westefeld et al. 2006; Schwartz, A. J. 2006b; Kalchthaler 2010).
and two were overviews of the study of college student suicide in
In 2002, The Jed Foundation11 partnered with the National Mental
the US since 1920 (Schwartz, A.J. 2006a, 2006b). In 2012, the
Health Association (since changed to Mental Health America) to
journal published a special section on suicide prevention, which
conduct a roundtable with leading experts to address the issue of
included six articles ranging from an overview of the state of suicide
suicide on American college campuses. The report of this group
prevention research to articles on race/ethnicity and sexual minority
was directed toward campus administrators and its information
differences relating to depression and suicidal behavior.
was “designed to help you assess the current status and need
During the same time period the American College Health Association’s
journal yielded 116 articles when suicide was entered in the search field.
Twenty-four had suicide in the title. In the sixth issue published in 2006,
there were four articles relating to student suicide one of which discussed
whether or not institutions should withdraw students who threaten or attempt
suicide (Pavela 2006b) and two were overviews of the study of college
student suicide in the US since 1920 (Schwartz, A.J. 2006a, 2006b).
Research centers were established to study the issue. The Center
of your institutions, as you ask yourself and your colleagues,
for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH), established in 2004 at Penn
‘What safeguards do we have in place against suicide?’” (The Jed
State University, “focused on providing accurate and up-to-date
Foundation/NMHA 2002, 2). The report discussed 12 essential
information about the mental health of today's college students in
services a campus needed to provide to address suicidal behaviors
order to serve the needs of mental health providers, administra-
on campus. These were divided into administrative policies, risk-
tors, researchers, and the public” (CCMH 2013b). By 2013, 239
identification programs, on-campus support services, and commu-
counseling centers at US colleges and universities participated
nity-based support services. Suggested were screening programs,
in its research. The counseling centers used a standardized set
broad-based education programs to all segments of a college
of questions typically asked students who were seeking services
campus including parents and families, stress reduction programs,
(CCMH 2012). The set included 22 questions and also demo-
student support networks, onsite counseling and medical services,
graphic information about the student. Question 7 was “Have you
off-campus referrals, emergency services, postvention programs,
seriously considered attempting suicide?” and Question 9 was
and medical leave polices. The report was distributed to 3,000
“Have you made a suicide attempt?” Other questions were:
colleges and universities in the US (Mental Health America 2013)
•Have you purposely injured yourself without suicidal intent
(e.g., cutting, hitting, burning, hair pulling, etc.)?
•Have you considered causing serious physical injury to
another person?
•Have you intentionally caused serious physical injury to
another person?
and was cited frequently in the literature since its publication. The
list of the 12 essential services were included in a survey of college and university counseling center directors in 2007 and 2012
asking them if their campus provided these services (Rando et al.
2007; Mistler et al. 2012).
Francis (2003) approached the topic from the perspective of
a college counselor and counseling center administrator. He
The counseling centers collected the responses from their student
proposed that an optional institutional policy for responding to
clients and shared this information with the CCMH. The center
suicidal students include assessments of suicidal ideations and
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
the training of staff to make those assessments, methods for
attempted suicide, and “engage them sooner rather than later, so
responding to threats and attempts that were reported to faculty
that they can receive needed referrals or other appropriate assistance
or staff, procedures for involuntary commitments to a hospital or
and treatment” (1). Although campus response teams had existed
inpatient mental health center, policies regarding who should be
before, the legal requirement to have such teams was new. These
notified when an attempt or threat was made and associated steps
teams were called different things such as Ohio State University’s
to provide accountability (emphasis, author’s). Concerns about
Consultation and Assessment Team or the University of North Texas’
confidentiality, parental notification and mandatory treatment
CARE team. At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the
were raised. Francis also discussed non-traditional students and
Behavioral Intervention Team met weekly to evaluate the behavior of
issues relating to contacting those people’s families.
students who posed a potential risk to themselves and others (UIUC
2013). The Higher Education Mental Health Alliance (HEMHA)
Westefeld et al. (2006) believed it was critical for schools to
was formed in 2008 under the leadership of the American College
“screen for suicidal risk, conduct prevention workshops, and have
Health Association (ACHA) and was a partnership of organizations
counseling services available for those students in need. These
concerned with the mental health of college students. It developed a
services need to be well-publicized and readily accessible” (942).
guide for the formation of campus teams (HEMHA 2008). Included
The researchers also discussed the need for postvention as a
were flow charts for the protocols for the teams for Ohio State (19)
part of a suicide prevention program and a school’s response to a
and the University of North Texas (16).
student’s death.
Callahan and Fox (2008) presented a practical discussion of the
Kalchthalaer (2010) proposed a three-part plan to balance the
steps a school needed to complete in the event of a student death.
competing interests of student privacy and student safety. The plan
Given were lists of activities to be considered broken down by de-
had the goal of protecting students and providing colleges “the
partments and timelines. FERPA considerations were included. In
much-needed clarity of what is required of them to avoid liability”
addition, there was a list of formulated protocols and procedures
(918). She suggested the courts establish a clear standard as to
from 12 colleges and universities that were available for review
what a college’s duty was to suicidal students. Then each college
online. “Student death protocols are plentiful… The important
needed to develop a plan to action known to all about how to deal
thing to keep in mind is that each institution needs to consider its
with a student with mental health issues. Finally, “schools should
own culture and its own organization and to develop a protocol that
use the emergency exception in FERPA to notify parents in the event
is appropriate for its community” (93).
a student is at risk of hurting either himself or others” (918).
Two issues reappearing frequently in the literature were parent
In 2006, The Jed Foundation published a Framework for Develop-
notification and mandatory counseling and/or withdrawal from the
ing Institutional Protocols for the Acutely Distressed or Suicidal
school. Parent notification (Lake and Tribbensee 2002; Francis
College Student. This document presented a model for protocols
2003; Franke 2004; AUCCCD 2007; Gray 2007; Rando et al.
and a list of issues that needed to be addressed when a college or
2007; Baker, T. 2009; Kalchthaler 2010; Mistler et al. 2012) was
university developed or revised policies relating to at-risk students.
discussed as the balance between the student’s privacy interests
The framework was presented in three different sections: Develop-
and a school’s desire to contact a parent or family member of a
ing a safety protocol, developing an emergency contact notification
student exhibiting disturbed or suicidal behavior. Most of the
protocol and developing a leave of absence and re-entry protocol.
wrongful death lawsuits filed against colleges and universities had
An appendix dealt with legal issues. The authors promoted a
a component dealing with parent notification. The issue further
suicide prevention model that moved in a continuous flow from
was complicated by FERPA (Family Educational Rights and
prevention, intervention and postvention.
Privacy Act), a federal law that protected the privacy of student
educational records (US Department of Education 2013). When a
In response to the mass killings at Virginia Tech in 2007 and North
student turned 18 years old or entered a postsecondary institution
Illinois in 2008, a number of schools created campus teams to deal
at any age, all rights afforded to parents under FERPA transferred
with students whose behavior caused concern. Actually mandated
to the student. However:
by law in Virginia and Illinois, public campuses in those states were
In an emergency, FERPA permits school officials to disclose
required to convene formal teams to assess and respond to potentially
without student consent education records, including personally
violent threats (HEMHA 2008). The idea was to identify troubling
identifiable information from those records, to protect the health
students including those with suicide ideation and/or who had
or safety of students or other individuals. At such times, records
and information may be released to appropriate parties, such
this assessment is to provide the student with resources to adhere
as law enforcement officials, public health officials and trained
to this standard in the future and to monitor the student’s willing-
medical personnel… This exception to FERPA's general consent
ness and ability to adhere to this standard” (UIUC 2013).
rule is limited to the period of the emergency and generally
does not allow for a blanket release of personally identifiable
Means reduction was another issue to emerge during the second
information from a student's education records. In addition, the
decade of the 21st century. An important element in a compre-
Department interprets FERPA to permit institutions to disclose
hensive suicide prevention approach, means reduction referred
information from education records to parents if a health or
to suicide prevention efforts that focused on reducing a person’s
safety emergency involves their son or daughter (US Department
access to lethal means of killing one’s self (Harvard School of
of Education 2007).
Public Health 2013). Use of firearms (Schwartz, A.J. 2004b) and
In an emergency, FERPA permits school officials to disclose without student
consent education records, including personally identifiable information from
those records, to protect the health or safety of students or other individuals.
At such times, records and information may be released to appropriate parties,
such as law enforcement officials, public health officials and trained medical
personnel… This exception to FERPA's general consent rule is limited to the
period of the emergency and generally does not allow for a blanket release
of personally identifiable information from a student's education records. In
addition, the Department interprets FERPA to permit institutions to disclose
information from education records to parents if a health or safety emergency
involves their son or daughter (US Department of Education 2007).
Mandatory or involuntary dismissal from school or required coun-
jumping off high places were considered highly lethal means of
seling for a student who exhibited troubling behavior or who had
suicide because “once the attempt is begun (the person jumps
threatened or attempted suicide was discussed in the literature
or pulls the trigger) it cannot be stopped” (Harvard). Cornell
(Moran 2003; Franke 2004; Pavela 2006b; Westefeld et al.
University in Ithaca, NY, is built in an area of deep and beautiful
2006; AUCCCD 2007; Gray 2007; Keller 2007; AUCCCD 2011).
gorges crossed by seven high gorge bridges that run throughout
This was an issue with no clear-cut consensus. A frequently men-
the campus. Between 1990 and 2010, 23 people committed sui-
tioned plan for mandated counseling/assessment sessions was the
cide by jumping from the bridges or their abutments on or near the
Illinois or Joffe plan (Pavela 2006a, 2006b; Gray 2007; Kalch-
Cornell campus. Three other individuals survived their attempts.
thaler 2010). The plan or its variations were built around requiring
Roughly half of the jumpers were Cornell students, three of whom
counseling sessions for any student involved with suicide under
took their lives in one month in early 2010, two within one day of
threat of dismissal from the school. The plan was created in 1984
each other (Marchell 2011). One student jumped to his death in
when Dr. Paul Joffe (2008) founded the Suicide Prevention Team
February 2010. His family filed a lawsuit against Cornell, alleg-
at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). The fol-
ing that “the institution didn't do enough to restrict access to a
lowing was posted on the university’s counseling center’s website:
particular means of suicide… Cornell was negligent for not having
“In the event that the university is presented with a credible report
installed barriers on the campus bridge… For not taking steps to
that a student has threatened or attempted suicide, engaged in
block bridge suicides both Cornell and the city were ‘negligent,
efforts to prepare to commit suicide or expressed a preoccupation
careless, and reckless in failing to provide for safety and protec-
with suicide, that student will be required to attend four sessions
tion for vulnerable or impulsive individuals.’ University and city
of professional assessment (emphasis, author’s).” The purpose of
officials… knew that area bridges were a recurring site of suicides
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
and therefore had an obligation to restrict access to them” (Strat-
Other colleges and universities expanded their suicide prevention
ford 2012). In March 2010, Cornell did put fences and guards
efforts. By 2012, 302 college and university counseling center
around their bridges and by mid-2013, had installed safety nets of
directors (out of 400 who responded to an annual survey) reported
low-visibility tensile steel mesh underneath six of the bridges and
their centers were involved in some form of suicide prevention
planned to install a steel mesh ‘sock’ around the seventh (Cornell
outreach services (Mistler et al. 2012, 180). And 386 reported
University Facility Services 2013; Kelly 2013). Another school
using some form of suicide prevention protocol which ranged from
that dealt with means reduction was New York University (NYU)
QPR - Question, Persuade, and Refer from the QPR Institute (32
whose Bobst Library with its 12 story open atrium had been the
percent), a locally developed model (23 percent) or more than 20
scene of three student deaths by jumping. Two took place in Fall
other plans (39). It was likely that more colleges and universities
semester 2003 and were two of six suicides by jumping completed
had prevention programs because the survey’s response rate was
by NYU students during 2003–04. By 2005, university officials
47 percent.
installed eight-foot-tall plexiglass panels around the perimeter of
the atrium and restricted access to the balcony areas. However,
Internet Presence
another student jumped in 2009 (Schmidt 2009). In 2012, 20
Arguably, one of the biggest changes in American life in the
foot tall gold aluminum screens were added to completely enclose
21st Century was the development of computer and wireless
the atrium’s jump points (Huffington Post 2012).
technology that gave people to easy access to information available on the Internet. Combined with the development of powerful
In 2004, the Garrett Lee Smith12 Memorial Act was signed into law
Internet search engines (software systems designed to search for
(Goldston et al. 2010). It was the first Federal legislation to provide
information placed on the Internet) and affordable and accessible
funding for youth suicide prevention programs. The act authorized
devices, finding information became extremely straightforward.
$82 million to be used by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health
This availability of information influenced the ways colleges and
Services Administration (SAMHSA), an agency of the US Depart-
universities in the US dealt with suicide and suicide prevention
ment of Health and Human Services, to fund these programs over
on their campuses.
three years. During the first three years, approximately $2.3 million
per year was made available to fund up to 31 awards amounting to
Articles relating to using the Internet in suicide prevention efforts
$75,000 each. By 2013, 82 institutions of higher education had
began to appear in the literature (Krysinska and De Leon 2007;
received grants for suicide prevention programs (SPDC 2013).
Haas et al. 2008; Manning and VanDeusen 2011). Online screen-
College grants have been awarded to fund six types of activities
ing instruments, many of which were tied to a counseling center at
for suicide prevention and improving access and linkages to ser-
the students’ school, began to appear and were put into use (Haas
vices for mental health and substance abuse problems: 1) edu-
et al. 2008; Screening for Mental Health, Inc. 2013b with Cornell
cational seminars 2) crisis hot lines (or promotion of the National
2013a; UMBC 2013c; UTA 2013d).
Suicide Prevention Lifeline, 1-800-273-TALK) 3) preparation of
informational materials 4) preparation of educational materials for
The Jed Foundation also developed an Internet presence. Besides
families of students to increase awareness of potential mental and
its own website (www.jedfoundation.org), it partnered with MTV
behavioral health issues 5) training programs (e.g., gatekeeper
and its MTV U site to develop a program called Half of Us (www.
training) for students and campus staff to enhance their ability to
halfofus.com) dealing with emotional health. The program was
respond effectively to college students with emotional or behav-
available to MTV U watchers and used videos and interactive
ioral difficulties including substance abuse and suicidal behavior
content to get its message to college students. By 2013, The Jed
that might lead to school failure and 6) creation of an infrastruc-
Foundation website was extensive with sections for college profes-
ture for linking institutions of higher learning without adequate
sionals, as well as parents, students and supporters. It also had a
mental health resources to health care providers that can provide
website called U Lifeline (www.ulifeline.org) specifically for college
these services (Goldston et al. 2010, 3).
students who were experiencing severe mental health problems
themselves or whose friends were in difficulty. On U lifeline, when
In Spring 2013, the Jossey-Bass higher education quarterly series
the student used the Self Evaluator tab to take an online assess-
published a book that described “successful strategies imple-
ment, the site first asked the student’s school. Once the school
mented by grantee campuses… (to) serve as models to address
was selected, a start page appeared with half of the page devoted
student suicide and prevention on other campuses” (Taub and
to specific information about that school’s counseling services and
Robertson 2013).
how to make an appointment.
Other organizations developed Internet presences aimed to college
counseling centers with psychological and social developmental
students or young adults. The Trevor Project (www.thetrevorpro-
programming, written policies and procedures for dealing with
ject.org) focused on the issues of LGBTQ youth (lesbian-gay-
student death and ongoing research about suicidal students and
bisexual-transgendered-questioning) (Stanley 2013). Active Minds
the effects of the suicide act on all members of the campus
(www.activeminds.org) was concerned with mental health advo-
community. The rapidly increasing suicide rates beginning in
cacy by college students for college students. The National Suicide
the 1950s and the shock of the 1978 PBS broadcast, College
Prevention Lifeline (www.suicidepreventionlifeline.org) created a
Can Be Killing, caused campus administrators to increase their
program called You Matter that could be accessed from its main
consideration and concern about the issue. The liability lawsuits
page using a button labeled “more help for young adults.” The site
of the early 2000s and the increase in mass shootings on college
had interactive links to blog postings and interactive content in-
campuses and in other public places only caused more focus on
cluding one titled “100 ways to get through the next five minutes”
the issues surrounding suicide on college campuses. Attention
(www.youmatter.suicidepreventionlifeline.org). Many of these sites
was given to how colleges or universities respond to death on
were used by US colleges and universities as online resources for
their campuses. Something as simple as keeping track of the
their own student suicide prevention efforts.
number of suicides which happened on a campus became commonplace. There was much more discussion about how to deal
By the start of 2014, smart phone mobile technology was common
with suicide threats and attempts. Suicide prevention programs
on US campuses and the preferred method of communication for
combined with mental/emotional health initiatives. Campus
many students. Just in Case in College, (eReadia 2013), a mobile
teams began to be a standard element of colleges’ and universi-
phone application, became available in 2013. Made to be customized
ties’ efforts to deal with troubling students. The Internet made
for an individual campus and to use that campus’ and community’s
information much more accessible. Survivors of a completed
intervention services, the application purpose was to connect stu-
suicide were acknowledged and postvention activities were de-
dents with emergency responders if the student or a friend was
veloped and implemented on campuses. Research went beyond
potentially suicidal. In March of 2013, NASPA partnered with the
a few studies on the rates and reasons students kill themselves
The responses of colleges and universities in the US to the event of a student’s suicide
changed during the 20th Century. From denial of the extent of the problem and the
“watchful waiting and hospitalization” practices of the 1960s and earlier (Temby
1961), the profession moved to suicide prevention programs, counseling centers with
psychological and social developmental programming, written policies and procedures
for dealing with student death and ongoing research about suicidal students and the
effects of the suicide act on all members of the campus community.
developer to establish a group of early adopter schools (eReadia
to the development of instruments to measure suicidal ideation13
2013). Introduced as a free app to students at the University of
among students and studies that looked at student mental health
Miami in Ohio in August 2013, the app was viewed by more than
across the US. “We weren’t prepared and there’s no way we ever
1,000 people within one month (Peale 2013). By December 2013,
want to go through that again. It may never happen again, we
schools across the US were using the application (eReadia 2013).
hope it doesn’t… But, we no longer live in delusion. We now
are ready to deal with the reality,” (Dean of Students quoted in
Conclusion
Rickgarn 1994, 173).
The responses of colleges and universities in the US to the event
of a student’s suicide changed during the 20th Century. From
During the preparation of this study, a 16-year-old who saw the
denial of the extent of the problem and the “watchful waiting
pile of books and articles that included the terms suicide and
and hospitalization” practices of the 1960s and earlier (Temby
adolescent or student suicide in the titles, exclaimed, “Wow, how
1961), the profession moved to suicide prevention programs,
morbid! Why do you want to have anything to do with that?” When
WWW.NACACNE T.O RG
the author was making an appointment with the lead counselor at
a large regional research university who is that campus’ authority
Peggy Brandt Brown had a 25-year career
working with at-risk youth in higher education,
the juvenile courts and human services agencies.
In 2000, she decided to get her PhD in higher
education from the University of North Texas,
graduating in 2005. She is on the education faculty
at North Lake College, Irving, Texas.
on suicide and its prevention, the counselor said, “Let’s talk about
gloom, doom, death, and disaster.” The teenager’s statement was
a slightly fascinated denial of the reality of suicide as an element
of student life. The counselor’s statement was an acceptance that
students trying to kill themselves were aspects of campus life with
which colleges and universities must deal. Talking about that reality, implementing suicide intervention and prevention strategies,
deciding what the appropriate reactions to suicide attempts will
be, and helping the survivors of a suicide, all needed to be part
of the fabric of campus life. As the 20th Century moved into the
21st Century, student affairs staff, both as individuals and as a
profession, recognized the reality of student suicide and started
combating that slightly fascinated denial of suicide as a problem
on American college and university campuses.
Endnotes
The terms student services, student personnel and student affairs all have described the tasks
of administrators and staff who work at American colleges and universities to provide programs
and services for students outside of the classroom. Student affairs staff “serve a variety of functions and roles, including the vice president and dean for student life, as well as professionals
working within housing and residence life, student unions, student activities, counseling, career
development, orientation, enrollment management, racial and ethnic minority support services,
and retention and assessment” (NASPA 2013).
1
Much excellent work was done on these issues. The Journal of College Student Psychotherapy
devoted half of its 1990 publications to student suicide. College Student Suicide, Volume 4,
numbers 3 and 4, were a solid grounding in this area and was available in book form (Whitaker
and Slimak 1990).
2
There were many sources for that information including internet sites for the National Institute
of Mental Heath (NIMH) and the American Association of Suicidology.
3
4
One of the first centers for suicide prevention was founded in Los Angeles in 1958 (Grollman 1971).
5
By 2007 there were 4314 two and four-year colleges and universities in the US (Infoplease 2013).
Northwestern University (NU) is a private research university with campuses at Evanston and
Chicago, Illinois, United States.
6
The Big Ten is a US college athletic association located primarily in the American Midwest.
Schools included are Indiana University Bloomington, Northwestern University (located in Chicago, Illinois), Michigan State University, Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University
(Penn State), Purdue University (located in West Lafayette, Indiana), University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign, University of Iowa, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, and
University of Wisconsin–Madison. In the later part of the 20th century, more than 350,000
students attended these schools (Big Ten Conference 2013).
7
The Big Eight Conference, a former US college athletic association, was formed in 1907 and dissolved in 1996. The member schools at the time of dissolution were located in the central part of
the US and included Iowa State University, Kansas State University, Oklahoma State University,
University of Colorado, University of Kansas, University of Missouri, University of Nebraska, and
University of Oklahoma (BigEightSports.com 2013).
8
Among all persons in the US, suicide rated as the 10th most common cause of death in both
1980 and 2010. The number of suicides reported as cause of death based on death certificates
increased from 26,869 in 1980 to 38,364 in 2010 (CDC 2012).
9
Time Magazine – “When the Young Take Their Lives: Suicide among college students is up. How
do you spot a kid at risk—and what should you do?” (Gupta 2002) and On Campus: University
Blues – A Crisis (Kim, 2003); New York Times – “Who Was Responsible for Elizabeth Shin?”
(Sontag 2002) and In College and in Despair, With Parents in the Dark (Tavernise, 2003); Washington Post – “College Privacy Policies Create Different Parent-Child Conflict”; Suicide Attempts,
Drinking Often Go Unreported at Home (Crary 2002).
10
The Jed Foundation was established in 2000 by Donna and Phil Satow, whose son, Jed, a
University of Arizona sophomore, committed suicide in 1998. The foundation’s mission was
to promote emotional health and prevent suicide among college and university students (Jed
Foundation 2013).
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College Student Suicide, paperback edition. New
York: The Haworth Press, Inc.
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Practice in Higher Education, Second Edition,
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IL: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Ltd.
FACES IN THE CROWD
Mark Rasic
Kimberly Gannett
Associate Director of Admissions
Director, Counselor Department
University of Southern California, formerly Loyola University (LA)
Peak to Peak Charter School (CO)
Years at this institution: 6
Years in the profession: 12
Years at this institution: 13
Years in the profession: 13
Briefly describe the incident:
Briefly describe the incident:
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans. As the storm
The 1,000-Year Flood in Boulder County resulted in many deaths,
approached, residents, including the students at Loyola University
many unaccounted for, $2 billion in property damage, and the
New Orleans, evacuated. As their regional rep based in Los Ange-
evacuation of 10,000 people.
les, I watched from a distance as the disaster unfolded.
Explain how your community was affected by what happened.
Explain how your community was affected by what happened.
We had several students who lived in the mountains and were cut
The university was shut down. The students, many of whom had
off from their homes as roads up the canyons were all shut down
arrived at Loyola only a few days prior, were not able to return to
completely (the only way to get to school was to drive around,
campus. My colleagues who lived in New Orleans were forced to
three+ hours). These kids and their families have had to find
live far from home. The campus and the city were inaccessible.
places to live that were closer to our school so they could get there.
Since these circumstances were completely unexpected, there was
little information for students and parents. As the severity of the
What was the single greatest challenge you personally faced?
situation became apparent, there was a sense of desperation.
A recent Peak to Peak graduate, and a student of mine, was in a
vehicle swept up in the flash flood in a Boulder canyon. She clung
What was the single greatest challenge you personally faced?
to her car while her two best friends were washed away and died.
Personally, my family and my home and belongings were all
She then had to leave the state for college four weeks later. Such
safe—I wanted to help, but did not know how. I quickly turned
tragedy—two wonderful kids lost in our community.
to the Internet and found some bulletin boards where the Loyola
community posted information and asked questions. I posted my
What changes did you notice amongst colleagues and students?
phone number and soon the phone rang and rang and rang. I
Caring and love. We had students going into communities to help
spent the next several days answering and returning phone calls
dig out mud from people’s homes; people they didn’t even know.
from desperate students trying to find an alternative campus for
We had teachers who took students into their homes for weeks.
the semester.
As a result of your experience, what one piece of advice can you
What changes did you notice amongst colleagues and students?
offer counselors who might find themselves in a similar situation?
The most impressive part of the experience was the resilience
Take care of yourselves first. It is hard to help others when you are
demonstrated by everyone involved. Students who were justifi-
experiencing grief or loss yourself or are helping friends literally
ably upset needed just a bit of assurance to calm and focus
dig out of the mud. Be in the moment. Don’t try to understand
on the task at hand. Parents behaved similarly. And my col-
why or how this happened to you or the people you love. Never
leagues, all of them in unimaginable personal circumstances,
assume you can’t have an emergency in your town. Check in with
took charge of the situation in order to get things back to normal
kids who may experience stress from trauma.
as quickly as possible. Within a few weeks, I was visiting high
schools and attending college fairs to let everyone know that
Recall an inspiring story that arose from such a difficult event.
Loyola would reopen.
My friend Gurpreet dug herself and her neighbors out of the mud
with spoons in the middle of the night. They are true survivors.
As a result of your experience, what one piece of advice can you
My student who survived the flash flood is inspiring me each
offer counselors who might find themselves in a similar situation?
day as she tries to move on and grieve her friends at the same
Even when it seems like the situation is too large to change, you
time. She put a tattoo on her ankle to remember her friends and
can make small impact with each person you help. Focus on that.
dreams of being an actor.
To suggest an interviewee, email the editor at journal@nacacnet.org.
September 18–20
Stay on the track to success
registration opens in march
www.nacacconference.org

dine katrina ohio relief

Transcription

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