2 international scientific congress organized by sfg

Transcription

2nd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS ORGANIZED BY SFG
2nd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS
SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION
SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME, PLENARY LECTURES, INVITED PROCEEDINGS,
BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS
Editors: Mitija Samardžija Pavletič and Maja Bučar Pajek
Portorož, Slovenia January 23th, 2015
Organizer: Slovenian Gymnastics Federation
Organizing Committee:
Chair: Mitija Samardžija Pavletič
Members:
Maja Bučar Pajek
Sebastijan Piletič
Jernej Salecl
Nuša Semič
Urša Bavdek
Robert Grgič
Scientific Committee:
Chair: Maja Bučar Pajek
Vice-chairs: Petra Zupet
Sunčica Delaš Kalinski
Members: Boštjan Šimunič
Almir Atiković
Miha Marinšek
Secretary: Eva Semič
Publisher: Slovenian Gymnastics Federation
Dalmatinova 10, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
January, 2015
Editors: Mitija Samardžija Pavletič and Maja Bučar Pajek
Reviewers: Maja Bučar Pajek; Petra Zupet, Retar Iztok
Design and Prepress: Grafična klet
Edition: 150 copies
For the Publisher: Mitija Samardžija Pavletič
2st INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS ORGANIZED
BY SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION
SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME, PLENARY LECTURES, INVITED PROCEEDINGS,
BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS
CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji
Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana
796.41(082)
GIMNASTIČNA zveza Slovenije. International Scientific Congress (2 ; 2015 ; Portorož)
Scientific programme, plenary lectures, invited proceedings, book of abstracts and book of proceedings / 2nd
International Scientific Congress, Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, Portorož, Slovenia, January 23rd, 2015 ; editors Mitija
Samardžija Pavletič and Maja Bučar Pajek] ; [organizer Slovenian Gymnastics Federation]. - Ljubljana : Slovenian Gymnastics
Federation, 2015
ISBN 978-961-6733-10-6
1. Samardžija Pavletič, Mitija 2. Gimnastična zveza Slovenije
278925056
Contents
Editor‘s preface 5
PLENARY LECTURE
IMPORTANCE OF BIOMECHANICAL MODELLING 9
FOR TECHNICAL PREPARATION OF A GYMNAST
Edvard Kolar, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič & Saša Veličković
SALT, WATER AND ACID BASE BALANCE: WHAT A GYMNASTS NEEDS TO KNOW
Jernej Pajek
31
PERCEPTION-ACTION CONTINGENCIES IN COMPLEX SKILLS IN GYMNASTICS
Thomas Heinen
37
INVITED PROCEEDINGS
SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL - THE FIRST
SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL FOR GYMNASTICS
Maja Bučar Pajek, Ivan Čuk
47
SPORT-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN CONTRACTILE PARAMETERS:
A GYMNASTS HAVE SHORTEST CONTRACTION TIME
IN BRACHIAL MUSCLES AND VASTUS LATERALIS
Boštjan Šimunič, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič
53
BIOMECHANICS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Petr Hedbávný
54
DEVELOPMENT INSTRUMENTS TO DETERMINE COMPETENCIES
FOR PERFORMING THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF SPORTS MANAGER
Iztok Retar, Uroš Marušič, Edvard Kolar
55
TENSIOMIOGRAPHY IN ARTISTIC AND RHYTMIC GYMNASTICS
Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Edvard Kolar, Boštjan Šimunič
63
INTRACONTINENTAL AND INTERCONTINENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN JUNIOR AND SENIOR GYMNASTS
Sunčica Delaš Kalinski
66
DUAL CAREER IN HIGHER EDUCATION – WINNER PROJECT
Miha Marinšek
79
TENSIOMIOGRAPHY IN EARLY DIAGNOSTICS OF MUSCLE INJURIES
Petra Zupet, Sergej Rozman, Srdjan Djordjevic
84
JUDGING ARTISTRY ON BALANCE BEAM
Maja Bučar Pajek
87
SPORTS INJURIES OF THE STUDENT POPULATION
AT THE FACULTY FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT:
A REVIEW OF INJURY-RISK AND INJURY-PREVENTION
Almir Atiković, Amra Nožinović Mujanović, Edin Mujanović
94
BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS
DYNAMIC BALANCE OF YOUNG FEMALE GYMNASTS
Aleksandra Aleksić-Veljković, Dejan Madić,
Katarina Herodek, Kamenka Živčić Marković, Dragana Đokić
102
SINGLE LEG STANCE WITH CLOSED EYES ON A FORCE PLATE
IN ARTISTIC AND RHYTMIC GYMNASTICS
Nina Istenič, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Aljaž Valič, Edvard Kolar
109
COUNTERMOVEMENT JUMP ON FORCE PLATE
IN ARTISTIC AND RHYTMIC GYMNASTICS
Aljaž Valič, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Nina Istenič, Edvard Kolar
119
HANDSTAND ON FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS
Blaž Beličič, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič
127
2nd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS ORGANIZED BY SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION
EDITOR’S PREFACE
Dear gymnastics friends and colleagues,
The second International Scientific Congress hosted by Slovenian Gymnastics Federation promises to be
an excellent opportunity for academicians, independent researchers, coaches, gymnast, PE teachers, and
others, as well as graduate and postgraduate students and experts from cognate and adjacent scientific
fields from all over the world to participate and discuss subjects of common interest and to meet with
other members of the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) community and to exchange views on
important issues.
The first and second Congress held in Portorož town (Slovenia) held in one of the best congress centers
in this region, was an opportunity for gymnast and the other participants to discuss substantive issues
and to hear the views of leading experts in the gymnastics from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech
Republic, Serbia, Slovenia, Germany, etc., as well as to enjoy great fellowship and social events at the
same time.
Development of gymnastics as a sport has been conditioned by many factors. Surely, among the most
important ones are praxis, on one hand, and theoretical and scientific research on the other hand.
Developmental steps in the gymnastics are significantly improved if they do not let them only to the
part done by praxis but also to strongly support and enrich them by theoretical foundation aimed at
research work. Some theoreticians think that the research and science make sense only if proved in
the praxis. Having in mind the level of development and exercising possibilities in gymnastics that have
been achieved so far, it can surely be claimed that a solid bridge between practical work in the gym and
theoretical considerations in the research and sports institutions have recently been built.
Today’s gymnastics has developed so much that it could be freely said that it has been the most complex
sport technically. Therefore, if one wants to achieve top results, those sportsmen and the team of
trainers and other experts are usually faced with top requirements which exceed requirements in any
other sport.
Gymnastics nowadays: it is highly complex and time-consuming process. To master such a process means
to have cutting-edge technology, it means having access to the most contemporarily working resources
(specialized gym halls, training devices and machines, trainers, etc.). To have technology, knowledge and
working recourses in combination with strong will and desire in gymnastics only means to have necessary
preconditions for creating the final product - a top level gymnast.
Technical Committee of Slovenian Gymnastics Federation has adopted a scientific approach in order to
know, study and conduct researches in all matters which may improve the general framework within
which our gymnasts perform exercises and elements.
We are looking forward to welcoming you in Portorož on January 23, 2015 in Grand Hotel Bernardin for
this exciting event.
On behalf of the organizing committee,
Assist. Prof. Almir Atiković, Ph.D.
5
PLENARY LECTURES
IMPORTANCE OF BIOMECHANICAL MODELLING FOR TECHNICAL
PREPARATION OF A GYMNAST
Kolar E.1, Samardžija Pavletič M.1 & Veličković S.2
University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institut for Kinesiology Research, Koper,Slovenia
University of Niš, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Niš, Serbia
1
2
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper has been to present the importance of biomechanical modelling in designing the
methodology of physical movement learning process and in the implementation of learning process of
elements in artistic gymnastics. Gymnastics is a conventional sports discipline which is characterized
by the fact that success depends primarily on the knowledge and the successful presentation of the
elements at the highest difficulty level in competitions. Therefore, it is the selection of elements for each
individual athlete and the type of elements learning process which guide and determine the integrated
process of an athlete‘s preparation for competition.
Consistently with its objectives the article presents the model of biomechanical modelling and the
implementation process of identifying fundamental kinematic and dynamic characteristics of movements
that represent the foundation to understanding of the movement techniques in the selected elements.
The whole model is designed in four successive phases, wherein the last phase of modelling mainly
depends on the purpose of modelling.
The applicability of the model is presented on the cases in gymnastics, whereby its usefulness can be
extended to all sports disciplines in which the technical knowledge is an important segment of athletes‘
successful performance.
Key words: artistic gymnastics, technical preparation, biomechanical modelling.
9
INITIAL PREMISE
The rapid development of top level sport urgently requires from practice to be associated with science in
all its areas of activities. Without proper guidance, and conducting training process, based on the latest
scientific and theoretical findings, it is difficult to achieve the highest competition results. The concept
of training, which is based on the enthusiasm of coaches and athletes, is today almost always doomed
to failure. Such approach to work in elite sport may produce a top level result, but this sort of training
should not become a system because it is often associated with failures and successes. The imperative
in the realization of the aspirations of the top sporting outcome is definitely a structured system based
on a scientific basis and multidisciplinary approach in dealing with athletes (Kolar, Farrier & Piletič, 2006,
p. 12).
In general, gymnastics is classified among individual sports. However, in sport science there are three
basic types of sports disciplines classification. Each of these types of classification uses different criteria
to classify sports. Based on the structural complexity of movements (Matveev, 1977) in individual sport
disciplines, gymnastics is ranked among conventional sports, which are characterized by aesthetic and
physically determined cyclical sets of structures to be carried out either in standard or in variable external
conditions. Depending on the prevailing energy processes in the organism (Bravničar - Lasan, 1996) it is
a sports discipline, which is dominated by anaerobic energy processes, since competitive compositions
do not last longer than one minute and a half. Among the dominant motor abilities (Milanović, 1997)
determining the success in artistic gymnastics belong relative strength, coordination, flexibility and
balance.
And the conventional character of artistic gymnastics defines the process of dealing with an athlete in
gymnastics. Conventionality of sport discipline means that all motion/movements must be performed
in the context of a particular motoric model (prescribed by the experts - convention), which could be
called the ideal model of movement (hereinafter IMM). IMM is determined by the biomechanical model
of movement and is prescribed in the regulations for the assessment prescribed by the International
Gymnastics Federation or some other organizations (national sports federation). Any deviation from this
model constitutes an offense against the rules or an error in the movement, which can be of technical or
aesthetic nature. Movement contents are in the regulations divided into difficulty classes regarding the
complexity and the entanglement of the movement.
Evaluating the performance of athletes in conventional sports takes place in terms of evaluating the
performance of motion content athletes demonstrate in competitions. They are assessed by specially
trained judges. The criterion of evaluation is based on comparison between the prescribed model of
movement (IMM) and actually performed movement by each athlete. Performance in conventional
sports is therefore defined primarily by the number and the complexity of the exercise content –the
elementswhich the athlete masters and is able to successfully (in accordance with regulations) perform
at the competition. Due to the above said, we can therefore claim that the motoric elements and
movement contents that are trained during the technical preparation of athletes are the key aspect
of atraining process, which define the process of planning, implementation and control of training in
artistic gymnastics (Kolar, 2007, p. 380).
10
TEHNICAL PREPARATION OF AN ATHLETE IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS
In sports training theory we know the technique of motor structures performance and the methodology
of motor structures training under the concept - technical preparation of an athlete.
The word technique comes from the Greek word “techne”, which means - the skill or knowledge. The
term “technique” in sport represents a certain form of motion, which is standardized and identified by
name. Motion technique and ideal movement model in the performance of elements in gymnastics is
determined by the biomechanical model of movement and by its kinematic and dynamic characteristics. The kinematic characteristics are as follows:
The path drawn by the centre of gravity of the body (hereinafter CG) or individual segments of
the body;
Time that CG or individual segments need to perform a movement;
The velocity by which the CG or individual segments travel during the movement performance;
Acceleration, which indicates a change in velocity of CG movement or individual segments on a
certain path;
The angles between segments of the body or body segments and the grounds; and
Angular velocity and angular acceleration in circular movements.
And the dynamic and kinetic characteristics are as follows:
Forces, which are divided into internal (muscular force)and external forces (gravity, the force of
air resistance, friction ...);
torque and momentum, which are important in rotation movements; and
work done, when the body operates under a certain force on a certain path.
The word methodology also comes from Greek, namely the word “methodos”, which means - a way of
focused performance of an activity or the way how to achieve the target objective. Methodology in
sport is often associated with the methods and principles as well as activities related to the preparation
of an athlete for a competition. However, we shall in this case be limited to the methodology of training
elements in artistic gymnastics. In training elements in artistic gymnastics methodical procedures are
used. Methodical procedures consist of methodical steps that follow each other in the exact sequence
that is formed on the basis of the most important didactic principles, namely, the principle of gradualism,
formed by the following rules (Kolar, Piletič & Veličković, 2005, p. 12-13):
from easy to more demanding,
from familiar to unknown and
from simple to complex.
Learning elements in artistic gymnastics is a very complex process involving many different aspects. Each
aspect separately has a certain influence on the successful completion of the transformation process, the
aim of which is in our case a successful performance of the required element. The training methodology
of individual elements of movement is based on the theory of motor learning. There are several different
theories of motor learning but they all have in common that the process of learning elements is a mental
11
process that takes place in certain successive stages. The speed of the transition between phases is
largely dependent on the number of successful repetitions of the whole or parts of each movement. The
end result should be automated movement, which enables a successful implementation of individual
element in different conditions and under stress and fatigue (Kolar, Farrier & Marinšek, 2006, p. 57).
Elements performed by top athletes in gymnastics are, as a rule, an upgrade of basic elements that
are taught in the training process in the younger categories. Technically correct performance of the
basic elements allows the contestants’ advancement and development in the youth and later the senior
category. Points that distinguish top athletes from others are elements of the highest difficulty levels,
which are usually extremely complex by their motor structures and where the possibility of error or injury
during the performance is extremely high. Therefore, in the construction of methodical procedures we
implement the biomechanical analyses that in terms of kinematics and dynamics allow us to construct
biomechanical models of movement, and to explain the important parts of the movement performance.
In the selected element learning process this enables us to stay limited through individual methodical
steps on the special part of the movement, which is for the final performance of the element presented
as a whole, the most important.
Based on the aforesaid, the model of learning element may therefore be defined, which envisages that
the planning of an individual element training is based on the knowledge of the element’s technique and
its kinematic and dynamic characteristics that define biomechanical model of movement in the selected
element (Figure 1). The model of training elements in artistic gymnastics (Figure 1) provides that, within
the designed process of training of artistic gymnastics elements it is necessary to define the following:
methodical procedure for element training,
necessary prior technical knowledge,
detection and correction of errors,
system of help and security during training, where special importance is attached to health preventive aspect, which further influences:
physical preparations planning, divided into:
o general or basic physical preparations and
o special physical preparations.
Figure 1: Model of training elements in artistic gymnastics.
BIOMECHANICAL MODELLING
By biomechanical modelling we want to find a relevant physical - biomechanical model for the selected
element or movement in order to describe the movement and define technology of movement in
individual elements with physical values. The physical description of motion is needed for arbitrarily
selected data to mathematically predict the movement and the numerical values of its quantity –velocity,
acceleration, force, etc. Biomechanical models for the elements can be used for the following purposes:
analysis of movement techniques of an element,
planning methodical training of an element,
planning special physical preparations,
evaluation of methodical procedures,
detection of movement errors,
detection of variability in successful movements and
evolution of new elements.
Kinematic and dynamic structure of complex movements can be objectively and accurately determined
only by verified and licensed biomechanical methods and techniques. Preference is given to non-invasive
methods and techniques, because they allow the capture of large amounts of feedback, and data capture
does not interfere with the athlete, training process and competitions. The opportunity to explore the
situational conditions allows kinematic method with manual labelling of anatomical points - APAS, PEAK
and SIMI Motion. These kinematic models and techniques are currently the most rational and most
topical. All of these systems can produce a large amount of raw information to be processed, reduced
and synthesized later on. The results obtained by measuring these methods are primarily suitable for
interpretation in its original form. They also can be transformed into a more suitable form and thus can
be used as the input of complex systems such as mathematical models. It is possible to make a selection
from the measured parameters which will later function as the so-called direct criteria. These criteria can
be reached via biological and stochastic models, which does not exclude the synergy of these methods.
Below we show a draft model for rational and general definition of the model of biomechanical modelling
techniques in performing complex gymnastic elements, which covers most of the procedures used in
previous studies (Čuk, 1996; Kolar, 2005; Veličković et al., 2006).
DEFINITION OF PROCEDURE FORBIOMECHANICAL MODELING OF MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES
IN COMPLEX GYMNASTIC ELEMENTS
The process of biomechanical modelling of movement techniques in complex gymnastic elements consist
of sequential set of phases, where each phase is defined by the objectives associated with the desired
data that we want to acquire by the model, or with the purpose of each type of biomechanical modelling,
which we have mentioned in the previous section. The entire procedure consists of four phases, where
it is significant that the first three procedure phases, regardless of the purpose of movement modelling
techniques are always the same, while the fourth phase of the procedure will depend largely on the
purpose of biomechanical modelling of movement techniques for each movement. The amount of
information necessary to successfully define a biomechanical model of each movement grows from
phase to phase, which enables more and more accurate definition of the movement and the realization
of the underlying purpose of modelling. The model, of course, also allows us to stop proceedings, given
that the information gathered meets the needs of experts in defining the model of performing a certain
movement technique. This mainly depends on the complexity of the elements and the selected purpose
of modelling.
The whole process will be presented in the continuation of the paper (Figure 2), and also the activities
that have to be carried out in each phase of the procedure. In some phases concrete examples of phase
performance will be presented.
Figure 2: The procedure of biomechanical modelling of movement techniques in complex gymnastic elements.
PHASE 1: Recording of movement techniques in the selected element
Phase 1 (Figure 3) is a standard part of the procedure when making a video recording of all these
biomechanical systems for the kinematic analysis. First, a selection of the most suitable positions for the
cameras is envisaged (at least two) and their synchronization. This is followed by recording of reference
frames (1m3) for precise calibration of space. The number of reference frames and places where the
frames are going to be positioned depends on the movement that we intend to record and investigate,
as well as on the apparatuses where the elements will be performed.
Depending on the purpose of introducing the procedure the number and the amount of elements that
will be covered at this phase of the procedure has to be identified already in the research plan. Most of
the researches done so far have been related to the recording of one representative (reference) successful
attempt of element performance that may be sufficient for the analysis of the element performance
technique, for planning of the methodology of learning/training elements, for the calculation of kinematic
and dynamic parameters when developing new element or for the planning of physical preparation
for the performance of the selected element. However, if the purpose of biomechanical modelling is
evaluation of methodical procedures, to identify errors in movement or to determine the variability in
technique in the performance of successful movements, it is necessary to determine the appropriate
pattern of movements, which will be analysed in subsequent phases of the process. It is also important
that simultaneously with the recording also the evaluation of the quality performance of the elements
takes place, done by the experts - gymnastics judges, because the judge’s assessment is an important
qualitative information for further analysis of movement.
Figure 3: Steps in the implementation of the phase 1 of the procedure of biomechanical modelling of movement
techniques.
Step 1
Positioning and
synchronisation o
cameras.
f
Step 2
Determination of space to be
measured.
Step 3
Recording and expert
assessment of movements.
Data obtained in this phase or the acquired video material allow establishment of a clear idea about the
movement being studied. A researcher or coach as well as the athlete get the first rough, but important
information. Should we make a stop in the procedure in this phase, many hidden details in the technique
of performance might escape, such as the exact ratio of body segments in space during the element
performance, the position and route of the centre of gravity of the body, the speed of reference (body)
points, the size of the angles and angular velocities of the body segments. In addition, the occurrences
of certain biomechanical principles might be overlooked (e.g. start of reactive transmission of swing
from one part of the body to another) as well as the causes for the incidence of errors in movement and
others.
15
PHASE 2: Biomechanical (expert) modelling of movement
In this phase, we produce the basis of expert knowledge on the relevant theoretical biomechanical and
physical movement models of the selected element. When making a theoretical biomechanical model of
the movement we need to take into account those movements which are by experts (judges, coaches)
considered as relevant and technically flawless (consistent with IMM). For such movements it is necessary
to define the important movement segments and positions of the body in motion (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Activities in the execution of phase 2 of biomechanical modelling of movement.
In the process of producing a theoretical biomechanical model of movement we become better
acquainted with the selected movement and understand its physical backgrounds. Such model makes it
easier for us to distinguish the important segments of each movement and on this basis makes it easier
to choose the parameters for the analysis of movement and position of the body during movement
which we have to be focused on, when making the analysis. To construct these models, it is important to
have a good - expert knowledge on the element techniques in artistic gymnastics, as well as a satisfactory
knowledge of physics and mechanics. In order to construct the model we use different models of division
of the entire element movement and the corresponding descriptions.
Below, the model of Smolevskij (1992) will be presented, which provides a relatively accurate and
sufficiently detailed construction of biomechanical models for all the stated purposes of biomechanical
modelling.
Smolevskij (1992) has divided elements according to the following criteria:
1. position of the athlete according to the apparatus or the surface during the performance of
movements,
2. action of forces during the performance of movements and
3. borderline positions during the performance of movements.
The first criterion for the division of movement is the position of the athlete in reference to the apparatus
or the surface. During the performance of gymnastic elements athlete is in two specific positions in
16
relation to his surroundings: supportive and non-supportive. The supportive part of the movement is
the part where the athlete is in contact with the ground or apparatus.A special example of supportive
part of movement is landing. And the non-supportive part of movement is the part when the athlete
is not in contact with the ground or the apparatus or when the athlete is in the air. The movements
containing the phase of flight can thus be divided into three parts: supportive part, non-supportive part
and landing. In this kind of division, there are three systems: “gymnast-apparatus”, “gymnast in free fall”
and “gymnast-landing area”.
The second criterion is the activity of forces during the performance of movements. The forces acting
on the athlete’s body during the performance of movements can be divided into external and internal
forces:
internal forces:
o muscular activity,
external forces:
o mass force (gravitation force),
o apparatus and ground flexibility force (action-reaction),
o friction force,
o air resistance force.
When doing analyses in artistic gymnastics most often the frictional force and the force of air resistance
are neglected. According to the established criteria the elements can be divided into four parts, called
phases of movement.
During the rotation movements from above downward the force of gravity accelerates the speed of
gymnasts’ body and acts as a positive acceleration which is in the rotational motion as follows:
α=dω/dt, where »α« stands for: change in angular velocity (dω) within certain time (dt).
When body is traveling from top to bottom the internal forces (muscular activity), and the force of
gravity are acting in the same direction, and this phase is called the “accumulation phase”. In the case,
however, when the athlete’s body moves from the bottom up, the internal forces and the mass force
oppose to each other and the force of gravity acts as a negative acceleration. This phase is called the
“phase of work”.
During the flight (non-supportive part) the gravitation force is pulling the gymnast’s body to the ground,
first by reducing the speed of the body’s centre of gravity (during the flight up) then by the acceleration
(during flight downwards). But this does not affect his/her rotation. Gymnast uses the accumulated
energy(Es) to perform the necessary movement during flight. This part of the movement is called
“performance phase” (Figure 3).
With the forces (F) and torques (M) the momentum (G) and angular momentum (Γ) of the body are
connected.
G=(F/a)*v
Γ=(M/α)*ω
17
The angular momentum is particularly important parameter that describes the rotating movement of
the body in non-supportive phase and in the performance phase of movement. The angular momentum
of the entire body is the algebraic sum of the angular momentum of individual segments. Among
the various segments of the body internal forces act (muscular activity), which can vary the angular
momentum of individual segments, yet, they do not change the total angular momentum of the body.
This alter only due to shock torques of external forces. If there are no shock torques of external forces
(which is typical for the performance phase, as we do not take into account the force of air resistance),
the angular momentum of the body retains. The size of angular momentum can also be expressed by the
following equation:
Γ=J*ω
Angular momentum is thus the product of the body moment of inertia (J) and angular velocity (ω). The
moment of inertia of the body is the equivalent to inertia of the body in linear motion and is a measure
of the body mass distribution about the axis of rotation. The magnitude of the moment of inertia of the
body determines how difficult it is to start or stop the circular (rotational) movement, which is one of the
fundamental characteristics of motion in the performance of gymnastic elements. Unlike the linear inertia
of the moving body (G) the moment of inertia of a rotating body (Γ) depends on the position of the body
(stretched, bent, shrunken) and on the angles between segments (e.g. the trunk and legs). The moment of
inertia is a product of body mass (m) and the square of its distance from the axis of rotation (r2).
J=m*r2
By changing the body position (shrinking, stretching, bringing hands to the body, etc.) in the performance
phase we change the lever size (bringing body closer or further away from the rotation axis) and thus
increase or decrease by square the moment of inertia of the body at a constant mass (the mass of
an athlete does not change during the movement).Thus we do not change the angular momentum by
changing the moment of inertia, which is by definition in non-supportive phase (performance phase)
constant (not changing its value) and is the result of inertia and angular velocity, however, the angular
velocity does change, which manifests itself as faster or slower rotation of the body around the diagonal
(salto) or longitudinal (twists) axis. Therefore, the athlete by increasing or decreasing the momentum
of inertia of the body, decreases or increases his angular velocity, at a constant angular momentum. This
allows controlling the angular velocity in the performance of saltos and twists (Petrov & Gagin, 1974). All
the above stated findings apply only for non-supportive part (performance phase) of movements and in
the absence of shock torques of external forces. If the angular momentum of the non-supportive part of
the movement does not change its value, therefore, the performance of movements in the performance
phase depends on the size of angular momentum an athlete produces in the supportive part (push off on
the ground floor, whip and swing on the high bar, etc.).The aim of every athlete is to provide the greatest
possible amount of rotational movement in the supportive part, to enable him to carry out movements
in the non-supportive part.
During landing after dismount, the force of gravity has similar effect as in case of supportive part of the
movement. The force of gravity opposes the athlete’s activities to keep him from remaining at the site
(landing), so an athlete attempts to neutralise the accumulated energy in order to stick. This phase of the
movement is called amortisation phase.
The third criterion is a division of phases into the borderline positions. This criterion includes changing
the type of movement. For example, at the moment when gymnast begins a “whip action” in dismount
from the high bar, his body passes from stooping position of the body into strong arched (extension in the
shoulder and hip joints). It is important to learn and to understand any such borderline position because
they have a significant impact on the final performance of movement.
Figure 5: Example of division of double stretched somersault with two turns from the bar, according to the criteria
of Smolevskij (1992).
18
DOUBLE OUTSTRETCHED SOMERSAULT FROM THE BAR WITH DOUBLEROTATION ARROUND THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS
DIVISION CRITERIA (Smolevskij, 1992)
1. Athlete‘s
position
2. Action of forces
3. Borderline position
PRIKAZ
Transition from arch into stoop:
Phase of work 1
Movement from 1 to 3
Transition from body’s stoop
into archedposition (beginning
of »whip«):
SUPPORTIVE PART 1
Phase of accumulation
Transition from arch
into the gymnastic dish
position(»swing«):
Phase of work 2
Movement from 7to 9
NON-SUPPORTIVE PART
Arms closing in towards the
body and persistence in dish
position
Phase of performance
Stretching and shifting hands
away from the body and body
stretching with preparations for
landing
SUPPORTIVE PART 2
Movements from 21 to 22
Phase of amortization
Bending in hip and knee joint
19
Thus, divided elements (Figure 5) are suitable for the description of technical structures and biomechanical
parameters for any gymnastic movement.
Figure 6: An example of a theoretical biomechanical model of movements in separate phases of movement (Figure
5) during the performance of the double stretched somersault with two turns/ plants from the bar.
DOUBLE OUTSTRETCHED SOMERSAULT FROM THE BAR WITH DOUBLE ROTATION ARROUND THE
LONGITUDINAL AXIS
SUPPORTIVE PART 1
DIVISION CRITERIA
1. Athlete’s
2. Action of forces
position
20
Theoretical biomechanical model of movement
(physical quantity used for description of movement)
Phase of work 1
The first phase of work begins with a pronounced swinging of legs
over the bar (time, acceleration, angular velocity). The consequence
is bending of the body in the hip and shoulder joint (angle). The
angle between the trunk and the thighs may also be more than 90
degrees (angle).The competitor is trying to minimize radial force and
maximize tangential force (force). This phase of the movement ends
in a stooped handstand position (path, time, angle). At that time, the
potential energy reaches maximum, and kinetic energy is supposed
to be maximized (energy).
Phase of
accumulation
This phase begins in the stooped handstand when the potential
energy is at its maximum (path, time, angle, energy). After passing
from handstand in stooped position, the athlete starts strong
stretching backwards and down (time, path, angle). Extension of the
body must be sufficient that the angle in the shoulder and hip joint
exceeds 200 degrees (path, angle).The athlete is under the effect of
the sum of external forces and torques/moments, which is greater
than zero, since the movement is accelerated along the circumference
(force, speed, acceleration). In this phase, the competitor is trying to
maximize the radial force and minimize the tangential force (force).
The phase ends in a position of hang when the potential energy is
minimum, and the kinetic energy is maximum (path, time, energy).
Phase of work2
The second phase of work begins in a position of hang (path, time,
angle). In this position, the competitor must achieve a maximum
extension in the hip and shoulder joint (time, angle). Hips are far
ahead of the shoulders (path, angle). At the end of this phase the
athlete must have the highest possible movement and angular
momentum. Therefore, the sum of all shock torques from external
forces should be as high as possible (force).During the swing the
circular motion continues (time, path, angular velocity), when
a contestant tries to maximize the tangential force (force). This
condition ends at the moment when the athlete releases the bar
(path/route, time). At the time, his potential energy is lower than
later on in the highest position non-supportive part (energy).
DOUBLE STRETCHED SOMERSAULT FROM THE BAR WITH DOUBLE ROTATION ARROUND THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS
DIVISION CRITERIA
(Smolevskij, 1992)
SUPPORTIVE PART 2
NON-SUPPORTIVE PART
1. Athlete‘s
position
2. Action of forces
Phase of performance
Theoretical biomechanical model of movement
(physical quantity used for description of movement)
In the performance phase the contestant performs double stretched
somersault (double rotation around the transverse axis of the body) and
double rotation around the longitudinal axis (angle, path). The movement of
the centre of gravity of the body is a parabola, which depends on the take-off
angle and the speed of the centre of gravity of the body (path, angle, speed).
Upon releasing the bar the body has certain inertia. When the athlete releases
the bar the axis of rotation is transferred to the centre of gravity of the body,
therefore, the moment of inertia reduces, and the angular speed increases.
The athlete‘s performs air movements in a gymnastic dish position (strong
muscle tension in the front part of the body gives the body a slightly concave
shape) (angle).Quickly after leaving the apparatus the competitor starts to
perform the rotation about the longitudinal axis (path, angle). By strongly
and unevenly pulling his hands towards his body in the direction of rotation
around the longitudinal axis, he changes the moment of inertia of the body
and increases the angular velocity of the body about the longitudinal axis.
In the performance phase the contestant performs biaxial rotation (rotating
around two axes at the same time).At the moment of leaving the bar the
gymnast has from zero up kinetic energy, and the potential energy is lower
than in the highest point of the flight (path). In the highest point of the flight
the potential energy of the body‘s the highest (path). Before landing the
competitor stretches the body and opens his arms outwards (path, angle,
time). This increases the inertia moments of the two rotary movements and
reduces the angular speeds. This enables him to control the movement and
prepare for landing (time).
At the time of landing the shock torques of external forces on the athlete
must be equal to his angular momentum during the flight. At the end of
landing the body has less potential energy than in the initial position, and
the kinetic energy is zero.
Phase of amortisation
Findings obtained in the second phase, allow us to answer the question why the body moves during the
performance of the element like it does. A researcher, trainer and athlete gain important information
about the physical (biomechanical) laws that affect movement and make it possible. This phase allows us
to have a detailed theoretical insight into the analysed movement and to identify those biomechanical
laws, which are important for the performance of the movement and the important information on
what are those parameters throughout the entire movement or a particular segment of the movement,
which in the subsequent steps of the analysis are necessary and worth observing. It also allows a
precise identification of movement techniques in each element. Of course, at this stage we do not know
anything about the actual amounts of recognized physical laws and their changes during the movement
performance. Therefore, we recognize and define them with the modern technology in the subsequent
steps or phases of the model which allows us to have a direct and detailed insight into the whole
movement and its important segments.
21
Notwithstanding the aforementioned, the theoretical biomechanical model of movement in accordance
with the Figure 1 allows us (especially in the less complex movements) to design methodical procedures
for learning the elements, to identify technical errors in the movement performance, to establish relevant
procedures of safety protection and assistance in learning the elements and to see certain aspects of
planning physical preparation.
PHASE 3: Kinematic and dynamic (kinetic) motion analysis
The third phase of the model represents the data transfer from the video recording of quantitative values,
thus determining the value of kinematic and dynamic (kinetic) parameters for the selected reference
points and segments. Although one can use systems such as the APAS (Ariel Performance Analysis
System) to calculate values of kinematic parameters for each selected item in skimmed area, it is the task
of experts to carry out, on the basis of theoretical biomechanical model of the movement, the selection
and chose only those points and segments of movement that are relevant for achieving the objective of
the analysis. This is followed by digitization of selected segment of movement and the reference points
(step 1, Figure 7), which enables the production of kinogram (Step 2, Figure 7), and a graphical display
of the values of kinematic parameters of reference points (step 3, Figure 7), which enables accurate
quantitative and qualitative kinematic analysis of the analysed movement. This enables us to pinpoint
phases and sub-phases in the movement, as well as significant changes in kinematic parameters in the
movement performance.
The final step in the phase of biomechanical model is dynamic and kinetic analysis of movement which
is carried out if we are implementing the fundamental objectives of the planned analysis. In the dynamic
analysis of movement the point is to identify the forces and torques generated by the movement.
Dynamic motion analysis can be performed by direct measurement of forces on the apparatus (Krug,
1992; Bruggemann, 1994; Marinšek, 2011) or on the ground or with the procedure of calculation of forces
derived from the kinematic parameters by the method of inverse mechanics (Kolar, 1996; Čuk, 1996).The
method of inverse mechanics is a non-invasive method that is performed on the basis of the calculated
kinematic motion parameters (Colja, 1994). The calculation is only possible if there is a ground support
with one segment, thus calculations can be carried out only until leaving the apparatus and the grounds
push off (analysed possible only in supportive part). The inverse mechanics allows the calculation of net
forces and torques on the basis of kinematic parameters.
Equally, in this phase the hypothetical functional anatomical motion analysis can be carried out (Čuk,
1996). The analysis of angles between segments (kinematic analysis) and the forces generated in a
particular part of the movement (dynamic analysis) may point at the type of movement in a particular
joint, as well as at the active muscle group, the size of the angular velocity and at the type of muscle
contraction. This analysis largely facilitates the production plan for special physical preparation as well as
the process of successful acquisition of certain elements.
Upon termination of this phase of biomechanical modelling we have enough data to be able to make an
accurate description of the movement technique, which enables us to make a very accurate determination
of changes in the physical characteristics of the selected movement. And this enables us to identify those
segments of movement performance, which are crucial for the successful performance and a direct
guideline for the coach and athlete regarding where they should focus their attention in learning and in
the performance of the movement.
22
Figure 7: Display the steps of the Phase 3 in the biomechanical modelling of selected movement.
Step 1
Selection of reference
points and digitization of
movement.
Step 2
Production of kinogram.
Step 3
Calculation and display of
kinematic parameters of
reference points.
Step 4
Calculation of dynamic
parameters with the method
of universal mechanics.
23
PHASE 4: Analysis of selectedparametersand interpretation
This phase of biomechanical modelling primarily depends on the very purpose of the analysis. If it is
only for the sake of analysis and description of motion it is required to properly interpret and describe
the calculated kinematic and dynamic parameters to allow their application in planning the methodical
procedures or in the planning of physical preparation (Manon, De Leo &Carvelli Mallozzi, 1992; Bedenik,
1995; Cuk, 1995; 1996; Prassas& Ariel, 2005; Marinšek et al., 2006; Veličković et al., 2011; Bango, SilleroQuintana & Grande, 2013).And, if it is a question of evaluation of methodical procedures, then it is
necessary to adequately explain why each methodical step is more adequate than another and why, for
example, the methodical process may be shortened by omitting individual methodical steps (Manon, De
Leo & Carvelli Mallozzi, 1992b; Kolar, Kolar Andlovec & Štuhec, 2002; Veličković, Kugovnik, Kolar, Bubanj,
Madić & Supej, 2005).When dealing with errors identification during movements or with detection of
possible variability in the performance of one of the elements it is, of course, necessary to cover a larger
number of element performances. In order to detect errors in the movements performance it is worth
comparing the kinematic and dynamic parameters between successful and unsuccessful performances
of each movement, whereas to detect the variability of individual parameters in the same movement,
we usually analyse a larger number of successful attempts od movement (Kolar, Piletič, Kugovnik, Kolar
Andlovec & Štuhec, 2005 Veličković, 2005).When trying to introduce new elements it is usually a question
of mathematical modelling of already accomplished movements, for which a different position of the
body is envisaged in the movement performance (e.g . instead contracted we envisage stretched) or add
rotations to separate movements around the longitudinal or transverse axis (Čuk, 1996; Čuk, Atiković &
Tabaković, 2009).
Figure 8: Examples of interpretations of movement techniques analyses by applying biomechanical modeling, given
the purpose of the application of this method.
24
Purpose
Research
Main stresses in the interpretation given the purpose of the
research
Analysis and Kolar, E. (1996). From the graph, showing the movement of the body centre of
and
gravity in the x axis, we can see that a contestant in the first half
m o v e m e n t Technique
methodology
of the accumulation phase reached the maximum distance of the
description
of
dismount
form
the
bar
(double stretched
s o m e r s a u l t
backwards with two
rotations).
centre of gravity of the body from the bar, which allows to develop
large tangential forces later on in this phase of the movement.
Afterwards the center of gravity of the body in the x axis steadily
moves away from the bar, which allows to move away from it when
leaving the apparatus. The graph of movement of the center of
gravity of the body in the y axis indicates that the center of gravity
of the body in the accumulation phase rapidly decreases, and that
it is growing rapidly in the phase of work. It reaches its maximum in
the performance phase (4.02m).
The graph of body‘s gravity centre speed shows two peaks. The first
peak coincides with the start of the third boundary position while
others coincide with the point before leaving the apparatus. The
feature of this movement is actually present in all methodical steps.
From the graphs of forces and moments we see that the curve has
two peaks, both low and high. The first coincides with the start
of the third boundary position and the second with the point just
before leaving the bar. Since the torque and the force have a decisive
influence on the angular momentum of the body, and the latter on
the performance of rotations around the transverse axis of the body,
it is extremely important that they are as high as possible just before
to leaving the apparatus.
Given the fact that the law of conservation movement and angular
momentum respectively, provides, that angular momentum is
preserved if it is not affected by any external force or if the vector
sum of torques of all the external forces is zero (which is entirely
appropriate to exercise double salto with double rotation), we
can argue that the success of dismount mainly depends on the
performance in the supportive part of the element.
Planning
of Kolar, E. (1996). Based on biomechanical model of double stretched salto back with
and double rotation from the bar, the author has proposed the following
m e t h o d i c a l Technique
m
e
t
h
o
d
o
l
o
g y methodical procedure for the training/learning of selected element:
procedures
of
dismount
form
the
bar
(double stretched
s o m e r s a u l t Giant swing back with acceleration on the high bar,
backwards with two
stretched somersault backward with landing on the back with
rotations).
emphasized bending down in backswing from the bar,
from the giant to „whip“ with a swing towards front swing without
releasing the bar,
double stretched somersault backwards with landing from the bar,
double stretched somersault with 1/1 rotation around the
longitudinal axis, with landing on feet, from the bar,
double stretched somersault with 2/1 rotation around the
longitudinal axis, with landing on feet, from the bar.
25
S. The author developed the models of special physical preparation for
P l a n n i n g Veličković,
of
physical (2005). Defining of the element swing and swing with rotation for 1800 on the parallel bars
kinematic
model by using three sequential steps (phases) for exploring the following
preparations
of
performance elements:
technique of most
complex gymnastics
exercises.
producing kinograms of successful performances of these elements
and the calculation of kinematic variables (angles and angular
velocity) of movement between selected body segments,
making hypothetical functional anatomical analysis of body
movement and body segments in the element performance for
each phase of elements separately and
selection of exercises for physical preparation for each phase of the
movement, according to the findings from functional anatomical
analysis of body movement and the regime of movement of
selected segments of the body, in each phase of movement in
element performance (kinematic analysis).
Example: Physical preparation for the implementation of the
second phase of the element movement (transition from support
at the hands towards inverted hang piked - accumulation phase
named by the author as SPAD):
prevention exercises for strength of flexors of the neck and
hands (fingers),
exercises to increase flexibility of hip joint extensors,
exercises to develop strength flexors of back muscles and
flexors of the hip joint.
Identification Kolar, E., Piletič, The results of t-test shows that good and bad (with error)
performances of the double piked somersault backwards from the
of errors in S., Kugovnik, O.,
Andlovic Kolar, K. &
parallel bars is statistically significantly different in two kinematic
movement
Štuhec, S. (2005).
variables, which are located in non-supportive part (the time when
Comparison
of
the tested person reached the maximum bend of the body in the hip
kinematic variables
joint) and in amortisation phase (as in the hip joint at amortisation
of good and bad
of landing).
performances
of
dismount from the Within the matrix of connections (Pearson correlation coefficient),
we found that the criterion (dismount without judge‘s deduction)
parallel bars.
was statistically significantly associated only with the angle of the
hip joint in amortisation of landing. This variable was statistically
significantly associated with some kinematic variables in the
supportive part of the element.
Therefore, the attention should be devoted also to the analysis of
the supportive part of the elementin the processof learning these
elements or error correction when landing.
26
Detection of
of
possible
variability in
performances
Veličković,
S.
(2005)..
Defining
of kinematic model
of
performance
technique of most
complex gymnastics
exercises.
The author has investigated the variability of kinematic parameters on
the basis of ranges between the minimum and maximum values by
taking into account the standard deviations for each of the selected
kinematic variables during the entire movement. The analysis covered
15 successful attempts of the element from swing to stand on the
parallel bars. The analysis sought to answer the following research
questions:
What are the boundary values of selected kinematic parameters
that still enable a successful performance of selected elements?
Where are the opportunities for correction of movements big (high
variability)?, and where they are small (low variability)?
The author has found that the variability of kinematic variables in the
performance of the element swing on the parallel bars is the lowest
in the phase of transition of the body through inverted piked hang
and in the first part of front swing in the inverted piked hang. Based
on the findings he concluded that when performing the element
it is necessary to be more attentive particularly to this part of the
element, since each minor deviation from the intended movement
in this part of the element may result in ineffective performance of
the entire element. The rest of the element movement was marked by
greater variability of kinematic variables, which had no influence on the
successful performance of the entire element. The stated recognition is
also a direct guidance for coaches on which part of the elements should
they be especially attentive in the element training/learning process
and in the process of correcting errors.
27
Development Čuk, I., Atiković, The high demands of performing a Tkachev somersault can be
A. & Tabaković, M.
achieved by excellent gymnasts who can perform straight Tkachev
of new skills
(2009).
Tkachev
somersault on high
bar.
with a very high amplitude. However, the new element is extremely
difficult to perform as its basic conditions are:
position of release requires very good flexibility of the arms and
trunk(angle x axis – arms 43, arms-trunk 223, trunk -legs 200);
a very good physical preparation as a tucking time of 0.24s can
only be performed by the best prepared gymnast;
the time of flight has to be at least 0.68s which should not be a
problem for the gymnasts who can perform a straight Tkachev;
vertical velocity should be as high as possible, but minimum safe
velocity is2.77 ms-1, as this gives the gymnast more airborne
time and a higher distance from the high bar (in this case the
gymnast‘s position can also be more open);
a problem which has yet to be analysed is how to preserve
angular momentum during release.
All the calculated data for a safe Tkachev somersault;
time of flight;
vertical, horizontal and total velocity at release;
body angles at release and re-grasp;
angular momentum during flight and
the distance of the gymnast from the high bar,
are equal to or lower than other comparative researches. As
maximum known load to apparatus (at rings, at the gymnasts
vertical position in hang performing triple somersault backward
tucked) is 13G (Čuk, Karacsony, 2002), we can conclude that the
production and preservation of angular momentum during the
preparation phase until the release phase should be solved.
As gymnast scan produce even higher biomechanical values than
those needed for a Tkachev somersault, we can conclude that a
Tkachev somersault can be accomplished, and will probably, in the
near future, be performed at competitions.
28
CONCLUSIONS
The article deals with the importance of biomechanical modelling for effective and efficient
implementation of the process of learning of elements (especially the most complex) in gymnastics. Given
that the gymnastics is a conventional sport and that the performance of each athlete depends primarily
on the amount and difficulty of elements that they are able to successfully perform at the competition,
it is therefore true that their performance decisively and crucially depends on the successfully carried
out process of elements learning and training. Thus, the learning of elements in gymnastics is the basis
for the planning of the entire training process, and consequently all other aspects of training should
be subordinate to this process. Particularly the process of biomechanical modelling of movements is
a fundamental process of learning about the techniques of motion for each element, and thus a sine
qua non of understanding the element and establishing a methodical path for its learning. From this
perspective, the importance of biomechanical modelling of movements in learning the elements is
essential for the successful planning, implementation and control of the learning process of elements in
gymnastics.
This paper presents a model of biomechanical modelling as a framework that can help every researcher
or manager to detect technical structures of movement of each element. The complete model consists of
four consecutive phases. For each phase it is significant that both, the researcher as well as the coach or
athlete may obtain a certain amount of information about each of individual movement. The amount and
the accuracy of the information from phase to phase increases and further illuminates the mechanisms
that affect the successful performance of each movement. The number of phases of a presented
model, that an individual will be using in the planning process of learning individual elements or for
the correction of errors in the performance of elements depends on the complexity of the elements,
required information and, in particular, on the purpose of biomechanical modelling.
We, the authors, believe that understanding the biomechanical characteristics of the movements in
individual element is the key factor of effective and efficient learning and the subsequent performance
of the elements. We therefore consider that the presented model can be an important and welcome
tool for all who participate in that process. The applicability of the model is presented on the example of
gymnastics but its usefulness can be extended, in particular, to the group of conventional sports, as well
as into the area of other sports, because a correct and effective movement technique is an important
component of successful performance in all sports.
29
VIRI
Bango, B., Sillero-Quintana, M. & Grande, i. (2013). New apparatus to assess the force production in the swallow.
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Šport.
Brüeggmann, G.P., Cheetam, P., Arampatzis, D. (1994). Approach to a Biomechanical Profile of Dismounts and
Release-Regrasp Skills ofthe High Bar. Olympic Scientific Projects, Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 10 (3): 291-312.
Colja, I. (1994). Računalniški program za izračun sil pri kroženju. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport.
Čuk, I. (1995): Kolman and Pegan saltos on high bar. V Jošt, B. (Ur.) Kinematična analiza gibanj v izabranih športnih
panogah (str. 195-198). Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakultet za šport.
Čuk, I. (1996). The development and analysis of a new gymnastics exercise – dropshoot with a forward somersalto
tucked from the parallel bars (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation thesis). Universityof Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport,
Slovenia, Ljubljana.
Čuk, I., Atiković, A. &Tabaković, M. (2009). Tkachev salto on high bar. Science ofGymnasticsJurnal, 1 (1): 5-15.
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za šport, Inštitut za šport, str. 380-391.
Kolar, E., Andlovic-Kolar, K., Štuhec, S. (2002). Comparative analysis of selected Biomechanic characteristics between
a support backward swing and support swing forthe 1 - 1/4 straddle-piked forward salto on the parallel bars. Sports
Biomechanics, 1 (1): 69-78.
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dobrih in slabih izvedb seskoka z bradlje. V E. Kolar & S. Piletič (Ur.) Gimnastika za trenerje in pedagoge 1. Ljubljana:
Gimnastična zveza Slovenije, str. 34-44.
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parallel bars. Biomechanics in Gimnastics: Cologne: 475-485.
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forward saltos at the parallel bars. Biomechanics in Gimnastics: Cologne: 487-497.
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30
SALT, WATER AND ACID-BASE BALANCE: WHAT A GYMNAST NEEDS TO KNOW
Pajek J.
Department of Nephrology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ABSTRACT
Hydration evaluation of human body involves assessment of water content and volume assessment
involves extracellular fluid volume assessment. Both parameters are dependent on kidney regulation.
Hypovolemia is defined by decrement in extracellular fluid volume and may be suspected in a gymnast
through evaluation of some specific complaints and simple tests even before medical evaluation is
engaged. Some simple laboratory methods to help in assessment of fluid derangements are presented.
Pure water deficiency is associated with thirst and this is more easily prevented and treated as greater
reductions of extracellular volume associated with water and sodium deficiency. Acid base disturbances
may accompany hypovolemic states and this may help in diagnosis of these conditions. Major acid base
disturbance associated with modern diet is a low level of chronic acidosis. This is derived from acid
loads mainly originating from animal protein contents. There are several studies showing that increasing
potassium citrate content of food (either through vegetable diet or pure addition) may improve markers
of bone formation and mineral bone density. This may be especially important in the conditions such
as female athletic triad (low energy intake, amenorrhea and osteopenia) which is more prevalent in
aesthetic sports such as gymnastics. Increased awareness about this condition is important to assure
optimal health of young gymnasts.
Key words: sports physiology, kidney, renal physiology, hypovolemia, acid-base balance, sodium.
Introduction
Evaluation of hydration is done by assessing the amount of water in the gymnasts body. Isolated
changes in hydration without associated changes in sodium and other electrolytes are rare. This isolated
water balance changes cause cell volume changes (intracellular dehydration and hyper-hydration) and
extracellular fluid sodium concentration changes. This way the diagnosis of isolated water content
changes is simple. More often, there is a change in extracellular fluid (ECF) volume (ECV), where sodium
accompanies water losses. Increase or decrease of extracellular fluid volume is defined as hyper- and
hypovolemia, respectively. In these case the sodium concentration may not be altered and no changes in
cellular volume be present. Here, we need to assess the changes in extracellular fluid and especially pay
attention to effective arterial volume (EAV). These two assessments define whether there will be a need
to increase or decrease ECV.
Physiological principles - basic mechanisms of water and sodium balance in human body
In healthy adults water represents approximately 60% of body weight. Cellular membranes border 2/3
of this water in intracellular compartment (ICF) from 1/3 of water present in ECF. In ECF there is 3/4 of
water in interstitial compartment and 1/4 in plasma (4-5% of body weight). Women have lower body
water proportion (approximately 50%), similar to elderly men. Older women only contain 45% of water.
Sodium with accompanying anions represents 90% of all solutes therefore the amount of sodium is a key
factor in ECV regulation.
Sodium balance is defined mainly by kidney excretion and oral intake. Kidneys are capable to strongly
retain sodium (excreting urine with a minimal sodium content) or to quickly increase sodium excretion
under the terms of surplus. Sodium balance regulates ECV. Key monitored parameter is a change in EAV,
31
regulatory center is a vasomotor centre in brain and key effectors are the hormones (renin, angiotensin II,
aldosterone, arginine-vasopressin (AVP), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and sympathetic system activity.
These effectors function with various consequences in blood and urine which can be measured and in
this way changes in ECV better diagnosed.
Water moves through cellular membranes due to changes in effective osmolality - tonicity. Increase in
in effective plasma osmolality causes thirst sensation but even before that the level of AVP is increased.
Both adaptations aim to ensure positive water balance in decrement in ECV osmolality (2). Same
accommodations take place in ECV loss. Kidneys are able to excrete water independently of salt, however
the common point is thirst and AVP responsiveness to ECV changes. This is the reason why patients with
insufficient EAV tend to have hyponatremia (insufficient EAV is a drive to thirst and increased AVP levels).
Since deviations in hydration and volume status are treated by fluid therapy or diuretics, one has to be
aware of expected obligatory and regular daily fluid traffic to properly prescribe fluid therapy. Average
daily fluid traffic is shown in table 1.
Table 1. Average daily fluid balance in a healthy adult in moderate climate. The values recalculated to a
70 kg person are in the brackets) (Nelson, 1995).
Intake (ml/kg/day)
Loss (ml/kg/day)
Food: 17 (1190 ml)
Urine: 15 (1050 ml)
Random intake*: 10 (700 ml)
Feces**: 2 (140 ml)
Metabolism: 5 (350 ml)
Insensible perspiration: 10-15 (700-1050 ml)
Sum: 32 (2240 ml)
Sum: 32 (2240 ml)
*Random intake contains water or other fluids intake due social, gourmet or other circumstances.
**In case of diarrhea substantially larger amounts of fluids in terms of several liters may be lost. Upper
digestive system losses due to vomiting or suction may sum up to 3 l daily (Nelson, 1995).
Volume status assessment
The report that a gymnast give when suspected of having a derangement in body fluids is of key
importance. We need to try to establish fluid losses due to perspiration, sweat, vomiting and diarrhea.
During this time the history of fluid intake and of the sort of fluid is equally important (has a gymnast
drunk electrolyte free fluid or was there a substantial salt intake is a key issue). Hypovolemia is defined
by a 20% decrement in functional ECV. Since only 5% of body water rests in the vascular space and
due to hyperosmolality associated intracellular dehydration, pure water losses are associated with lower
decrement in intravascular volume compared to combined water and electrolyte (sodium) losses.
Diuretics may be a major iatrogenic cause of body fluid derangements, however usage of these agents is
not common in practicing gymnasts.
Symptoms of hypovolemia are loss of energy and fatigue, muscle cramps, thirst and orthostatic faintness.
Major hypovolemia (especially in elderly people with associated comorbidities) may cause abdominal or
chest pain, symptoms of confusion and lethargy, or there may be disturbance of consciousness. These
symptoms appear due to diminished perfusion in mesenteric, coronary and cerebral circulation. One
must not overlook primary adrenal insufficiency where a diagnostically helpful craving for salt may be
present.
Hypervolemia typically causes edema, which is defined as a palpable swelling due to increased amount of
interstitial fluid. Other symptoms are dyspnea at exertion, fatigue (both due to congestion in pulmonary
circulation). In worse cases ortopnea, paroxysmal night dispnea and nicturia are present.
32
Examination and evaluation of hypovolemic athlete
Hypovolemia is a result of negative salt and water balance. Dehydration is hallmarked by hypernatremia
and intracellular dehydration. Hypovolemia is present as well. Several signs of hypovolemia are known
with various sensitivity and specificity (McGee, Abernethy & Simel, 1999). Lower skin turgor pressure is
useful in younger athletes but not in older persons (above 55-60 years). Normal turgor in young or obese
individual does not exclude hypovolemia. General usefulness of this physical sign is limited. Dry mucous
membranes have lower sensitivity and greater specificity, so the presence of this sign is more helpful
than its absence.
Orthostatic hypotension is a decrement of systolic blood pressure for 20 mm Hg or more (McGee,
Abernethy & Simel, 1999) or 30 mm Hg or more (Kocijančič, 2000) when transfer from supine to standing
position is made. It is necessary for a subject to stand for at least 1-3 minutes before the blood pressure
in standing position is taken. In healthy normovolemic individuals a slight lowering of blood pressure
and orthostatic increase in pulse frequency up to 10 beats/min is possible in the first minute standing,
but later these changes fade away. Sensitivity and specificity of orthostatic hypotension and orthostatic
pulse increment are shown in Table 2. It can be seen that both signs posses relatively high specificity, the
sensitivity of blood pressure measurement does not significantly enhances the prediction of hypovolemia
above that of orthostatic pulse frequency measurement (except in elderly patients).
Table 2. Diagnostic value of orthostatic changes in heart frequency in blood pressure (4).
Physical sign
Moderate fluid losssensitivity†
Large fuid losssensitivity‡
Before fluid loss–
specificity
Pulse frequency increment >
22%
97%
98%
30/minute*
Orthostatic hypotension > 20
9%
No data
94%
mm Hg (age < 65 let)
Orthostatic hypotension > 20
27%
No data
86%
mm Hg (age > 65 let)
*Patients unable to stand due to orthostatic faintness are included. † Loss of 450-630 ml of blood; ‡ loss
of 630-1150 ml of blood.
Hypovolemia causes a decrement in intravascular blood volume. Central venous pressure assessment
through neck vein assessment is a good way to search for signs of hypovolemia - normal central venous
pressure is in the range of 6-12 cm of fluid column (Kocijančič, 2000). Lowered blood pressure is a sign of
hypovolemia but only after a substantial loss of 20-25% of blood volume (Hollenberg & Pamillo 1998). At
that time other signs of circulatory hypovolemic shock would be present as well. In individual with preexistent arterial hypertension low normal values of blood pressure may signify hypovolemia. Less specific
sign but of cardinal importance is acute decrement in body weight.
Examaination of hypervolemic athlete
Hypervolemia is an increase in ECF volume. It is typically manifested by edema. When edema is present,
usually there already is an excess of 2,5-3 liters of fluid so a kidney retention of salt and water was
obligatorily involved (Lindič & Pajek, 2005). Since these states are exception in a generally healthy athlete
population no further discussion on this topic will be made here.
33
Laboratory findings in extracellular fluid changes
Several simple but very useful investigations of serum and urine parameters can be made in diagnosis
of ECV changes. First and above all, the lowered urine sodium concentration is a sign of hypovolemia.
The diagnostic level is sodium urine concentration below 20 meq/l. The concentration of 20-40 meq/l
is a grey zone. This change is a consequence of neuro-humoral renal adaptations to a decrement of EAV
and is basically a very specific sign of hypovolemia (with exception of bilateral renal artery stenosis and
severe acute proliferative glomerulonephritis). When there is hypovolemia due to diuretic use, postobstructive poliuria or ATN this sign loses its sensitivity. In cases of metabolic alkalosis sodium obligatory
accompanies bicarbonate in urine even under the terms of hypovolemia. In the cases of metabolic
alkalosis we should better rely on urine chloride concentration, which is then lowered under 25 meq/l.
In patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) the distinction between pre-renal azotemia and acute tubular
necrosis (ATN) may be difficult, as there are sodium urine concentrations 20-40 meq/l in both states. here
fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) must be calculated, see eq.1.
Equation 1: FENa = (UNa×Pkr/PNa×Ukr) × 100
(U-urine concentration, P-plasma concetration, Na-sodium, kr-creatinine).
IN pre-renal AKI FENa below 1% will be found, in ATN values above 2% will be present. In ATN due to
radiocontrast or miglobin-/hemoglobinuria FENa will be lower. If there is a prerequisite lowering of EAV
before the institution of AKI, FENa is not useful and is falsely low. The border for hypovolemia in FENa is
much lower if there is no AKI (below 0,2%).
The urine osmolality above 450 mOsm/kg is a marker of urine concentration due to exaggerate effects of
AVP. This may be a marker of hypovolemia too since there is a strong stimulus for AVP secretion, when
there is decrement of blood volume above 7% (Rose & Post, 2001). If there is no option to measure urine
osmolality, specific weight of urine may be of help. Under the conditions of hypovolemia specific urine
weight is above 1,015. Osmolality of urine may be calculated from the specific weight using Equation 2
Equation 2. Urine osmolality [mOsm/kg] = (specific weight– 1)×40.000.
Several serum investigations can be made as well. In healthy individuals there is usually a ratio of serum
urea and creatinine of 40-80:1. In hypovolemia there is an increased tubular reabsorption of sodium
and water accompanied by urea. In the conditions of hypovolemia there is initially increment in serum
urea when the serum concentration of creatinine is still normal, the ratio urea-creatinine elevates above
80:1 what is termed pre-renal azotemia. Differential diagnosis contains gastrointestinal haemorrhage,
glucocorticoid and tetracycline administration, catabolic states (i.e. burns), elevated protein intake and
urinary obstruction. Lowering of urea concentration can be found in cirrhosis of liver, protein malnutrition,
pregnancy, rhabdomiolysis and trimethoprim-sulphametoxazole.
Additional blood test involved in determination of ECV changes are haematocrit and albumin
concentration. Lowering of plasma volume increases both parameters. Some acid-base parameters are
also useful, they are shown in the table 3.
Table 3. Causes of acid-base changes associated with ECV changes
Metabolic alkalosis
Metabolic acidosis
Diarrhea
Vomiting and nasogastric suction
Hypoaldosteronism
Loop diuretics
Kidney failure
Thiazides
Ketoacidsosis of diabetes mellitus
Lactacidosis in shock
34
As a possible help in diagnostic evaluation of an individual with ECV derangements B-type natriuretic
peptide (BNP) evaluation is possible (Denus & Williamson, 2004). BNP is increased in cases of dyspnea
due to heart failure or hypervolemia. Of greatest help is a good specificity of BNP in concentrations ranges
under 100 pg/ml. Differential diagnosis of BNP elevations includes kidney failure and hypervolemia, since
BNP is excreted through kidneys and released as a consequence of ventricular dilatation. 100-400 pg/ml is
a grey zone, heart failure or hypervolemia as a cause of dyspnea are more certain at concentration ranges
above 400 pg/ml. Other causes of BNP elevations are cor pulmonale, pulmonary thrombo-embolism and
lung cancer.
Diet acid burden and bone health - information for athletes
It has become a known fact that increased protein content of food causes increased calcium urinary
excretion (Kerstetter, O’Brien & Insogna, 2003). Since protein s are one of key elements of nutrition the
hypothesis has been set, stating that the source of increased calcium is an efflux of calcium out of bones
due to increased buffering of dietary acid load caused by protein intake (Barzel & Massey, 1998). This
hypothesis named “acid-ash hypothesis” blames increased amount of animal protein intake and lowered
amount of vegetable potassium rich-basic nutrients to be associated with chronic acidosis and increased
bone resorption and fracture incidence.
Acid-ash hypothesis is supported by studies showing associations between animal protein intake and hip
fractures, clear correlation in acid and calcium urinary excretion and association of daily potassium intake
with higher bone mineral density (potassium being a marker of prevalent basic vegetable nutrition)
(Macdonald, New, Fraser, Campbell & Reid, 2005).There are some additional supportive studies showing
increased bone mineral mass and decreased calcium excretion and markers of bone resorption with
additions of potassium citrate (Jehle, Zanetti, Muser, Hulter & Krapf, 2006). On the basis of these findings
it seems that increased intake of animal protein is detrimental for bone mass and increased intake of
vegetable more “basic” food intake should be encouraged.
However there are a number of epidemiological studies showing positive associations between protein
intake and mineral bone density. Additionally vegetarian women may be more prone towards osteoporosis
than non-vegetarians. Also, increased amount of calcium excretion with animal protein intake may be
increased calcium gastrointestinal absorption and not bone resorption. However, when there is a small
intake of dietary calcium the effect of dietary protein on bone minerall mass is negative (Zhang, Ma,
Greenfield, Zhu, Du, et al, 2010). It is possible, that the acid-producing western diet is detrimental to
bone mass obly under the terms of insufficient calcium intake (Nicoll & McLaren Howard, 2014). This
may be especially important for gymnasts suspected of having female athlete triad (low energy intake,
amenorrhea and low bone mineral mass). This triad is associated with increased risk of stress fractures
(Javed, Tebben, Fischer & Lteif, 2013).
Final remarks
In active athlete exercising in warm climate with elevated sweat lossess not only water but also salt must
be replenished, this is especially important before the acclimatisation changes involving dimished sodium
sweat content take place. We have proposed explanation of key physiological principles involving ECV
regulation. Water balance is associated with serum osmolality which can be easily monitored through
serum sodium concentration. Water intake is important but key parameter associated with ECV and
EAV is sodium content and not sodium concentration. For optimal bone mineral densitiy and fracture
prevention increased amount of calcium and vegetable derived bases is probably more important than
animal protein intake.
35
References
Barzel, U.S. & Massey, L.K. (1998). Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. Journal of Nutrition, 128(6),
1051-1053.
Denus, S. & Williamson, Rd. (2004). Brain natriuretic peptide in the management of heart failure. Chest , 125, 652668.
Hollenberg, S.M., Pamillo, J.E., (1998). Shock. In: A.S. Fauci, et al. (Eds.), Harrisson’s Principles of Internal Medicine.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Javed, A., Tebben, P.J., Fischer, P.R. & Lteif, A.N. (2013). Female athlete triad and its components: toward improved
screening and management. Mayo Clin Proc, 88(9), 996-1009.
Jehle, S., Zanetti, A., Muser, J., Hulter, H.N. & Krapf R. (2006). Partial neutralization of the acidogenic western diet
with potassium citrate increases bone mass in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. Journal of the American
Society of Nephrology, 17(11), 3213-3222.
Kerstetter, J.E., O’Brien, K.O. & Insogna, K.L. (2003). Low protein intake: The impact on calcium and bone homeostasis
in humans. Journal of Nutrition, 133(3), 855S-861S.
Kocijančič, A. (2000). Klinična preiskava. Ljubljana: Littera Picta.
Kveder, R. (2002). Motnje v presnovi vode in natrija. In A. Kandus, J. Buturović Ponikvar, A.F. Bren (Eds.), Nefrologija
2002: Obravnava motenj elektrolitskega, vodnega in acidobaznega ravnotežja (pp.7-21). Ljubljana: Klinični oddelek
za nefrologijo.
Lindič, J. & Pajek, J. Edemi. (2005). In A. Kocijančič, F. Mrevlje, D. Štajer (Eds.) Interna medicina (pp.33-35). Ljubljana:
Littera-picta.
Macdonald, H.M., New, S.A., Fraser, W.D,, Campbell, M.K. & Reid, D.M. (2005). Low dietary potassium intakes
and high dietary estimates of net endogenous acid production are associated with low bone mineral density in
premenopausal women and increased markers of bone resorption in postmenopausal women. American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition, 81(4), 923-933.
McGee, S., Abernethy, W.B. & Simel DL. (1999). Is this patient hypovolemic? JAMA, 281, 1022-1029.
Nelson, L.D. (1995). Fluid therapy in the early postoperative period. In T.J. Gallagher, ed. Postoperative Care of the
Critically Ill Patient (pp. 121-148.) Baltimore: Williams&Wilkins.
Nicoll, R. & McLaren Howard, J. (2014). The acid-ash hypothesis revisited: a reassessment of the impact of dietary
acidity on bone. J Bone Miner Metab, 32(5), 469-475.
Rose, B.D. & Post, T.W. (2001). Clinical physiology of acid-base and electrolyte disorders (5th ed). New York: McGrawHill.
Zhang, Q., Ma, G.S., Greenfield, H., Zhu, K., Du, X.Q., Foo, L.H, et al. (2010). The association between dietary protein
intake and bone mass accretion in pubertal girls with low calcium intakes. British Journal of Nutrition, 103(5), 714723.
36
PERCEPTION-ACTION CONTINGENCIES IN COMPLEX SKILLS IN GYMNASTICS
Heinen T.
University of Hildesheim, Institute of Sport Science, Germany
Abstract
Expert gymnasts are able to perform complex skills, such as a double somersault with double twist
with ease. On first sight, it is unclear how such complex gymnastics skills are regulated. When an
actor (a gymnast) moves in a particular, yet dynamic environment, he/she grabs up information from
the environment, which is used to regulate action in order to achieve a particular movement goal. It is
argued that first, skilled gymnasts use their gaze behavior in an anticipatory manner to best serve the
task demands in a given situation. Second, gymnasts seem to regulate complex skills, on the basis of
visually perceived environmental cues, whereas different cues may guide different aspects of a particular
skill. For gymnastics training this perspective could imply different strategies, such as directing gaze when
performing a particular skill, and/or highlighting specific informational sources from the environment
during skill acquisition processes.
Keywords: visual perception, constraints, task demands, skill acquisition.
Introduction
Expert gymnasts are able to perform complex skills, such as a double somersault with double twist with
ease (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004). On first sight, it is unclear how such complex gymnastics skills are regulated.
Imagine for instance a gymnast leaving the trampoline bed for performing the aforementioned double
somersault with double twist: the linear and angular momentum along with a particular control of inertia
during the flight phase constrain the possibilities for action (Yeadon & Mikulcik, 2000). However, there is
still a manifold of movement options that would result in an upright landing at the end of the somersault
(Raab, de Oliveira, & Heinen, 2009). The question arises how gymnasts perceive and select a particular
movement option in a particular situation. In this paper it is argued that gymnasts develop task-specific
contingencies between perceptual information and executed movements. These contingencies are
thought to serve in the selection and the control of a particular movement option in a given situation
(O’Regan & Noë, 2001; Warren, 2006). First, the contributions of several theoretical foundations (i.e.,
direct perception) to gymnasts’ skilled performance will be highlighted. Second, a particular set of
perception-action contingencies, namely visual strategies, will be highlighted and their role for complex
skill performance in gymnastics will be discussed. Third, the role of environmental information in the
regulation and control of complex skill performance in gymnastics will be presented. Last but not least,
conclusions will be drawn and implications for practice will be given.
Option-Generation and Perception-Action-Coupling in Complex Gymnastics Skills
When performing complex gymnastics skills such as a double somersault with double twist, it seems
obvious that gymnasts need access to (perceptual) information about themselves and their environment
(Davlin, Sands, & Shultz, 2001; Hondzinski & Darling, 2001). The basic idea here is, that when an actor
(a gymnast) moves in a particular, yet dynamic environment, he/she grabs up information from the
environment, such as information about the springboard and the vaulting table, or information about
a particular location on a landing mat (Figure 1). This information is used to regulate action in order to
achieve a particular movement goal, such as a precise interaction with the springboard in gymnastics
37
vaulting or a precise landing when performing a dismount from the uneven bars (Bradshaw, 2004). The
aforementioned process is by no means linear but rather has some cyclical characteristics (Warren, 2006):
perceived information influences action which influences perception, which again influences action
and so on. During skill acquisition gymnast learn how perceptual information changes as a function of
the performed movements with respect to the environment (O’Regan & Noë, 2001). It is thus argued
that skilled gymnasts perceive relevant information directly and use that information to regulate their
movements continuously (Bradshaw, 2004; Gibson, 1979; Raab, de Oliveira, & Heinen, 2009; Warren,
2006).
This so-called perception-action-cycle is influenced by mental representations a gymnast has about a
particular skill (Schack & Ritter, 2009). For instance, novices who possess different mental representations
than experts are likely to show a different perception-action coupling than experts do. The perceptionaction cycle is also influenced by task demands of a particular skill (Fajen, Riley, & Turvey, 2008). Task
demands define movement goals and movement goals serve as a reference for a successful collaboration
between perception and action. A particular motor behavior emerges as a function of the current state
of the coupling between perception and action (Kelso, 1995). This behavior is stable in a specific set
of constraints and may change as a function of informational influences or influences from movement
effects (Newell, 1986). Finally, the coupling between perception and action is not stable in time but
rather changes as a result from developmental and training influences (Davids, Button, & Bennett, 2008).
On the perception side, there is compelling evidence that, if possible, gymnasts use predominantly visual
information in the selection and control of movement options in a given situation (Davlin, Sands, & Shultz,
2004; Heinen, 2010; Vickers, 2007). Therefore, a particular set of contingencies between perception and
action, namely visual strategies, will be highlighted in the following.
Visual Strategies in the Control of Complex Gymnastics Skills
In most everyday actions and skilled actions in sport, eye movements and whole-body movements are
thought to be functionally and spatially related (Laßberg, Beykirch, Mohler, & Bülthoff, 2014; Land,
Mennie, & Rusted, 1999). It is argued that gymnasts attempt to fixate their gaze on specific, yet taskrelevant objects and locations in the environment, such as the vaulting table or the landing mat when
performing complex skills, such as a somersault or a handspring (Davlin et al., 2004; Heinen, Jeraj, Vinken,
& Velentzas, 2012; Luis & Tremblay, 2008). This strategy, which is more generally known as visual spotting
or visual anchoring (Berthoz & Pozzo, 1994; Gautier, Thouvarecq, & Chollet, 2007; Hollands, Patla, &
Vickers, 2001; Laws & Sugano, 2008; Neggers & Bekkering, 2000; Robertson & Elliott, 1996), is strongly
limited to the functional range of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (Roy & Tomlinson, 2004). Thus, in novices
performing skills with rotation about the body axes for the first time, or in experts performing skills that
afford very high rotation velocities, this may outperform the functional range of the vestibulo-ocular
reflex, which likely results in gymnasts closing their eyes (Heinen, 2010; Pulaski, Zee, & Robinson, 1981,
Laßberg et al., 2014). The selection of task-relevant objects and locations in the environment is strongly
determined by the demands of the task at hand and the goals of the moving gymnast (Hayhoe & Ballard,
2005; Land & Furneaux, 1997).
From the results of previous studies one may conclude that visual spotting is primarily used to provide the
gymnast with information in controlling different movement phases of a somersault, while the utilization
of visual information also seems to differ between experts and novices (Bardy & Laurent, 1998; Davlin et
al., 2001, 2004; Heinen, 2010; Hondzinski & Darling, 2001; Lee, Young, & Rewt, 1992; Luis & Tremblay,
2008). There is additional evidence that there exist functional relationships between gaze control and the
corresponding motor behavior (Heinen, Velentzas, & Vinken, 2012; Heinen, Jeraj, Vinken, & Velentzas,
2012). It seems plausible that gaze behavior to a particular location interacts with motor behavior that is
also directed to this particular location, if a gymnast is able to direct his/her gaze to this location during
skill execution. Nevertheless, the question arises if these relationships still persist if gaze direction and
motor behavior are not directly coupled, such as in situations when a gymnast performs somersaults
without being able to direct his/her gaze to the landing mat during takeoff?
In a recent study, N = 10 female gymnasts were therefore asked to perform back tuck somersaults from
a miniature trampoline after a snap-down movement from a handstand position on a gymnastics box.
38
During takeoff, gymnasts gaze direction was manipulated by means of a laser pointer (cf., Heinen, Jeraj,
Vinken, & Velentzas, 2012). The laser point was projected on the distant wall behind the gymnastics
box in a way that either gaze had to be raised, or that gaze had to be lowered about 30 centimeters as
compared to a baseline condition, which reflected a straight horizontal gaze direction in upright stance
on the miniature trampoline. Figure 2 is an illustration of a prototypical result from this study. It was
found that gymnasts’ landing position as well as gymnasts’ leg-trunk angle, and gymnast’s angle between
trunk and the horizontal during takeoff varied also as a function of gaze direction during the takeoff
phase. When elevating gaze during takeoff, gymnasts exhibited for instance a larger leg-trunk angle
(i.e., more extended hips) as well as a smaller angle between trunk and the horizontal (i.e., stronger
layback) during takeoff as compared to when gaze was lowered. From the results of this study along
with the results of the studies mentioned above one may conclude that gaze behavior (in terms of visual
strategies) is closely related to the corresponding motor behavior. It seems as if skilled gymnasts use
their gaze in an anticipatory manner to best serve the task demands in a given situation even if gaze and
movement direction are not directly related (Lee et al., 1992; Pelz & Canosa, 2001). Given that purposeful
coordination in gymnastics is a result of a dynamic interplay of perception and action, the question arises
what role particular environmental cues play in the regulation of complex gymnastics skills?
Environmental Cues in the Regulation of Complex Gymnastics Skills
There is compelling evidence that in target-directed tasks, visual regulation processes operate to adjust
movement kinematics in order to intercept an object of interest (Bradshaw & Sparrow, 2001; Bradshaw,
2004; Lee, Lishman, & Thomson, 1982). Skilled gymnasts are thought to directly perceive relevant
environmental information, and to use this information in the continuous regulation of their movements
(Bradshaw, 2004; Raab et al., 2009). One could speculate that the extraction of task-relevant information
from environmental cues is strongly determined by the given task and environmental constraints. Since
different environmental constraints could comprise different informational sources, the question arises,
which environmental cues operate in this regulation process (Davids, Button, & Bennett, 2008)?
From the results of several studies one may argue, that gymnasts first and foremost utilize environmental
cues that can directly guide their action, and that are task-relevant (Bradshaw & Sparrow, 2001; Bradshaw,
2004). In a series of experiments the role of the position of the springboard in gymnastics vaulting was
for instance highlighted as an environmental cue that seem to guide the approach run in gymnastics
vaulting (Heinen, Jeraj, Thoeren, & Vinken, 2011; see also Meeuwsen & Magill, 1987, and Bradshaw,
2004). However, other environmental cues, such as the position of the vaulting table in relation to the
position of the springboard is likely to guide other kinematic aspects in gymnastics vaulting, such as
parameters related to the first flight phase (Heinen, Vinken, Jeraj & Velentzas, 2013). While it seems
plausible that skilled gymnasts regulate their approach run in a rather automated manner on the basis
or particular environmental cues, the question arises if this is also true for beginning gymnasts who are
engaged in the learning process of gymnastics vaulting?
In a recent study, (N = 15) beginning gymnasts were asked to perform jumps from a springboard to
a handstand position onto a stack of mats after a short run-up. The position of the springboard was
manipulated ±10 centimeters as compared to gymnasts’ individual springboard distance. Results revealed
that positioning of the feet on the springboard was in average uninfluenced by a manipulation of the
springboard position. It became apparent that gymnasts regulated their approach-run in particular during
the last 3 steps prior to touchdown on the springboard in order to compensate for the manipulation
of the springboard position (Figure 3). This regulation led to a constant takeoff from the springboard,
thereby highlighting that the position of the springboard operates as an informational source already in
beginning gymnasts when performing jumps to a handstand position from a springboard after a short
run-up. Taken together, gymnasts seem to regulate complex skills, such as vaults in gymnastics, on the
basis of visually perceived environmental cues, whereas different cues may guide different aspects of a
particular skill.
39
Conclusion and Implications for Practice
Perception and action are closely connected when performing gymnastics skills (Raab et al., 2009). It seems
obvious that expert gymnasts use task-specific visual strategies together with extracted information from
environmental cues when performing complex skills. For gymnastics training this could imply different
strategies: For instance, the knowledge about specific relationships between gaze behavior and movement
performance could easily be integrated in gymnastics training methodology (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004).
Given that directing gaze to particular objects or locations may result in a predictable change in movement
behavior, a coach could advise a gymnast to intentionally direct his/her gaze to specific locations with the
aim of exploring the motor space and/or triggering a particular motor behavior. In addition, visual cues
such as a laser point or other kinds of visual markings could be used to direct gymnasts gaze during skill
execution (Weiss, 1984). Seen on the long run this may also support the development of a structured
performance routine while preventing phenomena such as the lost-skill syndrome (Day & Thatcher, 2006;
Singer, 2002). Another strategy in gymnastics training could aim to enhance gymnasts’ ability to use or
attend to visual information during skill performance (Magill, 2007). Since different informational cues
from the environment seem to regulate different kinematic parameters, it may be wise to experiment with
different techniques to change perceptual information such as occluding or highlighting salient features
in the environment, or even suppressing specific sensory information (i.e., performing skills partially or
completely blindfolded). A changed perceptual information can easily be coupled with different activities
such as varying distances in the approach-run in gymnastics vaulting or varying the height of the uneven
bars when performing dismounts, just to name a few (i.e., Brashaw, 2004). It is stated that knowledge
about relationships between perceptual information and gymnasts’ motor behavior may help coaches
to develop specific training programs in order to optimize performance in complex skills in gymnastics.
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42
Figure 1
Model illustrating the idea of perception-action coupling in complex gymnastics skills. A gymnast
moves in a dynamic environment and picks up information from this environment. This perceptionaction cycle is influenced by task demands and mental representations. A particular motor behavior
emerges as a result of a particular coupling between perception and action. The coupling between
perception and action changes over time as a result of development and/or training (adapted with regard
to Davids et al., 2008; Kugler & Turvey, 1987; Newell, 1986; Vickers, 2007; Warren, 2006).
Figure 2
Illustration of the effect when directing gaze during a back tuck somersault performed after a snap-down
movement from a miniature trampoline. In a) gaze direction was elevated 30 centimeters whereas in b)
gaze direction was lowered 30 centimeters in relation to a baseline condition (i.e., straight gaze direction
in upright stance on the miniature trampoline). While the effect on landing distance seems obvious,
there are some more subtle changes in leg-trunk angle and the angle between trunk and the horizontal.
43
Figure 3
Illustration of the effect on foot placement on the springboard during takeoff and during the approachrun in gymnastics vaulting in beginning gymnasts when the springboard position was manipulated ±10
centimeters: a) Distance of toes toward the edge of the springboard. b) Difference in foot placement
during the approach-run when the position of the springboard was manipulated as compared to a
baseline condition (ISD = Individual Springboard Distance).
44
INvited
PROCEEDINGS
SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL - THE FIRST SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL FOR
GYMNASTICS
Bučar Pajek M., Čuk I.
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ABSTRACT
More than eight years ago the idea of having scientific Journal covering the field of gymnastics was
brought to life by prof. Ivan Čuk. We wanted to create a journal which would be the meeting point for
all those who are interested in research and wanted to share their gymnastics knowledge with others.
Researchers at gymnastics field could publish their work at other scientific journals such as Medicine and
science in sports and exercise, American journal of sports medicine, Clinics in sports medicine, Journal
of sports medicine and physical fitness and some others, but some specific topics such as case studies,
biomechanical characteristics of gymnastic elements and gymnastics history were not covered properly
by those journals. So, in the year 2009, the first issue of Journal was brought to live under the name of
Science of Gymnastics Journal. The path we went through during the last 7 years with limited resources
and financing, was not easy, but with enthusiasm and hard work from all the people involved (editors,
editorial and scientific board, reviewers and authors) we managed to bring the Journal to a high level
where we are today. Still there is work to do to; at the moment we are dealing with getting the impact
factor from Thomson and Reuters’ agency, but we are absolutely positive about achieving the goals set.
In this manuscript the Journal’s history of the last 7 years and achieved results are presented.
Keywords: Gymnastics, Science of Gymnastics Journal
BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC GYMNASTIC JOURNAL
It all started long before the first issue in the year 2009 was brought to live with the simple idea from
professor dr. Ivan Čuk: to create the scientific journal dedicated to gymnastics. Researchers in the field
of gymnastics know how difficult it is to publish the manuscript with specific narrow gymnastic topic
in various worldwide sport journals. However all researchers need to publish their work to achieve
recognition among scientific community and to be recognized by other researchers in the field, to
compare their results and gather new ideas. All with the purpose of supporting the athletes and coaches
practicing gymnastics. So, the idea seemed to be very catchy.
I was introduced to idea at the beginning of the year 2009 being first quite skeptical about it, but professor
Ivan Čuk reassured me, that he had it all figured out. To start the project he would need a lot of help,
support and volunteer work from different profiles of people. He is a person well known in the gymnastics
community, a researcher and expert with many ideas and projects, a well-known lecturer and author
of many scientific articles and books. He worked with FIG (International Gymnastics Federation) and
UEG (European Gymnastics Federation) on various projects, he has lots of gymnastics friends (coaches,
researchers, professors at different universities all over the world, gymnasts). Knowing him for 22 years
and working with him for the last 15 years I knew that when he believes in something so strongly such as
the idea of having a gymnastics journal, he would dedicate all his time and energy to achieve this goal.
There was a lot of work to do and the main tasks are listed below:
-
to set the editorial and scientific board with editors;
-
to choose the name of the journal;
47
-
to define the graphical outlook of the journal;
-
to establish a web access to the journal;
-
to persuade the Faculty of Sport to fully support us;
-
to invite the authors to submit the manuscripts to the journal which doesn’t exist yet;
-
to secure the reviewers to review manuscripts for the journal which doesn’t exist yet;
-
to gather ISSN and index for the journal;
-
to spread the information and advertise the journal internationally.
We managed to do it all and the first issue of Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) was born in
October, 2009 (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Cover page of the first issue of Science of Gymnastics Journal in 2009.
The editor in chief was and still is prof. Ivan Čuk, PhD,
the responsible editor was and still is assist. prof. Maja
Bučar Pajek (both from Slovenia). Editorial and scientific
board was composed by the following: Mikko Pehkonen
(Finland), Nikolaj Georgievic Suchilin (Russia), Hardy
Fink (Canada), William Sands (USA), Kamenka Živčič
Marković (Croatia), Ignacio Grande Rodríguez (Spain),
Warwick Forbes (Australia), David McMinn (Scotland,
UK), Almir Atiković (Bosnia and Herzegovina), José
Ferreirinha (Portugal) and Istvan Karacsony (Hungary).
Because the gymnastics community has wide range
of interests, we decided that our journal will be an
international online journal published three times a
year (October, February, June) that provides a wide
range of scientific information specific to gymnastics.
The journal will publish both empirical and theoretical
contributions related to gymnastics from the natural,
social and human sciences. It will strive to enhance
gymnastics knowledge (theoretical and practical) based
on research and scientific methodology. Journal will
cover topics such as performance analysis, judges’
analysis, biomechanical analysis of gymnastics elements, medical analysis in gymnastics, pedagogical
analysis related to gymnastics, biographies of important gymnastics personalities and other historical
analysis, social aspects of gymnastics, motor learning and motor control in gymnastics, methodology
of learning gymnastics elements, etc. We also decided that manuscripts based on quality research
and comprehensive research reviews would be considered for publication and papers from all types
of research paradigms. The publisher is Department of Gymnastics from Faculty of Sport, University of
Ljubljana.
So Gymnastics was the key word to all of us and we wished that the Science of Gymnastics Journal would
be a meeting point for all those who are interested in research and want to share their knowledge with
others.
The first issue of journal contained six articles and they covered a wide range of topics, including
biomechanics, motor learning, diet, performance characteristics and terminology (Science of Gymnastics
Journal, 2009):
48
-
Miha Marinšek: Landing characteristics in men s floor exercise on European Championship 2004
-
Haitao Chen, Mei. Wang, Shu Liu, Shanzhen Lu, Peiwen Zhang: A case study of a body weight
control programme for elite chinese female gymnasts in preparation for the 2008 Olympic games
-
Maja Bučar Pajek, Jernej Pajek: Low back pain and the possible role of Pilates in Artistic Gymnastics
-
Ivan Čuk, Almir Atiković, Muhamed Tabaković: Tkachev salto on high bar
-
Kamenka Živčić Marković, Darija Omrčen: The analysis of the influence of teachning methods on
the acquisition of the landing phase in forward handspring
-
Darija Omrčen, Kamenka Živčić Marković: The discourse of the epistemic community of Artistic
Gymnastics: the analysis of articles titles
With first issue we wanted to attract the attention of gymnastics community and we did. From the 1st of
October to December 31st 2009 more than 3000 visitors from 64 countries visited our website at www.
scienceofgymnastics.com. We had visitors from all six continents of the world: Europe, North and South
America, Africa, Asia and Australia. Visitors came from places where gymnastics is an established sport
as well as from places where they are just making their first tentative steps into this area.
A great deal of gratitude for such a visit goes to those who passed on the information about our journal:
International Gymnastics Federation (www.fig-gymnastics.com ), the International Gymnast Magazine
(www.internationalgymnast.com), www.gymnasticscoaching.com, and www.gymnastics.bc.ca, and
many others who had sent our web address to their friends. Between the first and second issue, a lot of effort was made to improve the status of our Journal in
international databases. We have been accepted into the SIRC database of sport journals, and our articles
were/are visible on Google Scholar.
In February 2010 a new, second issue with five articles was brought out (Science of gymnastics Journal
2010a): article by German authors Thomas Heinen, Pia Vinken, and Konstantinos Velentzas addressing
a very interesting dilemma of twist directions. The article of Australian author Trevor Dowdell explored
characteristics of coaching. The third article was dealing with the reliability of judging in men’s artistic
gymnastics at the University Games in Belgrade 2009, written by a group of authors from Slovenia and
Hungary: Bojan Leskošek, Ivan Čuk, Istvan Karacsony, Jernej Pajek and Maja Bučar. The fourth article
came from Slovenian author Matjaž Ferkolj who has performed research on kinematic characteristics
of Roche vault on vaulting table. The fifth article come from Portugal in which José Ferreirinha, Joana
Carvalho, Cristina Côrte-Real and António Silva analyzed the evolution of flight element on uneven bars
from 1989 to 2004. From February to June, the February issue received 4320 visits from 81 countries. For a scientific journal,
this was quite a respectable number. In May 2010 the journal was listed in the SPORTDiscus database the largest sport journal database. We also started to provide the platform for gymnastics symposiums,
congresses and conferences for all who are planning to organize such a meeting.
In June 2010 new issue with five articles was brought out (Science of gymnastics Journal 2010b). In this
issue the history of USA Artistic gymnastics was written by Abie Grossfield. This was the first historical
article in our journal and we were proud to have history article author, who contributed a lot to USA
historical events. Next article came from Finland, written by Mikko Pehkonen dealing with quality of
teaching in schools – this was another new topic in the journal. Third article came from the United
States; it was written by Earhart Gammon who analyzed walking in handstand in comparison with normal
walking. The next article was from Greece: George Dallas examined judges in men’s artistic gymnastics
and how their knowledge and experience influence the quality of judging. The last article was from
Slovenia. Miha Marinšek wrote about landings in gymnastics.
49
In October 2010 we changed the cover page of the Journal (Figure 2) (designed by Sandi Radovan) and
published a new set of five articles (Science of gymnastics Journal 2010c). The first article was about
training loads in women’s artistic gymnastics in the pre-pubertal period. The second article analyzed
the contents of the gymnastics curriculum in school, and how the current curriculum was delivered. The
third article was about rhythmic gymnastics and apparatus difficulty for group routines. The fourth article
was concerned with manual guidance in gymnastics. The final article looked at how difficulty scores on
apparatus affect all around scores in men’s gymnastics. This issue was visited by more than 5500 visitors,
which gave us a true compliment for our endeavor. Figure 2: A new cover page of Science of Gymnastics Journal from October 2010.
In October 2010 prof. Čuk attended the World
Championship in Artistic Gymnastics in Rotterdam.
He had a lot of meetings, but the most important was
the meeting with the president of the International
Gymnastics Federation professor Bruno Grandi. He
presented him our work during the last year. At the end
of December 2010 we have reached agreement about
collaboration between FIG and Science of Gymnastics
Journal. We have got a new editorial board member –
Keith Russell, Ph.D., who is the president of the FIG
Scientific Commission and Hardy Fink, M.Sc., a member
of editorial board as the director of the FIG Academy.
Both FIG institutions – scientific and educational ones are
now involved in further development of the journal. The summary of 2010 endeavor was: we published 15
articles by authors from various countries including (in
alphabetical order) Australia, Finland, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Portugal, Slovenia, and the United States of
America. The editorial and scientific board got two new
important members and FIG recognized us as the main
official scientific journal for gymnastics and supported
us fully. From the journal’s inception in October 2009 to
the beginning of 2010, 6 articles were published also by
authors from Bosnia and Herzegovina, China, and Croatia. This results in a total of 21 published articles
by authors from 11 different countries.
In the year 2011 (Science of gymnastics Journal 2011a, b, c) we published 16 articles. Articles were
written by authors from Brazil, Portugal, Serbia, Greece, United States of America, Australia, Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Austria, United Kingdom, Belgium and Slovenia, all-together from 13
countries. Journal’s web page was visited by more than 16000 visitors, what gave us a true compliment
for our endeavor. We managed to get indexed in OPEN-J GATE, GET CITED, ELECTRONIC JOURNAL INDEX,
SCIRUS, NEW JOUR, INDEX COPERNICUS and GOOGLE SCHOLAR. The celebration of 130 anniversary of
FIG was a big event for gymnastics family and prof. Bruno Grandi shared his thoughts at this occasion in
October’s issue of Science of Gymnastics Journal.
Year 2012, the fourth year of the publishing (Science of gymnastics Journal 2012a, b, c), some new
highlights have been achived; we have published 20 articles and more than 17,000 people visited our
web page, we entered into the ProQuest and the Elsevier’s SCOPUS database. Along Thomson Reuters
Web of Knowledge, the Elsevier’s SCOPUS database is the most influential scientific database. The new
editorial and scientific board member became Mr. Koichi Endo from Japan. We started to use ScholarOne
Manuscripts (http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/sgj), a premier journal and peer review tool for scholarly
50
publishers and societies. With ScholarOne our work become more organized, user friendly and
professional for all: editors, authors, reviewers and publishers. In the year 2012 Slavic nations celebrated
150 years of Sokol Gymnastics and we honored this event with historical article written by a well-known
professor Anton Gajdoš.
In the year 2013 and 2014 we have published 40 new articles (Science of gymnastics Journal 2013a, b,
c, 2014a, b, c) from all over the world. We had some difficulties with functioning of our web site and we
were not able to count the visitors in the year 2013. In October 2013 Slovenian gymnastics celebrated
150 of Slovenian Sokol (in 1863 the first Slovene gymnastics club was established). The main part of
celebrations was set for June 2013. A Big Sokol Zlet was held in Ljubljana with over 1000 participants and
a few thousand spectators on 17 June 2013. Mr Borut Pahor, the President of the Republic of Slovenia,
awarded sport club »Narodni dom« with the Golden Order for Services in the civil field. In addition to the
Zlet, an exhibition had opened in the National Gallery which included several rewards that are available
for public viewing for the first time, such as medals of the father of Slovenian gymnastics Dr Viktor Murnik,
Legion of Honour from the French president, White Lion from the Czechoslovakian president, Sveti Sava
from the king of Yugoslavia, Order for Service from the president of Yugoslavia. The exhibition on 150
years of Sokolism in the Slovene National Council was opened on 10th February, 2014. Additionally,
Sokol meeting was set on 27 February – this was the first time that Sokols and gymnastics appeared in
the national parliament. Slovene historian Tomaž Pavlin had prepared an overview of how Sokol and
gymnastics movement developed in Slovenia.
On other hand journal index for year 2013 in SCOPUS was 0.21 and we had a very good score of 0.5 cites
per document (figure 3).
Figure 3: Journal index for year 2013 in SCOPUS (www.scimgojr.com).
Together with authors and reviewers we mastered to use SchoolarOne
Manuscripts platform. The Journal had been quoted a lot by other
researchers and that gave us hope to be successful at evaluation for
Thomson Reuters Impact Factor at the beginning of 2015.
FINAL REMARKS
Year 2015 is in front of us and the new issue is already being prepared
for publication in February. The biggest challenge in 2015 for us is
going to be the evaluation for Thomson Reuters Impact Factor. The
evaluation will gives us new aspects and suggestions for additional
improvement.
We are quite pleased on what we had achieved in the last 6 years
with almost 100 published articles, what makes our journal the most important scientific – practice
crossroad in gymnastics. We had some obstacles on our road but with a lot of enthusiasm and hard work
we overcame them. We are proud of our editorial and scientific worldwide board. We are thankful to all
authors and reviewers from all over the world for their work and contributions. We are grateful to authors
for all citation and referral of our journal in different scientific journals – without your contributions,
Science of Gymnastics Journal would not exist. Science of Gymnastics Journal is supported by Foundation
for financing sport organizations in Slovenia and Slovenian Book Agency, Slovenian Agency for Science
and Research (ARRS). We are also thankful to FIG for all support that they are providing.
51
REFERENCES
Faculty of sport (2009). Science of Gymnastics Journal, num.1. vol.1. Retrieved 16 January 2015, from http://www.
fsp.uni-lj.si./research/science_of_gymnastics/previous_issues/
Faculty of sport (2014). Science of Gymnastics Journal, num.2 vol.6. Retrieved 16 January 2015, from http://www.
fsp.uni-lj.si./research/science_of_gymnastics/current_issue/
52
SPORT-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN CONTRACTILE PARAMETERS: A GYMNASTS
HAVE SHORTEST CONTRACTION TIME IN BRACHIAL MUSCLES AND VASTUS
LATERALIS
Šimunič B. 1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2
University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institute for kinesiology research, Koper,
Slovenia
2
University of Primorska, Applied Kinesiology, Koper, Slovenia
1
ABSTRACT
The performance in gymnastics strongly depends on skeletal muscle mass, strength, velocity of
contraction, power and symmetry. The later was even correlated as a predictive factor of injuries. We
have previously demonstrated that age, sex and sport participation solely or in interaction affect skeletal
muscle specific velocity of contraction (contraction time) in the age span of 9-14 years. Furthermore, this
affects muscle symmetry. Therefore, we aimed to demonstrate contraction time differences between 81
national level gymnasts (27 female rhythmic gymnasts + 54 artistic gymnastics, from where 28 females,
aged from 11 to 37 years), 107 non-athletes (9-14 years); 27 male track and field sprinters (23.3 ± 3
years), 31 male football players (23.5 ± 3.4 years), 24 volleyball players (25.2 ± 6.3 years), and 16 dancers
(19.1 ± 3.6 years). We have found shorter Tc in female sport gymnasts in biceps brachii and triceps brachii
for -10.7 % (P = .032) and -8.8 % (P = .050), respectively. Furthermore, we found that age correlates
with biceps brachii (r = .566; P < .050), vastus lateralis (r = .405; P < .001) and vastus medialis (r = .456;
P < .001) contraction time. Gymnasts biceps femoris contraction time is shorter than in non-athletes,
being comparable to volleyball and football players but longer than in track and field sprinters. However,
vastus lateralis in gymnasts have shortest contraction time in comparison to all groups. It seems that in
gymnasts both brachial muscles in females and both vastii muscles in both sexes are under a lot of stress
during fast explosive contractions; however both muscles loses their contractile potential with age.
Keywords: Tensiomyography, contraction time, MHC, fibre type, gymnastics
53
BIOMECHANICS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Hedbávný P.
Masaryk University Faculty of Sports Studies, Brno, Czech Republic
Artistic gymnastic is a fight to overcome physical laws and biomechanical analysis is the key to prove
the known or find new ways of solving the specific movement tasks. Biomechanics provides us with
important information, depending on the point of view on the specific problem, from which the solution
itself and data evaluation arises. The aim of the contribution is to introduce some questions in artistic
gymnastics which were solved by our group in Czech gymnasts using biomechanical analysis. We did not
intend to create a movement or technical model of certain exercise, but to provide specific information
on controversial questions of coaches, teachers, functionaries and competitors.
When solving the individual tasks we cooperated with gymnasts of Czech representation teams of
different age groups. Selected components were kinematically analysed using mainly the system Simi
motion containing high-frequency cameras and a corresponding software, for processing the video
recordings within 2D kinematic analysis a system Dartfish was used. Some analyses were complemented
with stabilometric measurements on Fitro Sway Check force plate and surface electromyography using
Data Logger device by Mie.
In one of our first analysis we focused on vault, mainly its angle characteristics in which our representatives
did not achieve expected results. Another measurement from the same area of study was the analysis
of Jana Komrsková’s vault which was, in our opinion, supertemporal and was used as a technical model.
We found out that her performance with its dynamics was closer to male performance of the given vault.
One of the analysis on vault served us as a substantiation of competition program where we dealt with
angle characteristics in different types of elements in vault in category of young female gymnasts. Some
measurements were inspired by discussions of coaches, such as a question of angle changes in take-off
phase of somersaults with twisting along the longitudinal body axis on acrobatics where we proved our
hypothesis that the angle of landing in the beginning take-off phase is decreasing with the increasing
number of twists in vault. In handstand, as the basic element of many other, more complex gymnastic
structures, we focused on kinematic analysis using stabilometry and electromyography in order to find
out the inner stimuli responsible for the realisation of the movement itself. Another possibility of the use
of biomechanical analysis is the observation of health aspects of exercise techniques. The improvement
of technique by the right choice of the correct methodology serves as a prevention against injuries. This
topic is important not only in the world of professional athletes, but also in basic gymnastic elements
in school sport preparation. It is mainly the aspect of health which we want to focus on in our future
research and thus contribute to humanisation of gymnastics.
54
DEVELOPMENT INSTRUMENTS TO DETERMINE COMPETENCIES FOR
PERFORMING THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF SPORTS MANAGER
Retar I., Marušič U., Kolar E.
University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Slovenia
ABSTRACT
Successful sports managers are important for the development of sports organizations. Identifying and
measuring the competence of professionals is a key activity in selecting and directing employees to
personal and professional development. It is therefore important to choose the most appropriate tools
that allow the identification of development of competencies. The study of competencies in sport so far
has been largely discussed from the professional viewpoint, rather than by scientific methods that would
ensure a realistic assessment of competencies development of Slovenian sports managers. Therefore, a
model on a scientific approach has been developed in order to identify key competencies for a successful
sports management, presented later in this article. On the basis of factor analysis of the findings it
may be concluded that the structure of the competency model of Slovenian sports managers may be
best explained by the factor of creativity for general competencies and by the factor of business and
organizational skills and abilities for specific competencies. The creativity factor is the most saturated with
competencies that are associated with the creation of new business ideas, models and approaches. And
the factor of business-organizational knowledge and skills involve competencies to develop favourable
working environment in which it is possible to adapt effectively, enabling realization of the set sport
objectives and business goals. Based on the findings managers can self-assess how they have developed
their skills and what they can expect from the sports and management labour market. Thus, the model
can contribute to sports managers’ personal and professional development and has an indirect positive
impact on their personal competitiveness and efficiency of their sports organizations. Results due to
limitations arising from the sample and from the instrumentation of the research carried out, cannot
be generalised, but they can contribute to the understanding of the effectiveness of Slovenian sports
managers, particularly in terms of assessment of their competence.
Key words: the model of competencies structure, the effectiveness of sports managers
INTRODUCTION
Sports organisations performance is based on the expert and professional work of staff and / or
volunteers working in sports. Their work is planned, organized, managed and supervised by a sports
manager who has, among other abilities, skills, knowledge and motivation for a number of other
competencies from managerial to technical and social. Since it is still unclear which of his competencies
are the most important for a successful management and what types of trainings are most effective in
acquiring and developing competencies of sports managers, there is a justifiable need for the scientific
work out of the model structure of competences, which could explain what skills are most important.
In theory it may found that some authors (Laval, 2005; Svetlik, 2006; Verle and Markič, 2012) among
others emphasize that understanding the concept of competencies depend on time and space and state,
e.g., Laval (2005), that “competencies are marked in particular by culture, politics and economy, and
are always part of the social context.” And the social and economic conditions have been in the last
decade, both in business and sports environment quickly and thoroughly changing. “Constant, faster
and more frequent social, economic, political changes as well as the increasing competitiveness threaten
more and more the viability of the organisations and their existence” (Verle and Markič 2012, p. 9-10).
These new circumstances dictate the introduction of changes also in the field of sports management,
particularly as regards the development of competent sports managers. One can find various definitions
of sport management in literature, most of which are based on the treatment of key resources, which are
55
important for the realization of the mission and the goals of sports organizations or athletes. Bartoluci
(1997, p. 141) believes that sports management is a process, which is characterised by “the coordination
of all the factors that affect the achievement of the set objectives.” Chelladurai (1994, p. 15) explains the
definition of sport management on the “coordination of different sources, technologies, processes and
situational contingencies in order to achieve efficient production and the exchange of sports services”.
Parks and Qurterman (2002, p. 20), note that sports management comprises four key areas: “sports
marketing, sports organizations funding, management of human resources and the impact of sport as
a social institution.” Kolar and Zaletel (2013, p. 6), interpret the concept of sports management from
the functional point of view and define it “as an organizational function and the process of planning,
enforcement and the control of organization and operation.” Houlihan (2008) notes that sport has
evolved into a demanding and complex activity that includes both professional and voluntary work,
and covers both public and private sector and comprises the production of sports goods and services,
marketing, servicing, and on the other hand, the organization of entertainment. Like Chelladurai (2001),
he also divides sport into two segments of consumers: passive spectators and active users of sports
services. Lussier and Kimball (2004, p. 5) define sport management as a connecting bridge between
the two areas, and state that sports management is a “multidisciplinary field, which combines sports
industry and management.” Beech and Chadwick (2014, p. 16-17) have found that sports management
differs from other forms of management especially by the dominant provision of sports events or events
that are crucial service of several sports organizations, and are determined by time, place and duration.
Smith and Stewart (1999) have established that managers are mostly engaged in rational coordination
of all relevant sources, which can contribute to effectiveness, efficiency, productivity and innovation of
organizations, while sports managers are in addition involved in completely irrational factors of sport, such
as the feelings of athletes, spectators, supporters. On the basis of these findings it can be summarised
that the general definition uniquely determining the concept of management in sport, does not yet exist.
For the purposes of this research the definition of Retar, Plevník and Kolar (2013, p. 83) has been applied:
“Sports management is the process of coordination with key resources and of successful cooperation
with relevant stakeholders that facilitate the effective accomplishment of business and sporting goals of
an organization and / or an athlete in all important management processes.”
Competencies were established by the psychologist McClelland (1973). The author has shifted from
the traditional view, saying that skills and knowledge are particularly important for successful work.
He stressed that we also need personal characteristics, such as perseverance and motivation, and
suggested that intelligence testing be replaced by tests of competencies. An important contribution to
the enforcement of competencies in the field of management can be attributed to Boyatzisu (1982), the
author of the study The Competent Manager, where he developed a model of desirable characteristics
of managers need to efficiently manage organizations. Initially, the notion of competencies was used
very widely because of polysemous understanding and application, since the word “has meaning in law,
linguistics, cognitive psychology, and therefore has a lot of social uses, which strengthens its clarity and
imaginary neutrality” (Laval, 2005, p. 73), but later the use of the term narrowed to the scope of human
resource management.
Several authors (McClelland, 1973; Lipičnik, 1998; Muršak, 1999 and 2001; Gonzales and Wagenaar,
2003; Laval, 2005; Kohont, 2005; Kodelja, 2005; Svetlik, 2006; Vukasović, 2008; Štefanc, 2009; Verl and
Markič, 2012; Retar, Plevnik and Kolar, 2013) thus conclude that for the successful work of an individual
besides knowledge several competencies, skills for applying knowledge, gained experiences, motives,
beliefs, habits and values are needed. Some authors mentioned above place greater emphasis on the
experiences gained (e.g., Nosan, 1999), and some others (e.g., Lipičnik, 1998), give advantage to the
abilities of a human. So, Lipičnik (1998, p. 26) states that “the abilities of a human are a potential for the
development of certain capabilities. As opposed to Lipičnik stating general knowledge, Muršak has in the
definition of competency mentioned also practical skills and individual style of functioning as an added
value to knowledge and skills. “Competencies are the result of the individual’s actual practical experience.
Competence is approved when the acquired knowledge (theoretical or practical) can be used with one’s
style because of which the acquired knowledge and skills shall only be upgraded.” (Muršak, 1999, p. 37).
Razdevšek - Pučko (2004 Erčulj et al., 2008, p. 27) explains that “competence is not only what an individual
should know, but what one really masters in theory and what one is able to do in practice.” Similarly Day
56
rather than concentrate on the person who is the holder of that competence, focuses on the outcomes in
the form of expected competencies and standardized tasks, roles and practices that can be realized by a
competent person. Thus, he understands the competencies as “the ability to perform tasks and roles that
are needed to achieve the expected standards, whereby he notes that it is important, who is the one who
sets the standards, and that the attainment of standards depends on the context” (Day, 1999 , p. 57).
This is also underlined by the documents of international organizations Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) programme Definition and Selection of Competencies: Theoretical
and Conceptual Foundations (DeSeCo), where special emphasis on the socio-economic and cultural
context which determines the importance (value) of individual competencies (DeSeCo, 2005, p. 14).
Thereafter, the OECD focused on the development of key competencies and in the late nineties with the
support of, particularly, social sciences (psychology, pedagogy, anthropology, philosophy, sociology and
economics) in the field of competencies developed a theoretical framework based on three categories of
key competencies: the interactive use of tools, collaboration in heterogeneous groups and autonomous
functioning. These competencies, according to Štefanc (2009, p. 175) are “acting particularly in the
capacity of economic interests and enable individuals to flexibly adapt to the social requirements”.
Perrenoud (1997) expands the definition of competence as he understands the competence as the
ability to be effective in a number of situations which otherwise is based on our best knowledge, but
is not limited to it. The author advocates a dynamic understanding of the competencies that are not
static, but constantly change and adapt to new situations. His definition summarizes Svetlik (2005, p.
13), who argues that competencies are in fact ‘individual’s abilities to activate, use and connect the
acquired knowledge in complex, diverse and unpredictable situations. “I distribute competencies into
general, into all those that each individual needs in various and everyday living and working conditions”.
Hozjan (2009, p. 201) considers as a general the following competencies: “Communication in the mother
tongue; communication in foreign languages; mathematical competencies and basic competencies in
science and technology; competencies in information and communication technology (ICT); learning to
learn; social and civic competencies; sense of initiative and entrepreneurship and cultural awareness and
expression. » For specific competencies are considered to be always linked to a role, function or work,
and in contrast to the general competencies are not transferable. Competency is from the management
perspective a combination of knowledge, skills and to know how to use (Chyung, Stepich and Cox,
2006) as well as to take the right decision. Competencies are not just the ability to perform tasks, but
in particular the integration of knowledge and skills they need to perform tasks well. Thus, it is not so
much important what we know or what we know about the task, but whether we are able to perform
and create an outcome that is consistent with the expectations of the individual and the organization.
From what has been said so far, it can be concluded that when dealing with competencies it is no longer
just a matter of what is the essence of competence, but about which competencies are essential or
“how to choose between different competencies and select those which are for an individual and the
society that is based on knowledge, the most important “(Kodelja, 2005, p. 333). In this study we use the
definition of competence in sport “as the ability to use knowledge, skills, personal qualities, experience
and motivation in their own way to effectively perform the expected work or role” (Retar, Plevnik and
Kolar, 2013, p. 83).
METHODS
We designed a survey based on interviewed Slovenian sport managers. First of all we checked whether the
data are relevant for the implementation of factor analysis. The method of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) was
used to check the adequacy of sampling and we found that the value of KMO is 0.757, which represents
the corresponding value for the implementation of the factor analysis and the resulting factors shall be
reliable (Hutcheson & Sofoniou, 1999). Bartlett’s sphericity test also showed that the correlation between
items is sufficiently high (χ2 (66) = 253.88, p <0.001 and enables further analysis. From a theoretical
model of the competencies structure we used twelve general as well as twenty-two specific variables and
conducted the analysis of principal components with orthogonal Varimax rotation projection vectors. By
using Kaiser’s criterion, we found that the five factors related with general competencies and the five
factors related with specific competencies, contained their own values more than one.
57
SAMPLE OF VARIABLES
Based on literature study (Pfeffer 1995; Oeij and Weizer 2002; Laval 2005; Šubic and Kovač 2006; Istenič
Starčič 2006; Kolar 2007; Hozjan 2009; Retar and Plevnik 2012; Verle and Markič 2012) and the NASPENASSM American independent accreditation organisation’s model, which set the standards for assessing
education programmes in sport management, we have formed a theoretical competencies structure
model for a sport manager. According to practice and literature, competences were divided in two groups:
general with twelve variables and specific with twenty-two variables competences; this distribution was
formed into a theoretical competence structure model which was the basies for questionnaire design.
SAMPLE OF RESPONDENTS
Measurements with quantitative research method was performed on the entire population of Slovenian
Sports managers who meet the exclusionary criteria, who work in a sports organization with more
than € 100,000 of annual revenue and with more than one employee for the period of at least one
year. According to AJPES (2014) in Slovenia there are one hundred and two sports associations that
correspond to the exclusionary criteria. The sample according to the sex structure of surveyed sports
managers showed no deviation from the stereotypical view that sport is managed by male counterparts.
Of all 85 (100%) respondents only 7 (8.2%) were females. The age structure of respondents shows that
the average age of the responding Slovenian sports managers was 45 years and 4 months (± 10 years and
6 months). The majority of respondents, up to 68%, is in the age range from 30 to 50. Respondents from
27 Slovenian towns were involved in the survey. As expected the highest number was from Ljubljana,
36 (42.4%), since the capital fives the most successful sports organizations. Respondents from Koper
follow; they were 10 (11.8%), from Nova Gorica 6 (7.1%), from Maribor 4 (4.2%) and 4 also from Kranj
(4.2%). Other respondents came from the rest of larger and smaller towns with one or two surveyed
persons. Most of the respondents work in sport organization in the post of the President, sports director
or secretary. The majority of respondents (17.6%) replied that they work in a sports organization as the
President. Next there are 16.5% of respondents who perform the tasks of sport director. Another 16.5%
of respondents perform tasks and duties the secretary of sports organizations. Only 9.4% of respondents
stated that they worked as sports managers, and 12.9% reported that they were sports coaches and
sports managers at the same time. Up to 27.1% of respondents gave the following answers as a second
profession or function: director of the office of sport, secretary general of the sports organizations, the
director of the sports associations, director of public institution and head of the institute of sport. Most
managers carry out work up to five years in sport organization in which they are currently employed.
When asked how much time they had already been employed in sport organization, where they were
currently engaged in work, most of the respondents, that is, 42.3% responded that up to 5 years. Most
managers have commonly from 11-15 years of working period. Managers with high / university level of
formal education (43.5%) prevail among respondents, while there is still a significant proportion (21.2%)
of respondents with only a high school degree. Among respondents there are 5.9% of managers with
PhD, 8.2% of managers with a master’s degree, 8.2% of managers with higher / professional education
and 12.9% of managers have a higher level of formal education. The study included up to 78.8% of
managers who have completed post-secondary and higher level of formal education, and the fact that
21.2% of managers only have secondary professional education needs special attention. Only half of
the managers are no longer involved in education and training. Up to half of them are employed full
time, that is, 50.6% of responding sports managers, and 25.9% of the sports managers perform their
work on a voluntary basis. Only 14.1% of respondents answered that they work in a public institution
- an organization registered under the Law on Institutions, 8.2% of respondents said that they were
employed by a private company - organization, registered under the Companies Act, the majority of
the respondents, up to 40% that they worked in the sports clubs - an organization registered under the
Societies Act, 28.2% of respondents were working in the national sports association - an organization
registered under the Act on Associations, and 3.5% of respondents said they were engaged in a private
institution or elsewhere.
58
DATA COLLECTION
The data was collected with a survey questionnaire in electronic form addressed of 150 sport managers
and 85 answered the questionnaire. The reliability o the questionnaire was calculated with a reliability
test that showed high values (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.790). The importance of competences was evaluated
by respondents by using a 6-grade assessment scale, with values ranging from 1 (not important) to 6
(very important).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
By the results obtained in the empirical research and by using factor analysis with the method of main
components and by applying the rotation of the projection of vectors we generated factors that shape the
structure of space of competencies of the sports managers surveyed. The most important competencies
came from creativity, particularly from innovation in the area of new business models and approaches, as
well as from the communication and cooperation. An important part is the knowledge of management,
about sports and dealing with people. It was further found that competences in the field of business
and organizational skills and abilities are also important, particularly, in developing positive working
environment. Knowledge and skills concerning of financial-markets are also important, as well as the
ability to regulate relations with the environment and an understanding of social responsibility and scope
of dealing with athletes. The benefit of the developed copyright model of competencies structure of
sports managers can be the basis for identifying the most important competencies that are critical to the
management of sports organizations. The structure of competencies is the basis for the designing of the
questionnaire functioning as a useful tool to promote personal career development of sports managers.
On the basis of the questionnaire each individual will self-assess his/her competencies development and
compare his/her results with the developed categorization of competencies and thus realize how much
developed are his/her most important skills for the management of sports organizations. Our results can
be used as a tool for selecting the most suitable candidate for a sports manager. They can implemented
in the development and management of career of staff managers and could be a platform for personal
professional development and personal growth of an individual. The model can be a tool for identifying
the existing managerial competencies and the basis for educational organizations in designing effective
approaches and contents in the field of lifelong learning of sports managers. It can be used as a basis for
research purposes, or for “benchmarking” analysis. Although we have to be reluctant in generalizing the
results due to the limitations arising from the sample and instruments, the model may contribute to the
development of those competencies of sports managers, which are the most important for both their
personal and professional development and for the advancement of sports organizations and thus for the
well-being of society. From the identified factors by using factor analysis, we developed a questionnaire
to determine the development of competencies of sports managers Annex 1.
Annex 1: Questionnaire for determining the development of competencies of sports managers Instructions
for completion: Please self-assess with a score of 1 (not at all developed) to 6 (very advanced), how much
have you developed your working competencies to perform the tasks of the sport Manager.
59
Not
developed
at all
Poorly
developed
Partly
developed
developed
Quite
developed
Very much
developed
Ability of creating new ideas and lifelong
learning
1
2
3
4
5
6
Basic knowledge of management and the
ability to use in practice
1
2
3
4
5
6
Basic knowledge of sports issues and the
ability to use in practice
1
2
4
5
6
Knowledge and ability to communicate,
cooperate and integrate
1
2
4
5
6
Presentation of professional and moral
authority, ethical commitment and social
responsibility
1
2
3
4
5
6
Business organizational skills and ability to
develop a favourable working environment
1
2
3
4
5
6
Knowledge and abilities Ability of
management with financial resources,
marketing and brand management in sport
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ability to manage and cooperate with
people
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
5
6
Competency
3
3
Knowledge and ability to regulate relations
with the environment
Knowledge and ability to regulate relations
with the environment
4
Table 1 shows the interpretation of the results of the survey. If the responding manager acquired the
sum of less than 20 points by self-assessment of their development competencies, he is deemed not at
all suitable for a sports manager, from 20 to 30 points he is not appropriate, between 30 and 40 points
collected by he falls into average and is already suitable for Manager. If collected between 40 and 50
points, he is very much suitable and competent, while the sum of 50 indicates that the respondent is
above average suitable for a competent sports manager.
Table 1: Categories of sports manager competencies
Index of sports managers competencies
Less than 20
Od 21 do 29
Od 30 do 39
Od 40 do 49
Above 50
60
Category of sports managers competencies
Clearly below-average
Slightly below-average
Average
Slightly above-average
Clearly above-average
CONCLUSION
Modern sports organization needs a competent sports manager who will be able to meet the expectations
and requirements of customers, employees and owners. Educational institutions do not offer sufficiently
effective lifelong learning programmes, which would pursue the interests of employers and employees
while ensuring sports managers with adequate competencies. It is therefore the objective of the
dissertation to model the structure of competencies as a basis for effective lifelong learning and to improve
the competencies of sports managers for managing in sport. Key research method to study the structure
of competencies was based on factor analysis using the method of principal components. The article
provides new insights into the state of the competencies in Slovenian sports management, which can
serve as the scientific basis for effective integration of managers with the sports labour market. Results of
the study cannot be generalized due to limitations arising from the sample and research, however, they
can contribute to the understanding of Slovenian sports managers competencies, particularly in terms of
their lifelong learning.
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Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče, Inštitut za kineziološke raziskave, Univerzitetna založba Annales.
Annales kinesiologiae, 4, 2, 81–94.
Retar, I. (2014). Razvoj modela strukture kompetenc športnih menedžerjev kot izhodišče za vseživljenjsko učenje.
Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta.
Smith, A. in Steward, B. (1999). Sports Management: a Guide to Proffesional Practice. St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin.
Svetlik, I. (2005). O kompetencah. Kompetence v kadrovski praksi. Ljubljana: Gospodarski vestnik, Izobraževanje,
12–27.
Svetlik, I. (2006). O kompetencah. Ljubljana: Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 37(1), 4–13.
Štefanc, D. (2009). Kompetence kot temelj kurikularnega načrtovanja v obveznem splošnem izobraževanju.
Doktorska disertacija. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta.
Šubic Kovač, M., Istenič Starčič, A. (2006). Kompetence diplomantov gradbeništva – evropski raziskovalni projekt
Tuning. Ljubljana: Gradbeni vestnik, 55, 178-186.
The North American Society for Sport Management. Acquired 13 th October 2013 www: nassm.com
Verle, K., Markič, M. (2012). Kompetence vršnih menedžerjev in organiziranost kot osnova uspešnosti organizacije.
Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za menedžment.
Vukasović Žontar, M., Korade Purg, Š. (2008). Najpomembnejše kompetence zaposlenih v praksi.
62
TENSIOMIOGRAPHY IN ARTISTIC AND RHYTMIC GYMNASTICS
Samardžija Pavletič M.1, Kolar E.1, Šimunič B.2
1
2
University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institute for kinesiology research, Koper,
Slovenia
ABSTRACT
Tensiomyography (TMG) is a method that measures the radial displacement in the muscle belly when the
muscle contracts under isometric conditions. The muscle contraction is evoked by an electrical twitch.
Because the volume of the muscle is preserved, the muscle belly thickens and moves the displacement
sensor, which sends the signal to the computer (Šimunič, Rozman, & Pišot, 2005; Zurc, 2006).
Basic parameters of TMG measurement (Figure 2) are contraction time (Tc), maximal muscular displacement (Dm), sustain contraction time (Tc), delay time (Td) and relaxation time (Tr).
Figure 1: Basic parameters of TMG measurement (M. Samardžija P., personal image)
Contraction time (Tc) and maximal muscular displacement (Dm) are the most frequently studied TMG
parameters in different sports disciplines (Dias, Fort, Marinho, Santos, & Marques, 2010; Rusu et al.,
2013; B. Simunic, 2012; B. Simunic et al., 2011; B Simunic, Pisot, Djordjevic, & Kugovnik, 2005; Šimunič,
Degens, Koren, & Pišot, 2014).
The application of the TMG method in sports includes analyses of lateral and functional symmetry, muscle
adaptation on specific sport or exercise, muscle fatigue, muscle recovery from injury and rehabilitation
programs (Šimunič et al., 2005).
Several studies revealed that muscle imbalances increase the risk of injury (Baumhauer, Alosa, Renstrom,
Trevino, & Beynnon, 1995; Bračič, 2010; Bračič, Hadžič, & Erčulj, 2008; Coombs & Garbutt, 2002; Jenko,
2009; Richards, Ajemian, Wiley, Brunet, & Zernicke, 2002). Muscle imbalances, especially in trunk
extensor muscles (m. erector spinae), can lead to spinal deformities and injuries (Avikainen, Rezasoltani,
& Kauhanen, 1999; Jaremko et al., 2002).
Measurments of muscle imbalances can be made with different measurment devices, except for trunk,
where the TMG method is used in up-to-date sports diagnostics (Zurc, 2006).
63
In addition to observing the basic TMG parameters, also evaluating longitudinal changes and obtaining
relationship between parameters through a longer period of time could be useful. Former studies
revealed that contraction time is affected by age (Dahmane, 2006; Šimunič et al., 2014).
Although TMG shows to be an important diagnostic system in sport and rhytmic gymnastics, no bigger
study has been made with use of it. Slovenia gymnastics federation recognized TMG as an exceptionally
quality diagnostic measurment system. The first bigger study was made in december 2014. It included 81
quality and top athletes. Results and findings of the study will be presented in near future.
Keywords: gymnastics, sports diagnostic, TMG
REFERENCES
Avikainen, V. J., Rezasoltani, A., & Kauhanen, H. A. (1999). Asymmetry of Paraspinal EMG-Time Characteristics in
Idiopathic Scoliosis. Journal of Spinal Disorders & Techniques, 12(1), 61-67.
Baumhauer, J., Alosa, D., Renstrom, P., Trevino, S., & Beynnon, B. (1995). A Prospective Study of Ankle Injury Risk
Factors. The American journal of sports medicine, 564-570.
Bračič, M. (2010). Biodinamične razlike v vertikalnem skoku z nasprotnim gibanjem in bilateralni deficit pri vrhunskih sprinterjih. (Doktorska disertacija), Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana, Slovenija.
Bračič, M., Hadžič, V., & Erčulj, F. (2008). Koncentrična in ekscentrična moč upogibalk in iztegovalk kolena pri mladih košarkarjih. Šport, 56 (3-4), 76-80.
Coombs, R., & Garbutt, G. (2002). Developments in the use of the hamstring qudriceps ratio for the assessment of
muscle balance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 1, 56-62.
Dahmane, R. (2006). Biomehanska analiza mišice biceps brachii starejših oseb s tenziomiografijo (pp. 97-106).
Slovenija: Univerza v Ljubljani, Visoka šola za zdravstvo.
Dias, P. S., Fort, J. S., Marinho, D. A., Santos, A., & Marques, M. C. (2010). Tensiomyography in Physical Rehabilitation of High Level Athletes. Open Sports Sciences Journal, 3, 47-48.
Jaremko, J. L., Poncet, P., Ronsky, J., Harder, J., Dansereau, J., Labelle, H., & Zernicke, R. F. (2002). Indices of torso
asymmetry related to spinal deformity in scoliosis. Clinical Biomechanics, 17(8), 559-568. doi: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/S0268-0033(02)00099-2
Jenko, U. (2009). Koncentrična in ekscentrična izokinteična jakost upogibalk in iztegovalk kolenskega sklepa pri
mladih košarkarjih in košarkaricah Diplomsko delo. Ljubljana, Slovenija: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport.
Richards, D., Ajemian, S., Wiley, P., Brunet, J., & Zernicke, R. (2002). Relation between ankle joint dynamics and
patellar tendinopathy in elite volleyball players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 266-272.
Rusu, L., Cosma, G., Cernaianu, S., Marin, M., Rusu, P. F., Ciocanescu, D., & Neferu, F. (2013). Tensiomyography
method used for neuromuscular assessment of muscle training. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation,
10(1), 67.
Simunic, B. (2012). Between-day reliability of a method for non-invasive estimation of muscle composition. J Electromyogr Kinesiol, 22(4), 527-530. doi: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.04.003
Simunic, B., Degens, H., Rittweger, J., Narici, M., Mekjavic, I. B., & Pisot, R. (2011). Noninvasive estimation of
myosin heavy chain composition in human skeletal muscle. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 43(9), 1619-1625. doi: 10.1249/
MSS.0b013e31821522d0
64
Simunic, B., Pisot, R., Djordjevic, S., & Kugovnik, O. (2005). Age related changes of the skeletal muscle contractile
properties. Proceedings of the 4th International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology “Science and Profession Challenge for the Future”, 570 - 573.
Šimunič, B., Degens, H., Koren, K., & Pišot, R. (2014). Discovering adaptive potential of skeletal muscle contractile
properties in children. Paper presented at the 1st International Scientific Congress, Portorož - Bernardin, Slovenia,
January 24, 2014, Portorož, Slovenija.
Šimunič, B., Rozman, S., & Pišot, R. (2005). Detecting the velocity of the muscle contraction. Paper presented at
the III International Symposium of New Technologies in Sports, Sarajevo. http://www.rjme.ro/RJME/resources/
files/55041414231428.pdf
Zurc, J. (2006). Merjenje ustreznosti razvoja otrokove telesne drže. Medicinski razgledi, 421-433.
65
INTRACONTINENTAL AND INTERCONTINENTAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN JUNIOR AND SENIOR GYMNASTS
Delaš Kalinski, S.
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia
ABSTRACT
The rules (Code of Points – CoP), prescribed by the Technical Committee of the International Gymnastics
Federation (FIG), by which gymnasts compete, are changing constantly. One of the biggest changes
happened in 2006 when the so called „open ended score“ was introduced in gymnastics. From this
year onwards the total score of each apparatus has been obtained by summing the difficulty score and
execution score.
Artistic gymnastics is a sport very spread around the world. In 2014 FIG was gathering 141 national
federations, whose junior and senior members, depending on geographical position of federation,
competed on different Continental Championships and Games.
Through the analysis of difficulty scores (DS), execution scores (ES) and total score (TOTAL) of each
apparatus, the aims of the study have been: a) to determine characteristics and differences between
scores of elite women senior and junior gymnasts, achieved on continental competitions that were held
from 2009 – 2012; b) to determine differences between scores of elite women senior gymnasts, and of
elite women junior gymnasts, in different continental competitions; c) to determine differences between
scores of elite women junior gymnasts and elite women senior gymnasts on continental level.
The sample consisted of all elite women junior and elite women senior gymnasts that competed in C-III
competitions (apparatus finals) on all European Championships, Pan-American Games, Asian Games and
Australian Championships that were held from 2009 – 2012. ANOVA post hoc Tukey HSD for unequal N
test was used to determine the differences.
The study established no significant differences between senior scores, neither between junior scores,
achieved on continental competitions held in different years. Significant differences have been determined
between some scores of senior gymnasts, and some scores of junior gymnasts, on intercontinental level.
In general, in both samples, significant differences have been determined between the numerically lowest
scores achieved at Australian Championships and some numerically higher scores from other continental
competitions. Numerical differences between junior and senior gymnasts have been determined in
almost all analyzed scores in all continental competitions, but only few of them have been determined as
significant. Such results were attributed to the following: 1) elite women junior gymnasts probably apply/
respect “easier dismount rule”; 2) there is a similarity and/or difference between learning processes on
different continents; 3) biological age and longer learning process play a significant role on gymnasts’
performance.
Key words: women artistic gymnastics, top level, ANOVA
66
INTRODUCTION
Although they continually happen, in order to improve the quality and objectivity of the trials, latest
“revolutionary” changes of Code of Points (CoP) occurred in 2006. It was then when the new ways of
scoring were introduced. New scoring allowed “open ended scores”, that is, it defined that final score
is obtained as the sum of A and B scores. A score comes from the sum of 10 most difficult elements in
the exercises, special requirements and bonuses and B score is the average score of 6 judges (B score of
one judge consists of deductions from 10.00 P.). In 2009, as it always happens at the beginning of a new
Olympic cycle, rules were slightly modified: A score changed its name to difficulty score (DS) and B score
changed the name in execution score (ES); a difficulty value of exercise comes from a sum of 8, and not
like in CoP 2006 from 10, most difficult elements in the exercise.
According to this setting of general rules judges have evaluated exercises throughout the Olympic cycle,
and still judge today. In addition to the abovementioned, the CoP prescribes a number of other rules of
which, for the purposes of this study, we point out just a few: 1) with the aim of extending the gymnastic
career, women juniors gymnasts can perform C difficulty dismounts (0.3P) in order to fulfill the special
requirement (0.5P), while women senior gymnasts, for the fulfillment of this requirement, must perform
D difficulty dismount (0.5P); 2) members of the various national teams, selected on the basis of results
from national competition, or some other selective criteria on the national basis, have the right to attend
the competitions of higher rank.
International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) in 2014 was comprised of 141 national federations, whose junior
and senior members, depending on geographical position of federation, compete on different regional
Championships and Games. Like in any other sport, gymnasts of different gymnastic quality can be seen in
those competitions. Quality of gymnasts depend on a number of factors such as sports tradition, interest
for this sport, conditions in which gymnastics` trainings are implemented, the age of gymnasts etc.
The aims of this study were: a) to determine characteristics and differences between elite senior
women gymnasts, and of elite junior women gymnasts, on continental competitions; b) to determine
characteristics and differences between elite senior women gymnasts, and of elite junior women
gymnasts, on different continental competitions; c) to determine characteristics and differences between
elite junior women gymnasts and elite senior women gymnasts on continental level.
METHODS
The subject sample included all elite junior and elite senior women gymnasts who participated in
C-III competitions (apparatus finals) at European Championships – EC, Asian Games – AG, Australian
Championships – AUCH and Pan-American Games – PANAM in the period from 2009 – 2012. In the
abovementioned period, elite senior women gymnasts competed at four EC (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012),
one AG (2012), three AUCH (2009, 2011, 2012) and three PANAM (2010, 2011, 2012), while the elite
junior women gymnasts competed at one EC (2010), two AG (2010, 2012), three AUCH (2009, 2010,
2011) and two PANAM (2009, 2012). Affiliation to a specific group is the criterion variable.
The sample of predictor variables was represented by a set of 15 scores derived from difficulty scores
(DS), execution scores (ES) and total score (TOTAL) of each of the four apparatuses of women’s artistic
gymnastics (vault - VT, uneven bars – UB, balance beam – BB and floor routines – FX). The values of the
mentioned scores have been taken from the FIG official web site and the Internet (www.gymnasticsresults.com). For the junior gymnasts that competed on Asian and Pan-American Games the results included only TOTAL scores on each apparatus.
Metric characteristics of scores, derived from the scores of expert judges, were established as generally
satisfactory (Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek,
2013). Detailed descriptive statistics of those predictor variables, of the same competitions, was determi-
67
ned in some previous studies (Massida, & Calo, 2012; Borovček, 2014; Atiković, Delaš Kalinski, Kremnicky
et al., 2014; Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milić, 2014).
Methods of data analysis included the calculation of two descriptive statistics indicators: mean value
(Mean) and standard deviation (SD). Tukey post Hoc Unequal N HSD test have been used to analyze:
a) differences between elite senior women gymnasts, and between elite junior women gymnasts, on
the same regional competitions (intracontinental senior/junior differences); b) differences between elite
women senior gymnasts, and of elite women junior gymnasts, on different continental competitions (intercontinental differences); c) differences between elite women junior gymnasts and elite women senior
gymnasts on continental level (intracontinental senior and junior differences).
RESULTS
Descriptive parameters of variables difficulty score (DS), execution score (ES) and total score (TOTAL)
of each of the four apparatuses of women’s gymnastics (vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor)
determined on the sample of elite women senior gymnasts that competed in finale competitions of
European Championships (held in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012), Asian Games (held in 2012), Australian
Championship (held in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012) and Pan-American Games (held in 2010, 2011, 2012),
are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Mean values (AS) and standard deviation (SD) of the variables: difficulty score (DS), execution
score (ES) and total score (TOTAL) of four women’s artistic gymnastics apparatus (vault – VT, uneven bars
– UB, balance beam – BB, floor – FX) of elite regional women senior gymnasts
COMP./
SD
AS DS SD DS AS ES
N VT2
TOTAL
VT2 VT2
VT2
SD ES
SD
AS VT2
VT2
VT2
VAULT (VT)
SD
AVR
VT
ASDS
SD
DS
AS ES
SD ES
AS
TOTAL
EC 2009 (1)
8
5.58
0.37
8.88
0.20
14.45
0.33
8
5.16
0.28
8.77
0.16
13.91
0.28 14.18 0.24
EC 2010 (2)
8
5.68
0.35
8.44
0.29
14.12
0.41
8
5.34
0.21
8.3310
0.44
13.67
0.56 13.89 0.42
EC 2011 (3)
8
5.89
0.44
8.53
0.44
14.42
0.44
8
5.21
0.41
8.61
0.44
13.82
0.71 14.12 0.53
EC 2012 (4)
8
5.90
0.33
8.61
0.39
14.47
0.76
8
5.33
0.37
8.67
0.43
13.97
0.63 14.22 0.67
ASG 2012 (5)
8
5.73
0.59
8.18
0.52
8
5.59
0.78
8.47
0.30
14.01
0.71 13.94 0.58
CODE
68
AS
AVR
VT
N
YEAR/
AUCH 2009 (6) 3
13.87
0.52
11.227,8,9
4.06
6
11.22 4.06
AUCH 2010 (7) 6
4.83
0.34
8.16
0.82
13.00
0.96
AUCH 2011 (8) 7
5.26
0.32
8.28
1.13
13.966
0.41
6
13.96 0.41
AUCH 2012 (9) 7
5.41
0.40
8.72
0.54
6
14.13
0.62
14.13 0.62
PANAM 2010
(10)
8
5.34
0.49
9.03
0.45
14.34
0.73
PANAM 2011
(11)
8
13.85
0.70
13.85 0.70
PANAM 2012
(12)
8
13.84
0.42
13.84 0.41
8
4.27
4.95
0.30
0.41
8.68
8.94
0.27
0.44
12.95
13.89
0.44 11.95 1.39
0.59 14.12 0.62
FLOOR (FX)
BALANCE BEAM (BB)
UNEVEN BARS (UB)
EC 2009 (1)
8
6.09
0.44
8.51
0.46
14.59
0.89
EC 2010 (2)
8
6.36
0.40
8.40
0.30
14.70
0.58
EC 2011 (3)
8
6.13
0.33
8.18
0.56
14.30
0.73
EC 2012 (4)
8
6.31
0.29
8.46
0.32
14.77
0.52
ASG 2012 (5)
7
5.97
0.52
8.29
0.25
14.26
0.60
13.31
0.79
AUCH 2010 (7) 8
5.20
0.60
7.369
1.03
12.56
1.09
AUCH 2011 (8) 8
5.40
0.59
7.369
0.68
12.76
1.09
AUCH 2012 (9) 8
5.58
0.33 8.407,8
0.40
13.97
0.57
PANAM 2010
(10)
8
5.29
0.25
0.58 13.6111,12 0.64
PANAM 2011
(11)
8
11.8910,12 1.35
PANAM 2012
(12)
8
12.7210,11 0.65
EC 2009 (1)
8
5.76
0.19 8.302,4
0.59
14.06
0.69
EC 2010 (2)
8
5.78
0.25
0.60
13.53
0.71
EC 2011 (3)
8
5.93
0.35
7.96
0.87
13.88
1.05
EC 2012 (4)
8
6.08
0.27
7.701
0.90
13.77
1.11
ASG 2012 (5)
8
5.69
0.58
8.18
0.45
AUCH 2009 (6) 4
8.32
7.751
AUCH 2009 (6) 5
13.85
0.86
12.36
0.86
AUCH 2010 (7) 7
8
0.37
9
4.81
AUCH 2011 (8) 8
5.607
6.78
1.18
11.59
1.05
0.51
7.359
1.19
12.93
1.44
AUCH 2012 (9) 8
5.79
PANAM 2010
(10)
0.42 8.38
0.54
14.16
0.82
8
5.54
0.30
0.49 13.67
PANAM 2011
(11)
8
12.5310
1.25
PANAM 2012
(12)
8
12.4410
1.40
EC 2009 (1)
8 5.312,3,4 0.38 8.942,3,4 0.25
14.24
0.53
EC 2010 (2)
8
5.731
0.31
8.171
0.38
13.86
0.54
EC 2011 (3)
8
1
5.71
0.24
1
8.44
0.26
14.14
0.45
EC 2012 (4)
8
5.741
0.41
8.381
0.39
14.04
0.79
ASG 2012 (5)
8
5.58
0.19
8.39
0.35
7,8
8.13
11,12
AUCH 2009 (6) 4
0.65
13.92
0.42
12.85
1.32
AUCH 2010 (7) 6
4.90
0.37
7.69
0.60
12.54
0.76
AUCH 2011 (8) 6
5.27
0.31
7.73
0.49
12.93
0.83
AUCH 2012 (9) 8
5.39
0.36
8.45
0.43
13.73
0.73
PANAM 2010
(10)
8
5.45
0.18
8.28
0.36
13.68
0.43
PANAM 2011
(11)
8
12.92
0.63
PANAM 2012
(12)
8
12.96
0.63
LEGEND: EC – European Championship, ASG – Asian Games, AUCH – Australian Championship, PANAM – Pan-American
Games, N – number of participants in final competition, AS DS – mean value of difficulty score, SD DS – standard deviation
of difficulty score, AS ES – mean value of execution score, SD ES – standard deviation of execution score, AS TOTAL – mean
of total score on each apparatus, SD TOTAL – standard deviation of total score on each apparatus, AS DS VT2 – mean value
of difficulty score of second vault, SD VT2 – standard deviation of difficulty score of second vault, AS ES VT2 – mean value
of execution score of second vault, SD ES – standard deviation of execution score of second vault, AS VT2 – mean of total
score of second vault, SD VT2 – standard deviation of total score of second vault, AS AVR VT – mean value of difficulty
score of average value of two vaults, SD AVR VT – standard deviation of total score of average value of two vaults, (1,2,3,4,
5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12)1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 – significant differences between championships according to Tukey post Hoc Unequal
N HSD test
69
Observing the results determined on a sample of elite women senior gymnasts from various regional
competitions, we can conclude the following: a) only in the variable vault total score (VTTOTAL) a
significant difference among the results achieved in AUCH2009 and AUCH held in later years has been
determined; b) regarding the uneven bars (UB) in the variable execution score (ES) significant difference
has been determined between results obtained at AUCH2010 and AUCH held in 2011 and 2012 while in
the variable uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) significant differences have been determined between
PANAM2010 and PANAM held in 2011 and 2012; c) regarding the balance beam (BB) in the variable
balance beam difficulty score (BBDS) significant difference has been determined between results obtained
at AUCH2010 and AUCH2011 while in the variable balance beam execution score (BBES) a significant
difference has been determined between results obtained at AUCH2010 and the ones obtained at AUCH
held in 2011 and 2012; among EC significant difference has been found only in variable balance beam
execution score (BBES) while between some PANAM competitions significant difference has been found
in the variable balance beam total score (BBTOTAL); d) regarding the floor (FX) significant differences have
been determined in the variables floor difficulty score (FXDS) and floor execution score (FXES) among the
results obtained at EC2009 and EC held in the later years.
Regardless of the determined differences, for which in general we can say that are not numerous, it was
decided that the results from different numbers of continental competitions can be perceived as unique
sample. Average results, calculated from different number of continental competition, have been taken
to present elite regional (continental) senior gymnasts.
Descriptive parameters of variables difficulty score (DS), execution score (ES) and total score (TOTAL)
of each of the four apparatuses of women’s gymnastics (vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor)
determined on the sample of elite women junior gymnasts, that competed in finale competitions of
European Championship (held in 2009), Asian Games (held in 2010, 2012), Australian Championship
(held in 2009, 2010, 2011) and Pan-American Games (held in 2009, 2012), are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Mean values (AS) and standard deviation (SD) of the variables: difficulty score (DS), execution
score (ES) and total score (TOTAL) of four women’s artistic gymnastics apparatus (vault – VT, uneven
bars – UB, balance beam – BB, floor – FX) of elite regional women junior gymnasts
70
COMP./
FLOOR (FX)
BALANCE BEAM (BB)
UNEVEN BARS (UB)
VAULT (VT)
YEAR/
CODE
EC 2010 (1)
ASG 2010 (2)
ASG 2012 (3)
AUCH 2009
(4)
AUCH 2010
(5)
AUCH 2011
(6)
PANAM 2009
(7)
PANAM 2012
(8)
EC 2010 (1)
ASG 2010 (2)
ASG 2012 (3)
AUCH 2009
(4)
AUCH 2010
(5)
AUCH 2011
(6)
PANAM 2009
(7)
PANAM 2012
(8)
EC 2010 (1)
ASG 2010 (2)
ASG 2012 (3)
AUCH 2009
(4)
AUCH 2010
(5)
AUCH 2011
(6)
PANAM 2009
(7)
PANAM 2012
(8)
EC 2010 (1)
ASG 2010 (2)
ASG 2012 (3)
AUCH 2009
(4)
AUCH 2010
(5)
AUCH 2011
(6)
PANAM 2009
(7)
PANAM 2012
(8)
N
AS
DS
SD
DS
AS
AS ES SD ES TOT
SD
TOT
8 5,35 0,65 8,47 0,46 13,82 0,78
8 4,98 0,62 8,64 0,64 13,63 1,10
8
12,94 0,59
AS DS VT2
0,34
0,83
8,52
8,60
AS
VT2
SD AS AVR SD AVR
VT2
VT
VT
13,76
13,64
12,80
0,70
0,98
0,47
10,77
3,01
13,12
0,25
7 4,54 0,46 8,43 0,24 12,21 1,34
12,21
1,34
8
13,81 0,51
13,81
0,51
8
13,44 0,57
13,44
0,57
7
5,195
5,065
SD DS AS ES SD ES
VT2
VT2
VT2
0,49 13,71 0,68
0,29 13,923 0,90
12,662 0,50
10,77 3,01
8 4,79 0,24 8,48 0,24 13,27 0,24
4,381,2
0,17
8,62
0,19 13,002 0,33
8 5,44 0,71 7,79 0,79 13,23 1,41
8 5,59 0,43 7,87 0,69 13,46 1,00
8
11,94 1,28
7
12,18 0,77
8 4,76 0,55 7,54 0,63 12,30 0,84
6 4,18 0,70 7,25 0,59 11,44 0,42
8
13,06 0,97
8
11,98 1,82
8 5,65 0,29 7,92 0,70 13,57 0,86
8 5,21 0,49 7,53 0,97 12,75 1,35
8
12,46 0,65
7
11,65 1,24
8 5,14 0,48 7,40 0,73 12,51 0,85
7 4,90 0,77 7,48 0,75 12,37 1,30
8
13,27 0,91
8
12,16 1,09
8 5,45 0,22 8,52 0,20 13,92 0,38
8 5,19 0,32 8,16 0,43 13,30 0,48
8
12,97 0,37
7
12,48 0,56
8 4,84 0,26 7,79 0,49 12,58 0,65
7 4,99 0,20 7,38 0,51 12,23 0,69
8
13,37 0,63
8
13,11 0,59
5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12)1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 – significant differences between championships according to Tukey post Hoc Unequal
N HSD test
71
As shown in the Table 2 the number of junior regional competitions in one Olympic cycle is different in
different continents. Further, it is obvious that results from some junior regional competitions didn’t include difficulty scores (DS) and execution scores (ES) data, but only total score (TOTAL), which prevented
a more detailed descriptive analysis of difficulty score (DS) and execution score (ES) variables.
Through the examination of all determined mean values, it can be observed that the highest total
score (TOTAL) elite junior gymnasts achieved on the floor (EC2009) and the lowest one on the vault
(AUCH2009). In agreement with these are the results of value range on different apparatuses: values of
vault total score (VTTOTAL) were in a range from 10.77 (AUCH 2009) – 13.83 (EC 2010), values of uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) were in a range from 11.44 (AUCH 2011) – 13.46 (ASG 2010), values of
the balance beam total score (BBTOTAL) were in the range from 11.65 (AUCH 2009) – 13.57 (EC 2010),
and the values of the floor total score (FXTOTAL) were in the range from 12.23 (AUCH 2011) – 13.92 (EC
2010). From the sizes of those value ranges further is visible how the elite women continental junior
gymnasts differ the most on the vault (value range of vault total score (VTTOTAL) = 3.05P), and the least
on the floor (value range of floor total score (FXTOTAL) = 1.69P).
The only intracontinental significant difference between elite women junior gymnasts has been determined in variable second vault difficulty score (VT2DS) (between results achieved at ASG2010 and ones
from ASG2012). No other differences, within regional competitions, have been determined. Because
(generally) significant differences among elite women junior gymnasts, of one regional competition,
have not been determinated they have been considered and analyzed as unique continental sample.
Average results, calculated from different number of regional competitions, have been taken to present
elite continental women junior gymnasts.
Average values, standard deviations and differences determined between continental sample of elite
women junior and women senior gymnasts, that competed in finale competitions of European Championship, Asian Games, Australian Championship and Pan-American Games held in period 2009 – 2012,
in variables difficulty score (DS), execution score (ES) and total score (TOTAL) of each of the four apparatuses of women’s artistic gymnastics (vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor) are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3. Intercontinental differences between elite women senior gymnasts and between elite women
junior gymnasts and intracontinental differences between elite women junior and senior gymnasts
72
FLOOR (FX)
BALANCE BEAM (BB)
UNEVEN BARS (UB)
VAULT (VT)
COMP.
CAT
N
AS DS
AS ES
N
EC (1)
EC (2)
ASG (3)
ASG (4)
AUCH (5)
AUCH(6)
PANAM (7)
PANCAM (8)
EC (1)
EC (2)
ASG (3)
ASG (4)
AUCH (5)
AUCH(6)
PANAM (7)
PANCAM (8)
EC (1)
EC (2)
ASG (3)
ASG (4)
AUCH (5)
AUCH(6)
PANAM (7)
PANCAM (8)
EC (1)
EC (2)
ASG (3)
ASG (4)
AUCH (5)
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
J
S
32
8
8
8
24
15
8
5.765
5.35
5.734
4.983
5.191,6
4.675
5.34
8.62
8.47
8.187
8.64
8.40
8.45
9.033
32
8
7
8
24
14
8
6.222,5,7
5.441,6
5.97
5.596
5.391,6
4.512,4,5
5.291
8.385
7.79
8.29
7.87
7.711
7.42
8.32
32
8
8
8
24
15
8
5.885
5.65
5.68
5.21
5.421
5.03
5.54
7.93
7.92
8.18
7.53
7.54
7.44
8.13
32
8
8
8
24
8.485
8.526
8.39
8.16
8.001
AUCH(6)
J
15
5.625
5.456
5.58
5.19
5.211
4.912
32
8
8
16
23
22
39
16
32
8
7
16
28
22
39
16
32
8
8
16
28
22
38
16
32
8
8
16
24
7.602
22
PANAM (7)
PANCAM (8)
S
J
8
8.28
39
16
7
5.45
AS
TOTAL
14.36
13.82
13.87
13.29
13.406
12.145,8
13.95
13.636
14.595,7
13.23
14.267
12.70
13.131,6
12.025
12.411,3
12.52
13.815,7
13.57
13.85
12.60
12.841
12.19
12.751
12.71
14.075.,
13.926
13.92
13.13
13.091,6
12.442,5
N VT2
32
8
8
8
6
8
8
AS DS
VT2
5,26
5,19
5,59
5,06
4,27
4,38
4,95
SD DS
VT 2
0,32
0,34
0,78
0,83
0,30
0,17
0,41
AS ES
VT2
8,60
8,52
8,47
8,60
8,68
8,62
8,94
SD ES
VT2
0,40
0,49
0,30
0,29
0,27
0,19
0,44
AS
SD
AS
SD
TOTAL
VT2
13,84
13,71
14,01
13,29
12,95
13,00
13,89
TOTAL
VT2
0,55
0,68
0,71
0,96
0,44
0,33
0,59
AVR VT
AVR
VT
0,48
0,70
0,58
0,86
1,87
2,03
0,63
0,56
14,10
13,76
13,94
13,22
13,13
12,09
13,90
13,63
13.081
13.246
5,6,7,8)1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 – significant differences between championships according to Tukey post Hoc Unequal N HSD test
73
Reviewing the results determined between the elite women senior gymnasts from various regional
competitions it can be concluded the following: a) regarding the vault, a significant difference has been
determined in the variable vault difficulty score (VTDS) between the results obtained at EC and result
obtained at AUCH and in variable vault execution score (VTES) between the results obtained at ASG and
results obtained at PANAM; b) regarding the uneven bars a significant difference in the variable uneven
bars difficulty score (UBDS) has been determined between results obtained on EC and results from
AUCH and from PANAM; in the variable uneven bars execution score (UBES) a significant difference has
been determined between results obtained at EC and at AUCH; in the variable uneven bars total score
(UBTOTAL)a significant difference has been determined between results obtained at EC and ones from
AUCH and from PANAM and between results obtained at ASG and at PANAM; c) regarding the balance
beam significant difference in the variable balance beam difficulty score (BBDS) has been determined
between the results obtained at EC and the ones from the AUCH while in the variable balance beam total
score (BBTOTAL) a significant difference has been determined between the results obtained at EC and the
ones from AUCH and from PANAM; d) regarding the floor a significant difference has been determined in
the variables floor difficulty score (FXDS) and floor execution score (FXES) between the results obtained at
EC and the ones from AUCH and in the variable floor total score (FXTOTAL) between the results obtained
at EC and the ones obtained at AUCH and at PANAM.
The results on elite intercontinental women junior gymnasts level have determined that: a) in the
variable vault total score (VTTOTAL) juniors from PANAM had significantly higher scores than the juniors
from AUCH; b) juniors from AUCH had significantly lower values of variable uneven bars difficulty score
(UBDS) than juniors from ASG and from EC; c) juniors from AUCH had significantly lower values of all floor
variables from juniors that competed on EC and significantly lower values of variable floor total score
(FXTOTAL) from juniors that competed on PANAM. Intercontinental difference between elite women
junior gymnasts has not been determined as significant in any balance beam variable.
A review and analysis of the average values of variables difficulty score (DS), execution score (ES) and
total score (TOTAL) have determined that the elite women senior gymnasts in all analyzed regional
competitions, on all apparatus, had numerically higher results from the regional elite women junior
gymnasts. Exceptions have been observed in variable vault execution score (VTES) (determined at ASG
and at AUCH) and in the variable floor execution score (FXES) (determined at EC). Junior gymnasts seemed
to have numerically higher scores than senior gymnasts in those variables.
Despite mostly numerically higher results obtained by elite women senior gymnasts, with regard to elite
women junior gymnasts results, just some of them have been determined as significant: 1) a significant
difference between elite European women senior and junior gymnasts has been determined in the
variable uneven bars difficulty score (UBDS); 2) a significant difference between the results of elite Asian
senior and junior women gymnasts has been determined in the variable vault difficulty score (VTDS); 3)
the results of elite Australian women senior and junior gymnasts have been significantly different in the
variables vault difficulty score (VTDS), vault total score (VTTOTAL), uneven bars difficulty score (UBDS),
uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) and in variable floor total score (FXTOTAL); 4) the results of the elite
women senior and junior gymnasts that competed on PANAM have not been found as significantly
different on any apparatus.
Because values of the variables difficulty score (DS) and execution score (ES) have not been found for
junior gymnasts that competed in PANAM, comparison with senior results was possible only through
total scores (TOTAL) on different apparatus. According to the values of total scores (TOTAL) elite woman
senior gymnasts (that have competed on PANAM) have achieved numerically higher scores on vault
and balance beam, while elite women junior gymnasts have achieved numerically higher scores on the
uneven bars and floor.
On any continent, intracontinental differences between elite women seniors and juniors have not been
determined as significant in any balance beam variables.
74
DISCUSION
Based on the presented results, derived from different post-hoc analyses, it is necessary to explain: 1)
Intracontinental differences, among elite senior and among elite junior women gymnasts, that generally
have not been determined as significant; 2) Intercontinental differences, between elite women senior
gymnasts, that have been determined between numerically higher results from EC and numerically lower
results from AUCH and PANAM, and between numerically higher results from ASG and numerically lower
results from PANAM; 3) Intercontinental differences, between elite junior women gymnasts, that have
been determined as significant in certain vault, uneven bars and floor variables and not significant in
any balance beam variables; 4) Intracontinental numerical differences between elite senior and junior
women gymnasts that have been determined, and why only a small number of those differences have
been determinated as significant;
Among the regional senior gymnasts significant differences found between results of variables balance
beam execution score (BBES), floor difficulty score (FXDS) and floor execution score (FXES) (determined
between different EC), and between results of vault total score (VTTOTAL) (determined among different
AUCH) are primarily differences between Championship held in 2009 and Championships held in later
years. A possible reason that has lead to such results was the emergence of „new“ seniors. Namely, after
participating at OG2008 a number of elite women senior gymnasts likely ended the competitive career. On
the other hand, a number of gymnasts, who, during the OG2008 were juniors, in 2009 became seniors.
However, it is likely that they, in this year, especially since there was a change of CoP, did not reach the
elite senior level. Significant progress of ”new“senior gymnasts was achieved in the following continental
competition and at that level they generally maintained through the entire Olympic cycle. Accordingly,
the results of 2009 have been determined as numerically significantly lower then the results from 2010,
2011 and 2012, while between the results from the 2010, 2011 and 2012 significant differences have not
been determined.
On intracontinental senior level significant differences in the variables uneven bars execution score (UBES),
balance beam difficulty score (BBDS) and balance beam execution score (BBES) determined between AUCH
held in different years can be explained through examination of the average values of these variables
through the analyzed period. Specifically, during the analyzed time period, numerically significant progress
in exercising of senior AUCH finalists has been determined. In contrast to the progress of AUCH finalists,
have been the results of senior PANAM finalists. For them, according to significant numerical decrease in
variables balance beam total score (BBTOTAL) and uneven bars total score (BBTOTAL), in period from 2010
– 2012, can be concluded that have had some numerical decline of results.
On intracontinental level significant differences have not been determined between elite women junior
gymnasts that competed in different years. It further means that juniors on the same continent, regardless
the year when they competed, have been quite similar – a product of similar trainings.
Intercontinental differences between elite senior women gymnasts show that they differ mostly in total
score (TOTAL) of different apparatuses and differ less in difficulty score (DS) and execution score (ES).
Significant differences have been mostly between numerically lower results from AUCH or PANAM and
numerically higher results from primary European Championship and Asian Games. Consequently, from
such results the rank of continental women senior gymnasts in analyzed Olympic cycle can be concluded:
European gymnasts had generally the highest results, they have been followed by Asian gymnasts and
PANAM gymnasts while AUCH senior gymnasts generally had the lowest rank.
Intercontinental differences, between elite junior women gymnasts, have determined that elite junior
women gymnasts from AUCH on different apparatus significantly differ from juniors from other continents:
AUCH juniors differ from PANAM juniors on vault, from ASG and EC juniors on uneven bars and from EC
and PANAM juniors on the floor. Accordingly, if scores present the quality, for elite junior women gymnasts
that competed on AUCH it can be generally concluded that they had the lowest quality. Opposite to them
were juniors from EC that in almost all analyzed variables, on all apparatus, attained the numerically highest
values. The scores (quality) of elite women junior gymnasts from different continents are fairly equal.
75
As for the intracontinental results, elite women senior gymnasts on all apparatuses achieve numerically
higher values in variables difficulty score (DS), execution score (ES) and total score (TOTAL) than elite
women junior gymnasts. Such result probably primarily comes from juniors applications of rule of easier
dismount, what, further, directly affects the values of the difficulty score (DS) (FIG, 2009).
On the European continent significant differences between elite women junior and senior gymnasts have
been determined only in the result of the variable uneven bars difficulty score (UBDS). Such result can
probably be attributed to two facts: 1) women junior gymnasts follow the rule of performing easier
dismounts; 2) uneven bars are an apparatus on which from junior to senior category occurs a significant
evolution of difficulty parts of exercise (Ferreirinha, Carvalho, Corte-Real and Silva (2011).
Numerical advantage of European junior gymnasts versus European senior gymnasts results has been
determined in the result of the variables vault execution score (VTES) and floor execution score (FXES).
From the same results it can be concluded that elite European women junior gymnasts vault and floor
exercises, which have been technically easier (concluded based on smaller difficulty scores of those
apparatuses), probably have performed with fewer errors than the elite European women senior
gymnasts. The obtained results are in conformity with the results from Erceg, Delas Kalinski & Milic
(2014). The authors, among the European junior and senior gymnasts that competed at the European
Championship 2012 (Brussels), identified significant differences between juniors and seniors in almost all
analyzed variables. Significant differences were not determined in variables vault difficulty score (VTDS),
uneven bars execution score (UBES), uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) and floor execution score (FXES).
Because the authors analyzed the results of all-around competitors within only one EC, and in this paper
analysis has been done over the results of finalists that competed on four EC, certain result deviations
are understandable.
The performance of significantly heavier vaults by elite Asian senior gymnasts versus elite Asian junior
gymnasts has probably been a consequence of the increase of anthropometric measures that occurs
during the period (transfer) from junior to senior category (from the age of 14 – 16; Arkaiev & Suchilin,
2009; Georgopoulos, Markou, Theodoropoulou et al., 2001). Since the increase in anthropometric
measures leads to increase of power, the possibility to perform technically more complex vaults is bigger.
Elite women senior gymnasts from AUCH have also predominantly higher numerical values of the analyzed
variables than elite women junior competitors from AUCH. An exception has been determinated for the
variable vault execution score (VTES), and, like with European juniors, it is likely that the Australian juniors
their technically easier vaults have performed with fewer errors than senior gymnasts (who perform more
difficulty vault jumps). Significant differences between the results of elite Australian women seniors and
elite women junior gymnasts have been found in results of variables vault difficulty score (VTDS), vault
total score (VTTOTAL), uneven bars difficulty score (UBDS), uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) and in floor
total score (FXTOTAL). The results from vault can be explained like a results obtained in Asian gymnasts
case (biological mature of Australian senior gymnasts versus junior gymnasts), while the obtained results
from uneven bars (UBDS and UBTOTAL) can be explained like in European case: the evolution of exercising
on uneven bars mostly come in period from junior to senior category (Ferreirinha, Carvalho, Corte-Real
& Silva; 2011).
Since the numerical differences between senior and junior competitors from PANAM, on any apparatus,
have not been determined as significant, it is possible to conclude that trainings of junior and senior
gymnasts, who competed in those competitions, have been quite uniform.
At the intracontinental level (between elite women senior and elite women junior gymnast) significant
differences have not been determined in any balance beam variable. From this it is furthermore possible
to conclude that the balance beam is an apparatus with the least visible difference between elite women
senior and elite women junior gymnasts. This is likely an apparatus on which women junior gymnasts
firstly improve their exercising to the elite level.
76
CONCLUSION
This study had three aims: 1) to determine the intracontinental differences between elite women senior
gymnasts and between elite women junior gymnasts; 2) to determine intercontinental differences
between elite women senior gymnasts and between elite women junior gymnasts; 3) to determine
intracontinental differences between elite senior and elite junior women gymnasts.
On the sample of elite senior women gymnasts, on intracontinental level, in only few variables significant
differences have been determined between different years of competition. Whereas those significant
differences have been determined between results from 2009 and ones from the later years, they have
been attributed to emergence of „new“ women senior gymnasts in new Olympic Cycle. Furthermore,
those results have not been an obstacle in homogenization of elite women senior gymnasts, that
competed in different competitive years, in a unique continental elite women senior gymnast’s sample.
On intracontinental level significant differences have not been determined between elite women junior
gymnasts that competed in different years.
The results of this study have found significant differences among elite women senior gymnasts from
different regional competitions. Significant differences have been determined in almost all variables
between the results from EC and results from AUCH and between some variables from EC and PANAM.
Found differences have been exclusively the result of numerically higher values of analyzed variables
achieved at EC in relation to the values achieved on AUCH and PANAM. In variables vault execution score
(VTES) and uneven bars total score (UBTOTAL) significant differences have been determined between
numerically higher results achieved at ASG and numerically lower results achieved in PANAM.
The findings of the present study confirmed the hypothesis that on regional level elite senior women
gymnasts achieve higher numerical values than elite junior women gymnasts in almost all difficulty score
(DS), execution score (ES) and total score (TOTAL) on vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor. However,
only few of those differences have been determined as significant. No significant difference, between
elite senior women gymnasts and elite women junior gymnasts, has been determined in any variable
which refers to second vault (VT2) what can be interpreted by fairly evenly performance of this vault
between the samples. Determined significant differences between elite senior and elite junior women
gymnasts have been attributed to three reasons: 1) elite junior women gymnasts have followed the rules
of performing easier dismounts (FIG, 2009; the case of elite junior gymnasts at European Championship
and Australian Championship); 2) the biological age of senior gymnasts has enabled them to perform
more difficult vaults (the case of Asian senior gymnasts), 3) similar trainings for junior and senior gymnasts
(the case of participants of Pan-American Games) have resulted in very consistent results between elite
junior and elite senior women gymnasts.
Final conclusion is that longer learning processes and biological age play a significant role in final results
on all women’s artistic gymnastics apparatus. The results from this study could be used as a base for long
term planning, programming and advancement of the current ones primarily on the continental level.
77
REFERENCES
Arkaiev, L.I., & Suchilin, N.G. (2009). Gymnastics: How to create champions (2nd ed.). Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport
Ltd.
Atiković, A., Delaš Kalinski, S., Kremnicky, J. Tabaković, M., Samardžija Pavletič, M. (2014). Characteristics and
trend of judging scores in the European, World Championships and Olympic games in the women‘s artistic gymnastics from 2006 to 2010 year. In M. Bučar Pajek, N.Jarc & M. Samardžić Pavletič (Eds.). Book of abstracts and
proceedings of 1st International Scientific Congress Organized by the Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, Portorož
(pp. 65-73). Ljubljana: Slovenian Gymnastics Federation.
Borovček, L. (2014). Intercontinental differences between senior and junior gymnasts within one Olympic cycle. [In
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Bučar Pajek, M., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Kovač, M., & Leskošek, B. (2013). Is the quality of judging in women artistic
gymnastics equivalent at major competitions of different levels? Journal of Human Kinetics, 37(1), 173-181.
doi:10.2478/hukin-2013-0038
Bučar, M., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Karacsony, I., & Leskošek, B. (2012). Reliability and validity of judging in women’s artistic gymnastics at the University Games 2009. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 207-215.
Erceg, T., Delaš-Kalinski S., & Milić, M. (2014). The score differences between elite European junior and senior
women gymnasts. Kinesiology, 46(Suppl 1), 88-94. http://hrcak.srce.hr/127854
Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) (2009). Code of points for women artistic gymnastics competitions. Retrieved October 1, 2009 from: http://figdocs.lx2.sportcentric.com/external/serve.php?document 1205
Ferreirinha, J., Carvalho, J., Corte-Real, C., & Silva, A. (2011). The evolution of real difficulty value of uneven bars
routines from elite gymnasts in last five Olympic cycles. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 3(1), 15-24.
Georgopoulos, N.A., Theodoropoulou, A., Leglise, M., Vagenakis, A.G., & Markou, K.B. (2004). Growth and skeletal
maturation in male and female artistic gymnasts. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89(9), 43774382. doi: 10.1210/jc.2003-031864
Massida, M., & Calo, C.M. (2012). Performance scores and standing during the 43rd Artistic Gymnastics World
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78
DUAL CAREER IN HIGHER EDUCATION – WINNER PROJECT
Marinšek M.1
University of Maribor, Faculty of Education
1
ABSTRACT
Dual career at the higher education is discussed in the article. Perception of student-athletes and
higher education teachers on dual career is presented. A questionnaire and interview regarding the
implementation of dual careers was sent to 34 Slovenian students who train 15 or more hours per week
in their chosen sport. Higher education teachers from different European countries were asked about the
dual career regulations on their home institutions. The results show that 8.7 ± 8.4 hours per week sports
practice overlaps study and that student-athletes perceive their dual career is not adequately considered
(74%) at their university. Student-athletes do not have clear idea of how the education system should
help them. They mostly expect better understanding between them and their teachers regarding their
sport commitments. We also found out that European universities have different rules governing dual
career. Solutions on dual career rules and/or recommendations that follow EU strategy is needed.
Key words: student, athlete, study programme, sport career, informal learning, non-formal learning
INTRODUCTION
The European Union has been active in its exploration regarding different aspects of sports in the
development of European economy and society. The EU has produced several expert review public
consultations and studies, and produced a specific Sports Eurobarometer (EU, 2010a). The European
Commission’s White Paper on Sport (2007, p. 6) addresses the need to modify educational structures
in Europe to make them more suitable for a “dual career” model. Dual career in this context relates to
combining a career of university education and elite sport.
Moreover, the EU 2020 strategy (2010b) highlights the urgent need for new skills that the project
addresses as it aims to take best out of the young athletes’ talent and support of better to recognition of
informal and non-formal learning.
With the support of the Lifelong Learning Programme of the European Union, a project “Facilitating
Higher Education for Athletes - WINNER education model” related to dual career has started in 2013. The
aim of the WINNER project is the focus on athletes’ better integration in the European higher educational
system. Lapland University of Applied Sciences (Finland) is leading the project with five international
partners, University of Tartu (Estonia), University of Maribor (Slovenia), University of Salzburg (Austria),
Talented Athletes Scholarship Scheme (UK) and University of Rome foro Italico (Italy) representing also
European Athlete as Student network EAS (EU 28).
Project consortium is developing new aspect to European education system about educating atypical
learners and recognizing their informal and non-formal learning gathered during sports training.
Innovative element of the project comes from the fact that athlete-students are “special group” of
atypical learning. Their studying requires better address of informal and non-formal learning (sports
achievements), opportunities for distance learning and other means for studying outside school building
and more individual approach to learning, all needs being relevant from the point of view of building
better education system in Europe.
79
Werquin (2010) has described notion of formal, informal and non-formal learning. Formal learning is
intentional, organised and structured learning that leads to validation and certification. It has a prescribed
learning programme with its objectives, time window and resources. Informal learning is not organised
and structured learning and it does not lead to validation and certification. It is not lead by a learning
programme and it is in most cases unintentional. Non-formal learning may or may not be intentional;
it is embedded in organized activities and does not lead to validation and certification. It represents
intermediate concept between formal and informal learning. Non-formal learning may occur when other
activities with their own learning objectives are carried out.
Regarding the definitions of different types of learning mentioned previously, we could classify learning
paths through practicing sport as non-formal learning. The sport career has exact performance outcomes
with a certain time window to achieve them. On the way to their sport results, athletes have to gain a
lot of formal knowledge about certain sport in order to be successful. Alongside this way, athletes learn
about other things not directly connected to their sporting careers.
Informal and non-formal learning outcomes are difficult to validate and recognize because they do not
have rigidly defined learning objectives, are in most cases unintentional and therefor difficult to perceive.
Nevertheless, informal and non-formal learning may involve skills, knowledge and abilities, which are
transferable to study/work in the athletes’ primary field of study/work (Ainsworth & Eaton, 2010).
The aim of present paper is to present perception of student-athletes and higher education teachers on
dual career as two important stakeholders group involved in student-athletes’ dual career.
METHODS
The project consortium developed a questionnaire containing 36 questions regarding the implementation
of Dual Careers (i.e., the successful combination of elite sport and higher education) of student-athletes
in English language. The back translation method was used to ensure cross-national exportations of
questionnaires and surveys involving two bilingual translators and a monolingual reviewer (i.e., Guidotti
et al., 2013). The questionnaire was translated into Slovene and back to English. After couple of rounds,
no difference between back translated and the original version was found. A pre-test was performed,
including a sample of 10 subjects, representative of the target population of the instrument in order
to avoid undetected errors in translation due to the characteristics of the translators. Subjects were
interviewed to ascertain reasons behind responses. After the back translation method and pre-test,
the questionnaire was sent online to 101 Slovenian student-athletes who are actively undertaking a
university degree in Slovenia, are actively involved in competitive sport for at least 10 years, are actively
competing at least at national level and are involved in at least 15 hours of training hours/week (does not
include hours devoted toward competition activities). Both, individual and team sports as well as both
genders were represented. The questionnaire contained questions regarding demographic information,
university studies, sport career and combination of sport and education. Most of the questions (21) had a
5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree/not at all/never) to 5 (Strongly
Agree/absolutely/always). Descriptive statistics was computed.
From 11th to 13th of September 11th EAS Conference on dual career took place in Rome. The purpose of one
of the workshops at the before mentioned conference was to discuss informal and non-formal learning
with the higher education teachers. Members from Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Estonia and
France took part in the workshop led by Alison Brown from Tass (Talented Athletes Scholarship Scheme).
We used the discussion to receive the opinion from higher education teachers about informal and nonformal learning and its recognition within formal education system.
80
RESULTS
Implementation of Dual Careers of student-athletes
We received completed questionnaires from 34 of 101 Slovenian student-athletes surveyed, thus giving
a response rate of 34%. Student-athletes were 26.2 ± 6.87 years of age, 65% of them were male and
35% female. Most of them (67%) were competing on international level and the rest of them (33 %) on
national level.
Slovenian student-athletes surveyed spent 24.4 ± 8.6 hours per week training and 18.2 ± 16.8 hours per
week studying (including attendance to class and individual study). On average, 8.7 ± 8.4 hours per week
their sports practice (i.e., both training and competition) overlaps their study (including attendance to
class and individual study). Half of them think their sport career is successful or very successful, 11% of
them, it is not successful and 39% were undecided. They rate their studies as successful or very successful
in 43% and as not successful in 21%. On the question how they rate their efforts to be successful in their
studies, most of them (53%) rated it as very high or high and less (26%) as low or very low. The rest (21%)
were undecided.
Most of the student-athletes claimed that they cannot or cannot at all (47%) meet the requirements
for students at their university (i.e., attendance to class and exam sessions), 22% were able to meet
them and 32% were undecided. Student-athletes surveyed perceived their dual career is not adequately
considered (74%) at their university. Only 21% think it is adequately considered. They also perceived their
sport staff (coach and managers) never supports them (44%) in combining their sport and education
commitments. On the other hand, 28% think the sport staff always supports them. Nor sport staff (59%)
nor the faculty staff (78%) adapts student-athletes’ schedule to match with their other career.
Students indicated following possible improvements of Dual Career programs for student-athletes at
their university:
− Teaching staff could strive more for the student-athletes and approach them more often;
− Organize information days only for student-athletes;
− Teaching staff should consider student-athletes’ sport obligations
− Teaching staff should offer tutorials for student-athletes on certain days;
− Video conferences should be used for lectures;
− Teaching staff should try to implement student-athletes’ sport career into study (seminar work from
their sport etc.);
− Teaching staff should motivate student-athletes by giving examples from their sport.
When asked, student-athletes never said to expect credits for non-formal and informal learning in
their formal study programme.
EAS (European Athlete as Student network) workshop
The summary from the workshop at the EAS Conference on dual career:
− It was agreed that the definition of informal learning covered non-structured, non-assessed and “biproduct” learning that may be picked up from doing sport or other activities/hobbies;
− Most members of the groups said they made no consideration of informal learning, it was not
considered possible as part of degree programme assessment and that all students types must do
the same things/meet the same assessment criteria;
81
− Most (if not all) said their institution offers flexibility in timetabling classes/lectures or exemptions,
offer (varying) scholarships, and studies can be extended, e.g. by a year to enable pursuit of sport;
− Finland – there are elements of recognition for informal learning and members from Estonia agreed
there should be recognition for it.
− Most group members did not believe that there should be formal recognition of informal learning
within assessment. They agreed that having the skills/experience that informal learning can provide
(e.g. communication, how to study, prioritising work, planning etc.) was important and can certainly
help with formal learning, as well as help in applying for University (some attribute extra “entry
points” or even quotas for student-athletes) but the difficulty is how the specific experiences may be
formally recognised (or assessed) versus more specific qualification/work experience;
− It was suggested that recognition of an athlete’s ability to pursue a dual career rather than specific
informal learning outcomes makes student-athletes “attractive” for University entry;
− Many felt that student-athletes should still have to pass all exams (though they could be sat at
different times) and achieve the same grades, as other students and that sport alone should not be
treated as a special case.
DISCUSSION
The opinion of student-athletes about university’s and sport system’s role in their dual career is quite
critical. They perceive that mostly the education system is not supportive enough in combining their sport
and education commitments. However, when indicating possible improvements in the questionnaire and
during the interviews, they do not have clear idea of how the education system should help them. What
they in most cases expect is better understanding between them and their teachers regarding their sport
career.
Two main perspectives can be seen while discussing dual career problems with student-athletes and
teachers. The first is perspective of academic standards and the second is perspective of competent
student. Higher education institutions are traditionally more focused to assure standards than to focus
on individual’s knowledge, abilities and needs (Scott, 1990). Therefor in many cases, the institutions
eliminated those who are not able to meet their standards, in some cases atypical learners such as
students with learning disabilities (Scott, 1990) or student-athletes. In this sense, the learning differences
between students are hidden behind academic standards and accommodations for atypical learners are
seen as negotiations (Rebolj, 2014). There is fear of lowering academic standards present, which have to
be protected.
The perspective of competent student is directed towards the student and trying to find a way to
meet demanded learning objectives and/or learning outcomes (Rebolj, 2014). The perspective allows
and stimulates teaching and learning diversity, tries to find solutions rather than restrictions and sees
student as active part of the process. However, this perspective requires the highest degree of trust and
responsibility and thorough analysis of learning objectives, learning outcomes, teaching methods and
assessments of the study programme.
One of the examples of the perspective of competent student are Principles for recognition of prior
learning at the University of Jyväskylä (2013), which determine recognition of informal and non-formal
learning acquired outside the formal education. The principles state that non-formal learning through
work experience, positions of trust, hobbies etc. can be recognized at university’s study programmes.
Principles state: “Competence acquired by the student will be compared to the learning outcomes of
the study units or study entities for which substitution is proposed. If the competence and the learning
outcomes correspond to each other, substitution can be granted either fully or partially.” And also “…a
demonstration of competence may also be required from the student.”
82
We recommend that student-athletes apply for a special dual career programme when they enter the
university. A special board of teachers and supporting staff should discus student-athletes’ needs and
possibilities to accommodate her/his studying. A student’s personal study plan should be developed
and supervised. Special attention should be put on thorough analysis of learning objectives, learning
outcomes, teaching methods and assessments. The analysis should be the starting-point to find out
if possibilities exist to validate and recognize non-formal learning outcomes gained through sport
involvement within formal study programme. Student-athletes can be classified as atypical learners and
because of the variety of their sport careers the agreement on their study accommodations will have to
be individually discussed. Recommendations and guidelines would always be much appreciated.
REFERENCES
Ainsworth, H. L., & Eaton, S. E. (2010). Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Learning in the Sciences.
Commission Of The European Communities (2007). White paper on sport. European Union.
European Commission (2010a). Sport and Physical Activity. TNS Opinion & Social: Brussels.
European Commission (2010b). Europe 2020 - A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Brussels.
Guidotti F., Minganti C., Cortis C., Piacentini M.F., Tessitore A., Capranica, L. (2013). Validation of the Italian version
of the Student Athletes’ Motivation toward Sport and Academics Questionnaire. Sport Sciences for Health 9(2):
51-58.
University of Jyväskylä (2013). Principles for recognition of prior learning at the University of Jyväskylä. Rector’s
Decision on 5 February 2013 supplementing Section 33 in the Degree Regulations of the University of Jyväskylä.
Rebolj, B.A. (2014). Razmislek o razumnih prilagoditvah za študente s posebnimi potrebami z vidika različnih
perspektiv. Sodobna pedagogika, 1, 38-55.
Scott, S. S. (1990). Coming to terms with the “otherwise qualified” student with a learning disability. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 23(7), 398-405.
Werquin, P. (2010), Recognising Non-Formal and Informal Learning: Outcomes, Policies and Practices, OECD
Publishing.
83
TENSIOMIOGRAPHY IN EARLY DIAGNOSTICS OF MUSCLE INJURIES
Zupet P.1,2, Rozman S.3, Djordjevic S.3
1
Institute for Medicine and Sports, Ljubljana, Slovenia;
2
University of Primorska, Koper Slovenia
3
TMG-BMC Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia
BACKGROUND
Injuries of the muscles are among the most common injuries in athletes and they account for 10-55
% of all sports injuries. There is also a high rate of reinjury of 15-30 %. Considering this early diagnosis
with exact determination of the injury level is very important. Usual diagnostics with imaging methods
like ultrasound (US) and magnetic resonance (MRI) allow us to see macroscopic structure changes of an
injured muscle. On the other hand, tensiomiography (TMG) is able to measure a functional deficit of an
injured muscle.
AIM
The aim of our study was to verify if there are significant differences in TMG parameters between healthy
and injured hamstrings muscles.
METHODS
25 healthy white males and females participated in the study. All of the subjects were healthy and came
to visit doctor exclusively for his/her acute hamstring injury (7 women, 18 man; age 24, 06 ± 9, 11). A
sports medicine specialist using the same protocol, which included personal history regarding present
injury, clinical examination, US or MRI and TMG, treated them all. The TMG measurement consisted of
four simple steps. First, a special sensor was placed on the muscle we wished to measure – the sensor
is designed to register the muscle contraction. Then the muscle contraction was induced artificially with
an electro stimulator. The contraction of the muscle under isometric conditions resulted in a muscle
belly radial displacement that moved the sensor rod. Radial displacement was recorded as a function
of the elapsed time. The sensor was connected to a computer where a specially designed software
plotted the displacement of the sensor rod against time. Three parameters for evaluation of TMG signal
were determined: Td (delay time), Tc (contraction time) and Dm (displacement of muscle belly during
contraction).The SPSS software for Windows (version 13) was used for computations. The results are
expressed as an arithmetic mean and standard deviation. Differences in TMG parameters associated
between healthy and injured leg were evaluated with Student t test. Differences below the confidence
limit = 5% were considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
Table 1 represents data of TMG parameters for the injured and non-injured leg (mean value +/- SD).
Injured leg (n=25)
Non-injured leg
(n=25)
P value
Td (ms)
25,36±4,05
23,68±3,08
0,048
Tc (ms)
35,68±10,84
26,33±7,38
0,000
4,98±2,09
4,93±1,87
ns
Dm (mm)
84
Figure 1 represents differences between Td of injured and non-injured hamstring muscle in each individual
(N = 25; Td – delay time, NI – non-injured side, I – injured side).
Figure 2 represents differences between Tc of injured and non-injured hamstring muscle in each individual
(N=25; Tc – contraction time, NI – non-injured side, I – injured side).
85
CONCLUSIONS
Contractile property changes after strain injury of hamstrings can be detected as changes of Td and Tc
parameters in TMG signal. This was confirmed by clinical examination and standard imaging methods.
There are further studies needed to verify the exact correlation between the injury grade and TMG
parameters.
Key words: hamstring, injury, tensiomiography, athletes
REFERENCES
1. Petersen J, Hölmich P. Br J Sports Med. 2005 Jun;39(6):319-23.
2. Jarvinen TAH, Jarvinen T, Kaariainen M et al. American Journal of Sports Medicine 2005;33:745–66.
3. Malliaropoulos N, Isinkaye T, Tsitas K, Maffulli N. Am J Sports Med. 2011 Feb;39(2):304-10.
4. Mendiguchia J, Brughelli M. Phys Ther Sport. 2011 Feb;12(1):2-14.
5. Simunic B, Degens H, Rittweger J, Narici M, Mekjavic I, Pisot R. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011 Sep;43(9):1619-25.
6. 27. Dahmane R, Djordjevic S, Smerdu V. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2006 Nov;44(11):999-1006.
86
JUDGING ARTISTRY ON BALANCE BEAM
Bučar Pajek M.
Faculty of Sports, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ABSTRACT
The problem of a systematic bias and inconsistency of judges which may influence the final ranks of
competitors is a concern in Artistic Gymnastics. Continuous monitoring of the quality of judging
(incorporating reliability and validity) is a necessity. Due to relatively poor definitions of Artistry in the
Code of Points (2009), judging of artistry may suffer from serious flaws in reliability and validity. We have
used the balance beam artistry evaluation forms given by 5 execution judges at World Championship in
Tokyo 2011 to analyze reliability and validity of artistry judging. Results of the survey have shown that
artistry deductions were received by a highly variable number of competitors from separate judges in
the same components of artistry. The variability of average total artistry deduction was relatively large
and the average correlation coefficient in total artistry deductions between all judge pairs was relatively
low: 0.6±0.06, significantly below in comparison to average correlation coefficient in total deductions
from execution score, which was 0.73±0.04, p < 0.001 for the significance of the differences in correlation
coefficients. Kendall’s coefficient W revealed significant systematic over- or under-rating of judges in the
components of artistry of presentation, sureness of performance and variation in rhythm, but also in total
artistry deductions (W values ranged from 0.05 to 0.53, p < 0.001 for all W coefficients). We have shown
that reliability and validity of artistry judging was not satisfactory in this analysis. We propose that the
performance of judging artistry should be repetitively examined in present Olympic Cycle (2012-2016)
and if such results are confirmed, a thorough reevaluation of the way and scope of artistry evaluation
should be made by FIG.
Keywords: artistic gymnastics, evaluation, panel judging, bias
INTRODUCTION
Outcome in artistic gymnastics is crucially affected by judging. When the homogenous group such as the
world class gymnasts competes at the higher level competitions, i.e. World Championships or Olympic
Games, the differences between gymnasts are often small (GymnasticsResultsCom, 2012). Previously,
numerous researches have analysed various aspects of the judging performance (Aronson, 1970; Ansorge
et al., 1978; Ansorge and Scheer, 1998; Boen, Van Hoye, Auweele, Feys and Smits 2008; Bučar Pajek et
al., 2011; Bučar et al., 2012; Pajek et al., 2013; Dallas and Kirialanis, 2010; Leskošek et al., 2010; Plesner,
1999; Plessner and Schallies, 2005; Popović, 2000; Ste-Marie, Valiquette and Taylor; 2001). The Code of
Points for women (FIG, 2009) defines 5 judges for evaluating exercise execution at World Championship
in Tokyo 2011 resulting in E (execution) score and 2 additional judges provide D (difficulty) score (FIG,
2009). According to the Code of Points the judges giving execution (E) scores may penalize competitors
for general mistakes, specific execution mistakes and artistic flaws (FIG, 2009).
JUDGING THE ARTISTRY
In the recent years our group has made several propositions for further improvements in the field of
judging (Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, Leskošek, & Čuk,
2011). It was our general impression that evaluation of artistry components suffers from serious flaws in
reliability and validity of judging. We also question the relevance and justification for deductions in some
87
components of artistry, such as gesture and mimic, which may be highly variable between the judges and
subject to personal and subjective opinions. Since the sum of all artistry deductions may rise up to 0.8
points, this may significantly impact the final result and we feel that such an impact should be justified
by quantitative data.
Artistic deductions are derived from the following components of artistry: inappropriate gesture and mimic,
insufficient artistry of presentation, sureness of performance and insufficient variation in rhythm (Table 1).
The final artistry deduction is included in the final E score and the deductions are given in the magnitude
of 0.1 or 0.3 points. Artistry is evaluated and judged at two apparatuses: balance beam and floor. In theory,
artistry at balance beam and floor is defined as mastery of execution (the judges should move away from
the personal taste of beauty and follow the definition in the Code of Points). But in the Code of Points (FIG,
2009), there was no clear definition of mastery, just deduction for artistry mistakes (Table 1).
Table 1. Artistry Deductions at Balance Beam (FIG, 2009).
FAULTS
0.1
Insufficient variation in rhythm
X
Sureness of performance
X
X
Insufficient artistry of presentation throughout the exercise including:
Lack of creative choreography originality of composition of elements
X
and movements
X
Inappropriate gesture or mimic not corresponding
0.3
X
to the movements
Additional explanation regarding artistry was given to judges at the judge meeting held at World
Championship in Tokyo 2011 prior competition. The E judges were also asked to fulfill special judge sheet
for artistry (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Judge sheet for artistry (to protect judges and gymnasts identity we erased identifications data
from presented artistry sheet (Majer, 2013).
88
The problem of a systematic bias and inconsistency of judges which may influence the final ranks of
competitors is a concern in Artistic Gymnastics. Continuous monitoring of the quality of judging
(incorporating reliability and validity) is a necessity. Therefore we designed a study with the aim to analyze
the reliability and validity of judging artistry in female gymnastics. We have used the judging results
from one of the world’s largest competitions and examined them for indices of inter-rater reliability and
validity. The results were published in Science of Gymnastics journal 2014 (Bučar Pajek, Kovač, Pajek
& Leskošek, 2014). Here we give summary of these results and we propose several expanded lines of
concern regarding the performance of judging which justify the need for further exact and thorough
reevaluation of this field.
STATISTICAL METHODS OF EXAMINATION OF JUDGING PERFORMANCE IN ARTISTRY DEDUCTIONS AND
RESULTS OF SURVEY IN 2014
Evaluation of artistry was based on results at World Championship in Tokyo 2011. The evaluation forms
for artistry deductions were inspected for all competitors on balance beam qualifying session (N=194).
Each competitor was evaluated by 5 judges of international level. For each competitor the deduction
score for each component of artistry and final artistry deduction score given by each judge was noted.
Final difficulty, execution and total score were monitored as well for each competitor. The identity of
judges was not revealed and was kept anonymous for the purpose of this report.
The reliability of judges in monitoring artistry was evaluated by counting the frequency of missing scores
and by distribution of deductions at various components of artistry.
The compliance and coherence of judges was evaluated through calculation of mean artistry deduction
and mean rank of the artistry deduction for each individual judge. Ranks of the judge’s artistry deduction
for each competitor were analyzed using the Kendall’s coefficient of concordance W. In this specific
application of Kendall’s W, the higher (and more significant) W values denote systematic over or underrating of artistry deductions and are therefore a reflection of a special case of judging bias. Kendall’s W
was calculated for final artistry deduction and separately for each component of artistry.
Kendall’s coefficient of rank correlation tau-b between judges for total artistry deductions was compared
to tau-b for final total deductions without artistry deductions. This evaluation was used to compare the
concordance of judges at artistry and other components of judging execution. Finally, the Kendall’s tau-b
correlation coefficient between total artistry deductions and final D, E and total scores were calculated
for separate judges.
Used set of variables included: FREQUENCIES OF DEDUCTIONS for components of artistry evaluated
by the judges, TOTAL ARTISTRY DEDUCTIONS with distribution by judges, MEAN RANK OF ARTISTRY
DEDUCTIONS given by individual judges and TOTAL ARTISTRY DEDUCTION MEAN RANK, CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS of total artistry deductions and total deductions between judge pairs.
There were 194 competitors on balance beam qualification session with artistry deductions included.
The frequencies of missing deductions and distribution of deductions for various artistry components
are given in table 2.
89
Table 2. Frequencies of Deductions and Missing Values for Components of Artistry Evaluated
Artistry component
Inappropriate
gesture or mimic
Insufficient
variation in rhythm
Sureness of
performance
Insufficient artistry
of presentation
Deduction level
Judge 1
Judge 2
Judge 3
Judge 4
Judge 5
No deduction
194
175
190
138
179
Deduction 0.1
0
0
0
9
1
Missing value
0
19
4
47
14
No deduction
88
138
48
46
10
Deduction 0.1
106
37
142
102
171
Missing value
0
19
4
46
13
No deduction
2
21
87
57
24
Deduction 0.1
34
78
94
60
64
Deduction 0.3
158
76
9
30
92
Missing value
0
19
4
47
14
No deduction
88
106
124
74
112
Deduction 0.1
89
62
59
67
47
Deduction 0.3
17
7
7
6
22
Missing value
0
19
4
47
13
For inappropriate gesture or mimic there was no deduction for vast majority of competitors. Judge No.
4 standed out with the highest number of deductions and the highest number of missing values at all
components of artistry. In general, there were large differences in the distribution of no deduction, 0.1
and 0.3 deductions for sureness of performance and insufficient artistry of presentation.
When the data on individual judge‘s artistry evaluation forms were inspected, several cases were found,
where the judges gave artistry deductions, but calculated the sum of separate deductions in a wrong way
(the final artistry deduction was different than the sum of separate components).
Total artistry deductions with distribution according to individual judges are given in table 3.
Table 3. Number of Competitors with Given Total Artistry Deduction and Their Means by Individual Judges.
Total artistry
deduction
Judge 1
Judge 2
Judge 3
Judge 4
Judge 5
No deduction
1
17
31
31
1
Deduction 0.1
11
46
53
27
15
Deduction 0.2
13
33
62
26
52
Deduction 0.3
49
57
35
31
22
Deduction 0.4
58
26
3
6
50
Deduction 0.5
46
6
8
18
24
Deduction 0.6
4
2
1
3
1
Deduction 0.7
12
4
1
3
16
Deduction 0.8
0
0
0
3
0
Missing
0
3
0
46
13
0.39
0.24
0.18
0.24
0.34
Mean total deduction
90
The coefficients of variation of the artistry deductions for the individual judges 1-5 were: 0.36, 0.63, 0.73,
0.84 and 0.48. Mean ranks of judges for components of artistry and total artistry deductions mean rank
are presented in table 4. Ranks were tested for concordance with Kendall‘s W coefficient of concordance.
These results are also given in table 3. No data is given for inappropriate gesture or mimic component,
since there were no deductions for this component for any of the competitor in 3 out of 5 judges.
Table 4. Mean Ranks of Judge’s Artistry Deductions and Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W.
Artistry component
Insufficient variation in
rhythm
Sureness of performance
Insufficient artistry of
presentation
Total artistry deduction
Judge 1
Judge 2
Judge 3
Judge 4
Judge 5
N
Kendall‘s Wa
Sig.
2.85
2.02
3.36
3.08
3.70
133
0.314
<0.001
4.11
3.42
1.86
2.13
3.48
132
0.532
<0.001
3.47
2.88
2.74
2.90
3.00
133
0.054
<0.001
4.3
2.8
1.87
2.12
3.91
143
0.527
<0.001
The correlations in total artistry deductions between separate pairs of judges are given in the table 5. This
table also holds correlation matrices for various correlations of artistry deductions with other variables
for all judge pairs.
Table 5. Correlation matrices for Total Artistry Deductions between All Judge Pairs. Correlations between
total deductions (but without artistry deductions, which were subtracted from total deductions) are also
shown.
Correlations
with final
scores
Correlation
matrix for
artistry
deductions
Correlation
matrix
for total
deductions
without
artistry
Item
D score
E score
TAD 1
TAD 2
TAD 3
TAD 4
TAD 5
Final
score
0.68
0.78
-0.61
-0.66
-0.66
-0.62
-0.71
0.44
-0.49
-0.52
-0.53
-0.60
-0.51
-0.61
-0.63
-0.63
-0.49
-0.71
0.55
0.59
0.46
0.60
0.70
0.62
0.61
0.61
0.63
D score
E score
TAD 1
TAD 2
TAD 3
TAD 4
0.58
TD 1
TD 1
TD 2
TD 3
TD 4
TD 2
TD 3
TD 4
TD 5
0.73
0.73
0.69
0.70
0.83
0.73
0.70
0.74
0.73
0.67
TAD - total artistry deduction, the numbers denotes judges; TD - total deduction without artistry
deduction, the number denotes judges.
It can be seen, that all correlation coefficient for judge pairs in total deductions (TD) were higher than
coefficients for total artistry deductions (TAD), average TAD correlations coefficient was 0.6±0.06 and
average TD correlation coefficient was 0.73±0.04, the difference between TAD an TD being statistically
significant, p < 0.001. In general, the magnitude of correlations between TAD and final scores, D scores
and E scores were expectedly negative, but also of relatively low magnitude.
91
INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS AND LINES OF CONCERN
As seen above we have found serious deviations in reliability of monitoring the artistry of competitors
and significant values of systematic under- or over-rating denoting suboptimal validity. To a vast majority
of competitors no deduction was given from 3 out of 5 judges for the component of inappropriate gesture
and mimic. Only a single competitor was penalized from judge 5 and 9 competitors (not including the
competitor of judge 5) were penalized from judge 4. Therefore the relevance of this artistry category can
be questioned, when no deduction in this category is given from majority of judges to any of competitors.
Additional sources of problems when judging gesture and mimic are: (i) inspecting the competitors
mostly from the flank position and from the substantial distance (which prevents the appropriate gesture
and mimic assessment), (ii) less experienced judges may spend significant amount of time looking at
scoring sheet and therefore missing some of the less important features of the routine, such as mimic
and gesture (Ste-Marie, 2000).
When looking at inter-judge variability, there were large differences in the distribution of magnitudes and
the mean total artistry deductions. The dispersion of mean deductions was relatively large, going from
0.18 points for judge 3 to 0.34-0.39 points (twice the amount) for judges 1 and 5. This was supplemented
by the significantly (p<0.001) lower correlations between judge pairs in total artistry deductions as
compared to correlations in total deductions from E score (without artistry deductions). Furthermore,
the number of competitors without deduction for separate components of artistry was highly variable
between the judges and even some calculation mistakes in summation of artistry deductions were noted.
Taken together, these facts point to an insufficient inter-rater reliability of artistry judging, the finding
which is substandard for general judging performance at major gymnastic competitions (Leskošek, Čuk,
Karácsony, Pajek, & Bučar, 2010; Pajek, Cuk, Pajek, Kovac, & Leskosek, 2013).
Serious flaws in validity of artistry judging were also found. Here we focused on a special case of validity,
which deals with the presence of systematic over or under-rating or scoring of competitor’s artistry (what
is also called bias). Table 3 clearly shows that we found a significant amount of systematic under- or overrating in every artistry component examined. We speculate, that this has a different origin than national
bias, where judges give better scores to gymnasts of same nationality (Ansorge & Scheer, 1988). This
may better be explained by differences in character and personal characteristics (personal taste, culture),
judging education and relatively high frequency of changes in FIG rules regarding the judging of artistry
(FIG, 2009). The judging of artistry was also relatively poorly defined in FIG rules. In Code of Points 2013
– 2016 artistry is better defined (FIG, 2013). We expect that new rules of artistry evaluation will bring
improvement of reliability and consistency of judges and this should be verified through further research
of future competitions.
FINAL REMARKS
Our analysis of artistry on balance beam at World Championship 2011 competitions brought worrying
results. The inter-rater reliability was poor with large differences in number of competitors penalized and
in average artistry deductions. For the artistry component of inappropriate gesture and mimic, majority
of judges gave no deduction and other judges differed significantly. This puts the inclusion of this artistry
component in the present Code of Points (FIG, 2013) under question. Validity of judging was substandard
with systematic under- or over-rating found in all examined components of artistry and total artistry
deductions as well. However, due to the limitation of data to this single competition these results may
be regarded as pilot and hypothesis generating. We proposed that the performance of judging artistry
should be repetitively examined in present Olympic Cycle (2012-2016) and if such results are confirmed,
a thorough reevaluation of the way and scope of artistry evaluation should be made by FIG.
92
REFERENCES
Ansorge, C. J., & Scheer, J. K. (1988). International bias detected in judging gymnastic competition at the 1984
olympic games. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59(2), 103-107.
Ansorge CJ, Scheer JK, Laub J, Howard J. Bias in judging womens gymnastics induced by expectations of within-team
order. Research Quarterly, 1978; 49: 399-405
Aronson RM. The art and science of judging men’s gymnastics. Lowell: Lowell Technological Institute; 1970.
Boen, F., van Hoye, K., Vanden Auweele, Y., Feys, J. & Smits, T. (2008). Open feedback in gymnastic judging causes
conformity bias based on informational influencing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 621-628.
Bucar, M., Cuk, I., Pajek, J., Karacsony, I., & Leskosek, B. (2012). Reliability and validity of judging in women’s artistic
gymnastics at University Games 2009. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 207-215.
Bučar Pajek, M., Forbes, W., Pajek, J., Leskošek, B., & Čuk, I. (2011). Reliability of real time judging system. Science
of gymnastics Journal, 3(2), 47-54.
Bučar Pajek, M., Kovač, M., Pajek, J., & Leskošek, B. (2014) The judging of artistry components in female gymnastics
: a cause for concern?. Science of gymnastics journal, 6(3), 5-12.
Dallas G, Kirialanis P. Judges‘ evaluation of routines in men‘s artistic gymnastics. Science of Gymnastics Journal,
2010; 2: 49-58
GymnasticsResultsCom. Gymnastics Results, 2012. Available at: http://www.gymnasticsresults.com; Accessed on
07.01.2012
FIG. (2009). Code of Points for Women Artistic Gymnastics Competitions. Retrieved 19 January 2012, 2012, from
http://figdocs.sportcentric.net/external/public.php?folder=661
FIG. (2013). Code of Points for Women Artistic Gymnastics Competitions. Retrieved 12 May 2014, from https://
www.fig-gymnastics.com/site/page/view?id=471
Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Karácsony, I., Pajek, J., & Bučar, M. (2010). Reliability and validity of judging in men’s artistic
gymnastics at the 2009 university games. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 2(1), 25-34.
Majer, N. (2013). Zanesljivost in skladnost sodnic pri sojenju artističnosti na gredi[Reliability and validity of judging
artistry at Balance beam]. Bachelor degree. University of Ljubljana: Faculty of sport.
Pajek, M. B., Cuk, I., Pajek, J., Kovac, M., & Leskosek, B. (2013). Is the Quality of Judging in Women Artistic Gymnastics
Equivalent at Major Competitions of Different Levels? [Article]. Journal of Human Kinetics, 37, 173-181.
Plessner H. Expectation biases in gymnastics judging. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 1999; 21: 131-144.
Plessner H, Schallies E. Judging the cross on rings: A matter of achieving shape constancy. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 2005; 19: 1145-1156.
Popović R. International bias detected in judging rhythmic gymnastics competition at Sydney-2000 Olympic Games.
Facta universitatis-series: Physical Education in Sport, 2000; 1: 1-13.
Ste-Marie, D. M. (2000). Expertise in women’s gymnastic judging: An observational approach. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 90(2), 543-546.
Ste-Marie DM, Valiquette SM, Taylor G. Memory-influenced biases in gymnastic judging occur across different prior
processing conditions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 2001; 72: 420-426.
93
SPORTS INJURIES OF THE STUDENT POPULATION AT THE FACULTY FOR PHYSICAL
EDUCATION AND SPORT: A REVIEW OF INJURY-RISK AND INJURY-PREVENTION
Atiković A.1, Nožinović Mujanović A.1, Mujanović E.1
1
University of Tuzla, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, 2. Oktobra 1, 75000 Tuzla, Bosnia and
Herzegovina
ABSTRACT
The primary objectives of the study is to quantify the injuries among students who attended the Faculty
of Physical Education and Sport, University of Tuzla according to the study program (4 years) and to
determine the, location of injury, sports affected the most and to provide evidence for the prevention.
Sample was made of (n=53) male and (n=14) female students of the third and fourth year, who
volunteered to participate. Information on injuries was collected during the 20012-2013 academic years
through a questionnaire from all different sport disciplines. A self-designed questionnaire was used to
investigate the characteristics of sport injuries. Overall, male students had 189 injuries, or 3.5 injuries per
person, while female students had 28 injuries, i.e. 2 per person. Most common free sports giving rise to
injuries (male: artistic gymnastics 35,4%, combat sports 13,2%, football 12,1%, etc.) and (female: artistic
gymnastics 60,7%, alpine skiing 21,4%, outdoor activities 7,1%, etc.). The majority of the injuries were
mild to moderate and the commonest ones were (male; skin and subcutaneous tissue: blisters, wounds
(40,2%), ankle injuries: contusions, distortions, dislocations (25,4%) and (female; skin and subcutaneous
tissue (60,7%), muscle, tendon and tendon sheath (17,8%). The results of the research provide a useful
insight into the location, sports incidence and sites of injuries.
INTRODUCTION
At the first study cycle of Bologna process at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of
Tuzla, studying to acquire the professional title of a professor of physical education and sports, over a
period of four years or eight semesters, the student are faced with theoretical and practical lessons.
The curriculum of the Faculty of PE and Sport, compared to other facultys, shows significant number
of practical lessons (20). The students are faced with the highest number of practical courses in the
first three years of study. This is when the injuries mostly occur (18). During study, the students have
approximately 1125 hours of physical activities, meaning that during a four-year study programme they
will spend 1,5 hours per day, not counting preparation and taking of exams.
The teaching goals are directed towards the following: learning new motoric knowledge, improvement of
main theoretical and practical motoric knowledge, and enabling students to carry out individual physical
exercise. During the lessons, the students do not practice only familiar elements, but they are faced with
new motoric structures increasing the risk of injuries. This takes place due to four main reasons: biomechanically conditioned movement structures, specific conditions of activities, optimum duration of
learning individual sports, schedule of lessons (20). Organisation and implementation of individual sport
activities depends on the interests of students, material conditions of work, expertise, methodical
ability and motivation of course teachers. Knowing specific conditions, such as type and seriousness
of injury, course and distribution of injuries in final years, are of crucial importance for the purpose
of gaining a fuller image on risks of injuries during study. Only by knowledge of all of the given
factors, it is possible to propose prevention measures or at least to decrease the number of injuries
in some courses. Should a student have a more serious injury, he/she can not participate in the
teaching process. Should the injury be of permanent nature, the consequence is that he/she might
be in a position not to continue the studies.
94
Participating in sports may sometimes may lead to sport injury. Males are generally more prone to
sports injury in comparison to females (5). Games like football, basketball are often found to be associated with sports injury (2,3,8,12). Lower linbs seems to be more susceptible to sport injury (7). Sprain,
fracture, muscle strain, contusion , etc are some well known sports injury (4).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample of Interviewees
The survey was carried out with a sample of (n=53) male and (n=14) female students of the third and
fourth year of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, at the end of the summer semester of the
2012-2013 academic year. Average male body mass index was 24,3±2,8 kg/m², and female 21,9±1,4
kg/m², temperature in gym was comfortably 22 degree Celsius. They voluntarily participated in the
experiment, as we respected Helsinki declaration.
Sample of Variables
The survey contained basic information on students (gender, age, year of study), information on type
of injury, sport activity at which the injury occurred, morphological status of the interviewee. Having in
mind that the survey is based on interviewees’ memories and not on medical documentation.
RESULTS
The results of the research show that the frequency of students injuries at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport of the University of Tuzla is rather high. Over the course of study, a total of 189 injuries
occurred with male students out of (n=53) interviewed students, and for female students the number of
injuries is 28 out of (n=14) interviewed students. Overall, male students had an average of 3.5 injuries
per person, while female students 2 injuries per person. Male students had more injuries than female
students.
In the (Table 1 and 2) shows all activities during which students were injured, from the first to the end
of the fourth year of study, regardless of location and conditions under which the injury happened. It
is visible that students suffer from more injuries during individual activities, such as sport gymnastics,
combat sports, alpine skiing, compared to other, team sports. When it comes to activities related to student duties and practice, male students are injured mostly during sports gymnastics (35,4%), then combat
sports (13,2%), football (12,1%), athletics (10,0%), alpine skiing (7,9%), judo (6,3%), etc. As for the female
students, the highest percentage of injuries is noted during sports gymnastics (60,7%), then Alpine skiing
(21,4%), outdoor activities (7,1%), followed by three sports with the same percentage: rhythmic gymnastics, basketball and fitness (3,4%). If we view injuries as such, we can say that 1/3 of injuries on men goes
on artistic gymnastics, while with women the number is higher, comes to 2/3 of all injuries.
Out of presented data (Table 1 and 2), male students had a highest number of injuries as follows: a) skin
and subcutaneous tissue (blisters, wounds, etc.) (40,2%), following injuries c) ankle injuries (contusions,
distortions, dislocations) (25,4), b) muscle, tendon and tendon sheath (21,6%). Most frequent injuries of
female students are: a) skin and subcutaneous tissue (blisters, wounds, etc.) (64,2%), b) muscle, tendon
and tendon sheath (17,8%), etc. Skin and subcutaneous injuries of male students made ¼ of all injuries,
while for female students that number was higher, making 2/3 of all injuries.
95
Table 1. Classifications and number of sports injuries in women students as results of mechanical
forces (n=53)
No. Sports activity
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
SUM
%
1
artistic gymnastics
48
6
9
0
1
3
0
0
0
67
35,45
*
all combat sports
6
6
10
1
1
0
1
0
0
25
13,22
2
football
6
9
4
2
0
2
0
0
0
23
12,17
3
athletics
5
7
6
0
0
0
1
0
0
19
10,05
4
alpine skiing
2
7
3
0
0
0
0
0
3
15
7,94
5
judo
3
2
4
1
1
0
1
0
0
12
6,35
6
basketball
0
0
5
1
0
1
0
0
0
7
3,70
7
volleyball
0
1
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
3,70
8
sport climbing
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
2,65
9
boxing
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
2,65
10
swimming
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
4
2,12
11
outdoor activities
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
2,12
12
karate
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1,59
13
wrestling
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1,59
14
mountaineering
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1,06
15
table tennis
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1,06
16
tenis
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1,06
17
fitness
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1,06
18
aerobics
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1,06
19
paddling (kayak)
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0,53
20
paddling (canoe)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0,53
21
freediving
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0,53
22
self-defense
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0,53
23
kick box
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0,53
SUM
76
41
48
5
2
7
3
1
6
189
40,21
21,69
25,40
2,65
1,06
3,70
1,59
0,53
3,17
%
* all combat sports together (judo, boxing, karate, wrestling, self-defense, kick box)
a) Skin and subcutaneous tissue (blisters, wounds, etc.), b) Muscle, tendon and tendon sheath, c) Ankle
injuries (contusions, distortions, dislocations), d) Bone and bone plate (fracture), e) Chest (sternum), f)
Abdomen, g) Head injuries (eye, ear, nose), h) Urogenital organs (kidneys, testicle, urethra, etc.), i) The
effect of thermal radiation (frostbite, heat shock, snow blindness).
96
Table 2. Classifications and number of sports injuries in women students as a results of mechanical
forces (n=14)
No.
Sports activity
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
SUM
%
1
artistic gymnastics
15
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
60,71
2
alpine skiing
2
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
6
21,43
3
outdoor activities
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
7,14
4
rhythmic gymnastics
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3,57
5
basketball
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3,57
6
fitness
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3,57
28
SUM
%
18
5
1
0
0
0
2
0
2
64,29
17,86
3,57
0,00
0,00
0,00
7,14
0,00
7,14
a) Skin and subcutaneous tissue (blisters, wounds, etc.), b) Muscle, tendon and tendon sheath, c) Ankle
injuries (contusions, distortions, dislocations), d) Bone and bone plate (fracture), e) Chest (sternum), f)
Abdomen, g) Head injuries (eye, ear, nose), h) Urogenital organs (kidneys, testicle, urethra, etc.), i) The
effect of thermal radiation (frostbite, heat shock, snow blindness).
Of the total of 53 interviewed male students we identify a statistically significant difference (χ² (22, n =
187) = 537,63, P = 0.00) in terms of the number of injuries per sports activity. It is also evident from the
results (n=14) female students that there is statistically significant difference in terms of the number of
injuries per sports activity (χ² (5, n = 28) = 43,14, P = 0.00).
DISCUSSION
Artistic gymnastics takes important place in curriculum of physical and health education classes in primary and secondary schools (1,21), PE and Sport with 16 hours per year, or ¼ of all contains in annual
plan and programme (13-14). It is possible to guess that the reason for a high number of injuries in artistic
gymnastics is that the curriculum in primary and secondary schools does not teach or insufficiently teach
simpler elements in comparison to those foreseen by the curriculum at the university level. A conducted
research (1) shows that professors in primary and secondary schools do not have elementary working
conditions and this is one of the reasons for lack of implementation of the overall curriculum. Many primary and secondary schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina lack school gyms and students do not have the
possibility to implement the curriculum in their classrooms, and thus their knowledge is scarce (1).
Similar results of the research were gathered by other authors, too (2,9,10,16,20). Authors (2) a sports
injuries survey was conducted among 1714 students of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The
common sports involved in injuries were soccer (26%), basketball (18%), cycling (11%), track and field
athletics (11%) and swimming (10%). The lower limb usually took the brunt of the injuries (67%) followed by the upper limb (28%) and spinal injuries were relatively uncommon (3%). The majority of
the injuries were mild to moderate and the commonest ones were abrasion (37%), contusion (21%),
cramp (20%), sprains (9%), and strains (7%).
Knobloch et al. (9) during a school year among 3993 schools in 43 889 classes with 993 056 pupils 2234
school sport injuries have been reported to the Gemeinde Unfall Versicherung (GUV) Niedersachsen,
Germany. Gymnastic sport injuries account for 18% (403 accidents), which is second after ball sports injuries. Regarding the distribution of the gymnastic disciplines, vault was the major discipline with (34%),
followed by floor exercise (21,3%), mini and competition trampoline (16,8%), and parallel bars (8,2%).
97
The analysis of the type of injury during vault accidents revealed contusion (31%) as the predominant
injury, followed by sprains (15,4%), and fractures (15,4%). Floor exercise injuries distributed among distorsions (26,7%), contusions (18,6%), muscle tears (14%). Back injuries especially of the cervical and
thoracic spine, accounted for 40 % of all their injuries. Minor head injuries account for (4,7%) of all floor
exercise injuries. Mini-trampoline injuries distribute among contusions (30%), fractures (22,5%), distorsions (7,5%). All (21,8%) collisions were noted against a box in comparison to (6,8%) in case of the horse.
The aim of the study (20) was to determine in which conditions and during which classes do students of
the Faculty of Kinesiology injure themselves. The sample of comprised 105 examinees (48 female and 57
male), all students of the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb. The average number of injures was
1,01 injury per student during the study. Artistic gymnastic (24,0%), judo (15,1%) and wrestling (12,6%)
had a very high injury rate, followed by the injuries that had occurred during training in free time. Male
students had a highest injury rate then the female students. The most frequently injured areas of the
body for female were the lower leg and the foot, while men were more prone to shoulder injuries. Ligament lesions were the most frequent. Many injuries did not affect the continuity of the study, however
(25,76%) of the injured students were forced to miss one year, and (4,55%) two years of the programme.
Authors (16) the common sports involved in injuries were football (33%), futsal (24%), basketball
(15%), volleyball (11%), tae kwon do (10%) and swimming (7%). The lower limb usually took the
brunt of the injuries (57%) followed by the upper limb (28%), head and face (12%) and spinal injuries were relatively uncommon (3%). The majority of the injuries were mild to moderate and the
commonest ones were contusion (41%), sprains (22%), wound (19%), strains (11%) and cramp (7%).
The primary objectives of the study (10) is to quantify the injuries of amateur athletes and to determine
the, location of injury, game affected the most. Information on injuries was collected through a questionnaire from Physical Education Department-Annamalai University Tamil Nadu amateur athletes from 13
different discipline of game. A total of 165 out of 230 amateur athletes were injured. Lower limb injuries
were found to be predominant; the knee being the most commonly injured anatomical location. Most
common games giving rise to injuries (kabaddi 83,8%, football 80%, basketball 77,5%, volleyball 76,5%,
handball 76%, weight lifting 75%, badminton 64%, athletic 64%, kho-kho 61%, cricket 60%, netball 60%,
hockey 60%).
Decrease of a number of injuries in artistic gymnastics could happen should the number of practical
lessons and number of practice with teaching assistants increase. There would be a need to introduce
more regular tests during the year, which would lead students to practice more regularly. Continuity in
exercise would ensure students with an appropriate level of readiness during the whole years and would
result in a decreased number of injuries and better results in exams. Another reason which could impact
preparedness of students, and thus decrease the risk of their injuries is seriousness in work. At the end,
the working conditions, understanding a higher number of safety mats, can not be neglected in the sense
of decreasing the number of injuries and worn-out equipment. Prior to the entry exam to enrol at the
Faculty, the students need to be informed on the content to be studied. It is required to carry out good
evaluation of motoric knowledge and selection of best candidates at the entry exam.
This research confirms that the most frequent and typical injuries occur at the artistic gymnastics, namely
injury of palms, so called: water, serum or plasma blisters (23), which does not really present a “serious”
injury. Viewing from another angle, it can be said that the students have been seriously practicing on
the equipment, getting ready for the exam. During the exercises on the equipment, they have not been
using magnesium and gymnastic membranes to decrease the number of injuries. Magnesium (15,22) in
gymnastics terminology stands for magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) and by (6,15) it is virgin white dust,
which can be also produced in blocks. Gymnasts rub their hands with it to make firm and secure grip
with apparatus; magnesium neutralizes fat and sweat. Gymnastics grips are used to protect the palms of
your hands from blisters and burns during workouts that involve a lot of pull-ups. Nowadays gymnasts
use magnesium on all apparatuses, not just to prevent their hands from blisters, but mostly to increase
torsion with apparatus (they put magnesium on their feet as well e.g. beam, floor (11,15) and their body
parts (e.g. when bending for triple salto on floor, they put magnesium on their hands and calves, where
98
they will have to grip legs). While on one side grip is better, the air because of magnesium dust is worse
and dust on a certain floor can make it slippery (11). With the aid of modern technology, using thermal
energy, the authors (17) attempted to define the injuries suffered by gymnasts. Such a research was
carried out by (11) were testing how the palm temperature changed without or with use of magnesium
during simple gymnastics element one leg circle forward. It is notable that with use of magnesium palm
temperature rises, while during performance without magnesium the palm temperature is practically
constant.
The largest burden on students, when it comes to practical lessons, is still in the first year and it decreases
gradually until the third year, with abrupt decrease on the fourth year of study. What needs to be emphasised that, although the new curriculum decreases number of hours of some practical courses, the
number of teaching units or elements the student need to master, has not decreased proportionally to
the number of hours. Therefore, the time available to professors to explain and methodically introduce
students into proper performance of different elements has shortened. It also needs to be emphasised
that although the students of the Facultyl of Physical Education and Sports are a selected motorical population. They are adults who have gone through sensitive phases for development of motoric abilities.
Thus, successful mastering of elements foreseen by the curriculum significantly depends on their work
on development of motoric abilities during the time of individual sensitive phases. Additionally, the study
programme is enroled mostly by individuals who have, until the enrolment, been involved with only one
sport activities and they learn all others for the first time. The percentage of universal individuals, who
will, at that age, without many difficulties, adopt a number of new motoric structures of movement, such
is the case with sports gymnastics, is small (18-20).
What is required in the following researches is: time of occurrence of injury, anatomic location of injury,
conditions under which injury occurred, activities during which injury occurred, distribution of injuries
based on years of study, consequences of injury on further study (18).
Finally, due to well known limitations of retrospective method of researching sport injuries, the results of
this research can be seen as valuable in the sense of initial detection of frequency of injuries of university
students. The main limitations of such a research are the fact that it is not possible to enter into precise
diagnostics of an injury without medical documentation, and the number of students lost from the research due to them leaving the school due to the injury. Another information that is lacking is the one
related to the fact whether the student had already suffered an injury prior to enrolling the school, or the
injury has happened for the first time, which is something not included in the questionnaire.
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100
BOOK OF
PROCEEDINGS
DYNAMIC BALANCE OF YOUNG FEMALE GYMNASTS
Aleksić-Veljković A.1, Madić D.1, Herodek K.2, Živčić Marković K.3, Đokić D.4
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and physical education, Novi Sad, Serbia
2
University of Niš, Faculty of Sport and physical education, Novi Sad, Serbia
3
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Zagreb, Croatia
4
Elementary school “Ivan Vušović”, Razanj, Serbia
1
ABSTRACT
Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain a stable body position during movement and represents one of
the most important factors of success in exercising on the balance beam. The first aim of our study was
to examine dynamic balance of young female gymnasts and also correlations between dynamic balance
and success on the balance beam. The second aim was to determine reliability of the Y balance tests in
young female gymnasts.
The Y balance test and three specific gymnastics balance tests were performed on sample of 47 young
female gymnasts, aged between 8 and 13 years. Gymnasts were competitors on an international
competition from eight European countries. The three variables (D, E and Final score) taken from official
results book define success on the balance beam.
Most of the variables of specific dynamic balance showed a significant correlation with the success on
the beam, and the correlation coefficients ranged from .321-.652. Between variables of the Y balance
test and the success on the balance beam there was a significant correlation only in reach of the right
foot forward. Results of regression analysis showed a statistically significant impact of dynamic balance
variables on the final score achieved at the competition (p<.000). The Y balance test showed very good
reliability, so this test is reliable and can be recommended, especially in terms of prediction of ankle
injuries.
Gymnasts who had the best scores on the specific dynamic balance tests had better final scores on
the balance beam. As the beam is predominantly dynamic apparatus and requires linking of different
elements, it is necessary to develop tests to monitor the progress of this ability, especially in young
categories of gymnasts.
Key words: Y balance test, balance beam, reliability
102
INTRODUCTION
Gymnastic training positively affects the development of balance and allows almost perfect stability,
even in difficult conditions (Atilgan et al., 2012). Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain a stable
body position during movement. There are numerous factors that affect balance and the most important
are: genetic determinism, state of the vestibular apparatus, age, supporting surface, the height of the
body’s center of gravity, the number of motor habits, strength, coordination, flexibility, emotional state
(Kayapnar, 2011), muscle fatigue (Cetin et al., 2008). The balance, together with other motor skills, plays
an important role in the successful execution of sports skills, as well as the prediction of sports injuries
(Sabin et al., 2010). Potential links between balance and injury have increased interest in the development
of instruments (tests, assignments, exercises) to develop programs to improve balance and reduce the
risk of injuries (Sabin et al., 2010; Zech et al. 2010). Balance training is used as a part of a rehabilitation
program after injury of ankle and knee joint (Hrysomallis, 2007).
Balance is an important factor of success in many sports, but in gymnastics it is one of the most
important factors, because even minimal loss of balance affects the final score. There are few researches
dealing with the impact of the balance ability on success in performing complex gymnastic elements
and exercises. Most of the studies compare balance in gymnasts with the control group of non-athletes’
(Asseman et al., 2008; Davlin, 2004; Vuillerme et al., 2001; Aydin et al., 2002; Carrick et al., 2007) or with
other athletes (Bressel et al., 2007; Davlin, 2004).
The balance beam, as one of the most demanding apparatus in the women’s all-around competition,
requires a high level of the balance ability, because it has a markedly reduced supporting surface of 10
cm in width, 1.25 meters height and 5 meters in length. Balance is important for performing complex
acrobatic elements (Panjan & Sarabon, 2010), as well as dance elements that are required in performing
gymnastic exercise. Researches in this field should contribute to improvement of performance on the
balance beam.
The first aim of this study was to examine the dynamic balance of young gymnast’s, as well as the
correlation between the dynamic balance and the success on the balance beam. The second aim was to
determine reliability of Y balance test in young gymnasts.
METHODS
Sample
Forty-eight young female gymnasts, divided into two age groups, participated in the study (Group 1: n=24,
8 to 10 years old, height 136.0 ± 7.3 cm, weight 30.6 ± 4.2 kg; Group 2: n=23, 11 to 13 years old, height
150.1 ± 7.9 cm, weight 40.8± 8.1 kg). Before the testing began, the aim and procedures of the study were
explained to the participants. Finally, all the participants reported that they had not had any ligamentous
laxity, articular or muscle trauma or injury during the past three months. The project was approved by
the Institutional Review Board of the University of Nis and the Gymnastics Federation of Serbia and a
written consent had been obtained from all the participants and coaches prior to participation in this
project. All of the experiments were conducted according to the latest version of the Declaration of
Helsinki (WMA, 2002). The data collection was completed at International memorial competition “Laza
Krstić and Marica Dželatović” in Novi Sad in December 2012.
Variables
To assess the general dynamic balance the “Y” balance test was used, which is a modified Star Excursion
Balance Test - SEBT described in numerous studies in recent years (Bressel et al., 2007; Ricotti, 2011).
Researches’ results indicate high reliability of testing (ICC .78 to .96) and good validity (r .42 to .79). For
each of the three directions of reach, three attempts were recorded, in order to determine the reliability
of the test on the sample of gymnasts.
103
Specific dynamic balance tests were measured by using basic gymnastics elements on the balance beam.
Tests were performed on the balance beam and trials were captured with a Casio FX camera, positioned
four meters from the balance beam. Gymnasts performed connection of two full turns (SDOU), cartwheels
(SD2Z), and straight jumps with half turn (SD2O). After receiving instructions, each participant was
given two familiarization trials before the actual data collection. Scoring was performed by the expert
commission which estimated errors of the balance loss. The maximum score for performance was 10
points. Errors that can occur during the execution are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Scoring of the specific dynamic balance tests
Mistake
Additional body movements to maintain
balance
Additional hop or jump
Long step or jump
Deviation from the course
Pause between the elements
The grip of the beam to avoid the fall
Additional movements to maintain balance
Fall
0.10 0.30 0.50 1.00
х
х
х
х
х
х
х
х
х
х
х
The three variables (D, E and Final score) taken from the official results book define success on the
balance beam.
Data analysis
The data were analyzed by the statistical package SPSS 20.0. Basic parameters of the distribution of
variables were calculated (mean, standard deviation). Reliability of testing dynamic balance is shown by
Cronbach ‘α, ICC (Interclass Correlation Coefficients) and coefficient of variation (CV). To determine the
correlation between the variables of balance and success we used Pearson correlation coefficient, and
to determine the relationship between the predictor variables of dynamic balance and the final score, a
regression analysis was performed.
RESULTS
The basic statistical parameters of the variables are shown in Table 2.
104
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for balance tests of Group 1(n=24) and Group 2 (n=23) of young gymnasts
Var.
N
YDNw
YDDN
YDLN
YLN
YLND
YLLN
SDOU
SD2O
SD2Z
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
Mean
SD
Group 1
66.78
7.97
83.48
7.57
87.29
8.23
64.29
6.92
83.28
9.97
80.75
9.47
7.80
1.36
8.16
.99
8.57
.93
Skew.
Kurt.
Var.
N
.466
.342
-.182
-.229
-.230
-.658
-1.151
-.451
-.716
-.350
-.951
-.049
-.884
-.370
.026
.885
-.029
1.271
YDN
YDDN
YDLN
YLN
YLND
YLLN
SDOU
SD2O
SD2Z
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
Mean
SD
Group 2
64.61
5.14
86.96
7.43
89.56
7.00
63.56
6.97
86.49
6.46
85.59
6.21
9.01
.57
8.85
.85
9.11
.59
Skew.
Kurt.
.931
1.105
-.439
.577
.692
.620
-.520
-1.389
-.300
1.534
.993
-.465
.205
-.470
.781
-.753
1.741
-.821
The reliability of the Y balance test is shown in Table 4. The Y balance test showed very good reliability, so
this test is reliable and can be recommended, especially in terms of prediction of ankle injuries.
Table 3: Reliability of Y balance test
Variable
Cronbach’ α
ICC
CV (%)
YDN
.938
.829
7.96
YDDN
.945
.850
8.54
YDLN
.961
.891
7.82
YLDN
.942
.844
10.97
YLLN
.919
.791
7.47
YLLN
.939
.836
7.26
Table 4: Descriptive statistics for success on the balance beam
Variable
N
Mean
SD
Skew.
Kurt.
N
Mean
Group 1
SD
Skew.
Kurt.
Group 2
DOCE
24
3.33
.86
-.560
.908
23
3.73
.83
.189
-1.575
EOCE
24
6.18
1.41
-1.474
3.155
23
6.92
1.14
-.930
1.462
KOCE
24
9.52
1.74
-.635
.637
23
10.65
1.42
-.312
-.718
Table 5 presents the results of Pearson‘s correlation coefficients between variables of dynamic balance
and results achieved on the competition.
Table 5: Correlations between variables and success on the balance beam
DOCE
EOCE
KOCE
r
p
r
p
r
p
YDN
.133
.373
-.308*
.035
-.175
.239
YDDN
.202
.173
-.215
.147
-.066
.659
YDLN
-.193
.194
-.032
.830
-.125
.404
YLN
.052
.729
-.215
.147
-.143
.337
YLND
.133
.372
-.220
.137
-.105
.481
YLLN
.117
.435
-.123
.410
-.037
.804
SDOU
.483**
.001
.251
.089
.447**
.002
SD2O
.517**
.000
.321*
.028
.520**
.000
SD2Z
.418**
.003
.554**
.000
.653**
.000
105
Impact of predictor variables of dynamic balance on the final score is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. The parameters of the regression analysis
Model
R
R2
Adjusted R2
1
.697
.486
.424
Model
Unstandardized coeficients
F
p
7.776
.000
Standardized coeficients
Std. Error
Beta
t
p
(Constant)
-1.095
4.286
-.305
.762
YBTD
YBTL
SDOU
SD2O
SD2Z
.007
-.033
.241
.270
1.005
.292
.367
.187
.040
.045
.154
-.594
1.370
1.101
3.358
.879
.556
.178
.277
.002
B
1
Std. Error of
the Estimate
1.27
.026
-.103
.173
.157
.495
DISCUSSION
The research was conducted in order to investigate the dynamic balance in young gymnasts. The values
of Cronbachs’ α range from .919-.961, indicating good reliability of the Y balance test. The correlation
between the attempts is also high, ranging from .791 to .891. The coefficient of variation is the lowest
in the reach of the left foot backward 7.26%, and the highest in the reach of the left foot right backward
10.97%.
Gymnastics requires great precision in performance of elements and routines, so elements should be
repeated thousands of times before a competition. Due to the demands of the sport, the use of reliable
tests ensures monitoring of physical fitness according to the age and abilities of gymnast (Marina and
Torrado, 2013).
Most of the variables of specific dynamic balance showed a significant correlation with the success on
the balance beam, and the correlation coefficients ranging from .321-.652. Among variables of the Y
balance test and success on the balance beam there is a significant correlation only in the reach of the
right foot forward (YDN).
Keeping the direction of movement is of great importance on the balance beam. Minimum compensatory
movements of the body are essential for maintaining balance in order to put the body’s center of gravity
above the supporting surface. If these movements are more pronounced and accompanied by additional
movements of arms, legs, torso, in order to prevent fall of the apparatus, they are sanctioned by the judges
on the competition. Errors during the execution of specific tests of balance in this study are adapted to
regulations of the Code of points (FIG, 2013). Gymnasts in their routines perform these elements in
order to meet specific requirements or obtain higher value of the exercise so that the execution of these
elements leads to high correlation between variables.
Research results of Kioumourtzglou et al. (1998) showed that for competitors in rhythmic gymnastics,
balance was not statistically significantly associated with success in the age category of 11 to 12 years,
while it was associated with success in the age category of 13 to 15 years. There was a negative correlation
between the dynamic balance and success (r = -0.38, p <0.05). The authors explain that this results shows
that the gymnasts who have more experience know how to find a “successful” strategy for maintaining
106
balance, because the development of this ability is stabilized to the age of ten.
Atilgan et al. (2012) showed a negative correlation between the parameters of dynamic balance and
age, training experience and anthropometric variables, while there was no correlation between the
parameters of static and dynamic balance and loss of balance during acrobatic series on the balance
beam (p> 0.05). The authors concluded that gymnasts achieve the same scores during laboratory tests of
balance and exercise on the balance beam at the competition.
Based on the multiple correlation coefficients (R), which is .697 a strong link between the dynamic
balance and the final score on the balance beam can be noticed. However, the value of R2 is unreliable
when it comes to small sample, so is recommended interpretation of Adjusted R2 - corrected R2 because
it provides better assessment of the small size sample which is.424 in this case.
The table 6 shows that the variable SD2Z has the highest influence and statistically significant impact on
the final grade achieved on the balance beam (p <.01). Gymnasts who had the best scores on tests of
specific dynamic balance had better final scores on the balance beam. As the beam is a predominantly
dynamic device and requires the linking elements, it is necessary to monitor the dynamic balance
progress of gymnasts.
In the latest Code of points (2013-2016) special attention was paid to connections of the gymnastics
elements. Practicing connecting of two or more simple elements in younger categories would create the
possibility to upgrade D score later. In recent years coaches neglected connecting elements in exercises
and also the exercises on the balance beam had very little choreography. In this way, quality of the
exercising on the balance beam was lost during years.
The rules have not changed significantly (the structure of the composition, values and requirements on
the balance beam), but special deductions for choreography and artistry were introduced in the Code of
points in order to provide quality of execution. Any loss of balance during exercising can be sanctioned
with 0.10, 0.30 or 0.50 points, each time during the exercise, but the gymnast with unmatched exercise,
even without major mistakes in technique or fall of the balance beam, would be sanctioned by the judges
for each of these errors. Connection of elements is rewarded and also the creative choreography that
emphasize the personal style of the gymnast, her confidence and grace. Exercise should be harmonized
with its “story” and the original choreography. It is still a small number of gymnasts who can cope with
these requirements. Such requests are rewarded and emphasize the difference between the quality of
performance and the “standard” exercise on the balance beam.
All three specific dynamic balance tests, which were used in this study, have been adapted to the
conditions of the new rules. Periodic monitoring in the younger age categories and the introduction
of these elements in the training plan together with a change of generations of gymnasts and coaches
should provide changes, so it is likely that some of these deductions will be deleted from the Code of
points, because it will not be necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the
Republic of Serbia, for financing the project “Biomechanical Efficiency of the Elite Serbian Athletes” (OI
179019). We would also like to thank the international athletes who participated in this study.
107
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have an effect on postural control and performance? Gait & Posture, 27 (1), 76-81.
Atilgan, A.O.E., Akin, M., Alpkaya, U., & Pinar, S. (2012). Investigating of relationship between balance parameters
and balance lost of elite gymnastics on balance beam. International Journal of Human Sciences, 9 (2), 1260-1271.
Aydin, T., Yildiz, Y., Yildiz, C., Atesalo, S., & Kalyon, T. A. (2002). Proprioception of the ankle: a comparison between
female teenaged gymnasts and controls. Foot & Ankle International, 23 (2), 123-129.
Bressel, E., Yonker, J.C., Kras, J., & Heat, E. M. (2007). Comparison of static and dynamic balance in female collegiate
soccer, basketball, and gymnastics athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 42 (1), 42-6.
Carrick, F. R., Oggero, E., Pagnacco, G., Brock, J. B., & Arikan, T. (2007). Posturographic testing and motor learning
predictability in gymnasts. Disability & Rehabilitation, 29 (24), 1881-1889.
Cetin, N., Bayramoglu, M., Aytar, A., Surenkok, O., & Yemisci, O.U. (2008). Effects of Lower-Extremity and Trunk
Muscle Fatigue on Balance. The Open Sports Medicine Journal, 2, 16-22.
Davlin, C. D. (2004). Dynamic balance in high level athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98 (3c), 1171-1176.
Federation Internationale de Gymnastique (2013). 2013-2016 Code of Points (Women’s Artistic Gymnastics).
Available at:
http://www.figgymnastics.com/publicdir/rules/files/wag/WAG%20CoP%2020132016%20(English)%20Aug%20
2013.pdf
Hrysomallis, C. (2007). Relationship between balance ability, training and sports injury risk. Sports Medicine, 37 (6),
547-56.
Kayapinar, F. C. (2011). The effect of movement education program on static balance skills of pre-school children.
World Applied Sciences Journal, 12 (6), 871-876.
Kiomourtzoglou, E., Deri, V., Mertzanidou, O., & Tzetiz, G. (1997). Experience with perceptual and motor skills in
rhythmic gymnastics. Perceptual Motorical Skills, 84: 1363-1372.
Marina, M. & Torrado, P. (2013). Does gymnastics practice improve vertical jump reliability from the age of 8 to 10
years? Journal of Sports Sciences, 41(6), 349-355.
Panjan, A., & Sarabon, N. (2010). Review of methods for the evaluation of human balance body. Sport Science
Review, 19(5-6), 131-163.
Ricotti, L. (2011). Static and dynamic balance in young athletes. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 6, (4): 616628.
Sabin, M. J., Ebersole, K. T., Martindale, A. R., Price, J. W., & Broglio, S. P. (2010). Balance performance in male
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Vuillerme, N., Danion, F., Marin, L., et al. (2001). The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control.
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108
SINGLE LEG STANCE WITH CLOSED EYES ON A FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC AND
RHYTMIC GYMNASTICS
Istenič N.1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2, Valič A.1, Kolar E.2
1
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
ABSTRACT
The aim of the study was to examine the effect of age on static body balance and the effect of training
different gymnastics’ disciplines on static body balance in unipedal stance, which is specific to gymnasts,
and in an untrained visual condition.
71 expert gymnasts, whose average age was 14,61 ± 3,95 years, participated in the study. They were
divided into three groups on the basis of their discipline: women artistic gymnasts (WAG; n=54, age 14,07
± 3,1 years), male artistic gymnasts (MAG; n=36, age 16,72 ± 6,12 years) and rhythmic gymnasts (RG; n=52,
age 13,69 ± 1,83 years). They were also divided into two groups based on their age: absolute category
(ABS, juniors and seniors) and younger categories (YC). The experiment consisted of measurements of
maintaining balance during single-leg stance on a force plate with eyes shut for 30 seconds. Sway path
and sway amplitude fatigue index parameters were observed.
The results did not conclusively demonstrate any differences in COP parameters between WAG, MAG and
GR group. Statistically significant differences in SP∑, SPA-P, SPM-L, SFIA-P and SFIM-L parameters between the
ABS and YC categories were found.
The difference in COP parameters between YC and ABS group could be the result of development of
motor, nervous and musculoskeletal system in YC group.
The selected stability test did not show as the most appropriate test for assessing the balance of the
gymnasts because it represents a considerably unspecific condition for trained gymnasts. Although the
combination of an unspecific static stability test and ROM test of a corresponding joint could be used
for assessing the joint stability. Also a connection between trunk stability, ankle ROM and epidemiology
could be observed to help us understand which factors increase the risk of developing an injury.
Keywords: static balance, single-leg stance, sport gymnastics, rhytmic gymnastics, COP
INTRODUCTION
Balance is an ability to maintain the position of the body’s centre of gravity over the base of support,
usually offered by the feet, with minimal postural sway (Nashner, 1997; David A Winter, Patla, & Frank,
1990). Both maintaining balance during anti-gravitational activities and proper body posture represent
the base for execution of other secondary movements. These are used to propel ourselves through space
or manipulate with the surrounding environment (D. A. Winter, 1995).
Factors that influence balance include afferent information from visual, vestibular and somatosensory
systems (Bressel, Yonker, Kras, & Heath, 2007; Massion, Alexandrov, & Frolov, 2004; Nashner, 1997) and
motor responses that affect coordination, joint range of motion and strength (Bressel et al., 2007).
Along with orientation maintenance, body balance plays an important role not only in our daily lives, but
also in sports performance.
109
Each sport requires different levels of sensorimotor processes to perform sport specific skills and to
protect the neuromuscular system from injury {Bressel, 2007, Comparison of static and dynamic balance
in female collegiate soccer`, basketball`, and gymnastics athletes}(Bressel et al., 2007). In according to
those requirements, sport training enhances the ability to use somatosensory and otolithic information,
which improves postural capabilities of the performer (Bringoux, Marin, Nougier, Barraud, & Raphel,
2000).
There are many factors that influence the gymnastics performance, among them are fitness skills,
explosive strength, flexibility, speed and strength endurance and temporal and spatial differentiation
(Böhmerová & Hamar, 2014). Not only these abilities, but also parameters of postural sway have been
shown (Nicolas Vuillerme & Nougier, 2004) to be related to gymnastic performance. That is no surprise,
because maintaining postures is needed and required by the international codification. Furthermore,
performing acrobatics and complex motor skills, similar to those involved in gymnastics, places great
demand on the postural balance system (Nicolas Vuillerme & Nougier, 2004; N Vuillerme, Teasdale, &
Nougier, 2001). Therefore, expert gymnasts are trained to maintain and restore both static and dynamic
balance in challenging conditions. Through such a specific training, the attentional demand necessary for
efficiently controlling posture can be modulated. Consequently, rendering postural control less cognitively
dependent may allow the gymnasts to pay more attention to other components of their performance
(Nicolas Vuillerme & Nougier, 2004).
Hrysomallis (2011) made an overview of studies concerning balance ability of gymnasts compared to
others. The majority of studies reported some difference in balance ability and a number of trends can
be identified. The gymnasts were equal or outperformed non-gymnasts. In balance tests, longer than
20 seconds, gymnasts performed better than non-gymnasts, but not when test was shorter than 20
seconds. Gymnasts tended to have superior results performing static unipedal balance and bipedal
dynamic balance, but not static bipedal balance.
Calavalle et al. (2008) investigated if the expertise in rhythmic gymnastics (RG) could influence posture
steadiness comparing RG gymnasts and other sports trained subjects, non athletes (NA). The two groups
were matched in sighted and unsighted postural trials. The results suggested that the expertise in RG
performance was specialising gymnasts in the lateral directions postural control. The results of the study
also revealed that RG trained athletes were dependent on vision more than the non-athletes group.
This could possibly be due to training and competition performance of RG gymnasts, which includes
checking their movements in the mirror or fix a visual target. Also, they have to coordinate basic acrobatic
movements with the movement of a small apparatus, for which reason it is necessary to maintain the
visual control of the surrounding space.
On the contrary, Vuillerme et al. study (2001) showed that expert artistic gymnasts are less affected
by the removal of vision during unipedal task when compared to experts in non-gymnastic sports. This
effect showed to be strongly related to the difficulty of the task. In fact, gymnasts knew better how to
cope with the lack of vision especially in situations, where vision played a crucial rule. In comparison to
RG gymnasts, AG gymnasts often have to perform complex moves with poor visual environments.
Asseman et al. (2005; 2008) also analyzed the effects of the removal of vision on postural performance
and postural control of expert artistic gymnasts, compared to other sportsmen, non-experts and nongymnasts. The results of their study were different than those of Vuillerme at al.’s, that is to say they
showed that removal of vision affected gymnasts and other sportsmen similarly even if the postural
control was trained by gymnasts. Therefore, expertise in gymnastics only has an effect on postural
performance in a visual condition that matches to the one in which elite gymnastics are practicing.
Atılgan et al. (2012) investigated the relationship between balance lost on balance beam during a
gymnastics tournament with static and dynamic balance test scores. There were no relationship between
static and dynamic balance test parameters and balance lost on balance beam routines. There was found
no relationship between dynamic balance tests, applied eyes open and eyes closed, but in static balance
tests, positive relationship was found.
110
Several studies investigated the impact of age on the balance. Kioumourtzoglou et al. (1997) assessed the
differences in measure among elite rhythmic gymnasts of different age groups. The oldest athletes (1315 years) performed better eye-hand coordination and static balance compared with younger athletes
(9-10 years).
The results of Largo et al. studies (2001; 2003) demonstrated that timed motor performance between 5
and 18 years is characterized by a long-lasting developmental change and large interindividual variation.
Both change and variation are a function of the complexity of motor task. In the lower extremities
interindividual variation decreased in all motor tasks with age, but remained large. Dynamic and static
balance of lower extremities showed large interindividual variation at all ages. For the purely motor
functions applies, that the more complicated the task is, the later the plateu is reached. In contrast to
dynamic balance sidewards, where the best performance is already reached at the age of 13 to 15, the
time to maintain static balance increases up to age of 18 years.
(Grosset, Mora, Lambertz, & Pérot, 2007) state that children’s stretch reflex and active musculoarticular
stiffness were significantly correlated and increased with age. They concluded that elastic properties
contribute greatly to increase in the stretch reflex with age.
To authors’ knowledge, there have been no studies done on the differences of balance parameters
between gymnasts competing in different disciplines.
The aim of the study is to examine: i) the effect of age on static body balance and ii) the effect of
training different gymnastics’ disciplines on static body balance in unipedal stance, which is according to
Hrysomallis (2011) specific to gymnasts, and in an untrained visual condition. Static balance is defined
as the ability to maintain specific posture and is usually obtained in a standing subject with devices
that measure the movements of the body or its center of gravity, or mostly the center of pressure,
also referred to as COP (Panjan & Šarabon, 2010). The subject attempts to stand motionless on a force
platform for a specified duration, unipedal or bipedal and with eyes open or shut (F. B. Asseman et al.,
2008). Minimal COP motion is indicative of good balance(Hrysomallis, 2011). Based on studies made in
the field of balance of gymnasts, we can assume that rhythmic gymnasts’ body balance could be more
affected by the removal of vision than the body balance of artistic gymnasts. Moreover, we could expect
to observe a higher range of movement in anterior-posterior direction in group of rhythmic gymnasts.
We could also expect that the older gymnasts outperformed younger gymnasts in static balance test.
METHODS
Subjects
71 subjects participated in the study. Their average age was 14,61 ± 3,95 years. They were all expert
gymnasts and were divided into three groups on the basis of their discipline: women artistic gymnasts
(WAG; n=54, age 14,07 ± 3,1 years), male artistic gymnasts (MAG; n=36, age 16,72 ± 6,12 years) and
rhythmic gymnasts (RG; n=52, age 13,69 ± 1,83 years). They were also divided into two groups based on
their age. Juniors and seniors were joined into an absolute category (ABS) group and younger gymnasts
were labelled as younger categories (YC) group.
111
Table 1
Number and percentage of subjects for each category and discipline.
MAG
WAG
RG
n (%)
18
(25,4)
27
(38,0)
26
(36,6)
ABS
9
(50,0)
10
(37,0)
12
(46,2)
YC
9
(50,0)
17
(63,0)
14
(53, 8)
Legend: ABS = absolute category (junior and senior gymnasts), YC = younger categories
Measurement protocol
The experiment consisted of measurements of maintaining balance during single-leg stance on a force
plate. The subjects’ task was to maintain a balanced position for 30 seconds with eyes shut. Subjects were
required to maintain a balanced position of the trunk with their hands placed on their hips. Throughout
the measurement, the other leg was lifted from the plate with knee bent at a 90°angle, with the thighs
parallel. The tests were performed barefoot and with no additional task. The subjects performed the test
on each leg with maximum three trials, each lasting 30 seconds. If the subject could not perform three
correct trials on the same leg, only the valid ones were included in the analyses.
Data collecting and processing
The subjects were evaluated on a bi-lateral force plate (S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia). The size of the
plate was 600 x 600 mm, each piece 300 x 600 mm. The x-offset was 120 mm and the y-offset 270
mm. The ground reaction force was measured by 8 strain-gauge force sensors, embed into the platform.
The sampling rate was 1000 Hz, 100 samples per channel. Reference single-ended (RSE) terminal
configuration was used. Pre-scaled units were volts. The sensitivity was set to 3000 mN/V for all channels.
The measurement data was transferred to a personal computer via the USB interface. The ARS software
(Analysis & Reporting Software; S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia) was used for acquisition and treatment of
the balance parameters.
Observed parameters
The parameters derived from COP trajectories measured by a force platform, which are the gold standard
for balance performance(Huurnink, Fransz, Kingma, & van Dieën, 2013) were compared. They estimate
the overall size of the COP sway. Regarding the direction, they can be calculated as two-directional and/or
one-directional (i.e. anterior-posterior and medial-lateral). We observed the following global parameters:
Sway path (SP): the length of the trajectory of the COP sway (Panjan & Šarabon, 2010). We observe it in
anterior-posterior direction (the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway only in the anteriorposterior direction), medial-lateral direction (the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway only
in the medial-lateral direction) and the total SP (the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway
calculated as a sum of the point-to-point Euclidian distances).
Sway average amplitude fatigue index (SFI): the average amplitude of the COP sway in selected (anteriorposterior or medial-lateral) direction in the final (3rd) time interval divided by the average amplitude of
the COP sway in selected direction in the initial (1st) time interval. The average amplitudes of the COP
sway in selected direction are calculated as the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway only in
the selected direction divided by the number of changes in this direction. The default duration of interval
is 10 s. It can be observed in anterior-posterior direction and in medial-lateral direction and is measured
in %.
Statistical analyses
Statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS 17.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). For each subject,
all valid (maximum three for each leg) repetitions of the same balance task were taken for further
statistical analysis. Basic descriptive statistics were conducted.
The Shapiro-Wilk test was applied to establish the sample normality. Failing the normality test, KruskalWallis one-way analysis of the variance, the non-parametric equivalent of the ANOVA, was used to
examine differences among groups of gymnasts.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics
The values of the chosen COP parameters were used to calculate basic descriptive statistics. Tables 2 and
3 illustrates the descriptive statistics of the COP parameters in all disciplines and categories.
Table 2
Descriptive statistics of COP parameters in male artistic gymnasts (MAG), female artistic gymnasts (WAG)
and rhythmic gymnasts (RG) group
N
MAG
N
WAG
N
RG
SP∑
SPA-P
SPM-L
SFIA-P
SFIM-L
Valid
36
36
36
36
36
Missing
0
0
0
0
0
Mean
2910,79
1923,15
1784,95
102,526
84,782
Median
2830,00
1885,00
1748,33
87,983
81,750
Std. Deviation
597,579
417,474
351,145
71,5032
36,0556
Valid
54
54
54
54
54
Missing
0
0
0
0
0
Mean
2924,14
1939,51
1784,69
87,040
86,545
Median
2816,67
1855,00
1715,00
83,850
83,067
Std. Deviation
637,952
476,566
351,841
24,0624
20,7685
52
52
52
52
52
Valid
0
0
0
0
0
Mean
Missing
2924,46
1934,52
1794,10
88,588
84,344
Median
2863,33
1890,83
1748,33
86,700
83,717
Std. Deviation
480,723
343,360
291,300
21,2411
18,4982
Legend: SP∑ = sway path – total [mm], SPA-P = sway path – A-P [mm], SPM-L = sway path – M-L [mm], SFIA-P =
sway average amplitude fatigue index – A-P [%], SFIM-L = sway average amplitude fatigue index – M-L [%]
The descriptive statistics, including mean, median and standard deviation for groups, based on the
gymnasts’ category, are following:
Table 3
Descriptive statistics of COP parameters in absolute category (ABS) and younger category (YC) group
N
SPM-L
SFIA-P
SFIM-L
62
62
62
62
62
0
0
0
0
0
2638,15
1738,76
1626,75
82,053
77,610
Median
2603,33
1693,33
1626,67
80,017
74,817
Std. Deviation
472,535
347,740
272,670
19,2862
16,6507
Valid
80
80
80
80
80
Missing
0
0
0
0
0
Mean
3139,98
2084,48
1913,33
98,880
91,245
Median
3006,67
1980,00
1901,67
92,600
86,833
Std. Deviation
544,735
399,439
314,279
51,0591
28,1378
N
Missing
SPA-P
Mean
ABS
YC
Valid
SP∑
sway average amplitude fatigue index – A-P [%], SFIM-L = sway average amplitude fatigue index – M-L [%],
ABS = absolute category (junior and senior gymnasts), YC = younger categories
Analysis of variance
One-way analysis of variance was used to examine differences between gymnasts of different disciplines
and between gymnasts of different categories. The Shapiro-Wilk test was applied to establish the sample
normality. Failing the normality test, Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of the variance was used to examine
differences among groups. The level of significance chosen was p < 0,05.
Null hypothesis stated that there is no difference between COP parameters in WAG, MAG and RG group:
H0: µWAG = µMAG = µRG. Alternate hypothesis stated that there is a difference between COP parameters in
WAG, MAG and RG group: HA: µWAG ≠ µMAG ≠ µRG. A Kruskal-Wallis H test was performed to compute the
probability value. p > α was true for all parameters. With the non-significant outcome we failed to reject
H0, which means the data does not conclusively demonstrate that H0 is false.
Another null hypothesis stated that there is no difference between COP parameters in ABS and YG group:
H0: µABS = µYG. Alternate hypothesis stated that there is a difference between COP parameters in ABS and
YG group: HA: µABS ≠ µYG. A Kruskal-Wallis H test was performed to compute the probability value. The
results are shown in table 4.
Table 4
Test statistic of Kruskal-Wallis H test. Grouping variable is the category of gymnasts.
Chi-Square
df
Asymp. Sig.
SP∑
30,426
1
,000
SPA-P
28,309
1
,000
SPM-L
27,484
1
,000
SFIA-P
8,541
1
,003
SFIM-L
12,138
1
,000
sway average amplitude fatigue index – A-P [%], SFIM-L = sway average amplitude fatigue index – M-L [%]
A Kruskal-Wallis H test showed that there was a statistically significant difference in SP∑, SPA-P, SPM-L, SFIA-P
and SFIM-L parameters between the categories.
114
There was a statistically significant difference in SP∑ parameter between the categories, χ2 (1) = 30,426, p
= 0,000, with mean rank SP∑ of 49,87 for ABS group and 88,26 for YC group.
There was a statistically significant difference in SPA-P parameter between the categories, χ2 (1) = 28,309,
p = 0,000, with mean rank SPA-P of 50,64 for ABS group and 87,67 for YC group.
There was a statistically significant difference in SPM-L parameter between the categories, χ2 (1) = 27,484,
p = 0,000, with mean rank SPM-L of 50,94 for ABS group and 87,43 for YC group.
There was a statistically significant difference SFIA-P parameter between the categories, χ2 (1) = 8,541, p =
0,003, with mean rank SFIA-P of 60,04 for ABS group and 80,38 for YC group.
There was a statistically significant difference SFIM-L parameter between the categories, χ2 (1) = 12,138, p
= 0,000, with mean rank SFIM-L of 57,84 for ABS group and 82,09 for YC group.
Discussion
Static balance and gymnastics disciplines
Some studies support the hypothesis that there could be difference in COP parameters of test, performed
in unipedal stance with closed eyes between artistic gymnasts and rhythmic gymnasts due to different
demands of sports-specific conditions. Still the data of our study does not support this hypothesis: the
data referring to static balance parameters in gymnasts of different disciplines does not conclusively
demonstrate that there is a difference in static balance between WAG, MAG and RG. This could mean that
sport specific conditions do not affect the athletes as much as one could think. It should be considered if
the unipedal stance with eyes closed really is the most appropriate test for defining differences in static
balance between gymnasts of different disciplines. Data of several studies, which compared balance of
gymnasts and non-gymnasts, argued in favour of Henry’s hypothesis (Henry, 1968; Nicolas Vuillerme &
Nougier, 2004) which emphasizes that the transfer of motor skills is not a systematic phenomenon (F.
Asseman, Caron, & Crémieux, 2004; F. B. Asseman et al., 2008; Kioumourtzoglou et al., 1997; N Vuillerme,
Danion, et al., 2001; Nicolas Vuillerme & Nougier, 2004). This means that expertise in gymnastics might
not affect the body sway performed in condition which differs from the training. According to Asseman,
Caron & Crémieux (2004) the upright unipedal stance is a little specific for gymnasts. In addition,
performing test with eyes closed is an untrained visual condition. If we suppose that trained postural
performance and postural control are not directly transferred or generalized to untrained conditions, a
possible cause for no statistically significant difference of body sway of gymnasts of different disciplines
can be found. The unipedal stance with eyes closed could be labelled as an untrained condition for the
gymnasts. That means that their expertise in certain discipline could not have a significant impact on the
performance of the test.
On the other hand remains a question if a test which does not represent a trained condition for any of
the gymnastic disciplines could show important differences between athletes themselves. Because of
unusual and unspecific testing conditions the expertise in specific gymnastics discipline could not affect
the performance significantly. That way advantages and disadvantages of an athlete could be defined. It’s
widely known that good balance, gained by balance training, reduces the risk of some musculoskeletal
injuries, such as ankle sprains, especially if one of more of the balance components – proprioception and
joint ROM – are not optimal (Bressel et al., 2007). We could combine a test used in our study with a test
of the corresponding joint to detect weaknesses that could lead to athlete’s injuries in the future.
In further studies also a comparative analysis of balance parameters and joint ROM of lower limbs could
be made. Shigaki et al. (2013) stress that the stabilometric assessment compared with the functional tests
is necessary to point the possible alternations in balance of athletes. On the basis of results rehabilitation
and prevention programs can be formed. Those could help athletes perform on a high level without risk
of developing injuries.
115
In interpreting results we should concentrate on cumulative parameters describing the path which the
center of pressure makes (in our case sway path parameters: SP∑ , SPA-P and SPM-L), which proved to be
most repeatable and sensitive to detect increased intensity of balance tasks. Parameters describing subdynamics through single repetition (in our case sway average amplitude fatigue index parameters: SFIA-P
and SFIM-L) proved to have unsatisfying repeatability (Šarabon, Kern, Loefler, & Rosker, 2010; Šarabon,
Rosker, Loefler, & Kern, 2010).
Static balance and age categories
All five measured COP parameters were different among the ABS and YS group. The biggest changes and
differences among groups were observed in parameters SP∑, SPA-P and SPM-L. Parameters SFIA-P and SFIM-L
reflected a slightly lower difference. The length of the trajectory of the COP sway was obviously larger in
YC group than in ABS group.
According to Šarabon, Rošker, Koefler & Kern (2010) COP amplitude and cumulative distance parameters
increase as a result of COM oscillating over the natural vertical line if the developed counter torque for
the COM corrections is not optimal. Authors speculate that the cause of all this is need for longer lever
arm in order to ensure the proper counter torque for the COM corrections when the support surface size
is small.
On the basis of longer trajectory of the COP sway in YC group we could conclude that younger gymnasts
produced less adequate counter torque for COM corrections. The main elements of sensor and motor
part of neuromuscular system cooperation and maintaining balance are the stretch reflex, reciprocal
inhibition, recurrent inhibition, presynaptic inhibition, alpha-gamma coactivation and muscular
coactivation (Šarabon, 2007). Also hormonal changes, especially in testosterone, affect stability through
increase of muscular activation (Škof, 2007). Basis for all of those represents the neural development.
The cause for different results of YC and ABS could be found in age difference or in training experience.
Because the performed test could be defined as untrained condition for gymnasts, difference training in
experience probably did not play the key role. It would also be interesting to look for connection between
physiological maturity and trunk stability, which could affect the results of the static stability test.
It is known in technical literature that an important characteristic of late childhood or transition stage
(age of 7 till puberty) is good synchronisation of neuromuscular system. This enables the development of
skills, based on movement control (coordination, speed, balance ...). From age of approximately 11 to 15
the application stage takes place. In this stage children grow very fast and the dynamics of skills, based on
precise movement control is slowed down (Gallahue, Ozmun, & Goodway, 2006; Škof & Kalan, 2007). The
adolescence usually starts at age of 10 for girls and 12 for boys. The PHV (peak height velocity) usually
takes place at the age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys (Škof & Kalan, 2007). We did not find any scientific
research that studied development of balance in children specifically.
Gymnasts in YC group were 10-13 years old. This means that they were almost certainly in the adolescence,
some of them were probably also in time of PHV. Because of faster growth of musculoskeletal system
there is no or little progress in skills, based on prise movement control.
Conclusion
Although the study has its own limitations, it could give some basis for further research, for example
studying the connection of stability, ROM and COP parameters. Understanding this connection could help
us improve the athlete’s effectiveness, improve the ankle stability and this way decrease the possibility of
developing an ankle injury. It’s widely known that ankle has a very high incidence rate.
This static stability test did not show as the most appropriate test for assessing the balance of the
gymnasts, neither for testing differences in balance of gymnasts of different disciplines. Namely, it
represents a considerably unspecific condition for trained gymnasts. For the future studies on the field of
116
stability of the gymnasts and differences in COP parameters of gymnasts of different disciplines it would
be appropriate to select a more discipline specific test. With such selection of test the COP parameters
that either differs gymnasts of one discipline from gymnasts of the other, either differs gymnasts with
better balance from the ones with weaker balance could be defined.
Also some possible practical uses of the unipedal stance test with closed eyes that was used in the study
could be found. Some studies indicate the possibility of combining static balance and ROM tests for
assessing the joint stability and detecting possible alternation in athlete’s balance. That could be used to
help athletes perform on a high level with less risk of developing injuries. The connection of an unspecific
static stability test and a ROM test of a corresponding joint and their possible practical applications could
be an object of study in further research papers.
Also a connection between trunk stability, ankle ROM and epidemiology could be observed, most likely
in a longitudinal study. The results could help us understand which factors increase the risk of developing
an injury. At the same time a technical test for assessing the connection between athlete’s stability and
his or her success on competitions could be designed.
The difference in COP parameters between YC and ABS group could be the result of development of
motor, nervous and musculoskeletal system in YC group. This assumption should be further studied.
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za šport, Inštitut za šport.
118
COUNTERMOVEMENT JUMP ON FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC AND RHYTHMIC
GYMNASTICS
Valič A. 1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2, Istenič N.1, Kolar E.2
1
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the research was, based on measurements of 68 Slovenian gymnasts, aged 14 (± 4.1)
years: To determine the pattern of results that are specific to each sport. To find differences between
categories, that we could in the future separate between good and bad parametric values in countermovement jump (CMJ), which was determined as gold standard in measuring of explosive power (Bosco,
Luhtaen, & Komi, 1989). To determine differences between groups, we used ANOVA test and Bonferoni
post hoc test. There were statistically significant differences in the jump height and relative maximal peak
power between male senior category and other categories (P=0.01). We also found differences in jump
height between women’s gymnastics in the seniors (WAGsen) and rhythmic gymnastics in senior (RGčla)
(p=0.01) and cadet (RGcad) category (p=0.00). Differences in the cadet categories between male and
female gymnastics were not statistically significant. We found, that women seniors needed the most time
to perform a rebound (0,630 ± 0,85s). We assume that this is due to differences in the storage of elastic
energy and lower capacity of producing high forces in short time than men. We also found, that female
gymnast were jumping 23.2% lower than men gymnasts.
INTRODUCTION
In five decades, gymnastics has achieved a great development, and created a new profile of gymnast
(Jemni, Physiology for gymnastics, 2011), which is reflected in strength, power – rapid development
of force, flexibility and sense of place (Jemni, Friemel, Sands, & Mikesky, 2001; Jemni, Sands, Friemel,
Cooke, & Stone, 2006).
The result of vertical jump is a crucial element that correlates with explosive power. Explosive power
indirectly effect on performance in sports (Canavan & Vescovi, 2004; Bobbert, 1990) and also the
performance of activities of daily living and occupational tasks (Bassey, et al., 1992; Kraemer, et al., 2001).
Explosive power has a large factor in sports that require a rapid generation of force in a short period of
time. This manifests in: Jumping (gymnastics, basketball, handball, track and field), sprinting (gymnastics,
track and field, handball, football), throwing (track and field, baseball, handball) and strokes (tennis,
volleyball, martial arts, rugby, soccer). For this reason, a number of methods to assess the explosive
power has been developed (Markovic, 2007).
Explosive power of legs can be developed in different ways, using methods such as resistance training,
training with electrostimulation (Đokić & Međedović, 2013), vibration training (Sarshin, Mohammadi,
Khadam, & Sarshin, 2010) and plyometric training (Baechle & Earle, 2008). Plyometric training is the
most typical for gymnastics, as it is the part of the daily routine in training. Well-generated elastic energy
is important in performing various elements, such as: sprints, jumps, lands, acrobatic elements, etc. It
is particularly important in floor and vault disciplines, where it is necessary to reach a certain altitude,
for successfully executed jump (Mkaouer, Jemni, Amara, Chaabene , & Tabka, 2013). One of the studies
confirmed, that specific training of gymnastics, track and field, swimming, football and basketball
improved the results of vertical jumps (Gorostiaga, et al., 2002).
Plyometric or ballistic jumps are based on stretch shortening cycle (SSC) (Komi, 2000). These are
contractions that starts with stretch of a muscle-tendon complex. Stretching improves the production
119
of forces at the time of contraction, which follows after stretching part (Linthorne, 2001). This phase is
called concentric phase.
CMJ is eccentric - concentric movement, which measures the explosive power of lower extremities.
With CMJ on the basis of parameters obtained at a force plate, we can measure parameters such as:
maximum dynamic rate of force (RDF-rate of force development), which is the force, produced in 250ms
of jump; maximum (Pmax) or average (Pavg) power (Čanaki, Šoš, & Vučetić, 2006), relative strength,
based on body weight, force of propulsion, work, jump height, time of eccentric action, jump time,
time of concentric action, etc. With these parameters, we can determine neuromuscular efficiency of
producing explosive strength of athletes. All parameters are indirectly correlated with the effectiveness
of jump. Similar parameters can be measured by squat jump (SJ), which is reliable method for assessing
the explosive power like CMJ (Markovic, Dizdar, Jukic , & Cardinale, 2004).
Effectiveness of use of SSC in gymnastics is not well researched. There is not a lot of researches, which
are suggesting the results of CMJ as normative values for assessing power of leap in gymnastics. There
are articles describing the differences in CMJ among young rhythmic gymnasts and untrained young
people, unfortunately, there is no information of jump heights or other parameters. One study compared
the CMJ height between sports: gymnastics, swimming, tennis and handball. They recorded the average
values of the height of jumps (Bencke, et al.).
Literature states that the force, developed by adolescents after puberty rise from 10 to 40% in favor
of males. Force production is higher even in preadolescents from 5 to 10% (around 9-10 years) and
increases to 15% more in favor of boys in time of puberty (around 14-15 years), measured in JH (Rhodri
& Jon, 2013)
They found, that women are capable of storing 90% more elastic energy than men when jumping (Komi &
Bosco, Utilization of stored elastic energy in leg extensor muscles by men and women., 1978). In previous
studies, which have investigated the dependence of the height of the jump of sex in untrained subjects,
they found that women achieved 66.0% to 68.8% of the men’s JH (Mathew & Salm, 1990; Mayhew, et
al., 1994). In a study comparing male and female track and field athletes, this difference was reduced to
73.24% (Ebben, Flanagan, & Jensen, 2007)
METHODS
Sample
The study included 68 Slovenian athletes, 19 men (men’s artistic gymnastics - MAG) and 49 women
(23 women’s artistic gymnastics - WAG 26 and rhythmic gymnastics - RG), which were classified into 6
categories according to age in which they compete.
Table 1: Age distribution of categories
120
Categories
Mean age
N
MAGcad
12,0 (±0,8)
10
MAGsen
21,4 (±5,6)
9
WAŠGcad
12,3 (±0,8)
15
WAGsen
18,0 (±3,4)
8
RGcad
12,2 (±0,8)
15
RGsen
15,3 (±1,3)
11
Total
14,6 (±4,1)
68
* MSGsen – men‘s artistic gimnastics seniors, WAGsen-women artistic gimnastics seniors, RGsen- rhytmic gymnastics
seniors, MSGcad – men‘s artistic gimnastics cadets, WAGcad-women artistic gimnastics cadets, RGcad- rhytmic
gymnastics cadets.
INSTRUMENTS
The test was performed on bilateral S2P panel for measuring ground forces. The panel was connected
via USB cable to a laptop computer. Data acquisition and data processing was performed using the
software package by ARS manufacturer S2P. The acquisition of data was performed by four channels with
a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz.
THE PROCEDURE
The object performed CMJ, from standing position by Bosco (1989) protocol. The object stood on the
board barefoot, with hands on hips. Before the implementation, we measured their bodyweight (BW),
to determine the relative maximum force (Fmax/BW) and relative maximum power (Pmax/BW). Each
subject performed 3 jumps, of which we noted the best record. We ordered them to perform a jump
as quickly as possible and as high as possible. They had to jump with a slightly swing a center of gravity
down in a half squat position and after that, they had to perform a strong vertical push off. They have
not been informed about squat depth. The order of the athletes was random. Some of the athletes
performed other motor tests before CMJ, which were not physically demanding.
We measured the height of the jump (JH), maximum power regardless of body weight (Pmax/BW),
maximum force (Fmax/BW), due to a possible further follow-up, we recorded the time of the counter
movement (CMt) and time of the concentric part of the propulsion (Poff- t).
DATA ANALYSIS
The data were transferred to IBM SPSS – version 21 program, where they were analyzed. We carried out
descriptive statistics, comparison of mean values and one-way ANOVA. Characteristics within the groups
were tested with bonferroni post-hoc test.
RESULTS
We were mostly interested in the results of the parameters JH and Pmax/BW, since they are the
parameters that are mostly associated with the explosive power of the lower limbs (Markovic, Dizdar,
Jukic , & Cardinale, 2004).
121
Table 2: Mean results of jumps and the average age in individual categories.
Category
MAGsen
WAGsen
WAGcad
MAGcad
RGcad
RGsen
Total
Age
JH(m)
Pmax/BW (W)
CMt(s)
Poff-t(s)
TOTt(s)
Mean
21,4
,363
55,91
,406
,222
,627
Std. Dev
5,6
,051
9,40
,061
,048
,107
Mean
18
,286
44,84
,449
,245
,694
Std. Dev
3,4
,023
2,08
,072
,043
,109
Mean
12,3
,244
41,93
,407
,224
,630
Std. Dev
0,8
,047
4,88
,055
,037
,085
Mean
12
,252
41,92
,398
,228
,625
Std. Dev
0,8
,020
3,40
,065
,035
,095
Mean
12,2
,212
39,17
,361
,197
,558
Std. Dev
0,8
,033
3,42
,056
,032
,083
Mean
15,3
,213
38,36
,370
,214
,584
Std. Dev
1,3
,022
2,23
,056
,031
,082
Mean
14,6
,254
42,93
,394
,219
,613
Std. Dev
4,1
,060
7,12
,064
,038
,097
*JH-jump height, Pmax/BW-relative maximal power/bodyweight, CMt-countermovement time, POt-push off
time, TOTt-total prejump time
Figure 1: Graphical presentation of JH between categories
The results showed that men on average jump higher than women. (p = 0.00). The average height of the
jump was 30,44cm (± 6.8) in men and 23,4cm (± 4.3) in women categories. There were also significant
differences in parameter Pmax / BW (p = 0.00). The average value for men was 48,55W / kgTT (± 9.82) in
women 40,76W / kgTT (± 4.16).
Post-hoc analysis of variance test showed differences between MAGsen and other categories (p = 0.01),
which is also reflecting in JH, since seniors were jumping significantly higher than persons in other
categories.
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In WAGsen a statistically significant difference in the level of the jump in comparison with RGcad and
RGsen (p = 0.00 and p = 0.01) was observed. Among the other groups, we did not.
Statistically significant differences in Pmax/BW were only found between MŠGčla and the other groups
(p = 0.01).
In TOT-t WAGsen were slightly prominent, because they achieved the longest average time of CMt
0,694s (± 0.11), which was significantly different from RGcad (p = 0.02), and visible higher than in other
categories.
Table 3: Comparison of parameters CMJ between sectors. The results of bonfferoni post-hoc tests, which
proved to be statistically significant.
PARAMETERS
CATEGORIES
MEAN
DIFFERENCE
STD. ERROR
SIG.
JH
MŠGčla
MŠGkad
,111511*
,016409
,000
ŽŠGkad
,119511*
,015058
,000
ŽŠGčla
,077236*
,017353
,001
RGkad
,151044*
,015058
,000
RGčla
,149838*
,016052
,000
RGkad
,073808*
,015635
,000
RGčla
,072602*
,016594
,001
MŠGkad
13,9911*
2,1738
,000
ŽŠGkad
13,9844*
1,9948
,000
ŽŠGčla
11,0736*
2,2989
,000
RGkad
16,7444*
1,9948
,000
RGčla
17,5475*
2,1265
,000
ŽŠGčla
PMAX/BW
MŠGčla
TOTT
ŽŠGčla
RGkad
,136042*
,040107
,018
CMT
ŽŠGčla
RGkad
,088317*
,026223
,020
**SIG = 0,001 *
SIG=0,05
DISCUSSION
In our study, we found that Slovenian gymnast achieved 76.8% height of male gymnasts. They also found,
that untrained women achieved 66.0% to 68.8% of the men’s JH (Mathew & Salm, 1990; Mayhew, et
al., 1994) In a study comparing male and female track and field athletes, that difference was reduced to
73.24% (Ebben, Flanagan, & Jensen, 2007), which increases the possibility of interpretation that in sports
with a similar mode of training, the difference in JH in men and women reduces.
We found significant differences (p<0.05) in the amount of power of the propulsion between MAGsen
and other categories, as well as between WAGsen and RG in both age categories. These different genderrelated developments can be explained by different pubertal changes in boys which lead to an increase
in leg lengths, leg muscle volumes, muscle forces and higher percentages of fast twitch muscle fibres
(Temfemo et al., 2008).
123
Our study showed that there were no differences in cadet categories. We know, that 12-18 years old is
a turning point, where girls starts to sexually develop and 14-18 years old, where boys starts to develop
(Faigenbaum, et al., 2009). So, normally girls starts to develop sooner than boys. We assume, that this
is the reason, why the differences in JH in cadet categories haven’t been seen. We found, that artistic
gymnasts achieved higher JH (3.2 ± 8 cm) and Pmax/BW (3.6 ± 7.16 W) (as RG, although post hoc test
did not detect significant differences. Why RG achieved lower values in JH and Pmax/BW is not entirely
clear. To discover that difference it would be rational to analyze the differences in the process of training
in rhythmic gymnastics. Possible explanation for this may be that MAG and WAG were able to perform
better jumps because of better coordination complex counter movement jump, due to the specifics of
the training (Bencke, et al., 2001).
We found statistical significance in the time of the propulsion when comparing the RG and WAGsen. The
highest average time of the whole jump was observed in WAGsen 0,449 ± 0,072s, p<0.05), where we did
not find statistical significance between MAGsen and other groups. Similar conclusions were reached
in a study, comparing the differences in the gender differences in power generation. They found that
the difference between the time to take off (observed after counter movement part of jump, when the
ground forces reached person’s body weight) exist, but they are not statistically significant. We came to
the conclusion that the TOTt in WAGsen is longer due to the fact that women are better at storing elastic
energy during SSC actions, and are able to save 90% more elastic energy in the muscle tendon complex
than men whose muscle tendon complex can withstand greater forces (Komi & Bosco, Utilization of stored
elastic energy in leg extensor muscles by men and women., 1978). In our study, there were significant
differences in CMt - in first part of the jump, because the muscle-tendon complex reached the maximum
force and stretched the most. This is more visible in women (Komi & Bosco, Utilization of stored elastic
energy in leg extensor muscles by men and women., 1978). Why results of jump time are worse for RG,
we exactly do not know. We assume, however, that the differences arise from the specifics of training
between the RG and gymnastics. The test results were compared with other studies that have compared
the height of jumps of artistic gymnasts and after the procedure, results were similar to ours. Artistic
gymnasts - seniors have achieved an average height of the jump with the opposite movement 32.44 ±
6,40cm (Dallas & Kirialanis), which is on average of 3.84 cm worse result than in our study. We also found
results from JH of cadet artistic gymnasts (Bencke, et al.), aged an average of 12 years (± 1.0). Results
were 26.5 ± 3,3cm for girls and 27 ± 3,5cm for boys. Theirs average JH were better than our average JH
for 2.1 cm in females and 1.8 cm in boys. They also didn’t find any deviations between genders in cadets.
CONCLUSION
We compared the results of jumps with other studies, which compared jump heights in gymnastics
athletes and were similar by procedure. We provided approximate normative values for Slovenian artistic
and rhythmic gymnasts. We found statistical differences between categories only in comparison between
MAGsen and other categories (p<0.05). We found that the highest jumps were performed by MAGsen
(36.3 +- 5,1cm), after them were in order: WAGsen (24.4 ± 4.7cm), MAGcad (25.2 ± 2.0cm), RGcad (21.2
± 3.3cm) and RGsen (21.3 ± 2.2cm), who reached the lowest jumps. It is evident that the improvement
of the jump in the transition to the senior category isn‘t noticable only in the RG. This finding may be a
guideline for the analysis of the system of training and possible measures to improve the physical fitness
of RGsen.
We concluded, that differences between sectors are attributed due to biological development of athletes,
what is especially observed in males after puberty, due to differences in the excretion of sex hormones.
This significantly increases the power and the difference between men and women. Differences in jump
height between artistic and rhythmic gymnastics are attributed to the specifics of training, which is based
on greater development of force, as we inferred from the findings, that prepubescent artistic gymnasts
have more lean muscle mass as a rhythmic gymnasts.
124
GUIDELINES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
In the medium term, to repeat measurements at least once per year, to determine the normative
values for the Slovenian gymnasts. For a better understanding of vertical jumps in artistic and rhythmic
gymnastics it is necessary to investigate the effect of shift of COP at jump, the ratio of elasticity of SSC
between sexes and between categories, the rate of development, related by gender, age, and so on.
The results of this study will be useful in interpreting jumps in subsequent measurements and will be
refined in order for better understanding. If we want to determine the normative values we would need
a larger sample. It would be also rational adding a measuring device with which we would analyze the
amplitude of the center of gravity of the body in the push off. This would rule out the probability that
there are differences in counter-movement jump because of different amplitudes in depth of squat at
rebound. It would be also rational to perform squat jump test and compare it with the parameters of the
CMJ to get the ratio of elasticity (eccentric utilization ratio-EUR). This should be compared with the men
and women in order to identify differences. We should also calculate RFD (rate of force developmentthe first 250 ms), which can be compared between sectors and between sexes. With this parameters we
could better understand and plan training to improve power in gymnasts.
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126
HANDSTAND ON FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS
Beličič B.1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2
1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2 University of Primorska, Applied Kinesiology, Koper, Slovenia
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was setting indicative normative values of chosen parameters for a handstand
in artistic gymnastics. Finding out whether there is a typical statistical significance in maintaining balance
in artistic gymnastics handstand between different disciplines (men‘s artistic gymnastic and women‘s
artistic gymnastic) and between different categories within disciplines (absolute category, younger
category for men‘s artistic gymnastic and absolute category, younger category for women‘s artistic
gymnastic). 48 of Slovenia‘s best artistic gymnasts have participated in this research. 24 male and 24
female gymnasts’ handstand balance has been measured on a force plate. Three different parameters
have been observed and their values processed with a statistical analysis. The results have shown
that there are no statistical significances between men’s and women‘s artistic gymnastics. Statistical
significances exists among individual categories in a certain discipline considering the parameter total
sway velocity (mm/s), between younger category and absolute category in men’s artistic gymnastics
(p= .041), between younger category and absolute category in women’s artistic gymnastic (p= .034) and
medial-lateral sway velocity (mm/s), between younger category and absolute category in men’s artistic
gymnastics (p= .045), while there are no differences among categories in view of anterior-posterior sway
velocity (mm/s).
Key words: sport gymnastics, handstand, postural sway
INTRODUCTION
Handstand is one of the basic statical balance positions in sports gymnastic. It is necessary to maintain
good balance, which contributes to the efficient performance of motor structures in sport (Metikoš,
Kovač, Čović, & Mekić, 2014). Static postural control or static balance can be defined as the ability to
maintain support through minimal movement whereas dynamic balance is the ability to perform a task
while maintaining a stable posture (Winter, Patla, & Frank, 1990). A handstand is about keeping static
balance, which is the foundation of all postural activities (Kerwin & Trewartha, 2001).
Balance requires coordinated functioning of the central nervous system (CNS), that has to function
according to the information it receives through visual, proprioceptive and vestibular apparatus (Kerwin
& Trewartha, 2001). It does not require only the strict control of body segment positions, but also the
precise and accurate corrective adjustments (Riccio, 1993), which are necessary for balancing out any
larger oscillation and deviation from the desired position. This movement control of centre of mass
needs to be well coordinated and central nervous system response has to provide successful strategies
that ensure preserving balance through minimal movement. The choice of strategy depends on the size
of the centre of mass (CM) movement according to the centre of pressure deviation values (Stephens,
Frank, Burleigh, & Winter, 1992).
To preserve a handstand position, a certain level of developed static strength is fundamental. By the
means of isometric contractions, the muscular structures of torso, legs, arms and shoulder girdle provide
body stability and fixate spinal connections, hip and knee joint through isometric contractions (Zitko &
127
Chrudimsky, 2006). Sparrowe (2003) concludes, that good flexibility in shoulder and wrist is crucial for
handstand balance. The final handstand position signifies the 180° angle between arms, torso and legs,
and the longitudinal axis. The head is in a straightforward position, the eyes following the fingertips (Zitko
& Chrudimsky, 2006). If an athlete maintains the described position, he reduces the number of body
segmental components and this results in a less complex movement pattern (Gerald, 2010).
Until now, several studies on how to preserve balance while standing have been published. However,
there are significantly less studies about balancing a handstand.
There are several procedures and tests to measure maintaining balance. One of the most simple and
reliably repeatable measurements is using a force plate. Usually several centre of pressure (COP)
parameters are analysed, which means a projection of the gravity centre deviations onto a surface. COP
is about controlling the centre of gravity as the result of neuro-muscular response (Winter, Prince, Franck,
Powel, & Zabjek, 1996). Various parametric indicators can be deduced from the COP movement. Since
the measurements take place in an axial plane, it is possible to determine COP sway in medial-lateral and
anterior-posterior directions. Based on the trajectory of the COP movement versus time, the parameter
of sway velocity can be identified (Panjan & Sarabon, 2010). This article focuses on the above mentioned
parameters and will be divided in a way that is based on the dealing with the anterior-posterior, mediallateral and total movement. When determining how balance is preserved in a handstand, one can also
take into account the vision control, peripheral vision and head positioning. These observations can be
done with the video analysis, measuring movements in separate joints (Kerwin & Trewartha, 2001).
Considering the similar body configuration in a handstand and upright stance, it can be concluded that
this is a transaction between the lower and upper extremities (Clement & Rezette, 1985). It has been
reported, that there is a relationship between 1-leg upright stance and handstand in postural control, but
there is no relationship between this two positions in global balance ability, so, on the basis of one posture
performance, we cannot predict the performance of another more specific posture, in this case the
handstand (Asseman, Caron, & Cremieux, 2004). The balancing if a handstand is more difficult than the
upright stance, mostly because of the different biomechanical, physiological and sensory characteristics
(Pozzo & Clement, 1988). We also take notice: base surface in handstand is smaller, centre of mass (CM)
shifts, the distance between the supporting surface and the centre of gravity becomes wider. Due to
extended arms, the body becomes longer compared to upright stance, which decreases stability, because
of the inferior ratio between length and supporting surface (Solobounov & Newell, 1996). A handstand
demands special coordination because instead of three joints (ankles, knees, and hips) we now use four
joints (wrists, elbows, shoulders, hips), this all makes a handstand significantly more complex.
A handstand is very prominent in artistic gymnastics. In its static form it is the initial and final position
of many movement structures. In its dynamic form it is either the basis or one of the components of
movement (Hedbavny, Sklenarikova, Hupka, & Kalichova, 2013). Gymnasts have to perform a handstand
numerous times when performing various skills. Without a good handstand a gymnast may have
problems conquering other gymnastic elements and that makes progress slower, also, the exercise safety
is diminished. A good handstand requires the body, arms and legs to be completely stretched out. While
the torso may be slightly arched, the arms must be stretched out (Taylor, Bajin, & Zivic, 1972).
Bohmer and Hamar (2014) have done a research whether there are any major differences in preserving
balance between upper ranking and lower ranking gymnasts. In their studies they have included a
handstand, measuring the COP sway velocity and they have found out that there are indeed significant
differences. Hedbavny (2012) proves a high correlation between static ability of maintaining balance and
the size of COP sway in a handstand.
Differences between genders and among gymnast’s age groups can be expected in a handstand. There are
several existing studies which indicate how age influences balance. Balance improves with children‘s age
(Cumberworth, Patel, Rogers, & Kenyon, 2006). Children above the age of 12 may have similar balance
skills as adults in upright stance (Ying-Shuo Hsu, Chen-Chieh Kuan, & Yi-Ho Young, 2009). However, none
of these studies include athletes or observe the performance of a handstand. Moreover, previous studies
128
show differences according to gender, but only age group comparisons are made, because of that we
cannot make any conclusion about the phenomenons in a specific balance position among upper ranking
gymnasts.
This article focuses on setting indicative normative values for the parameters that have been monitored
and on predicting the performance of the handstand, based on these normative values.
The aim was to find out if there are any statistical differences between genders and if there are any
statistical differences among the age categories.
According to the referred aims we have set a working hypothesis: there is a statistical significant difference
between genders and also among the categories.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Subjects
Table 1. Number (n), mean age (mean) and standard deviation (SD) age of gymnasts included in the study
according to discipline and total.
MAG
WAG
Total
(MAG+WAG)
ABS
YC
Total
ABS
YC
Total
n(%)
15 (62,5)
9 (37,5)
24 (50)
10 (41,7)
14 (58,3)
24 (50)
Mean
22,73
12,11
18,75
17,40
12,36
14,46
SD
6,38
0,78
7,25
3,53
0,84
3,43
48 (100)
16,60
6,01
Legend: MAG = men‘s artistic gymnastic, WAG = women‘s artistic gymnastic, ABS = absolute category, YC
= younger category
48 of the best Slovenian gymnasts have been selected to participate. Aged between 10 and 37, their
average age is 16,60 ± 6,01 years. They were divided into two groups based on the discipline they
compete in: male artistic gymnasts (MAG; n=24, average age: 18,75 ± 7,25 years) and female artistic
gymnasts (WAG; n=24, average age: 14,46 ± 3,43 years). Within disciplines they were divided further
according to their age: the juniors and seniors who were in the absolute category (ABS) and the younger
gymnasts who belonged to the younger categories (YC).
Testing protocol
The test has been constructed in such a way that it required preserving balance in a handstand on a force
plate. The participants had to maintain their position as still as possible for 30 seconds in the absolute
category, and 10 seconds in the younger categories. The handstand had to be performed in a technically
correct manner. Each participant had one try.
129
Collecting and processing data
The measurements took place on a bilateral force plate (S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia). The plate‘s surface
was 600 x 600 mm and each part of the plate had a surface of 300 x 600 mm. Each side of the plate had
4 sensors measuring the force onto the surface which adds up to 8 sensors all together. Data collecting
took place on 1000 Hz frequency. The data measured by the plate were then transferred onto a computer
via a USB drive. ARS program (Analysis & Reporting Software; S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia) was used to
interpret and process data.
Measured parameters
Measurements have been carried out on a force plate with two separate platforms. This meant that each
platform recorded pressures onto the surface and based on the plane coordinates it recorded where
they occurred and how they altered. We observed three parameters, namely the change of COP sway
trajectory in function of time. Movements happened in anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions.
Additionally, we observed the total movement in the transverse plane.
Parameters:
- Sway V– total [mm/s] – the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway calculated as a sum of
the point-to-point Euclidian distances divided by the measurement
- Sway V– A-P [mm/s] – the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway exclusively in the anteriorposterior direction divided by the measurement time
- Sway V– M-L [mm/s] – the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway exclusively in the mediallateral direction divided by the measurement time
Statistical analysis
The results of the performing participants were gathered and prepared for processing with Microsoft
Excel (2010). Statistical analysis was done using IBM SPSS Statistics 21 (IBM Corp., New York, USA).
Descriptive statistics were performed. One-way ANOVA test was run to differentiate disciplines and
categories within disciplines. To determine the difference among separate categories, we used Tukey
HSD (honest significant difference) one-way ANOVA test.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics
To calculate the basic descriptive statistics, we used the data from the observed parameters (total sway
velocity, A-P sway velocity, M-L sway velocity). The data is displayed below for disciplines (Table 3) and
categories (Table 4).
130
Table 2. Descriptive statistic in man‘s artistic gymnastics (MAG) and woman‘s artistic gymnastics (WAG)
for every COP parameter
MAG
SV∑
WAG
Total
M
Mdn
SD
M
Mdn
SD
M
Mdn
SD
115,871
115,500
28,179
124,279
115,500
41,647
120,075
115,500
35,432
SVA-P
92,383
97,000
18,921
95,096
84,450
25,958
93,740
94,650
22,512
SVM-L
50,408
45,200
21,715
57,746
51,400
34,386
54,077
47,450
28,690
Legend: SV∑ = sway velocity – total [mms], SVA-P = sway velocity A-P [mms], SVM-L = sway velocity
M-L [mms]
Afterwards, the descriptive statistics between categories in artistic gymnastics were performed.
Table 3. Display of mean (M), median (Mdn) and standard deviation(SD) in men‘s artistic gymnastics
for absolute category (MAG ABS) and younger category (MAG YC) and women‘s artistic gymnastics for
absolute category (WAG ABS) and younger category (WAG YC).
MAG YC
M
SV∑
Mdn
MAG ABS
SD
138,56 141,00 21,15
SVA-P 103,34 104,00 11,90
SVM-L
68,66
64,70
24,21
M
Mdn
WAG YC
SD
M
Mdn
WAG ABS
SD
M
Mdn
SD
102,26 109,00
22,79
139,51 136,00
46,53
102,08
96,30
20,97
85,81
86,30
19,59
102,50
96,70
28,15
84,73
79,50
19,30
39,46
39,60
9,86
68,63
58,60
41,43
42,51
40,15
9,98
Legend: SV∑ = sway velocity – total [mms], SVA-P = sway velocity A-P [mms], SVM-L = sway velocity M-L
[mms]
Analysis of variance
Analysis of variance helped to determine any differences among gymnasts of various disciplines and then
between the younger and the absolute category, men‘s and women‘s artistic gymnastics separately.
Firstly, an analysis of variance test had to be carried out across the disciplines. The set hypothesis claimed
that there are statistical differences between male and female gymnasts (MAG and WAG) in COP sway
velocity (mms). The level of significance (α) chosen was 0,05. The value of α was surpassed, p> α, in all
of the three parameters and thus the hypothesis could not be rejected. Based on the measured data of
observed parameters among disciplines, statistical significant differences are non-existent.
Subsequently, we studied the differences in COP sway velocity (mms) among categories within disciplines
for each of the observed parameters. We found, that there are statistical significant differences between
categories ABS and YC at total COP sway velocity and medial-lateral COP sway velocity (α = 0,05). The
results are displayed in Table 4.
131
Table 4. One-way ANOVA test between absolute category (MAG ABS and WAG ABS) and younger category
(MAG YC and WAG YC).
SV∑
SVA-P
SVM-L
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between
Groups
16050,138
3
5350,046
5,480
,003
Within
Groups
42953,752
44
976,222
Total
59003,890
47
Between
Groups
3660,402
3
1220,134
2,663
,060
Within
Groups
20159,253
44
458,165
Total
23819,655
47
Between
Groups
9420,089
3
3140,030
4,721
,006
Within
Groups
29267,036
44
665,160
Total
38687,125
47
Legend: SV∑ = sway velocity – total [mms], SVA-P = sway velocity A-P [mms], SVM-L = sway velocity M-L
[mms]
The significant level for parameter SVA-P is 0,06 (p = .060), which means that it surpasses α = 0,05.
Therefore, it can be confirmed that there are no typical statistic differences among categories in anteriorposterior COP sway velocity.
According to this analysis, it is certain that there are some differences among categories, but we cannot
determine which categories show significant differences. This is evident from the multiple comparisons
table, which conveys the result of post-hoc tests.
Tukey post-hoc test has been used there and we separated the absolute and the younger category (MAG
ABS and MAG YC) within men‘s artistic gymnastics and the absolute and the younger category within
women‘s artistic gymnastics (WAG ABS and MAG YC) for each COP sway velocity parameter (mms).
From the table 5. we can establish significant differences in the parameter SV∑ between MAG YC and
MAG ABS, the significant level is 0,041 (p = .041). For WAG YC and WAG ABS the significant level is 0,034
(p = .034). Based on the numbers 4,1% for MAG and 3,4% for WAG risk it can be concluded that younger
categories will not reach the average result of the older categories in the total COP sway velocity.
The parameter, SVM-L, shows typical statistic differences among categories within MAG discipline.
Significant level between MAG YC and MAG ABS is 0,048 (p= .048). In WAG category there are no
significant differences between WAG YC and WAG ABS (p = .083). Considering the 4,8% for MAG risk it
can be concluded that the younger categories will not reach the average result of the older categories in
the medial-lateral COP sway velocity. The same cannot be claimed for the older categories within WAG
because the risk is too high (8,3%).
In the parameter SVA-P , there are no recorded typical statistic differences, which has already been
shown by the ANOVA test results.
132
Table 5. Tukey post-hoc test between categories.
Dependent Variable
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
MAG YC
WAG YC
MAG YC
WAG YC
MAG YC
WAG YC
36,2956*
36,5471*
17,5378
17,7700
29,1956*
26,1186
13,1739
12,9365
9,0250
8,8624
10,8743
10,6784
,041
,034
,225
,202
,048
,083
SV∑
SVA-P
SVM-L
MAG ABS
WAG ABS
MAG ABS
WAG ABS
MAG ABS
WAG ABS
95% Confidence
Interval
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
1,121
71,470
2,007
71,088
-6,559
41,635
-5,893
41,433
,161
58,230
-2,393
54,630
Legend: SV∑ = sway velocity – total [mms], SVA-P = sway velocity A-P [mms], SVM-L = sway velocity
M-L [mms], MAG YC = men’s artistic gymnastic younger category, MAG ABS = men’s artistic gymnastic
absolute category, WAG YC = women‘s artistic gymnastic younger category, WAG ABS = women‘s artistic
gymnastic absolute category
DISCUSSION
We conclude that certain differences between men’s and women’s artistic gymnastics exist on mean
(X) and standard deviation (SD) in men for parameter SV∑ 115,87 ± 28,2 , for SVA-P 92,38 ± 18,9 and
for SVM-L 50,41 ± 21,7 and in women for parameter SV∑ 124,28 ± 41,6 , for SVA-P 95,10 ± 26,0 and for
SVM-L 57,75 ± 34,4. Lower values, which mean lower sway velocity, are better. But on the basis of ANOVA
test we conclude, that there are no statistical significant differences in COP sway in handstand between
genders. The fact that female athletes produce lower relative strength (Miller, MacDougall, Tarnopolsky,
& Sale, 1993), would because of more effective training for both genders, make sense further relationship
consideration between different areas (anthropometry, strength, flexibility) and handstand. Based on
the very important role of handstand in artistic gymnastics this can have positive impact on the training
safety and the gymnast’s performance.
Values which we acquired in our study, unfortunately cannot be compared with those in other studies,
because others use different force plates (Asseman et al., 2004; Bohmerova & Hamar, 2014), also, the
software is different. The force plate used for sample measurement in Slovenian artistic gymnastics is
bilateral and measures each arm separately, therefore, the results are more accurate. The software is
modern and advanced, so that it is gradually taken also by Kistler, the leading manufacturer of measuring
systems.
On the basis of the results we suggest the indicative normative values for each measured parameter.
In the younger category of men’s artistic gymnastics (MAG YC), we measured the following values of
mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) for the parameter SV∑: 138,56 ± 21,2 , for the parameter SVA-P:
103,34 ± 11,9 and for the parameter SVM-L: 68,66 ± 24,2. In the younger category of women‘s artistic
gymnastic (WAG YC) we measured X and SD for the parameter SV∑: 139,51 ± 46,5 , for the parameter
SVA-P: 102,50 ± 28,2 and for the parameter SVM-L: 68,63 ± 41,4. We can conclude, that MAG YC have
at SV∑ for 0,95 better mean value, whereas have at SVA-P and SVM-L for 0,84 and 0,03 worse mean
value. In the absolute category of men‘s artistic gymnastic (MAG ABS) we measured the following values
for the parameter SV∑, X and SD: 102,26 ± 22,8 , for parameter SVA-P: 85,81 ± 19,6 and for parameter
133
SVM-L: 39,46 ± 9,9. In the absolute category of women‘s artistic gymnastic (WAG ABS) we measured the
following values for the parameter SV∑, X and SD: 102,08 ± 21,0 , for the parameter SVA-P: 84,73 ± 19,3
and for the parameter SVM-L: 42,51 ± 9,98. If we compare MAG ABS and WAG ABS, we notice, that the
MAG ABS mean values of SV∑ and SVA-P are worse by 0,18 and 1,08 , but that the MAG ABS mean value
of SVM-L is better by 3,05.
Our normative values could be refined by more additional measurements.
The analysis of variance and Tukey post hoc test has shown that there are statistically significant differences
among categories within disciplines. The absolute category, comprising of junior and senior gymnasts,
has significantly better values of COP sway velocity in parameter sway velocity – total [mms] compared to
the younger category in women’s artistic gymnastics (p= .034, difference in mean sway is 37,4) and also
in men’s artistic gymnastics (p= .041, difference in mean sway is 36,6). It can be concluded that with age
performing a handstand gets better by 37,4 mms in women’s artistic gymnastics, by 36,6 mms in men’s
artistic gymnastics. Although the measure time is shorter in YC, the differences are obvious, and we can
assume that with longer time the differences would increase further because of fatigue. From that we
can conclude, that ABS is better in balancing before the fatigue occurs and at the same time, in the case
of ABS, the fatigue occurs later.
The absolute category in men‘s artistic gymnastic has lower measured values of mean sway in mediallateral direction compared with the younger category (MAG ABS X=39,46 versus MAG YC X=68,66).
Balancing handstand is significantly different in parameter SVM-L, p= .048 (α = 0,05), which indicates,
that with age sway reduces by 29,2 mms in men‘s artistic gymnastics in medial-lateral direction.
From the higher velocities of COP sway, we can deduce that YC mechanisms for maintaining stable
handstand balance are not yet well developed. Because of that there is a need for more compensatory
moves, which maintain balance and consequently more sway of COP. The inferior results among YC can
be explained by the developing characteristics, which are described in the literature and can be applied
to our findings. Mean age for MAG YC is 12,11 years or 12,36 for WAG YC, which means that examinees
are in puberty (Škof, 2007), characterized by rapid changes in morphological characteristics because of
which the skills that require movement control get worse. Central nervous system must adapt to different
information from the senses and choose the actions accordingly. The development of nervous system
is completing around the age of twelve to fourteen, and because of that it can faster gather, process
and send information around the body (Škof, 2007). However, that does not mean the skills are on the
same level as of an adult’s. Nevertheless, this is an excellent time for developing motor skills. Muscular
system falls behind the growth spurt. Muscles are not capable of mastering bigger body proportions.
With age, strength and endurance grow. The ability of balancing is reduced when fatigue occurs, as result
of a lack of endurance (Baghbaninaghadehi, Reza Ramezani, & Hatami, 2013). In puberty, hormonal
changes occur, testosterone levels increase, especially among boys, which results in rapid increase in
strength, that happens a year or two after peak height velocity (PHV), secretion of neurotransmitters also
increases and with that better muscular activation (Škof, 2007). Testosterone has significant influence
on body composition (more muscle vs less adipose tissue). The muscles are the main generators of joint
stabilization, which consequently means better balance, the lack of muscle mass also has a negative
impact on maintaining balance position (Kejonen, Kauranen, & Vanharanta, 2003), the younger gymnasts
have less muscle mass than the adult gymnasts. The athletes whose adipose tissue exceeds 8% of total
body weight have worse balance. The percentage of bone tissue also has an impact (Metikoš et al.,
2014). It has been reported that the density of bone tissue is improving through childhood till maturity
(Lohman, Slaughter, Boileau, Bunt, & Lussier, 1984).
The differences occur in the musculoskeletal system, the motor, CNS and hormonal functioning and in
other biological characteristics. All this has an impact on the poor handstand performance in the younger
categories.
134
CONCLUSION
Results will be compared with the tests done in the past years, definitely will be used as normative
values in the following measurements of Slovene artistic gymnasts. Monitoring the progress, as a result
of different measures and training procedures is necessary. This is especially true for the intensive
monitoring in the younger categories. Since the handstand is a key skill in artistic gymnastics, we could
improve the training safety and the gymnast’s performance with the help of systematic control.
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