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Aspasia
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Contents
Articles
Aspasia
1
Pericles
13
Menexenus (dialogue)
33
De Inventione
35
Athenaeus
36
Deipnosophistae
38
Parallel Lives
40
Plutarch
48
References
Article Sources and Contributors
60
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
62
Article Licenses
License
63
Aspasia
1
Aspasia
Aspasia (/æˈspeɪziə/ or /æˈspeɪʒə/; Ancient Greek: Ἀσπασία; ca. 470
BC[1][2]–ca. 400 BC)[1][3] was a Milesian woman who was famous for
her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles.[4] Very little is
known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in
Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics.
She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon,
and other authors of the day.
Ancient writers also reported that Aspasia was a brothel keeper and a
harlot, although these accounts are disputed by modern scholars, on the
grounds that many of the writers were comic poets concerned with
defaming Pericles.[5] Some researchers question even the historical
tradition that she was a hetaera, or courtesan, and have suggested that
she may actually have been married to Pericles.[α] Aspasia had a son
by Pericles, Pericles the Younger, who later became a general in the
Athenian military and was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. She
is believed to have become the courtesan of Lysicles, another Athenian
statesman and general, following the death of Pericles the Elder.
Origin and early years
Marble herm in the Vatican Museums inscribed
with Aspasia's name at the base. Discovered in
1777, this marble herm is a Roman copy of a
5th-century BC original and may represent
Aspasia's funerary stele.
Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus (in the modern
province of Aydın, Turkey). Little is known about her family except
that her father's name was Axiochus, although it is evident that she must have belonged to a wealthy family, for only
the well-to-do could have afforded the excellent education that she received. Some ancient sources claim that she
was a Carian prisoner-of-war turned slave; these statements are generally regarded as false.[β][6]
It is not known under what circumstances she first traveled to Athens. The discovery of a 4th-century grave
inscription that mentions the names of Axiochus and Aspasius has led historian Peter K. Bicknell to attempt a
reconstruction of Aspasia's family background and Athenian connections. His theory connects her to Alcibiades II of
Scambonidae (grandfather of the famous Alcibiades), who was ostracized from Athens in 460 BC and may have
spent his exile in Miletus.[1] Bicknell conjectures that, following his exile, the elder Alcibiades went to Miletus,
where he married the daughter of a certain Axiochus. Alcibiades apparently returned to Athens with his new wife
and her younger sister, Aspasia. Bicknell argues that the first child of this marriage was named Axiochus (uncle of
the famous Alcibiades) and the second Aspasios. He also maintains that Pericles met Aspasia through his close
connections with Alcibiades's household.[7]
Aspasia
2
Life in Athens
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904): Socrates
seeking Alcibiades in the house of Aspasia, 1861.
According to the disputed statements of the ancient writers and some
modern scholars, in Athens Aspasia became a hetaera and probably ran
a brothel.[α][8][9] Hetaerae were professional high-class entertainers, as
well as courtesans. Besides developing physical beauty, they differed
from most Athenian women in being educated (often to a high
standard, as in Aspasia's case), having independence, and paying
taxes.[10][11] They were the nearest thing perhaps to liberated women;
and Aspasia, who became a vivid figure in Athenian society, was
probably an obvious example.[10][12] According to Plutarch, Aspasia
was compared to the famous Thargelia, another renowned Ionian
hetaera of ancient times.[13]
Being a foreigner and possibly a hetaera, Aspasia was free of the legal restraints that traditionally confined married
women to their homes, and thereby was allowed to participate in the public life of the city. She became the mistress
of the statesman Pericles in the early 440s. After he divorced his first wife (c. 445 BC), Aspasia began to live with
him, although her marital status remains disputed.[γ][14] Their son, Pericles the Younger, must have been born by 440
BC. Aspasia would have to have been quite young, if she were able to bear a child to Lysicles c. 428 BC.[15]
In social circles, Aspasia was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser rather than merely an object of
physical beauty.[9] According to Plutarch, their house became an intellectual centre in Athens, attracting the most
prominent writers and thinkers, including the philosopher Socrates. The biographer writes that, despite her immoral
life, Athenian men would bring their wives to hear her converse.[δ][13][16]
Personal and judicial attacks
Pericles, Aspasia and their friends were not immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not
equivalent to absolute rule.[17] Her relationship with Pericles and her subsequent political influence aroused many
reactions. Donald Kagan, a Yale historian, believes that Aspasia was particularly unpopular in the years immediately
following the Samian War.[18] In 440 BC, Samos was at war with Miletus over Priene, an ancient city of Ionia in the
foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians.[19]
When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration at Athens, the Samians
refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos.[20] The campaign proved to be
difficult and the Athenians had to endure heavy casualties before Samos was defeated. According to Plutarch, it was
thought that Aspasia, who came from Miletus, was responsible for the Samian War, and that Pericles had decided
against and attacked Samos to gratify her.[13]
"Thus far the evil was not serious and we were the only sufferers. But now some young drunkards go to Megara and carry off the courtesan
Simaetha; the Megarians, hurt to the quick, run off in turn with two harlots of the house of Aspasia; and so for three whores Greece is set
ablaze. Then Pericles, aflame with ire on his Olympian height, let loose the lightning, caused the thunder to roll, upset Greece and passed
an edict, which ran like the song, That the Megarians be banished both from our land and from our markets and from the sea and from the
continent."
From Aristophanes' comedic play, The Acharnians (523–533)
Before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC–404 BC), Pericles, some of his closest associates and
Aspasia faced a series of personal and legal attacks. Aspasia, in particular, was accused of corrupting the women of
Athens in order to satisfy Pericles' perversions.[ε] According to Plutarch, she was put on trial for impiety, with the
comic poet Hermippus as prosecutor.[στ][21] All these accusations were probably nothing more than unproven
slanders, but the whole experience was bitter for the Athenian leader. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a
rare emotional outburst of Pericles,[ζ] his friend, Phidias, died in prison. Another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was
Aspasia
attacked by the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) for his religious beliefs.[22] According to Kagan it is possible that
Aspasia's trial and acquittal were late inventions, "in which real slanders, suspicions and ribald jokes were converted
into an imaginary lawsuit".[18] Anthony J. Podlecki, Professor of Classics at the University of British Columbia,
asserts that Plutarch or his source possibly misunderstood a scene in some comedy.[23] Kagan argues that even if we
believe these stories, Aspasia was unharmed with or without the help of Pericles.[24]
In The Acharnians, Aristophanes blames Aspasia for the Peloponnesian War. He claims that the Megarian decree of
Pericles, which excluded Megara from trade with Athens or its allies, was retaliation for prostitutes being kidnapped
from the house of Aspasia by Megarians.[8] Aristophanes' portrayal of Aspasia as responsible, from personal
motives, for the outbreak of the war with Sparta may reflect memory of the earlier episode involving Miletus and
Samos.[25] Plutarch reports also the taunting comments of other comic poets, such as Eupolis and Cratinus.[13]
According to Podlecki, Douris appears to have propounded the view that Aspasia instigated both the Samian and
Peloponnesian Wars.[26]
Aspasia was labeled the "New Omphale",[η] "Deianira",[η] "Hera"[θ] and "Helen".[ι][27] Further attacks on Pericles'
relationship with Aspasia are reported by Athenaeus.[28] Even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political
ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father about his domestic affairs.[22]
Later years and death
In 429 BC during the Plague of Athens, Pericles witnessed the death of
his sister and of both his legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, from
his first wife. With his morale undermined, he burst into tears, and not
even Aspasia's companionship could console him. Just before his
death, the Athenians allowed a change in the citizenship law of 451 BC
that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a
citizen and legitimate heir,[29] a decision all the more striking in
considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining
citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.[30] Pericles
died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC.
Plutarch cites Aeschines Socraticus, who wrote a dialogue on Aspasia
(now lost), to the effect that after Pericles's death Aspasia lived with
Lysicles, an Athenian general and democratic leader, with whom she
had another son; and that she made him the first man at Athens.[β][13]
Bust of Pericles, Altes Museum (Old Museum),
Lysicles was killed in action in 428 BC.[31][32] With Lysicles' death the
Berlin.
contemporaneous record ends.[16] It is unknown, for example, if she
was alive when her son, Pericles, was elected general or when he was
executed after the Battle of Arginusae. The time of her death that most historians give (c. 401 BC-400 BC) is based
on the assessment that Aspasia died before the execution of Socrates in 399 BC, a chronology which is implied in the
structure of Aeschines' Aspasia.[1][3]
3
Aspasia
References in philosophical works
Ancient philosophical works
Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato, Xenophon, Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes. Some
scholars argue that Plato was impressed by her intelligence and wit and based his character Diotima in the
Symposium on her, while others suggest that Diotima was in fact a historical figure.[33][34] According to Charles
Kahn, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, Diotima is in many respects Plato's response to
Aeschines' Aspasia.[35]
"Now, since it is thought that he proceeded thus against the Samians to gratify Aspasia, this may be a fitting place to raise the query what
great art or power this woman had, that she managed as she pleased the foremost men of the state, and afforded the philosophers occasion
to discuss her in exalted terms and at great length."
Plutarch, Pericles, XXIV
In Menexenus, Plato satirizes Aspasia's relationship with Pericles,[36] and quotes Socrates as claiming ironically that
she was a trainer of many orators. Socrates' intention is to cast aspersions on Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming, also
ironically, that since the Athenian statesman was educated by Aspasia, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone
educated by Antiphon.[37] He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his
contemporaries' veneration of Pericles.[38] Kahn maintains that Plato has taken from Aeschines the motif of Aspasia
as teacher of rhetoric for Pericles and Socrates.[35] Plato's Aspasia and Aristophanes' Lysistrata are two apparent
exceptions to the rule of women's incapacity as orators, though these fictional characters tell us nothing about the
actual status of women in Athens.[39] As Martha L. Rose, Professor of History at Truman State University, explains,
"only in comedy do dogs litigate, birds govern, or women declaim".[40]
Xenophon mentions Aspasia twice in his Socratic writings: in Memorabilia and in Oeconomicus. In both cases her
advice is recommended to Critobulus by Socrates. In Memorabilia Socrates quotes Aspasia as saying that the
matchmaker should report truthfully on the good characteristics of the man.[41] In Oeconomicus Socrates defers to
Aspasia as more knowledgeable about household management and the economic partnership between husband and
wife.[42]
Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes each named a Socratic dialogue
after Aspasia (though neither survives except in fragments). Our major
sources for Aeschines Socraticus' Aspasia are Athenaeus, Plutarch, and
Cicero. In the dialogue, Socrates recommends that Callias send his son
Hipponicus to Aspasia for instructions. When Callias recoils at the
notion of a female teacher, Socrates notes that Aspasia had favorably
influenced Pericles and, after his death, Lysicles. In a section of the
dialogue, preserved in Latin by Cicero, Aspasia figures as a "female
Painting of Hector Leroux (1682–1740), which
Socrates", counseling first Xenophon's wife and then Xenophon
portrays Pericles and Aspasia admiring the
gigantic statue of Athena in Phidias' studio
himself (the Xenophon in question is not the famous historian) about
[35][43]
acquiring virtue through self-knowledge.
Aeschines presents
Aspasia as a teacher and inspirer of excellence, connecting these virtues with her status as hetaira.[44] According to
Kahn, every single episode in Aeschines' Aspasia is not only fictitious but incredible.[45]
Of Antisthenes' Aspasia only two or three quotations are extant.[1] This dialogue contains much slander, but also
anecdotes pertaining to Pericles' biography.[46] Antisthenes appears to have attacked not only Aspasia, but the entire
family of Pericles, including his sons. The philosopher believes that the great statesman chose the life of pleasure
over virtue.[47] Thus, Aspasia is presented as the personification of the life of sexual indulgence.[44]
4
Aspasia
5
Modern literature
Aspasia appears in several significant works of modern literature. Her
romantic attachment with Pericles has inspired some of the most
famous novelists and poets of the last centuries. In particular the
romanticists of the 19th century and the historical novelists of the 20th
century found in their story an inexhaustible source of inspiration. In
1835 Lydia Maria Child, an American abolitionist, novelist, and
journalist, published Philothea, a classical romance set in the days of
Pericles and Aspasia. This book is regarded as the most successful and
elaborate of the author's productions, because the female characters,
especially Aspasia, are portrayed with great beauty and delicacy.[48]
In 1836, Walter Savage Landor, an English writer and poet, published
Pericles and Aspasia, one of his most famous books. Pericles and
Aspasia is a rendering of classical Athens through a series of imaginary
letters, which contain numerous poems. The letters are frequently
unfaithful to actual history but attempt to capture the spirit of the Age
Self-portrait Marie Bouliard, as Aspasia, 1794.
of Pericles.[49] Robert Hamerling is another novelist and poet who was
inspired by Aspasia's personality. In 1876 he published his novel Aspasia, a book about the manners and morals of
the Age of Pericles and a work of cultural and historical interest. Giacomo Leopardi, an Italian poet influenced by
the movement of romanticism, published a group of five poems known as the circle of Aspasia. These Leopardi
poems were inspired by his painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for a woman named Fanny Targioni
Tozzetti. Leopardi called this person Aspasia, after the companion of Pericles.[50]
In 1918, novelist and playwright George Cram Cook produced his first full-length play, The Athenian Women, which
portrays Aspasia leading a strike for peace.[51] Cook combined an anti-war theme with a Greek setting.[52] American
writer Gertrude Atherton in The Immortal Marriage (1927) treats the story of Pericles and Aspasia and illustrates the
period of the Samian War, the Peloponnesian War and the Plague of Athens. Taylor Caldwell's Glory and the
Lightning (1974) is another novel that portrays the historical relationship of Aspasia and Pericles.[53] In 2011, an
Italian writer, Daniela Mazzon, published the biographical essay "Aspasia maestra e amante di Pericle" and in 2012
she produced the drama in ancient style "Desiderata Aspasia. Rapsodia mediterannea".
Fame and assessments
Aspasia's name is closely connected with Pericles' glory and fame.[54] Plutarch accepts her as a significant figure
both politically and intellectually and expresses his admiration for a woman who "managed as she pleased the
foremost men of the state, and afforded the philosophers occasion to discuss her in exalted terms and at great
length".[13] The biographer says that Aspasia became so renowned that even Cyrus the Younger, who went to war
with the King Artaxerxes II of Persia, gave her name to one of his concubines, who before was called Milto. After
Cyrus had fallen in battle, this woman was carried captive to the King and acquired a great influence with him.[13]
Lucian calls Aspasia a "model of wisdom", "the admired of the admirable Olympian" and lauds "her political
knowledge and insight, her shrewdness and penetration".[55] A Syriac text, according to which Aspasia composed a
speech and instructed a man to read it for her in the courts, confirms Aspasia's rhetorical fame.[56] Aspasia is said by
the Suda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, to have been "clever with regards to words," a sophist, and to have
taught rhetoric.[57]
Aspasia
"Next I have to depict Wisdom; and here I shall have occasion for many models, most of them ancient; one comes, like the lady herself,
from Ionia. The artists shall be Aeschines and Socrates his master, most realistic of painters, for their heart was in their work. We could
choose no better model of wisdom than Milesian Aspasia, the admired of the admirable 'Olympian'; her political knowledge and insight,
her shrewdness and penetration, shall all be transferred to our canvas in their perfect measure. Aspasia, however, is only preserved to us in
miniature: our proportions must be those of a colossus."
Lucian, A Portrait-Study, XVII
On the basis of such assessments, researchers such as Cheryl Glenn, Professor at the Pennsylvania State University,
argue that Aspasia seems to have been the only woman in classical Greece to have distinguished herself in the public
sphere and must have influenced Pericles in the composition of his speeches.[58] Some scholars believe that Aspasia
opened an academy for young women of good families or even invented the Socratic method.[58][59] However,
Robert W. Wallace, Professor of classics at Northwestern University, underscores that "we cannot accept as
historical the joke that Aspasia taught Pericles how to speak and hence was a master rhetorician or philosopher".
According to Wallace, the intellectual role Aspasia was given by Plato may have derived from comedy.[5] Kagan
describes Aspasia as "a beautiful, independent, brilliantly witty young woman capable of holding her own in
conversation with the best minds in Greece and of discussing and illuminating any kind of question with her
husband".[60] Roger Just, a classicist and Professor of social anthropology at the University of Kent, believes that
Aspasia was an exceptional figure, but her example alone is enough to underline the fact that any woman who was to
become the intellectual and social equal of a man would have to be a hetaera.[9] According to Sr. Prudence Allen, a
philosopher and seminary professor, Aspasia moved the potential of women to become philosophers one step
forward from the poetic inspirations of Sappho.[36]
Historicity of her life
The main problem remains, as Jona Lendering points out,[61] that most of the things we know about Aspasia are
based on mere hypothesis. Thucydides does not mention her; our only sources are the untrustworthy representations
and speculations recorded by men in literature and philosophy, who did not care at all about Aspasia as a historical
character.[5][39] Therefore, in the figure of Aspasia, we get a range of contradictory portrayals; she is either a good
wife like Theano or some combination of courtesan and prostitute like Thargelia.[62] This is the reason modern
scholars express their scepticism about the historicity of Aspasia's life.[5]
According to Wallace, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality".[5] Hence,
Madeleine M. Henry, Professor of Classics at Iowa State University, maintains that "biographical anecdotes that
arose in antiquity about Aspasia are wildly colorful, almost completely unverifiable, and still alive and well in the
twentieth century". She finally concludes that "it is possible to map only the barest possibilities for [Aspasia's]
life".[63] According to Charles W. Fornara and Loren J. Samons II, Professors of Classics and history, "it may well
be, for all we know, that the real Aspasia was more than a match for her fictional counterpart".[27]
Notes
α. Henry regards as a slander the reports of ancient writers and comic poets that Aspasia was a brothel keeper and a
harlot. Henry believes that these comic sallies were to ridicule Athens' leadership and were based on the fact that, by
his own citizenship law, Pericles was prevented from marrying Aspasia and so had to live with her in an unmarried
state.[64] For these reasons historian Nicole Loraux questions even the testimony of ancient writers that Aspasia was
a hetaera or a courtesan.[65] Fornara and Samons also dismiss the 5th-century tradition that Aspasia was a harlot and
managed houses of ill-repute.[27]
β. According to Debra Nails, Professor of Philosophy at Michigan State University, if Aspasia was not a free
woman, the decree to legitimize her son with Pericles and the later marriage to Lysicles (Nails assumes that Aspasia
and Lysicles were married) would almost certainly have been impossible.[1]
6
Aspasia
γ. Fornara and Samons take the position that Pericles married Aspasia, but his citizenship law declared her to be an
invalid mate.[27] Wallace argues that, in marrying Aspasia, if he married her, Pericles was continuing a distinguished
Athenian aristocratic tradition of marrying well-connected foreigners.[5] Henry believes that Pericles was prevented
by his own citizenship law from marrying Aspasia and so had to live with her in an unmarried state.[64] On the basis
of a comic passage Henry maintains that Aspasia was probably a pallake, namely a concubine.[66] According to
historian William Smith, Aspasia's relation with Pericles was "analogous to the left-handed marriages of modern
princes".[67] Historian Arnold W. Gomme underscores that "his contemporaries spoke of Pericles as married to
Aspasia".[68]
δ. According to Kahn, stories such as Socrates' visits to Aspasia, along with his friends' wives and Lysicles'
connection with Aspasia, are not likely to be historical. He believes that Aeschines was indifferent to the historicity
of his Athenian stories and that these stories must have been invented at a time when the date of Lysicles' death had
been forgotten, but his occupation still remembered.[44]
ε. Kagan estimates that, if the trial of Aspasia happened, "we have better reason to believe that it happened in 438
than at any other time".[18]
στ. According to James F. McGlew, Professor at Iowa State University, it is not very likely that the charge against
Aspasia was made by Hermippus. He believes that "Plutarch or his sources have confused the law courts and
theater".[69]
ζ. Athenaeus quotes Antisthenes saying that Pericles pleaded for her against charges of impiety, weeping "more
tears than when his life and property were endangered".[70]
η. Omphale and Deianira were respectively the Lydian queen who owned Heracles as a slave for a year and his
long-suffering wife. Athenian dramatists took an interest in Omphale from the middle of the 5th century. The
comedians parodied Pericles for resembling a Heracles under the control of an Omphale-like Aspasia.[71] Aspasia
was called "Omphale" in the Kheirones of Cratinus or the Philoi of Eupolis.[25]
θ. Αs wife of the "Olympian" Pericles.[71] Ancient Greek writers call Pericles "Olympian", because he was
"thundering and lightening and exciting Greece" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating.[72]
ι. Cratinus (in Dionysalexandros) assimilates Pericles and Aspasia to the "outlaw" figures of Paris and Helen; just
as Paris caused a war with Spartan Menelaus over his desire for Helen, so Pericles, influenced by the foreign
Aspasia, involved Athens in a war with Sparta.[73] Eupolis also called Aspasia Helen in the Prospaltoi.[71]
References
[1] D. Nails, The People of Plato, 58–59
[2] P. O'Grady, Aspasia of Miletus (http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~hwaa/ artemis4. html)
[3] A.E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and his Work, 41
[4] S. Monoson, Plato's Democratic Entanglements, 195
[5] R.W. Wallace, Review of Henry's book (http:/ / ccat. sas. upenn. edu/ bmcr/ 1996/ 96. 04. 07. html)
[6] J. Lendering, Aspasia of Miletus (http:/ / www. livius. org/ as-at/ aspasia/ aspasia. html)
[7] P.J. Bicknell, Axiochus Alkibiadou, Aspasia and Aspasios, 240–250
[8] Aristophanes, Acharnians, 523-527 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0240& layout=& loc=523)
[9] R. Just,Women in Athenian Law and Life",144
[10] "Aspasia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
[11] A. Southall, The City in Time and Space, 63
[12] B. Arkins, Sexuality in Fifth-Century Athens (http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ gi/ dynamic/ offsite. htm?zi=1/ XJ& sdn=ancienthistory&
zu=http:/ / www. ucd. ie/ classics/ classicsinfo/ 94/ Arkins94. html)
[13] Plutarch, Pericles, XXIV (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0182;query=chapter=#169;layout=;loc=Per. 23. 1/ )
[14] M. Ostwald, Athens as a Cultural Center, 310
[15] P.A. Stadter, A Commentary on Plutarch's Pericles, 239 (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=96911382)
[16] H.G. Adams, A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography, 75–76
7
Aspasia
[17] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 31 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ xtf/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk. id=d0e2016&
toc. depth=1& toc. id=d0e2016& brand=eschol/ )
[18] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 197
[19] Thucydides, I, 115 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0200& layout=& loc=1. 115. 1)
[20] Plutarch, Pericles, XXV (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0182;query=chapter=#170;layout=;loc=Per. 24. 1/ )
[21] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXII (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0182& layout=&
query=chapter=#177& loc=Per. 31. 1)
[22] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVI (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0182& layout=& loc=Per. + 31. 1)
[23] A.J. Podlecki, Pericles and his Circle, 33
[24] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 201
[25] A. Powell, The Greek World, 259–261
[26] A.J. Podlecki, Pericles and his Circle, 126
[27] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 162–166 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ xtf/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk.
id=d0e9775& toc. depth=1& toc. id=& brand=eschol/ )
[28] Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, 533c-d
[29] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVII (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0182;query=chapter=#182;layout=;loc=Per. 36. 1/ )
[30] W. Smith, A History of Greece, 271
[31] Thucydides, III, 19 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0200& layout=& loc=3. 19. 1)
[32] For year of death, see OCD "Aspasia"
[33] K. Wider, "Women philosophers in the Ancient Greek World", 21–62
[34] I. Sykoutris, Symposium (Introduction and Comments), 152–153
[35] C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 26–27
[36] P. Allen, The Concept of Woman, 29–30
[37] Plato, Menexenus, 236a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0180;layout=;query=section=#255;loc=Menex. 235e)
[38] S. Monoson, Plato's Democratic Entanglements, 182–186
[39] K. Rothwell, Politics & Persuasion in Aristophanes' Ecclesiazusae, 22
[40] M.L. Rose, The Staff of Oedipus, 62
[41] Xenophon, Memorabilia, 2, 6. 36 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0208& layout=& loc=2. 6. 1)
[42] Xenophon, Oeconomicus, 3.14
[43] Cicero, De Inventione, I, 51–53
[44] C.H. Kahn, Aeschines on Socratic Eros, 96–99
[45] C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 34
[46] Bolansée-Schepens-Theys-Engels, Biographie, 104
[47] C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 9
[48] E.A. Duyckinc-G.L. Duyckinck, Cyclopedia of American Literature, 198
[49] R. MacDonald Alden, Readings in English Prose, 195
[50] M. Brose, A Companion to European Romanticism, 271
[51] D.D. Anderson, The Literature of the Midwest, 120
[52] M Noe, Analysis of the Midwestern Character (http:/ / www. lib. uiowa. edu/ spec-coll/ Bai/ noe. htm)
[53] L.A. Tritle, The Peloponnesian War, 199
[54] K. Paparrigopoulos, Ab, 220
[55] Lucian, A Portrait Study, XVII
[56] L. McClure, Spoken like a Woman, 20
[57] Suda, article Aspasia (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?login=guest& enlogin=guest& db=REAL& field=adlerhw_gr&
searchstr=alpha,4202)
[58] C. Glenn, Remapping Rhetorical Territory , 180–199
[59] Jarratt-Onq, Aspasia: Rhetoric, Gender, and Colonial Ideology, 9–24
[60] D.Kagan, Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy, 182
[61] Aspasia of Miletus (http:/ / www. livius. org/ as-at/ aspasia/ aspasia. html) at livius.org
[62] J.E. Taylor, Jewish Women Philosophers of First-Century Alexandria, 187
[63] M. Henry, Prisoner of History, 3, 10, 127–128
[64] M. Henry, Prisoner of History, 138–139
[65] N. Loraux, Aspasie, l'étrangère, l'intellectuelle, 133–164
[66] M. Henry, Prisoner of History, 21
[67] W. Smith, A History of Greece, 261
[68] A. W. Gomme, Essays in Greek History & Literature, 104
8
Aspasia
[69] J.F. McGlew, Citizens on Stage, 53
[70] Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, XIII, 589
[71] P.A. Stadter, A Commentary on Plutarch's Pericles, 240 (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=96911382)
[72] Aristophanes, Acharnians, 528–531 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0240;query=card=#26;layout=;loc=541/ ) and Diodorus, XII, 40 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0083;query=chapter=#208;layout=;loc=12. 41. 1/ )
[73] M. Padilla, Labor's Love Lost: Ponos and Eros in the Trachiniae (http:/ / facstaff. unca. edu/ drohner/ awomlinks/ artherktrach1.
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digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/Literature.DeipnoSub)
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inventione1.shtml).
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edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0200&query=book=#3)
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• Adams, Henry Gardiner (1857). A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography. Groombridge.
• Alden, Raymond MacDonald (2005). "Walter Savage Landor". Readings in English Prose of the Nineteenth
Century. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-8229-5553-9.
• Allen, Prudence (1997). "The Pluralists: Aspasia". The Concept of Woman: The Aristotelian Revolution, 750 B.C.
- A.D. 1250. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4270-4.
• Anderson, D.D. (2001). "The Origins and Development of the Literature of the Midwest". Dictionary of
Midwestern Literature: Volume One: The Authors by Philip A Greasley. Indiana University Press.
ISBN 0-253-33609-0.
• Arkins, Brian (1994). "Sexuality in Fifth-Century Athens" (http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/
offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ&sdn=ancienthistory&zu=http://www.ucd.ie/classics/classicsinfo/94/Arkins94.html).
"Classics Ireland" 1. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
• "Aspasia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
• Bicknell, Peter J. (1982). "Axiochus Alkibiadou, Aspasia and Aspasios". "L'Antiquité Classique" 51 (3):
240–250.
• Bolansée, Schepens, Theys, Engels (1989). "Antisthenes of Athens". Die Fragmente Der Griechischen
Historiker: A. Biography. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11094-1.
• Brose, Margaret (2005). "Ugo Foscolo and Giacomo Leopardi: Italy's Classical Romantics". In Ferber, Michael. A
Companion to European Romanticism. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1039-2.
9
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• Duyckinck, G.L., Duyckinc, E.A. (1856). Cyclopedia of American Literature. C. Scribner.
• Fornara Charles W., Loren J. Samons II (1991). Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
• Glenn, Cheryl (1997). "Locating Aspasia on the Rhetorical Map". Listening to Their Voices. Univ of South
Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-172-X.
• Glenn, Cheryl (1994). "Sex, Lies, and Manuscript: Refiguring Aspasia in the History of Rhetoric". "Composition
and Communication" 45 (4): 180–199.
• Gomme, Arnold W. (1977). "The Position of Women in Athens in the Fifth and Fourth Centurie BC". Essays in
Greek History & Literature. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0-8369-0481-8.
• Henry, Madeleine M. (1995). Prisoner of History. Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-508712-7.
• Kagan, Donald (1991). Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy. The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-86395-2.
• Kagan, Donald (1989). "Athenian Politics on the Eve of the War". The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9556-3.
• Kahn, Charles H. (1997). "Antisthenes". Plato and the Socratic Dialogue. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-64830-0.
• Kahn, Charles H. (1994). "Aeschines on Socratic Eros". In Vander Waerdt, Paul A. The Socratic Movement.
Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9903-8.
• Just, Roger (1991). "Personal Relationships". Women in Athenian Law and Life. Routledge (UK).
ISBN 0-415-05841-4.
• Loraux, Nicole (2003). "Aspasie, l'étrangère, l'intellectuelle". La Grèce au Féminin (in French). Belles Lettres.
ISBN 2-251-38048-5.
• Mazzon, Daniela, Aspasia maestra e amante di Pericle, EdizioniAnordest, 2011 (in Italian) EAN9788896742280
• Mazzon, Daniela, Desiderata Aspasia. Rapsodia mediterranea, one-act drama, 2012 (in Italian)
• McClure, Laura (1999). "The City of Words: Speech in the Athenian Polis". Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and
Gender in Athenian Drama. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01730-1.
• McGlew, James F. (2002). "Exposing Hypocrisie: Pericles and Cratinus' Dionysalexandros". Citizens on Stage:
Comedy and Political Culture in the Athenian Democracy. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11285-6.
• Monoson, Sara (2002). "Plato's Opposition to the Veneration of Pericles". Plato's Democratic Entanglements.
Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-691-04366-3.
• Nails, Debra (2000). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-87220-564-9.
• Onq, Rory; Jarratt, Susan (1995). "Aspasia: Rhetoric, Gender, and Colonial Ideology". In Lunsford, Andrea A.
Reclaiming Rhetorica. Berkeley: Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-7661-9484-1.
• Ostwald, M. (1992). "Athens as a Cultural Center". The Cambridge Ancient History edited by David M. Lewis,
John Boardman, J. K. Davies, M. Ostwald (Volume V). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23347-X.
• Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (-Karolidis, Pavlos)(1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab).
Eleftheroudakis (in Greek).
• Podlecki, A.J. (1997). Perikles and His Circle. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-06794-4.
• Powell, Anton (1995). "Athens' Pretty Face: Anti-feminine Rhetoric and Fifth-century Controversy over the
Parthenon". The Greek World. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-06031-1.
• Rose, Martha L. (2003). "Demosthenes' Stutter: Overcoming Impairment". The Staff of Oedipus. University of
Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11339-9.
• Rothwell, Kenneth Sprague (1990). "Critical Problems in the Ecclesiazusae". Politics and Persuasion in
Aristophanes' Ecclesiazusae. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09185-8.
• Smith, William (1855). "Death and Character of Pericles". A History of Greece. R. B. Collins.
10
Aspasia
• Southall, Aidan (1999). "Greece and Rome". The City in Time and Space. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-78432-8.
• Stadter, Philip A. (1989). A Commentary on Plutarch's Pericles. University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN 0-8078-1861-5.
• Sykoutris, Ioannis (1934). Symposium (Introduction and Comments) -in Greek. Estia.
• Taylor, A. E. (2001). "Minor Socratic Dialogues: Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Ion, Menexenus". Plato: The
Man and His Work. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41605-4.
• Taylor, Joan E. (2004). "Greece and Rome". Jewish Women Philosophers of First-Century Alexandria. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-925961-5.
• Tritle, Lawrence A. (2004). "Annotated Bibliography". The Peloponnesian War. Greenwood Press.
ISBN 0-313-32499-9.
• Wider, Kathleen (1986). "Women philosophers in the Ancient Greek World: Donning the Mantle". "Hypatia" 1
(1): 21–62.
Further reading
• Atherton, Gertrude (2004). The Immortal Marriage. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-1559-5.
• Becq de Fouquières, Louis (1872). Aspasie de Milet (in French). Didier.
• Dover, K.J. (1988). "The Freedom of the Intellectual in Greek Society". Greeks and Their Legacy. New York:
Blackwell.
• Hamerling, Louis (1893). Aspasia: a Romance of Art and Love in Ancient Hellas. Geo. Gottsberger Peck.
• Savage Landor, Walter (2004). Pericles And Aspasia. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-8958-9.
11
Aspasia
12
External links
Biographical
Miscellaneous
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
"Aspasia of Athens" (http:/ / www. feministezine. com/ feminist/
philosophy/ Aspasia. html). Brainard, Jennifer. Archived (http:/ /
web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928041042/ http:/ / www.
feministezine. com/ feminist/ philosophy/ Aspasia. html) from
the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved August 14, 2007.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aspasia". Encyclopædia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
"Aspasia" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ ~grout/
encyclopaedia_romana/ greece/ hetairai/ aspasia. html).
Encyclopædia Romana. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
"Aspasia of Miletus - Prisoner of History, by Madeleine Henry"
(http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ od/ philosophers/ a/ Aspasia.
htm). Gill, N.S.. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20060820145301/ http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ od/
philosophers/ a/ Aspasia. htm) from the original on 20 August
2006. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
"Aspasia of Miletus" (http:/ / www. livius. org/ as-at/ aspasia/
aspasia. html). Lendering, Jona. Archived (http:/ / web. archive.
org/ web/ 20060831135142/ http:/ / www. livius. org/ as-at/
aspasia/ aspasia. html) from the original on 31 August 2006.
Retrieved September 10, 2006.
"Aspasia of Miletus" (http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~hwaa/
artemis4. html). O'Grady, Patricia. Retrieved September 10,
2006.
"Aspasia, from PBS's "The Greeks"" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/
empires/ thegreeks/ htmlver/ characters/ f_aspasia. html). The
Greeks: Crucible of Civilization on PBS. Archived (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20060929212535/ http:/ / www. pbs. org/
empires/ thegreeks/ htmlver/ characters/ f_aspasia. html) from
the original on 29 September 2006. Retrieved November 1, 2006.
•
•
•
"Aspasia:International Yearbook of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern
European Women's and Gender History" (http:/ / www. berghahnbooks.
com/ journals/ asp/ ). "Aspasia is an international peer-reviewed
yearbook that brings out the best scholarship in the field of
interdisciplinary women's and gender history focused on – and produced
in – Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe." - quoted from the
journal website. Retrieved October 1, 2008.
"Aspasia in Greek Comedy" (http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ library/
weekly/ aa032498b. htm). Gill, N.S.. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/
web/ 20060917154636/ http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ library/
weekly/ aa032498b. htm) from the original on 17 September 2006.
Retrieved September 10, 2006.
"Aspasia, the Ancient Philosopher and Teacher of Athens" (http:/ /
ancienthistory. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa032498c. htm). Gill, N.S..
Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060823122746/ http:/ /
ancienthistory. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa032498c. htm) from the
original on 23 August 2006. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
"Thoughts on Aspasia and Diotima" (http:/ / culturecat. net/ node/ 129).
Ratliff, Clancy. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
Pericles
13
Pericles
Pericles
Bust of Pericles bearing the inscription "Pericles, son of Xanthippus, Athenian". Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from
ca. 430 BC
Born
ca. 495 BC
Athens
Died
429 BC
Athens
Allegiance
Athens
Rank
General (Strategos)
Battles/wars
Battle in Sicyon and Acarnania (454 BC)
Second Sacred War (448 BC)
Expulsion of barbarians from Gallipoli (447 BC)
Samian War (440 BC)
Siege of Byzantium (438 BC)
Peloponnesian War (431–429 BC)
Pericles (Greek: Περικλῆς, Periklēs, "surrounded by glory"; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a prominent and influential
Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the city's Golden Age—specifically, the time between the
Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically
influential Alcmaeonid family.
Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, his contemporary historian, acclaimed
him as "the first citizen of Athens".[1] Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire and led his
countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly
from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times
as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century.
Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being
the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of
the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified the city, exhibited its
glory, and gave work to the people.[2] Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call
him a populist.[3][4]
Pericles
14
Early years
Pericles was born c. 495 BC, in the deme of Cholargos just north of Athens.α[›] He was the son of the politician
Xanthippus, who, although ostracized in 485–484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in
the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. Pericles' mother, Agariste, a scion of the powerful and controversial
noble family of the Alcmaeonidae, and her familial connections played a crucial role in starting Xanthippus' political
career. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, and the niece of the supreme
Athenian reformer Cleisthenes, another Alcmaeonid.β[›][5] According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a
few nights before Pericles' birth, that she had borne a lion.[6][7] One interpretation of the anecdote treats the lion as a
traditional symbol of greatness, but the story may also allude to the unusual size of Pericles' skull, which became a
popular target of contemporary comedians (who called him "Squill-head", after the Squill or Sea-Onion).[7][8]
(Although Plutarch claims that this deformity was the reason that Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet,
this is not the case; the helmet was actually the symbol of his official rank as strategos (general).[9]
"Our polity does not copy the laws of neighboring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. It is called a democracy,
because not the few but the many govern. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if to social
standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor
again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition."
Pericles' Funeral Oration as recorded by Thucydides, 2.37γ[›]; Thucydides disclaims verbal accuracy
[10]
.
Pericles belonged to the local tribe of Acamantis (Ἀκαμαντὶς φυλή). His early years were quiet; the introverted
young Pericles took to avoiding public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies.[11]
His family's nobility and wealth allowed him to fully pursue his inclination toward education. He learned music from
the masters of the time (Damon or Pythocleides could have been his teacher)[12][13] and he is considered to have
been the first politician to attribute great importance to philosophy.[11] He enjoyed the company of the philosophers
Protagoras, Zeno of Elea and Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras in particular became a close friend and influenced him
greatly.[12][14] Pericles' manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have been in part products of Anaxagoras'
emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble and skepticism about divine phenomena.[5] His proverbial
calmness and self-control are also regarded as products of Anaxagoras' influence.[15]
Political career until 431 BC
Entering politics
In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy,
demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens.[5] Simon Hornblower has argued that Pericles'
selection of this play, which presents a nostalgic picture of Themistocles' famous victory at Salamis, shows that the
young politician was supporting Themistocles against his political opponent Cimon, whose faction succeeded in
having Themistocles ostracized shortly afterwards.[16]
Plutarch says that Pericles stood first among the Athenians for forty years.[17] If this was so, Pericles must have taken
up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC- in his early or mid-thirties. Throughout these years he endeavored
to protect his privacy and tried to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. For example, he would often
avoid banquets, trying to be frugal.[18][19]
In 463 BC Pericles was the leading prosecutor of Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction, who was accused of
neglecting Athens' vital interests in Macedon.[20] Although Cimon was acquitted, this confrontation proved that
Pericles' major political opponent was vulnerable.[21]
Pericles
15
Ostracizing Cimon
Around 461 BC, the leadership of the democratic party decided it was time to take aim at the Areopagus, a
traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy, which had once been the most powerful body in the
state.[22] The leader of the party and mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes, proposed a sharp reduction of the Areopagus'
powers. The Ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) adopted Ephialtes' proposal without strong opposition.[19] This
reform signalled the commencement of a new era of "radical democracy".[22] The democratic party gradually became
dominant in Athenian politics and Pericles seemed willing to follow a populist policy in order to cajole the public.
According to Aristotle, Pericles' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent, Cimon, was
rich and generous, and was able to secure public favor by lavishly bestowing his sizable personal fortune.[20] The
historian Loren J. Samons II argues, however, that Pericles had enough resources to make a political mark by private
means, had he so chosen.[23]
In 461 BC, Pericles achieved the political elimination of this formidable opponent using the weapon of ostracism.
The ostensible accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city by acting as a friend of Sparta.[24]
Even after Cimon's ostracism, Pericles continued to espouse and promote a populist social policy.[19] He first
proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying, with the state covering the cost of
their admission. With other decrees he lowered the property requirement for the archonship in 458–457 BC and
bestowed generous wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia (the supreme court of Athens) some
time just after 454 BC.[25] His most controversial measure, however, was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian
citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.[26]
"Rather, the admiration of the present and succeeding ages will be ours, since we have not left our power without witness, but have shown
it by mighty proofs; and far from needing a Homer for our panegyrist, or other of his craft whose verses might charm for the moment only
for the impression which they gave to melt at the touch of fact, we have forced every sea and land to be the highway of our daring, and
everywhere, whether for evil or for good, have left imperishable monuments behind us."
'Pericles' Funeral Oration as recorded by Thucydides ( II, 41
[27] γ[›]
)
Such measures impelled Pericles' critics to regard him as responsible for the gradual degeneration of the Athenian
democracy. Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, argues that Pericles sought for the
expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions.[28] Hence, he enacted legislation granting the lower classes
access to the political system and the public offices, from which they had previously been barred on account of
limited means or humble birth.[29] According to Samons, Pericles believed that it was necessary to raise the demos,
in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance.[30]
(The fleet, backbone of Athenian power since the days of Themistocles, was manned almost entirely by members of
the lower classes.[31])
Cimon, on the other hand, apparently believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed. He was
certain that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism.
According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, because Athens, after Pericles' death, sank into the abyss of
political turmoil and demagogy. Paparrigopoulos maintains that an unprecedented regression descended upon the
city, whose glory perished as a result of Pericles' populist policies.[28] According to another historian, Justin Daniel
King, radical democracy benefited people individually, but harmed the state.[32] On the other hand, Donald Kagan
asserts that the democratic measures Pericles put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political
strength.[33] After all, Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law, after he
returned from exile in 451 BC.[34]
Pericles
16
Leading Athens
Ephialtes' murder in 461 BC paved the way for Pericles to consolidate his authority.δ[›] Lacking any robust
opposition after the expulsion of Cimon, the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the
unchallengeable ruler of Athens. He remained in power almost uninterruptedly until his death in 429 BC.
First Peloponnesian War
Pericles made his first military excursions during the First
Peloponnesian War, which was caused in part by Athens' alliance with
Megara and Argos and the subsequent reaction of Sparta. In 454 BC he
attacked Sicyon and Acarnania.[35] He then unsuccessfully tried to take
Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf, before returning to Athens.[36] In 451
BC, Cimon is said to have returned from exile and negotiated a five
years' truce with Sparta after a proposal of Pericles, an event which
indicates a shift in Pericles' political strategy.[37] Pericles may have
realized the importance of Cimon's contribution during the ongoing
conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians. Anthony J.
Podlecki argues, however, that Pericles' alleged change of position was
invented by ancient writers to support "a tendentious view of Pericles'
shiftiness".[38]
"Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to
Pericles, Aspasia, Alcibiades and friends", by Sir
Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1868, Birmingham
Museum & Art Gallery
Plutarch states that Cimon struck a power-sharing deal with his opponents, according to which Pericles would carry
through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army, campaigning abroad.[39] If it was
actually made, this bargain would constitute a concession on Pericles' part that he was not a great strategist. Kagan
believes that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean
liberals and Cimonian conservatives.[]
In the mid-450s the Athenians launched an unsuccessful attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia, which led
to a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta. The campaign culminated in a disaster on a very large
scale; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed.[40] In 451–450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus.
Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, but died of disease in 449 BC. Pericles is said to
have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus,[41] although some researchers, such as Karl Julius Beloch,
argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon's policy.[42]
Complicating the account of this complex period is the issue of the Peace of Callias, which allegedly ended
hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians. The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed, and its particulars
and negotiation are equally ambiguous.[43] Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first
ratified in 463 BC (making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace), and renegotiated
at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus, taking force again by 449–448 BC.[44] John Fine, on the other hand,
suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450–449 BC, as a result of Pericles'
strategic calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens' ability to spread its influence in
Greece and the Aegean.[43] Kagan believes that Pericles used Callias, a brother-in-law of Cimon, as a symbol of
unity and employed him several times to negotiate important agreements.[45]
In the spring of 449 BC, Pericles proposed the Congress Decree, which led to a meeting ("Congress") of all Greek
states in order to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians. The Congress failed
because of Sparta's stance, but Pericles' real intentions remain unclear.[46] Some historians think that he wanted to
prompt some kind of confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities; others think he wanted to assert
Athenian pre-eminence.[47] According to the historian Terry Buckley the objective of the Congress Decree was a
new mandate for the Delian League and for the collection of "phoros" (taxes).[48]
Pericles
17
"Remember, too, that if your country has the greatest name in all the world, it is because she never bent before disaster; because she has
expended more life and effort in war than any other city, and has won for herself a power greater than any hitherto known, the memory of
which will descend to the latest posterity."
Pericles' Third Oration according to Thucydides ( II, 64
[49] γ[›]
)
During the Second Sacred War Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign
rights on the oracle.[50] In 447 BC Pericles engaged in his most admired excursion, the expulsion of barbarians from
the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli, in order to establish Athenian colonists in the region.[5][51] At this time,
however, Athens was seriously challenged by a number of revolts among its allies (or, to be more accurate, its
subjects). In 447 BC the oligarchs of Thebes conspired against the democratic faction. The Athenians demanded
their immediate surrender, but, after the Battle of Coronea, Pericles was forced to concede the loss of Boeotia in
order to recover the prisoners taken in that battle.[11] With Boeotia in hostile hands, Phocis and Locris became
untenable and quickly fell under the control of hostile oligarchs.[52] In 446 BC, a more dangerous uprising erupted.
Euboea and Megara revolted. Pericles crossed over to Euboea with his troops, but was forced to return when the
Spartan army invaded Attica. Through bribery and negotiations, Pericles defused the imminent threat, and the
Spartans returned home.[53] When Pericles was later audited for the handling of public money, an expenditure of 10
talents was not sufficiently justified, since the official documents just referred that the money was spent for a "very
serious purpose". Nonetheless, the "serious purpose" (namely the bribery) was so obvious to the auditors that they
approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery.[54] After the Spartan
threat had been removed, Pericles crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there. He then inflicted a stringent
punishment on the landowners of Chalcis, who lost their properties. The residents of Istiaia, meanwhile, who had
butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers.[54] The crisis was
brought to an official end by the Thirty Years' Peace (winter of 446–445 BC), in which Athens relinquished most of
the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460 BC, and both Athens and Sparta
agreed not to attempt to win over the other state's allies.[52]
Final battle with the conservatives
In 444 BC, the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle. The ambitious
new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides (not to be confused with the historian of the same name), accused
Pericles of profligacy, criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan. Thucydides managed,
initially, to incite the passions of the ecclesia in his favor, but, when Pericles, the leader of the democrats, took the
floor, he put the conservatives in the shade. Pericles responded resolutely, proposing to reimburse the city for all the
expenses from his private property, under the term that he would make the inscriptions of dedication in his own
name.[55] His stance was greeted with applause, and Thucydides suffered an unexpected defeat. In 442 BC, the
Athenian public ostracized Thucydides for 10 years and Pericles was once again the unchallenged suzerain of the
Athenian political arena.[55]
Pericles
18
Athens' rule over its alliance
Pericles wanted to stabilize Athens' dominance over its alliance and to enforce its
pre-eminence in Greece. The process by which the Delian League transformed
into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before
Pericles' time,[56] as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens
instead of manning ships for the league's fleet, but the transformation was
speeded and brought to its conclusion by measures implemented by Pericles.[57]
The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat
in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the
revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae.[58] Either because of a
genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or
as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the
treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC.[59] By 450–449
BC the revolts in Miletus and Erythrae were quelled and Athens restored its rule
over its allies.[60] Around 447 BC Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree,
Bust of Pericles after Kresilas, Altes
Museum, Berlin
which imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights and measures on all of the
allies.[48] According to one of the decree's most stringent provisions, surplus
from a minting operation was to go into a special fund, and anyone proposing to use it otherwise was subject to the
death penalty.[61]
It was from the alliance's treasury that Pericles drew the funds necessary to enable his ambitious building plan,
centered on the "Periclean Acropolis", which included the Propylaea, the Parthenon and the golden statue of Athena,
sculpted by Pericles' friend, Phidias.[62] In 449 BC Pericles proposed a decree allowing the use of 9,000 talents to
finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples.[48] Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, points out
that the utilization of the alliance's treasury, initiated and executed by Pericles, is one of the largest embezzlements in
human history; this misappropriation financed, however, some of the most marvellous artistic creations of the
ancient world.[63]
Samian War
The Samian War was one of the last significant military events before the Peloponnesian War. After Thucydides'
ostracism, Pericles was re-elected yearly to the generalship, the only office he ever officially occupied, although his
influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state. In 440 BC Samos was at war with Miletus over
control of Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to
Athens to plead their case against the Samians.[64] When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and
submit the case to arbitration at Athens, the Samians refused.[65] In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an
expedition to Samos, "alleging against its people that, although they were ordered to break off their war against the
Milesians, they were not complying".ε[›] In a naval battle the Athenians led by Pericles and the other nine generals
defeated the forces of Samos and imposed on the island an administration pleasing to them.[65] When the Samians
revolted against Athenian rule, Pericles compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months, which
resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors.[66] Pericles then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and,
when he returned to Athens, gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition.[67]
Between 438-436 BC Pericles led Athens' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of
the region.[68] Pericles focused also on internal projects, such as the fortification of Athens (the building of the
"middle wall" about 440 BC), and on the creation of new cleruchies, such as Andros, Naxos and Thurii (444 BC) as
well as Amphipolis (437–436 BC).[69]
Pericles
19
Personal attacks
Pericles and his friends were never immune from attack, as preeminence in
democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule.[70] Just before the
eruption of the Peloponnesian war, Pericles and two of his closest associates,
Phidias and his companion, Aspasia, faced a series of personal and judicial
attacks.
Phidias, who had been in charge of all building projects, was first accused of
embezzling gold intended for the statue of Athena and then of impiety, because,
when he wrought the battle of the Amazons on the shield of Athena, he carved
out a figure that suggested himself as a bald old man, and also inserted a very
fine likeness of Pericles fighting with an Amazon.[71] Pericles' enemies also
found a false witness against Phidias, named Menon.
Aspasia, who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser, was
accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles'
Aspasia of Miletus (c. 469 BC – c.
[72][73][74][75]
406 BC), Pericles' companion
perversions.
The accusations against her were probably nothing
more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was very bitter for
Pericles. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles, his friend, Phidias, died in
prison and another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious beliefs.[71]
Beyond these initial prosecutions, the ecclesia attacked Pericles himself by asking him to justify his ostensible
profligacy with, and maladministration of, public money.[73] According to Plutarch, Pericles was so afraid of the
oncoming trial that he did not let the Athenians yield to the Lacedaemonians.[73] Beloch also believes that Pericles
deliberately brought on the war to protect his political position at home.[76] Thus, at the start of the Peloponnesian
War, Athens found itself in the awkward position of entrusting its future to a leader whose pre-eminence had just
been seriously shaken for the first time in over a decade.[11]
Peloponnesian War
The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated, but many ancient historians lay the blame on Pericles
and Athens. Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their
belligerent tactics "with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife".στ[›] Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the
reason for the war was Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth. However, as he is generally regarded as an
admirer of Pericles, Thucydides has been criticized for bias towards Sparta.ζ[›]
Prelude to the war
Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not
conceal its envy of Athens' pre-eminence, was inevitable if not to be
welcomed.[77] Therefore he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra
to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against
Corinth.[78] In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the
Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian
colonists at the Battle of Potidaea; these two events contributed greatly
to Corinth's lasting hatred of Athens. During the same period, Pericles
proposed the Megarian Decree, which resembled a modern trade
embargo. According to the provisions of the decree, Megarian
Anaxagoras and Pericles by Augustin-Louis Belle
(1757–1841)
Pericles
20
merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire. This ban strangled the Megarian
economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara. According to
George Cawkwell, a praelector in ancient history, with this decree Pericles breached the Thirty Years' Peace "but,
perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse".[79] The Athenians' justification was that the Megarians had
cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the
Athenians considered to be impious.[80]
After consultations with its allies, Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions, such as the
immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree,
threatening war if the demands were not met. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a
confrontation between Pericles and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later.[81] At that
time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles' instructions. In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in
his mouth, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents' demands, since they were militarily
stronger.[82] Pericles was not prepared to make unilateral concessions, believing that "if Athens conceded on that
issue, then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands".[83] Consequently, Pericles asked the Spartans to offer
a quid pro quo. In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree, the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon
their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory (xenelasia) and to recognize the autonomy of its
allied cities, a request implying that Sparta's hegemony was also ruthless.[84] The terms were rejected by the
Spartans, and, with neither side willing to back down, the two sides prepared for war. According to Athanasios G.
Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, "rather than to submit
to coercive demands, Pericles chose war".[83] Another consideration that may well have influenced Pericles' stance
was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed herself weak.[85]
First year of the war (431 BC)
In 431 BC, while peace already was precarious, Archidamus II, Sparta's king,
sent a new delegation to Athens, demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta's
demands. This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens, as Pericles had
already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be
welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions.
The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a
hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries.[86] With his last
attempt at negotiation thus declined, Archidamus invaded Attica, but found no
Athenians there; Pericles, aware that Sparta's strategy would be to invade and
ravage Athenian territory, had previously arranged to evacuate the entire
population of the region to within the walls of Athens.[87]
No definite record exists of how exactly Pericles managed to convince the
residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas. For most, the
The Parthenon, a masterpiece
prompted by Pericles, from the south
move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely
changing their lifestyle.[88] Therefore, although they agreed to leave, many rural
residents were far from happy with Pericles' decision.[89] Pericles also gave his compatriots some advice on their
present affairs and reassured them that, if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the
city. This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus, who was a friend of his, might pass by his estate
without ravaging it, either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate Pericles from
his constituents.[90]
"For heroes have the whole earth for their tomb; and in lands far from their own, where the column with its epitaph declares it, there is
enshrined in every breast a record unwritten with no tablet to preserve it, except that of the heart."
Pericles
Pericles' Funeral Oration as recorded by Thucydides (2.43) γ[›]
In any case, seeing the pillage of their farms, the Athenians were outraged, and they soon began to indirectly express
their discontent towards their leader, who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war. Even when in
the face of mounting pressure, Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or
revise his initial strategy. He also avoided convening the ecclesia, fearing that the populace, outraged by the
unopposed ravaging of their farms, might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field.[91] As
meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents, the "prytanies", Pericles had no
formal control over their scheduling; rather, the respect in which Pericles was held by the prytanies was apparently
sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished.[92] While the Spartan army remained in Attica, Pericles sent a fleet of
100 ships to loot the coasts of the Peloponnese and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls
of the city.[93] When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, Pericles proposed a decree according to
which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval
forces. According to the most stringent provision of the decree, even proposing a different use of the money or ships
would entail the penalty of death. During the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles led the Athenian forces that invaded
Megara and a few months later (winter of 431–430 BC) he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral
Oration, honoring the Athenians who died for their city.[94]
Last military operations and death
In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his
initial strategy.[95] Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the
coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him.[96] According to Plutarch, just before the
sailing of the ships an eclipse of the sun frightened the crews, but Pericles used the astronomical knowledge he had
acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them.[97] In the summer of the same year an epidemic broke out and devastated
the Athenians.[98] The exact identity of the disease is uncertain, and has been the source of much debate.η[›] In any
case, the city's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and Pericles was forced to
defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides.[99] This is considered
to be a monumental oration, revealing Pericles' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingratitude.[11]
Temporarily, he managed to tame the people's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies' final
bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount
estimated between 15 and 50 talents.[97] Ancient sources mention Cleon, a rising and dynamic protagonist of the
Athenian political scene during the war, as the public prosecutor in Pericles' trial.[97]
Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC, the Athenians not only forgave Pericles but also re-elected him as
strategos.θ[›] He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC,
having once again under his control the levers of power.[11] In that year, however, Pericles witnessed the death of
both his legitimate sons from his first wife, Paralus and Xanthippus, in the epidemic. His morale undermined, he
burst into tears and not even Aspasia's companionship could console him. He himself died of the plague in the
autumn of 429 BC.
Just before his death, Pericles' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and
underscoring his nine war trophies. Pericles, though moribund, heard them and interrupted them, pointing out that
they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration; "for", said he, "no living Athenian ever put on
mourning because of me".[100] Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and,
according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they
preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather
than useful.[101] With these bitter comments, Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired, but he also
heralds the flickering of Athens' unique glory and grandeur.
21
Pericles
22
Personal life
Pericles, following Athenian custom, was first married to one of his closest relatives, with whom he had two sons,
Paralus and Xanthippus, but around 445 BC, Pericles divorced his wife. He offered her to another husband, with the
agreement of her male relatives.[102] The name of his first wife is not known; the only information about her is that
she was the wife of Hipponicus, before being married to Pericles, and the mother of Callias from this first
marriage.[103]
"For men can endure to hear others praised only so long as they can severally persuade themselves of their own ability to equal the actions
recounted: when this point is passed, envy comes in and with it incredulity."
'Pericles' Funeral Oration as recorded by Thucydides (2.35) γ[›]
The woman he really adored was Aspasia of Miletus. She became Pericles' mistress and they began to live together
as if they were married. This relationship aroused many reactions and even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had
political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father.[104] Nonetheless, these persecutions did not undermine
Pericles' morale, although he had to burst into tears in order to protect his beloved Aspasia when she was accused of
corrupting Athenian society. His greatest personal tragedy was the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons,
Xanthippus and Paralus, all affected by the epidemic, a calamity he never managed to overcome. Just before his
death, the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles
the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir,[105] a decision all the more striking in consideration that Pericles himself
had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.[106]
Assessments
Pericles marked a whole era and inspired conflicting judgments about his significant decisions. The fact that he was
at the same time a vigorous statesman, general and orator makes more complex the objective assessment of his
actions.
Political leadership
Some contemporary scholars, for example Sarah Ruden, call Pericles a
populist, a demagogue and a hawk,[107] while other scholars admire his
charismatic leadership. According to Plutarch, after assuming the
leadership of Athens, "he was no longer the same man as before, nor
alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the
desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes".[108] It is told
that when his political opponent, Thucydides, was asked by Sparta's
king, Archidamus, whether he or Pericles was the better fighter,
Thucydides answered without any hesitation that Pericles was better,
because even when he was defeated, he managed to convince the
audience that he had won.[11] In matters of character, Pericles was
above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians, since "he kept
himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether
indifferent to money-making".[17]
An ostracon with Pericles' name written on it (c.
444–443 BC), Museum of the ancient Agora of
Athens
Thucydides, an admirer of Pericles, maintains that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its
first citizen".[101] Through this comment, the historian illustrates what he perceives as Pericles' charisma to lead,
convince and, sometimes, to manipulate. Although Thucydides mentions the fining of Pericles, he does not mention
Pericles
the accusations against Pericles but instead focuses on Pericles' integrity.ι[›][101] On the other hand, in one of his
dialogues, Plato rejects the glorification of Pericles and quote as saying: "as I know, Pericles made the Athenians
slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees".[109] Plutarch mentions other criticism of
Pericles' leadership: "many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands,
festival-grants, and distributions of fees for public services, thereby falling into bad habits, and becoming luxurious
and wanton under the influence of his public measures, instead of frugal and self-sufficing".[19]
Thucydides argues that Pericles "was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people".[101]
His judgement is not unquestioned; some 20th-century critics, such as Malcolm F. McGregor and John S. Morrison,
proposed that he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on the proposals of advisors, or the
people themselves.[110][111] According to King, by increasing the power of the people, the Athenians left themselves
with no authoritative leader. During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles' dependence on popular support to govern was
obvious.[32]
Military achievements
For more than 20 years Pericles led many expeditions, mainly naval ones. Being always cautious, he never
undertook of his own accord a battle involving much uncertainty and peril and he did not accede to the "vain
impulses of the citizens".[112] He based his military policy on Themistocles' principle that Athens' predominance
depends on its superior naval power and believed that the Peloponnesians were near-invincible on land.[113] Pericles
also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens, which, it has been suggested,
radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations.[114]
"These glories may incur the censure of the slow and unambitious; but in the breast of energy they will awake emulation, and in those who
must remain without them an envious regret. Hatred and unpopularity at the moment have fallen to the lot of all who have aspired to rule
others."
'Pericles' Third Oration as recorded by Thucydides (2.64) γ[›]
During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles initiated a defensive "grand strategy" whose aim was the exhaustion of the
enemy and the preservation of the status quo.[115] According to Platias and Koliopoulos, Athens as the strongest
party did not have to beat Sparta in military terms and "chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory".[115] The two basic
principles of the "Periclean Grand Strategy" were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged
the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension.ια[›] According to Kagan,
Pericles' vehement insistence that there should be no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from the bitter
memory of the Egyptian campaign, which he had allegedly supported.[116] His strategy is said to have been
"inherently unpopular", but Pericles managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it.[117] It is for that reason
that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history.[118] Although his
countrymen engaged in several aggressive actions soon after his death,[119] Platias and Koliopoulos argue that the
Athenians remained true to the larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve, not expand, the empire, and did not
depart from it until the Sicilian Expedition.[117] For his part, Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have
succeeded had he lived longer.[120]
Critics of Pericles' strategy, however, have been just as numerous as its supporters. A common criticism is that
Pericles was always a better politician and orator than strategist.[121] Donald Kagan called the Periclean strategy "a
form of wishful thinking that failed", Barry S. Strauss and Josiah Ober have stated that "as strategist he was a failure
and deserves a share of the blame for Athens' great defeat", and Victor Davis Hanson believes that Pericles had not
worked out a clear strategy for an effective offensive action that could possibly force Thebes or Sparta to stop the
war.[122][123][124] Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts: first that by rejecting minor concessions it
brought about war; second, that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility; third, that it was too
feeble to exploit any opportunities; and fourth, that it depended on Pericles for its execution and thus was bound to
23
Pericles
be abandoned after his death.[125] Kagan estimates Pericles' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian
War to be about 2,000 talents annually, and based on this figure concludes that he would only have enough money to
keep the war going for three years. He asserts that since Pericles must have known about these limitations he
probably planned for a much shorter war.[126][127] Others, such as Donald W. Knight, conclude that the strategy was
too defensive and would not succeed.[128]
On the other hand, Platias and Koliopoulos reject these criticisms and state that "the Athenians lost the war only
when they dramatically reversed the Periclean grand strategy that explicitly disdained further conquests".[129]
Hanson stresses that the Periclean strategy was not innovative, but could lead to a stagnancy in favor of Athens.[126]
It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character.[130]
Oratorical skill
Modern commentators of Thucydides, with other modern historians
and writers, take varying stances on the issue of how much of the
speeches of Pericles, as given by this historian, do actually represent
Pericles' own words and how much of them is free literary creation or
paraphrase by Thucydides.ιβ[›] Since Pericles never wrote down or
distributed his orations,ιγ[›] no historians are able to answer this with
certainty; Thucydides recreated three of them from memory and,
thereby, it cannot be ascertained that he did not add his own notions
Painting of Hector Leroux (1682–1740), which
and thoughts.ιδ[›] Although Pericles was a main source of his
portrays Pericles and Aspasia, admiring the
gigantic statue of Athena in Phidias' studio
inspiration, some historians have noted that the passionate and
idealistic literary style of the speeches Thucydides attributes to Pericles
is completely at odds with Thucydides' own cold and analytical writing style.ιε[›] This might, however, be the result
of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography. That is to say, Thucydides could simply
have used two different writing styles for two different purposes.
Kagan states that Pericles adopted "an elevated mode of speech, free from the vulgar and knavish tricks of
mob-orators" and, according to Diodorus Siculus, he "excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory".[131][132]
According to Plutarch, he avoided using gimmicks in his speeches, unlike the passionate Demosthenes, and always
spoke in a calm and tranquil manner.[133] The biographer points out, however, that the poet Ion reported that
Pericles' speaking style was "a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address, and that into his
haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others".[133] Gorgias, in Plato's homonymous
dialogue, uses Pericles as an example of powerful oratory.[134] In Menexenus, however, Socrates casts aspersions on
Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming ironically that, since Pericles was educated by Aspasia, a trainer of many orators,
he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon.[135] He also attributes authorship of the Funeral
Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles.[136] Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that
"unique as an Athenian statesman, Pericles must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator; first,
because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained; secondly,
because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else ever got from
Athenians".[137]
Ancient Greek writers call Pericles "Olympian" and extol his talents; referring to him "thundering and lightening and
exciting Greece" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating.[138] According to Quintilian, Pericles would
always prepare assiduously for his orations and, before going on the rostrum, he would always pray to the Gods, so
as not to utter any improper word.[139]
24
Pericles
Legacy
Pericles' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age, most of which survive
to this day. The Acropolis, though in ruins, still stands and is a symbol of modern Athens. Paparrigopoulos wrote
that these masterpieces are "sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world".[121]
In politics, Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of Pericles' legacy is Athenian imperialism, which denies
true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state.[140] The promotion of such an arrogant
imperialism is said to have ruined Athens.[141] Pericles and his "expansionary" policies have been at the center of
arguments promoting democracy in oppressed countries.[142][143]
Other analysts maintain an Athenian humanism illustrated in the Golden Age.[144] The freedom of expression is
regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period.[145] Pericles is lauded as "the ideal type of the perfect
statesman in ancient Greece" and his Funeral Oration is nowadays synonymous with the struggle for participatory
democracy and civic pride.[121][146]
Notes
^ α: Pericles' date of birth is uncertain; he could not have been born later than 492–1 and been of age to present the
Persae in 472. He is not recorded as having taken part in the Persian Wars of 480–79; some historians argue from
this that he was unlikely to have been born before 498, but this argument ex silentio has also been dismissed.[22] [147]
^ β: Plutarch says "granddaughter" of Cleisthenes,[7] but this is chronologically implausible, and there is consensus
that this should be "niece".[5]
^ γ: Thucydides records several speeches which he attributes to Pericles; however, he acknowledges that: "it was in
all cases difficult to carry them word for word in one's memory, so my habit has been to make the speakers say what
was in my opinion demanded of them by the various occasions, of course adhering as closely as possible to the
general sense of what they really said."[148]
^ δ: According to Aristotle, Aristodicus of Tanagra killed Ephialtes.[149] Plutarch cites an Idomeneus as saying that
Pericles killed Ephialtes, but does not believe him—he finds it to be out of character for Pericles.[39]
^ ε: According to Plutarch, it was thought that Pericles proceeded against the Samians to gratify Aspasia of
Miletus.[103]
^ στ: Plutarch describes these allegations without espousing them.[71] Thucydides insists, however, that the Athenian
politician was still powerful.[150] Gomme and Vlachos support Thucydides' view.[151][152]
^ ζ: Vlachos maintains that Thucydides' narration gives the impression that Athens' alliance had become an
authoritarian and oppressive empire, while the historian makes no comment for Sparta's equally harsh rule. Vlachos
underlines, however, that the defeat of Athens could entail a much more ruthless Spartan empire, something that did
indeed happen. Hence, the historian's hinted assertion that Greek public opinion espoused Sparta's pledges of
liberating Greece almost uncomplainingly seems tendentious.[153] Geoffrey Ernest Maurice de Ste Croix, for his part,
argues that Athens' imperium was welcomed and valuable for the stability of democracy all over Greece.[154]
According to Fornara and Samons, "any view proposing that popularity or its opposite can be inferred simply from
narrow ideological considerations is superficial".[155]
^ η: Taking into consideration its symptoms, most researchers and scientists now believe that it was typhus or
typhoid fever and not cholera, plague or measles.[156][157]
^ θ: Pericles held the generalship from 444 BC until 430 BC without interruption.[70]
^ ι: Vlachos criticizes the historian for this omission and maintains that Thucydides' admiration for the Athenian
statesman makes him ignore not only the well-grounded accusations against him but also the mere gossips, namely
the allegation that Pericles had corrupted the volatile rabble, so as to assert himself.[158]
^ ια: According to Platias and Koliopoulos, the "policy mix" of Pericles was guided by five principles: a) Balance
the power of the enemy, b) Exploit competitive advantages and negate those of the enemy, c) Deter the enemy by the
denial of his success and by the skillful use of retaliation, d) Erode the international power base of the enemy, e)
25
Pericles
Shape the domestic environment of the adversary to your own benefit.[159]
^ ιβ: According to Vlachos, Thucydides must have been about 30 years old when Pericles delivered his Funeral
Oration and he was probably among the audience.[160]
^ ιγ: Vlachos points out that he does not know who wrote the oration, but "these were the words which should have
been spoken at the end of 431 BC".[160] According to Sir Richard C. Jebb, the Thucydidean speeches of Pericles give
the general ideas of Pericles with essential fidelity; it is possible, further, that they may contain recorded sayings of
his "but it is certain that they cannot be taken as giving the form of the statesman's oratory".[137] John F. Dobson
believes that "though the language is that of the historian, some of the thoughts may be those of the statesman".[161]
C.M.J. Sicking argues that "we are hearing the voice of real Pericles", while Ioannis T. Kakridis claims that the
Funeral Oration is an almost exclusive creation of Thucydides, since "the real audience does not consist of the
Athenians of the beginning of the war, but of the generation of 400 BC, which suffers under the repercussions of the
defeat".[162][163] Gomme disagrees with Kakridis, insisting on his belief to the reliability of Thucydides.[156]
^ ιδ: That is what Plutarch predicates.[164] Nonetheless, according to the 10th century encyclopedia Suda, Pericles
constituted the first orator who systematically wrote down his orations.[165] Cicero speaks about Pericles' writings,
but his remarks are not regarded as credible.[166] Most probably, other writers used his name.[167]
^ ιε: Ioannis Kalitsounakis argues that "no reader can overlook the sumptuous rythme of the Funeral Oration as a
whole and the singular correlation between the impetuous emotion and the marvellous style, attributes of speech that
Thucydides ascribes to no other orator but Pericles".[11] According to Harvey Ynis, Thucydides created the Pericles'
indistinct rhetorical legacy that has dominated ever since.[168]
Citations
[1] Thucydides, 2.65
[2] L. de Blois, An Introduction to the Ancient World 99
[3] S. Muhlberger, Periclean Athens (http:/ / www. nipissingu. ca/ department/ history/ MUHLBERGER/ 2055/ L23ANC. HTM).
[4] S. Ruden, Lysistrata, 80.
[5] "Pericles". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
[6] Herodotus, VI, 131 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Hdt. + 6. 131/ ).
[7] Plutarch, Pericles, III.
[8] V.L. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates, a239.
[9] L. Cunningham & J. Reich, Culture and Values, 73.
[10] http:/ / perseus. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0200;query=chapter%3D%2322;layout=;loc=1.
21. 1
[11] "Pericles". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.
[12] Plutarch, Pericles, IV
[13] Plato, Alcibiades I, 118c (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plat. + Alc. + 1+ 118c/ )
[14] M. Mendelson, Many Sides, 1
[15] Plutarch, Pericles, VI and Plato, Phaedrus, 270a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plat. + Phaedrus+ 270a/ )
[16] S. Hornblower, The Greek World, 479–323 BC, 33–4
[17] Plutarch, Pericles, XVI
[18] Plutarch, Pericles, VII
[19] Plutarch, Pericles, IX
[20] Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 27
[21] Plutarch, Cimon, XV (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0181:text=Cim. :chapter=15:section=1/ )
[22] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 24–25 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ xtf/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk.
id=d0e2016& toc. depth=1& toc. id=d0e2016& brand=eschol/ )
[23] L.J. Samons, What's Wrong with Democracy?, 80
[24] Plutarch, Cimon, XVI (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Cim. + 16. 2/ )
[25] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 67–73 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ xtf/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk.
id=d0e2642& toc. id=& brand=eschol/ )
[26] R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.
0009:head=#142/ )
[27] http:/ / perseus. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0200& layout=& loc=2. 41
[28] K. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Ab, 145
26
Pericles
[29] Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 24 and Politics, 1274a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0058:book=2:section=1274a)
[30] L.J. Samons, What's Wrong with Democracy?, 65
[31] Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 377–8
[32] J.D. King, Athenian Democracy and Empire (http:/ / www. vu. union. edu/ ~kingj/ classics. pdf) PDF (135 KiB), 24–25
[33] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 79
[34] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 135–136
[35] Thucydides, 1.111
[36] P.J. Rhodes, A History of the Classical Greek World, 44
[37] Plutarch, Cimon, XVII (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0182& layout=& loc=Cim. + 17. 1)
[38] A.J. Podlecki, Perikles and his Circle, 44
[39] Plutarch, Pericles, X
[40] J. M. Libourel, The Athenian Disaster in Egypt, 605–15
[41] H. Aird, Pericles: The Rise and Fall of Athenian Democracy, 52
[42] K.J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, II, 205
[43] J. Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 359–361.
[44] E. Badian, The Peace of Callias, 1–39.
[45] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 108.
[46] Plutarch, Pericles, XVII
[47] Wade-Grey, The Question of Tribute in 449/8 B. C., 212–29.
[48] T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC, 206.
[49] http:/ / perseus. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0200& layout=& loc=2. 64
[50] Thucydides, 1.112 and Plutarch, Pericles, XXI
[51] Plutarch, Pericles, XIX
[52] Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 368–69.
[53] Thucydides, 2.21 and Aristophanes, The Acharnians, 832 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0023;query=card=#40;layout=;loc=836)
[54] Plutarch, Pericles, XXIII
[55] Plutarch, Pericles, XIV
[56] T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC, 196.
[57] H. Butler, The Story of Athens, 195
[58] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 98
[59] T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC, 204.
[60] R. Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 BC, 275.
[61] S. Hornblower, The Greek World 479–323 BC, 120.
[62] J. M. Hurwit, The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles, 87 etc.
[63] A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 62–63.
[64] Thucydides, 1.115
[65] Plutarch, Pericles, XXV
[66] Plutarch, Pericles, XXVIII
[67] R. Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 310
[68] C.J. Tuplin, Pontus and the Outside World, 28
[69] Plutarch, Pericles, XI and Plato, Gorgias, 455e (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0178;query=section=#491;layout=;loc=Gorg. 456a)
[70] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 31 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ xtf/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk. id=d0e2016&
toc. depth=1& toc. id=d0e2016& brand=eschol/ )
[71] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXI
[72] Suda, article Aspasia (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?login=guest& enlogin=guest& db=REAL& field=adlerhw_gr&
searchstr=alpha,4202)
[73] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXII
[74] N. Loraux, Aspasie, l'étrangère, l'intellectuelle, 133–164
[75] M. Henry, Prisoner of History, 138–139
[76] K.J. Beloch, Die Attische Politik seit Perikles, 19–22
[77] A.J. Podlecki, Perikles and his Circle, 158
[78] Thucydides, 1.31–54
[79] G. Cawkwell, Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War, 33
[80] T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC, 322.
[81] Thucydides, 1.127
[82] Thucydides, 1.140–144
27
Pericles
[83] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 100–03.
[84] A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 20
[85] V.L. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates, 264.
[86] Thucydides, 2.12
[87] Thucydides, 2.14
[88] J. Ober, The Athenian Revolution, 72–85
[89] Thucydides, 2.16
[90] Thucydides, 2.13
[91] Thucydides, 2.22
[92] D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 69
[93] Thucydides, 2.18 and Xenophon(?),Constitution of Athens, 2 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0158;layout=;query=chapter=#2;loc=1. 1)
[94] Thucydides, 2.35–46
[95] Thucydides, 2.55
[96] Thucydides, 2.56
[97] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXV
[98] Thucydides, 2.48 and 2.56
[99] Thucydides, 2.60–64
[100] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVIII
[101] Thucydides, 2.65
[102] K. Paparrigopoulos, Aa, 221
[103] Plutarch, Pericles, XXIV
[104] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVI
[105] Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVII
[106] W. Smith, A History of Greece, 271
[107] S. Ruden, Lysistrata , 80
[108] Plutarch, Pericles, XV
[109] Plato, Gorgias, 515e (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0178;query=section=#791;layout=;loc=Gorg. 515d/ )
[110] M.F. McGregor, Government in Athens, 122–23.
[111] J.S. Morrison-A. W. Gomme, Pericles Monarchos, 76–77.
[112] Plutarch, Pericles, XVIII
[113] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 105
[114] J. Ober, National Ideology and Strategic Defence of the Population, 254
[115] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 98–99.
[116] D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, 83
[117] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 119–120.
[118] H. Delbrück, History of the Art of War, I, 137
[119] V.L. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates, 278
[120] B. X. de Wet, This So-Called Defensive Policy of Pericles, 103–19.
[121] K. Paparrigopoulos, Aa, 241–42.
[122] V.D. Hanson, Peloponnesian War, 58
[123] D. Kagan, Athenian Strategy in the Peloponnesian War, 54
[124] S. Strauss-J. Ober, The Anatomy of Error, 47
[125] D. Kagan, The Archidamian War, 28, 41.
[126] V.D. Hanson, Peloponnesian War, 74-75
[127] D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 61–62.
[128] D. Knight, Thucydides and the War Strategy of Pericles, 150–60.
[129] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 138
[130] L.J. Samons, What's Wrong with Democracy?, 131–32.
[131] Kagan, Donald (April 2003). 0-670-03211-5 The Peloponnesian War (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?q=editions:ISBN). Viking.
ISBN 978-0-641-65469-5. 0-670-03211-5
[132] Diodorus, XII, 39 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0084;query=chapter=#207;layout=;loc=12.
40. 1)
[133] Plutarch, Pericles, V
[134] Plato, Gorgias, 455d (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0178;query=section=#490;layout=;loc=Gorg. 455e)
[135] Plato, Menexenus, 236a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0180;layout=;query=section=#255;loc=Menex. 235e)
28
Pericles
[136] S. Monoson, Plato's Democratic Entanglements, 182–186
[137] Sir Richard C. Jebb, The Attic Orators (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0077:head=#36/ )
[138] Aristophanes, Acharnians, 528–531 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0240;query=card=#26;layout=;loc=541/ ) and Diodorus, XII, 40 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.
0083;query=chapter=#208;layout=;loc=12. 41. 1/ )
[139] Quintilian, Institutiones, XII, 9 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ quintilian/ quintilian. institutio12. shtml)
[140] V. L. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates, 332
[141] C.G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, 306
[142] V.D. Hanson, Peloponnesian War, 584
[143] L. Miller, My Favorite War (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9F00E0D6123EF932A15750C0A9629C8B63)
[144] E.J. Power, A Legacy of Learning, 52
[145] R.A. Katula, A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric, 18
[146] K. Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public, 32
[147] J.K. Davies, Athenian propertied families, 600–300 BC, 457.
[148] Thucydides, 1.22
[149] Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 25
[150] Thucydides, 1.139
[151] A. W. Gomme, An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, I, 452
[152] A. Vlachos, Comments on Thucydides, 141
[153] A. Vlachos, Thucydides' bias, 60 etc
[154] Ste Croix, The Character of the Athenian Empire, 1–41.
[155] Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 77 (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ view?docId=ft2p30058m& chunk. id=d0e5453/ )
[156] A.W. Gomme, An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, II, 145–62.
[157] A. Vlachos, Remarks on Thucydides, 177
[158] A. Vlachos, Thucydides' bias, 62
[159] A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 104 etc.
[160] A. Vlachos, Remarks on Thucydides, 170
[161] J.F. Dobson, The Greek Orators (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0075& query=head=#5/ )
[162] C.M.J. Sicking, Distant Companions, 133
[163] I. Kakridis, Interpretative comments on the Funeral Oration, 6
[164] Plutarch, Pericles, VIII
[165] Suda, article Pericles (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?search_method=QUERY& login=guest& enlogin=guest& page_num=1&
user_list=LIST& searchstr=Pericles& field=hw_eng& num_per_page=25& db=REAL)
[166] Cicero, De Oratote, II, 93 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 02.
0120;query=section=#358;layout=;loc=2. 94)
[167] Quintilian, Institutiones, III, 1 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ quintilian/ quintilian. institutio3. shtml)
[168] H. Yunis, Taming Democracy, 63
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• Buckley, Terry (1996). Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-09957-9.
• Butler, Howard (2005). The Story of Athens. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-7092-8.
• Cawkwell, George (1997). Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-16552-0.
• Cunningham L.S., Reich J.J. (2005). Culture And Values. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-58228-1.
• Davis, John Kenyon (1971). Athenian propertied families, 600-300 B.C.. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814273-0.
• Delbrück, Hans (1920): History of the Art of War, University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated
by Walter, J. Renfroe. Volume 1.
• Dobson, J.F. (July 1919). "Pericles as an orator" (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/
ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0075&query=head=#5/). The Greek Orators. London: Methuen. Retrieved
2007-01-12.
• Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. Volume VIII. article: The Funeral Speech over the Fallen. Volume XV.
article: Pericles (in Greek).
• Ehrenberg, Victor L. (1990). From Solon to Socrates. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-04024-8.
• Fine, John V.A. (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A critical history. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0.
• Fornara Charles W., Loren J. Samons II (1991). Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
30
Pericles
• Gomme, A. W. (A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover). An Historical Commentary on Thucydides (I-V). Oxford
University Press (1945–1981). ISBN 0-19-814198-X.
• Hanson, Victor Davis (2007 (English Edition 2005)). How the Athenians and Spartans fought the Peloponnesian
War (translated in Greek by Angelos Philippatos). Athens: Livanis Editions. ISBN 978-960-14-1495-9.
• Henri, Madeleine M. (1995). Prisoner of History. Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-508712-7.
• Hornblower, Simon (2002). The Greek World 479-323 BC. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-15344-1.
• Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2004). The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-82040-5.
• Just, Roger (1991). Women in Athenian Law and Life. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-05841-4.
• Kagan, Donald (1996). "Athenian Strategy in the Peloponnesian War". The Making of Strategy: Rules, States and
Wars by Williamson Murray, Alvin Bernstein, MacGregor Knox. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-56627-4.
• Kagan, Donald (1974). The Archidamian War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0889-X.
• Kagan, Donald (1989). The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
ISBN 0-8014-9556-3.
• Kagan, Donald (2003). "War aims and resources (432–431)". The Peloponnesian War. Viking Penguin (Penguin
Group). ISBN 0-670-03211-5.
• Kakridis, Ioannis Th. (1993). Interpretative Comments on the Pericles' Funeral Oration. Estia (in Greek).
• Katula, Richard A. (2003). "The Origins of Rhetoric". A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric by James J.
Murphy, Richard A. Katula, Forbes I. Hill, Donovan J. Ochs. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
ISBN 1-880393-35-2.
• King, J.D. (2005). Athenian Democracy and Empire (http://www.vu.union.edu/~kingj/classics.
pdf) PDF (135 KiB).
• Knight, D.W. (1970). "Thucydides and the War Strategy of Pericles". Mnemosyne 23 (2): 150–160.
doi:10.1163/156852570X00713.
• Libourel, Jan M. (October 1971). "The Athenian Disaster in Egypt". "American Journal of Philology" (The Johns
Hopkins University Press) 92 (4): 605–615. doi:10.2307/292666. JSTOR 292666.
• Loraux, Nicole (2003). "Aspasie, l'étrangère, l'intellectuelle". La Grèce au Féminin (in French). Belles Lettres.
ISBN 2-251-38048-5.
• Mattson, Kevin (1998). Creating a Democratic Public. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01723-6.
• McGregor, Malcolm F. (1987). "Government in Athens". The Athenians and their Empire. The University of
British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-0269-3.
• Mendelson, Michael (2002). Many Sides: A Protagorean Approach to the Theory, Practice, and Pedagogy of
Argument. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-0402-8.
• Miller, Laura (March 21, 2004). "My Favorite War" (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.
html?res=9F00E0D6123EF932A15750C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2). The Last Word (The
New York Times). Retrieved 2008-06-07.
• Monoson, Sara (2000). Plato's Democratic Entanglements. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04366-3.
• Morrison, J.S.; A. W. Gomme (1950). "Pericles Monarchos". Journal of Hellenic Studies (The Journal of Hellenic
Studies, Vol. 70) 70: 76–77. doi:10.2307/629294. JSTOR 629294.
• Ober, Josiah (1991). "National Ideology and Strategic Defence of the Population, from Athens to Star Wars".
Hegemonic Rivalry: From Thucydides to the Nuclear Age. Westview Pr. ISBN 0-8133-7744-7.
• Ober, Josiah (1996). The Athenian Revolution. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-01095-1.
• Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (-Karolidis, Pavlos)(1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab).
Eleftheroudakis (in Greek).
31
Pericles
• Platias Athanasios G., Koliopoulos Constantinos (2006). Thucydides on Strategy. Eurasia Publications.
ISBN 960-8187-16-8.
• "Pericles". Oxford Classical Dictionary edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. 1996.
• "Pericles". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
• Podlecki, A.J. (1997). Perikles and His Circle. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-06794-4.
• Power, Edward J. (1991). A Legacy of Learning. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0610-5.
• Rhodes, P.J. (2005). A History of the Classical Greek World. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22564-1.
• Ruden, Sarah (2003). Lysistrata. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-603-3.
• Samons, Loren J. (2004). "The Peloponnesian War". What's Wrong with Democracy?. Los Angeles, California:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23660-2.
• Sealey, Raphael (1976). "The Peloponnesian War". A History of the Greek City States, 700-338 B. C.. University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03177-6.
• Shrimpton, G. (1991). Theopompus The Historian. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. ISBN 0-7735-0837-6.
• Sicking, CMJ (1998). Distant Companions: Selected Papers. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11054-2.
• Smith, William (1855). "Death and Character of Pericles". A History of Greece. R. B. Collins.
• Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-506628-6.
• Ste Croix de, GEM (1955–1956). The Character of the Athenian Empire. Historia III.
• Ober Josiah, Strauss Barry S. (1990). The Anatomy of Error: Ancient Military Disasters and Their Lessons for
Modern Strategists. St Martins Pr. ISBN 0-312-05051-8.
• Tuplin, Christopher J. (2004). Pontus and the Outside World. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12154-4.
• Vlachos, Angelos (1992). Remarks on Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Α΄-Δ΄). Volume I. Estia (in
Greek).
• Vlachos, Angelos (1974). Thucydides' bias. Estia (in Greek).
• Wade-Grey, H.T. (July–September 1945). "The Question of Tribute in 449/8 B. C". "Hesperia" (American
School of Classical Studies at Athens) 14 (3): 212–229.
• Wet de, B.X. (1969). "This So-Called Defensive Policy of Pericles". Acta classica 12: 103–119.
• Yunis, Harvey (1996). Taming Democracy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8358-1.
Further reading
• Abbott, Evelyn (1898). Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens. G. P. Putnam's Sons.
• Brock Roger, Hodkinson Stephen (2003). Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of Political Organization and
Community in Ancient Greece. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925810-4.
• Gardner, Percy (1902). Ancient Athens.
• Grant, Arthur James (1893). Greece in the Age of Pericles. John Murray.
• Hesk, John (2000). Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-64322-8.
• Kagan, Donald (1991). Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy. The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-86395-2.
• Lummis, Douglas C. (1997). Radical Democracy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8451-0.
• Ober, Josiah (2001). Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-691-08981-7.
• Rhodes, P.J. (2005). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478-323 BC. Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN 0-631-22565-X.
• Whibley, Leonard (1889). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478-323 BC. University Press.
• Gore Vidal, Creation (novel) for a fictional account of Pericles and a Persian view of the wars.
32
Pericles
33
External links
Biographies
Further assessments about Pericles and his era
•
•
•
Britannica 11th Edition (http:/ / encyclopedia. jrank. org/
PAS_PER/ PERICLES_49o_429_BC_. html/ )
Peck, Harry Thurston (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/
ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.
0062;layout=;query=id=#12743;loc=pericles)
•
Pericles and the Athenian democracy
•
McConville, Michael. A Critical Analysis of Athenian Democracy
(http:/ / www2. scc-fl. edu/ crobbins/ MikesPaper. htm)
•
•
•
Ash, Thomas. From The Delian League To The Athenian Empire
(http:/ / www. bigissueground. com/ history/ ash-athenianempire.
shtml)
Jebb, R.C. The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos (http:/ / www.
perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.
0077:head=#36/ )
Martin, Thomas R. An Overview of Classical Greek History from
Mycenae to Alexander (Pericles' citizenship law) (http:/ / www.
perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.
0009:head=#142/ )
Muhlberger, Steve. Periclean Athens (http:/ / www. nipissingu. ca/
department/ history/ MUHLBERGER/ 2055/ L23ANC. HTM)
The Revolt of Samos (Demo Fragmentary Texts) (http:/ / demo.
fragmentarytexts. org/ en/ revolt-of-samos. html)
Menexenus (dialogue)
Part of the series on:
The dialogues of Plato
Early dialogues:
Apology – Charmides – Crito
Euthyphro – First Alcibiades
Hippias Major – Hippias Minor
Ion – Laches – Lysis
Transitional & middle dialogues:
Cratylus – Euthydemus – Gorgias
Menexenus – Meno – Phaedo
Protagoras – Symposium
Later middle dialogues:
Republic – Phaedrus
Parmenides – Theaetetus
Late dialogues:
Clitophon – Timaeus – Critias
Sophist – Statesman
Philebus – Laws
Of doubtful authenticity:
Menexenus (dialogue)
34
Axiochus – Demodocus
Epinomis – Epistles – Eryxias
Halcyon – Hipparchus – Minos
On Justice – On Virtue
Rival Lovers – Second Alcibiades
Sisyphus – Theages
The Menexenus (Greek: Μενέξενоς) is a Socratic dialogue of Plato, traditionally included in the seventh tetralogy
along with the Greater and Lesser Hippias and the Ion. The speakers are Socrates and Menexenus, who is not to be
confused with Socrates' son Menexenus. The Menexenus of Plato's dialogue appears also in the Lysis, where he is
identified as the "son of Demophon",[1] as well as the Phaedo.
The Menexenus consists mainly of a lengthy funeral oration, satirizing the one given by Pericles in Thucydides'
account of the Peloponnesian War. Socrates here delivers to Menexenus a speech that he claims to have learned from
Aspasia, a consort of Pericles and prominent female Athenian intellectual.
Menexenus is unique among the Platonic dialogues in that the actual 'dialogue' serves primarily as exposition for the
oration. For this reason, perhaps, the Menexenus has come under some suspicion of illegitimacy, although Aristotle's
invocation of the text on multiple occasions seems to reinforce its authenticity.[2] Much of the interest in the
Menexenus stems from the fact that it is one of the few extant sources on the practice of Athenian funeral oratory,
even though it parodies the medium.
References
[1] Plato, Lysis, 207b
[2] John M. Cooper in Plato, Complete Dialogues. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2002
Translations
• Plato, Appendix, Introduction, & English translation (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1682/1682-h/1682-h.
htm) by Benjamin Jowett (~1892), – Project Gutenberg EBook (English) — Same Menexenus. Wikisource.
• Plato, Annotated English translation (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.
0180:text=Menex.) by Walter Rangeley Maitland Lamb, Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 9 (1925), Cambridge,
MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., – Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University (English)
• Plato, Audio Book(s) - English translation (http://www.archive.org/details/
DIALOGUES-OF-PLATO-BJ-V2-3ED) by Benjamin Jowett, – Internet Archive, Community Audio, mp3 (64kp/128kp/Ogg
Vorbis) (English)
• Plato, Ancient Greek (http://www.poesialatina.it/Greek/Index2.htm), – Poesia Latina, Greco interattivo (Ancient
Greek)
• Schofield, Malcolm (edt); translations by Tom Griffith (2009). Plato: Gorgias, Menexenus, Protagoras
(Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). Cambridge University Press. pp. 264.
ISBN 978-0-521-83729-3.
Menexenus (dialogue)
Further reading
• Collins, Susan D.; Stauffer, Devin (1999). "The Challenge of Plato's Menexenus". The Review of Politics 61 (1):
85–115. doi:10.1017/S003467050002814X.
• Coventry, Lucinda (1989). "Philosophy and Rhetoric in the Menexenus". Journal of Hellenic Studies (The Society
for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies) 109: 1–15. doi:10.2307/632028. JSTOR 632028.
• Kahn, Charles H. (1963). "Plato's Funeral Oration: The Motive of the Menexenus". Classical Philology 58 (4):
220–234. doi:10.1086/364821.
• Monoson, S. Sara (1998). "Remembering Pericles: The Political and Theoretical Import of Plato's Menexenus".
Political Theory 26 (4): 489–513. doi:10.1177/0090591798026004003.
• Rosenstock, Bruce (1994). "Socrates as Revenant: A Reading of the Menexenus". Phoenix (Classical Association
of Canada) 48 (4): 331–347. doi:10.2307/1192572. JSTOR 1192572.
External links
• Text of Menexenus at Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1682/1682-h/1682-h.htm)
De Inventione
The De Inventione is a handbook for orators that M. Tullius Cicero composed when he was still a young man.
Quintillian tells us that Cicero considered the work rendered obsolete by his later writings.[1] Originally four books
in all, only two have survived into modern times.
References
[1] Caplan, H. (1954). Introduction (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ books/ OL23267781M/ Ad_C.
_Herennium_de_ratione_dicendi_(Rhetorica_ad_Herennium)). Rhetorica ad Herennium. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
External links
• Translation (http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/cicero/dnv1-1.htm) by C.D. Yonge
• Latin Text (http://scrineum.unipv.it/wight/invs1.htm)
35
Athenaeus
Athenaeus
Athenaeus of Naucratis ( /ˌæθəˈniːəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀθήναιος Nαυκρατίτης, Athēnaios Naukratitēs; Latin:
Athenaeus Naucratita) was a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourishing about the end of the 2nd and beginning
of the 3rd century AD. The Suda says only that he lived in the times of Marcus Aurelius, but the contempt with
which he speaks of Commodus, who died in 192, shows that he survived that emperor.
Several of his publications are lost, but the fifteen volume Deipnosophistae mostly survives.
Publications
Athenaeus himself states that he was the author of a treatise on the thratta — a kind of fish mentioned by Archippus
and other comic poets—and of a history of the Syrian kings. Both works are lost.
The Deipnosophistae
The Deipnosophistae, which mean
"dinner-table philosophers" or perhaps
"authorities on banquets", survives in
fifteen books. The first two books, and
parts of the third, eleventh and fifteenth,
are extant only in epitome, but
otherwise the work seems to be entire.
It is an immense store-house of
information, chiefly on matters
connected with dining, but also
containing remarks on music, songs,
dances, games, courtesans, and luxury.
The Deipnosophistes belongs to the literary tradition inspired by the use of the Greek
Nearly 800 writers and 2500 separate
banquet. Banqueters playing Kottabos while a musician plays the Aulos, decorated by
works are referred to by Athenaeus; one
the artist 'Nicias'/'Nikias'
of his characters (not necessarily to be
identified with the historical author
himself) boasts of having read 800 plays of Athenian Middle Comedy alone. Were it not for Athenaeus, much
valuable information about the ancient world would be missing, and many ancient Greek authors such as
Archestratus would be almost entirely unknown. Book XIII, for example, is an important source for the study of
sexuality in classical and Hellenistic Greece.
The Deipnosophistae professes to be an account given by an individual named Athenaeus to his friend Timocrates of
a banquet held at the house of Larentius, a wealthy book-collector and patron of the arts. It is thus a dialogue within
a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, but the conversation extends to enormous length. The topics for discussion
generally arise from the course of the dinner itself, but extend to literary and historical matters of every description,
including abstruse points of grammar. The guests supposedly quote from memory. The actual sources of the material
preserved in the Deipnosophistae remain obscure, but much of it probably comes at second-hand from early
scholars.
The twenty-nine named guests include individuals called Galen and Ulpian, but they are all probably fictitious
personages, and the majority take no part in the conversation. If the character Ulpian is identical with the famous
jurist, the Deipnosophistae may have been written after his death in 228; but the jurist was murdered by the
Praetorian guards, whereas Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death.
36
Athenaeus
The complete version of the text, with the gaps noted above, is preserved in only one manuscript, conventionally
referred to as A. The epitomized version of the text is preserved in two manuscripts, conventionally known as C and
E. The standard edition of the text is Kaibel's Teubner. The standard numbering is drawn largely from Casaubon.
The encyclopaedist and author Sir Thomas Browne wrote a short essay upon Athenaeus[1] which reflects a revived
interest in the Banquet of the Learned amongst scholars during the 17th century following its publication in 1612 by
the Classical scholar Isaac Casaubon.
First patents
Athenaeus described what may be considered the first patents (i.e. exclusive right granted by a government to an
inventor to practice his/her invention in exchange for disclosure of the invention). He mentions that in 500 BC, in the
Greek city of Sybaris (located in what is now southern Italy), there were annual culinary competitions. The victor
was given the exclusive right to prepare his dish for one year.[2]
References
[1] s:From a reading of Athenaeus
[2] M. Frumkin, "The Origin of Patents", Journal of the Patent Office Society, March 1945, Vol. XXVII, No. 3, pp 143 et Seq.
Further reading
• Athenaeus and his world: reading Greek culture in the Roman Empire ed. David Braund and John Wilkins.
Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000. ISBN 0-85989-661-7.
External links
• The Deipnosophists (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=browse&
scope=Literature.DeipnoSub), translated by C. D. Yonge, at The Literature Collection (http://digicoll.library.
wisc.edu/Literature/)
• The Deipnosophists (http://www.attalus.org/old/athenaeus.html), long excerpts in searchable HTML format,
at attalus.org (http://www.attalus.org)
• The Deipnosophists (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Athenaeus/home.html),
translated up to Book 9 with links to complete Greek original, at LacusCurtius (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/
Thayer/E/Roman/home.html)
• Sir Thomas Browne, From a Reading of Athenaeus
37
Deipnosophistae
Deipnosophistae
The Deipnosophistae (deipnon, "dinner", and sophistai, "professors";
original Greek title Δειπνοσοφισταί, Deipnosophistai, English
Deipnosophists) may be translated as The Banquet of the Learned or
Philosophers at Dinner or The Gastronomers. The Deipnosophists is a
long work of literary and antiquarian research by the Hellenistic author
Athenaeus of Naucratis in Egypt, written in Rome in the early 3rd
century AD. The protagonist is Ulpian, the host of a leisurely banquet
whose main purpose is literary, historical and antiquarian conversation.
Characters include grammarians, lexicographers, jurists, musicians and
hangers-on.
Contents
The Deipnosophistae professes to be an account given by the author to
his friend Timocrates of a series of banquets (apparently three) held at
the house of Larensius, a scholar and wealthy patron of art. It is thus a
dialogue within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, although each
conversation is so long that, realistically, it would occupy several days.
Frontispiece to the 1657 edition of the
Among the twenty-nine guests, Galen, Ulpian and Plutarch are named,
Deipnosophists, edited by Isaac Casaubon, in
Greek and Latin
but all are probably to be taken as fictitious personages, and the
majority take little or no part in the conversation. If Ulpian is identical
with the famous jurist, the Deipnosophistae must have been written after his death in 223; but the jurist was
murdered by the praetorian guards, whereas Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death.
The work is invaluable for providing fictionalized information about the Hellenistic literary world of the leisured
class during the Roman Empire. To the majority of modern readers, even more useful is the wealth of information
provided in the Deipnosophists about earlier Greek literature. In the course of discussing classic authors, the
participants make quotations, long and short, from the works of about 700 earlier Greek authors and 2,500 separate
writings, many of them otherwise unrecorded. Food and wine, luxury, music, sexual mores, literary gossip and
philology are among the major topics of discussion, and the stories behind many artworks such as the Venus
Kallipygos are also transmitted in its pages.
Food and cookery
The Deipnosophists is an important source of cookery recipes in classical Greek. It quotes the original text of one
recipe from the lost cookbook by Mithaecus, the oldest in Greek and the oldest recipe by a named author in any
language. Other authors quoted for their recipes include Glaucus of Locri, Dionysius, Epaenetus, Hegesippus of
Tarentum, Erasistratus, Diocles of Carystus, Timachidas of Rhodes, Philistion of Locri, Euthydemus of Athens,
Chrysippus of Tyana and Paxamus.
38
Deipnosophistae
Homosexuality
In addition to its main focuses, the text offers an unusually clear portrait of homosexuality in late Hellenism. Books
XII-XIII holds a wealth of information for studies of homosexuality in Roman Greece. It is subject to a big
discussion that includes Alcibiades, Charmides, Autolycus, Pausanias and Sophocles. Furthermore, numerous books
and now lost plays on the subject are mentioned, including the dramatists Diphilus, Cratinus, Aeschylus, and
Sophocles and the philosopher Heraclides of Pontus.
Survival and reception
The Deipnosophistae was originally in fifteen books. The work survives in one manuscript from which the whole of
books 1 and 2, and some other pages too, disappeared long ago. An Epitome or abridgment was made in medieval
times, and survives complete: from this it is possible to read the missing sections, though in a disjointed form. The
encyclopaedist Sir Thomas Browne wrote a Latin essay on Athenaeus which reflects a revived interest in the
Banquet of the Learned amongst scholars following the publication of the Deipnosophistae in 1612 by the Classical
scholar Isaac Casaubon. Browne wrote of it:
Would that a little part survived of the writers from whom Athenaeus quotes, scattered here and there, notable,
startling or amusing sayings, and whets the appetite of his eager reader..... Mimes, fools, parasites, lute-girls
are bearable and not inappropriate amusement for a drinking party. There is a most amusing story in
Athenaeus about the boys in the inn at Agrigentum. They are so mad with drink that they think they are sailing
in a ship tossed about by a wild storm. To lighten the ship they throw out all the carpets and crockery, call the
police 'mermen', offer rewards for their rescue to those who reproach them, and do not even return to their
senses when the onlookers take their things.
Writing in 1867, poet James Russell Lowell characterized the Deipnosophists and its author thus:
the somewhat greasy heap of a literary rag-and-bone-picker like Athenaeus is turned to gold by time.
Modern readers question whether the Deipnosophistae genuinely evokes a literary symposium of learned
disquisitions on a range of subjects suitable for such an occasion, or whether it has a satirical edge, rehashing the
cultural clichés of the urbane literati of its day.
References
• Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists ed. and tr. C. B. Gulick. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1927-41. 7
vols.
• Athenaei Dipnosophistarum epitome ed. S. P. Peppink. Leiden, 1937-9.
• Athenaeus and his world: reading Greek culture in the Roman Empire ed. David Braund, John Wilkins. Exeter:
University of Exeter Press, 2000.
• Food in antiquity ed. John Wilkins, David Harvey, Mike Dobson. Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1995.
• Andrew Dalby, Siren feasts: a history of food and gastronomy in Greece (London: Routledge, 1996) especially
pp. 168–180.
• Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: a sourcebook of basic documents ed. Thomas K. Hubbard (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2003) pp. 76–82 (translation of a passage from book 13).
• Warren Johansson, 'Athenaeus' in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality ed. Wayne R. Dynes (Garland Publishing,
1990) p. 87.
• Peter Stoll: Dishing up Pictures from the Pantry: An Eighteenth-Century French Recipe for Illustrating
Athenaeus's Deipnosophistae [1], Augsburg, University, 2010.
39
Deipnosophistae
External links
• The Deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the Learned of Athenaeus [2] presented online by the University of Wisconsin
Digital Collections Center [3]
• various out of copyright translations of the work downloadable on archive.org [4]
• From a reading of Athenaeus, British Museum Sloane MS no. 1827
• Extracts from book 12 of the Deipnosophists concerning homosexuality [5]
• Extracts from book 13 of the Deipnosophists [6]
• on-line version of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality article referenced above [7]
• full Greek text and French translation at L'antiquité grecque et latine du moyen âge de Philippe Remacle, Philippe
Renault, François-Dominique Fournier, J. P. Murcia, Thierry Vebr, Caroline Carrat [8]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
http:/ / opus. bibliothek. uni-augsburg. de/ volltexte/ 2010/ 1586/
http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ Literature/ subcollections/ DeipnoSubAbout. html
http:/ / uwdc. library. wisc. edu
http:/ / archive. org/ search. php?query=The%20deipnosophists
http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ pwh/ athenaeus13. html
http:/ / members. aol. com/ heliogabby/ deipnon/ deipnon. htm
[7] http:/ / williamapercy. com/ pub-EncyHom. htm
[8] http:/ / remacle. org/ bloodwolf/ erudits/ athenee/
Parallel Lives
Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called
Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of biographies of famous
men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or
failings, written in the late 1st century. The surviving Parallel Lives [in
Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι (Bíoi Parállēloi)] contain twenty-three pairs
of biographies, each pair consisting of one Greek and one Roman, as
well as four unpaired, single lives. It is a work of considerable
importance, not only as a source of information about the individuals
biographized, but also about the times in which they lived.
Motivation
As he explains in the first paragraph of his Life of Alexander, Plutarch
was not concerned with writing histories, as such, but in exploring the
influence of character — good or bad — on the lives and destinies of
famous men. And he wished to prove that the more remote past of
Greece could show its men of action and achievement as well as the
Engraving facing the title page of an 18th-century
nearer, and therefore more impressive, past of Rome. The interest is
edition of Plutarch's Lives
primarily ethical, although the lives have significant historical value as
well. The Lives were published by Plutarch late in life after his return
to Chaeronea, and, if one may judge from the long lists of authorities given, must have taken many years in the
compilation.[1]
40
Parallel Lives
41
Contents
Third Volume of a 1727 edition of Plutarch's
Lives printed by Jacob Tonson.
The chief manuscripts of the Lives date from the 10th and 11th
centuries; the first edition appeared at Florence in 1517. Jacob Tonson
printed several editions of the Lives in English in the late 17th century,
beginning with a 5-volume set printed in 1688 and subsequent editions
printed in 1693, 1702, 1716, and 1727. The most generally accepted
text is that of the minor edition of Carl Sintenis in the Bibliotheca
Teubneriana (5 vols., Leipzig 1852-55; reissued without much change
in 1873-75). There are annotated editions by I. C. Held, E. H. G.
Leopold, Otto Siefert and Friedrich Blass and Carl Sintenis, all in
German; and by Holden, in English.[1]
The first pair of lives — the Epaminondas–Scipio Africanus — no
longer exists, and many of the remaining lives are truncated, contain
obvious lacunae and/or have been tampered with by later writers.
His Life of Alexander is one of the five surviving secondary or tertiary sources about Alexander the Great and it
includes anecdotes and descriptions of incidents that appear in no other source. Likewise, his portrait of Numa
Pompilius, an early Roman king, also contains unique information about the early Roman calendar.
Plutarch is criticized for his lack of judicious discrimination in use of authorities and the consequent errors and
inaccuracies, but he gives an abundance of citations and incidentally a large number of valuable bits of information
which fill up numerous gaps in historical knowledge obtained elsewhere. He is praised for the liveliness and warmth
of his portrayals and his moral earnestness and enthusiasm, and the Lives have attracted a large circle of readers
throughout the ages.[1]
Biographies
Plutarch structured his Lives by alternating lives of famous Greeks ("Grecians") with those of famous Romans. After
such a set of two (and one set of four) lives he generally writes out a comparison of the preceding biographies.
The table below links to several on-line English translations of Plutarch's Lives;unpaired see also "Other links" section
below. The LacusCurtius site has the complete set; the others are incomplete to varying extents. There are also four
paperbacks published by Penguin Books, two with Greek lives, two Roman, rearranged in chronological order, and
containing a total of 36 of the lives.
Key to abbreviations
D = Dryden
Dryden is famous for having lent his name as editor-in-chief to the first complete English translation of Plutarch's
Lives. This 17th-century translation is available at The MIT Internet Classics Archive [2].
These translations are linked with D in the table below; those marked (D) in parentheses are incomplete in the
HTML version.
G = Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg contains several versions of 19th-century translations of these Lives, see: http:/ / www. gutenberg.
org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=342 and http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14114
The full text version (TXT) of the English poet, Arthur Hugh Clough's translation is available (via download) at
Gutenberg [3].
These translations are linked with G in the table below.
Parallel Lives
42
L = LacusCurtius
LacusCurtius has the Loeb translation by Bernadotte Perrin (published 1914‑1926) of part of the Moralia and all the
Lives; see http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html
These translations are linked with L in the table below.
P = Perseus Project
The Perseus Project has several of the Lives, see: http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cache/ perscoll_Greco-Roman.
html
The Lives available on the Perseus website are in Greek and English according to the Loeb edition by Bernadotte
Perrin; and/or in English according to an abbreviated version of the Thomas North translationsNorth. This last edition
concentrates on those of the Lives Shakespeare based his plays upon: Thomas North's translation of most of the
Lives, based on a French version published in the 16th century, preceded Dryden's translation mentioned above.
These translations are linked with P in the table below.
Greek
[4] [5] [6] [7]
1. Theseus D
G L P
[8] [9] [10]
2. Lycurgus (D)
G L
[11] [12] [13] [14]
3. Solon D
G
L
P
[15] [16] [17] [18]
4. Themistocles D
G
L
P
[19] [20] [21] [22]
5. Pericles (D)
G
L
P
[23] [24] [25] [26]
6. Alcibiadesorder (D)
G
L
P
[27] [28] [29]
7. Timoleon (D)
G
L
[30] [31] [32]
8. Pelopidas D
G
L
[33] [34] [35] [36]
9. Aristides D
G
L
P
[37] [38] [39]
10. Philopoemen D
G
L
[40] [41] [42]
11. Pyrrhus (D)
G
L
[43] [44] [45] [46]
12. Lysander D
G
L
P
[47] [48] [49] [50]
13. Cimon D
G
L
P
[51] [52] [53] [54]
14. Nicias D
G
L
P
[55] [56] [57]
15. Eumenes D
G
L
[58] [59] [60]
16. Agesilaus (D)
G
L
[61] [62] [63]
17. Alexander the Great (D)
G
L
P
[64]
[65] [66] [67]
18. Phocion D
G
L
[68] [69]
[70] [71]
19. Agis D
L
and Cleomenes D
L
[72] [73]
20. Demosthenes D
L
[74] [75]
21. Demetrius (D)
L
[76] [77]
22. Dion (D)
L
[78] [79]
[80]
23. Aratus (D)
L
and Artaxerxes D
L
[81]
Roman
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
[82] [83] [84]
Romulus D
G
L
[85] [86] [87]
Numa Pompilius D
G
L
[88] [89] [90]
Poplicola D
G
L
[91] [92] [93]
Camillus (D)
G
L
[94] [95] [96]
Fabius Maximus D
G
L
[97] [98] [99] [100]
Coriolanus (D)
G
L
P
[101] [102] [103]
Aemilius Paulus (D)
G
L
[104] [105] [106]
Marcellus D
G
L
[107] [108] [109]
Cato the Elder D
G
L
[110] [111] [112]
Flamininus D
G
L
[113] [114] [115]
Gaius Marius (D)
G
L
[116] [117] [118]
Sulla (D)
G
L
[119] [120] [121]
Lucullus (D)
G
L
[122] [123] [124]
Crassus (D)
G
L
[125] [126] [127]
Sertorius D
G
L
[128] [129] [130]
Pompey (D)
G
L
[131] [132] [133]
[134]
Julius Caesar (D)
G
L
P1
P2
[135]perseus
[136] [137] [138]
Cato the Younger (D)
G
L
[139] [140]
Tiberius Gracchus D
L
[141] [142]
and Gaius Gracchus D
L
[143] [144]
Cicero (D)
L
[145] [146] [147]
Mark Antony (D)
L
P
[148] [149] [150]
Brutus (D)
L
P
[151] [152]
[153] [154]
Galba D
L
and Otho D
L
Comparisons
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Notes
1. The last line of the table contains the four "unpaired" lives, as mentioned above.
[155] [156]
D
G
L
[157]
[158] [159]
D
G
L
[160]
[161] [162]
D
G
L
[163]
(N/A)
[164] [165]
D
G
L
[166]
[167] [168]
D
G
L
[169]
[170] [171]
D
G
L
[172]
[173] [174]
D
G
L
[175]
[176] [177]
G
L
[178] [179]
D
G
L
[180]
(N/A)
[181] [182]
D
G
L
[183]
[184] [185]
D
G
L
[186]
[187] [188]
D
G
L
[189]
[190] [191]
D
G
L
[192]
[193] [194]
D
G
L
[195]
(N/A)
(N/A)
[196] [197]
D
L
[198] [199]
D
L
[200] [201]
D
L
[202] [203]
D
L
(N/A)
Parallel Lives
43
2. The Perseus project also contains a biography of Caesar Augustus appearing in the North translation, but not
coming from Plutarch's Parallel Lives: P [204]
3. Though the majority of the Parallel Lives were written with the Greek hero (or heroes) placed in the first position
followed by the Roman hero, there are three sets of Lives where this order is reversed : Aemilius
Paulus-Timoleon, Coriolanus-Alcibiades and Sertorius-Eumenes.
4. At the time of composing this table there appears some confusion in the internal linking of the Perseus project
webpages, responsible for this split in two references.
Chronology of the lives
The following chronology of legendary and historical figures whose biographies appear in the Lives is organized by
date of death, as birth dates in antiquity are more often uncertain. All dates are BC except Galba and Otho.
•
Theseus 1234–1204 (myth)
•
Agesilaus 444 – 360
•
Cato the Elder 234 – 149
•
Romulus 771 – 717 (myth)
•
Dion 408 - 354
•
Tiberius Gracchus 163 - 133
•
Numa Pompilius d. 673 (Semi-Legendary)
•
Timoleon 411 - 337
•
Gaius Gracchus 154 - 121
•
Lycurgus circa 700 – 630 (Semi-Legendary) •
Alexander the Great 356 - 323 •
Gaius Marius 157 - 86
•
Solon 638 – 558
•
Demosthenes 384 - 322
•
Sulla 138 - 78
•
Poplicola d. 503
•
Phocion 402 – 318
•
Sertorius b. c. 123 – d. 72
•
Coriolanus c. 475
•
Eumenes 362 - 316
•
Lucullus 118 - 56
•
Aristides 530 – 468
•
Demetrius d. 283
•
Crassus 115 - 53
•
Themistocles 524- 459
•
Pyrrhus 318 - 272
•
Pompey 106 - 48
•
Cimon 510 – 450
•
Agis c. 245
•
Cato the Younger 95 – 46
•
Pericles 495 - 429
•
Cleomenes d. 219
•
Julius Caesar 100 or 102 - 44
•
Artaxerxes d. 424
•
Aratus 271 – 213
•
Cicero 106 – 43
•
Nicias 470 – 413
•
Marcellus 268 - 208
•
Brutus 85 – 42
•
Alcibiades 450 - 404
•
Fabius Maximus 275 – 203
•
Mark Antony 83 - 30
•
Lysander d. 395
•
Philopoemen 253 - 183
•
Galba 3 BC – 69 AD
•
Camillus 446 - 365
•
Flamininus 228 - 174
•
Otho 32 AD – 69 AD
•
Pelopidas d. 364
•
Aemilius Paulus 229-160
References
[1] "Lives, Parallel". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
[2] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/
[3] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 674
[4] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ theseus. html
[5] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_THESEUS
[6] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Theseus*. html
[7] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Thes. + 1. 1
[8] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ lycurgus. html
[9] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_LYKURGUS
[10] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Lycurgus*. html
[11] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ solon. html
[12] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_SOLON
[13] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Solon*. html
[14] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Sol. + 1. 1
[15] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ themisto. html
[16] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_THEMISTOKLES
[17] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Themistocles*. html
[18] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Them. + 1. 1
[19] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ pericles. html
[20] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_PERIKLES
[21] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pericles*. html
Parallel Lives
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Per. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ alcibiad. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_ALKIBIADES
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Alcibiades*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Alc. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ timoleon. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_TIMOLEON
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Timoleon*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ pelopida. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_PELOPIDAS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pelopidas*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ aristide. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_ARISTEIDES
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Aristides*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Arist. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ philopoe. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_PHILOPOEMEN
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Philopoemen*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ pyrrhus. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_PYRRHUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pyrrhus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ lysander. html
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_LYSANDER
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Lysander*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Lys. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ cimon. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_KIMON
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cimon*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Cim. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ nicias. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_NIKIAS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Nicias*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Nic. + 1. 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ eumenes. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_EUMENES
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Eumenes*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ agesilus. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_AGESILAUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Agesilaus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ alexandr. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_ALEXANDER
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Alexander*/ home. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Caes. + 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ phocion. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_PHOKION
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Phocion*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ agis. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Agis*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ cleomene. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cleomenes*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ demosthe. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Demosthenes*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ demetrus. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Demetrius*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ dion. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Dion*. html
[78] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ aratus. html
[79] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Aratus*. html
[80] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ artaxerx. html
44
Parallel Lives
[81] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Artaxerxes*. html
[82] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ romulus. html
[83] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_ROMULUS
[84] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Romulus*. html
[85] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ numa_pom. html
[86] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_NUMA
[87] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Numa*. html
[88] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ poplicol. html
[89] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_POPLICOLA
[90] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Publicola*. html
[91] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ camillus. html
[92] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_CAMILLUS
[93] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Camillus*. html
[94] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ fabius. html
[95] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_FABIUS_MAXIMUS
[96] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Fabius_Maximus*. html
[97] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ coriolan. html
[98] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_CAIUS_MARCIUS_CORIOLANUS
[99] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Coriolanus*. html
[100] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Cor. + 1
[101] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ paulus. html
[102] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#LIFE_OF_AEMILIUS
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http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Marcellus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ mar_cato. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_MARCUS_CATO
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cato_Major*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ flaminin. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_TITUS_FLAMININUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Flamininus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ c_marius. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_CAIUS_MARIUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Marius*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ sylla. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_SULLA
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Sulla*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ lucullus. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#LIFE_OF_LUCULLUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Lucullus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ crassus. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_CRASSUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Crassus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ sertoriu. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_SERTORIUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Sertorius*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ pompey. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_POMPEIUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pompey*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ caesar. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_C_CAESAR
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Caesar*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Phoc. + 1. 1
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 03. 0078& query=head%3D%232
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ cato_you. html
[137] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#LIFE_OF_CATO
[138] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cato_Minor*. html
[139] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ tiberius. html
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http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Tiberius_Gracchus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ gracchus. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Caius_Gracchus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ cicero. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cicero*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ antony. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Antony*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Ant. + 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ m_brutus. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Brutus*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plut. + Brut. + 1
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ galba. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Galba*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ otho. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Otho*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ r_t_comp. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#COMPARISON_THESEUS_ROMULUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Theseus%2BRomulus*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ n_l_comp. html
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_NUMA_WITH_LYKURGUS
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Lycurgus+ Numa*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ p_s_comp. html
[162] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_SOLON_AND_POPLICOLA
[163] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Solon%2BPublicola*. html
[164] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ fabius_p. html
[165] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h.
htm#COMPARISON_OF_PERIKLES_AND_FABIUS_MAXIMUS
[166] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pericles%2BFabius_Maximus*. html
[167] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ compared. html
[168] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_ALKIBIADES_AND_CORIOLANUS
[169] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Alcibiades%2BCoriolanus*. html
[170] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ t_a_comp. html
[171] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 0/ 3/ 14033/ 14033-h/ 14033-h.
htm#COMPARISON_OF_PAULUS_AEMILIUS_AND_TIMOLEON
[172] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Timoleon%2BAemilius*. html
[173] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ p_m_comp. html
[174] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h.
htm#THE_COMPARISON_OF_PELOPIDAS_WITH_MARCELLUS
[175] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Pelopidas%2BMarcellus*. html
[176] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_Aristides_AND_CATO
[177] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Aristides%2BCato_Major*. html
[178] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ p_f_comp. html
[179] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_PHILOPOEMEN_AND_TITUS
[180] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Philopoemen%2BFlamininus*. html
[181] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ l_s_comp. html
[182] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_LYSANDER_AND_SULLA
[183] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Lysander%2BSulla*. html
[184] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ l_c_comp. html
[185] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 1/ 14114/ 14114-h/ 14114-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_KIMON_AND_LUCULLUS
[186] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Cimon+ Lucullus*. html
[187] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ crasus_n. html
[188] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_NIKIAS_AND_CRASSUS
[189] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Nicias+ Crassus*. html
[190] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ s_e_comp. html
[191] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_SERTORIUS_AND_EUMENES
[192] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Eumenes+ Sertorius*. html
[193] http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ p_a_comp. html
[194] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ 1/ 4/ 1/ 4/ 14140/ 14140-h/ 14140-h. htm#COMPARISON_OF_AGESILAUS_AND_POMPEIUS
[195] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Agesilaus+ Pompey*. html
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http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Agis_and_Cleomenes+ Gracchi*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ d_cicero. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Demosthenes+ Cicero*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ d_antony. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Demetrius+ Antony*. html
http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plutarch/ d_brutus. html
http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Dion%2BBrutus*. html
http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 03. 0078& query=head%3D%235
External links
• University of Chicago English text of Plutarch's Parallel Lives. (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/
Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/home.html)
• A website dedicated to Plutarch's Parallel Lives and some modern updates (http://www.freewebs.com/
delicianleague)
47
Plutarch
48
Plutarch
Plutarch
Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus
Μέστριος Πλούταρχος
Parallel Lives, Amyot translation, 1565
Born
c. AD 46
Chaeronea, Boeotia
Died
c. AD 120 (aged 74)
Delphi, Phocis
Occupation
Biographer, essayist, priest, ambassador, magistrate
Nationality
Roman (Greek ethnicity)
Subjects
Biography, various
Literary movement Middle Platonism,
Hellenistic literature
Plutarch (/ˈpluːtɑrk/; Greek: Πλούταρχος, Ploútarkhos, Koine Greek: [plŭːtarkʰos]) then named, on his becoming a
Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος),[1] c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek
historian, biographer, and essayist, known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia.[2] He is considered today to
be a Middle Platonist. He was born to a prominent family in Chaeronea, Boeotia, a town about twenty miles east of
Delphi.
Plutarch
Early life
Plutarch was born in 46 AD [a] in the small town of
Chaeronea, in the Greek region known as Boeotia. His
family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has
not been preserved, but it was probably Nikarchus
(Greek: Nίκαρχoς), from the common habit of Greek
families to repeat a name in alternate generations. The
name of Plutarch's grandfather was Lamprias, as he
attested in Moralia[3] and in his Life of Antony.
His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently
mentioned in his essays and dialogues, where Timon is
spoken of in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus, in
his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus, recovered the name
Ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, where Plutarch served as
of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence
one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the
oracle.
afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant,
addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not give
way to excessive grief at the death of their two year old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother.
Interestingly, he hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation.
The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and second Plutarch, are often
mentioned. Plutarch's treatise De animae procreatione in Timaeo is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son
Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner-parties recorded in the 'Table Talk.' Another person, Soklarus, is
spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise
on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of her as having been recently an inmate
of his house, but without enabling us to form an opinion whether she was his daughter or not.[4]
Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy at the Academy of Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67.[5] He had a
number of influential friends, including Quintus Sosius Senecio and Fundanus, both important senators, to whom
some of his later writings were dedicated. Plutarch travelled widely in the Mediterranean world, including central
Greece, Sparta, Corinth, Patrae (Patras), Sardes, Alexandria, and two trips to Rome[b].
At some point, Plutarch took up Roman citizenship. As evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus,
his sponsor for citizenship was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman of consular status whom Plutarch also used as an
historical source for his Life of Otho.[6]
"The soul, being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame
by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world.
The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this
world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a
body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."
Plutarch (The Consolation, Moralia)
He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. However, his
duties as the senior of the two priests of Apollo at the Oracle of Delphi (where he was responsible for interpreting the
auguries of the Pythia) apparently occupied little of his time. He led an active social and civic life while producing
an extensive body of writing, much of which is still extant.
For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous
Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman
empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as
49
Plutarch
mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by
Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other
works which have survived are now known collectively as the Moralia.
Work as magistrate and ambassador
In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate in Chaeronea and he
represented his home on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of
archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied
himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties.[7]
The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria. However,
most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not
speak Illyrian.
According to the 10th century historian George Syncellus, late in Plutarch's life, emperor Hadrian appointed him
nominal procurator of Achaea – a position that entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul
himself.
Plutarch died between the years AD 119 and 127.
Lives of the Roman emperors
The first biographical works to be written by Plutarch were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to
Vitellius. Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as
fragments, provided by Dasmascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)[8] and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero,
cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the Flavian dynasty or
during the reign of Nerva (CE 96–98).
There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, “ought to be considered as a single
work.”[9] Therefore they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the
Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were
lost). Unlike in these biographies, in Galba-Otho the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted
for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence
to Plutarch’s morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D-E).[10]
Arguing from the perspective of Platonian political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C),
in Galba-Otho Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero’s
death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies,
ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.[11] “The Caesars’ house in Rome, the Palatium,
received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors,” Plutarch writes, “passing, as it were, across the stage,
and one making room for another to enter” (Galba 1).[12]
Galba-Otho was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch’s Parallel Lives
as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes’s edition where Galba and Otho
appear as “Opera” XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that Galba-Otho was from early on
considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.[13]
50
Plutarch
51
Parallel Lives
Plutarch's best-known work is the Parallel Lives, a series of
biographies of famous Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to
illuminate their common moral virtues and vices. The surviving Lives
contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek Life and one Roman Life, as well
as four unpaired single Lives.
As is explained in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander,
Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of
character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas
sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted
much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning
that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most
famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits,
likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous
lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels
between physical appearance and moral character. In many ways, he
must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers.
A page from the 1470 Ulrich Han printing of
Some of the Lives, such as those of Heracles, Philip II of Macedon and
Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
Scipio Africanus, no longer exist; many of the remaining Lives are
truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant Lives include those on Solon,
Themistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes, Pelopidas, Philopoemen, Timoleon, Dion of
Syracuse, Alexander the Great, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Coriolanus, Theseus, Aemilius
Paullus, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Julius Caesar,
Cicero, Cato the Younger, Mark Antony, and Marcus Junius Brutus.
Life of Alexander
Plutarch's Life of Alexander, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on
the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no
other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is
unique on the early Roman calendar.
Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was
presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide
what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance.
When it comes to his character, however, Plutarch is often rather less accurate, ascribing inordinate amounts of
self-control to a man who very often lost it.[14] It is significant, though, that the subject incurs less admiration from
his biographer as the narrative progresses and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury.
Much, too, is made of Alexander's scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and
glory." This is most true, for Alexander's tastes grew more extravagant as he grew older only in the last year of his
life and only as a means of approaching the image of a ruler his Persian subjects were better accustomed to - thus
making it easier for him to succeed in uniting the Greek and Persian worlds together, according to the plan he had
announced in his famous Speech given in Opis in 324 BC.
Plutarch
52
Life of Caesar
Together with Suetonius's The Twelve Caesars this Life is the main account of Julius Caesar's feats by ancient
historians. Plutarch starts by telling us the audacity of Caesar and his refusal of dismissing Cinna's daughter,
Cornelia. Other important parts are these containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of
inspiring the soldiers.
His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had
been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance
Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship
and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the
faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva,
who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one
javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In
this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up,
he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came
off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the
foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the
battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the
centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the
rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got
across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great
dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield.
Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor,
was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life.
Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy,
killed himself with a blow of his sword.
— Life of Caesar, XVI
However, this Life shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see De Bello Gallico
and De Bello Civili). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the De Bello Gallico and even tell us of the moments
when Caesar was dictating his works.
In the final part of this Life, Plutarch counts Caesar's assassination, and several details. The book ends on telling the
destiny of his murderers, and says that Caesar's "great guardian-genius" avenged him after life.
Life of Pyrrhus
Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from
293 to 264 BC, for which neither Dionysius nor Livy have surviving texts.[15]
Criticism of Parallel Lives
"It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small
thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."
Plutarch (Life of Alexander/Life of Julius Caesar, Parallel Lives, [tr. E.L. Bowie])
Plutarch stretches and occasionally fabricates the similarities between famous Greeks and Romans in order to be able
to write their biographies as parallel. The lives of Nicias and Crassus, for example, have nothing in common except
that both were rich and both suffered great military defeats at the ends of their lives.[16]
Plutarch
53
In his Life of Pompey, Plutarch praises Pompey's trustworthy character and tactful behaviour in order to conjure a
moral judgement that opposes most historical accounts. Plutarch delivers anecdotes with moral points, rather than
in-depth comparative analyses of the causes of the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Roman Republic,[17] and
tends on occasion to fit facts to hypotheses rather than the other, more scholastically acceptable way round.
On the other hand, he generally sets out his moral anecdotes in chronological order (unlike, say, his Roman
contemporary Suetonius)[17] and is rarely narrow-minded and unrealistic, almost always prepared to acknowledge
the complexity of the human condition where moralising cannot explain it.
Moralia
The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title
of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores). It is an
eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches,
which includes On Fraternal Affection—a discourse on honour and
affection of siblings toward each other, On the Fortune or the Virtue of
Alexander the Great—an important adjunct to his Life of the great
king, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris (a crucial source of information
on Egyptian religious rites),[18] along with more philosophical
treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the
Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as
Odysseus and Gryllus, a humorous dialogue between Homer's
Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was
composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two
decades of Plutarch's own life.
On the Malice of Herodotus
A bust of the early Greek historian Herodotus,
whom Plutarch criticized in On the Malice of
Herodotus.
In On the Malice of Herodotus Plutarch criticizes the historian
Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the “first instance in literature of the
slashing review.”[19] The 19th century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the
works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity."[20] Plutarch makes
some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical
exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a
writer.[4] According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch’s eyes was to advance any
criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch,” he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor
of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”[21]
Questions
Book IV of the Moralia contains the Roman and Greek Questions. The customs of Romans and Greeks are
illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?'
(no. 91) [22] and then suggests answers to them, often several mutually exclusive.
Pseudo-Plutarch
Pseudo-Plutarch is the conventional name given to the unknown authors of a number of pseudepigrapha attributed to
Plutarch. Some editions of the Moralia include several works now known to be pseudepigrapha: among these are the
Lives of the Ten Orators (biographies of the Ten Orators of ancient Athens, based on Caecilius of Calacte), The
Doctrines of the Philosophers, and On Music. One "pseudo-Plutarch" is held responsible for all of these works,
Plutarch
though their authorship is of course unknown. The thoughts and opinions recorded are not Plutarch's and come from
a slightly later era, though they are all classical in origin.
Lost works
The Romans loved the Lives, and enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the
lives managed to survive to the present day. Some scholars, however, believe that only a third to one-half of
Plutarch’s corpus is extant. The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and
from other authors' references over time. There are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.[23]
Plutarch's general procedure for the Lives was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable
Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only nineteen of the
parallel lives end with a comparison while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his Lives
which appear in a list of his writings, those of Hercules, the first pair of Parallel Lives, Scipio Africanus and
Epaminondas, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as
Augustus, Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever.[19][24]
Philosophy
Plutarch was a Platonist, but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and in some details even to Stoicism
despite his polemics against their principles.[25] He rejected absolutely only Epicureanism.[25] He attached little
importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.[26] He was more interested in
moral and religious questions.[26]
In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean "atheism" he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in
accordance with Plato.[26] He adopted a second principle (Dyad) in order to explain the phenomenal world.[26] This
principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the
beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.[26] Thus it was
transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.[26] He elevated God
above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly
defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.[26]
Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.[26]
The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.[27] However pure
Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his
warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid
by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from
all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in the way which had long been usual
among the Stoics.[27]
His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the
same divine Being and the powers that serve it.[27] The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted
allegorically.[27] Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain
as close as possible to tradition.[27]
54
Plutarch
Influence
Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature. Shakespeare in his plays
paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected Lives, and occasionally quoted from them in
verbatim.[28]
Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia — so much so, in fact, that
Emerson called the Lives "a bible for heroes" in his glowing introduction to the five-volume 19th-century edition.[29]
He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the
Chinese Mencius: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid
become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'"[30]
Montaigne's own Essays draw extensively on Plutarch's Moralia and are consciously modelled on the Greek's
easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. Essays contains more than 400
references to Plutarch and his works.[19]
James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own Life of
Samuel Johnson. Other admirers included Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, Louis
L'amour, and Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning.
Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek
and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world
of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."
Translations of Lives and Moralia
There are translations in Latin, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Hebrew.
Italian translations
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia I - «La serenità interiore» e altri testi sulla terapia dell'anima, with Greek text, Italian
translation, introduction and notes, La Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone 1989, pp. LIX-508 (De tranquillitate
animi; De virtute et vitio; De virtute morali; An virtus doceri possit; Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus;
Animine an corporis affectiones sint peiores; De vitioso pudore; De cohibenda ira; De garrulitate; De curiositate ;
De invidia et odio ; De cupiditate divitiarum)
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia II - L'educazione dei ragazzi, with Greek text, Italian translation, introduction and notes, La
Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone, 1990, pp. XXXVIII-451 (De liberis educandis; Quomodo adolescens poetas
audire debeat ; De recta ratione audiendi ; De musica, in collaboration with Leo Citelli)
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia III - Etica e politica, with Greek text, Italian translation, introduction and notes, La
Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone, 1992, pp. XLIII-490 (Praecepta gerendae rei publicae; An seni sit gerenda
res publica; De capienda ex inimicis utilitate; De se ipsum citra invidiam laudando; Maxime cum principibus
philosopho esse disserendum; Ad principem ineruditum; De unius in republica dominatione, populari statu et
paucorum imperio; De exilio)
Giuliano Pisani, Plutarco, Vite di Lisandro e Silla, Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, 1997 (in collaboration with Maria
Gabriella Angeli Bertinelli, Mario Manfredini, Luigi Piccirilli).
55
Plutarch
French translations
Jacques Amyot's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican
text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the Lives in 1559 and Moralia in 1572, which were
widely read by educated Europe.[31] Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because
Thomas North later published his English translation of the Lives in 1579 based on Amyot’s French translation
instead of the original Greek.
English translations
Plutarch's Lives were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete
Moralia was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603.
In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the Lives by several hands and based on
the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century
by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough which can be found in The Modern Library [32] Random
House, Inc. translation.
In 1770 the English brother John and his brother William Langhorne published "Plutarch's Lives from the original
Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone.
Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.
From 1901–1912, American classicist Bernadotte Perrin [33] produced a new translation of the Lives for the Loeb
Classical Library series. The Moralia are also included in the Loeb series, though are translated by various authors.
Latin translations
There are multiple translations of Parallel Lives into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for
"for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation.
German translations
Hieronymus Emser
In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated De capienda ex inimicis utilitate (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen
kan, Leipzig).
Gottlob Benedict von Schirach
The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz
Haas, 1776–80.
Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser
Plutarch's Lives and Moralia were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser:
• Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799-1806.
• Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783-1800.
Subsequent German translations
• Biographies
• Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.): Große Griechen und Römer. 6 Bde. Zürich 1954-1965. (Bibliothek der alten Welt).
• Moralia
• Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung, Zürich 1952.
(Bibliothek der alten Welt)
56
Plutarch
• Bruno Snell (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts - und andere Schriften, Zürich 1948. (Bibliothek der
alten Welt)
• Hans-Josef Klauck (Hrsg.): Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften, Stuttgart 1997. (Reclams
Universal-Bibliothek)
• Herwig Görgemanns (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften, Düsseldorf 2003. (Tusculum)
Hebrew translations
Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's Parallel Lives published in the 1920s and the
1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institution in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The
first volume, Roman Lives, first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of
Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Cato the Elder and Cato the Younger, Gaius
Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Brutus and Mark Anthony.
The second volume, Greek Lives, first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of
Lycurgus, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Lysander, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion, Timoleon, Demosthenes,
Alexander the Great, Eumenes and Phocion. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon,
Themistocles and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.
The third volume, Greek and Roman Lives, published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as
translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and
Artaxerxes, Philopoemen, Camillus, Marcellus, Flamininus, Aemilius Paulus, Galba and Otho, Theseus, Romulus,
Numa Pompilius and Poplicola. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction
to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bilaik Institution intended to publish only a selection of
biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume
in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.
Notes
a. Plutarch was probably born during the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius and between 45 AD and 50 AD.
The exact date is debated.[4]
b. Plutarch was once believed to have spent 40 years in Rome, but it is currently thought that he traveled to Rome
once or twice for a short period.
c. Plutarch died between the years 119 AD and 127 AD.
Footnotes
[1] The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for citizenship in the empire;
in this case Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul.
[2] "Plutarch". Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
[3] Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & III
[4] Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 14033/ 14033. txt). Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4).
The Gutenberg Project. . Retrieved 2007-01-03.
[5] "Plutarch Bio(46c.-125)" (http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ Intros/ Plutarch. php). The Online Library of Liberty. . Retrieved 2006-12-06.
[6] Plutarch, Otho 14.1
[7] Clough, Arthur Hugh (1864). "Introduction" (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ rom/ plutarch/ intro. htm). Plutarch's Lives. Liberty Library of
Constitutional Classics. .
[8] Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.
[9] Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography,
14 (ed.by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p.13
[10] Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24, 67-83
[11] Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24, 67-83
[12] The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the MIT Internet Classics Archive (http:/ / classics. mit. edu/
Plutarch/ galba. html)
57
Plutarch
58
[13] Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24
[14] The murder of Cleitus the Black, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.
[15] Cornell, T.J. (1995). "Introduction". The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC).
Routledge. pp. 3.
[16] Plutarch (1972). "Translator's Introduction". Fall Of The Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch. translated by Rex Warner. Penguin Books.
p. 8.
[17] "Plutarch of Chaeronea" (http:/ / www. livius. org/ pi-pm/ plutarch/ plutarch. htm). Livius.Org. . Retrieved 2006-12-06.
[18] (but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians)Plutarch; translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. "Isis and Osiris" (http:/ /
altreligion. about. com/ library/ texts/ bl_isisandosiris. htm). . Retrieved 2006-12-10.
[19] Kimball, Roger. "Plutarch & the issue of character" (http:/ / www. newcriterion. com/ archive/ 19/ dec00/ plutarch. htm). The New Criterion
Online. . Retrieved 2006-12-11.
[20] Grote, George (2000-10-19) [1830]. A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C.. Routledge. p. 203.
[21] Barrow, R.H. (1979) [1967]. Plutarch and His Times.
[22] http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Moralia/ Roman_Questions*/ E. html#91
[23] "Translator's Introduction" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Introduction*. html). The Parallel
Lives (Vol. I ed.). Loeb Classical Library Edition. 1914. .
[24] McCutchen, Wilmot H.. "Plutarch - His Life and Legacy" (http:/ / www. e-classics. com/ plutarch. htm). . Retrieved 2006-12-10.
[25] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 306
[26] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 307
[27] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 308
[28] Honigmann 1959.
[29] Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1870). "Introduction". In William W. Goodwin. Plutarch's Morals. London: Sampson, Low. p. xxi.
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1850). "Uses of Great Men". Representative Men.
"Amyot, Jacques (1513-1593)". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910-1911).
http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ modernlibrary/ library/ display. pperl?isbn=9780679600084& view=excerpt
http:/ / mssa. library. yale. edu/ findaids/ stream. php?xmlfile=mssa. ms. 1018. xml
References
• Blackburn, Simon (1994). Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Russell, D.A. (2001) [1972]. Plutarch. Duckworth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85399-620-7.
• Duff, Timothy (2002) [1999]. Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice. UK: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-925274-9.
• Hamilton, Edith (1957). The Echo of Greece. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. ISBN 0-393-00231-4.
• Holzbach, M.-C. (2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte: ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and
Biography, 14 (ed.by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT. ISBN 3-8258-9603-X.
• Honigmann, E. A. J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." Shakespeare Quarterly, 1959: 25-33.
• Pelling, Christopher: Plutarch and History. Eighteen Studies, London 2002.
• Wardman, Alan (1974). Plutarch's "Lives". Elek. p. 274. ISBN 0-236-17622-6.
External links
Plutarch's works
• Perseus Project (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/
collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman): many texts of Plutarch and Pseudo-Plutarch in Greek
and English
• Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1) (http://
books.google.com/books?id=1aEMAAAAYAAJ), vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2) (http://books.google.com/
books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ), vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1) (http://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ),
vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2) (http://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ), vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)
(http://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ) (also via BNF (http://gallica.bnf.fr/
Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation="Notice+d'ensemble+:+http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/cb37341822f"&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en))
Plutarch
• Collections of works in English translation: at University of Adelaide (http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/
plutarch/), at LacusCurtius (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html),
Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Plutarch), Lives, trans. North (PDF) (http://oll.
libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php?title=1802&Itemid=99999999)
Secondary material
• Plutarch (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plutarch) entry by George Karamanolis in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Plutarch of Chaeronea (http://www.livius.org/pi-pm/plutarch/plutarch.htm) by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org
• The International Plutarch Society (http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm)
• The relevance of Plutarch's book De Defectu Oraculorum for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the
International Plutarch Society) (http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch and God-eclipse in Christian Theology,
Ploutarchos 2008,2009.pdf)
59
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