Contents - Cypress

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Contents - Cypress

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
4. The Supply Chain
History of Corrugated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Unitizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
Corrugated Recycling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Tracking and Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
Rules and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
1. The Corrugated Cycle
From Raw Materials to the Paper Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
5. Voluntary Guidelines
At the Box Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
Recommended Practice: Storage and Handling of
Corrugated and Solid Fiberboard Packaging Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
Corrugated and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
Voluntary Standard: Tolerances for Scored and
Slotted Corrugated Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
2. Box Styles
Voluntary Standard: Tolerances for Corrugated Regular
Slotted Containers (RSCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
Box Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Slotted Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
Voluntary Guideline: Vacuum Equipment Handling of
Corrugated Fiberboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9
Telescope Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
Folders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
Recommended Practice: Adhesives Used on Corrugated
Fiberboard Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15
Rigid Boxes (Bliss Boxes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
Self Erecting Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12
Corrugated Common Footprint Containers (CCF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
Interior Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14
6. Resources
Bulk Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18
Other Uses for Corrugated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.48
Information Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.59
3. Package Engineering
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.66
Box Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.67
Package Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Graphic Designing, Printing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25
25 Northwest Point Boulevard, Suite 510 • Elk Grove Village, IL 60007 • USA • Phone: 847/364-9600 • Fax: 847/364-9639
www.fibrebox.org
Copyright © 2005 Fibre Box Association
All rights reserved
Introduction
ook around you. Corrugated material is everywhere, used to
display, promote and package almost every product you see and
buy. Food, office supplies, computers, books, clothing, music,
tools, building materials, electronics, you name it. All the things we buy
and use in daily life have already traveled far and wide to reach us,
intact and ready for use—most of it packed and neatly protected in
a corrugated container. A ubiquitous part of American life for more
than a century, corrugated boxes still reign today as the number-one
preferred form of transport packaging.
L
Why has corrugated withstood the test of time so well, and why is it
used so widely throughout the world? Because it’s practical, useful,
economical, renewable and recyclable. It’s lightweight, routinely custom
designed and provides unparalleled merchandising power. Corrugated
protects all kinds of products in shipping from manufacture to point of
sale, all the way to their ultimate destination at home, office or anywhere. It offers unlimited possibilities in design and merchandising
appeal; and when its journey ends, corrugated is recycled again and
again to make more, new corrugated.
What is corrugated? It begins with a good basic idea. Take a piece of
paper and put waves (flutes) in it. Then glue that fluted paper to one
or more layers of strong linerboard. The result? A tough piece of
combined board that can withstand forces from all sides and is made
economically from a renewable, recyclable resource.
Corrugated manufacturers are continuously changing and improving
their product to meet the needs of ever-changing contents, distribution
systems, retailers, manufacturers and consumers. They’ve found ways
to make the paper stronger, lighter and water resistant, just to name
a few innovations. With each of these advances, corrugated packaging
has been refined and improved to help its users create the most
efficient and effective supply-chain dynamics possible, as economics
increasingly demand.
The corrugated industry is versatile, armed with the technology,
resources and imagination to tackle the changing demands of the
future. More than 1300 corrugated plants currently manufacture
or convert corrugated in the United States, making up a $23 billion
industry. As world population and commerce continue to grow,
corrugated will stand as the prevailing champion of transport
packaging—delivering goods safe and sound to burgeoning markets
throughout the world.
The Fibre Box Handbook’s 22nd edition is a resource for those who
use corrugated or work in the corrugated industry. Inside you’ll find a
wealth of information about corrugated’s history, its diverse applications,
a range of common box styles, rules and guidelines governing its
effective use, testing procedures ensuring optimal performance, and
even corrugated’s stellar role in the environment. The more you know
about corrugated, the more you’ll understand its dominance in the
world of packaging.
Thank you for using the Fibre Box Handbook, and thank you for your
part in making corrugated the packaging material of choice.
INTRODUCTION
i
What do glassware, tall hats and Wells Fargo® have in common?
Corrugated, of course. These, along with many other diverse aspects,
have contributed to corrugated’s rich history. As you can see from this
timeline, corrugated has packaged our goods since way before the advent
of airplanes or automobiles. Its colorful past gives corrugated a stable
anchor to propel its use well into the future. Corrugated’s history of
providing the best packaging container possible creates unlimited
opportunity for innovation to meet the challenges of histories yet to come.
HISTORY OF CORRUGATED
ii
History of Corrugated
1690
The first sheet paper mill in North
America was built near Philadelphia.
Historical photos courtesy of the American Paper Museum.
950 bc/bce
100 ad/ce
1400s
The ancient Egyptians produced
the first writing material by pasting
together thin layers of plant stems.
The Chinese created the first
authentic paper from bamboo
and mulberry fibers.
Paper mills appeared in Spain, Italy,
Germany and France.
1452
Johannes Gutenberg invented the
printing press. This idea of movable type
revolutionized the mass production and
circulation of literature.
1767
England wanted to regain their loss of
colonial paper exports. They imposed
the Stamp Act, which included a tax on
all paper made in the colonies. Many
consider this fuel for the American
Revolution.
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1803
The first continuous papermaking
machine was patented.
1854
In England, the first pulp from wood
was manufactured.
1902
Solid fiber boxes were developed.
1856
1903
The first known corrugated material
was patented for sweatband lining in
tall hats of Victorian Englishmen.
Corrugated was first approved as a
valid shipping material and was used
to ship cereals.
1871
1909
Unlined corrugated first appeared as
a packaging material for glass and
kerosene lamp chimneys.
Rubber printing plates were
developed which allowed for
greater design creativity.
The Stein Hall Company reconverted
the corrugated industry to starch
adhesives. They replaced cooked starch
paste with a mixture of cooked and
uncooked starch. They applied heat at
the glue line, which solidified the starch
and created an instant bond.
1874
1914
1944
1968
A liner was added to one side of the
corrugated material to prevent the
flutes from stretching.
Tariffs imposed on corrugated shipping
containers were ruled discriminatory.
The railroad rules changed
to require the minimum combined
weight of the facings versus caliper.
Item 222 appeared,providing truck
shipping rules.
1879
German chemist C.F. Dahl developed
a sulfite pulping process known as kraft.
German for the word “strong,” the kraft
process allowed the U.S. to become a
major producer of paper products.
1894
1919
Rail classifications were combined,
forming Rule 41, which specified the
minimum caliper and Mullen (burst
strength) of individual facings.
1935
1960s
The flexo folder-gluer was invented.
1957
Flexographic printing was introduced.
This method of printing virtually
replaced letterpress and oilbased ink by the 1970s.
1920s
Corrugated containers overtook solid
fiberboard as the packaging of choice.
Corrugated was slotted and cut to
make the first boxes.
1895
Wells Fargo began using corrugated
boxes for small freight shipments.
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1991
The edge crush test was added to
Item 222 and Rule 41 as an alternative
to burst strength and basis weight,
allowing the manufacture of lighter
weight liners.
1970
The Occupational Safety and
Health Act (OSHA) was passed,
regulating packaging machinery
and plant operations.
1999
Preprint printing emerged.
A modular standard for produce
packaging was developed by a
group of FBA member corrugated
manufacturers, who worked together
in an unprecedented, common effort
to defend corrugated’s share of the
produce packaging market.
1973
Late 1980s
2000
The Universal Product Code (UPC)
bar code was introduced.
New developments in the anilox
roll, plate and press design drove
the industry into short-run,highgraphic products.
The Corrugated Common Footprint
(CCF) standard for produce packaging was officially adopted by North
American and European corrugated
industries. The CCF reinforced the
industry’s commitment to serve retail
end-users with innovative supplychain solutions.
1972
The corrugated industry attempted
to update Item 222 and Rule 41.
1975
Congress directed the Department
of Transportation (DOT) to control the
distribution of hazardous substances.
Early 1980s
1977
The Transportation Safety Act
was amended to directly regulate
manufacturers and vendors of
hazardous materials.
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Corrugated Recycling Process
Corrugated is a highly useful,cost-efficient, versatile packaging
material that is used to ship just about every product under
the sun, all around the world. But is doesn’t stop there:
corrugated is also the most-recycled packaging material on
earth, with a recovery rate of about 73 percent.
Businesses, retailers and consumers at home collect and
return their used corrugated containers to be recycled
into new ones, doing their part in a
continuous loop of renewal for this
natural, sustainable packaging.
While almost everyone contributes to
corrugated’s recycling success by
returning their old corrugated containers
(also known as OCC), fewer people may
know where those boxes go from the
collection point, or how they are
processed to create new corrugated
material. This diagram shows corrugated’s
return journey behind the scenes and
how it is recycled for re-use.
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Recycling Process
1.
Corrugated boxes
are used for their
intended purpose
of product protection
and transportation.
2.
Clean, old corrugated
containers (OCC) are
collected, in many
instances as part of
a mixed recyclables
stream. To optimize
recyclability, containers
should be free of contaminants such as food,
metal foil, wax, etc.
3.
Contaminants are removed:
6a.
A big “ragger” chain or rope hangs down into the swirling tub
of material. Some contaminants such as long pieces of rope,
string or tape, plastic and metal bands will wrap around the
ragger and can then be pulled out of the repulper.
6b.
The remaining pulp slurry goes through different types of equipment
such as towers where the metal falls to the bottom for removal,
screens, cyclones, and even big tanks where the contaminants float
to the top and can be scraped off. The cleaned pulp is then sent to
the paper machine.
7.
The highly diluted fiber solution is poured out onto a moving
screen which allows water to drain away, forming a continuous
fiber mat, which is pressed between rollers to remove more water.
The collected OCC is sorted, compacted and baled for spaceefficient storage and handling, either at the point of end-use
(store or business) or at the recycling center.
4.
Bales are transported to
the paper mill.
5.
Bales are broken open,
and the OCC is put
into a repulper (a huge
tub that looks something l
ike a blender) with water.
It is agitated to form a
slushy pulp (slurry) of fiber
and water.
Back | Next
8.
The wet, continuous fiber web is then wound
through the dryer section where the top and
bottom of the alternately contact the heated
surfaces of the drying cylinders, removing the
remaining moisture from the paper.
9.
At the end of the paper machine, paper is rolled up
on a large reel spool which can weigh 10–60 tons.
10.
The reel is then slit and rewound into individual
rolls that weigh approximately 3 tons each. The
recycling process is complete; the new paper
rolls are shipped to box manufacturers to begin
the next stage in life to become new corrugated
boxes.
11.
A sheet of paper which will become the
corrugated “medium” is softened with
steam, then fed through a machine
called a “single-facer.” The medium
passes between two huge metal rolls
with teeth which give it wavy ridges,
or “flutes.”
12.
Starch adhesive is applied to the
fluted medium, which is then sandwiched between two flat sheets of
paper (linerboard).
13.
The combined, 3+-layer board passes
through curing sections in a continuous
web, and then is scored, cut into proper
size blanks (sheets), and stacked.
14.
To manufacture a new box, the
corrugated sheets are passed through
machines that print, score, die cut and
fold them. The side seam of the box
(manufacturer’s joint) is fastened by
gluing, taping or stitching.
New Life
Corrugated boxes are formed using three
or more pieces of paper (containerboard).
The outer surfaces are linerboard and the
inner, fluted paper is called medium.
The finished, flat boxes are gathered into
bundles and stacked, then shipped to
the box customer’s plant.
Back |
The Corrugated Cycle
1.1
From Raw Materials to the Paper Mill
1.4
At the Box Plant
1.10
Corrugated and the Environment
Corrugated is a natural product that is recycled
more than any other packaging material. It is
produced from a renewable resource, by an
industry deeply committed to responsible use
and reuse of its end products.
The following chapters address the life cycle of
corrugated and its role in the environment—from
management of the raw materials, to manufacturing
of paper and corrugated, to recovery and recycling
of corrugated fiber to make new corrugated. All
along the way, corrugated is made and used in
a never-ending cycle that respects our environment
Packaging Corporation of America
and preserves our natural resources to generate
a useful and renewable product.
From Raw Materials to the Paper Mill
C
radle-to-grave environmental
stewardship begins with
the production, harvest and
responsible use of raw materials.
Corrugated’s original raw material comes
from trees, which are managed through
replanting and other responsible forest
management practices. Long-term renewal
of these resources brings the first, natural
ingredient of corrugated to the paper mills
in a continuous cycle that assures a steady
supply of healthy, useful fiber to produce
plentiful corrugated material.
THE CORRUGATED CYCLE
1.1
Raw Materials
Corrugated fiberboard is made primarily from cellulose fiber, which
comes from the wood in trees. However, trees are not the only source
of wood fibers in paper. Approximately half of the wood fiber used to
make paper comes from the following recycled sources:
• Recycled paper, which now also provides about one-third of the raw
material for the paper industry.
The total U.S. paper recovery rate is currently at 50 percent, up from
less than 30 percent in the 1980s. About 73 percent of corrugated is
recovered for recycling today, more than any other packaging material
in the world. In 2004, Americans recycled over 24 million tons of old
corrugated containers (OCC).*
• The lumber industry’s byproducts, including sawdust and small chips.
Once burned as waste, the paper industry now uses these byproducts
to provide about one-third of the wood fibers used to make paper.
Log handling system at a paper mill
At the Paper Mill
American Forest & Paper Association/
Fibre Box Association
To make paper, the cellulose fibers in wood must be separated from
each other. This is no easy task, because a strong type of natural glue,
called lignin, holds them together.
Paper mills use three principal methods to separate the fibers:
mechanical, chemical and semi-chemical. Mechanical separation
involves chipping and grinding the wood into increasingly smaller
units. Chemical separation uses a strong chemical to dissolve and wash
away the lignin. The semi-chemical (semi-chem) method of separating
the cellulose fibers combines mechanical and chemical processes.
Bales of OCC
The chemical process uses either sulfite or sulfate to dissolve the lignin.
The sulfate process, also known as the kraft process, produces the highest
yields with the least damage to the fibers, thus the strongest paper.
*Source: American Forest & Paper Association
1.2
Longview Fibre Company
Different kinds of paper mills make different kinds of paper. For
instance, there are newsprint mills, mills that produce writing papers,
and mills for tissues and specialty papers. Other mills make thicker,
more durable paper called paperboard. Types of paperboard include
boxboard, which is used for folding cartons, and containerboard,
which is the general name for the linerboard and medium used in
corrugated fiberboard.
Linerboard, the
paper used for the
flat inner and outer
facings of a corrugated fiberboard
box, is produced
using the kraft or
sulfate process and
is usually made from
softwoods, which
have the longest
fibers and produce
the strongest
containerboard.
Fiber-forming section of a paper machine
In addition to virgin
fiber from wood,
most linerboard contains a percentage of recycled fibers, and some
linerboard is manufactured using 100 percent recycled fibers from
recycled corrugated containers.
The semi-chem process is used to manufacture medium, the
paper that is fluted in the corrugating process. Medium,
which has different requirements, is made from hardwood
fibers which tend to be shorter and stiffer than softwood
fibers. In addition, a significant amount of the medium used
is made from 100 percent recycled fiber.
After the lignin has been dissolved and the cellulose fibers have been
cleaned, the fiber is diluted to mostly water in slurry that is deposited
onto a moving wire screen. While on this screen, water drains through
the wire, forming a paper mat. After being compressed by a series
of presses and dried, the paper is wound into huge rolls, which are
shipped off to different plants and made into finished products.
The American paper industry produces more containerboard than any
other single paper or paperboard product. Approximately 70 percent of
the containerboard produced is linerboard, while the other 30 percent is
corrugating material, or medium. The containerboard is shipped from
paper mills to box plants, where it is formed into corrugated fiberboard.
This process is described in At the Box Plant.
Paper
WRITING
PAPER
PACKAGING
PAPER
NEWSPRINT
SPECIALTY
PAPERS
TISSUE
Paperboard
CONTAINERBOARD
Linerboard
BOXBOARD
Medium
1.3
At the Box Plant
T
housands of box plants throughout
North America produce corrugated
packaging in manufacturing
Triad Packaging Inc., of TN
processes that continue the industry’s
legacy of efficient, cost-effective production
with a life-cycle approach that is kind to
the environment. North American box
plants supply the world with packaging
that is readily accessible anywhere for
nearly every product that travels the globe.
1.4
The two main components of corrugated fiberboard (also called
corrugated board or combined board) are linerboard (the flat facings)
and medium (the center fluted, or corrugated, material).
Containerboard (a general term for liner and medium) goes through
several different processes before becoming a finished box. The
medium must be fluted and attached to the linerboard to produce
combined board in a continuous web.
This web of combined board is scored (for box flap areas) and cut into
sheets. The sheets are then die cut and scored producing box blanks,
slots are made in the sheets to form box flaps, and other creases or
scores have to be made where the box will fold to form the sides of the
box. In addition, most boxes have designs, logos or other information
printed on them. These printing processes also take place at the box
plant. Finally, the boxes may need to be assembled with glue, staples
or tape.
Great Northern Corporation
Types of Corrugated Manufacturers
There are two different categories of corrugated manufacturing
companies. Integrated companies produce both the raw materials
and the finished product;
that is, they own their own
containerboard mills and
at least 50 percent of the
containerboard used in
their box plants comes from
those mills to manufacture
corrugated. Independent
companies buy more than
50 percent of the raw materials from containerboard
mills, and then produce
their own finished products.
Within those company
categories are three
different types of plants.
The first type is a
corrugator plant (typically
called a sheet feeder) that
manufactures combined
board exclusively to supply
sheets to box plants for
manufacturing boxes or
other finished corrugated
products. The second type
Containerboard is fed into a corrugator
is a corrugator/box plant
machine to create combined board.
that manufactures combined
board sheets, then processes the combined board into boxes or other
finished products; it may also supply sheets to other box plants. The
third type is a sheet plant that purchases the combined board sheets
from a corrugator plant to manufacture boxes or other finished products.
The following paragraphs describe the manufacturing equipment normally
installed in these various types of box plants and identify the products
produced by these general types of equipment. Not all equipment will
be in all plants. Not all equipment will have all the described options
or exhibit all the listed capabilities. The different pieces of equipment
used in a box plant often have overlapping functions. Box manufacturers
decide which machine to use for each portion of the production process,
based on their economic constraints, the size of the job, the schedule for
the day, the end product desired and other individual factors.
Stacks of corrugated sheets prior to converting
1.5
Norampac, Inc.
Corrugator
The corrugator performs several important functions. It puts the flutes
in the medium, and glues the medium to the linerboard to produce
combined board. It is a huge machine—around 300 feet long, 15 to
20 feet high and 12 feet wide, costing millions of dollars. It can produce
multiple types of products: solid fiber sheets, single face, single wall,
double wall or triple wall, and depending on how configured, any of
the several flute types: A, B, C, E, F, etc. (see Box Structure).
Basic corrugating operation
The corrugator can have additional equipment to specially customize
corrugated board to meet specific customer needs. For instance, the
containerboard can be treated to resist water, grease or slippage; or
the combined board can be modified to resist tearing or bulge by using
internal strings and tapes, or for special conditions to resist delamination
by using water-resistant adhesive. The appearance of the box can also
be modified by using colored, bleached or preprinted linerboard.
Corrugating
Adhesive System
Corrugating adhesive is essential in box
manufacture. Often referred to as “starch,”
it is the only component that is made to order
at the corrugated box plant. The adhesive
preparation system (often called the starch
kitchen) blends water and chemicals with
corn- or wheat-based starch to produce
the glue used to adhere the linerboard
and medium together. By manipulating
the amounts of each ingredient, the physical
and chemical properties of the starch adhesive
can be optimized for the most efficient operation
of the corrugator.
General Box Plant — Flow of Production
1.6
Box Blank
Norampac, Inc.
Die-cut corrugated box blank
Cutting dies for a rotary die cutter
A die cutter uses a die
to cut and score the
combined board into shapes. A cutting die consists of custom-made,
steel tooling mounted on a wood frame. Rotary die cutters use a circular
motion to apply the die to the sheet, while platen (flat bed) die cutters
use an up-and-down motion to make the cuts.
The printer-slotter is the least sophisticated machine for making box
blanks from combined board. Unlike the die cutter, it scores and slots
only in straight lines. Printer-slotters are made in various sizes to
accommodate various sizes of sheets.
The printer-slotter is
capable of printing
both text and
graphics. It prints
almost exclusively
using water-based
inks. It then makes
the necessary cuts,
slots and scores,
and stacks the
completed box
blanks.
Die Cutter
Printer-Slotter
Colorado Container Corporation
The combined board
produced by the
corrugator is still a long
way from being a box.
It first has to be made
into a box blank, which is
a flat sheet of combined
board that has been cut,
slotted and scored. After
the combined board
leaves the corrugator, it
can be made into a box
blank in several different
ways: with a printer-slotter,
a die cutter or a flexo
folder-gluer. Each of
these machines uses
a different process and
produces a slightly
different type of
box blank.
Die cutters are used to make die-cut boxes and combined board pieces
with unique designs which require angular, circular or other unusual
cuts, slots and scores. Die cutters can also make perforated lines,
ventilation holes or access holes in the boxes. However, cutting dies
can be expensive, and if only straight cuts and scores are needed, the
slotter-scorer is usually the more economical option. Printing can also
be done on a die cutter, or printing can be done on another machine
before the combined board is fed into the die cutter.
Printer-slotter
1.7
Flexo Folder-Gluer
Stitcher/Taper
Like the printer-slotter, the flexo folder-gluer can print and cut
combined board into box blanks. The flexo folder-gluer’s special
attribute is its ability to apply glue to the blanks, fold them into flat,
finished box blanks, and bundle and stack them.
Some boxes leave the box plant as unjoined box blanks and are
assembled later by the end user. Others are joined at the plant with
the stitcher, taper or flexo folder-gluer described above. Stitchers
and tapers join the ends of corrugated box blanks together with
metal staples or tape.
The flexo folder-gluer also prints the box. It also uses water-based inks,
which are easier to work with, dry more quickly and are environmentally
preferable to the oil-based inks used in the past. The flexo folder-gluer
works much faster than the printer-slotter, so it is often used when large
quantities of boxes need to be produced quickly.
Labeler
Green Bay Packaging
Labelers apply enhanced
lithographic labels to
one or more panels of
a corrugated blank. The
labeling process applies
the label material to a
substrate which can be
single face (called single
face lamination), single
wall, double wall or
triple wall.
Green Bay Packaging
Litholabel application machine
Flexo folder-gluer
1.8
Laminator
Specialty Processes
This machine glues several layers of single or multi-wall corrugated
board together to combine their strengths. The laminator is often used
to make bulk bins, corrugated sheets for pads and specialty applications.
Some box users require unique boxes to protect, cushion or organize
their products. A box manufacturer might use foam sheets, plastic film
or extra corrugated board to accomplish this. Examples of specialty
products include laminated corrugated pads, corrugated board glued
to foam sheets, corrugated board glued to plastic film, pre-glued trays
and box bottoms, die-cut shapes and corrugated partitions.
A laminating machine allows multi-layer construction for heavy-duty
packaging applications.
1.9
Corrugated and the Environment
C
orrugated, made from a natural,
renewable resource, has one of
the best environmental records of
any packaging material on earth. Corrugated
is frequently manufactured using high
percentages of recycled fiber and has the
best recycling rate of any packaging material
used today. Cradle-to-grave environmental
stewardship is a basic hallmark of corrugated
manufacturing, from management of
renewable resources, to responsible
manufacturing processes, to widespread
recovery and recycling to close the loop.
1.10
Environmental concerns play a major role in paper manufacturing. Every
step of the paper production process has been modified to become
more earth-friendly. The corrugated industry has responded (often in
advance) to community and government environmental regulations and
standards. The result of these voluntary efforts is a corrugated material
that meets all environmental guidelines and exceeds the spirit of all
government and industry mandates based on environmental concerns.
Potential pollutants in inks and other substances applied to corrugated
have been decreased. Box plant wastewater has been cleaned up,
reduced and sometimes eliminated. Corrugated products have even
been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
direct food contact.
This is not to say that the paper industry has achieved all its environmental
goals. In the coming years, the push will continue for more productive,
earth-friendly practices. The following illustrates some of the industry’s
environmental advances and describes how you can use corrugated in
“green” ways.
Did you know that recycling is not just a modern-day issue? Early paper
makers used the fibers from old rags to make their product. Citizens
would save their old rags and send them to paper makers for their use.
Today, the fact that paper is a renewable, recyclable resource made from
and resulting in environmentally friendly materials, is truer than ever.
Corrugated is compacted in a baler in a store backroom.
Old corrugated containers (OCC) are turned into:*
• Containerboard (63 percent)
• Recycled paperboard (17 percent)
• Tissue (less than 1 percent)
• Packaging and industrial converting (1 percent)
Recycling
Corrugated fiberboard is more likely to be recycled than any other
product, surpassing glass, aluminum and plastic. Today, 73 percent of
all corrugated is recovered for recycling—up from 54 percent in 1990. In
2004, over 24 million tons of old corrugated were recovered for recycling
in the United States. In fact, a single fiber from a corrugated box can be
recycled many times before it is too short for continued use.
• Exports to other countries (17 percent)
• Other (1 percent)
*Source: American Forest & Paper Association,
Recovered Paper Statistical Highlights 2005 edition
1.11
How to Recycle Corrugated
There are hundreds of waste paper dealers across the country that
buy old corrugated containers (OCC) and paper bags and sell them
to paper mills as raw material. To sell your used corrugated, check the
yellow pages under Waste Paper, or contact the American Forest &
Paper Association, which publishes a directory of waste paper dealers
and recycling centers.
To get the best prices for your OCC and to ensure proper recycling,
follow these guidelines:
• Separate any contaminants from the corrugated, including strapping,
plastic bags, Styrofoam, food waste or floor sweepings. Dealers pay
the highest prices for clean corrugated.
• Remove any boxes that cannot be recycled, especially any that are
contaminated by toxic or hazardous materials. If your corrugated has
been treated with plastic extrusions or laminates, wax coatings, etc.,
it cannot be recycled.
• Some dealers and mills will accept loose material, but large bales are
generally preferred.
Using Earth-Friendly Ink
Heavy metals can become groundwater pollutants if they end up in
landfills or water pollutants if they are in plant wastewater. Legislation
in the early 1990s aimed to reduce the content of certain metals in
packaging—mercury, lead, cadmium and hexavalent chromium—but
the corrugated industry and ink manufacturers had already significantly
reduced their use of these metals. Our products currently meet the
Coalition of Northeastern Governors (CONEG) standards.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used in some oil-based inks
and clean-up solvents, and can be dangerous. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has listed VOCs as hazardous air pollutants. In
an attempt to eliminate the release of VOCs into the atmosphere, the
use of oil-based inks in the corrugated industry has steadily decreased.
Box manufacturers now use water-based inks almost exclusively.
OCC bales staged for repulping
1.12
Eliminating Impact on the Ozone Layer
Certain quick-drying glues used on corrugated boxes have, in the past,
contained ozone-depleting substances (ODS). By 1993, these harmful
substances were virtually eliminated in the glues. Box manufacturers are
continually working with adhesive manufacturers to reduce the quantity
of ozone-depleting substances in their products.
Decreasing Formaldehyde Use
Formaldehyde is a potentially hazardous air emission. Although very
small amounts of bound formaldehyde are still used in the corrugated
industry to make glues water-resistant and to reduce the water solubility
of corrugator starch, its use has been significantly reduced and can only
be measured in parts per million in the finished box.
Diminishing Waste Water
The total amount of water used by the corrugated industry has steadily
decreased since the passage of the Clean Water Act in the early 1980s.
At the same time, the quality of the water that is discharged from box
plants has been improved. Box plant water discharge quality is measured
in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD). The higher the BOD, the
dirtier the water. BOD was cut in half from 1984 to 1993, and it continues
to improve. Many box plants in the industry today have zero water
discharge, and instead internally recycle and reuse their process water
for adhesive and ink.
Recycling Box
Plant Waste
Corrugated manufacturers
not only encourage source
reduction and consumer
recycling of OCC, they also practice what they preach by collecting
and recycling the trimmings from their own plant operations. While
corrugated production continues to grow each year, corrugated
companies have become more efficient so that they produce less scrap
(“double-lined kraft,” or DLK) in the process. In addition, nearly all of
these clippings are recycled.
Health, Safety and Environmental
Packaging Requirements
Different products carry different packaging requirements that may be
imposed by government agencies or others, including CONEG, the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FDA, EPA and individual states.
Corrugated manufacturers offer packaging in compliance with the
required provisions for specified applications. Upon request, box
suppliers will provide documentation pertaining to compliance with
package content requirements (such as the Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. Chapter 9 and its 21 C.F.R. Part 176, “Indirect
Food Additives: Paper and Paperboard Components”; California’s
Proposition 65; heavy metals regulations, and the EPA’s Clean Air Act).
1.13
A Cleaner, Greener End Product
In 1991, freight rules were amended to allow the use of highperformance containerboard. Today, less fiber is used without
compromising performance. Box manufacturers and their customers
can achieve significant source reduction by using lighter weight,
higher performance containerboard that actually provides equal
strength compared to the mullen burst containerboard of the past.
Through its ongoing commitment and attention to all aspects of
corrugated production and renewal, the corrugated industry continues
striving to produce the cleanest, greenest packaging material on earth.
Corrugated’s recycling rate surpasses that of all other packaging materials,
while we’re using less and less raw materials to produce the highestpossible performance containerboard that meets the business needs of
our customers. Meanwhile, ongoing research promises to develop even
greater advances every day, helping maintain corrugated’s leadership in
preserving the earth’s natural resources for future generations.
Practicing Source Reduction
A conveyor feeds OCC into a hydro-pulper.
1.14
Box Styles
2.3
2.6
2.8
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.18
2.19
Slotted Boxes
Telescope Boxes
Folders
Rigid Boxes (Bliss Boxes)
Self-Erecting Boxes
Corrugated Common Footprint Containers (CCF)
Interior Forms
Bulk Bins
Other Uses for Corrugated
The primary use for corrugated combined board
is boxes. The Box Styles section describes some
of the various design options. Look through them
to find the package you’re looking for or to get
ideas. Take advantage of corrugated’s versatility.
Box Styles
B
oxes can be used to ship
everything from apples to
washing machines. By changing
the design of a box, combining layers
of corrugated or adding interior
packaging, a corrugated box can
be manufactured to efficiently ship
and store almost any product.
BOX STYLES
2.1
Many standard box styles can be identified in three ways: by a descriptive
name, by an acronym based on that name, or by an international code
number. For example, a Regular Slotted Container could also be referred
to as an RSC or as #0201.
The numerical code system, known as the International Fibreboard Case
Code, was developed by the European Federation of Corrugated Board
Manufacturers (FEFCO) in collaboration with the European Solid Board
Organisation (ESBO) to avoid confusion when communicating in
different languages.
This code also has been adopted by the International Corrugated Case
Association (ICCA) and the United Nations. Copies of the complete
International Fibreboard Case Code are available from FEFCO:
www.fefco.org.
There are many standard corrugated box styles—so many, in fact,
that it is impossible to describe them all here. As you look through the
following box style descriptions, please keep in mind there are other
standard styles from which to choose. In addition, corrugated boxes
can be custom designed to meet the specific needs of any box user.
A manufacturer’s representative will have more information about
additional box style options.
The following box styles are grouped in categories: Slotted Boxes,
Telescope Boxes, Folders, Rigid Boxes (Bliss Boxes), Self-Erecting
Boxes and Interior Forms.
BOX STYLES
2.2
Slotted Boxes:
International Fibreboard Case Code: 02 Series
0201 Regular Slotted Container (RSC)
Slotted box styles are generally made from one piece of corrugated or
solid fiberboard. The blank is scored and slotted to permit folding. The
box manufacturer forms a joint at the point where one side panel and
one end panel are brought together. Boxes are then shipped flat
to the user. When the box is needed, the box user squares up the box,
inserts product and closes the flaps. The International Fibreboard Case
Code refers to these styles as Slotted-Type Boxes, while the carrier
classifications call them Conventional Slotted Boxes.
All flaps have the same length, and the
two outer flaps (normally the lengthwise
flaps) are one-half the container’s width,
so that they meet at the center of the box
when folded. If the product requires a flat,
even bottom surface, or the protection of two
full layers, a fill-in pad can be placed between the
two inner flaps.
L
W
L
D
1/2
W
Same as Regular Slotted Container (0201)
without one set of flaps.
D
0200 Half Slotted Container (HSC)
W
L
W
1/2 W
0202 Overlap Slotted Container (OSC)
All flaps have the same length. The outer
flaps overlap by one inch or more. The box
is easily closed, usually with staples driven
through the overlap area.
D
L
W
This is a highly efficient design
for many applications. There is
very little manufacturing waste.
The RSC can be used for most
products and is the most
common box style.
L
This style is used when the length of the
box is considerably greater than the width,
resulting in a long gap between the inner flaps.
The sealed overlap
helps to keep the
outer flaps from
L
W
W
pulling apart.
1/2 W+
BOX STYLES
2.3
0205 Center Special Overlap Slotted
Container (CSO)
0203 Full Overlap Slotted Container (FOL)
All flaps have the same length (the width of the
box). When closed, the outer flaps come
within one inch of complete overlap.
All flaps have the same length (one-half
the length of the box). The length of the
box can be no more than twice its width.
D
The style is especially resistant to rough
handling. Stacked on its bottom panel, the
overlapping flaps provide added cushioning.
Stacked on its side, the extra thickness
provides added stacking strength.
D
L
L
W
L
W
W
1/2
L
When closed, the inner flaps meet at the
center of the box, providing a level base
and full top protection. Depending on the
ratio of length to
width, the outer
flaps overlap at
random, up to
W
W
L
full overlap.
0206 Center Special Full Overlap
Slotted Container (SFF)
0204 Center Special Slotted Container (CSSC)
Inner and outer flaps are cut to different
lengths. Both pairs of flaps meet at the
center of the box.
Inner and outer flaps are cut to different
lengths. When closed, the inner flaps meet
at the center of the box, and outer flaps
fully overlap.
1/2 L
W
D
W
L
L
1/2 W
L
With three full layers of combined board
over the entire top and bottom, this style
provides extra cushioning
when stacked on its
bottom, or extra stacking
strength when stacked
on its side.
W
L
1/2
W
L
A variation of this box is the
Side Special Slotted Container,
or SSS. All pairs of flaps meet,
but not at the center of the box.
W
D
The style is especially strong because
both the top and bottom have double the
thickness of corrugated board. The inner flaps,
with no gap, provide a level base for the product.
BOX STYLES
2.4
0225 Full Bottom File Box, Hamper Style,
Ft. Wayne Bottom, or Anderson Lock Bottom
When set up, this box provides an
interlocking thickness on its bottom
and on its end panels.
D
The four flaps that form the bottom panel
are die cut. To set up, the user folds the
largest bottom panel first, then the two end
panels. When the remaining bottom panel
is folded and pressure is applied near the
center, the flap “snaps” into the slot created
by the other panels.
D
0215 Snap or 1-2-3 Bottom Container
with Tuck Top
W
L
W
L
The style is convenient for small-volume shippers
who do not have automatic set-up equipment.
Because the bottom is not fully sealed, it may
not be suitable for heavy products.
D
W
0226 Bellows Style Top and
Bottom Container
W
D
L
W
L
W
L
0216 Snap or 1-2-3 Bottom Container
with RSC Top
0228 Integral Divider Container, RSC with
Internal Divider or Self Divider Box
W
Same as 0215, replacing the tuck top
configuration with RSC style flaps.
1/2
L
W
L
W
D
W
D
L
W
L
W
W
BOX STYLES
2.5
Telescope Boxes:
Telescope boxes usually consist of a separate top, or top and bottom
that fit over each other or a separate body. The International Fibreboard
Case Code calls these boxes Telescope-Style. The truck and rail
classifications call them Telescope Boxes if the cover extends over
at least two-thirds of the depth, and Boxes with Covers if the cover
extends over less than two-thirds of the depth.
0301 Full Telescope Design Style
Container (FTD)
The two-piece box is
made from two scored
and slotted blanks (trays).
W
W+
0301 “SS”, 0301 “ES” Trays, Design Style
D
D+
D
L+
D+
W
L
Body
L
0301 “ES”
End Slotted
0306 Design Style Container
with Cover (DSC)
D
W+
0301 “SS”
Side Slotted
Cover
W
D
L
D
L+
BOX STYLES
2.6
0325 Interlocking Double Cover Container (IC)
Flanges on the body, folded together (interlocked/baseloid) with flanges on the covers,
are held in place with strapping.
L+
D
L+
L
W
L
D
W
W+
The style is frequently used for
tall or heavy products that
would be difficult to lower into
a box. The item is placed on
the bottom cover, and the tube
is lowered over the product.
W+
W+
A tube forms the body.
The two interchangeable
covers are usually design
style. The pieces are
shipped flat to the user,
who opens the tube and
sets up the covers.
W
The style offers the same ease of packing
provided by the double-cover box, with the
assurance that the covers will not separate
from the body. This feature is advantageous
for moving large
or heavy products
such as washers,
dryers, refrigerators, water
L+
L+
heaters, vending
machines and
some hazardous
materials.
W+
0310 Double Cover
Container (DC)
L
W
L
0320 Full Telescope Half Slotted Container (FTHS)
The two-piece body is made from
two half-slotted containers.
0351 Octagonal Double Cover Container
D
1/2 W+
Same as 0310 with additional panels.
L+
W+
L+
W
L
W
L
1/2 W
D
D
W+
BOX STYLES
2.7
Folders:
0403 One Piece Folder with Air Cell/ End
Buffers, Protect All or Bookwrap
D
For folders, one or more pieces of combined board provide an
unbroken bottom surface, and are scored to fold around a product.
The International Fibreboard Case Code describes them as
Folder-Type Boxes. The carrier classifications use the term Folders.
W
0401 One Piece Folder (OPF)
L
One piece of board is cut so that it
provides a flat bottom, with flaps
forming the sides and ends, and
extensions of the side flaps meeting
to form the top.
D
0406 Wrap Around Blank
1/2 W
D+
W
D+
A wrap-around blank is formed into a
box by folding it tightly around a rigid
product. The positioning of the product,
folding and sealing are performed by
automatic equipment.
1/2 W
L
L
W
D
W
The finished box is essentially an
RSC, turned on its side so that the
bottom and top are unbroken. The
joint, however, is not formed until
the final closure.
D
BOX STYLES
2.8
0415 One Piece Folder (OPF) with Dust Flaps
D
W
D
W
D
L
W
D
D
1/2
D
W
A single cut and scored piece
features a fifth panel used as the
closing flap, completely covering
a side panel. The closed box has
several layers of combined board on
each end, providing stacking strength
and protection for long articles of small
diameter which might be damaged, or
damage the box, if pushed through
the ends.
1/2
W
0410 Five Panel Folder (FPF) or
Harness Style Five Panel Folder
L
D
0416 One Piece Folder (OPF), Die Cut with
Dust and Tuck Flaps
D
0411 Center Seam FPF
W
D
D
1/2 W
L
L
1/2
W
D
W
D
1/2
W
D
1/2 W
D
BOX STYLES
2.9
0422 Roll End Tray, Walker Lock Tray, or
Tray with Self Locking Ends
0457 Self Locking Tray, Joint-less Tray
W
D
Trays are not shipping containers,
but they are frequently used as
inner containers for parts,
delicate produce, letter mail
and other products, or as
elements of display stands.
D
L
D
D
L
D
0460 Display Tray or High Wall Tray
D
D
L
W
D
0470 Roll End Tray with Tuck Top and Interior
Bottom Flaps or Reverse Walker Lock with
Inside Tuck Top
W
D
W
0427 Roll End Tray with Locking Cover
W
L
D
D
W
Formed from a single piece of
combined board, the design features
an unbroken bottom, and several layers
of corrugated in the end panels.
L
W
D
W
D
W
BOX STYLES
2.10
Rigid Boxes (Bliss Boxes):
0601B Bliss Style Container with End Flaps
and End Panel Legs
w
D
1/2 w
D
1/2 w
L
D
D
w
w
The three pieces of a rigid box style include two identical end panels
and a body that folds to form the two side panels, an unbroken bottom
and the top. Flaps used to form the joints can be on the end pieces or
the body or both. The end panels are attached to the body with special
equipment, usually at the user’s plant. Six or more joints must be sealed
to set up the box before it is filled. The name Rigid Boxes comes from
the fact that once the six or more joints are sealed, the box is rigid. The
International Fibreboard Case Code identifies these styles as Rigid-Type
Boxes. In the carrier classifications, rigid boxes are classified as
Conventional Slotted Boxes or Recessed End Boxes.
0606A Bliss Style Container
0601A Bliss Style Container with End Flaps
w
D
1/2 w
D
1/2 w
L
w
D
1/2 w
D
1/2 w
L
D
D
w
w
D
D
w
w
0606B Bliss Style Container with
End Panel Legs
w
D
1/2 w
D
1/2 w
L
D
D
w
w
BOX STYLES
2.11
Self-Erecting Boxes:
0711 Pre-glued Auto Bottom with
RSC Top Flaps
0760 Self-Erecting Six Corner Tray
D
W
D
W
D
D
For a telescope-style box, two
self-erecting pieces can be used
(International Fibreboard Case
Code: 0714).
L
The top panels of the box are usually
those of a regular slotted container.
L
W
L
W
BOX STYLES
2.12
Corrugated Common
Footprint Containers (CCF)
(CCF) for Produce was developed
by the Fibre Box Association in
1999 to help retail grocers optimize
efficiency in their supply chains.
CCF containers are modular, with
two footprint options (half-size, or
10-down, and full-size, or 5-down)
that feature interstacking tabs and
receptacles to help assure stability
even for mixed pallet loads. They
are available as display-ready
(mostly open-top) or non-display
(closed) containers. Only the footprint and tab/receptacle sizes and
locations are specified within the
CCF standard. Box depth, interior dimensions and all other style design
criteria are left open for the box manufacturer and customer to develop
according to the specialized needs of each application. Full-size CCF
containers measure 231⁄2 x 1511⁄16 inches O.D. (outer dimensions);
half-size CCF containers are 1511⁄16 x 1111⁄16 inches O.D.
mm
298 11 ⁄16 in.
or 11
398 mm
or 1511⁄16 in.
398
or 1 11mm
5 ⁄16
in.
597 mm
or 231⁄2 in.
BOX STYLES
2.13
Interior Forms:
Liners, tubes, pads, build-ups, dividers, partitions and other inner
packing pieces can be made in an infinite variety of ways to separate
or cushion products, to strengthen the box or to prevent product
movement by filling voids. They may be simple rectangles, or scored,
slotted, scored and slotted, or die-cut shapes.
Pads are plain shapes of corrugated or solid fiberboard. They can be
used to fill the space between the inner flaps of an RSC, to completely
cover the bottom or top of a box, or to separate layers of product.
Vertically, they can be used to separate products.
Many of the common interior forms have been given International
Fibreboard Case Code numbers. The carrier classifications provide
specifications for some pieces used in the packing of glassware and
other fragile articles.
pads
0900
BOX STYLES
2.14
Tubes are scored rectangles, folded and sometimes joined with tape
to form a multi-sided structure open at both ends. When used as
sleeves for individual items such as glassware, adjacent shells provide
double protection.
tube
0908
tube
0904
tube
0909
tube
0905
tube
0910
tube
0906
tube
0907
tube
0914
BOX STYLES
2.15
Partitions or dividers provide a separate cell for each item in a box.
They are used primarily for glassware and other fragile articles.
partition
0931
partition
0920
4x
partition
0933
partition
0921
3x
2x
partition
0935
partition
0930
2x
2x
2x
1x
BOX STYLES
2.16
Inner packing pieces, which are scored and folded, can take many
shapes. Included in this group are built-up pads consisting of multiple
pieces glued together. Inner packing pieces are used for cushioning,
suspension and separation, and to fill voids. The suspension function
holds the product away from the walls of the box to lessen the impact
of drops or bumps. Completely filling the voids created by irregularly
shaped products adds stacking strength to the box.
inner packing
piece
0965
Inner packing forms are usually die cut to position and support
irregular products from below, or lock them into position from above.
Alternatively, forms can be placed on two sides or ends of a product.
Some inner packing forms are extensions of the box flaps.
inner packing form
Die-Cut Support Pad
inner packing
piece
0966
inner packing
piece
0967
BOX STYLES
2.17
Bulk Bins
The bulk bin is a large corrugated fiberboard tube or half-slotted body,
with one or two covers, frequently of the interlocking type.
The distinction between a box and a bulk bin is not defined
in the box style itself, but usually refers to the quantity of
contents. The container for 40 pounds of a granular
product, or a single refrigerator, is a box; the
container for 3,000 pounds of a granular product
(“in bulk”), or 500 towels (“loose” products) or
small packages, isa bulk bin.
Some carriers encourage the use of bulk binsto
consolidate smaller packages and reduce handling
time. However, the customer must be capable of
handling the bulk bin at itsultimate destination.
Because of their filled weight, bulk bins are frequently
placed on a pallet, providing easy access for the
tines of a forklift truck. Lift trucks with special
attachments (baseloid) are sometimes used;
the attachments slip under the flanges of the
interlocking covers and pallets are not needed.
Bulk bins are used for everything from automobile
parts to marshmallows.
BOX STYLES
2.18
Although corrugated fiberboard is most often used to make boxes, it
has many other uses as well. Floor and counter displays found in retail
stores are often made of corrugated, as well as slip sheets and pallets.
Interstate Resources, Inc.
Corrugated is widely used in point-of-purchase (POP) displays. Retailers
have found that corrugated POP displays are more efficient, more effective and less expensive than metal shelves or plastic containers. The
corrugated displays may be customized; are inexpensive to make; are
easy to ship, assemble and move; and can
be changed whenever needed at minimal
cost. Corrugated is often more environmentally responsible than many competing
materials used to make packages and POP
displays. Like the packages themselves,
POP displays are sales tools and are
designed accordingly.
International Corrugated Packaging Foundation
Other Uses for Corrugated
Architecture student Terry Chang f
ashioned 240 feet of singleface board
into this chair to win the International
Corrugated Packaging Foundation’s
2005 “Chair Affair” design competition.
Displays from Great Northern Corporation
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, some
designers started to make furniture and
other objects for the home out of corrugated. These designs came out
of social movements of the time which
sought to escape materialism and
environmental destruction by creating
inexpensive, sustainable alternatives to
the products available in the mainstream
culture. Today, corrugated couches,
chairs, and even dining room and conference room tables are manufactured and
used. Some contemporary artists also
use corrugated to express themselves
creatively.
BOX STYLES
2.19
Package Engineering
3.1
Box Structure
3.7
Package Engineering
3.25
Graphic Designing, Printing and Finishing
One of corrugated’s most distinct advantages over
other forms of packaging is its versatility, which allows
every package to be custom designed for a specific
application. Corrugated packaging is designed and
manufactured to meet the specific requirements of its
contents—whatever they may be. From the structural
design of each container, to its performance, to the
printing and finishing that provide powerful merchandising value, the entire package is engineered to meet
each customer’s unique needs. The following chapters
discuss basic box structure, engineering considerations
for performance in shipping, storage and handling,
Weyerhaeuser Company
and the printing and finishing processes that give every
corrugated package the power to sell and identify all
kinds of products around the world. Every step of the
way, the corrugated industry continues to draw upon
innovative ideas and technologies to produce the
most versatile packaging material imaginable.
Box Structure
C
orrugated fiberboard, or
“combined board,” has two
main components: the liner-
board and the medium. Both are made
of a special kind of heavy paper called
containerboard. Linerboard is the flat
facing or liner that adheres to the medium.
The medium is the corrugated or fluted
paper glued between the linerboard facings.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.1
The following illustrations demonstrate four types of combined board.
Doublewall:
Three sheets of linerboard with two mediums in between.
Singlewall:
The corrugated medium is glued between two sheets of linerboard.
Also known as Doubleface.
Triplewall:
Four sheets of linerboard with three mediums in between.
Singleface:
One corrugated medium is glued to one flat sheet of linerboard.
Linerboard
Medium
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.2
Flutes
Architects have known for thousands of years that an arch with the
proper curve is the strongest way to span a given space. The inventors
of corrugated fiberboard applied this same principle to paper when
they put arches in the corrugated medium. These arches are known
as flutes and when anchored to the linerboard with a starch-based
adhesive, they resist bending and pressure from all directions.
Flutes come in several common sizes or profiles:
• A-flute was the original flute profile for corrugated board.
It has about 33 flutes per foot.
• B-flute was then developed for canned goods. It has
about 47 flutes per foot
• C-flute was next developed as an all-purpose flute and
it has about 39 flutes per foot.
• E-flute was the next successful flute profile and it has
about 90 flutes per foot.
• F-flute was developed for
small folding carton-type
boxes. It has about
125 flutes per foot.
F
E
For centuries, architects have used arches and columns to uphold heavy loads.
When a piece of combined board is placed on its end, the arches form
rigid columns, capable of supporting a great deal of weight. When
pressure is applied to the side of the board, the space between the
flutes acts as a cushion to protect the container’s contents. The flutes
also serve as an insulator, providing some product protection from
sudden temperature changes. At the same time, the vertical linerboard
provides additional strength and protects the flutes from damage.
C
B
A
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.3
Smurfit-Stone Container Corporation
Different flute profiles can be combined in one piece of combined
board. For instance, in a triplewall board, one layer of medium might
be A-flute while the other two layers may be C-flute. Mixing flute profiles
in this way allows designers to manipulate the compression strength,
cushioning strength and total thickness of the combined board.
In doublewall or triplewall, varied
flute profiles provide advantages
over flutes of the same size that
are perfectly aligned.
In addition to these five most common profiles, new flute profiles—
both larger and smaller than those listed here—have been created for
more specialized boards. Generally, larger flute profiles deliver greater
vertical compression strength and cushioning. Smaller flute profiles
provide enhanced structural and graphics capabilities for primary
(retail) packaging. There is also a good deal of variance in the range
of flute sizes based upon the container characteristics that are desired
for each application.
Adhesives
The corrugating medium is normally bonded to the liners with a
starch-based adhesive. It is available in several levels of water resistance.
Regular starch has very limited water resistance. Moisture Resistant
Adhesives (MRA) or Water Resistant Adhesives (WRA) are two types
of adhesives having substantial resistance to damage from very high
humidity or condensation. If a box is going to be totally immersed in
water, you will need Water Proof Adhesive (WPA). It is normally used
only with wax replacement materials or government grades such as V3c,
made with wet strength liners.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.4
Manufacturer’s Joint
A flat piece of corrugated fiberboard that has been cut, slotted and
scored is called a box blank. For some box styles, in order to make
a box, the two ends of the box blank must be fastened together with
tape, staples or glue. The place where these two ends meet is known as
the manufacturer’s joint.
Liquid adhesives are most often used to join the two surfaces. Often
there is a glue tab, extending along one end of the box blank. This
tab is scored and folded to form one corner of the box when joined.
The tab can be joined to either the inside or the outside of the box.
If there is no tab, the box must be joined using tape. Item 222 (see
the Appendices) requires a minimum 11⁄4-inch overlap with adhesive
coverage of the entire contact area, and gives specifications for the
tape used and the distance between the staples.
Taped Joint
(illustrated outside
of box)
Not all boxes have manufacturer’s joints; for example, the Bliss
Box does not. However, most widely used box styles have
manufacturer’s joints.
Extended Glue Tab
(illustrated inside
of box)
Stitched Joint
(illustrated inside
of box)
11/4" Min.
Overlap
11/4" Min.
Overlap
11/4" Min.
Overlap
Stitched Joint
(illustrated outside
of box)
11/4" Min.
Overlap
Glued Joint
(illustrated inside
of box)
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.5
Box Dimensions
Dimensions are given in the sequence of length, width and depth.
Internationally, the words length, breadth and height may be used to
express these dimensions. The dimensions of a box are described
based on the opening of an assembled box, which can be located on
the top or the side, depending on how it is to be filled. The opening of
a box is a rectangle; that is, it has two sets of parallel sides. The longer
of the two sides is considered its length, the shorter of the two sides
is considered its width. The side perpendicular to length and width is
considered the depth of the box.
WID
TH
LEN
Dimensions can be specified for either the inside or the outside of the
box. Accurate inside dimensions must be determined to ensure the
proper fit for the product being shipped or stored. At the same time,
palletizing and distributing the boxes depends on the outside dimensions. The box manufacturer should be informed as to which dimension
is most important to the customer.
D
GTH
EPTH
Five Panel Folder and
Wrap-Around
DE
TH
DEPTH
NG
H
LE
PT
W
I
D
T
H
WID
LEN
TH
GTH
End Loading
Top Loading
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.6
Package Engineering
P
ackage engineering can be a
complicated process. To become
expert in it, engineers receive
years of specialized training and on-thejob experience. Since every package
presents its own set of problems, each
with many possible solutions, we will not
attempt to present a simple “how to”
chapter for package engineering.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.7
Instead, this chapter outlines many of the different aspects of the package
that the engineer may need to consider. These include the properties and
requirements of the product being packaged, the mode(s) in which the
package will be shipped and stored, the functions the package may be
asked to perform, and many others. Over-engineering is not a feasible
option in this competitive age. Use this information as a checklist of
important points to remember, not as a step-by-step guide for
package engineering.
The most important items an engineer must keep in mind are legal
considerations. These might involve hazardous waste, hazardous
materials, direct food contact or other issues. The box designer may
only be familiar with regulations that pertain directly to the packaging
materials and markings, but specific information based on the shipper’s
knowledge of the regulations is also needed. If meeting the requirements
is burdensome, consider whether it may be possible within the spirit
and letter of the law to reformulate or reconfigure the product (size,
weights, volumes shipped, etc.) to bring it to a non-regulated or less
regulated status. The product manufacturer/box user is the only party
able and qualified to make this type of determination.
Beyond the legal considerations, the engineer should design a package
thinking of manufacturing requirements for the product and the package, the distribution environment and the end user of the package—the
customer’s customer. The quality, performance, cost and efficiency
should be optimized for the specific application.
There are various specifications establishing quality levels a box must
have in order to be acceptable to the purchaser or user. These levels
and qualities should be based on the intended use of the box, including
the handling and the environment it will encounter. The qualities should
be testable using standard methods recognized by both the buyer and
seller. Recognized test procedures are included in the Tests chapter.
Consider This...
Following is a list of the items the packaging engineer should consider
when developing the design for efficient, effective packaging. Many
outside factors dictate what a package should and should not do. The
box user and the engineer must remember to think about what the
package will hold, how it will be transported, the hazards associated
with transportation, any manufacturing/assembly or marketing issues,
any disposal and environmental issues, cost efficiency and the time
needed to complete the project. Each issue is explained in detail later
on in the chapter.
Many detailed processes go into making the perfect box.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.8
Product
Product Characteristics:
Concerns that apply to the product (or article) being packaged:
• Shape
Product Form(s):
• Strength characteristics—fragility regarding shock
and/or vibration, and the ability to carry stacked load
• Physical nature—Consider possible physical changes
due to temperature and pressure fluctuations
during distribution.
• Solids—Are there multiple or discrete items with
differing needs?
• Fluids (including gases and flowable solids)—These will
have inertia and momentum responses relating to high
or low viscosity. Is vapor pressure in the headspace
a concern? Is it under pressure?
• Is it:
– Perishable?
– Hygroscopic?
– Easily corroded?
– Adhesive or cohesive?
• Contamination
– Is it subject to physical, chemical, biological and
odor influences?
– Does it have the potential to contaminate other
articles in the box or other cargo in the vehicle?
• Light sensitivity—visible, UV, IR, etc.
• Magnetic field—Does it create a magnetic field or
is it sensitive to a magnetic field?
• Abrasion—Is it easily scuffed or is it abrasive itself?
Primary Package
The following factors pertain to primary packaging that may be
part of the packaging system.
• Count and arrangement of product
• Orientation
• Vulnerability to crush, abrasion and puncture
Design center
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.9
Hazards of the Distribution Environment
Transportation and warehousing are the most frequent places where
product and package damage may occur.
Transportation Modes
The mode or modes of transportation that will be used in the product’s
distribution system is a key factor in designing efficient packaging.
Motor freight
• Common carrier/less than truckload (LTL)—may need
to meet Item 222 and will have other items in other
package types and unit loads included in the trailer
• Contract carrier/full truckload (TL)—may need to
meet package specifications in the contract
Rail
• Carload (CL)
• Less than carload (LCL)—may need to meet Rule 41
and will have other items in other package types and
unit loads included in the rail car
Ship
• Full container
Air
• Containerized
• Break bulk
Intermodal
• TOFC (trailer on flatcar)
• COFC (container on flat car)
Overnight or small parcel
• Frequently unknown mix of truck, TOFC
(Truck On Flat Car) and air freight
Carrier Rules
If the package has been designed to protect and contain the product
through the entire distribution scenario, the package will most likely
meet applicable freight rules. However, there are certain areas of primary concern; specifically, LTL trucking is difficult and damage prone,
and hazardous material packaging for the small parcel or air environment carries additional design and testing burdens. Both the shipper
and box designer need to be aware of, and address, all applicable
requirements for the packaged product and the distribution modes and
environments it will encounter.
• Less than a full container—will have other items
in other package types and unit loads included in
the container
• Break bulk
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.10
Compression
Other Hazards
Static loads, such as those stacked in a warehouse, are affected
by load, time, humidity (static and cyclic), stack pattern, and pallet
type and condition.
Vibration—primarily from transportation, occasionally from handling
Dynamic loads, such as those stacked in transit:
Temperature—ambient and within the vehicle
Vertical hazards:
Humidity—constant and cyclic relative humidity, in transit and in storage
• Momentary loading, frequently between
.25 and 1.75 g’s
Horizontal hazards:
• Clamp handling
• Railcar humping/coupling
Puncture—from concentrated loads and handling
Pressure—may cause volume or dimensional changes of product or
primary and transport package:
• during surface transportation, such as from
sea level to mountains
• during air transport
• Trailer sway
Corrosion—reactions between product and package, or product and
ambient conditions
• Vessel roll
Energy—electrostatic, magnetic, light and radioactivity
Contamination—physical, chemical, biological or from tampering
Shock
Including drops and horizontal impacts from:
• Manual handling (bottom, side, top, edge and
corner drops)
Shrink—product loss due to rodents, insects, tampering or pilferage
Time—time negatively affects all packaging capabilities to some degree!
• Mechanical handling (forklift, conveyor, etc.)
– Bottom drops of unit loads
– Impact with truck, racks, other loads and
packages, etc.
• The transportation process (falls within vehicle
and transient inputs, such as potholes, rail
crossings or curbs)
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.11
Manufacturing and Assembly Issues
Closure materials:
Setup—The method of setup will affect packaging configuration.
• Tape
• Strapping
Setup methods can be:
• Glue
• Film—stretch or shrink
• Manual
• Semi-automatic
• Automatic
Closure method:
• Manual
Filling—The environment and process in which the package is filled may
be very important to design choices:
• Are there temperature or
humidity concerns?
• Automatic
Graphics:
• Panel size and configuration
• Suitability of substrate
Green Bay Packaging
• Who will be doing
the filling?
• Are the packages
automatically set-up,
filled and closed?
• Semi-automatic
Marketing Issues
• Is the filling environment
under specific restrictions,
such as clean rooms?
– Trained labor
– Casual labor
– Outsourced labor
• Staples (stitching)
– Color
– Brightness
– Gloss
– Hold out
• Bar coding
• Regulatory Markings
Product display:
• Visibility
• Accessibility
Packaging equipment considerations:
• Speeds (throughputs)
• Handling—vacuum or mechanical
• Conveying (type, size constraints, ramps, turns or change
in direction deflectors)
Ease of use:
• Opening and closing
• Reuse
• Storage
• Dispensing and measuring
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.12
Disposal and
Environmental Issues
Packaging disposal is sometimes regulated, often depending on enduse location or product type. Consider the environmental regulations
at the point of end use—the burden of the package may be on the
consumer. Avoid contamination of a package that constrains a preferred
disposal method, such as recycling.
• “Reduce” packaging weight and disposal volume, freight
volume and number of trips to transport the product.
• “Reuse” packaging when it is possible and appropriate, safe,
legal and cost-efficient.
• “Recycle” packaging whenever appropriate.
• Use recycled materials when appropriate and within quality
and cost parameters.
Cost and Efficiency
Designing Transport Packaging
Cost-effectiveness has always been a prime consideration for transport
packaging. Historically it has been viewed solely as a value retainer
as opposed to a value adder. This approach is being challenged by
increased contributions from transport packaging, such as shelf
presence, marketing, advertising and ongoing consumer uses (product
dispensing, disposal, etc.). However, as the corrugated package increases
value, it is still required to protect the product throughout its complete
distribution cycle.
As more is demanded of the transport package, and distribution and
marketing options multiply, package development can seldom follow
a sequential, “cookbook” approach. Development has become a twoor three-dimensional process, meaning the package designer must
consider many factors and requirements.
Developing efficient, cost-effective transport packaging requires a
systems approach. This is essential because package performance
frequently impacts and is influenced by functions as diverse as
manufacturing, marketing, environmental stewardship, and public
health and safety.
• Direct costs: cost per package and purchased cost
• Indirect costs:
– Product manufacturing impacts
– Automated packaging system impacts
– Marketing
– Package disposal
– Product loss—from physical damage, pilferage, degradation
or contamination
• Opportunity costs: package cost versus impact on sales, including
consumer reaction, time to market and ease of consumer acquisition
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.13
The Development Process
Design and Engineering for Performance
While most of us would like a simple, step-by-step approach to transport
package development, there is no common sequential approach that fits
all products and applications. There are, however, five identifiable phases
that typically occur prior to the launch of a successful package:
Given the almost limitless combinations of product, customer and
consumer needs, the focus of this section is to develop packaging
that is appropriate to the product, transportation, distribution and
marketing environments based on the items listed and described in
the beginning of this chapter.
• Identify the requirements, such as product marketing, manufacturing
and regulatory influences, product and distribution requirements,
customer needs and consumer expectations.
• Design and engineer.
• Qualify—Complete performance testing, marketing review or focus
group evaluation and manufacturing trials.
• Redesign and optimize.
• Prepare for launch—Prepare the design, develop documentation and
finalize sourcing.
All of these steps are essential for efficiency and cost-effectiveness, but
the most important is to understand what is required of the transport
package. Today, concurrent engineering and development are the
norm. With the importance of speed-to-market and the need to satisfy
both production and marketing management of the item to be packaged,
seldom are these phases undertaken consecutively.
Design for Distribution Hazards
To design and engineer an efficient and cost-effective package, it is
important to understand what the package must protect against.
Detailed knowledge of the specific distribution environment allows
design and qualification of the package in a lab environment, speeding
up both development and performance assurance processes. If that
level of detail is not available, other methods can be used; however,
they may have diminished abilities to provide an optimized packaging
solution (see table below).
Method
Source
Effectiveness
Focused Simulation
Your Customer, ISTA “5 Series”
Best
Research Required
Significant
General Simulation
ASTM D4169, ISTA “3 Series”,
Item 180 (NMFC)*
Good
Moderate
Integrity Testing
ISTA “1 & 2 Series”
Fair
Limited
* For LTL mode only. Does not cover other modes or warehousing.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.14
Stacking and Compression
Stacking strength is a key requirement of most transport packages.
Stacking strength is defined as the maximum compressive load (pounds
or kilograms) that a container can bear over a given length of time,
under given environmental/distribution conditions without failing.
The ability to carry a top load is affected by the structure of the container
and the environment it encounters, and the ability of the inner (primary)
packages and the dividers, corner posts, etc. to sustain the load.
Compression strength is related to stacking strength but is actually
quite different. Compression strength is a corrugated box’s resistance
to uniform applied external forces.
Compression (BCT) strength of regular slotted containers
is a function of:
• Perimeter of the box (two times length plus two times width)
• Edge crush test (ECT) of the combined board
• Bending resistance of the combined board
• Aspect ratio (L to W) and other factors
The simplest and most common corrugated transport packages are
regular slotted containers (RSCs, Box Style 0201) in which the
corrugation direction is typically vertical—parallel to top-bottom
stacking forces. Since the early 1960s, we have been able to estimate
the compression strength of regular slotted containers with reasonable
accuracy and precision.
A conceptual sketch of a retail display
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.15
When we know the above variables, we can estimate the compression
strength through an equation known as the McKee formula. The McKee
formula can only be applied to RSCs, and only those with a perimeterto-depth ratio no greater than 7:1.
BCT=2.028 ⫻ (ECT)0.746 ⫻ √ (Dx ⫻ Dy)0.254 ⫻ Perimeter0.492
Dx = combined board flexural stiffness in the machine
direction and Dy = flexural stiffness in the cross direction.
These provide accuracy close to the original equation and are much
easier to use, both in testing and mathematically. McKee’s work was
based on averages. Individual boxes will vary above and below the
predicted value.
The ability to predict the compression strength of a container is a
considerable tool, but it is even more powerful to take a compression
requirement, back out an ECT requirement and use it to determine
appropriate board combinations.
Solving for ECT, the simplified McKee formula is:
McKee also created a simpler formula based on caliper of the combined
board instead of bending stiffness:
ECT=BCT ⫼ [5.87 ⫻ √(caliper of combined board ⫻ box perimeter)]
BCT=5.874 ⫻ ECT ⫻ caliper (.508) ⫻ perimeter (.492)
or an even simpler version, if you do not have a scientific calculator:
BCT=5.87 ⫻ ECT ⫻ √(caliper of combined board ⫻ box perimeter)
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.16
Distribution Environment and
Container Performance
The ability of a container to perform in distribution is
significantly impacted by the conditions it encounters
throughout the cycle. Some of these conditions are
difficult for the packaging engineer to influence,
including stacking time and relative humidity. Others
are determined by handling and unitizing processes;
for example, pallet patterns, pallet overhang, pallet
deck board gaps and excessive handling.
We can now estimate the impact of these conditions
on container strength (see table on this page). If
the original box compression strength is known
(determined in the lab using a dynamic compression
tester), we can factor it by generally accepted
multipliers to arrive at an estimated maximum safe
stacking strength.
Determining a Compression Requirement
If the compression strength and distribution
environment are known, the effective stacking
strength of any given RSC can be reasonably
estimated. Similarly, if the distribution environment,
container dimensions and flute profile are known,
a compression requirement can be estimated. This
can be of great value, because once a compression
requirement is determined, the ECT requirement
can be determined (and, therefore, containerboard
combination options as well).
Environmental Factors
Compression Loss
Storage time under load
Multipliers
10 days – 37 percent loss
0.63
0.60
0.55
0.50
Relative humidity, under load
50 percent – 0 percent loss
1.00
(cyclical RH variation further
0.90
increases compressive loss)
0.80
0.68
0.48
0.15
Best Case
Worst Case
Pallet Patterns
Columnar, aligned
Up to 8 percent loss
1.00
0.92
Columnar, misaligned
10 – 15 percent loss
0.90
0.85
Interlocked
0.60
0.40
Overhang
0.80
0.60
Pallet deck board gap
0.90
0.75
Excessive handling
0.90
0.60
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.17
Compression requirement: The minimum dynamic (in-lab)
compression strength required to provide safe stacking
performance throughout that container’s expected life
cycle (given time, environmental/distribution conditions).
See table on this page.
Determining a Compression Requirement –
Example: Extreme Static Loading
◆
◆
Boxes stacked floor to ceiling in a freight container,
180-day stack time, 80 percent RH, interlock stack
pattern, on container floor
Box size (outside dimensions): 1.5 ft. ⫻ .75 ft.
(.5 m(L) ⫻ .25 m(W) ⫻ .33 m(D))
(L)
(W)
⫻ 1 ft.
(D)
◆
Freight container height: 10 ft. (3.05 m). Stack will be 9 ft. (3 m)
◆
Box gross weight: 26.4 lbs. (12 kg)
1. Determine maximum
number of boxes above
bottom box:
9 ft. (3 m)
– 1:
– 1 = 8 boxes above
1 ft. (.33 m)
bottom box
height
(Gross
Box depth )
2. Determine load on
bottom box:
Number of boxes
times weight:
8 x 26.4 lbs. (12 kg) = 211 lbs. (96 kg)
3. Determine
Environmental Factor by
multiplying together all
factors that apply:
180 days,
x 80 percent RH
x interlocked stack
= 0.5 (50 percent loss)
= [0.5] [0.68] [0.5] = 0.17
4. Determine Environmental
Multiplier:
1 divided by the
Environmental
Factor:
1
0.17
5. Determine box
BCT Req. = Load x
compression requirement: Environmental
Multiplier:
= 5.88
211 lbs. (96 kg) x 5.88
= 1,241 lbs. (564 kg)
In order to integrate the calculated compression
requirement into manufacturing specifications, customers
and box manufacturers must agree on the nature of its
use: long term average, average of a five (or more) box
sample or absolute individual box minimum value.
Typical compression requirement determination only
considers the static (warehouse) portion of the distribution
environment. In some instances the compression loading
on the bottom box in a stack or unit may be greatest in
the dynamic (transportation) portion of the environment.
Containers in motor freight transport routinely see dynamic
loading forces ranging from less than .5 to greater than
1.5 g’s. It is very important to consider top loads and shock
and vibration inputs in transportation.
Increasing the strength or performance of the package
may not be the most effective or economical solution to
prevent product damage. Often revising the distribution
environment or modifying the product may be more
economical in the long run. It may also provide the
customer with lasting value, rather than a bulletproof
package that will probably be discarded—preferably
recycled—immediately after opening.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.18
Compression Solutions
Following is a variety of approaches to increase compression and
stacking strength. The most efficient and cost-effective approach will
depend on the product, package size and distribution environment.
• Stronger liners and medium(s): Edge crush and box compression are
dependent on the stiffness of both liners and medium, measured as
ring crush or STFI. Ring Crush and STFI are two different ways of
measuring compressive strength of linerboard and medium. Both
methods are widely used but are not directly comparable because
they are measuring slightly different paper properties. As a rule of
thumb/ballpark guide, the ring crush value of liner or medium will be
about twice the basis weight. The STFI value will be about half the
basis weight. Although these ballpark estimates are reasonably valid,
it is not valid to take the next step and assume that a ring crush value
will be four times the STFI value. They are different tests and a
conversion factor should not be used.
• Load sharing: This is a technique where the product and/or primary
package carry some portion of the static and dynamic stacking loads.
To maximize the benefit, all participants must “load up” simultaneously. To optimize this requires load versus deflection compression
testing of the completed packages, as well as the product and all
package components.
• Improve palletizing: If possible, revise the stacking pattern to reduce
or eliminate pallet overhang. Use pallets with less space between the
deck boards or use slip sheets. Column stack the bottom three layers
before cross-tying.
• Increase the number of corners: Corners or angled bends reinforce
the walls of the corrugated structure and increase compression
strength. For example, using the same amount of combined board, a
hexagonal or octagonal cross-section will provide more compression
strength than a rectangular one.
• Change corrugation direction: Designing the corrugation direction
to be parallel with the load is commonly accepted practice and is
typically the approach that yields greatest top-to-bottom container
strength. A greater percentage of strength is derived from the corners
than the walls. One possible exception is when using small-flute
combined board, such as E-flute and smaller. Horizontal corrugation
tends to make corners more rigid in small-flute combined board.
• Dimensions: The general rule of thumb is: deeper is cheaper. This is
true for two reasons: 1) for a given stack height, there will be fewer
boxes in the stack and therefore the bottom box will have less weight
to support and 2) there is less material “wasted” in the overlapping
areas of the flaps. Load stability is also important so you should
not go to extremes with this concept. See the Unitizing chapter for
more details.
• Multiwall corrugated fiberboard: Doublewall and triplewall
fiberboard can provide greater compression strength than singlewall fiberboard of similar combined basis weight. This is primarily
due to enhanced bending stiffness and greater caliper.
• Partitions, inserts and interior packaging: Whether separate or integral,
these forms can provide significant compression strength. This is
especially true when optimized for top-to-bottom fit. Others yield
improvement by reinforcing other load-bearing panels, keeping them
vertical under the load.
• Lamination: Whether laminating combined board to combined board,
or adhering multiple mediums or liners together, lamination can provide
tremendous gains in package performance, improving both edge
crush and bending stiffness.
• Treatments, impregnations and coatings: These are sometimes
added to strengthen the components; other times they are used to
preclude moisture and its detrimental effect on compression strength.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.19
Shock and Vibration
Shock and vibration inputs can come from a variety of sources
throughout the distribution environment. The direction of the forces
is not always vertical.
Virtually all products can be damaged in some way by shocks or vibration.
With sufficient shock inputs, product failure occurs (breakage, etc.).
Vibration may also cause some products to fail. This usually happens
when it causes a resonant response, damaging the product directly or
causing component fatigue and subsequent failure. More often, vibration
causes appearance damage—for example, scuffing from repeated
movement of the product within the package.
Typically the function of protective packaging is to absorb or divert
energy away from the product. Shock protection seeks damping of the
input energy, decelerating the product over more time and distance
than that which causes failure. To protect against vibration, we seek
to move product and package harmonic resonance away from those
frequencies that overtly damage the product, or those that it would
typically see in its distribution cycle.
This is a complex process, but it typically involves these steps:
• Select appropriate cushioning. Determine the material, amount
and design of cushioning to protect against shock and vibration at
appropriate cost.
• Produce prototype packages, then qualify the prospective transport
package:
– Vibration—sine sweep and dwell at appropriate frequencies, and
random vibration testing
– Shock—stepped velocity method
• Redesign and optimize protective package, then re-qualify.
It is not typically efficient to provide complete protection against all
potential hazards, so the designer or engineer must balance the
probability of an event versus direct and indirect costs of product and
package failure.
It may be advisable to consider materials or designs that are not actually
cushions, but act as energy dissipaters. However, these absorb the
shock energy from one or a few events, but may not necessarily restore
themselves to original dimensions or performance. This potentially
allows the product to move within the package after a major shock
event and may not protect against further shock or vibration inputs.
• Understand the distribution environment:
– Vibration—analyze frequency and acceleration
– Shock—accommodate both common and the most severe impacts
(typically using equivalent drop height)
• Determine product fragility:
– Vibration—resonant frequencies
– Shock—shock damage boundaries
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.20
Containment
Bulge Resistance
Containing product is a priority of transport packaging. It can be
the result of many package properties such as abrasion resistance,
puncture resistance (from inside and out) and tensile strength.
Means of optimizing, other than closure methods, include:
Certain products are fluid, near fluid or flowable solids. These materials
exert outward forces on container walls. As soon as the load-bearing
container wall deflects from parallel, it loses significant strength and
failure is accelerated. Therefore, bulge must be minimized for adequate
performance at appropriate cost. Means to prevent bulge include:
• Linerboard: Basis weight is a key contributor to the containment
function of any corrugated package. In general, the heavier the liners,
the greater the tensile strength and puncture resistance.
• Auxiliary Means: Various reinforcement materials can be applied to the
surface or within the corrugated structure. These typically incorporate
polymer strips, or continuous filament strings or tapes. They offer
additional tensile and containment strength in the cross-corrugation
direction, provided the manufacturer’s joint is of sufficient strength.
• Linerboard: heavier basis weights increase bending stiffness
• Multiwall fiberboard: greater caliper and increased bending stiffness
• Flute structure: greater caliper board (A versus C, C versus B)
• Reduce panel size: reduce spans between corners
• Reinforcement materials: Polymer strips, continuous filament strings
or tapes do little to reduce bulge, but are good for reducing tearing
at slots and access holes.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.21
Unitizing
Cost-Effectiveness
When determining the size of transport packaging, find out whether the
boxes will be unitized. If unitization is likely, design the footprint (length
x width), to encourage columnar stacking configurations. Other issues to
consider regarding size are cube efficiency, and vehicle and warehouse
rack dimensions.
Designing corrugated transport packaging for cost-effectiveness typically
entails optimizing the fiber weight required to achieve the compression
requirement, minimizing the package manufacturing costs and minimizing
package closure and assembly costs.
• Avoid platform overhang at all costs.
• Discourage clamp handling of corrugated fiberboard boxes
wherever possible.
• Encourage the use of pallets, slip sheets, etc. as shipping platforms.
• Encourage the use of tier sheets if columnar stacking is not practicable.
• Encourage good cube utilization of the platform to reduce
underhang, which can cause load shift.
• Encourage use of unitizing aids, such as stretch wrap, wherever
possible. A side benefit of stretch wrap is that it reduces the
detrimental effects of cyclic humidity (accelerated creep, box failure).
For further information, see the Unitizing chapter.
Optimizing fiber consumption is accomplished by selecting the most
efficient combination of container size, style and board. Since there are
many board combinations available to designers, selection of container
sizes and styles is usually the place to start.
In general, the most economical styles are regular slotted containers
(RSCs, box style 0201), unless shipping quantities are large or the
containers have unusual length, width or depth combinations. This is in
part because they achieve containment with a minimum of board area,
and they are usually “machine run” (printed, scored, slotted, etc.) in one
manufacturing pass. When quantities are high enough, however, use of
customized styles may be more economical, even though they may
require specialized setup equipment or additional capital investment.
The first step is to minimize board area. Consider volume, count and
arrangement of the product or primary packages inside the shipping
container. Frequently there are a number of options that satisfy product
protection and marketing requirements. Some configurations or directional
orientations may result in more efficient use of corrugated board.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.22
• Attempt to use machine-run styles to avoid higher setup charges or
multiple passes in manufacturing.
Theoretical relationships of common
machine-run styles preferred for board efficiency:
Style
International
Fibreboard
Case Code
Preferred Ratio
L:W:D
RSC
0201
2:1:2
Telescope-style
HSCs (0200)
0320
2:1:1
Telescope-style
CSSCs (0204)
0320
1:1:1
CSSC
0204
1:1:2
Telescope-style Trays
0301
1:1:0.25
Full Overlap
0203
2:1:4
Source: P. G. Wright: Minimizing Board Requirements While Maximizing Protection and Shipping Space
Minimize or eliminate board that doesn’t efficiently contribute to
containment, stacking strength or other requirements of the transport
package. For example:
• Minimize overlapping flaps on top-loading slotted containers. Flaps
from width panels do not significantly contribute to either containment
or compression strength.
• Avoid extreme sizes. Very large or very small containers may only run
using specialty equipment, or at slower speeds.
• Avoid unusual length, width and depth dimensions. When one or
more of these dimensions is extreme, it may cause difficulties such
as increased waste, slower speeds, etc.
• Attempt to use commonly available liner and medium grades. In
addition to ease of sourcing and paper cost, waste and corrugator
trimming may be optimized to reduce container cost.
• Examine the need for specialty operations. Certain die-cutting, scrap
removal, gluing operations, etc., may provide system benefits, such
as marketing, package setup, etc., but typically they impact the direct
cost of the container.
Computer programs are commercially available to assist packaging
engineers in developing and recommending package configuration
(both primary and secondary), pallet utilization, transport cube utilization,
box compression requirements and other factors. Optimal and alternative
options are generated by these programs.
• The amount of potentially unnecessary overlapping board depends
on container style and length:width:depth relationships as well as
directional orientation. Usually, deeper is cheaper! As depth increases,
the percentage of the container’s board area consumed by overlapping
flaps decreases.
• Consider “gapping” flaps, especially on end- or side-opening slotted
containers, if compression optimization allows and it is appropriate
for the product and its distribution and marketing.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.23
Design Qualification
If the requirements of the transport package have been properly
identified, it should be relatively easy to qualify its performance by
means of package testing. Out-of-pocket costs, risk management
and speed-to-market are all optimized by appropriate in-lab package
testing versus numerous trial shipments or risking field failure.
The following are keys to learning from the results of package
performance testing and getting to an actionable outcome:
• Know what the package must protect against—both the hazards
and their frequency and intensity. These are then converted to
compression requirements, drop heights, etc.
• Know what is the acceptable package performance in order to
determine pass-fail acceptance criteria. For example, determine
maximum number and types of minor, major or critical product
defects that are acceptable at the conclusion of testing.
• By defining these parameters prior to testing, you will have
confidence in your “pass-or-fail” decision at the completion of the
evaluation. Only by making these determinations in advance will
you be able to balance package cost, performance and risk.
The more you know about product, customer, consumer and distribution
requirements, the better you will be able to test, optimize and qualify
the package. Make this effort up front to save development and
qualification time to assure optimized cost, performance and customer
satisfaction—the first time. With that effort and professional approach,
the packaging designer or engineer will have added real value.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.24
Graphic Designing,
Printing and Finishing
I
t is said that you can’t judge a book by its cover.
However, every day consumers make purchasing
decisions based on the appearance of a package.
For this reason, the look of a corrugated package is as
, Inc.
Interstate Resources
important as its structural functions in many instances.
This chapter examines the process of graphic designing,
printing and finishing a box for the fast-paced world
of retail sales.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.25
Graphic
Designing
Once the customer has approved the structure and design of the
package, images and text must be transferred onto the combined
board. This can be done through lithography, silk screening, digital
printing, flexography and other printing processes described below.
Today’s retail environment
requires the package to do
much more than just store its
contents; the package must
often help sell the product.
While the package engineer
must ensure that a box is
functional as a container, the
graphic designer is responsible
for making the box function as
a sales tool. Colors, images
and text must be chosen with
the potential end consumer
constantly in mind.
Printing
Depending on the sophistication of printing desired, how many boxes are
needed and the magnitude of investment, the designer will recommend
a printing process ranging from flexography, to silk screening, to offset
lithography. With the printing process in mind, the graphic designer will
then create an initial layout.
Using desktop computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-assisted
manufacturing (CAM) software, the graphic designer creates a prototype
of the package. CAD/CAM systems allow the designer to provide a
precise representation of what the customer wants while also meeting
manufacturing standards. This eliminates the lengthy processes of
photography, film stripping and proofing that are part of the expensive
procedure of getting an image ready for printing. The designer has
combined computerized and digital techniques to prepare images and
finish packaging projects, all in one very concise process.
What should I print on?
When designers choose the best printing process for a certain project,
they must also decide which material to print on: the combined board
itself, the linerboard (before it is glued to the corrugated medium), or
a separate sheet of paper which will be glued to the combined board.
Some printing processes dictate the material used, while others have
the capability to print on more than one material.
Decisions such as these are made with economic, scheduling and quality
factors in mind. Printing projects must be matched with individual printing
methods in order to control costs and achieve the highest possible
quality. Each method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages,
outlined below.
Printing Directly onto Combined Board
Direct printing, commonly referred to as post- print, is performed after
the board is combined and cut into sheets. Very good direct-print
quality is possible on small flute board. It is typically the least expensive
way to print, making it ideal for short runs or where cost is the primary
consideration.
Preprinting the Linerboard
Printing on the linerboard before it is combined with the corrugated
medium can result in a more refined image than printing directly onto
the combined board. You can choose to print on kraft, white top, solid
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.26
Georgia-Pacific Corporation
bleached or a
coated surface.
It is the middle
ground between
direct printing and
litho-labeling in
terms of both price
and quality.
Singleface
Laminating
Laminating a
prepared top sheet
directly to a singleface is another
option for obtaining
litho- and gravureA technician adjusts the liner-web during preprinting.
quality graphics
on containers and displays. White-coated or solid bleached top sheets
(typically ranging from .008 to .012 in.) are prepared (web or sheet fed)
and then laminated directly to the open flutes of singleface. In addition
to excellent graphics, advantages of this process include large format
capabilities and excellent cut-to-print registration.
Labeling
Spot labels are usually applied after scoring and slotting; full labels,
which cover the entire box blank, are usually applied before scoring
and slotting.
How should I print it?
Deciding what material to print on is usually combined with deciding
which type of printing process to use. Six common printing methods
are described below.
When choosing a printing method, consider the following:
• What type of press will be used?
What type of paper will be used?
What is its grade and finish?
• What sort of finish do I want on the paper and on the ink?
Should it be glossy or dull, transparent or opaque?
• What colors of ink do I want?
In what rotation should the colors be printed?
• What is the end use of the printed piece?
Will it be used to package food or another regulated article?
• How will the piece be processed?
Will it be die cut, varnished, waxed, etc.?
Litho-labeling, the process of printing onto a sheet of paper or label
stock which is later glued to the combined board, results in high-quality
images with bright colors and sharp pictures. However, litho-labels are
limited by sheet size.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.27
The oldest option in printing is the letterpress. It is also known as
relief because all image areas on the rubber or plastic plates are raised
above non-image areas. Rollers apply ink to the raised areas, and
the ink is transferred to combined board. This produces an image
with strong color, but the ink dries relatively slowly. Letterpress can
use multiple colors and the process can produce coarse halftones
and line printing if desired.
Screen Printing
The plates carry sharp images
and precise dots, and the
printing process is fast
because the plates are
easy to make and set up.
Offset lithography is costefficient for long runs, but
there may be some size
limitations for the image
(the maximum sheet size is
generally 54 by 77 inches).
Letterpress
In the screen printing process, the ink is forced through a design on
a taut screen onto the combined board. The screen is made of a porous
material—fine silk, nylon, Dacron or stainless steel—mounted on
a frame. A stencil is produced on the screen, either manually or
photomechanically. The process does not crush the flutes and there
is full ink coverage.
Offset Lithography
The basic idea behind offset lithography is the principle that oil repels
water. In contrast to letterpress printing, image and non-image areas are
kept on the same plane, on the plate. The plate is chemically treated in
the image area to be ink receptive and water repellent. The non-image
areas are treated to be water receptive and ink repellent. The plate first
contacts rollers of water, and then the inked rollers. The inked image is
transferred (or offset) from the plate to a rubber cylinder and then to the
combined board. This type of printing is possible on a wide range of
surface textures, but on combined board it is best used with flutes of
size E, F or smaller.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.28
Flexography uses flexible rubber or polymer plates to transfer images.
It is similar to letterpress printing because it uses raised images on
the plate, but the plate makes a “kiss” impression on the substrate.
Fast-drying, water-based inks are generally used, which allow for fast
running speeds. The print quality depends on many variables in the
flexo process but is influenced by the absorbency of the stock or
material being printed.
Flexography easily prints onto rough materials like fiberboard, but it
is also commonly used for printing tags and labels. Consequently, it
is a common choice for both preprint and direct-print processes. It
is possible to obtain line and half-tone quality from this process.
Flexography, particularly high-end, narrow web flexo, uses direct-toplate (DTP) digitally imaged plates and ultraviolet (UV) inks for higher
resolution dots during four-color process printing. Fast printing speed
and quick setups make flexography a cost-efficient direct-print process.
Screen and Line Parameters (Web and Sheet)
Lines per Inch (LPI)
Offset Lithography (sheet)
150 –200
Offset Lithography (direct)
150
Flexography (web)
135 –150
Flexography (direct)
85 –150
Screen Printing
85 –150
Rotogravure (web)
Letterpress
150 –200+
Coarse 85 or less
direct = direct to corrugated
sheet or web = sheet or web process for preprinting the liner, label or top sheet
Flexography
Short-run digital printing for test markets
Digital Printing
Digital printing is the most recently developed printing method. As
such, it is changing quickly and growing more efficient as the particular
processing speeds and chip speeds increase. Currently, digital printing
can be done with or without plates. Using a digital computer file,
images can be plotted onto blank plates, which are then used to print in
one of the traditional ways. This eliminates the need to make film,
significantly reducing production time.
Some new digital presses allow the computer files to be fed directly to
the printing equipment itself, eliminating both the film-making and the
plate-making steps. These direct digital presses are currently used for
short runs (under 2,500), but that number is expected to increase in the
coming years as digital printing’s other limitations are also reduced.
This process often displaces screen printing in certain runs, but is also
viewed as a supplement to many short-run printing projects, particularly
those with four-color process and skin tones.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.29
Finishing (Coatings and Treatments)
Many coatings and treatments can be applied to corrugated boxes
to give them qualities that containerboard alone does not have.
Each coating or treatment must be evaluated for its effectiveness
and its effect on the contents of the box, the box manufacturing
process and the box’s recyclability. Consider the treated box’s
printability, heat resistance factor, recyclability, whether or not it is
appropriate for food contact per Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
regulations, and its ability to take cold-set or hot-set glue. Very few
coatings or treatments are impenetrable. The major functions of these
coatings and treatments are:
Water resistance: Water penetration might weaken a box or affect its
contents. Film laminations (most often polyethylene), wax- or aqueousbased functional treatments can be used on the inside or the outside of
the box, or in between layers.
Moisture resistance: Water vapor penetration can also weaken a box or
affect its contents. Again, film laminations or coatings can be used to
minimize this. The most common coating for moisture resistance (and
moisture retention) is wax. Wax is applied by dipping the combined
board or box blank in a molten wax bath, cascading molten wax over
the vertical combined board or box blank, or curtain coating one
horizontal surface of the blank with wax.
Wax is an oil-based compound that is very difficult to re-pulp and
becomes a contaminant in the papermaking process. It has also
become less acceptable to the produce and grocery industries in recent
years. Alternatives to wax are under development, and have been used
with some success for the wax impregnation and curtain coating
processes. Development is still ongoing to improve these alternatives
and to provide an acceptable alternative to the wax cascading/wax
dipping processes that is both recyclable and able to provide the high
level of water and moisture resistance that wax currently provides.
Oil and grease resistance: Oil- and grease-resistant substances can be
added to a package to protect it from exterior oil and grease or the
box’s contents.
Abrasion resistance: Abrasion-resistant substances can be applied to
reduce the natural abrasive quality of linerboard, and therefore, reduce
scuffing of the contents, including graphics on inner packages.
Release: Release refers to the reduction or elimination of adhesion, so a
tacky or frozen product will not stick to interior surfaces of the package.
Non-skid: To resist sliding, the box plant can apply chemical treatments
to the box. The box user may also add non-skid treatments to the top
or bottom of the box when it is sealed or stacked on a pallet.
Skin-pack adhesion: Skin-pack adhesive coatings increase the ability of
plastic films to adhere to linerboard.
Flame retardancy: The ignition point of the containerboard (normally
450º F) can be raised, retarding the spread of flame.
Corrosion inhibitors: The ability of linerboard to inhibit tarnish, corrosion or rust on packaged products can be increased with corrosion
inhibitors.
Static control: Film laminations, coatings or other treatments can be
used to dissipate or conduct static electricity, or reduce the transmission
of electrical impulses that might damage sensitive electronic products.
Gloss and color: The color of the linerboard can be changed from
brown to white or any other shade, or a gloss coating can be added to
flexographic printing.
PACKAGE ENGINEERING
3.30
The Supply Chain
4.1
Unitizing
4.8
Tracking and Tracing
4.10
Rules and Regulations
The real test of a good package comes when it is
used to transport products from their place of origin to
ultimate destination—often this means from the point of
supply all the way to retail and sometimes beyond, to
the consumer’s home. Moving through the supply chain,
a package must withstand changes in temperature
and climate, the rigors of transportation, stacking and
restacking, loading and reloading, and a range of
handling practices at numerous stops along its way.
Corrugated packaging suppliers today know that their
product is more than a box—it is a critical tool for
supply-chain efficiency. Each leg of a product’s journey
poses its own set of issues and challenges for the
product’s safe arrival at its destination. The effectiveness
of the package impacts the total supply-chain time, cost
and integrity. So it’s no wonder that today’s successful
business applies disciplined analysis to optimize the
efficiency of the distribution cycle in all its many aspects.
American Forest and Paper Association/Fibre Box Association
Unitizing
E
ffective unitizing—optimizing loads
for transport—must be refined to
take advantage of every available
inch of space in transport and storage,
while also preserving load stability, worker
safety, and product protection at the
lowest possible cost.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.1
Unitizing
The advantages of pallets are that they offer the best product protection
during transit and are durable and reusable. The disadvantages of pallets
are that they require storage and maintenance and they may not provide
full box support, resulting in compression losses (for example, the gap
in the deck boards may not fully support the entire bottom of the box).
This section will cover the basic unitizing
systems and potential problem areas
associated with unitizing loads. Unitizing
is an often-overlooked area that can
greatly impact the performance of the
box. It involves placing a number of
boxes into one combined load for
ease of transportation.
Unitizing systems essentially have three parts—pallets, slip sheets and
clamping—that can be used in various combinations. Also, boxes are
now available in modular designs and sizes that facilitate easier, better
unitization (the Corrugated Common Footprint for Produce and the
Corrugated Modular Systems for Case-Ready Meat).
Pallets
Pallets are a major part of the product protection system. The most
common pallet size is the GMA (Grocery Manufacturers of America)
approved pallet, measuring 40 inches by 48 inches, while specialty loads
use other sizes, custom fit to the load. Wood pallets are held together
by three two-inch by four-inch stringers (planks set up perpendicular to
the floor—one on each side and one in the middle). Thin boards (deck
boards) are placed on the top and bottom of these stringers to provide
pallet rigidity and box support. The top deck boards are spaced from
one to four inches apart, depending on the specification. Plastic pallets
and corrugated fiberboard pallets are also available.
American Forest and Paper Association/
Unitizing Systems
Proper unitization results in stable loads for safe delivery with minimal damage.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.2
Slip Sheets
Clamping
Slip sheets are flat sheets of corrugated
combined board or solid fiberboard that
may either be used alone under unitized
loads or placed on top of a pallet. They have
tabs on one or more sides that, when used as the transport platform,
are grabbed by a special lift truck and pulled onto a flat platen for
transport and handling.
Clamping uses flat vertical platens to squeeze the unit load for transport.
The advantages of clamping are that pallets or slip sheets are not used
(therefore, less cost) and it allows for greater size variations of unit
loads. The disadvantages of clamping are that there is a high level of
damage to the boxes on the bottom layer, and it requires full square
unit loads, which are often difficult to arrange due to slight variations in
box dimensions and box set-up and closing processes. Clamp handling
is a system that is used for both packaged goods and large items such
as appliances.
The advantages of slip sheets are that they use less storage space than
pallets, utilize the space better for warehouse and shipping unit loads,
eliminate the need to track pallets, reduce the unit load weight and
provide full box perimeter support. The disadvantages of slip sheets
are that boxes can be damaged by the grip clamps or the truck mast,
and a special truck must be used throughout the distribution cycle.
Poorly unitized loads are prone to toppling, which can damage the
products being shipped.
Compression Losses
Compression losses result from either not supporting the corners or
crushing the corners/edges of the box. Each unitizing system results in
some sort of compression loss; therefore, it is imperative to understand
the strength loss implications of each system when determining the
strength requirements for a specific package.
There are two
different ways to
stack boxed loads.
Interlocking patterns
rotate each layer on
the unit load. Using
this method causes
the load to lose up
Column
Interlocking
to 50 percent of its
stacking strength.
Column stacking is the preferred stacking method (stacking one box
directly on top of the other). Unfortunately, either stacking pattern may
result in some sort of misalignment of the layers. As much as 30 percent
of the load’s strength can be lost when the layers are out of alignment.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.3
When boxes are arranged on a pallet so
that they overhang the edge, even as little
as 1⁄2 inch, up to 30 percent of their strength
is lost. The spacing of the deck boards also
results in unit load compression losses—
ranging from five to 15 percent—because
not all areas of the bottom of the box are
supported.
Damage from clamps easily produce a
20 percent strength loss due to side-toside crushing or box corner damage.
Overhang reduces stacking strength.
Slip Sheet Pick-Up Sequence
1. With mast tilted forward, drive truck forward
until platen tips are under the slip sheet tab.
2. Extend push plate so slip sheet tab fits into
gripper channel.
3. Retract push plate while driving forward slowly.
Gripper automatically clamps slip sheet tab.
4. With load on platens, tilt the mast back and
raise the load 3⁄4 inch above the floor.
Slip Sheet Discharge Sequence
1. Position load exactly above where it is to
be discharged and tilt mast forward. Platen
tips should be about one inch above
discharge areas.
2. Start pushing operation with truck in neutral.
Gripper automatically releases slip sheet tab.
As push plate moves load off, the fork truck
moves backward.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.4
Load stability issues greatly
influence the choice of
a stacking method. The
interlocking pattern is
often used to increase
load stability during
transportation because
it resists toppling over.
Other methods of
increasing load stability
A stretch-wrapped, palletized load
include using stretch wrap,
unitizing adhesive, corner boards and strapping. Use of modular
container systems also contributes to optimal load stability.
Common Pallet Sizes or Footprints
Application
Size
Grocery/retail
48 inches by 40 inches
Automotive
48 inches by 55 inches
European
1,600 millimeters by 1,000 millimeters
European
1,000 millimeters by 1,200 millimeters
Load Stability
Stretch wrap can completely
enclose and contain the pallet
load so the boxes do not move
from their vertical columns. It
also provides a moisture barrier
and protects against abrasions
and dirt.
Unitizing adhesive is a low-tensile
adhesive applied between the layers
of boxes to keep the boxes from
sliding on one another, and therefore helps prevent columns from
separating. This material has a high
horizontal shear resistance, yet a low
vertical separation resistance, so
boxes can be unstacked easily.
Strapping is also used to hold unit
loads together. Some customers still
use steel strapping, but plastic strapping is now more commonly used.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.5
The 1990s saw new trends emerge in the distribution cycles for fresh
produce. Large retailers began insisting on receiving produce in certain
types of containers.
In addition, FBA worked in close cooperation with the European
Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers (FEFCO) to ensure
compatibility of U.S. and European common footprint standards. As
a result, produce shipping containers manufactured to either standard
are compatible with each other.
American Forest and Paper Association/Fib
re Box Association
The main challenge that retailers and their distribution centers had with
corrugated containers was the wide range of box sizes. Historically,
boxes had been customized for the growers rather than the retailers.
Full loads of one product would arrive at distribution centers. When the
boxes of produce were shipped from the distribution centers to the
stores, different products were mixed on a single pallet. The differences
in box dimensions led to poorly stacked pallets. This sometimes led to
damaged produce, which ultimately cost the retailers money. Also many
boxes were not designed to display the product well. The old expectation
was that the product would be taken out of the box and placed on
display. The new trend is to display the product in its shipping box.
Some retailers began turning to returnable plastic containers (RPCs) to
help improve unitization and load stability. At that time, RPCs had the
advantages of standardized, modular sizes that allowed easy stacking
on pallets. In order to combat the insurgence of RPCs, safeguard
corrugated market share and to respond to retailer needs, the corrugated packaging industry developed a modular packaging system
of its own: The Corrugated Common Footprint.
This new industry standard was developed by the Fibre Box Association
(FBA). In 1999, eight FBA-member companies—representing nearly 90
percent of the industry produce container capacity—participated in the
development of the new standard.
The Common Footprint term refers to the standardization of the length
and width dimensions of the produce container. The dimensions were
carefully determined to ensure that these containers may be stacked
on any Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA) or metric industrystandard pallet (48 in. x 40 in. or 1200 mm x 1000 mm) without overhang.
Corrugated Common Footprint pallet
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.6
The Common Footprint containers come in two standard length x width
sizes. The Full-Size Common Footprint container is 60 cm x 40 cm (231⁄2
in. x 1511⁄16 in.), while the Half-Size Common Footprint container is 40 cm x
30 cm (1511⁄16 in. x 1111⁄16 in.). In a full-size pallet configuration, five full-size
containers fit easily within the dimensions of standard pallets. Half-size
pallet configurations allow ten half-size containers to fit on the same
pallet. And because of their standard sizes and stacking tab and
receptacle locations, both half-size and full-size containers can be
successfully fitted together within the same tier of a palletized load,
and from tier to tier within the load.
The modular design of the footprint dimensions does not take away
from design creativity. The height of the container may be adjusted to
allow for increased capacity; the structural design can be modified for
strength and/or more efficient packing; the graphics may be as diverse
as the products.
The Corrugated Common Footprint container offers a wide variety of
benefits that are attractive to growers, shippers, retailers and distributors,
with distinct advantages over RPCs. These benefits include:
• Optimizing cube utilization
– Modular design markedly improves handling efficiency
– Modularity eliminates need for shrink-wrapping to stabilize
pallet loads
• Ensuring product protection through custom design
• Offering packaging flexibility with a wide variety of box designs and
material construction
• Decreasing labor costs in the distribution center and retail stores by
reducing training and handling requirements
• Reducing shrink by limiting the need to handle product in the store
(less need to restack and sort product out of the box and onto the
display shelf)
• Providing display-ready options by using the box as the display vehicle
• Eliminating the need to clean, break down and return RPCs, thus
saving labor and reducing the possibility of contamination
The most up-to-date information, including technical specifications and
market research studies, about the Corrugated Common Footprint
Standard is located on the FBA Web site at www.fibrebox.org.
Examining Total Supply Chain Costs
with Full Disclosuresm
One feature of supply-chain management that has come to invite close
scrutiny is the relative system cost of different packaging alternatives.
A package material choice can have a huge impact on the cost of
transportation, space-efficiency and unitization, handling and more.
Realizing this, the corrugated industry developed a powerful activitybased costing tool, Full Disclosure, to help conduct a thorough casescenario comparison between packaging alternatives. Full Disclosure
allows a user to input real or theoretical data, specific to any distribution
scenario, then computes the system costs of utilizing different packaging
alternatives, such as corrugated or other, competing materials.
The Full Disclosure promise is that its computation is completely unbiased.
Full Disclosure will show another package material to be more costeffective if, in fact, the data bears out that conclusion. We find that it
rarely does, but the tool’s integrity lies in the objective analysis it allows.
For more information about Full Disclosure, contact the Fibre Box
Association directly at (847) 364-9600.
• Reducing product damage (“shrink”) that is often seen with more
rigid RPCs
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.7
Tracking and Tracing
C
ost-effective distribution of products throughout the
supply chain has become a key focus for businesses
in manufacturing and retail. More and more, the
logistics and economics involved in transporting products
from point of origin to point of use is scrutinized for savings
opportunities. The increased emphasis on just-in-time
manufacturing and deliveries, and on finely-tuned inventory
control, adds another dimension to supply chain economics.
Lost time can mean lost product and lost revenues for all.
Tracking and tracing the movement of products through the
supply chain can make the difference between success and
failure. There are two prominent technologies in use. Bar codes
have been used for years to track products in distribution and
at point of sale. Now a new, emerging technology also is
coming into use—radio-frequency identification, or RFID.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.8
Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)
Bar Codes
A new technology called radio-frequency identification, or RFID, is
emerging as a potentially powerful tool in modern supply chains. RFID
tags are small computer chips designed to carry data, similar to a
serialized UPC code, which can be accessed from remote reader
devices. RFID technology can provide up-to-the-minute information on
the location and condition of tagged merchandise, packages or entire
pallet loads in transit.
Before the advent of radio-frequency
identification technology, the bar code
was widely used as the primary electronic means for tracking products and
packages through the supply chain. Bar codes are printed on labels or
on the boxes themselves and scanned for identification. Bar codes, like
RFID tags, provide shippers, distributors and receivers with information
about a product’s arrival and processing through each point of distribution, allowing for timely delivery and accurate inventory management.
For more information on RFID technology, see www.rfidjournal.com or
“RFID 101” at www.rfidgazette.org.
Alien Technology
Appendix 2 in this handbook contains the complete Guideline for DirectContact Printing of Bar-Code Symbols on Corrugated. It includes:
• The common bar codes printed on corrugated today.
Example of RFID tag: Squiggle Tag
• Technical details on bar-code printing plate characteristics and
design; also, a section on industry disagreement on bar-code
printing plate usage.
• Recommendations for ink color selection that will produce adequate
print contrast.
• The various aspects of printing bar-code symbols.
• Bar-code verifiers and their use as well as suggested verification plans.
Texas Instruments
• Information on ANSI grades and problems in achieving certain ANSI
grades on some bar-code symbology (e.g., the inability to achieve
ANSI “C” grades on the UPC-A [retail check-out] symbol).
• How to work with customers to achieve success with ink jet
printing applications.
RFID reader
• Pending bar-code printing issues that could affect printing,
verification, etc.
For more information on bar codes, visit www.gs1us.org.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.9
Rules and Regulations
C
arriers and the federal government
have developed rules and
regulations affecting how boxes
are made and marked or labeled. The
carrier rules and government regulations
are mandatory within their respective
jurisdictions. Shipping to Mexico, Europe
or other parts of the world may require
compliance with additional regulations
and forms beyond domestic requirements.
Package labeling of regulated articles or
using regulated markings should be a joint
effort between the package manufacturer
and shipper.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.10
Markings
Pictorial Markings
Pictorial markings are applied to shipping containers to
convey handling instructions without the limitations of
language. Common examples are the “fragile,” “keep
dry” and “this side up” markings. Pictorial markings are
the recommended solution when the package is passing
beyond the boundaries of its indigenous language or
when quick, clear recognition of handling requirements
is needed.
The location and number of pictorials on the package vary with the
source (ISO, ASTM or NMFC), as do most of the rest of the symbols
listed in those publications. Only the two most common markings have
an industry-wide standard: both the “fragile/handle with care” and the
“orientation arrows/this side up” marks should be placed in the upper
left-hand corner of the box panel(s). If both markings are required, the
orientation pictorial should be the leftmost marking. For other pictorials,
picture and location depend upon the source; choosing the source
depends on the shipping environment. If the mode of truck transportation is a common carrier, use the NMFC version. For global shipments,
use the ISO version. Choice of source and actual pictorial must defer to
national/regional, modal or regulatory directives.
Recognized sources of pictorial markings are:
• ISO 780 (International Standards Organization)
Box Manufacturer’s Certificates
• ASTM D 5445 (American Society for Testing
and Materials)
Box Manufacturer’s Certificates (BMCs) are markings that indicate
the box meets the material requirements stated in the BMC and the
structural requirements of Item 222 (truck) and Rule 41 (rail) as found
in the National Motor Freight Classification and the Uniform Freight
Classification, respectively. BMCs should not be interpreted as
a declaration of box specifications. The National Motor Freight
Classification and the Uniform Freight Classification use BMCs
as enforcement tools to assess damage claim
insurance (see Carrier Rules, page 4.13).
• NMFC Item 682-A (National Motor
Freight Classification)
These three sources state several common guidelines.
For example:
• Black is the preferred color for all markings; however, the most
important factor is contrast with the substrate and background.
• Packages may be marked as single packages or unitized loads,
as needed.
There are two types of BMCs. Circular
types are for boxes that meet the
general requirements of Item 222 or
Rule 41. Rectangular types are for those
boxes that meet the specifications
for a Numbered Package. All BMCs
must state:
• The size of the pictorial depends on the size of the package. The
recommended base size is 100, 150 or 200 mm (4, 6 or 8 inches).
• The name and location of the entity
certifying the information.
• Markings may be either printed on or adhered to the package.
• Borders around the markings are permitted, but not required.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.11
• The minimum material specification
being certified (edge crush test, or
burst strength and basis weight).
• The gross weight and size limits if it
is an Item 222/Rule 41 box.
• The package number if it is a
Numbered Package.
Other rules for BMCs include:
• The BMC must be on an outside surface.
• Circular BMCs must be three inches in diameter (plus or minus
one-fourth of an inch). A reduced size is allowed for small boxes
as specified in either Item 222 or Rule 41.
• Rectangular BMCs must be three and one-half by two inches (plus
or minus one-fourth of an inch).
The carrier may deny damage claim insurance if these guidelines
are not met.
See the complete Item 222 in the Appendices for more details on BMCs.
The Corrugated Recycles Symbol
The Fibre Box Association recommends the use of the Corrugated
Recycles symbol instead of the “chasing arrows” symbol. The chasing
arrows symbol is the general recycling symbol for paper—it has several
restrictions that vary from state to state. Using the Corrugated Recycles
symbol will avoid these complications.
Since its adoption by the International
Corrugated Case Association (ICCA), the
symbol can be used worldwide to both promote
the recycling of corrugated and advertise its
ultimate recyclability across country borders
and from continent to continent.
What Does the Corrugated Recycles
Symbol Mean?
The term Corrugated Recycles is both a statement of fact and a way to
promote recycling. By printing the symbol on corrugated products, the
corrugated customer and ultimate consumer are aware of corrugated’s
inherent recyclability.
Placing the symbol on a corrugated container does not indicate that
“this container is made from recycled material.” Rather, it simply means
that “this container can and should be recycled.”
When Do I Use the Corrugated Recycles Symbol?
FBA recommends placing the Corrugated Recycles symbol on all
corrugated products that are readily recyclable, unless the customer
specifies otherwise. “Readily recyclable” corrugated products are those
that have not been coated or otherwise treated with substances that
are not repulpable or are of limited repulpability.
When Don’t I Use the Corrugated Recycles Symbol?
Do not place the Corrugated Recycles symbol on corrugated containers
that are not readily recyclable.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.12
Carrier Rules
Item 222 and Rule 41
Corrugated boxes can be used to ship products by air, truck or rail, or
by a combination of means for extra fast delivery known as intermodal
overnight. Carriers impose packaging rules in exchange for accepting
liability for the articles they transport. Carriers reserve the right to refuse
articles they consider inadequately packaged. Simply put, if you want
your package to be insured by the carrier, you have to follow their rules.
When articles listed in the classifications contain the packaging
instructions “in boxes” they mean corrugated or solid fiberboard
boxes as defined in Item 222 of the NMFC and in Rule 41 of the UFC.
Both Item 222 and Rule 41 set standards that must be met by the box
manufacturer. These rules give material specifications that vary
depending on the total gross weight and the united dimensions
(length, width and depth) of the box and its contents. A box that
follows the rules must carry a circular box manufacturer’s certificate
(BMC) that precisely coincides with the instructions in the rule.
Without the BMC, damage claims and rates may not be honored.
Over the past 50 years or more, the terminology and material
requirements used in the carrier rules have become de facto standards
for corrugated and solid fiber boxes, even though many truck and rail
transportation modes may not be specifically covered by the rules.
However, carrier rules address only the issues associated with their
mode of transportation, not the storage, display or further distribution
of boxes. When all of these factors are taken into account, boxes may
not only need to meet the carrier rules, but go beyond them.
Truck and Rail Rules
The rules for shipping products in corrugated boxes by truck or rail
are outlined in two publications: the National Motor Freight Traffic
Association’s National Motor Freight Classification (NMFC) and the
National Railroad Freight Committee’s Uniform Freight Classification
(UFC). The publications give detailed packaging rules and name the
individual carriers using these rules.
Boxes, by the carriers’ definitions, are containers with solid or closely
fitted sides, ends, bottoms and tops. Boxes must be closed by a positive
means or be capable of passing recognized transport qualification
drop tests. Boxes must be made of combined board (corrugated or
solid fiberboard) that meets or exceeds the minimum burst strength
and combined basis weight listed in Table A (see Appendix 3), or the
minimum edge crush test listed in Table B (see Appendix 3) per the
appropriate gross weight and dimensions listed.
For the complete Item 222, please see the Appendices. For the
complete Rule 41, visit the Web site of the American Short Line
and Regional Railroad Association: www.aslrra.org.
To find out which rules apply to the article you wish to ship, use the tariffs
in these publications. The various shipping requirements are noted in
this list of different articles. For instance, the name of one product may
have the words “in packages” behind it, meaning the article must be
shipped in some sort of package (crate, barrel, box, etc.) Other articles
are followed by the words “in crates,” “in barrels” or “in boxes,” which
mean these products must be shipped in the specified container type.
There is a rule defining the container type in the respective classification.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.13
Edge Crush Test (ECT)
In 1991, the trade associations
for the corrugated industry
sponsored proposals to revise
Item 222 and Rule 41, allowing
use of edge crush test as an
option to the traditional
linerboard basis weight and
combined board burst requirements. ECT is a characteristic
of the combined board that
predicts the compression
strength of the finished
Edge Crush Test
corrugated box. Using the
alternative requirements in the
carrier rules, box manufacturers have more latitude to design and
supply boxes that target the user’s performance requirements. The
alternative ECT value can be substituted for the burst strength/basis
weight values specified for Numbered Packages (see below), including
furniture packages.
ECT versus Mullen
ECT is a measure of the edgewise compressive strength of corrugated
board—the force that a sample of prescribed size, with the flutes vertically
oriented, can withstand—which directly relates to the expected box
compression strength (and thus the ultimate stacking performance of
the corrugated package.
The burst strength (or Mullen) test result is a measure of product
containment and indicates the ability of the box to withstand concentrated
internal and external forces, especially at intense pressure points.
ECT and burst strength are very different characteristics of combined
board, and each corrugated manufacturer designs its board
combinations to achieve the desired ECT or burst strength to meet the
packaging requirements. Since there is no direct correlation between
these characteristics, two boxes that have the same burst strength may
have different ECT values and compression strength, and may perform
differently when stacked. Thus, even though they have the same burst
strength, one may fail while the other performs satisfactorily in the same
stacking environment.
Numbered Packages
When the article listing includes “in Package ___” (there may be multiple
numbers listed), the carriers require a specific packaging system. Detailed
instructions for Numbered Packages are listed in the section of the NMFC
titled Specifications for Numbered Packages and in the UFC Rule 41
section titled Authorized Packages. Numbered Packages require a
rectangular BMC that indicates the package number and the burst
strength or ECT of the corrugated fiberboard used.
Other Carriers
The air cargo and airline industries do not publish detailed packaging
instructions except for special articles such as live animals, human
remains, seafood, etc. Individual carriers—United Parcel Service (UPS),
Federal Express (FedEx), the U.S. Postal Service, and others—publish
their own tariffs. Both UPS and FedEx require compliance with Item 222,
including material specifications per package weight, dimensions and
BMCs. Also, both require that the packages they carry are of minimum
200 burst strength or 32 ECT, and are capable of meeting appropriate
International Safe Transit Association (ISTA)—Preshipment Testing
Procedures and Projects.
It is best to check with the carriers themselves to determine whether
there are specific packaging requirements or recommendations for
shipping specific articles in their systems. Carriers often provide packaging
seminars and transport testing for their customers.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.14
Government
Rules & Regulations
Federal and Military Specifications
The federal government and the military have a set of standards that
apply whenever they purchase corrugated packages or articles shipped
in corrugated packages. If a box manufacturer wishes to sell corrugated
fiberboard or boxes to the government or the military, or to box
customers who sell supplies to the government or military, these
specifications must be followed.
Government Standards for Corrugated Fiberboard
The corrugated standards that were directly affected by MilSpec
Reform are: PPP B 636 Boxes, Shipping, Fiberboard; PPP B 640 Boxes,
Fiberboard, Corrugated, Triplewall; and PPP F 320 Fiberboard:
Corrugated and Solid, Sheet Stock and Cut Shapes. PPP B 636 was
canceled March 1, 1994 and replaced with ASTM D 5118. PPP F 320
was canceled March 2, 1994 and replaced with ASTM D 4727. PPP B 640
was canceled October 25, 1994 and replaced with ASTM D 5168.
PPP markings are no longer commercially or legally acceptable. Please
see the following table for current applicable standards.
Acquisition Reform
Former Standard
Current Standard
On June 29, 1994, Deputy Secretary of Defense Dr. Perry issued a
memorandum implementing the department’s vision of “a national
defense force that derives strength and technical superiority from a
unified commercial/military base.” While this was probably the inception
of the phrase “MilSpec Reform,” the process had, in fact, been set in
motion nearly two decades before.
PPP F 320
ASTM D 4727
PPP B 636
ASTM D 5118
PPP B 640
ASTM D 5168
(Fed Std 224 Methods of
Closing, Sealing and Reinforcing)
(ASTM D 1974)
The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) issued a number of
directives in the early 1970s encouraging executive agencies to avail
themselves whenever possible of the products and services that were
commercially available. During the mid-1980s, evaluation of the 195
methods in Federal Test Method Standard 101—Test Procedures for
Packaging Materials began, in order to assess possible conversion to
comparable ASTM standard documents.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.15
These standards list various options for boxes and sheet stock by:
DOT Regulations: Hazardous Materials
Type
Variety
• corrugated fiberboard
• singlewall
• solid fiber
• doublewall
Class
• triplewall
• domestic
Grade
The DOT regulates the packaging and transport of hazardous materials.
These regulations were adopted by the DOT from the United Nations
Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, replacing the
former DOT specification packages such as the DOT 12B. The regulations
for hazardous materials packages vary, depending on how hazardous the
material is and, in some cases, how the material will be transported. There
are no material specifications or recipes for hazardous material packages.
• weather resistant
• 125
• water and water-vapor resistant
• 150
• fire retardant
• 175 or V3c
• WWVR
• W5c, etc.
ECT corrugated fiberboard may be used when it is available for the
specified class, but only when it is appropriate for the intended
application and when the purchaser agrees.
Government Regulations
Packaging itself is not regulated by any federal agency, but sometimes
the article in the package or the printing on the package is regulated.
The regulatory agencies that affect the corrugated industry most often
are the Department of Transportation (DOT), the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Trade
Commission (FTC). Whenever regulated products are packaged or
shipped in corrugated packaging or regulated statements are made
on the package, the agency’s regulations must be followed. Federal
regulations are found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) of the
agency under whose jurisdiction the item falls.
Within the DOT system, the identification code for a fiberboard box is
4G. Corrugated fiberboard boxes for transporting hazardous materials
are typically combination packages. This means that there are additional
components to the box, such as bottles, cans or bags being used as
primary packages. All components, including dividers and cushioning or
absorbent materials, are tested with the box and become part of the
certified package design.
Therefore, a 4G is seldom just a box; it is a box, bottles and bottle caps,
cap liners, dividers, tape, etc. Box manufacturers typically supply only
some of these components. Once the combination package has been
tested and certified, none of the components can be changed in any
way except for the variations allowed in the regulations. Most changes
will require recertification.
Shippers are responsible for classifying their hazardous materials—
that is, determining whether and how the product qualifies under
hazardous materials regulations. Package manufacturers are responsible
for manufacturing a quality product that conforms to the material
and performance specifications of the tested design, and for correctly
formatting all regulated markings. The certifier of the package is
indicated by a registered symbol, or name and location on the end
of the certification marking that is to be put on the carton. The shipper
is responsible for the continued compliance of all components of the
package and timely design qualification re-testing.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.16
Anyone who performs any function subject to the hazardous materials
regulations (i.e., hazmat employees) must be trained and tested in
general awareness of the regulations, function-specific application of
the regulations, safety in handling and exposure to hazardous materials,
emergency response and security. For example, hazmat employees
whose only hazardous material function is related to manufacturing the
packages are subject to function-specific training, but not subject to the
safety or emergency response training requirements. Violation of any of
the hazardous materials regulations carries financial penalties per
event (presently, up to $32,500) and up to five years in prison.
UN Markings
FBA offers a hazardous materials training program. The kit includes
electronic instruction, paper manual and tests, which can be distributed
to employees. See www.fibrebox.org for more information.
• Performance standard for which package design has been successfully
tested (X, Y, or Z) and the mass (in kg) for which the package design
has been tested.
Packaging regulations for hazardous materials can be found in the
appropriate sections of 49CFR (presently, 100 –185). The DOT shares
the regulation of packaging infectious substances and regulated
medical wastes with the Department of Labor (29CFR) due to OSHA
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) concerns over
blood-borne pathogens. It shares regulation of packaging hazardous
wastes and pesticides with the U.S. EPA (40CFR) due to potential
environmental impact.
• “S” for packages intended to contain solids or liquids in inner
packagings.
When shipments are made by air or sea, the shipper is responsible for
checking with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and the
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) regulations for any
additional requirements.
Correct Sequence of Markings (Non-bulk)
The following information for non-bulk packages must be given in the
correct sequence with the correct codes:
• The UN symbol (vertical line-up of lower case “un” in a circle).
• Packaging identification code (i.e., 4G for fiberboard boxes).
• If variation 2 is used [§178.601(g)(2)], a “V” is inserted here.
• Last two digits of the year of manufacture.
• Country where package was manufactured and marked (i.e., USA).
• Name and address or symbol (symbols must be registered with DOT)
of the entity who “… is to be held responsible for compliance with
subparts L (Standards) and M (Testing) of part 178 (the certifying party).”
The information may be given in a single line or multiple lines. Use slash
marks between the codes as illustrated below (§178.503).
u
n
4GV/Y25/S/92/USA/ABC
Chemical Company, Anytown, ST
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.17
Correct Sequence of Markings (Bulk)
FDA Regulations
• For bulk packages (such as intermediate bulk containers, IBCs) the
sequence and codes are (§178.703).
The FDA (21 CFR) regulates paper and paperboard packaging of foods as
indirect food additives. For fatty and aqueous foods, there is a list of the
only substances allowed to be components of the coated or uncoated
packaging surface in contact with the food. There is a separate list for dry
food contact. The USDA (9CFR) regulates meat and poultry packaging
under meat inspection and poultry inspection. These regulations specify
required markings. They also require certification by the packaging
manufacturer that the materials used in the packaging meet the indirect
food additive regulations of the FDA.
• The UN symbol (vertical line-up of lower case “un” in a circle).
• Packaging identification code (11G for fiberboard IBCs).
• Performance standard for which package design has been successfully
tested (X, Y, or Z).
• Month (numerical) and year (last two digits) of manufacture.
• Country where package was manufactured and marked (i.e., USA).
• Name and address or symbol (symbols must be registered with DOT)
of the entity who “… is to be held responsible for compliance with
subparts Land M (Testing) of part 178.”
• The stacking test load in kg or “0” for IBCs not meant to be stacked.
• The maximum permissible gross mass in kg.
u
n
11G/Y/02 00/USA/ABC Chemical
Company, Anytown, ST/3600/945
The FDA also regulates the nutritional labeling of consumer packages
with respect to food contents. Both the FDA and the FTC require metric
as well as standard measurement units to be displayed on the packages
of many consumer products.
EPA Rules
The EPA assisted the FTC in defining the voluntary eco-label statements,
such as “recycled,” “recyclable,” “biodegradable,” etc. Under these rules,
corrugated fiberboard that has not been coated or otherwise treated with
unrecyclable materials can be labeled recyclable. It is generally not a good
idea to use these labels to advertise recycled content, as it could bring
about complications from various regional mandates for minimum content
and post-consumer accounting.
The EPA requires products and packages that contain or are manufactured
using ozone-depleting substances to be specifically labeled.
THE SUPPLY CHAIN
4.18
Voluntary Guidelines
5.2
Recommended Practice: Storage and Handling of
Corrugated and Solid Fiberboard Packaging Materials
5.5
Voluntary Standard: Tolerances for Scored and Slotted
Corrugated Sheets
5.7
Voluntary Standard: Tolerances for Corrugated
Regular Slotted Containers (RSCs)
5.9
Voluntary Guideline: Vacuum Equipment
Handling of Corrugated Fiberboard
5.15
Recommended Practice: Adhesives Used on
Corrugated Fiberboard Packaging
Unlike the rules and regulations described in the
previous section, the following guidelines are
voluntary. Corrugated industry professionals have
developed these recommendations after years
of working with corrugated boxes, and they are
presented here as ideas you might find helpful.
All measurements in these documents were
originally developed in inches or feet. They
have been converted loosely into millimeters (mm)
or centimeters (cm). Therefore, all dimensions and
tolerances have an English/Customary Unit value,
Triad Packaging of TN
followed by an approximate Metric/SI Unit value
in parentheses.
Voluntary Guidelines
T
he Fibre Box Association (FBA)
and the Packaging Machinery
Manufacturers Institute (PMMI)
developed these recommended practices
and voluntary standards after careful study
to enhance understanding between their
member manufacturers and the users of
their members’ products.
VOLUNTARY GUIDELINES
5.1
In addition to the FBA and PMMI voluntary guidelines, the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has published a number of
test methods that may be of value to box makers and users as they
develop and analyze their corrugated packaging. These include, but
are not limited to:
• D5118 Standard Practice for Fabrication of Fiberboard
Shipping Boxes
• D4727 Standard Specification for Corrugated and Solid Fiberboard
Sheet Stocks (Container Grade) and Cut Shapes
• D4169 Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Shipping
Containers and Systems
• D2658 Standard Test Method for Determining Interior Dimensions
of Fiberboard Boxes (Box Gage Method)
• D5639 Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard
Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements
• D6804 Standard Guide for Hand Hole Design in Corrugated Boxes
Recommended Practice:
Storage and Handling of Corrugated and Solid
Fiberboard Packaging Materials
Purpose
These recommended practices are provided as general guidelines for
storage and handling of corrugated and solid fiberboard packaging,
including knocked down (KD) boxes, scored and slotted sheets, and
inner packaging pieces. They are entirely voluntary and are not intended
to preclude ingenuity or to prevent improvements in storage and
handling practices.
Using these guidelines will help ensure that the packaging:
• Is usable and can fulfill its intended function, protecting contents
against damage, leakage or other loss.
• Will set up easily by hand or will run smoothly on the automatic setup,
filling and closure equipment for which it was designed.
• When filled and set up, will stack squarely during palletization,
storage and shipment.
Background
Corrugated and solid fiberboard packaging is shipped to the user in
KD or flat form to require a minimum of storage area. Banding, bundle
twine, strapping, shrink/stretch film or another method may be used
to unitize and stabilize the load, which may then be delivered on slip
sheets or pallets.
5.2
If a unitization method is likely to adversely affect the runnability of
the corrugated packaging materials, the user should stipulate to the
packaging manufacturer the specific method of unitizing to be used.
Like any other material, corrugated and solid fiberboard packaging can
be damaged by its storage environment or by handling practices. Once
damaged, it loses some of its effectiveness. A few simple precautions
should be observed in the storage and handling of corrugated and
solid fiberboard packaging.
Storage Practices
High humidity or direct contact with water may adversely affect the
performance of the packaging material. Excessive moisture may:
• Soften or dissolve the adhesive which may lead, in extreme cases,
to delamination.
• Increase the coefficient of friction of the board, causing packaging
to stick in automatic equipment or on conveyors.
• Alter the dimensions, resulting in equipment jams.
Uneven moisture absorption may cause warp, making it difficult to
run the packaging on automatic equipment or to square the packaging
by hand. Extremely low humidity, high heat or extreme cold can reduce
the moisture content of the packaging material and may alter the
dimensions or make the fiberboard or adhesive brittle.
To avoid adverse effects caused by moisture and temperature extremes
and fluctuations, the following practices are recommended:
• Use flat dunnage or other material to protect the top and bottom of
the unitized corrugated or solid fiberboard packaging. If packaging
is placed directly on the floor, trapped moisture can accumulate and
damage the material. (See the second item under Handling Practices
if pallets are used.)
• The height of stacked
KD boxes or packaging
components, or of unitized
bundles or pallet loads of
KD boxes or components,
should be governed by
“safe warehouse management practices.”
• Store packaging inside—away
from sources of moisture.
• Keep packaging away from
outside doorways that
remain open or that might
be opened frequently.
• When it is impossible to
store packaging under
approximately standard
conditions, the packaging
should be brought to the
packing line for a period
of time before being used.
If both the storage area
and the packing area are
subject to extreme conditions, it may be necessary
to condition packaging
in a third area to ensure
proper operation of the
packing line.
• Follow the practice of
“first in, first out.” Use the
oldest inventory first.
5.3
Handling Practices
The flute structure in
corrugated fiberboard
provides stacking strength
and cushioning for packaged
products. Any damage to
that structure prior to use—
either from crushing, puncture or tears—reduces the
effectiveness of the packaging.
Edges of corrugated or solid fiberboard that are torn, bent or scuffed
can affect package erection or runnability on automatic packaging
equipment. To avoid physical damage, the following practices are
recommended:
• Packaging should be stored horizontal (flat) and in KD form, from the
time it is received until it is used or fed into the automatic machinery
hopper. Never stack or store packaging on end.
• Packaging should be stored on clean, flat surfaces. When pallets are
used, all deck boards should be in place and undamaged in order to
distribute the weight evenly.
• Avoid placing any uneven
weight on stored packaging.
Don’t stand, sit or climb on
stacked packaging or place
other heavy objects on it.
• Always lift and set down
packaging carefully when it
must be moved. Do not use
the unitizing/bundling
device(s) for lifting, carrying
or otherwise transporting
the stacks of boxes. Don’t
drop unitized loads into
place, or drop or throw
bundles or individual
packaging pieces. To
avoid damage to edges
and corners, don’t drag
packaging or strike it
against a hard surface.
• Leave the banding, bundle twine or other unitizing device in place
until the packaging is ready for use.
• Use caution when handling stacks of unitized KD boxes. There may
be some inherent instability, especially when there are sealed
manufacturers’ joints or other partial areas of multiple thicknesses.
5.4
Background
Voluntary Standard:
Scorelines can be pressed and slots, slits or other shapes can be cut
in corrugated board with a high degree of precision.
Tolerances for Scored and Slotted Corrugated Sheets
(1989 edition)
The sheet can be scored in one direction on the corrugator. Scorelines,
slots or slits in the other direction (perpendicular to the first set of scorelines) are then added by one or more additional machines, such as a
flexo folder-gluer. Alternatively, the sheet can be scored and slotted in
both directions simultaneously on a rotary or platen die cutter.
Purpose
This voluntary standard specifies the tolerances for:
• With no panel dimension more than 25 in. (64 cm) or
less than 4 in. (10 cm),
Machine vibration may lead to slight variations in the dimensions of
panels or flaps. Minor variations do not affect packaging performance.
Packaging machinery is designed to operate efficiently so long as
these variations are limited. Acceptable variations are defined by the
following tolerances.
• That are to be set up, assembled or used by hand or on
automatic packaging equipment.
Dimensions
Boxes, inner packing pieces or other packaging constructed from
sheets manufactured within these tolerances ensure to the greatest
extent possible:
• The packaging is usable and can fulfill its intended function,
protecting against damage, leakage or other product loss.
• Packaging will run smoothly on the automatic equipment for
which it was designed or will set up easily by hand.
• Filled boxes will stack squarely during palletization, storage
and shipment.
This standard is entirely voluntary and is not intended to prevent
corrugated manufacturers from furnishing sheets of any dimensions,
design or agreed-upon tolerances, or to prevent packaging machinery
manufacturers from improving the design or performance of
their equipment.
• Scored and slotted singlewall and doublewall corrugated
fiberboard sheets,
The dimensions of packaging—length,
width and depth—are governed by the
fit around the product after all folding
and sealing has been completed.
The dimensions of unfolded panels
and flaps cannot be compared directly
to the finished dimensions of the packaging. The box designer adjusts the
overall dimensions to accommodate
the width of scorelines, as dictated by the thickness of the material
(flute size and calipers of the component linerboard and medium) and
the score pattern.
The dimensions of unfolded panels can be compared throughout a
production run. Panels are measured from the center of one scoreline
to the center of the next parallel scoreline or to the edge of the board.
5.5
Flaps are measured from the center
of the scoreline to the parallel edge
or from the edge of one slot to the
edge of the next parallel slot. Slots
are measured from the edge of the
sheet to the base of the slot.
Tolerances
Dimensions
• Panels
Variations in the individual panel dimensions, as measured scoreline
to scoreline on the finished blank when flat (as a scored and slotted
sheet), shall not exceed ± 1/16 in. (1.5 mm), and variation in the
overall dimensions shall not exceed ± 1/8 in. (3 mm).
• Slots
– Variations in slot depth shall be no greater than ± 1/8 in. (3mm)
from some agreed upon average dimension.
– Slots shall be centered within 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) of the center of
aligning scores or any other specified alignment.
Warp
Limitations
The amount of warp upon delivery to the customer’s plant shall not
exceed 1/4 in. for one foot of measurement (6 mm per 30.5 cm). Warp
shall be measured by placing a 12-inch straight edge ruler against the
most concave surface of the blank. The distance from the ruler to the
concave surface is the amount of warp.
Scored and slotted sheets made from triplewall corrugated board or
with panel dimensions larger than 25 in. (64 cm) or smaller than 4 in.
(10 cm) may result in variations that exceed the tolerances that follow.
Nevertheless, with careful development and quality control, these
packaging pieces can be designed and manufactured to perform
satisfactorily on automatic packaging equipment or to set up easily
by hand. These tolerances may be adopted for or adapted to these
thicker sheets, or larger or smaller panel sizes at the discretion of the
box manufacturer.
5.6
• Top-opening and end-opening regular slotted containers (RSCs),
• Made from B- or C-flute singlewall corrugated fiberboard,
• Certified burst strength of 150 to 275 psi or an edge crush test (ECT)
value of 26 to 44 lbs. per inch,
• The packaging is usable and can fulfill its intended function.
• Knocked-down boxes will run smoothly on the automatic set-up,
filling and closing equipment for which it was designed, or will
set up and close easily by hand.
• Filled boxes will stack squarely during palletization, storage
and shipment.
Top Opening
H
Boxes manufactured within these tolerances ensure, to the greatest
extent possible:
The dimensions of the panels of a flat box blank
(scored and slotted sheet) are larger than the
inside dimensions of the set-up box because the
thickness of the board requires wide scorelines
whose dimensions are lost in the corners of the box
when it is set up. The additional dimensional allowances
are called scoring allowances.
TH
PT
• That are to be set up, filled and closed by hand or on automatic
packaging equipment.
WID
DE
• For which no panel dimension is more than 25 in. (64 cm) or
less than 4 in. (10 cm),
Length is always the larger of the two dimensions
of the open face of a box as it is set up for filling
(that is, after the KD box has been squared and
the bottom panels have been folded and sealed).
Width is the smaller dimension of the open face.
Depth is the distance perpendicular to the length
and width. End-opening boxes are measured as
though they were top opening.
TH
This voluntary standard specifies the tolerances for:
NG
Purpose
Inside dimensions are given in the sequence
of length, width and depth. (International
organizations may use the words length,
breadth and height.) The inside dimensions
of a finished box are critical for proper fit
around the product. Box manufacturing is based
on this fit. The outside dimensions of the finished
box must be considered for proper palletization
and distribution.
LE
Tolerances for Corrugated Regular
Slotted Containers (RSCs) (1998 edition)
Dimensions
DEPTH
Voluntary Standard:
W
I
D
T
H
LEN
GTH
End Opening
Depending on the flute size, basis weights of the corrugated board’s
components (linerboard and medium) and the pattern used to make the
score, each scoreline can range from about one-tenth to several tenths
of an inch. The box designer adjusts the overall dimensions of the box
blank to accommodate the scorelines (the scoring allowance).
5.7
Limitations
Thicker or heavier board, or larger or smaller dimensions than those
specified in the Purpose, may result in variations that exceed the
tolerances that follow. Nevertheless, these boxes can still be
designed and manufactured to perform satisfactorily on automatic
The tolerances in this voluntary standard may be adapted to other box
styles and sizes at the discretion of the box manufacturer.
Tolerances
Dimensions
• Panels
Variations in the individual panel dimensions, as measured scoreline
to scoreline on the finished blank when flat (as a scored and slotted
sheet), shall not exceed ± 1/16 in. (1.5 mm), and variation in the
overall dimensions shall not exceed ± 1/8 in. (3 mm).
• Slots
– The amount of gap at the manufacturer’s joint measured at the
flap scorelines shall not vary more than ± one board thickness from
the target gap, which is usually 3/8 in. (9 mm) or the width of the
cut slots.
– Variation in the width of each gap at the manufacturer’s joint on the
same box (skew or fishtail) shall not exceed ± 1/8 in. (3 mm) when
measured at the flap scorelines.
– Gaps measured at the flap scorelines
shall not be less than:
• 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) when the joint
is taped or when the glued or
stitched tab is affixed to the inside
of the adjacent panel, or
• 1/8 in. (3 mm) when the tab is
affixed to the outside of the
adjacent panel.
– The gap at the manufacturer’s
joint measured at the ends of the
flaps, shall be not less than 1/16 in. (1.5 mm).
– Variations in slot depth shall be no greater than ± 1/8 in. (3mm)
from some agreed upon average dimension.
– Slots shall be centered within 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) of the center of
aligning scores or any other specified alignment.
Warp (KD Box)
The amount of warp upon delivery to the customer’s plant shall not
exceed 1/4 in. for one foot of measurement (6 mm per 30.5 cm). Warp
shall be measured by placing a 12-inch straight edge ruler against the
most concave surface of the blank. The distance from the ruler to the
concave surface is the amount of warp.
5.8
Flap Gap (Finished Box)
The major flaps of a closed box should not overlap and the gap
between these flaps should not exceed the thickness of the corrugated
board, unless some other tolerance is agreed upon between the box
customer and the box manufacturer.
Voluntary Guideline:
Vacuum Equipment Handling of Corrugated Fiberboard
(2001 edition)
Purpose
This voluntary guideline provides methods for optimizing the operation of
packaging equipment that uses a vacuum apparatus to handle unfilled
corrugated fiberboard materials, which shall be referred to in this
document as fiberboard. It was developed to enhance understanding
between manufacturers and users of packaging equipment and fiberboard packaging. It does not include the handling of filled containers.
This guideline is entirely voluntary and is not intended to preclude
the exercise of ingenuity in field application or inhibit the improvement
in design or performance of corrugated fiberboard packaging or
Background
In the past, the focus was on the porosity of corrugated fiberboard
with respect to “inches of mercury” ("Hg) as read from the gauge at
the vacuum source. The actual volume of airflow at the vacuum cup
has been given insufficient attention in the design and installation of
the equipment. Page 5.11 describes an apparatus for measuring airflow
at the vacuum cup.
For commercial operation of packaging equipment, vacuum source
capacity is important to the performance of the equipment. However,
the actual airflow volume at the vacuum cup is more significant than the
"Hg gauge reading. With sufficient airflow, the "Hg gauge reading is
completely irrelevant to the handling of corrugated fiberboard.
5.9
In fact, attention should be primarily focused on airflow volume at
the point of contact between the vacuum cup and the corrugated
fiberboard. Proper airflow volume is vital for satisfactory packaging
equipment operation. The two most important factors that affect
airflow in a given system are the design of the vacuum cup(s) and
the piping arrangement.
In the early installations of packaging equipment, molded rubber or
metal vacuum cups were used. In an endeavor to overcome handling
problems, larger and more flexible cups were installed on many
machines. Usually, the rubber vacuum cups were 50 durometer or
higher. Often the cup produced an annular sealing area (see
Diagram 1 on next page) with a radial width of 1/8 in. or less.
The holding force of the cup is related to the width of its annular sealing
area. Vacuum cups producing a 3/4 in. annular sealing area have proven
most effective.
The piping arrangement used in packaging equipment is also vital
to the operation and can diminish the rated airflow capacity of the
vacuum source. Measuring packaging equipment in operation has
revealed a wide difference between the rated capacity of the vacuum
generator and the actual airflow at the vacuum cup (see Field Tests).
Recommendations
Automatic packaging machines maintained to the following settings
should perform satisfactorily with commercial corrugated fiberboard.
Vacuum Capacity (see Airflow Requirements):
• One or more vacuum generators having minimum rating of
8.3 CFM at 0 "Hg.
• If the plant vacuum system is used, maintain minimum airflow
requirements measured at the vacuum cup(s) (see Vacuum Cups).
• With adequate airflow capacity, double feeds will be prevented if
sufficient numbers of “magazine” (hopper) hold devices are used.
• "Hg is not important when proper airflow volume is maintained.
Piping (see Airflow Requirements):
• Do not use a piping connection or orifice less than 5/16 in. inside
diameter (I.D.) in lines from the vacuum source to the vacuum cup.
• Keep the number of elbows (bends) in the piping system to a minimum.
The "Hg gauge at the vacuum generator cannot be used to evaluate
the airflow of the entire system. In addition to having a vacuum source
with adequate capacity, it is crucial to maintain airflow volume through
lines of optimal diameter with minimal bends, and without kinks or
obstructions. The amount of air pulled directly through the corrugated
fiberboard sheet has far less influence on the degree of holding force
produced than air infiltration around the sealing area of the vacuum
cup, due to different types of fibers, finishes, surface irregularities,
warp, washboarding, etc. of the corrugated fiberboard.
5.10
Vacuum Cups
Porosity of Corrugated Fiberboard
• The annular sealing area in contact with the corrugated fiberboard
surface should have a minimum radial width of 3/8 in. for 2 in. cups,
or 1/2 in. for 3 in. cups (see Diagram 1). Other cup designs may be
used, but the rubber durometer and the radial width of the annular
sealing area should be as specified.
As a result of industry studies, porosity of the corrugated linerboard
should be a minimum of 8 seconds (Gurley Units per TAPPI T460),
assuming the vacuum system performs according to these guidelines.
Diagram 1: Standard Suction Cup
Annular
Sealing
Area
Sealing area should
be no less than
3/8" wide
5/16 ID
Piping
Annular
Seal
Area
• Durometer should be 35 to 40.
• Cups should have a minimum 5/16 in. I.D. orifice.
• Replace the cup whenever it becomes stiff or damaged with use.
• Airflow at vacuum cup (see Appendix A):
– Single-cup installation: 5.5 CFM minimum airflow volume.
– Multiple-cup installation: 3 CFM minimum airflow volume at
each cup, when tested with other cup(s) open to atmosphere.
Apparatus for Measuring Airflow Volume at the Vacuum Cup of
an Automatic Packaging Machine
• One air rotameter, capacity 8.3
CFM air—at standard conditions,
minimum 1/2 in. pipe connections.
Flowmeters are available from
various suppliers such as:
Apparatus for
Measuring
Airflow Volume
– McCrometer Incorporated,
Hemet, CA 92545, 909/652-6811
– Dwyer Instruments, Inc., Michigan
City, IN 46361, 219/879-8000
– (Part numbers per McCrometer:
airflow meter, capacity: 8.76 CFM air;
tube number 3-HCFB;
float number 31-J.)
• One 5 in. x 5 in. flat PlexiglasTM plate, with a hole for 1/2 in. I.D.
threaded connector in center.
• One 20 in. length flexible tubing to fit 1/2 in. standard connectors
on both ends.
The Plexiglas plate, attached to the flexible hose that is connected to
the outlet of the airflow meter, is placed firmly against the vacuum cup
on the packaging machine. The float will rise in the rotameter tube to
indicate the airflow. The reading on the glass tube corresponds to the
air volume flowing through the apparatus. Read the actual air volume
in CFM from the air rotameter calibration chart.
5.11
When checking the airflow of a packaging machine with multiple
vacuum cups, the airflow is measured on one cup while the other
cup(s) is (are) open to the atmosphere (see Airflow Requirements).
This apparatus is proficient in evaluating actual operating conditions,
and in identifying inadequately sized vacuum sources and/or vacuum
cups, and excessive airflow loss due to piping arrangement. Most
importantly, it is an excellent quality control device to check problems
in the vacuum system, such as partially plugged lines and connections
due to fiber, dirt, sand, oil, etc.
Field Tests
1. Volume of Airflow through Vacuum Cup
The intent of this field test was to install a vacuum source of a specific
capacity and assume that the airflow at the cup(s) was the same, focusing
attention on the vacuum gauge readings as the operational practice.
A vacuum system was assembled whereby the vacuum level (inches of
mercury gauge reading) and airflow could be accurately measured and
controlled to specific levels. Equipment was also constructed to measure
the airflow at the vacuum cup on actual packaging machines in operation.
The experience of the packaging machine operations was correlated to
the measurements taken. The results have been of considerable interest
in explaining the causes of problems and in overcoming these problems.
Using the special vacuum test mechanism (similar to the previously
mentioned apparatus), airflow could be set to the level found to
exist on packaging machines and then increased/decreased to known
volumes to evaluate the holding force with various corrugated boards
having known porosity or densometer values. The airflow normally
found on automatic case packers was about 1 CFM at the vacuum
cup. Test evaluations were conducted, in which boards of the following
densometer test (porosity) were checked at these airflows: 23 seconds,
19 seconds, 14 seconds and 8 seconds. At the 1 CFM, airflow it was
apparent that the holding force at the vacuum cup was greater on
the higher densometer (less porous) boards. The boards with 19 – 23
densometer may have worked satisfactorily on automatic case packers
at 1 CFM airflow. However, the holding force was definitely weak and
it was quite evident that the boards with 8 – 14 densometer would
probably not have fed properly.
The airflow was then increased to 3.5 CFM and the same boards were
evaluated. It was noted that considerably improved holding force
developed at the higher airflow.
The airflow was then increased to 6 CFM, where it was noted that the
holding force of the vacuum cup was considerably higher. It was so
great, in fact, that it was practically impossible to pull the corrugated
board away from the vacuum cup. This was true with the board having
8 densometer as well as the board having 23 densometer.
To further emphasize this point, a hole (approximately 1/4 in. diameter)
was punched completely through a sample of corrugated board, which
was considered to represent 0 densometer. This board was picked up
and securely held by the vacuum cup when adequate airflow was pulled
through the cup.
2. Pressure Differential ("Hg) at Vacuum Cup
Because it is common practice for operators to use the vacuum gauge
as a measurement of packaging machine performance and corrugated
box quality, the special test mechanism was throttled so that only a
maximum of 5 "Hg could be attained. From tests carried out on
corrugated fiberboard, it was evident that even at this low vacuum level
(lower than ever noted on commercial packaging machine operations)
with sufficient airflow through the vacuum cup, corrugated fiberboard
with the lowest densometer (8 seconds) could be picked up and held
firmly enough to work satisfactorily on packaging machines.
5.12
of 16 "Hg was obtained, which produced very good holding force.
This vacuum cup assembly produced an annular sealing area with a
radial width of 3/4 in. to 7/8 in.
3. Vacuum Cups and Vacuum Flow Drop Due to Piping
To explain the importance of the vacuum cup design on packaging
machine operation, the following evaluation was performed on a
sample of corrugated board.
With vacuum cup number 3, there was good pick-up and holding force
with vacuum gauge readings as low as 6 "Hg, as compared to the need
for 14 "Hg or more with vacuum cup number 1. Therefore, better
packaging machine operation, with more flexibility to handle corrugated
boards normally found in commercial supply, is possible with the new
type of vacuum cup. The flat, single-surface vacuum cup producing 3/4
in. radial width sealing area was found superior to the type of cup with
a molded, rounded, double-thickness contact surface.
1. A 2 in. diameter molded rubber vacuum cup (50 durometer) was
attached to the vacuum test system and set to a constantly controlled
airflow. A gauge reading of 8.5 "Hg was the maximum vacuum
attained with the corrugated blank, and this provided very little holding
force. It was noted the radial width area in contact with the board was
approximately 1/8 in. to 3/16 in.
2. A second evaluation was carried out with the corrugated board using
the same type of vacuum cup but with a lower durometer (35–40). The
vacuum gauge reading obtained on this test was 12 "Hg. It was evident
the board was held more firmly. During the test, the radial width of
the annular sealing area had increased to approximately 3/8 in.
The use of a single 3/16 in. diameter orifice in the vacuum system
will cause a reduction of 20 percent in the airflow volume at the
cup. Correspondingly, a 5/16 in. orifice produced little airflow drop
(3 percent). Some machines in the field have been found to have sections
of 1/4 in. or even 1/8 in. diameter pipe or connections in the lines to
the vacuum cups.
3. A third evaluation was conducted using a piece of 3 in. diameter flat
rubber with a thickness of 1/8 in. and a durometer of 40. This rubber
piece was mounted on a conical-shaped steel holder with a 5/16 in.
diameter orifice, which was connected to the vacuum source. Using
the same corrugated blank and airflow, a vacuum gauge reading
To evaluate the effect of various piping arrangements on airflow
volume at the vacuum cup, the following tests were conducted using
the 5/16 in. diameter orifice, cup number 3, the 3/4 in. diameter feed
lines and 6.6 CFM initial airflow.
Airflow Tests
Restriction
1 … 3/8" orifice
2 … 3/8" orifices
3 … 3/8" orifices
4 … 3/8" orifices
Airflow Loss
5%
6%
7%
9%
Restriction
1 … 3/8" elbow
2 … 3/8" elbows
3 … 3/8" elbows
4 … 3/8" elbows
Airflow Loss
8%
10%
Restriction
Airflow Loss
13%
15%
4 … 3/8" orifices and 4 … 3/8" elbows
22%
5.13
Airflow Requirements
Note: You must test multiple-cup machines with the other cups open
as shown above to get the actual airflow through each vacuum cup.
If you close off the other cups, you get a reading for the total pump
output, not what you are actually getting through each cup.
Airflow Requirements
Number of Suction Cups
Vacuum/Venturi Capacity CFM at 0 "Hg
minimum
Size of piping connections, minimum (inches)
Suction Cup
Airflow at suction cup per recommended
measurement of CFM
Test Method (T = test)
(O = open)
(C = closed)
1
2
3
4
5
6
8.3
8.3
16
34
34
34
5/16
5/16
5/8
1
1
1
Flat rubber, 1/8" thick, 35-40 durometer,
3" minimum diameter, with 3/4"
contact with substrate
5.5
3.0
4.5
6.6
6.6
6.6
1-T
1-T
1-O
1-T
2-O
1-T
3-O
1-T
3-O
1-C
1-T
3-O
2-C
Special Notes
• Position suction cups adequately close to the box panel score(s)
to provide minimum resistance to the case-opening function.
Vacuum cups placed too far from the score might get pulled off
due to board leverage.
• Attempt to ensure that no suction cup is placed on scores, slots,
access holes, etc. However, if the packaging machinery has the
minimum required airflow, there shouldn’t be a problem with cup
placement on a score or perforation.
• All suction cups should pull the same CFM amount of airflow, not
inches of mercury ("Hg). Corrugated fiberboard is handled with
airflow, not pure vacuum or "Hg measurements.
• Commercially available corrugated fiberboard of all Mullen and ECT
singlewall and doublewall grades should work satisfactorily when
the above guidelines are met.
5.14
Summary
The two most important variables that influence the performance of
packaging equipment operating with a vacuum apparatus for handling
corrugated fiberboard:
Recommended Practice:
Adhesives Used on Corrugated Fiberboard Packaging
(2001 edition)
• Volume of airflow at the vacuum cup
• Vacuum cup annular sealing area between the cup and the
corrugated fiberboard
The two variables found to be relatively unimportant in an adequately
operating system:
• Linerboard porosity
• Degree of vacuum ("Hg), as read from the vacuum gauge
With the vacuum cup design and airflow volume at the vacuum cup
as specified above, commercial corrugated board manufactured in
the United States and Canada should perform satisfactorily and
efficiently on packaging equipment. Also, with sufficient airflow volume,
corrugated fiberboard having slight warp, washboarding and other minor
surface defects (that might now cause operating problems on machines
having marginal airflow) should be processed with little difficulty.
Purpose
The following recommendations refer specifically to adhesives used
in conjunction with automatic packaging machinery, but are also
relevant to adhesives used in manual or semi-automatic operations.
These recommendations are not intended to supersede regulatory
restrictions or local mandates. Owners and operators are responsible
for compliance with local fire laws, federal or state Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations, etc.
General Guidelines
• Information on specific adhesive products pertaining to compatibility,
storage, dilution, application, shelf life, etc. should be obtained from
the adhesives supplier.
• Dilution of adhesives is not recommended.
• Always follow the operating and maintenance recommendations
suggested by the applicator equipment manufacturers.
• Instructions on adhesive container labels include the product
identification and should not be removed, destroyed or defaced.
• Coatings on corrugated fiberboard may adversely affect adhesion.
Specialty adhesives may be required for these applications.
• Obtain from the supplier a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each
adhesive, and keep it accessible to the operator(s) using the adhesive.
5.15
Hot Melt Adhesives
Cleanliness Requirements
Inventory Control
• Containers in which hot melts are received or stored should be kept
closed after opening to prevent contamination from air-borne particles.
• Keep the adhesive dry. Moisture will cause the adhesive to
generate steam and glue splatter when heated.
• Hot melt adhesives will tend to melt and block when stored at
temperatures above 140ºF (60ºC).
Temperature Considerations
• Ideally, keep adhesives at their normal operating temperatures.
• Most adhesives are designed to be applied in an environment at
or close to room temperature, 60ºF to 90ºF (16º to 32ºC). Maintain
operating areas under conditions (temperature and humidity) that
approximate adhesive properties. Whenever possible, bring corrugated
fiberboard to room temperature before applying adhesives. If wide
temperature extremes must be regularly accommodated during
production operations, it may be necessary to use special adhesives.
• Place equipment away from frequently opened doors or windows
and do not direct fans on gluing areas.
• Always follow instructions on adhesive containers.
• Hot melts with an application temperature range of 250º to 375ºF
(121º to 190ºC) may double in viscosity for every 50ºF (28ºC)
drop in temperature.
• Open and set times should be based on the requirements of the
selected adhesive, not decided by varying the temperature.
• Adhesives must be kept clean. Never use material that has either
fallen on the floor or has otherwise been contaminated or recovered.
• Regularly clean screens or filters on adhesive applicators to
remove contaminants.
• Hoses and piping can develop char over time, which will break
loose if disturbed. If the system must be disturbed, disconnect
hoses from applicator heads and purge thoroughly (see
Changing Adhesives).
• Store adhesives in a dry area.
Changing Adhesives
• Before introducing a new adhesive into the feed system, establish
the compatibility of the new product with the old. Determine adhesive
compatibility by mixing together a small quantity of the products in
a liquid state and observing the resulting characteristics. Stringing or
coagulation denotes incompatibility, which will necessitate purging
of the entire system.
• Whenever a new hot melt adhesive is to be used, drain the reservoir/
tank of old material. Add enough new material to thoroughly purge
the reservoir, adhesive lines, applicating wheels, etc. After purging,
refill the reservoir to capacity with the new adhesive.
5.16
Glue Pot and Applicator Operation
• Post an applicator/adhesive guideline (such as that in Figure 1 on
next page) in a readily visible location.
• Keep the hot melt adhesive system in good condition. A glue system
that is in constant use should be maintained at regular intervals.
• Clean hot melt filters after every 200 hours of operation or per
vendor recommendations.
• Clean nozzles using proper tip-cleaners available from vendors.
Never use drill bits, torch tip cleaners, etc., because they will change
the diameter and flow characteristics of the nozzle.
• Once proper air pressure is established, it should remain consistent.
Any variation needed to maintain flow or volume indicates other
system problems.
• Use covered glue pots to keep out dirt, dust and other contaminants.
• Never introduce objects other than the adhesive into the glue pot,
including stirring utensils.
• It is good practice to check the actual adhesive temperature periodically,
using a reliable method.
• Do not use release sprays near glue pots, since a small amount
of release agent can adversely affect adhesive characteristics.
• Reducing heat on a hot melt adhesive at the end of a shift,
rather than a complete shut-off, will ensure fast meltdown the
next morning. An overnight temperature of 150ºF to 200ºF (66ºC
to 93ºC) is recommended. Too high a holding temperature will
cause degradation.
• Make sure the adhesive application is accurate to ensure proper
placement and coverage. Avoid over- or under-shooting the blank
to avoid glue build-up on machine.
• The glue pot should be topped off frequently. Adding large amounts
of glue to the glue pot at one time will shock the system.
Hot Melt Safety
• Properly train personnel in safe operating procedures.
• Exercise extreme care in working with hot melts in a hot, fluid state.
Severe burns can result if skin contact occurs. When working with hot
melt systems, it is recommended that safety glasses and heat-resistant
gloves be worn.
• If burns occur, the recommended procedure is as follows:
– Immediately immerse contacted area in cold, clean water.
– Do not attempt to remove the cooled hot melt from the skin.
– Cover contacted area with a clean, wet compress and see
a physician immediately.
Cold Set (Water-Based) Adhesives
Inventory Control
• Always use the oldest stock first, since the adhesive may undergo
detrimental changes with age.
• Take shelf life into consideration in determining economic
purchase quantities.
• Check adhesives frequently if storage temperatures vary widely.
5.17
Figure 1
Daily Preventative Maintenance:
Safety: HANDLE HOT MELTS WITH CARE!
• Keep system clean at all times.
Emergency First Aid:
• Keep system filled with adhesive.
• Immediately immerse contacted area in cold, clean water.
• Check operating temperatureand pressure.
• Do not attempt to remove the cooled hot melt from the skin.
• Keep reserve adhesive covered.
• Cover contacted area with a clean, wet compress and see a physician immediately.
• Keep lid closed.
• Use proper utensils for adding adhesive.
Maintenance Log
Hot Melt Application Specifications:
Date/
Date/
Date/
Date/
Equipment
Date/
How Many How Many How Many How Many How Many Downtime
Product #:
Equipment:
Line:
Nozzle Replacement
Hose Replacement
Target Settings:
Filter Replacement
Pot Settings:
Reservoir Cleaning
Temperature
Readout:
Hose Settings:
Head Settings:
Line Pressure:
Orifice Size:
Pounds of Cleaning
Material Used
Pounds of Hot Melt
Discarded
Comments:
Bead Width:
Bead Length:
Note to the User: Print this page to use figure.
5.18
Temperature Considerations
Changing Adhesives
• The recommended storage range is 60º to 90ºF (16º to 32ºC).
Adhesives become thinner in high temperatures and thicker in cold.
• Before introducing a new cold set adhesive into the feed system,
establish the compatibility of the new product with the old.
Determine adhesive compatibility by mixing together a small
quantity of the products in a liquid state and observing the resulting
characteristics. Stringing or coagulation denotes incompatibility,
which will necessitate purging of the entire system.
• Extreme cold may cause some adhesives to become pasty, gel
or freeze.
• If containers of adhesives are labeled “Protect Against Freezing,”
do not accept product if it is frozen. Signs of the adhesive having
been frozen are separation or gelling.
• Most adhesives are designed to perform at 60ºF to 90ºF (16º to
32ºC). Maintain operating areas under conditions (temperature and
humidity) that match adhesive properties. Whenever possible, bring
corrugated fiberboard to room temperature before applying adhesives.
If wide temperature extremes must be regularly accommodated during
production operations, it may be necessary to use special adhesives.
• Place equipment away from frequently opened doors or windows
and do not direct fans on gluing areas.
• Always follow instructions on adhesive containers.
Cleanliness Requirements
• Keep adhesives clean.
• Carefully cover partially used containers so that the product will
not dry out or become contaminated.
• Do not reuse adhesives drained from machines.
• Regularly clean screens or filters on adhesive applicators to
remove contaminants.
• Whenever a new adhesive is to be used, thoroughly clean all adhesive
lines, reservoirs, applicating wheels, etc.
Glue Pot and Applicator Operation
• Do not let the glue pot overheat due to friction or allow it to run for
long intervals without actual application, because this can break down
the adhesive or cause it to dry out (lose water).
• Use equipment that does not constantly beat air into the adhesive.
• Use covered glue pots to keep out dirt, dust and other contaminants.
• Once proper air pressure is established, it should remain consistent.
Any variation needed to maintain flow or volume is an indication of
other system problems.
• When a short shut-down occurs, cover the applicating wheel and/or
heads with a damp cloth.
• Clean applicator heads prior to extended periods of shut-down.
• It may be practical to coat glue pots and equipment with permanent,
non-stick coating materials.
• Do not use release sprays near glue pots, since a small amount of
release agent can adversely affect adhesive characteristics.
5.19
Resources
6.1
6.9
6.48
6.59
6.67
Tests
Appendices
• Frequently Asked Technical Questions
• Guideline for Direct-Contact Printing of Bar-Code
Symbols on Corrugated
• National Motor Freight Classification: Item 222
• Metric Conversion Table
• Solid Fiberboard
Glossary
Information Sources
Index
Important background information, sources and
key terms and definitions can all be found here, in
the back of the Handbook. If your questions are not
answered here, call FBA at 847-364-9600 or go to
www.fibrebox.org
Norampac
Tests
T
he corrugated industry assures
high-performance quality of its
products through computer-aided
design and scientific testing of materials
and package performance. Proposed box
designs are submitted to simulated, typical
shipping, handling and storage conditions,
and the effects on box performance are
measured. This helps corrugated suppliers
optimize packages for their specific
applications, at the lowest possible cost.
RESOURCES
6.1
General
Finished Boxes
Conditioning
Compression Strength
Most test methods for paper products require preconditioning and
conditioning of the material, or determination of the moisture level
in the material. This ensures that the test results will not vary due to
ambient conditions.
Compression strength is
the measured maximum
load a single container
can withstand when
tested in a dynamic
compression test. When
factors for handling,
environment and storage
are applied to the
compression strength
value, long-term stacking
strength of a container
can be estimated. Also,
using a known compression strength value, an ECT requirement can be generated and used
to determine appropriate board combinations.
TAPPI T-402, Standard Conditioning and Testing Atmospheres for
Paper, Board, Pulp Handsheets and Related Products
Both methods give explicit instructions for preconditioning and
conditioning paper products to obtain consistent results.
Sampling
Standard methods are used to determine the number of representative
samples to be tested in a given lot size.
Pratt Industries
ASTM D-685, Standard Method of Conditioning Paper and Paper
Products for Testing
TAPPI T-804, Compression Test of Fiberboard Shipping Containers
TAPPI T-400, Sampling and Accepting a Single Lot of Paper,
Paperboard, Containerboard, or Related Product
ASTM D-642, Standard Method of Determining Compressive Resistance
of Shipping Container Components of Unit Loads
ASTM D-585, Standard Method for Sampling and Accepting a Single
Lot of Paper, Paperboard, Fiberboard, or Related Products
The two methods are essentially the same. Results are reported in
pound force or newtons (lbf or N).
RESOURCES
6.2
Drop Test
Incline Impact Test
These procedures are lab simulations
of shocks that individually shipped
containers may experience during
handling and shipment.
These procedures are lab simulations of shocks that large containers or
unit loads may experience during handling and shipment.
TAPPI T-801, Impact Resistance of Fiberboard Shipping Containers
TAPPI T-802, Drop Test for Fiberboard
Shipping Containers
ASTM D-4003, Standard Method for Programmable Horizontal Impact
Test for Shipping Containers and Systems
ASTM D-5276, Standard Test
Method for Drop Test for Loaded
Containers by Free Fall
Structural Design/Performance—Test Plans
The two methods are similar.
ASTM D-4169, Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Shipping
Containers and Systems
ISTA Preshipment Testing Procedures
Fire Resistance Test
The test is required for combined
board when boxes must comply with
the “Fire Resistant” requirements of
ASTM D-4727 and 5118.
ASTM E-162, Standard Test Method
for Surface Flammability of Materials
Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
Results are reported as flame spread index (time per distance).
ASTM E-662, Standard Method for Specific Optical Density of
Smoke Generated by Solid Materials
Results are reported as percent of transmittance or optical density.
ISTA has recently revised testing procedures, and is developing additional
“Projects” which will be either adopted as “Procedures” after an
implementation period or dropped. Contact ISTA (see Information
Sources) for the status and applicability of the various procedures.
Vibration Test
ASTM D-999, Standard Methods for Vibration Testing of
Shipping Containers
ASTM D-4728, Standard Test Method for Random Vibration Testing
of Shipping Containers
Water Resistance Test
ASTM D-951, Standard Test Method for Water Resistance of Shipping
Containers by Spray Method
Water resistance is reported as pass/fail.
RESOURCES
6.3
Combined Board
Bending Resistance Test/Flexural Stiffness Test
Colorado Container
Adhesive Bonding Tests/Pin Adhesion and Ply Separation
Flexural Stiffness
Pin Adhesion Test
TAPPI T-820, Flexural Stiffness of Corrugated Board
TAPPI T-821, Pin Adhesion of Corrugated Board by Selective Separation
TAPPI T-836, Bending Stiffness (Four Point Method)
Results are reported in lb/ft or N/m of glue line.
Another test method is provided in The Elastic Properties of Paper—
Test Methods and Measurement Instruments, by Hakan Markstrom
(Lorentzen & Wettre, Stockholm, 1991).
TAPPI T-812, Ply Separation of Solid and Corrugated Fiberboard (Wet)
The results of this test indicate whether weather-resistant adhesive was
used in the corrugating or laminating process. Results are reported in
inches or mm of delamination.
Flexural stiffness is reported
in lbf/in or N/mm.
Basis Weight/Grammage
Burst Strength Test/Mullen Test
To determine basis weight and caliper of the components of combined
board or containers.
TAPPI T-810, Bursting Strength of
Corrugated and Solid Fiberboard
TAPPI TIP-0308-01, Determining Construction of Corrugated Board
Results are reported in psi or kPa.
Results are reported in lb/msf or g/m2.
Burst Test
RESOURCES
6.4
Caliper/Thickness
TAPPI T-411, Thickness (Caliper)
of Paper, Paperboard, and
Combined Board
Results are reported to the nearest
0.001 in or 0.01 mm.
Combined Board Caliper Test
ECT is a measure of the edgewise
compressive strength of corrugated
board—the force that a sample of
prescribed size, with the flutes oriented
vertically, can withstand. Using ECT in
an established mathematical formula
can produce an estimated box
compression strength.
Flat Crush Test
Necked-down Edge Crush Test Sample
TAPPI T-808, Flat Crush Test of
Corrugated Board (Flexible Beam Method)
TAPPI T-825, Flat Crush Test of Corrugated Board
(Rigid Support Method)
TAPPI T-811, Edgewise
Compressive Strength
of Corrugated
Fiberboard (Short
Column Test)
The tests yield results that are substantially different from each other.
Results are given in psi or kPa.
TAPPI T-838,
Neckdown Method
TAPPI T-803, Puncture Test of Containerboard
TAPPI T-839,
Clamp Method
T-839 and T-841 make use of
special holders to support
the specimens in a vertical
position rather than reinforcing the edges with paraffin.
This makes the methods
practical for routine testing.
The results correlate with
those from T-811, but they
are not the same. Results are
reported in lbf/in or kN/m.
Green Bay Packaging
TAPPI T-841,
Morris Method
Puncture Resistance Test
Results are reported in inch oz force/in or joules.
Slide Resistance Test/Coefficient of Friction
TAPPI T-815, Coefficient of Static Friction (slide angle) of packaging and
packaging materials, including shipping sack papers, corrugated and
solid fiberboard. (Inclined Plane Method)
RESOURCES
6.5
TAPPI T-816, Coefficient of Static Friction of Corrugated and Solid
Fiberboard (Horizontal Plane Method)
ASTM D-4521, Standard Test Method for Coefficient of Static Friction of
Corrugated and Solid Fiberboard
The methods give equivalent results. Inclined plane method results are
reported as the tangent of the angle at which sliding begins. For the
horizontal plane method, the resulting number has no units.
Warp
TAPPI TIP-0304-13, Statistical Process Control—Procedures for
Charting Warp
Containerboard
Air Resistance Test/Porosity Test
TAPPI T-460, Air Resistance of Paper (Gurley Method)
ASTM D-726, Standard Test Method for Resistance of Nonporous Paper
to Passage of Air
Results are reported in seconds/100 ml.
Basis Weight/Grammage
TAPPI T-410, Grammage of Paper and Paperboard (Weight per
Unit Area)
FBA/PMMI Voluntary Standards: Tolerances for Scored and
Slotted Corrugated Fiberboard Sheets and Tolerances for
Regular Slotted Containers
ASTM D-646, Standard Test Method for Grammage of Paper and
Paperboard (Weight per Unit Area)
Warp is reported as in/ft or cm/m.
Basis weight or grammage is reported as pounds per thousand square
feet or grams per square meter (lb/msf or g/m2).
Water Absorption Test/Cobb Test
TAPPI T-441, Water Absorptiveness of Sized (Non-Bibulous) Paper,
Paperboard and Corrugated Fiberboard (Cobb Test)
ISO 535, Paper and Board-Determination of Water AbsorptionCobb Method
The two procedures are essentially identical. Results are reported in
g/m2. The international method is referenced in Title 49, Code of Federal
Regulations, as a standard for fiberboard boxes used in the transportation of hazardous materials.
Brightness Test
TAPPI T-452, Brightness of Pulp, Paper and Paperboard (Directional
Reflectance at 457 nm)
Brightness is reported as nm (wavelength). The test can be used for
white, near-white, and kraft paper and paperboard.
Burst Strength Test/Mullen Test
TAPPI T-807, Bursting Strength of Paperboard and Linerboard
Results are reported in psi or kPa.
RESOURCES
6.6
Crush Resistance Test/Compressive Strength Test
Fluted Edge Crush Test/Corrugated Flute Crush Test
TAPPI T-818, Ring Crush
of Paperboard
TAPPI T-824, Fluted Edge Crush of Corrugating Medium
Results are reported in lbf or kN.
TAPPI T-822, Ring Crush
of Paperboard (Rigid
Support Method)
This test is most accurate for
containerboard ranging from
0.28 to 0.51 mm. thick (0.011
to 0.020 in.) and from 42 to
69 lb/msf. Ring crush is
expressed in lbf/6 in. T-822
provides better repeatability
between labs than T-818.
TAPPI T-826, Short Span
Compressive Strength
of Paperboard (also
known as STFI for the
method’s developer)
Hardness Test/Roll Uniformity Test
TAPPI T-834, Determination of Paperboard Roll Hardness
Ring Crush Test
Results are reported in percent of rebound of a test hammer. Rolls
of containerboard should maintain some minimum level of hardness,
with minimal variation across the width of the roll for good corrugator
runnability.
Internal Bond Test/Fiber Bonding Test
TAPPI T-833, Test for Interfiber Bond Using the Internal Bond Tester
Short Span Compression
The method tests containerboard with a span-to-thickness ratio of less
than 5 (the test span is 0.7 mm.); i.e., basis weight of at least 20 lb/msf.
The results are expressed in lbf/in.
The method measures the amount of energy required to pull apart the
upper and lower surfaces of a specimen adhered on both sides to a test
fixture. Results are reported from an instrument scale without units.
TAPPI T-459, Surface Strength of Paper (Wax Pick Test)
Flat Crush Test
The ability of containerboard to resist removal of its surface with
sealing wax is reported as the critical wax strength number (CWSN)
of the highest-rated sealing wax that, when removed, does not disturb
the surface fibers.
TAPPI T-809, Flat Crush of Corrugating Medium (CMT Test)
TAPPI T-541, Internal Bond Strength of Paperboard (Z-Direction Tensile)
Results are reported in lbf or N.
Results of the containerboard’s ability to remain intact under stress as
measured by the z-direction tensile tester, are reported in psi or kPa.
RESOURCES
6.7
Internal Tearing Test/Elmendorf Tear Test
Tensile Strength Test
TAPPI T-414, Internal Tearing Resistance of Paper
(Elmendorf-Type Method)
TAPPI T-494, Tensile Breaking Properties of Paper and Paperboard
(Using Constant Rate of Elongation Apparatus)
Results are reported in gf or mN.
Tensile strength is reported in lbf/in or kN/m. Stretch is reported
in percentage.
Moisture Content Test
TAPPI T-412, Moisture in Pulp, Paper and Paperboard
ASTM D-644, Standard Test Method for Moisture Content of Paper and
Paperboard by Oven Drying
The two methods are similar. Results are reported to the nearest
0.1 percent.
Scuff Resistance Test
TAPPI UM-580, Scuffing Resistance of Linerboard
TAPPI T-830, Ink Rub Test of Containerboard
Water Drop Penetration Test/Float Curl Test
TAPPI T-819, Water Absorption of Corrugating Medium: Boat Method
TAPPI T-831, Water Absorption of Corrugating Medium, Water Drop
Penetration Test
TAPPI T-832, Water Absorption of Corrugating Medium: Float
Curl Method
TAPPI T-835, Water Absorption of Corrugated Medium: Water Drop
Absorption Test
These procedures yield results that are not identical. Results are
reported in seconds.
Results are given as the number of strokes needed to cause failure.
ASTM D-5264, Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Printed
Materials/ Sutherland Rub Tester
Results are determined from the amount of ink transferred to the receptor.
Water Vapor Transmission Rate Test
TAPPI T-464, Water Vapor Transmission Rate of Paper and Paperboard
at High Temperature and Humidity
Results are reported as g/m2 day.
Surface Smoothness
TAPPI T-538, Roughness of Paper and Paperboard (Sheffield Method)
Results are given in “Sheffield Units” or SCCM (standard cc per minute).
RESOURCES
6.8
Appendices
Appendix 1:
Triad Packaging Inc. of TN
Appendix 2:
Appendix 3:
Appendix 4:
Appendix 5:
Frequently Asked
Technical Questions
page 6.10
Guideline for
Direct-contact
Printing of BarCode Symbols
on Corrugated
page 6.15
National Motor
Freight Classification:
Item 222
page 6.26
Metric Conversion
Table
page 6.43
Solid Fiberboard
page 6.45
RESOURCES
6.9
Appendix 1:
Frequently Asked Technical Questions
The Fibre Box Association fields many inquiries of a technical nature. The
following are some of the most frequently asked questions and their
answers. FBA members can view more FAQs at www.fibrebox.org.
Are there BMCs for other countries?
Other countries and organizations have certification markings that
represent compliance with either testing or material specifications.
However, the National Motor Freight Classification (NMFC) and Uniform
Freight Classification (UFC) are the only requirements, worldwide, that
indicate limited damage claim liability for items that are damaged in
transportation, making it logical for them to set packaging qualifications.
When any other certification marking is used, it is because of the nature
of the item that is packaged for shipment or by customer request.
As the use of certification markings other than a BMC is either at the
discretion of the box customer or dictated by the customer’s product
and not by the box, the customer is responsible for acquainting the box
manufacturer with any needed box certification. It is important not to
print any marking without understanding the responsibilities incurred
by doing so.
Can I upgrade boxes that are used as certified
“UN” packaging?
No, not at this time. Packaging used for shipping hazardous materials
must exactly match the specifications (i.e., material basis weight, box
size, box style and method of closure) of the packaging that was used
for certification testing.
Can my box plant manufacture boxes for hazardous materials
that were originally manufactured at another box plant
without having to re-certify?
If the certification marking belongs to the box customer ordering the
boxes, the order can be manufactured at other plants (or other companies)
without re-certification, providing exact and complete specifications for
the original tested boxes can be furnished to the new manufacturing
plant for use in their production of the subject boxes.
It should be understood that “specification” is an inclusive term
intended to include material, box size, box style, type of manufacturer’s
joint and any unique design features such as vent holes that may be
incorporated in the box.
It is also important to note that in a situation where a “new” company
produces boxes to an existing specification, particular attention should
be paid to who certifies the resulting packages. The key is who is indicated
as the “certifier of record,” or on whose behalf the performance testing
was accomplished and the report issued.
Food Contact: My customer is asking for certification of
compliance with USDA requirements. What do I need?
The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) is responsible
for the quality of meat and poultry. The relevant regulations are 9 CFR
§§317.24 for meat and 381.144 for poultry. These regulations require the
packaging to meet the FDA’s (Food and Drug Administration) indirect
food contact regulations in 21 CFR §176 and a “statement of assurance”
which includes manufacturing documentation. Specifically:
• A statement that the package complies with section 409 of the
Federal Food Drug and Cosmetics Act
• A specific description of the package
• The name and location of the package manufacturer
RESOURCES
6.10
• Conditions for use of the package
• The signature of an official representative
of the packaging company
Calculating Combined Board Basis Weight
Basis weight of liners in lbs./MSF:
Liner 1 ____________
How can I calculate the ECT value
for my linerboard combination?
Liner 2 ____________
Approximate values of ECT can be calculated
using the Ring Crush or STFI values of linerboard. Each company has its own formulas
for this calculation. For more information on
ECT, see the Rules and Regulations and Tests
chapters in this handbook.
Liner 4 ____________
Liner 3 ____________
Total Liner Weight ____________ (A)
Basis wt. of medium #1 in lbs./MSF ⫻ *TUF1 ____________
How do you calculate the bursting
strength/basis weight of combined
board?
Bursting strength of paper or board is not a
calculated value. Rather, it is value generated
from a physical test on linerboard or combined
board. The test measures the resistance of a
material to puncture by a hydraulically loaded
rubber diaphragm penetrating a circular area
of the material held in restraint. The Mullen
test is the industry’s standard test related to
burst strength. TAPPI T 807 for paper and
linerboard. TAPPI T 810 for corrugated board.
Total Medium Weight ____________ (B)
Weight of corrugating adhesive ____________ (C)
(Use 1 lb./MSF per glue line)
Total Combined Board Basis Weight = A + B + C = ____________ in lbs./MSF
*TUF – common approximate take-up factors are: A flute = 1.54; B flute = 1.32; C flute = 1.43
Basis weight of combined board is stated in pounds per 1000 square
feet, commonly referred to as lbs./MSF. The total basis weight of
combined board is calculated by adding the weight of all the liners,
expressed in lbs./MSF. To this is added the weight of corrugating
medium adjusted to account for each medium’s flute Take-Up Factor
(TUF*), expressed in lbs./MSF. Finally, the weight of corrugating
adhesive, though minor, is added. A procedure for calculating
combined board basis weight is shown in the table above.
RESOURCES
6.11
How do you determine recycled content for
combined board?
% Recycled Content =
The percent recycled fiber content of a combined
board can be calculated if the percent recycled
content of the individual board components is
known. The formula (on right) is an example for a
singlewall board, having two liners and one medium.
The formula can be expanded for combined board
with a greater number of components.
Our customer wants the BMC to state “200 lb. Burst” even
though the box was produced and rated as a “32 ECT” box
(36 liner/26 medium/36 liner). Can we do that?
No! Use of 36 lb. liners immediately violate the requirements for use of
the “200 lb. Burst” BMC, which states that the basis weight of the liners
must total a minimum of 84 lbs. Even if the Mullen were over the minimum
of 200 lbs. (unlikely), the BMC must remain, at best, as a “32 ECT”
because the total weight of facings is only 72 lbs.
What are the printing requirements for a Box Manufacturer’s
Certificate (BMC)?
If the BMC is to certify compliance with Item 222 (National Motor
Freight Classification, NMFC) or Rule 41 (Uniform Freight [Rail]
Classification, UFC), the marking is a three-inch circle in a location on
the box that is visible when the box is closed for shipping. Included in
the BMC are:
• The name and location of the party responsible for compliance
with Item 222 shown around the circle just inside the three-inch
circumference (Note: This is usually the box manufacturer. City and
state may be either that of the manufacturing or corporate location.)
[(BWL1 ⫻ %RC) + (BWM ⫻ TUF ⫻ %RC) + (BWL2 ⫻ %RC)] ⫻100
RC = recycled content
BW = basis weight
BWL1 + (BWM ⫻ TUF) + BWL2
TUF = take-up factor
L1, L2 = liners
M = medium
• The maximum gross weight and dimensions of the box and contents
• The minimum burst strength and combined basis weight of liner facings,
or the minimum ECT of the combined board used to make the box
Note: The latter two items are printed in the center of the BMC circle.
There is a provision for a reduced diameter for the BMC on small boxes:
“On boxes having length of less than 10 inches or a width of less than
nine inches, the BMC may be reduced in size so that the outside
diameter is not less than two inches.”
If the box is a Numbered Package—required and defined by the NMFC
or UFC—the BMC is a 31⁄2-inch (horizontal) by 2-inch (vertical) rectangle.
Included in the BMC are:
• The package number to which the box conforms
• The minimum burst strength or ECT of the combined board used
to make the box
• The name and location of the party responsible for compliance of the
box (Note: This is usually the box manufacturer. City and state may
be either that of the manufacturing or corporate location.)
RESOURCES
6.12
What determines when a round BMC or rectangular BMC
should be used?
The rules for shipping products in corrugated boxes by truck or rail
are outlined in the National Motor Freight Classification (NMFC) (trucks)
and the Uniform Freight Classification (UFC) (railroads). To find out
which rules apply to the article you wish to ship, use the tariffs in these
publications. When articles listed in the classifications contain the
packaging instructions “in boxes,” use the round BMC. When the article
listing includes “in Package ______,” the rectangular BMC is required.
General Practice: Rectangular, triangular or other non-circle shapes may
be used on outer packages that do not meet the specified NMFC/UFC
rules to identify the board strength and packaging manufacturer. These
should not be confused with the specified NMFC/UFC rule certificates
and would not be recognized as authorized BMCs or “Certificates” by
the freight carriers.
What do I need to know to make boxes for my customers who
transport hazardous materials?
Most importantly, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) requires
anyone who performs any function related to the hazardous materials
regulations, including box manufacturing, to be trained in understanding
those regulations and how they relate to specific job functions. Noncompliance with this requirement is subject to fines and imprisonment
of the individual. The Fibre Box Association and the U.S. DOT, as well as
other organizations, offer training in the hazardous materials regulations.
What both training programs will tell you, in addition to other information,
is that the hazardous materials shipper (the box customer) has the
responsibility for classifying the hazardous materials. This means the
customer must determine the Proper Shipping Name, ID Number and
Packing Group for the hazardous material, based on its chemistry or
other hazard. This information must then be used to prepare package
designs. Subsequent certification testing may be required, but whether
the responsibility for authorizing/paying for the testing will be yours or
the customer’s is left to your relationship and the marketplace.
What do the individual sections of the UN certification
marking mean?
Example: 4G/Y 25/S/01/USA/+ZZ 1234
“4” means box, “G” means fiberboard.
“Y” means the packaging was successfully tested for Packing Group II.
Therefore either Packing Group II or III hazardous materials can be
transported in this packaging system.
“25” means the packaging was tested when loaded to 25 kg. Therefore
the gross weight of the packaging and contents must not exceed 25 kg.
“S” means the packaging is intended for solids or inner containers.
“01” represents 2001; the year the packaging was manufactured.
“USA” means the packaging is manufactured and marked in the United
States in compliance with the provisions of this subchapter (Part 178).
The final segment represents the party taking responsibility for the
compliance of the packaging system—inner and outer packages and
additional packaging parts. The markings that appear in this segment
can be the name and location of the responsible party, or as in this
example, it can be a symbol that is registered with the U.S. DOT.
Specifically; “+” means that the symbol represents a DOT approved
UN Third Party Certification Agency; “ZZ” identifies the agency; and
“1234” is the test report number.
The regulations describing the marking and conditions for its use are
in §§178.3 and 178.502, 503 & 516 of 49CFR.
RESOURCES
6.13
What is the combustion point of uncoated corrugated?
Who should I contact for testing fire resistance?
The combustion point is 445°F.
FM Approval, George Smith, Boston, MA, 781/255-4870
Where can my customer or I get packaging tested for
UN certification?
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL, 847/272-8800
Any supplier of hazmat packaging that has the desire, plus the
ability and equipment, can self-certify packages for their customers.
On the other hand, many package supplying companies choose to
use an outside source of testing for certification, i.e., a third-party
testing laboratory.
For the most current list of D.O.T-approved third-party labs
see www.dot.gov. Or, more specifically, go directly to
http://hazmat.dot.gov/3rdpty.pdf.
You may also call 800-467- 4922 Monday through Friday from 9:00 a.m.
to 5:00 p.m. (EST) to leave a message with your question for a return
call. Or use the Fax-On-Demand system by dialing 800-467-4922 and
press 2 on the phone keypad at any time. Then 1, then 2 if the thirdparty list is all you want, or 1 if you want them to fax you a five-page
list of all available documents. The document number for the list of
third-party labs is 3100#. Then follow the instructions to leave your
fax number.
Note: Check out all of the additional useful information available from
this source; i.e., Text of the Hazardous Materials Regulations, DOT
Interpretations and Explosive Testing Agencies, etc.
RESOURCES
6.14
Appendix 2:
Guideline for Direct-Contact Printing of Bar-Code Symbols
on Corrugated
Written by Dave Carlson, Smurfit-Stone Container Corporation
various bar codes than referenced in this document. The key requirement
is trial and error to understand a given piece of printing equipment’s
dimensional limitations. However, the notations on Print Contrast (symbol
contrast) are applicable for all types of corrugated printing equipment
from older two-color presses to new, multicolor pre-print presses.
Comments on ink-jet printing on corrugated boxes are also included.
Scope
Definitions
This guideline document is intended to provide information on the
direct-contact printing of linear (two-dimensional) bar-code symbols on
corrugated board using printing equipment commonly available in the
corrugated industry.
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
EAN: European Article Numbering
UCC: Uniform Code Council
Typical symbologies direct-printed on corrugated include the following:
Safety Precautions
• Interleaved Two of Five (ITF, ITF-14).
– Most frequently printed as ITF-14 and otherwise known as the
“Corrugated Case Code,” the “Shipping Container Symbol,”
or the “Warehouse Code.”
– This symbology may also be used by customers in a shortened
form for their own internal distribution needs.
• UPC-A and UPC/EAN-13. These are the 12 and 13 character versions
of the retail check-out code.
• Code-128 (UCC/EAN-128).
• Code 39 (also known as Code 3 of 9).
Sophisticated, multicolor, corrugated board printing presses and pre-print
liner presses have the capability to hold tighter dimensional tolerances
when compared to conventional two- and three-color corrugated printing
equipment. These more sophisticated printing presses, upon completion
of successful trials, may be able to print smaller magnification factors of
If paper knives or cutting tools are used in sample preparation,
appropriate care must be taken to prevent knife cuts. If verification
devices have a laser light source, care must be taken to insure the
light source is never directed at the human eye.
Printing Plates
Note 1: Comments on printing plates are applicable to photopolymer and
laser engraved rubber. For best results, molded rubber printing plates,
even if available, should not be used for printing bar codes on corrugated.
• Bar-code printing plates should be purchased such that the width of
bars in the printing plate are delivered to the corrugated printer at a
finished X bar dimension at the bottom range of the tolerance of the
symbology, and magnification factor of that symbology, being printed.
(See Note 2 below). The finished bar width is to be the dimension
specified by the printer at - 0.000/+0.001 in. (0.025 mm).
RESOURCES
6.15
Note 2: This practice is necessary because direct-contact-printed
bar-code symbols “print” wider than the actual width of the bars in
the printing plate due to ink absorption (wicking) as well as distortion
caused by the pressure of the impression cylinder against the substrate.
The difference between the nominal bar dimension and the specified
bar width for printing plates is called Bar Width Reduction (BWR). Both
wide and narrow bars have the same BWR. In addition, the bar code’s
“spaces” in the printing plate are correspondingly wider than nominal
by the same BWR dimension that is used to narrow the bars. The net
result is that the overall symbol length of both the printing plate and
the printed symbol meets the nominal dimension specified for the
symbol. Ordering printing plates in the above described manner gives
the printer nearly the entire tolerance of the symbol being printed
to accommodate “print gain” (the growth in dimension between the
actual bar width on the printing plate and the finished printed bar
dimension) while still being dimensionally “in spec.”
Example: 100% magnification, Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) Symbol.
The narrow bar dimension specification is 0.040 in. (1.016 mm)
+/- 0.012 in. (0.305 mm). Therefore, the narrow bars on the finished
photopolymer printing plate should be 0.028 in. (.711 mm) –
0.000/+0.001 in. (0.025 mm).
Note 3: Another reason for ordering printing plates with bars at the
full minus of the tolerance is that scanners tend to “read” bar codes
with narrow bars more easily than they “read” bars that are “fat”
(printed on the “wide” side of the tolerance).
Note 4: General printing plate wear should not affect bar width
significantly. Any slight wear of the bar edges should be compensated
for by the angle built into the relief of the printing plates.
• Bar-code printing plates for direct-contact printing the ITF Symbol
on corrugated substrates must have a bearer bar that completely
surrounds the bar code symbol and its “quiet zone.” (Ref. the joint
EAN/UCC General Specification Rev. 6). While specifications for other
bar codes do not require bearer bars, the use of bearer bars for
direct-contact printing of all types of bar codes is very strongly
recommended in order to produce the best results.
Note 5: The nominal specified minimum dimension of the quiet zone for
most symbologies is 10 times (10x) the nominal narrow bar dimensions
for the symbol size and magnification factor being printed. There have
been several instances of quiet zone failure based on squeeze out of the
Bearer bar. It is strongly recommended that corrugated printers specify
a minimum quiet zone of 12 times (12x) the nominal narrow bar of the
symbol being printed.
• It is the responsibility of the corrugated printer to specify to the
printing plate maker whether or not the bar code is printed in the
picket fence (bars parallel to the printing press direction) or stepladder
(bars perpendicular to the printing press direction) configuration.
The printing plate maker has the responsibility to manufacture the
bar-code printing plate to the corrugated printer’s specifications,
taking into account any known accommodation for a “stretch factor”
for the stepladder configuration.
• Because some corrugated customers supply printing plates to
corrugated plants, plants receiving customer-supplied printing
plates should communicate a clear understanding of the corrugated
printer’s specifications (requirements) for bar-code printing plates
to their customers and in some instances their customers’ customers.
Minimum sizes of the various codes that the corrugated printer will
print and the finished printing plate bar dimensions specified for
typical magnification factors of these bar codes should be included
in such communication.
• The plate maker should always supply a “proof” of the bar-code
printing plate. The proof is useful to check off the human-readable
characters. The customer should also sign off on the proof, affirming
that the human-readable characters are those that are intended and
which match the product being packaged.
RESOURCES
6.16
• The finished bar-code printing plate should be within ±0.002 (0.050
mm) of the caliper (height) of the other printing plates in the mount
(prior to mounting).
• Durometer of printing plates today is typically between 30 and 40
(Shore A units) and this range of durometer values has proven to
work well on most substrates for direct-contact printing bar codes
on corrugated.
• It is always helpful to work with printing plate and ink suppliers
if questions or problems arise with regard to successful bar
code printing.
• With the use of liquid or sheet photopolymer printing plates, most
issues with regard to ink acceptance, ink release, and substrate
acceptance have worked themselves out. Should box plants have
problems with ink transfer (insufficient. excess. or “wicking”), box
makers, in addition to consulting with their ink and printing plate
suppliers, should involve their liner supplier(s). It is possible that a
high hold out substrate, common in some full bleached or highly
sized liners, or very water absorbent liners, possible if sizing is
insufficient, could be the root cause of the problem.
• Film master procurement, when required, is the responsibility of the
printing plate supplier.
Today, many bar-code images are produced on a computer and are
transmitted directly to the printing plate making machinery. Whether
a film master or a direct computer generated image is used, the
responsibility of the printing plate maker is to produce the finished
printing plate to the specifications of the corrugated printer as noted in
the initial bullets of this section. The film master, when used, is part of
the printing plate manufacturer’s process, not the box maker’s process.
Printing Plates—Areas of Disagreement
There remain many areas of disagreement among corrugated printers
regarding printing plate practices for bar-code printing.
• Most corrugated printers do not mix photopolymer and rubber
plates on the same mount, although some do without any apparent
degradation in bar code quality.
• Most corrugated printers do not incorporate any new bar-code
printing plates into an existing mounted set of previously used
printing plates (slugging). However, some corrugated printers use
the mounter-proofer to build up the older plates so that all plates
in the finished mount are at nominal +/- 0.005 in. (0.127 mm).
• An alternative to slugging for one-color jobs (or where the total
number of colors required is one less than the number of colors
on the printing press) is to print the bar code on an unused printing
station. Essentially, this turns a one-color job into a two-color job,
even if both colors are the same
• Many corrugated printers advocate the use of thin printing plates
plus the use of a compressible backing. The theory is that the
compressible backing will provide some “give” as the printing plates
make contact with the substrate, thereby minimizing bar width growth
due to squeeze or deformation of the printing plate material during
the printing process.
Other printers have experimented with thin printing plates mounted on
a solid built-up backing to meet the overall plate thickness specification
of the printing press cylinders. The theory here is that the reduced amount
of material in thin plates will deform less than conventional height plates
under operating conditions.
Yet many corrugated printers produce excellent bar codes with traditional
0.250 in. (6.350 mm) caliper printing plates with no special backing.
RESOURCES
6.17
• Many corrugated printers believe that bar-code quality deteriorates
when symbology printing is done with the bars perpendicular to
the press direction (stepladder configuration) or when the bars are
printed perpendicular to the corrugated flute direction. In the former
situation “stretch” is not perfectly controllable. In the latter situation,
if the substrate has any “washboarding” (a controllable corrugator
problem, not a printing problem) the bars may print wider at the
crossing of each flute.
• Given the divergent viewpoints of corrugated printers on the subject
of printing plates, it is not surprising that different plants develop
different, yet successful, procedures with regard to printing bar
codes. The recommendation with regard to printing plate practices
is for each plant to document its successful practices and operate
in accordance with those practices, even if extra expenditures for
printing plates are necessary.
• Where customer involvement is required because customers provide
printing plates, the documented practices should be shared with those
customers so that printing plates meeting the plant’s specifications
can be provided. When customers supply common printing plates
to more than one corrugated supplier, a slightly different bar-code
printing plate may have to be supplied to each corrugated supplier
for the same final print job.
Ink Color
Users must specify and printers must use a color in combination with
a substrate that will meet the symbol contrast requirements of the
symbology being printed.
Example: The colors shown on the next page (Ref: Flexo Color Guide
for Printing Inks on Corrugated, Edition IX published by the Glass
Packaging Institute), when printed using good quality ink, and when
combined with the
nominal reflectance
range of natural kraft
colored substrates, have
been shown to be able
to meet an ANSI “D”
(.5/20/670) minimum
grade for symbol
contrast when printing
the ITF-14 symbology.
For white top and full
bleached substrates,
a wider range of
colors may be used.
It is recommended
that box plants go
through a trial process
to confirm that a given
color will meet the
ANSI symbol contrast
requirements for the
symbol being printed.
Ink Colors
Best
Fair
GCMI 90 Black
GCMI 38 Blue
GCMI 30 Blue
GCMI 387 Blue
CGMI 33 Blue
GCMI 3213 Aqua
GCMI 39 Blue
GCMI 2008 Green
GCMI 3086 Blue
GCMI 523 Brown
Good
Marginal*
GCMI 31 Blue
GCMI 3229 Blue
GCMI 32 Blue
GCMI 29 Green
GCMI 34 Blue
GCMI 52 Brown
GCMI 300 Blue
GCMI 394 Blue
GCMI 20 Green
GCMI 21 Green
GCMI 24 Green
*Trial with customer
before using
GCMI 25 Green
Many symbologies
require an ANSI “C”
[1.5/6 or 10 (depending
on the symbology)/670] grade as a passing grade. Symbols requiring an
ANSI “C” as a passing grade cannot be printed on natural kraft colored
liners and still meet the “C” grade requirement as the symbol contrast
grade will typically be a “D.” See an additional discussion of this topic
in the ANSI Grades section of this document.
RESOURCES
6.18
Production Practices
Operating variables:
Machine Conditions
• The durometer of the printing plates, the anilox roll cell screen, the
ink volume capacity of the anilox roll, and the wiper roll durometer
all contribute to variation in the printing process, and must be
synchronized to provide the best quality printing.
• All rolls—concentric (TIR) within 0.002 in. (0.050 mm).
• All rolls—parallel within 0.002 in. (0.050 mm).
• The combination of TIR and out-of-parallel between any pair of
adjacent rolls—within 0.003 in. (0.076 mm).
• All nip point adjustments (set by the operator) in good working condition.
• All components in the machine clean and free of any ink residue or
other foreign material.
Operating Practices
Printing plate mounting:
• The preferred method is to mount printing plates “in the curve” using
a “Mounter Proofer.”
• Absolutely never alter the human-readable characters of the bar
code symbol or separate those characters from the main part of
the bar-code printing plate.
• Printing plates should be mounted on a carrier sheet at the locations
and to the dimensional accuracy specified by the customer.
• Once a bar-code printing plate is mounted on a carrier sheet, it
should be left intact. Removing and remounting negatively affects
quality and accuracy of bar-code printing.
• Printing impression must be adjusted carefully to avoid slippage,
insufficient ink application (from insufficient impression), or excess bar
width growth and haloing (from too much printing plate impression or
excess anilox roll to printing plate pressure).
• Adjustment of the “anilox roll to the printing plate” pressure must be
made to ensure proper ink application to the printing plates. Too light
= no ink. Too much = burning up plates, causing surface degradation
of the printing plates. Excess anilox roll to printing plate pressure can
also lead to ink build-up on the printing plate edges, resulting in a
condition similar to “haloing.”
• The wiper blade or wiper roll must be adjusted properly to the anilox
roll to allow for proper ink film to be transferred to the printing plates.
• Paper dust (from corrugated board surfaces, the slitting and slotting
process, and ink “picking”) can accumulate on the printing plates.
Operators must observe these conditions and control paper dust
accumulation by periodically stopping the printing press and washing
the printing plates. Proper maintenance and use of the ink filter also
helps remove paper dust from the system.
• Corrugated board variables to be minimized
• Caliper variation
• Washboarding
Ink:
Ink running viscosity and pH must be maintained to meet conditions of the
substrate without smearing or fading of the color of the printed graphics.
• Changes in linerboard (substrate) characteristics:
– porosity
– paper finish
– wettability
RESOURCES
6.19
Note 6: The three linerboard characteristics listed are not typically
controllable at a box plant and call upon the skill of the operator
to maintain bar-code (and other graphics) quality.
Quality Control
Note 7: “Verification” differs from “Scannability.”
“Scannability” is the determination as to whether or not a bar code
will “read.” “Verification” is the determination as to whether or not a
bar code is within specification. Scanners used in industrial warehouse
applications and at retail check-outs have advanced in technology since
the early 1970s when the initial bar-code specifications were written.
Today, scanners are forgiving and can “read” bar codes that are
“out-of-specification.” As printers we must meet a higher standard
than just “scannability.” “Verification” to specification is the only correct
methodology to ensure that we, as printers, are producing bar codes
that work reliably in the marketplace.
Equipment
A portable hand-held verifier is required that is capable of verifying bar
codes to all ANSI parameters and to traditional standards. The ability to
determine substrate reflectance is highly desirable. The verifier should be
ordered with a compatible printer so the verification of results can be
saved for customer acknowledgement and/or file reference. At a minimum,
the verifier must be capable of verifying the following bar codes:
• ITF-14 (formerly known as the Shipping Container Code, the
Warehouse Code, or the Corrugated Case Code)
• UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13 (Retail Check-Out)
• Code-128 (UCC/EAN-128)
The verifier must be equipped with three light source apertures to
accommodate the specifications for verification of the different codes
as listed in the table below:
Aperture changes may be
built-in or accomplished
via changes in wands.
The verifier must have
a light source of 670 ±
10 nanometers (nm).
This is the light source
specified for most of the
codes we print. However
certain applications of
Code 39 require a 900
nanometer (nm) light
source. Having a verifier
with dual light source
capabilities is a plus.
All verifiers should have
the capability of being
programmed to provide
the average of up through
10 readings of a given code.
Aperture
Used for Codes
20 Mil
Most sizes of the ITF-14 Code
( > 62.5% size) and the larger
sizes of Code 39 [ > 0.025 in
(0.64mm) narrow bar]
10 Mil
Code-128 and the smallest
sizes of the ITF-14 Code
(< 62.5% size) and the smaller
sizes of Code 39 [< 0.025 in
(0.64mm) narrow bar]
6 Mil
All sizes of the UPC-A &
UPC/EAN-13 Code (Retail
check-out)
Note 8: Hand-held laser “gun-type” verifiers are not acceptable for
ANSI verification. These instruments are only capable of verifying three
of the eight or nine (depending on the verifier manufacturer) ANSI
parameters, and symbol contrast is not among the three parameters
that the gun-type verifiers can verify.
Calibration:
Follow verifier manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Code 39 (also known as Code 3 of 9)
RESOURCES
6.20
Procedure:
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding setting up the verifier
for light source, aperture, programming, wand or “shoe” movement,
and use of your printer.
The official ANSI verification methodology is to take 10 readings
starting at 5 percent (dimensionally) down from the top of the bar-code
symbol and take additional readings at 10-percent intervals, finishing
up at 95 percent down from the top. ANSI verification typically analyzes
eight parameters (symbol contrast, defects, decodability, modulation,
reference decode, refl (min)/refl (max), edge contrast (min), and application
compliance). Some verifiers add a ninth ANSI parameter, the “quiet zone.”
Other verifiers include quiet zone non-conformities with the defects
parameter. When doing multiple scans of the same symbol, the averages
shown on the “average” print-out are averages of the individual
parameters. The final ANSI grade is the lowest of the individual
parameter averages, not an “average” of average grades. (For a single
scan the grade will be the lowest grade in the individual set of grades.
For a multiple-pass
set of scans the
Example of Grades
final grade will be
the lowest of the
Reference Decode
A
average grades
calculated for
Decodability
C
each parameter).
Symbol Contrast
D
Refl (MIN) ⫼ Refl (MAX)
A
Edge Contrast
A
Modulation
B
Defects
A
Application Compliance
A
The symbol grade is a
“D”
Note 9: For a
discussion of
each of the ANSI
parameters, consult
the owners/
operators manual
for your verifier.
Plants typically don’t follow the 10-scan ANSI protocol for normal
verifying activities. The following are three plans to handle normal
plant verification activities.
For bar-code customers who place moderate demands on the plant for
bar-code verification:
• Perform single pass verification on one of the first “good production”
boxes from the run.
• Perform an additional single pass verification every 3500–4000
impressions.
• The off bearer/unit builder is to look at the bar codes for dirty plates,
excess impression, etc. at least once every 500 boxes (typical unit
size). A surprisingly high number of bar-code nonconformities, even
dimensional tolerance issues, can be found in bar-code printing
through visual methods alone.
• Whenever a “failing” grade (“F”) is observed or when visual inspection
suggests, stop the press and correct the problem (wash the printing
plates, reduce the printing plate impression, etc.).
• Print out one or two successful verification scans. Retain one attached
to the Production Card in the Customer Service files and send the
second, if required, to the customer.
For customers who have never indicated any interest as to whether or
not bar codes are verified, follow the same set of single pass scans and
visual observations as above, but it is the plant’s option to print out a
verification scan and attach it to the Production Card.
For customers demanding a high level of verification, perform the same
set of single scan analysis as in Plan 1. However, in addition to the normal verifications, pull 10 random finished boxes to verify off-line. Do a
three-pass average for each bar code on each box. Report the “average” result on a form stating the final grade for each symbol on that
box. Complete in the same manner for the remaining nine boxes and
RESOURCES
6.21
record on the form. For any bar code yielding an “F” grade on the
three-pass average, re-verify that bar code using the official 10-pass
ANSI method. As with Plan 1, corrective action should be taken
whenever “F” grades are found. Retain the report form in the plant’s
files and share data with customers as required.
Note 10: For all plans, all bar codes on a given sample box should be
included in your evaluation.
Note 11: Certain customers may require additional verification. These
suggested plans do not restrict plants from putting together unique
procedures for bar-code verification frequency and reporting or from
complying with customer-mandated verification plans.
Note 12: Poor verifier technique can result in poor grades that do not
reflect the true print quality of a symbol. An operator should practice
on known symbols to develop a good technique. It is nearly impossible
to generate an ANSI grade that is better than the actual symbol print
quality but it is easy to generate one that is worse. Therefore, if there
is a question, the better grade is generally the true grade.
ANSI grades
• The ANSI symbol contrast parameter is based on the reflectance
difference between the printed bars and the unprinted substrate.
The other ANSI parameters, Reference Decode, Decodability, Edge
Contrast, Modulation, Defects, Reflectance Min ÷ Reflectance Max
and quiet zone (if not included in the defects parameter as some
verifier manufacturers do), are based on reflectance contrast and the
duration of the reflectance contrast. This basis for ANSI verification
reinforces the need for dimensionally accurate (within tolerance)
printed bars with clean, sharp edges.
• As specified in the UCC/EAN General Specification, the minimum
acceptable ANSI symbol grade is a “D” (.5) for the ITF Symbol when
the specified light
Typical Passing Grades
source (670 nm) and
aperture (20 mil – 0.51
Passing
mm) is used. For
Code
Grade
symbols printed on
natural kraft colored
ITF-14 [ > 0.025 in (0.64mm)
“D” (.5)
substrates, the symbol
narrow bar: > 62.5% Size]
contrast characteristic
ITF-14 [< 0.025 in (0.64mm)
“C” (1.5)
will usually be the
narrow bar: < 62.5% Size]
controlling factor, as
the symbol contrast
UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13
“C” (1.5)
verification result will
All Sizes
be a “D” most of the
time. The remaining
Code 39
*
ANSI characteristics
will normally grade
Code-128 – All Sizes
“C” (1.5)
out as “A”, “B”, or “C.”
For symbols printed on
*The most frequent passing grade for Code 39 direct
white top (mottled
printed on corrugated for the sizes we print [narrow bars
white) or full bleach
> 0.025in (0.64mm)] will be a “D.” Different industries that
use Code 39 may have their own passing grade criteria.
substrates, all of the
Plants should question their customers about passing
ANSI characteristics
grades when printing Code 39.
will normally grade out
as “A’s”, “B’s” or “C’s.”(See
following bullet point.)
• Other symbologies [UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13 (the retail check-out
symbols) and Code-128] have minimum ANSI grade requirements of
“C” (1.5) and printing these symbologies on natural kraft will result in
an unacceptable grade due to the symbol contrast and aperture size
problems noted below. Possible solutions for unacceptable symbol
contrast results include the use of white top (70 percent substrate
reflectance) or full bleached (80 percent substrate reflectance)
substrates or printing a white block first with the bar code printed
on top of the white block.
RESOURCES
6.22
Note 13: The “D” grade (.5) for symbol contrast (when printed on natural
kraft) results from the normal range of reflectance of natural kraft-colored
substrates which is from 28 percent to 52 percent (averaging about 40
percent). The combination of this range of substrate reflectance and the
reflectance values for bars printed with the acceptable ink colors yields
a range of net reflectance values that will result in a “D” (.5) grade for
symbol contrast.
• The 195 percent – 200 percent UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13 codes and
the largest sizes of Code-128 [narrow bars > 0.025in (0.64mm)] are
of a size that technically should be scanned using a 20 mil (0.51mm)
aperture if the scanning environment were not specified. However, the
UCC specifies the use of a 6 mil (0.15mm) aperture for all sizes of the
UPC-A and UPC/EAN-13 symbols, correlating with the tabletop type
of scanners generally used in the retail environment. The use of a 10
mil (0.25mm) aperture is specified by the UCC to verify all sizes of
the Code-128 symbol (Ref. the UCC/EAN General Specification).
Aperture size has a direct effect on evaluating the ANSI Defect
characteristic. A 10 mil (0.25mm), and, particularly, a 6 mil (0.15mm)
aperture, will register defects (for instance small voids in the printing)
far more easily than the 20 mil (0.51mm) aperture we use for our most
commonly printed symbol, the ITF-14.
• Make sure you are using the correct aperture for the symbology (and
in some cases the symbology and its magnification factor) that you
are printing. In addition, make sure your customers understand that
they must also use the correct aperture size.
• Grades of less than “C” (1.5) for all characteristics other than symbol
contrast should be investigated when direct-contact printing bar-code
symbols on natural kraft. Particular attention should be paid if the
decodability characteristic is below a “C” (1.5). Decodability is a measure
of how much of the allowable tolerance is being taken up by the printed
bars and created spaces. A poor decodability grade may indicate
excess printing plate pressure or a defective printing plate.
Note 14: In-line, real-time bar-code scanning systems are now being
advertised. Potential purchasers should inquire as to whether these
systems provide full ANSI verification. It is possible that off-line ANSI
verification may still be required even if automated scanning systems
are in place.
Ink-jet printing
Our industry frequently has problems when customers opt to print
bar-code symbology on generic cases using ink-jet technology. Ink-jet
equipment suppliers often persuade the customer to complain to
corrugated suppliers that the ink-jet printed bar codes have a high
“non-scan” rate because of some fault with our substrate (usually our
kraft colored linerboard).
Note the following:
• Ink-jet ink is not a true ink as we know it. It is more of a dye. The
pigments in inks would quickly clog the ink-jet nozzles. A comparison
on standard draw down paper shows that ink-jet “ink” is more of a
dark gray than a true black. Thus symbol contrast can be a bigger
issue with ink-jet printing when compared to direct-contact printing.
• Because of the nature of the ink, there is a tendency for ink-jet ink
to spread or wick more than direct-printed ink. This wicking can
cause finished bar width dimensions to be wider than the symbol
tolerances allow.
• The ink-jet nozzles can be set so that they are too far away from the
box. This situation can also cause ink wicking and its resultant bar
width dimensional problems.
• Ink-jet printers can have quiet zone problems, just as we can.
A plant’s best course of action is to periodically ask bar-code customers
if they are considering using ink-jet printing technology. If the answer
RESOURCES
6.23
is “yes” or even “maybe,”
ask to get in on the
ground floor in their
deliberations. In this
way, box makers can
offer constructive
suggestions (including
trials and pilot programs)
before any investment
is made rather than
being forced to react
to circumstances
following installation.
A technique that can
be used to improve
symbol contrast and
minimize wicking for
ink-jet application
situations is to print
a white “block” slightly
larger than the space
required for the ink-jet
bar code. This technique
is also discussed in the
“Printing Plates—Areas
of Disagreement” section
of this document.
Table of Recommended Sizes for Direct-Contact Bar-Code Printing
Code
Sizes and Comments
ITF-14
80%–100%
Acceptable
70%
Marginal
50% and 621⁄2%
Do not print as the tolerances are too narrow for our printing
process. Further, the ANSI passing grade requirement changes
from “D” to “C” for the 50% size. The ANSI “C” grade cannot
be achieved on kraft-colored liners.
180%–200%
Acceptable (exception – see note below)
160%–170%
Marginal
< 160%
Do not print as the tolerances are too narrow for our
printing process.
UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13
NOTE: All UPC-A & UPC/EAN-13 bar codes require an ANSI “C” grade to pass.
The “C” grade cannot be achieved when printed on natural kraft-colored substrates.
Code-128 (UCC/EAN-128)
Narrow bar > 0.025in
(0.51mm)
Acceptable (exception – see note below)
Narrow bar < 0.025in
(0.51mm)
Do not print as the tolerance range is too narrow for
our process.
NOTE: All Code-128 bar-code symbols require an ANSI “C” grade to pass.
The “C” grade cannot be achieved when printed on natural kraft-colored substrates.
Code 39
Narrow bar > 0.025in
(0.51mm)
Acceptable
Narrow bar < 0.025in
(0.51mm)
Do not print as the tolerances are too narrow for
our printing process.
*Note: Because applications for Code 39 are not controlled by the UCC, please consult, or have your customer consult, the Application Standard that you must
meet for Code 39 bar-code quality including ANSI passing grade requirements, aperture size and the light source wavelength (670 or 900 nm).
RESOURCES
6.24
Addendum
There are several issues pending at the Uniform Code Council (UCC),
some in conjunction with international bar-code governing bodies
that may affect this document. As events dictate, this January 2005
document will be updated. TAPPI members subscribing to the entire
TIP series will receive electronic updates as they are approved by the
UCC. FBA and UCC printing dates are later and will contain the latest
official changes as of the respective printing dates.
• The former ANSI/UCC6 Application Standard for Shipping Container
Codes will no longer exist as of January 18, 2005. The replacement
document is several months from publication. The title is not yet
established, but it will be a UCC document, not an ANSI/UCC
document. This current (January 2005) Guideline references the
UCC/EAN General Specification, where appropriate.
• A change is being deliberated to use the 20 mil (0.51mm) aperture
for Code-128 symbols with nominal narrow bars of > 0.025in
(0.51mm). This proposed change would help corrugated printers
if implemented.
• Some bar-code industry gurus are giving thought to lowering the
acceptance criteria of Code-128 symbols with nominal narrow bars of
> 0.025in (0.51mm) to a 1.0 (half-way between a “C” and a “D”) or to
even a .5 (“D”) grade. If implemented, this change would definitely
benefit the corrugated industry.
Users of this guideline should consult box makers’ trade publications,
TAPPI publications and FBA publications to learn of any favorable action
taken on these provisions and thoughts.
• A request to change the nominal light source wavelength from
670 ± 10 nm to 660 ± 10 nm is being debated. Many retail scanners
operate at the 650 nm wavelength and a speciation change would
allow the formal inclusion of those scanners into the system. Further,
the light source specified in the international calibration standard to
calibrate bar-code test templates is 660 nm. This proposed change,
if implemented, would not have any practical impact on directcontact printing of bar codes on corrugated.
RESOURCES
6.25
Appendix 3:
National Motor Freight Classification: Item 222
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIBERBOARD BOXES CORRUGATED OR SOLID
Numbered Packages are complied with and utilized, in which case a
rectangular Package Certificate is required.
Otherwise, boxes not complying with this Item will be subject to the
penalties defined within Item 687.
Sec. 2. Description of Fiberboard:
(Also applies in connection with Items 222-1, 222-2, 222-3, 222-4, 222-5
and 222-6)
Sec. 1. Ratings or Classes That Apply When Fiberboard Boxes
Conform To This Item:
(See Item 222-6 for explanation of terms.) Subject to provisions of Item
680, and unless otherwise provided in separate descriptions of articles,
or in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 49 for the shipment of
hazardous materials, when the following requirements and specifications
are complied with, ratings or classes applying on articles ‘in boxes’ will
apply on the same articles in solid or corrugated fiberboard boxes
described in this rule, all hereinafter referred to as fiber boxes, or as
fiberboard boxes.
Use of ‘Other Than Item 222’ Boxes:
(a) CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD. Boxes must be made of singlewall,
doublewall or triplewall corrugated fiberboard having proper bending
qualities, the facings being firmly glued to the corrugated medium at
all points of contact and the outer facing having water resistance.
(b) SOLID FIBERBOARD. Boxes may be made of three or more plies
(see Note, below) of solid fiberboard having proper bending qualities,
all plies being firmly glued together and outer ply being water resistant.
NOTE: Boxes may be made of two-ply solid fiberboard when maximum
weight of box and contents does not exceed 40 pounds. Boxes may be
made of one-ply solid fiberboard when the maximum weight of box and
contents does not exceed 10 pounds.
Sec. 3. Maximum Size and Weight—Minimum Fiberboard
Requirements:
Where the separate descriptions of articles provide for the use of
fiberboard boxes which are different from those provided for in this
rule, such provisions will also apply to those articles in such boxes when
commodity tariffs or exceptions to the Classification provide that such
articles may be shipped ‘in boxes’ without further qualifications as to the
construction of the boxes.
Boxes must comply with the burst or puncture test and other requirements
of Table A; or alternatively, must comply with the edge crush test and
other requirements of Table B (see Notes 2 and 4).
Fiberboard boxes need not comply with this Item nor is the circular
box manufacturer’s certificate required to be shown on such boxes
(Item 222-1) when: (a) the article’s descriptive item does not reference
any method, form or specific packaging requirement, or (b) the term
‘loose’ or ‘in packages’ (Item 680, Sec. 5) is authorized, or (c) separate
(a) BURST TEST:
NOTE 1: TEST PROCEDURES:
(1) Tests to determine compliance with the bursting test requirements of
Table A must be conducted in accordance with Technical Association of
the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI), Official Test Method T-810.
RESOURCES
6.26
Table A
(2) A minimum of six bursts must
be made, three from each side
of the board, and only one burst
test will be permitted to fall below
the specified minimum value. Board
failing to pass the foregoing test
will be accepted if in a retest
consisting of 24 bursts, 12 from
each side of the board, not more
than four burst tests fall below the
specified minimum value. Disregard
nonsimultaneous bursts.
(b) PUNCTURE TEST:
(1) Tests to determine compliance
with the puncture test requirements
of Table A must be conducted
in accordance with Technical
Association of the Pulp and
Paper Industry (TAPPI), Official
Test Method T-803.
(2) A minimum of four puncture tests
must be made and only one puncture
test will be permitted to fall below
the specified minimum value.
(c) EDGE CRUSH TEST:
(1) Tests to determine compliance
with the edge crush requirements
of Table B must be conducted
in accordance with Technical
Association of the Pulp and
Paper Industry (TAPPI), Official
Test Method T-811.
Maximum
Weight of Box
and Contents
(lbs.)
Maximum Outside
Dimensions, Length,
Width and Depth
Added (inches)
[see Note 3]
Minimum Bursting Test,
Singlewall, Doublewall or
Solid Fiberboard (psi)
[see Note 1, para. (a)]
or
Minimum Puncture Test,
Triplewall Board
(inch oz. per inch of tear)
[see Note 1, para. (b)]
Minimum Combined Weight
of Facings, including Center
Facing(s) of Doublewall
and Triplewall Board
or
Minimum Combined Weight
of Plies, Solid Fiberboard,
Excluding Adhesives
(lbs. per 1,000 sq. ft.)
20
35
50
65
80
95
120
Singlewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
125
40
150
50
175
60
200
75
250
85
275
95
350
105
52
66
75
84
111
138
180
80
100
120
140
160
180
Doublewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
200
85
275
95
350
105
400
110
500
115
600
120
92
110
126
180
222
270
Triplewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
240
260
280
300
110
115
120
125
20
40
65
90
120
40
60
75
90
100
700
900
1100
1300
Solid Fiberboard Boxes
125
175
200
275
350
168
222
264
360
114
149
190
237
283
RESOURCES
6.27
(2) A minimum of six tests must be made and only
one test is permitted to fall below the specified
minimum value, and that one test cannot fall below
the specified minimum value by more than 10 percent.
Board failing to pass the foregoing will be accepted if
in a retest consisting of 24 tests, not more than four
tests fall below the specified minimum value and none
of those tests fall below the specified minimum value
by more than 10 percent.
NOTE 2: FULL TELESCOPIC STYLE BOXES:
Singlewall full telescopic style boxes may have gross
weight and united inches increased to those of doublewall boxes as shown in Tables A and B. For doublewall
and triplewall full telescopic style boxes, allowable gross
weights and united inches of Table A or B may be
increased by 10 percent. Special packages are not
affected by this provision.
NOTE 3: SIZE EXTENSION FORMULA:
If weight of box and contents is less than the maximum
weights shown in Tables A and B, the maximum outside
dimensions for the box may be increased half the
percentage that the actual weight is less than the
maximum weight allowed by the Table. For boxes
made to comply with this Note the words ‘Size
Extension Formula’ must be printed below the
certificate required in Item 222-1(a).
Table B
Maximum
Weight of Box
and Contents
(lbs.)
Maximum
Outside Dimensions,
Length, Width
and Depth Added
(inches) [see Note 3]
Minimum Edge
Crush Test (ECT)
(lbs. per in width)
[see Note 1, para. (c)]
Singlewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
20
35
50
65
80
95
120
40
50
60
75
85
95
105
23
26
29
32
40
44
55
Doublewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
80
100
120
140
160
180
85
95
105
110
115
120
42
48
51
61
71
82
Triplewall Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
240
260
280
300
110
115
120
125
67
80
90
112
RESOURCES
6.28
NOTE 4: NUMBERED PACKAGES—
ALTERNATE REQUIREMENTS:
Column A
Column B
Minimum Bursting Test Singlewall and
Doublewall Board (psi) or Minimum Puncture
Test Triplewall Board (inch oz. per inch of tear)
Minimum Edge Crush Test (ECT)
(lbs. per inch width)
Singlewall 125
23
Singlewall 150
26
Singlewall 175
29
Singlewall 200
32
Sec. 4. Manufacturer’s Joint:
Singlewall 250
40
The provisions of Sec. 4 also apply to joints effected
on wrap-around blanks by processors other than
blank manufacturers.
Singlewall 275
44
Singlewall 350
55
Doublewall 200
42
Doublewall 275
48
Boxes must have manufacturer’s joints formed by
lapping the sides of the box forming the joint not
less than 11⁄4 inches and fastening the joint by one
of the following methods:
Doublewall 350
51
Doublewall 400
61
Doublewall 500
71
(1) With metal staples or stitches spaced not more
than 21⁄2 inches apart, except that staples or stitches
must be spaced not more than one inch apart when
weight of box and contents is 140 pounds or more.
Doublewall 600
82
Triplewall 700
67
Triplewall 900
80
(2) By firmly gluing the joint throughout the entire
area of contact with a water resistant adhesive.
Triplewall 1100
90
Triplewall 1300
112
Where Numbered Package descriptions specify
boxes, containers, trays and component parts
thereof to be made of corrugated fiberboard having
a minimum bursting or puncture test as shown
in Column A (right), boxes, containers, trays and
component parts thereof may be made of corrugated
fiberboard having a minimum edge crush test as
shown in Column B (right). These alternate provisions
will exempt basis weight requirements.
(a) SINGLEWALL OR DOUBLEWALL
CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD:
RESOURCES
6.29
(3) By fitting abutting edges forming the joint close together and securing
with sealing strips firmly glued to the box and extending the entire
length of the joint. Sealing strips must be of sufficient strength that
rupture of the joint occurs with fiber failure of one or more of the
facings. Sealing strips for boxes not exceeding 65 pounds gross weight
or for two complete singlewall corrugated boxes must be not less than
two inches wide and must be of not less than 60 pounds per 3,000
square feet basis weight and have a bursting strength of not less than
60 psi. Sealing strips may be reinforced with glass fibers or other natural
or synthetic fibers. Sealing strips for boxes exceeding 65 pounds gross
weight, excepting two complete singlewall corrugated boxes, must be
of two or more plies, not less than three inches wide, of not less than
150 pounds per 3,000 square feet basis weight and have a bursting
strength of not less than 150 psi. Lesser basis weight is permissible if
the sealing strips are reinforced with glass fibers or other natural or
synthetic fibers. All plies must be firmly glued together.
(b) TRIPLEWALL CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD:
Boxes must have manufacturer’s joints formed by one of the
following methods:
(1) By lapping the sides of the box forming the joint not less than two
inches and fastening the joint with metal staples or stitches spaced not
more than one inch apart. Both sides of the joint must be crush-rolled in
area of contact before stapling or stitching.
(2) By lapping the sides of the box forming the joint not less than three
inches. The joint must be firmly glued with 100 percent glue coverage in
the area of contact with glue, or adhesive which cannot be dissolved in
water after the film application has been dried under pressure. Glued
manufacturer’s joints for triplewall must be suitable for the application in
which the packaging is intended.
(c) SOLID FIBERBOARD:
Boxes must have manufacturer’s joints formed by one of the
following methods:
(1) By lapping the sides of the box forming the joint not less than 11⁄4
inches and fastening the joint with metal staples or stitches spaced not
more than three inches apart. When length of joint exceeds 18 inches,
staples or stitches must be spaced not more than 21⁄2 inches apart.
(2) By lapping the sides of the box forming the joint not less than two
inches with extensions of the lap not less than three inches beyond the
top and bottom score lines and firmly gluing the joint throughout the
entire area of contact with a water resistant adhesive.
(3) By fitting abutting edges forming joint close together and securing
with sealing strips firmly glued to the box and extending the entire length
of the joint. Sealing strips must be of sufficient strength that rupture of
the joint occurs with fiber failure of one or more of the facings.
Sec. 5. Articles Liable to Sifting or Leaking:
Articles liable to sifting or leakage, not in inner containers, must be
so prepared within the box as to prevent sifting or leakage.
Sec. 6. Hand Holes, Ventilating Holes, Easy-Opening Devices,
Perforations:
Provided the carrying ability of the box is not materially impaired:
(1) Boxes may have hand holes or ventilation holes.
(2) Boxes may have perforations, slits or slots, but not to be located
closer than one inch to adjacent or parallel score lines, except as below.
(3) Boxes containing rigid, self-supporting articles or inner containers
may have score lines perforated providing the united inches (length,
width and depth added) do not exceed 40 inches.
RESOURCES
6.30
Sec. 7. Box Closure:
Unless otherwise provided, boxes must be securely closed.
Method of closure must be of adequate strength and quantity
so as to maintain boxes properly assembled and closed during
transportation.
Self-locking closure systems, whereby fasteners or closing
devices are not used, must be capable of successfully passing
the performance requirements of ASTM D4169, Element A,
Assurance Level II, or ISTA Project 1A drop test.
ITEM 222-1
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIBERBOARD BOXES CERTIFICATE
OF BOX MANUFACTURER
(Applicable only in connection with Item 222)
(a) BOXES, COMPLYING WITH THIS ITEM:
(1) Size, Type and Wording: All fiber boxes that are made to conform
to specifications of this rule must bear a legible certificate of a box
manufacturer on an outside surface, guaranteeing that boxes do
so conform. Certificate must be of following form, size (3-inch
diameter, plus or minus 1⁄4 inch), type and wording, as illustrated in
either paragraphs (2) or (3) (see Notes 1, 2 and 3). City and state
may be either that of the manufacturing or corporate location.
(2) Certificates applicable to boxes made to comply with the burst
or puncture test and other requirements of Table A:
RESOURCES
6.31
(3) Certificates applicable to boxes made to comply with the edge crush
test and other requirements of Table B:
NOTE 1: REDUCED DIAMETER FOR SMALL BOXES:
On boxes having a length of less than ten inches or a width of less
than nine inches, the above certificates may be reduced in size so that
outside diameter is not less than two inches.
NOTE 2: BOXES OR NUMBERED PACKAGES MADE IN FOREIGN
COUNTRIES:
Fiberboard boxes complying with the provisions of this rule, or Numbered
Packages of this Classification, and as amended, which are made in
foreign countries and used for freight imported into the United States
of America need not bear a certificate, or certificate may be printed in
the language of the country in which the box or Numbered Package
is made, provided shipper certifies on bills of lading that the boxes
comply with Item 222 or the appropriate Numbered Package.
NOTE 3: ACTUAL TEST ABOVE REQUIRED MINIMUM:
The test stated in this certificate must be not less than the minimum
required for the gross weight and dimension limit, except as provided in
Note 4 of Item 222-1, and the combined weight of facings for required
bursting strength must be the minimum prescribed by Item 222, Sec. 3.
When the actual test is in excess of the minimum test required, the actual
test may be stated below the certificate, but in such case all classes
and rules in this Classification as provided for a box having minimum
test will apply.
NOTE 4: NONCONFORMING BOXES:
In the separate description of articles when boxes not having to meet
the requirements of Item 222 are authorized, such boxes are not
required to be guaranteed by certification. Boxes may bear the circular
certificate only when the provisions of Item 222 have been met. Such
RESOURCES
6.32
boxes may bear a straight line stamp indicating the box manufacturer
and the test of the fiberboard on a voluntary basis.
For triplewall box, and doublewall box specifications which refer to
puncture test units, substitute the words ‘Puncture Test Units’ for
‘Bursting Test Lbs. per Sq. In.’ in the certificate below.
NOTE 5: BOXES OF MIXED COMPONENTS:
Where Numbered Packages authorize different tests of fiberboard for
bodies and caps, test of the body only need be shown within certificate.
For boxes having more than one fiberboard component part making up
the outside shipping container, the Box Manufacturers’ Certificate must
reflect the lowest represented bursting test or edge crush test of any
given part.
NOTE 6: FIBERBOARD MASTER PACK:
The rates or classes for freight in properly certified fiberboard or
special Numbered Packages will also apply on such freight when the
boxes complying with Item 222 or containers complying with special
Numbered Packages are enclosed in outer fiberboard boxes, the
fiberboard meeting the construction requirements of Item 222. Inner
boxes or special Numbered Packages must reasonably occupy available
capacity without creating voids affecting the performance of the Master
Pack. Outer box must be securely closed or fastened. No certificate is
required on outer box. Gross weight of Master Pack must not exceed
four times the allowable gross weight authorized for the lowest burst
or edge crush test of any component part of the master pack container.
Gross weights exceeding this maximum weight limit must be tendered
on pallets of sound construction.
(b) NUMBERED PACKAGES:
When Numbered Package has a length of less than ten inches or a
width of less than nine inches, certificate may be reduced in size, but
outside dimensions must be not less than 11⁄4 x 21⁄4 inches.
(2) Certificate applicable to
Numbered Packages containing
provisions requiring compliance
with the burst or puncture test
and other requirements of
Table A:
(3) Certificate applicable to
Numbered Packages containing
provisions requiring compliance
with the edge crush test and
other requirements of Table B:
(1) Numbered Packages which contain provisions specifying boxes,
containers, trays and component parts thereof to be made of fiberboard
complying with the burst test, puncture test or edge crush test and
other requirements of Tables A and B of Section 3 of this rule, must bear
a legible certificate of box manufacturer on an outside surface, in the
form, size (31⁄2 inches x 2 inches, plus or minus 1⁄4 inch), type and wording
as illustrated in either subparagraph (2) or (3). City and state may be
either that of the manufacturing or corporate location.
RESOURCES
6.33
ITEM 222-2
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIBERBOARD BOXES
Glassware, Articles in Glass or Earthenware or Fragile Articles
(Applicable only in connection with Items 222 and 222-1)
Except as otherwise provided, glassware, articles in glass or earthenware, or fragile articles will be accepted in fiber boxes only under the
following conditions:
(a) Box Construction Requirements: All outer fiberboard boxes must
comply with Items 222 and 222-1 as provided in paragraph (d) or Note 1.
(b) Weight Limit: Except as provided in paragraph (d), glassware, articles
in glass or earthenware or fragile articles must not exceed 65 pounds gross
weight. Liquids in individual glass or earthenware containers exceeding
one gallon or 4 liter capacity will not be accepted in fiber boxes.
(c) Inner Packing Requirements: Except as more specifically provided
in paragraphs (d), (e) and (f), or Note 2, contents must be packed within
container by or with liners, partitions, wrappers, expanded plastic foam
or other packing material which will afford adequate protection against
breakage or damage and box must be completely filled.
(d) Minimum Requirements—Over 65 Pounds Gross Weight—Inner
Containers Not Exceeding One Gallon or Four Liters: Articles in glass
or earthenware inner containers not exceeding one gallon or four-liter
capacity may be shipped in doublewall corrugated fiberboard boxes
testing not less than 275 pounds or edge crush test of not less than 48
pounds, with inner and outer flaps meeting, or outer flaps meeting and
space between inner flaps with pad of same fiberboard of which box is
made; or in singlewall corrugated fiberboard boxes testing not less than
275 pounds or edge crush test of not less than 44 pounds, lined on
sides, ends, tops and bottoms with singlewall corrugated fiberboard
testing not less than 200 pounds or edge crush test of not less than 32
pounds. Glass or earthenware containers must be separated one from
the other by 200 pound test or edge crush test of not less than 32
pounds singlewall scored shells. Gross weight must not exceed 100
pounds and maximum inside dimensions must not exceed 100 inches.
(e) Inner Containers Exceeding One Gallon or Four Liters—Not Over
65 Pounds Gross Weight: Articles in liquid or articles other than liquid,
in individual glass or earthenware containers exceeding one gallon or
four-liter capacity, but not exceeding 65 pounds gross weight, must be
packed in individual boxes lined on all sides with doublewall corrugated
fiberboard and box must have top and bottom pads made of doublewall corrugated fiberboard; OR inner container must be separated
from all sides of box not less than 1⁄2 inch by doublewall corrugated
fiberboard testing not less than 275 pounds or edge crush test of not
less than 48 pounds, with shoulder height corner posts, and box must
have top and bottom pads of corrugated fiberboard; OR inner container
must be separated from all sides of box not less than 1⁄2 inch by die-cut
or inverted hole-cut creased sheet made of fiberboard, testing not less
than 200 pounds or edge crush test of not less than 32 pounds, and box
must have top and bottom pads made of corrugated fiberboard; OR
when glass or earthenware container consists of a barrel jar in individual
boxes testing not less than 200 pounds or edge crush test of not less
than 32 pounds, such jar must be in inner box made of doublewall
corrugated fiberboard. Walls of inside box must extend not less than
half the height of jar. Inner and outer flaps at bottom must meet and
top flaps must be folded down on walls of carton. Top or bottom pad
will not be required.
(f) Dry Articles in Inner Containers Not Exceeding One Gallon or Four
Liters—Not Over 65 Pounds Gross Weight: Dry articles may also be
shipped in individual glass or earthenware containers exceeding one
gallon or four-liter capacity but not exceeding 65 pounds gross weight
and must be packed in individual boxes as follows:
(1) When capacity does not exceed three gallons or 12 liters, containers
must be separated from all sides of box not less than 1⁄2 inch by shoulder
RESOURCES
6.34
height corner posts made of singlewall corrugated fiberboard testing
not less than 200 pounds or edge crush test of not less than 32 pounds
and box must have top and bottom pads made of singlewall corrugated
less than 29 pounds, folded to provide not less than three thicknesses.
When capacity exceeds three gallons or 12 liters but does not exceed
five gallons or 20 liters, box must be of doublewall corrugated fiberboard testing not less than 275 pounds or edge crush test of not less
than 48 pounds.
weight allowed for boxes testing not less than 175 pounds or edge
crush test of not less than 29 pounds, may exceed 40 pounds, but may
not exceed 49 pounds, provided individual containers are separated by
partitions or other interior separation of corrugated fiberboard or solid
paperboard, and provided further, the number of filled containers per
box must conform to one of the following:
(2) Containers must be separated from all sides of box not less than
1
⁄2 inch by shoulder height corner posts made of singlewall corrugated
less than 48 pounds, and box must have top and bottom pads made of
singlewall corrugated fiberboard testing not less than 175 pounds or
edge crush test of not less than 29 pounds, folded to provide not less
than three thicknesses.
– Not more than 24 containers each not exceeding 25 avoirdupois
ounces net weight of product.
(g) Classes or Ratings: The ratings or classes for glassware, articles
in glass or fragile articles in fiberboard boxes will also apply on such
freight in inner fiberboard boxes of identical size and shape complying
with Item 222, when they are enclosed in outer singlewall corrugated
fiberboard boxes, the fiberboard meeting the construction requirements
for any bursting tests or edge crush tests specified in Item 222, Secs. 2
and 3, except that when gross weight exceeds 60 pounds, the fiberboard master container must test not less than 175 pounds or edge
crush test of not less than 29 pounds. Gross weight must not exceed
160 pounds. Both inner and outer boxes must be securely closed.
Shipper must certify on bill of lading that the inner boxes comply with
all requirements of Item 222.
Note 1:
Note 2:
Glass containers, empty or filled, not exceeding two liters capacity
having a permanently affixed wrapper of polystyrene of nominal
15-mil thickness, or when not exceeding 1⁄2 liter having a wrapper
of polystyrene of nominal 2.5-mil thickness, or coating of modified
polyethylene, in quantities of 10,000 pounds or more, need not meet
the requirements of paragraph (c) as to the use of packing material. The
wrapper must completely cover glass container from shoulder area to
the underside of base, or the wrapper must cover glass container from
shoulder area to below the heel contour, in such a manner to prevent
glass-to-glass contact as packaged for shipment.
Except as provided in individual items, glass inner containers filled with
products other than Liquors, alcoholic, NOI, or Wine, NOI, the gross
RESOURCES
6.35
ITEM 222-3
ITEM 222-4
Liquids in Metal Cans or Rigid Plastic Inner Containers—
Each Exceeding 21⁄2 Gallons in Fiberboard Boxes
Bag in a Box
Liquids in metal or high density polyethylene inner containers each
exceeding 21⁄2 gallons capacity may only be shipped in fiberboard boxes
meeting the following requirements:
(a) Boxes must have inner and outer flaps meeting, or outer flaps meeting
and gaps between inner top and bottom flaps filled with fiberboard pads.
(b) (1) For rectangular or square containers—box must meet all requirements for boxes testing not less than 200 pounds or having an edge
crush test of 32 pounds.
(2) For cylindrical containers—box must meet all requirements for boxes
testing not less than 275 pounds or having an edge crush test of
44 pounds.
Except as otherwise provided in separate descriptions of articles, the
following specifications and requirements must be observed for liquids,
semi-liquids or articles in liquids, when in plastic bags or semi-rigid
containers in fiberboard boxes:
Containers of three gallon capacity or larger will be considered as ‘in
bulk’ in boxes or drums. When containers have capacity of less than
three gallons the bag will be considered an inner container.
Bags must be of single or multi-ply plastic film having a minimum total
wall thickness of not less than three mils (.003 inch) and may be in
combination with other materials in laminated form.
(1) Doublewall corrugated fiberboard, or
Bags must be closed to effect a liquid tight seal by snap-locking plastic
fittings, or by adequately heat sealing, crimping or tying. When wire
tie is not plastic coated, ends of wire must be looped. Discharge or
dispensing tubes must be securely plugged, crimped or heat sealed.
Boxes may be die-cut or perforated to provide an opening for
dispensing spigot or valve.
(2) Two thicknesses of singlewall corrugated fiberboard.
The filled bags must be in corrugated or solid fiberboard boxes as follows:
(d) Where inner containers have extended spouts, suitable protection to
prevent damage to spouts must be provided.
(1) The void between the top of the filled closed bag and the inside of
the top of the box must not exceed 11⁄2 inches. The bag must not be
adhered to the container at any point.
(c) When two or more inner containers are packed in one box, the
containers must be separated by partitions of:
(e) Total capacity of containers in one box must not exceed nine gallons.
(f) Box may have die-cut hole in top flaps over closure cap and may be
perforated along score lines around such die-cut hole and into flaps to
permit easy opening.
(2) Boxes having gross weights not exceeding 20 pounds must be
constructed of fiberboard having a bursting strength of not less than
200 pounds or an edge crush test of not less than 32 pounds. Except as
to boxes constructed with full overlap inner flaps, boxes must have top
RESOURCES
6.36
and bottom pads made of corrugated fiberboard having a bursting
strength of not less than 125 pounds or an edge crush test of not less
than 23 pounds.
Manufacturer’s joint of boxes must be taped or glued. Box design may
also be a side-slotted tray with a hinge lid. Lid must have full-depth
side-panel flanges and a glue-tab panel extending the length of the lid
not less than 13⁄4 inches in width. All flaps and panels must be securely
glued. Top and bottom pads may be omitted.
(3) Boxes having gross weights exceeding 20 pounds but not exceeding
40 pounds must be made of fiberboard having a bursting strength of
not less than 200 pounds or an edge crush test of not less than 32
pounds. Boxes must have a joined tube or liner made of fiberboard
having a bursting strength of not less than 200 pounds or an edge crush
test of not less than 32 pounds. The joint of the tube or liner must be
taped or glued. Except as to boxes constructed with full overlap inner
flaps, boxes must have top and bottom pads made of corrugated fiberboard having a bursting strength of not less than 125 pounds or an
edge crush test of not less than 23 pounds. Box design may also be
a side-slotted tray with a hinge lid. Lid must have full-depth side-panel
flanges and a glue-tab panel extending the length of the lid not less
than 13⁄4 inches in width. All flaps and panels must be securely glued.
Tube or liner and top and bottom pads may be omitted. Inner edges
of minor flaps of tray portion must be crushed 1⁄4 inch.
having a bursting strength of not less than 200 pounds or an edge crush
test of not less than 32 pounds. The joint of the tube or liner must be
taped or glued. Except as to boxes constructed with full overlap inner
flaps, boxes must have top and bottom pads made of corrugated fiberboard having a bursting strength of not less than 125 pounds and an
edge crush test of not less than 23 pounds. Box design may also be a
side-slotted tray with a hinge lid. Lid must have full-depth side-panel
flanges and a glue-tab panel extending the length of the lid not less
than 13⁄4 inches in width, the tray and lid design must be such that all
side panels are two board thicknesses. All flaps and panels must be
securely glued. Tube or liner and top and bottom pads may be omitted.
For boxes of center special full overlap slotted style having gross
weights not exceeding 50 pounds and flaps are adhered 50 percent of
contact and folded in such a sequence so that a major flap makes up
the inside and outside surfaces with minor flaps meeting between
forming a total of three thicknesses, tube or liner and top and bottom
pads may be omitted.
OR
For boxes having a bursting strength of not less than 350 pounds or an
edge crush test of not less than 51 pounds, having inner and outer flaps
meeting, liner and top and bottom pads may be omitted.
(4) Boxes having gross weights exceeding 40 pounds but not exceeding
65 pounds must be constructed of fiberboard having a bursting strength
of not less than 275 pounds or an edge crush test of not less than 44
pounds. Boxes must have a joined tube or liner made of fiberboard
RESOURCES
6.37
ITEM 222-5
Styles of Fiberboard Boxes
3. When the walls of the top or bottom cover have flanges which
interlock with flanges of the tube the box is an interlocking cover box.
The flanges of the body must be not less than three inches. (IC)
(d) Slide Style Boxes:
(Applicable only in connection with Items 222, 222-1, 222-2,
222-3 and 222-4)
Box consists of snugly fitting telescope tubes. The outer tube must
be joined.
The following are the descriptions of general styles of fiberboard boxes,
but not inclusive of all styles:
1. When two tubes are so arranged to provide at least one thickness of
fiberboard on all six surfaces, the box is a Double Slide or Single Lined
Slide Style. (DS)
(a) Conventional Slotted Style Boxes, i.e., Regular Slotted Container
(RSC), Half Slotted Container (HSC):
Box is usually made from one piece of fiberboard which is scored and
slotted to form a body having flaps for closing each of two opposite faces.
Lengthwise flaps either meet or overlap depending on the particular style
of the box. Occasionally, slotted style boxes are assembled from more
than one piece of fiberboard and have only one closing face.
(b) Telescope Boxes:
1. Full telescope box consists of a body and cover of approximately
equal depth sections, cover extending to bottom. (FT)
2. Partial telescope box consists of body and cover of unequal depth
sections. The section of lesser depth must extend over the sides of
bottom section not less than two-thirds of the depth of the bottom
section. (PT)
(c) Boxes with Covers:
1. Single cover boxes consist of a body and a top cover, the cover
extending over sides of body less than two-thirds of the depth of
body. (SC)
2. Double cover boxes consist of a joined tube (body) and top and
bottom covers, covers extending over sides of body. (DC)
2. When three tubes are so arranged as to provide at least two
thicknesses of fiberboard on all six surfaces, the box is a Triple Slide
or Double Lined Slide Style. The innermost slide need not be water
resistant, nor comply with test requirements. (TS)
(e) Folders:
Box consists of one or more cut and scored pieces which provide an
unbroken outer bottom surface. The lengthwise outer flaps must meet
or overlap.
1. When constructed from a single piece of fiberboard the box is a
One-Piece Folder. (1PF)
2. When constructed from two rectangular pieces of fiberboard which
provide a double thickness at bottom, the box is a Two-Piece Folder. (2PF)
3. When constructed from three rectangular pieces of fiberboard, the
box is a Three-Piece Folder. (3PF)
(f) Five Panel Folder:
Box is formed from a single cut and scored piece so as to provide an
unbroken single thickness of fiberboard on three of the six surfaces
and usually a double thickness on the remaining three surfaces of
the box. (FPF)
RESOURCES
6.38
(g) Recessed End Boxes:
Boxes must be made from solid fiberboard or singlewall corrugated
fiberboard. Recessed ends must be fastened with metal rivets, staples,
or stitches, not more than two inches apart. When opening is at top, the
top, bottom and sides must be one piece of fiberboard overlapping not
less than 11⁄2 inches.
(h) Boxes with Other than Four Sides:
Box must have sides consisting of one piece of fiberboard overlapping
not less than 11⁄2 inches fastened with metal staples or stitches not more
than three inches apart. Ends of panels of sides must have flanges not less
than 11⁄2 inches turned outward or separate pieces of fiberboard covering
ends must have as many flanges as panels in sides, which flanges are not
less than 11⁄2 inches extending over outside of each panel. In either case,
ends of box must consist of one piece of fiberboard with flanges not less
than three inches extending over each panel of sides and turned in
against sides of box abutting or interlocking with other flanges.
(i) Double Thickness Score Line Boxes:
Box consists of inner tube or slotted container tightly enclosed by
regular slotted box, telescope box or box consisting of top and bottom
sections which must meet; construction must be such as to provide not
less than two thicknesses at all score lines. When inner container is
constructed with inner and outer flaps which meet or overlap, outer box
may be of one thickness over such flaps; when flaps do not meet or
when inner element is a tube, the outer box must be so constructed as
to provide not less than three thicknesses over such areas. When outer
box is constructed with flanged caps, flanges of such caps must be not
less than three inches and must be securely stapled or stitched to inside
walls. Manufacturer’s joint of inner element and the manufacturer’s joints
of the outer box must be fastened with metal rivets, staples or stitches
not more than one inch apart; OR must lap not less than 11⁄4 inches, and
be firmly glued throughout entire area of contact with a glue or adhesive
which cannot be dissolved in water after the film application has dried.
ITEM 222-6
Definitions of Terms and Abbreviations
(Applicable only in connection with Items 222, 222-1, 222-2,
222-3, 222-4 and 222-5)
The following are terms found in various parts of Items 222, 222-1,
222-2, 222-3, 222-4 and 222-5.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): A voluntary
consensus organization formed for the development of standards
on characteristics and performance of materials, products, systems
and services.
Basis Weight (of containerboard): Weight of linerboard or corrugating
medium expressed in terms of pounds per 1,000 square feet (MSF).
Bending: In the term ‘proper bending qualities,’ the containerboard
must be capable of bending along creases or score lines in forming
the box so that the containerboard is not ruptured to a point where it
seriously weakens the box.
Box (also see Fiber Box): A rigid container having closed faces and
completely enclosing the contents. When the term ‘in boxes’ is used
in the Classification it signifies that if fiberboard boxes are used, such
fiberboard boxes must comply with all requirements of Item 222.
Box Manufacturer’s Certificate (BMC): A circular or rectangular border
printed on fiberboard boxes certifying that all applicable construction
requirements of Item 222 have been complied with, containing box
manufacturers’ name and location for identification purposes.
Bursting Strength: The strength of material in pounds per square inch
as measured by the Mullen Tester.
RESOURCES
6.39
Carton: A folding box used as an inner container made from boxboard.
Cartons are not recognized as shipping containers.
Facings (Sometimes erroneously called ‘liners’): A form of linerboard
used as the flat members of corrugated fiberboard.
Container: A term associated with the outside ‘shipping container,’
oftentimes designating a fiberboard box not complying with Item
222 and the term ‘in boxes.’
Fiber or Fiberboard Box: A shipping container made of either corrugated
or solid fiberboard having a minimum of six faces and completely
enclosing its contents. For classification purposes, when the term ‘box’
is used, the structure must comply with all requirements of Item 222.
Corrugated Board: A structure formed from two or more paperboard
facings and one or more corrugated mediums used in making corrugated
fiberboard boxes (see Singlewall, Doublewall, Triplewall).
Corrugating Medium: Paperboard used in forming the fluted portion of
the corrugated board which is adhered to the outside facings.
Corrugation: see Flute.
Flute or Corrugation: One of the waveshapes formed in the corrugating
medium. (Sized by: Approximately A = 33 flutes/ft., B = 47 flutes/ft.,
C = 39 flutes/ft., and E = 90 flutes/ft.).
Glued (firmly): Firm gluing is indicated when mutilation of the surface
fibers accompanies separation of joined areas after drying.
Die-cut: The stamped form or process of shaping, cutting, blanking or
perforating fiberboard by a die-cutting operation.
ISTA (International Safe Transit Association): A non-profit organization
which establishes laboratory performance test procedures and certifies
laboratories to conduct these test procedures.
Design style: A style of fiberboard trays or caps having flaps scored,
folded and secured at flange sidewalls forming the depth, as opposed
to a slotted style having a set of major and minor closing flaps.
Liner (Sleeve): A creased fiberboard sheetinserted in a container and
covering all sidewalls.
Dimensions:
Length: The larger of the two dimensions of the open face.
Manufacturer’s Joint: The ‘joint’ is that part of the box where the ends
of the sheet are joined together by taping, stitching or gluing and is
normally oriented as a vertical corner of a box.
Width: The lesser of the two dimensions of the open face.
Depth: The distance between the innermost surfaces of the box
measured perpendicular to the length and width.
Doublewall: The structure formed by three flat facings and two
intermediate corrugated mediums.
Edge Crush Test (ECT): A test conducted upon a sample of corrugated
fiberboard in its vertical position with flutes oriented in the direction of
loading to determine its resistance to compression measured as pounds
per inch of width. (Also referred to as the Short Column Test).
Medium: see Corrugating Medium.
Mullen Test: see Bursting Strength.
Package (when referring to fiber container): A container not necessarily
complying with the requirements of Item 222 for a ‘box.’ (See Sec. 5,
Item 680.) Also, one of the special authorized containers described
in detail in the Classification in the section titled ‘Specifications for
Numbered Packages,’ established as an exception to a general
packaging rule.
RESOURCES
6.40
Pad (Slip Sheet): A corrugated or solid fiberboard sheet or other
authorized material used for extra protection or for separating tiers
or layers of articles when packed or palletized for shipment.
Partitions: A set of corrugated or solid fiberboard pieces slotted so they
interlock when assembled to form a number of cells into which articles
may be placed for shipment.
Ply: Any of the several layers of solid fiberboard.
Puncture Test: The strength of material expressed in inch ounces per
inch of tear as measured by the Beach puncture tester (See Item 222,
Sec. 3, Notes 2 and 3).
Score Line: A crease or a line of compressed fiberboard to facilitate
bending or folding.
Triplewall: The structure formed by four flat facings and three intermediate
corrugated mediums.
United Inches: The summation of the outer dimensions of a fiberboard
box, length, width and depth added.
Water Resistant: A board, to be water resistant, shall be sized (treated
with water-repellant materials) or so calendared so as to have a degree
of resistance to damage or deterioration by water in liquid form.
Weight of Facings (minimum combined, of corrugated board): This is
the summation of weight per thousand square feet of all facings in the
board structure excluding the weight of coatings and impregnants and
excluding the weight of the corrugating medium and the adhesive.
Seam: The junction created by any free edge of a container flap or wall
where it abuts or overlaps on another portion of the container and to
which it may be fastened by tape, stitches or adhesive in the process of
closing the container.
Shell: A sheet of corrugated or solid fiberboard scored and folded to
form a joined or unjoined tube open at both ends.
Singleface: Corrugated fiberboard constructed having a flat single
facing adhered to a corrugated medium.
Singlewall: The structure formed by one corrugated inner medium
glued between two flat facings.
Sleeve: See Liner.
Solid Fiberboard: A solid board made by laminating two or more plies
of containerboard.
TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry):
A technical society which develops and disseminates knowledge on
the technology of pulp, paper and paperboard.
RESOURCES
6.41
This Item (Rule) 222 Series was reproduced, with permission, from the
National Motor Freight Classification NMF 100-AE. © 2005 National
Motor Freight Traffic Association, Inc. (NMFTA)
The NMFTA also publishes the following items of interest to the
corrugated industry:
• Item 205: Definition of or Specifications for Bales
• Item 210: Definition of or Specifications for Barrels
• Item 215: Definitions of or Specifications for Baskets or Hampers
• Item 220: Definition of or Specifications for Boxes – General
• Item 235: Specifications for Bundles, Coils, Reels or Rolls
• Item 240: Specifications for Carboys
• Item 245: Definition of or Specifications for Crates
• Item 265: Definition of Pallets or Platforms, Elevating or Lift Truck
• Item 248: Classification of Various Documents
Included with Freight
• Item 540: Explosives and Other Dangerous or
Hazardous Articles or Materials
• Item 580: Marking or Tagging Freight
• Item 680: Packing or Packaging – General
• Item 687: Packing or Packaging –
Non-Compliance With
• Item 689: Requirements and Conditions
for Test Shipment Permits
• Item 780: Prohibited or Restricted Articles
• Item 300140: Inspection by Carrier
Contact the NMFTA for more information: www.nmfta.org
• Item 360: Bills of Lading, Freight Bills and Statement
of Charges
RESOURCES
6.42
Appendix 4:
Metric Conversion Table (Part One)
To convert from
Customary Units
Multiply by
To obtain values in Metric Units
Area
sq. inches (in2)
sq. feet (ft2)
6.4516
0.0929
sq. centimeters (cm2)
sq. meters (m2)
Basis Weight
lbs/1000 sq. ft. (lbs/msf)
4.8824
grams/sq. meter (g/m2)
Bursting Strength
lbs – force/sq. in. (lb-f/in2) or (psi)
6.89476
0.070308
kilopascals (kPa) or (kN/m)
kilograms/cm2 (kg/cm2)
Caliper
inches (in.)
25.4
millimeters (mm)
Concora Medium Test (CMT)
lbs – force (lbs-f)
4.44822
newtons (N)
Edge Crush Test
lbs – force/inch (lb-f/in)
kilogram – force/inch (kg-f/in)
0.175127
0.38609
kilonewtons/meter (kN/m)
Flat Crush
kilograms – force/cm2 (kg-f/cm2)
6.89476
98.0665
Length
inches (in)
inches (in)
feet (ft)
25.4
2.54
0.3048
millimeters (mm)
centimeters (cm)
meters (m)
Puncture Resistance
ft – lb force (ft-lb f)
inch ounces – force (in-oz f)
inch pounds – force (in-lb f)
1.35582
7.06155
0.112985
joules (J)
millijoules (mJ)
joules (J)
Ring Crush
lbs – force per 6 inch strip (lb-f/6 in)
newtons per 6 inch strip (N/6 in)
kilogram – force per cm (kg-f/cm)
0.02919
0.006562
0.980665
Speed
feet/minute (ft/min)
0.305
meters/minute (m/min)
Tearing Strength
grams – force (gf)
9.80665
millinewtons (mN)
Property
RESOURCES
6.43
Appendix 4:
Metric Conversion Table (Part Two)
Property
To convert from
Customary Units
Temperature
degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
Tensile Energy
Absorption
Multiply by
To obtain values in Metric Units
5/9 (°F–32)
degrees Celsius (°C)
foot lbs – force/sq. ft (ft-lbf/ft )
inch lbs – force/sq. in (in-lbf/in2)
14.5939
175.127
joules/sq. meter (J/m2)
Tensile Strength
lbs – force/inch (lb-f/in)
0.175127
Volume
ounces (oz)
gallons (gal)
cubic inches (in3)
cubic feet (ft3)
29.5735
3.785412
16.3871
0.02832
milliliters (mL)
liters (L)
cubic centimeters (cm3)
cubic meters (m3)
Weight (Mass)
ounces (oz)
pounds (lb)
tons (=2000 lb)
metric tons (tonne) (t)
28.3495
0.4536
0.90718
1000
grams (g)
kilograms (kg)
metric tons (tonne) (t)
kilograms (kg)
Weight per unit
volume
lbs per gallon (lb/gal)
lbs per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
0.1198
16.0184
kilograms per liter (kg/L)
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Z-Direction Strength
lbs – force/inch (lbf/in)
foot – lb.force/sq. in (ft-lbf/in2)
6.89476
0.175127
2101.5
2
RESOURCES
6.44
Appendix 5:
Solid Fiberboard
As corrugated shipping containers were being developed at the end
of the 19th century, not all manufacturers had access to the equipment
necessary to score and bend the new material. In 1902, some of these
manufacturers began developing a market for solid fiberboard instead.
This lightweight material was an inexpensive replacement for thin wood
boards or slats, and it was produced more easily than corrugated.
At first, solid fiberboard was used primarily to make rectangular end
panels in wood-frame boxes. Scoring and slotting machinery for solid
fiberboard was soon developed and boxes made completely of solid
fiberboard gained in popularity.
Corrugated and solid fiberboard competed for market share in the new
shipping industry. Solid fiberboard appealed to customers who were
not convinced of corrugated’s protective ability, and until 1914 solid
fiberboard boxes were apparently just as popular as corrugated boxes.
In that year tariffs that had previously been imposed on corrugated were
ruled discriminatory, and corrugated rapidly outpaced solid fiberboard
as the leading new shipping material. Since that time, use of solid
fiberboard has remained limited in comparison to corrugated.
Slip Sheets and Tier Sheets
The mid-1970s upswing in solid fiberboard production was driven by the
food packing industry, which began to use solid fiberboard slip sheets in
place of returnable pallets. Slip sheets were considered preferable to
wooden pallets because they were less expensive, more sanitary and
eliminated the need for tracking and return.
Solid fiberboard found another new use in tier sheets, which separate
and protect glass or plastic containers shipped in bulk. Tier sheets and
slip sheets are
currently the
primary uses for
solid fiberboard,
although it is also
manufactured into
returnable boxes
for beer, lids for
fiber drums and
other products.
Boxes
Solid fiberboard can be used for
almost all of the basic box styles.
Wire stitches were historically used
for joints and closures, but today,
glue is more commonly used.
Solid fiberboard is thinner than
corrugated board so, despite the
toughness of the material, it is
easier to tuck flaps into slots or
slits. This expands the range of
design possibilities.
RESOURCES
6.45
Telescope Boxes
Two-piece telescope styles combine
strength and convenience. They
are widely used by the meatpacking industry. The stitchless
tuck-lock corner is sometimes
used even though most of these
boxes are assembled by stitching
the corners. Tucks are made on
different panels (sides or ends)
on the top and bottom pieces
to increase strength and prevent
snags in closing.
Diagonal score lines in the side walls are sometimes used so that both
pieces of the box can be collapsed after unpacking and then returned
flat for reuse. This adaptation is used for certain types of explosives and
interplant shipments.
Folders
One-piece tuck folders with
hinged covers take advantage of
solid fiberboard’s durability. The
cover can be opened and closed
many times.
A stitchless version features diecut flaps extending from the side
panels. They tuck into slits in the
end panels. The cover or top
panel has tuck flaps on three
sides, with the flaps on the ends
shaped to fit into the same long
slits used for the side-panel flaps.
When stitches are used to fasten the side
and end panels together, they are
placed as close to the corners as
possible. The top-panel
flaps, cut at angles, tuck
in between the end panels
and the side-panel flaps.
These designs offer a relatively large
opening for packing and access to the
contents, and a relatively shallow depth.
Prime meats, produce and various types of
giftware are packed in the tuck-end styles.
Rigid Boxes
Three-piece bliss style boxes are
frequently used to make carriers for
returnable beverage bottles. These
boxes are made with solid fiberboard
with a high degree of weather and
alcohol resistance so the carriers can
withstand multiple trips in all types
of conditions. Attractive printing,
sometimes protected with an additional
coating, is used to advertise brands.
With multi-trip durability and ease of
handling, these carrier boxes are used to
return same-brand bottles to the bottling plants.
Styles with closed tops protect their contents from light and dust.
Open tray styles are also used, sometimes with built-in dividers for
six packs, and frequently with double layers of board on the sides
and ends. Wire rods can be anchored in the fold-over edges as
additional reinforcement.
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6.46
The tote box is very similar to the tray-type beverage carrier. Sides are
angled to allow nesting when stacked empty. The durable nature of
solid fiberboard makes it ideal for
extensive reuse. Tote boxes are not
generally used for shipments. The
board’s resistance to puncture makes
the boxes ideal for carrying small
parts from one assembly station to
another in manufacturing plants. They
are also used to carry fruits and nuts
from orchards to packing stations.
Other Products
Solid fiberboard sheets can
be used as partitions and
inner packing pieces for
boxes. Cut to the size of a
pallet, they serve as pallet
pads, forming an unbroken
base for product stacking. By
bridging the gaps between
pallet deck boards, the
sheets eliminate any loss of
stacking strength for boxes
whose edges might not have
been supported.
There has also been a
resurgence of solid fiber
usage by the military in
recent years. Some manufacturers are experimenting with new
combinations of solid fiberboard and corrugated board, which may
open the door for more solid fiberboard products in the future.
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6.47
Glossary
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6.48
A
Adhesive: Substance capable of adhering one surface to another. For
fiberboard boxes, the substance used to hold plies of solid fiberboard
together, to hold linerboard to the tips of flutes of corrugated medium,
or to hold overlapping flaps together to form the joint or to close a box.
Anilox System: Inking system used in flexographic presses.
B
Bale: A shaped unit, usually containing compressible articles or
materials, enclosed in a fiberboard container not conforming to the
carriers’ rules for a box, or enclosed in other wrapping, and bound by
strapping, rope or wire under tension.
Banded Unit: A package or palletized load that has a band or bands
(usually plastic) applied to it.
Bar Code: An identification symbol. Alpha or alpha-numeric information
is encoded in a sequence of high-contrast, rectangular bars and blank
spaces. The relative widths of these bars and spaces and their
sequence differentiate the individual characters that make up the
encoded information. Bar codes are “read” by electronic scanners.
Basis Weight/Grammage (of Containerboard): Weight of linerboard or corrugating medium expressed in terms of pounds per 1,000
square feet (msf).
Bleed: To run, dilute or migrate colors into unwanted areas connected
to printed areas. To print an area beyond the cut edge or score so that
the design is cut off or folded under.
Board: Abbreviation for various paperboards. (See also: Boxboard,
Chipboard, Combined Board, Containerboard, Corrugated Board,
Fiberboard, Linerboard and Paperboard)
Box: A rigid container having closed faces and completely enclosing
its contents. (See also: Fiberboard Box)
Box Manufacturer: An establishment that has equipment to score,
slot, print and join corrugated or solid fiberboard sheets into boxes, and
that regularly uses that equipment in the production of fiberboard boxes
in commercial quantities.
Box Manufacturer’s Certificate (BMC): A statement printed
within a circular or rectangular border on a corrugated or solid fiberboard box guaranteeing that all applicable construction requirements
of the carrier classifications have been observed and identifying the
box manufacturer.
Box Style: Distinctive configuration of a box design, without regard to
size. A name or number identifies styles in common use.
Boxboard: The types of paperboard used to manufacture folding
cartons and set up (rigid) boxes.
Built-up: Multiple layers of corrugated board glued together to form
a pad of desired thickness, normally used for interior packing.
Bending: In the expression “proper bending qualities,” the ability
of containerboard or combined board to be folded along score lines
without rupture of the surface fibers to the point of seriously weakening
the structure.
Bulk: Goods or cargo not in packages, boxes, bags or other
containers; or goods unpackaged (loose) within a shipping container.
Also, a large box used to contain a volume of product; e.g., “bulk
box.” (See also: Loose)
Blank or Box Blank: A flat sheet of corrugated or solid fiberboard
that has been cut, slotted and scored so that, when folded along the
score lines and joined, it will take the form of a box.
Bundle: A shipping unit of two or more articles or boxes wrapped or
fastened together by suitable means.
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Burst Strength/Mullen: The force required to rupture linerboard
or combined board, using hydraulic pressure measured by a Mullen
tester, relates indirectly to the box’s ability to withstand external or
internal forces, and to contain the contents during rough handling.
This method cannot be used on triplewall combined board and is
of limited reliability on doublewall, as it is difficult to force the
apparatus through the multiple facings simultaneously. When using
certain specifications in the carrier classifications, minimum burst
strength must be certified.
C
Calender Stack: A vertically stacked set or group of heavy horizontal
rollers at the end of the paper machine through which the paper web
passes to densify the paper, to develop uniform caliper, and to increase
smoothness.
Caliper: Thickness of a material usually expressed in thousandths of
an inch (mils) or sometimes referred to as “points.”
Cardboard: A thin, stiff pasteboard, sometimes used for playing
cards or signs. Misuse has extended the laymen’s definition to include
boxboard (used to make folding cartons) and containerboard, a totally
different material used to make corrugated board.
Carton (Folding Carton): A folding box made from boxboard,
used for consumer quantities of product. A carton is not recognized
as a shipping container.
Case: A box or receptacle, or a filled box. As used by the packaging
machinery industry, a corrugated or solid fiberboard box.
Chipboard: A paperboard generally made from recycled paper stock.
Uses include backing sheets for padded writing paper, partitions within
boxes and the center ply or plies of solid fiberboard.
Classification, Freight: The rules and regulations governing the
acceptance of freight in transportation, contained in publications issued
by the truck (motor freight) and rail common carriers. The rules describe
acceptable forms of packaging for each commodity and specify the
minimum requirements for shipping containers. Failure to comply with
the rules can result in refusal to carry the freight, penalty increases in
freight charges, and/or denial of claims for damage.
Cold-setting Adhesive: Adhesive that sets below 86°F, or commonly
at room temperature.
Combined Board: A fabricated sheet assembled from several
components, such as corrugated or solid fiberboard.
Compression Strength: A corrugated box’s resistance to uniform
applied external forces.
Conditioning: Placing paper or packaging material under controlled
environmental conditions in order to reach a specific moisture level and
temperature. Regulating the moisture content and temperature of
packaging materials in preparation for testing.
Container: A receptacle used to contain or hold goods. In shipping,
usually the outer protection used to package goods.
Containerboard: The paperboard components (linerboard, corrugating
material and chipboard) used to manufacture corrugated and solid
fiberboard. The raw materials used to make containerboard may be
virgin cellulose fiber, recycled fiber or a combination of both.
Certificate, Box Manufacturer’s: (See: Box Manufacturer’s Certificate)
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Corrugated Board or Corrugated Fiberboard: The structure
formed on a corrugator by gluing one or more sheets of fluted
containerboard (medium) to one or more sheets of flat containerboard
(linerboard). There are four common types:
– Singleface: Combination of one fluted corrugating medium glued
to one flat sheet of linerboard.
– Singlewall: Two sheets of linerboard, one glued to each side of a
fluted medium. Also known as Doubleface.
Die Cut: The act of cutting raw material (such as containerboard) to
a desired shape (such as a box blank) by using a die. Also used to
describe the resulting piece or box blank.
Dimensions: The three measurements of a box, given in the
sequence of length, width and depth. Inside dimensions are used to
assure proper fit around a product. Outside dimensions are used in
the carrier classifications and in determining pallet patterns.
– Length: The larger of the two dimensions of the open face of
a box as it is set up to receive product (after closing the joint).
– Doublewall: Three sheets of linerboard, with two interleaved and
glued corrugated mediums.
– Width: The smaller of the two dimensions of the open face.
– Triplewall: Four flat sheets of linerboard, with three interleaved and
glued corrugated mediums.
Corrugated Medium: A sheet of corrugating material pressed into
the wave shape known as flutes.
Corrugating Medium: The type of paperboard used in forming the
fluted portion of corrugated board.
Corrugation: (See: Flute)
Corrugator: The machine that unwinds two or more continuous
sheets of containerboard from rolls, presses flutes into the sheet(s)
of corrugating medium, applies adhesive to the tips of the flutes
and affixes the sheet(s) of linerboard to form corrugated board. The
continuous sheet of board may be slit to desired widths, cut off to
desired lengths and scored in one direction.
D
Design Style: A style of fiberboard trays or caps having flaps scored,
folded and secured at flange side walls forming the depth, as opposed
to a slotted style having a set of major and minor closing flaps.
– Depth: The distance measured perpendicular to the length
and width.
E
Edge Crush Resistance/Short Column Compression (ECT):
The amount of force needed to cause compressive failure of an onedge specimen of corrugated board. A primary factor in predicting
the compression strength of a completed box. When using certain
specifications in the carrier classifications, minimum edge crush values
must be certified.
End-loading/Opening Regular Slotted Container (RSC):
An RSC designed to be filled from the side by sliding the product
into the box. The flute direction is normally vertical when the box
is in its end-opening position.
F
Facings: Sheets of linerboard used as the flat outer members of
combined corrugated board. Sometimes called inside and outside liners.
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Fiber: Thread-like units of vegetable growth obtained from fibrous
plants (cotton, jute) or trees (pulp wood). In the paper-making process,
the individual, basic, thread-like units developed by the pulping,
screening and refining of wood or recycled paper, to make new paper.
Fiberboard: A general term describing combined paperboard
(corrugated or solid fiber) used to manufacture containers. (See also:
Combined Board)
Fiberboard Box or Fiber Box: A shipping container made of
corrugated or solid fiberboard.
Finish, Dry: A relatively rough finish (surface) resulting when paperboard is not dampened prior to its final manufacturing process. Most
domestic linerboard is dry finish.
Finish, Starch: A relatively smooth finish (surface) paperboard
obtained by spraying a starch solution on one or both sides prior to
passing through the calender stack section of the paper machine.
Finish, Water: A relatively smooth and glossy finish (surface) obtained
on paperboard by spraying water on one or both sides prior to passing
through the calender stack section of the paper machine. Not generally
used in the United States today.
Flaps: Extensions of the side wall panels that close a box. Flaps are
usually defined by one scoreline and three edges. When folded and
sealed with tape, adhesive or wire stitches, flaps close the remaining
openings of a box. Regular slotted containers have eight flaps.
Flexo Folder Gluer (FFG): A machine that, in one operation, prints,
scores, slots and folds a box blank, and then glues the side seam
(manufacturer’s joint) to complete the manufacture of a KDF box.
The KDF boxes are collected at the end of the FFG and bundled for
stacking on a pallet for shipment to a box customer.
Flexography or Flexo: A type of rotary letterpress printing using
flexible plates and fast-drying, water-based inks.
Flute or Corrugation: One of the wave shapes pressed into corrugated
medium. A, B, C, E and F are common flute types, along with a variety of
much larger flutes and mini-flutes.
Flute (or Corrugation) Direction: The normal direction of flutes is
parallel to the depth of the box, so that they are vertical when the box is
stacked for shipment. In end-opening and wrap-around box styles, the
flute direction may be parallel to the length and width, resulting in a
“horizontal corrugation box.”
Four-color Process: Full-color images are created by four halftone
plates, using the four subtractive primary colors: cyan, yellow, magenta
and black.
Freight Classifications: (See: Classification, Freight)
G
Glue: In the carrier classifications, a synonym for adhesive.
Glued (Firmly): Adherence of one surface to another with sufficient
bonding that an attempt to separate the joined areas will result in
mutilation of surface fibers.
H
Hot-melt Adhesive: Polymer adhesive, solid at room temperature,
which is liquefied by heat (usually in range of 250 to 400°F), applied
molten and forms a bond by cooling and solidifying.
Hygroscopic: The property of paper that makes it prone to attract or
absorb water vapor from the atmosphere.
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I
Impregnation: The partial saturation of a material with another
substance.
Kraft, Fourdrinier: Containerboard, usually of two-ply formation
(although sometimes with a single ply), made from kraft pulp on a
Fourdrinier machine. The sheet is characterized by a more random
orientation of fibers than cylinder kraft.
Inner Packing: Materials or parts used to support, position or cushion
an item within a shipping container, to support the corners or top of the
container, or to fill voids.
L
Item 222: A rule in the National Motor Freight Classification of the
motor common carriers containing requirements for corrugated and
solid fiberboard boxes. Used for the specific rule, and sometimes for
the series of related rules designated Items 222, 222-1, 222-2, 222-3,
222-4, 222-5 and 222-6.
Label: A separate slip or sheet of paper affixed to a surface for
identification or description. For fiberboard boxes, includes:
– Full Label: A printed sheet of paper laminated to and covering
the entire surface of the box blank. Usually used to add fine-screen,
four-color illustrations that cannot be achieved with direct printing
on the porous paperboard surface.
J
– Mailing or Shipping Label: A small label usually attached by the
box user to provide shipping instructions.
Joint (Manufacturer’s Joint): The part of the box where the ends of
the scored and slotted blank are fastened together by taping, stitching
or gluing.
– Spot Label: A printed sheet covering a portion of the surface of
the box blank. May cover a portion of one panel, a full panel or
several panels of the box.
K
Knocked-Down (KD) or Knocked-Down Flat (KDF): A flat,
unopened box whose manufacturer’s joint has been sealed. An article
that is partially or entirely taken apart for packing and shipment. A KD
box may be designated as “right hand” when the longer panel appears
on the right or as “left hand” when it appears on the left.
– UPC (Universal Product Code) Label: A small label, usually printed
in black ink on white paper, carrying a sharp image of the contents’
UPC. Used instead of direct printing of bar codes when scanning
equipment requires higher resolution.
Labeler: Machine that applies labels, usually of the smaller types
(mailing, spot and UPC). (See also: Laminator, Paster)
Kraft: Word of German origin meaning strength; designates pulp,
paper or paperboard produced from wood fibers by the sulfate process.
Laminator: A machine that adheres two or more plies of paper or
fiberboard. May be used to adhere partial or full labels to a facing,
or, for enhanced structural properties, two facings, two corrugating
mediums or two sheets of combined board.
Kraft, Cylinder: Containerboard of multi-ply formation with prominent
grain direction of fibers, made from kraft pulp on a cylinder machine.
Letterpress: A process of printing in which raised images are coated
with ink and pressed directly onto a paper or paperboard surface.
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Liner: A creased fiberboard sheet inserted as a sleeve in a container
and covering all side walls. Used to provide extra stacking strength or
cushioning. Also used as short hand for “linerboard” or “facing.”
Linerboard: Paperboard used for the flat outer facings of combined
corrugated fiberboard, and the outer plies of solid fiberboard.
Linerboard, High-Strength/Performance: Linerboard made with
increased refining, additional mechanical agitation of the pulp on the
Fourdrinier table or additional “wet pressing” on the paper machine to
increase strength and performance without increasing weight.
Linerboard, Sized: Linerboard that has been chemically treated
during manufacture to resist the absorption of water.
Linerboard, Wet-Strength: Linerboard that has been chemically
treated during manufacture to impart higher resistance to rupture
when saturated with water.
tape or staples. A taped joint simply connects the two panels, with
no overlapping material. When a narrow tab extends from the end
panel to overlap the side panel, it is fastened with adhesive or wire
stitches (staples).
Master Pack: A shipping container used to overwrap or contain a
number of individual containers.
Medium: (See: Corrugating Medium)
Medium, Wet-Strength: Medium that has been chemically treated
during manufacture to impart higher resistance to rupture when
saturated with water.
Mullen: (See: Burst Strength)
N
Linerboard, White Top or Mottled: An uncoated linerboard of
two or more layers that has a white surface of either bleached fibers
or cleaned recycled white fibers. The layers below the top layer are
generally unbleached or recycled fibers.
Nested: When three or more different sizes of an article are placed
within the next larger size, or when three or more of the same articles
are placed one within the other so that each upper article does not
project above the next lower article by more than one-third of its height.
Litho or Lithography: A printing process using a plate that has
been chemically treated so that the image to be printed is receptive
to ink, while blank areas repel ink. Used primarily for fine reproduction,
including labels for fiberboard boxes.
Nested Solid: When three or more of the same articles are placed one
within or upon the other so that the outer side surfaces of the one
above will be in contact with the inner surfaces of the one below and so
that each upper article will not project above the next lower article by
more than one-fourth of an inch.
Loose: Articles not in a box, package or other container. (See also: Bulk)
M
(Rates or classes provided for “nested” articles will not apply when articles
of different name or material, whether grouped in one description or
shown separately, are nested or placed one within the other.)
Manufacturer’s Joint: A joint (seal) made by the box manufacturer,
who folds the scored and slotted box blank in two places, brings one
side panel and one end panel together and joins them with adhesive,
Numbered Package: A package authorized for use in the shipment
of specific articles, identified by an assigned number and described in
detail in special sections of the carrier classifications. (See also: Package)
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O
Offset: A printing technique in which the inked image is transferred
from the plate to a clean cylinder, which in turn transfers the image to
the sheet of paper or paperboard. The term is usually combined with
the printing method, as in offset lithography.
Overlap: A design feature wherein the top and/or bottom flaps of a
box do not butt, but extend one over the other. The amount of overlap
is measured from flap edge to flap edge.
P
Package: A small- to moderate-sized container. Containers referred to
in the carrier classifications as fiberboard packages do not necessarily
comply with Item 222 or Rule 41. (See also: Numbered Package)
Pad: A corrugated or solid fiberboard sheet, or sheet of other
authorized material, used for extra protection or for separating tiers
or layers of articles when packed for shipment. (See also: Slip Sheet)
Palletizing: Securing and loading containers on pallets for shipment as
a single unit load, typically for handling by mechanical equipment.
Panel: A “face” or “side” of a box.
Paperboard: One of the two major product categories of the paper
industry. Includes the broad classification of materials made of cellulose
fibers, primarily wood pulp and recycled paper stock, on board
machines. The major types are containerboard and boxboard. (The
other major product group of the paper industry is paper, including
printing and writing papers, packaging papers, newsprint and tissue.)
Partitions: A set of slotted corrugated, solid fiberboard or chipboard
pieces that interlock when assembled to form a number of cells into
which articles may be placed for shipment.
Paster: Machine that applies an adhesive to two or more plies of
paperboard and combines them into a single sheet of solid fiberboard.
(See also: Laminator)
Ply: Any of the several layers of paperboard or solid fiberboard.
Point: Term used to describe the thickness or caliper of paperboard,
where one point equals one thousandth of an inch.
Preprint: A web (roll) of linerboard that has been printed and
re-wound prior to the manufacture of combined board. Use requires
special equipment on a corrugator to assure precise slit, score and
cut-off operations.
Printer-Slotter: A machine that prints fiberboard sheets, and then
scores and slots to complete the manufacture of box blanks.
Pulp: The mixture of wood fibers obtained by chemical cooking or by
the mechanical treatment of wood consisting of cellulose with varying
amounts of other materials found in wood.
R
Rail Rule 41 or Rule 41: A rule in the Uniform Freight Classification
of the rail carriers containing requirements for corrugated and solid
fiberboard boxes.
Recyclable: Packaging materials that may be processed through a
number of treatments or changes in order to be reused.
Recycled Content: Corrugated, paperboard and paper may
contain up to 100 percent recycled fibers. Fiber may be recycled
from pre-consumer sources (box plant scrap and trimmings) and/or
post-consumer sources (corrugated boxes that have been used and
recovered for recycling).
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Regular slotted container (RSC): A box style manufactured from
a single sheet of corrugated board. The sheet is scored and slotted to
permit folding. Flaps extending from the side and end panels form the
top and bottom of the box. All flaps are the same size from the edge
of the sheet to the flap scorelines. The two outer flaps (normally the
lengthwise flaps) are one-half the container’s width so that they meet
at the center of the box when the user folds them. Flute direction
may be either perpendicular to the length of the sheet (usually for
top-opening RSCs) or parallel to the length of the sheet (usually for
end-opening RSCs).
Set-up Boxes: Boxes that have been squared with one set of end flaps
sealed, ready to be filled with product.
S
Shipping Container: A container that is sufficiently strong to be used
in commerce for packing, storing and transporting commodities.
Score or Scoreline: A well-defined impression or crease in corrugated
or solid fiberboard made to position and facilitate folds.
Scored and Slotted Sheet: A sheet of corrugated fiberboard with
one or more scorelines, slots or slits. A scored and slotted sheet may
be further defined by the pattern of scorelines and slots or slits, as
a box blank (for a box style made from a single sheet of corrugated
fiberboard), a box piece or part, a tray or wrap, a partition piece, an
inner packing piece or some other designation.
Sealing Strip: (See: Tape)
Seam: The junction created by any free edge of a container flap or
panel where it abuts or rests on another portion of the container and to
which it may be fastened by tape, stitches or adhesive in the process of
closing the container. (See also: Joint)
Semi-Chemical or Semi-Chem: Generic term referring to one of
the manufacturing processes for making corrugating medium, in which
chemicals are used to partially dissolve the lignin, and non-chemical or
mechanical means are used to finish preparation of the fiber.
Sheet: A rectangle of combined board, untrimmed or trimmed, and
sometimes scored across the corrugations when that operation is done
on the corrugator. Also, a rectangle of any of the component layers of
containerboard, or of paper or a web of paperboard as it is being
unwound from the roll.
Shell: A sheet of corrugated or solid fiberboard scored and folded
to form a joined or unjoined tube open at both ends. Used as inner
packing. (See also: Tube)
Silk Screen: Stencil-type printing method that involves forcing ink
or paint through a mesh of silk or other porous material that has been
prepared so as to block the coloring material in some areas.
Sizing: The treatment of paper so that it is resistant to liquids or
vapors. Sizing material is applied to the surface or throughout material
to fill pores which reduces absorption.
Slip Sheet: A flat sheet of material used as a base upon which goods
and materials may be assembled, stored and transported.
Slit: A cut made in a fiberboard sheet without removal of material.
Slit-Score: A cut made in a fiberboard sheet extending through only
a portion of the thickness, commonly seen as intermittent cuts on a
scoreline. Purpose is to aide with folding on the scoreline.
Slot: A wide cut, or pair of closely spaced parallel cuts including
removal of a narrow strip of material, made in a fiberboard sheet,
usually to form flaps and permit folding without bulges caused by
the thickness of the material. Common widths are 1⁄4 in. (.635 cm.)
and 3⁄8 in. (.952 cm.).
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Solid Fiberboard: A solid board made by laminating two or more
plies of containerboard.
Stacking Strength: The maximum compressive load a container
can bear over a given length of time, under given environmental/
distribution conditions without failing.
Standard Test Conditions: Atmospheric conditions of temperature
and humidity in which laboratories agree to conduct tests, eliminating
those variables in comparing results. (See also: Conditioning)
Standard and special conditions include:
Condition
Temperature
Relative
Humidity
Standard
73°F ± 2°F (23°C ± 1°C)
50% ± 2.0%
High Humidity 73°F ± 2°F (23°C ± 1°C)
85% ± 2.5%
Cold Storage
40°F ± 2°F (4°C ± 1°C)
85% ± 2.5%
Tropical
90°F ± 2°F (32°C ± 1°C)
90% ± 3.0%
Stapler or Stitcher: Machine that seals the joint and/or flaps of a box
with metal staples or stitches.
Staples or Stitches: Metal fasteners used to seal the joint of a box or
close the flaps. Staples are preformed, and the tines are closed as they
pierce the box. Stitches are machine-formed using wire drawn from a
spool.
Substrate: The surface or base material on which an adhesive-containing
substance is spread for bonding, coating or other purposes or on which
printing is done.
T
Tape: A narrow strip of cloth, paper or plastic sometimes having a filler
or reinforcement, coated on one side with an adhesive, and used to seal
the joint or flaps of a fiberboard box or to reinforce a box.
Taper: Machine that applies tape to the joint or flaps of a fiberboard box.
Tensile Strength: The maximum tension a material can resist
before breaking.
Test: Used alone, the word refers to the bursting strength of linerboard
or combined board, where that is the applicable measure of strength
(See: Test Procedures). In Europe, test liner is linerboard made from
recycled materials.
Test Procedures: Detailed descriptions of the methodology agreed
upon by recognized organizations. (See: Tests for a list of the most
common tests and Information Sources.)
Top-opening Regular Slotted Container: An RSC designed to be
filled from the top and remain upright. The flute direction is normally
vertical, providing maximum stacking strength.
Tube: A sheet of combined board, scored and folded to a multi-sided
form with open ends. It may be an element of a box style or a unit of
interior packing that adds protection and compression strength.
(See also: Shell)
U
U-Liner: A protective cushion or a divider in a box, usually made from
singlewall corrugated board, in the shape of the letter U.
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United Inches: Sum of the external dimensions of a box; i.e., length,
width and depth.
Unitized Load: A load of a number of articles or containers, bound
together by means of tension strapping, plastic shrink or stretch films.
Weight of Facings: The sum of the weights per 1,000 square feet of
all facings of combined board, excluding the weight of corrugated
medium, corrugating adhesive and any coatings or impregnants. Usually
cited as the minimum combined weight of facings of combined board.
Universal Product Code (UPC): A 12- or 13-digit, numeric code that
uniquely distinguishes products.
Wrap-around Blank: A scored and slotted sheet of corrugated
fiberboard that is formed into a box by folding it around its contents.
The user makes both the flap and joint closures.
V
Wrapped in Fiberboard: Envelopment of the packaged item(s)
in corrugated or solid fiberboard, forming a package that does not
necessarily comply with the carrier classifications.
Virgin Fiber: Fiber that is derived directly from wood.
W
Water Resistant: Having a degree of resistance to damage or
deterioration by water, after it is sized (treated with water-repellent
materials).
Wax Cascaded or Wax Saturated: Combined board that is treated
by cascading molten paraffin wax or wax blend over vertical box blanks
so that it seeps down the flutes as well as over the facings.
Wax Curtain-Coated: Combined corrugated board that has been
surface coated on one or both sides with a hot-melt wax blend.
Wax Dipped: Combined board impregnated by dipping into a hot
paraffin wax or wax blend.
Wax Impregnated: Combined board having one or more components
infused with a paraffin-type wax or wax blend.
Web: A continuous sheet of paperboard or paper.
RESOURCES
6.58
Information Sources
RESOURCES
6.59
Books
Corrugated Industry Trade Press
ASTM Standards, Vol. 15.09: Paper; Packaging (includes ASTM D 4727,
5118 and 5168) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Web Site: www.astm.org
Board Converting News
Corrugated Today
N.V. Business Publishers
Web Site: www.nvpublications.com
The Corrugated Container Manufacturing Process
Web Site: www.tappi.org
Corrugated Crossroads—A Reference Guide for the
Corrugated Container Industry
Corrugated Shipping Containers: An Engineering Approach
Web Site: www.jelmarpublishing.com
Design and Production of Corrugated Packaging and Displays
Flexographic Image Reproduction Specifications & Tolerances
Flexographic Technical Association (FTA)
Web Site: www.fta-ffta.org
Graphic Design for Corrugated Packaging
Handbook of Corrugated Box Production
Phone: 630/393-9852
Introduction to Flexo Folder-Gluers
HazMat Packager & Shipper
Packaging Research International, Inc.
Web Site: www.hazmatship.com
Paperboard Packaging
Official Board Markets
Advanstar Communications, Inc.
Web Site: www.packaging-online.com
Packaging Digest
Cahners Publishing Co.
Web Site: www.packagingdigest.com
Packaging World Magazine
Packaging World
Web Site: www.packworld.com
Pulp and Paper Week
Pulp and Paper Magazine
Paperloop, Inc.
Web Site: www.paperloop.com
Performance and Evaluation of Shipping Containers
Test Methods, Useful Methods, Corrugated Container Plant
Handbook, Corrugated Containers & Packaging Technical
Information Papers (TIPs), Corrugated Defect Terminology
Testing Methods and Instruments for Corrugated Board
Web Site: www.lorentzen-wettre.com
RESOURCES
6.60
Corrugated Manufacturing Organizations
Related Industry Organizations
Asian Corrugated Case Association (ACCA)
Web Site: www.acca-website.org
American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA)
Web Site: www.afandpa.org
Association of Caribbean, Central and
South American Corrugators (ACCCSA)
Web Site: www.acccsa.org
Forest Products Association of Canada (FPAC)
Web Site: www.fpac.ca/english/
Association of Independent Corrugated Converters (AICC)
Web Site: www.aiccbox.org
Brazilian Association of Corrugated Board (ABPO)
Web Site: www.abpo.org.br
Canadian Corrugated Case Association (CCCA)
Web Site: www.cccassociation.com
China Packaging Federation (CPF)
Web Site: www.cpf.org.cn
European Federation of Manufacturers of Corrugated Board (FEFCO)
Web Site: www.fefco.org
Fibre Box Association (FBA)
Web Site: www.fibrebox.org
International Corrugated Case Association (ICCA)
Web Site: www.iccanet.org
Corrugated Packaging Alliance (CPA)
Web Site: www.corrugated.org
Institute of Packaging Professionals (IoPP)
Web Site: www.iopp.org
International Corrugated Packaging Foundation (ICPF)
Web Site: http://icpf.corrugated.org
Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute (PMMI)
Web Site: www.pmmi.org
Paperboard Packaging Council (PPC)
Web Site: www.ppcnet.org
Paper and Paperboard Packaging Environmental Council (PPEC)
Web Site: www.ppec-paper.com
Pulp and Paper Health and Safety Association
Web Site: www.pphsa.on.ca
Korea Corrugated Packaging Case Industry Association
Web Site: www.kcca.or.kr
RESOURCES
6.61
International Regulatory Organizations
Government
Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB)
Web Site: www.pwgsc.gc.ca/cgsb
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT)
Web Site: www.dot.gov
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
Web Site: www.iata.org
U.S. Patent & Trademark Office
Web Site: www.uspto.gov
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Web Site: www.icao.int
Other Organizations
Technical Organizations
Adhesive & Sealant Council
Web Site: www.ascouncil.org
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Web Site: www.ansi.org
Adhesives Manufacturers Association
Web Site: www.adhesives.org
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Web Site: www.astm.org
American Society for Quality (ASQ)
Web Site: www.asq.org
Global Trade Association of Automatic Identification
Capture Industry (AIM) (GPI)
Web Site: www.aimglobal.org
American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association
Web Site: www.aslrra.org
International Safe Transit Association (ISTA)
Web Site: www.ista.org
Pulp and Paper Technical Association of Canada (PAPTAC)
Web Site: www.paptac.ca
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
Uniform Code Council, Inc. (UCC)
Web Site: www.uc-council.org
Food Marketing Institute (FMI)
Web Site: www.fmi.org
Forest Products Laboratory (FPL)
Web Site: www.fpl.fs.fed.us
Glass Packaging Institute (GPI)
Web Site: www.gpi.org
Global Engineering Documents
Web Site: www.global.ihs.com
Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)
Web Site: www.gmabrands.com
RESOURCES
6.62
About ICPF
Institute of Paper Science & Technology (IPST)
Web Site: www.ipst.edu
The International Corrugated Packaging Foundation (ICPF) is a
philanthropic organization dedicated to building a knowledgeable
workforce for the corrugated packaging industry. It was incorporated
in the state of Illinois as a 501 C 3 nonprofit corporation on
November 12, 1985.
Labelmaster
Web Site: www.labelmaster.com
National Association of Manufacturers
Web Site: www.nam.org
ICPF’s asset donations and corrugated curriculum development,
provided to universities and technical colleges, develop student
skills on industry equipment while also giving training opportunities
to industry employees. These asset placements, along with ICPF’s
innovative corrugated industry satellite briefings to schools throughout
North America, enhance student understanding of the global corrugated
packaging industry, its product innovations and the many career
opportunities available today.
National Association of Printing Ink Manufacturers (NAPIM)
Web Site: www.napim.org
National Motor Freight Traffic Association (NMFTA)
Web Site: www.nmfta.org
National Institute of Packaging Handling and Logistics Engineers
(NIPHLE)
Web Site: www.niphle.org
ICPF is co-sponsored by two trade associations: the Association
of Independent Corrugated Converters (AICC) and the Fibre Box
Association (FBA). Each association appoints equal numbers to the
ICPF Board of Directors, the Foundation’s governing body. The
Foundation is headquartered in Alexandria, VA, and organized in
Canada as ICPF-Canada to promote corrugated education in Canadian
schools to benefit
the Canadian
corrugated industry.
It is funded by
contributions from
the industry at
large and from
the two sponsoring
organizations.
Produce Marketing Association
Web Site: www.pma.com
Railway Association of Canada
Web Site: www.railcan.ca
ICPF
United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association
Web Site: www.uffva.org
RESOURCES
6.63
ICPF’s Drive to Build the Talent Pool
Indiana State University; Michigan State University; Mohawk College,
Canada; Rochester Institute of Technology, NY; San Jose State
University, CA; and University of Wisconsin/Stout.
The ability of the corrugated industry to compete globally requires a new
generation of creative and knowledgeable employees at all levels. ICPF
is working toward that end by partnering with colleges, universities and
technical schools throughout the United States and Canada to strengthen
corrugated instruction to better serve the corrugated industry.
ICPF Beams Corrugated Industry into Classrooms
ICPF pioneered the use of satellite technology to bring corrugated
industry executives face-to-face with the next generation of packaging
talent at schools in the United States and Canada. Held annually, each
briefing brings packaging and graphics students up-to-date on the latest
innovations in corrugated packaging and the many career opportunities
available. The program is beamed live to an ever-growing number of
universities throughout North America. Most participating schools now
include this ICPF event as a course requirement. In addition, ICPF widely
distributes the telecast to schools in the United States and Canada.
ICPF works with its educational partners by donating corrugated-specific
technology, software and other educational assets; by developing
corrugated-related curricula; by creating programs to expand student
knowledge and understanding of the corrugated packaging industry;
and by promoting corrugated packaging as the career of choice for
talented students nationwide in order to expand the numbers of top
students choosing corrugated packaging as a career.
ICPF Asset Donations to Schools
Promoting Corrugated Through Student Competitions
Since 1994, ICPF has placed in schools corrugated-specific, state-ofthe-art technology valued at more than $8 million. This has enhanced
corrugated instruction for both students and industry employees, and
helped prepare students for corrugated packaging careers.
Schools benefiting from ICPF’s asset donations include Clemson
University, SC; Fox Valley Technical College, WI; Appalachian State, SC;
California Polytechnic State University; Humber College, Canada;
ICPF
ICPF’s asset placements ensure that corrugated skills instruction is
incorporated into regular and specialized courses at these educational
venues. Further, ICPF’s work has a double benefit for the corrugated
industry at two of these schools: Clemson University and Fox Valley
Technical College. ICPF provides hands-on skills instruction for current
industry employees who benefit from the expertise of trained faculty
as well as industry speakers/trainers. ICPF’s Curriculum Development
Committee provides valuable input to these schools in developing
instruction that best serves the needs of the corrugated industry.
Each year, ICPF sponsors
two corrugated design
competitions to excite
students about the
product and the industry.
One is staged at the
conclusion of the annual
satellite briefing in which
student corrugated design
winners are challenged to
compete for top cash
prizes by “selling” the
concept and utility of their
corrugated entry to their
peers as they might to a
prospective customer.
RESOURCES
6.64
Also, ICPF sponsors the “Chair Affair” corrugated design competition
in which architecture students are challenged to build a functional
chair using only corrugated board and glue. Both competitions have
attracted winning students to careers in corrugated packaging.
A Product to Attract New Talent
ICPF created a DVD package to promote the industry and the value
of its careers to students at all levels. It includes a written career guide,
a promotional video on the industry for use at career fairs, a career
assessment section in which students can click on specific job positions
and learn about them from industry employees, and a tour of a typical
box plant.
For more information on getting involved in ICPF,
contact the corporate offices:
International Corrugated Packaging Foundation
113 South West Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 USA
Telephone: 703-549-8580 Fax: 703-549-8670
E-mail: icpf@aiccbox.org
Web Site: http://icpf.corrugated.org
Getting Involved in ICPF
More than 500 corporations and individuals in the corrugated packaging
industry are involved in ICPF as contributors. Major contributors to ICPF
comprise its “CorrAlliance Partners” who meet annually to review ICPF’s
programs and make recommendations that are reviewed by the ICPF
Board of Directors. Each year, the ICPF Board has unanimously adopted
these recommendations which then become part of ICPF’s programs
and goals.
RESOURCES
6.65
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the following individuals for writing and editing text:
John Rutherford
Hal Baker
Dave Carlson
Ray Shultz
Cindy Kuebler
Gary Vosler
James Moody
Thanks to these FBA member companies for donating
photographs:
Pratt Industries
Green Bay Packaging Inc.
Interstate Resources, Inc.
Smurfit-Stone Container
Corporation
Triad Packaging Inc. of TN
Norampac, Inc.
And also, Alien Technology and Texas Instruments
Additional thanks to:
NMFTA (National Motor Freight Traffic Association), for allowing
inclusion of Item 222.
PMMI (Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute), for assistance
with the voluntary guidelines.
RESOURCES
6.66
Index
RESOURCES
6.67
A
Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21, 3.30, 6.8
Adhesive(s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6, 1.13, 3.3–3.5, 3.9,
4.5, 5.3, 5.15–5.19, 6.4,
6.39, 6.41, 6.49–6.52, 6.54–6.58
Air cargo (Air shipments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Airflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9–5.15
American Forest & Paper Association
(AF&PA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 6.61
American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) test methods. . . . . . . 4.11, 4.15,
5.2, 6.2, 6.3,
6.6, 6.39, 6.60, 6.62
ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9, 6.15, 6.18, 6.20–6.25
Assembly issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
B
Bar code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9, 6.15–6.25, 6.49
Basis weight/grammage . . . . . . . . . . 6.4, 6.6, 6.49
Bliss box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11, 3.5
Biodegradable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Boxboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3, 6.40, 6.49, 6.50
Box blank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5–1.8, 3.5, 3.27, 5.7,
6.49–6.58
Box compression test (BCT)
(see: compression strength)
Box dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6, 4.6
Box manufacturer’s
certificate (BMC). . . . . . . . . . 4.11, 4.13, 6.10, 6.12,
6.26, 6.39, 6.49
Box plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3–1.8, 6.10, 6.56
Box plant waste
(see: double-lined kraft, DLK)
Box structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1–3.5
Box styles . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1–2.19, 3.17, 6.45, 6.52
Boxes with Covers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6, 6.38
Build-ups (Interior forms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14
Bulge resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21
Bulk bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9, 2.18
Burst strength/Mullen . . . . . 1.14, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14,
6.6, 6.11, 6.50, 6.57
C
CAD/CAM (computer-aided design/
computer-assisted manufacturing) . . . . . . 3.2, 6.1
Calender stack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.50, 6.52
Caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16, 6.4, 6.5, 6.17, 6.43,
6.50, 6.55
Carrier classifications . . . . . . . . . . 4.14, 6.32–6.42,
6.49–6.55, 6.58
Carrier rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 4.10–4.14
Cellulose fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 1.3, 6.47, 6.49
Chemical separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 4.2, 4.4
Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Closure (Closure materials,
closure method) . . . . . . . . . . 3.12, 6.10, 6.31, 6.45
Coalition of Northeastern
Governors (CONEG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Coatings. . . . . . . . 1.12, 3.19, 3.30, 5.15, 6.41, 6.58
Cobb Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8
Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16–4.18, 6.8, 6.26
Column stack
(Columnar stacking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 3.22, 4.3
Combustion point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
Common carrier . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 4.11, 6.50, 6.53
Compression losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15, 4.2, 4.3
Compression requirement . . 3.16–3.18, 3.22, 3.24
Compression strength . . . . . . 3.4, 3.15, 3.16–3.19,
3.23, 4.14, 6.2,
6.5, 6.50, 6.51
Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4
Containment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21, 3.22, 4.14
Contamination . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 3.9–3.13, 3.30, 4.7
Contract carrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10
Conventional Slotted Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . 2.3, 2.11
Conveying, conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.12
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.30
Corrugated Common Footprint
(CCF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 4.2, 4.6, 4.7
Corrugated Modular Systems
for Case-Ready Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
Corrugation direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15, 3.19
Corrugator . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5, 1.6, 6.51, 6.55, 6.56
Cost-effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13, 3.22
Costs (Direct, indirect,
opportunity) . . . . . . . . . . 3.13, 3.20–3.22, 3.24, 4.7
Cube (Cube efficiency,
cube utilization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22, 3.23, 4.7
Cushion . . . . . . . 1.9, 2.4, 2.14, 2.17, 3.3, 3.4, 3.20,
4.16, 5.4, 6.53, 6.54, 6.57
D
Deck boards . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 4.2, 4.4, 5.4, 6.47
RESOURCES
6.68
Department of Agriculture
(USDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13, 4.16, 4.17, 6.10
Department of Transportation
(DOT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16–4.18, 6.13, 6.14, 6.62
Design style boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6, 6.46
Die cut. . . . . . . . . 1.5–1.7, 2.5, 2.9, 2.17, 3.23, 6.51
Digital printing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26, 3.29
Dimensions (see: box dimensions)
Direct printing (see: post-print)
Displays (Point-of-purchase
displays [POP]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19, 3.27, 6.60
Display-ready . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 4.7
Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8, 3.13
Distribution (Distribution environment,
distribution hazards,
distribution cycle) . . . . . . 3.8–3.10, 3.13–3.24, 4.3,
4.6, 4.7– 4.9, 4.13
Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16, 3.15, 4.16, 6.46
Double-lined kraft (DLK)
(Double-lined clippings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Doublewall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6, 1.8, 3.2, 3.4, 3.19,
4.16, 5.5, 5.14, 6.50, 6.51
Dynamic loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11
E
Edge crush test (ECT) . . . 3.15, 4.12, 4.13, 5.7, 6.5,
6.7, 6.26, 6.27, 6.29,6.32–6.37,
6.40, 6.43, 6.51
End loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.20, 6.3, 6.7, 6.44
Environment (Environmental
issues, environmental stewardship,
environmental regulations) . . . . . . . i, 1.1, 1.4, 1.8,
1.10–1.13, 2.19,
3.8–3.20, 3.26,
4.16, 5.3, 5.16
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 4.16
European Federation of Corrugated
Board Manufacturers (FEFCO) . . . . . 2.2, 4.6, 6.61
Extended glue tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
F
Federal Express (FedEx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Federal specifications
(see: government specifications)
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) . . . . . 4.16, 4.18
Filling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12, 5.2, 5.7
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25, 3.30
Fire retardant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Five-panel folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9, 3.6, 6.38
Flame retardancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Flap gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9
Flexo folder-gluer . . . . . . . 1.7, 1.8, 5.5, 6.52, 6.60
Flexography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26, 3.29, 6.52
Flowable solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9, 3.21
Fluid(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9, 3.21, 5.17
Flute profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3, 3.4, 3.17
Folders
(Folder-type boxes) . . . . . . 2.2, 2.8, 3.6, 6.38, 6.46
Food & Drug
Administration (FDA) . . . . . . 1.11, 1.13, 3.30, 4.16,
4.18, 6.10
Food contact . . . . . . . . . 1.11, 3.8, 3.30, 4.18, 6.10
Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 3.22, 4.2, 4.5–4.7
Forest management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
Formaldehyde. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3, 5.19, 6.5
Freight. . . . . . . . . 3.10–3.13, 3.18, 4.11, 4.13, 6.10,
6.12, 6.26, 6.32, 6.33, 6.35,
6.42, 6.50–6.53, 6.55, 6.63
Freight rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
Full Disclosure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
Full truckload (TL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10
G
Gloss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12, 3.27
Glue. . . . . . . . . i, 1.2, 1.5–1.9, 1.13, 2.12, 2.17, 3.2,
3.5, 3.12, 3.26, 3.27, 5.8, 5.16,
5.17, 5.19, 6.4, 6.11, 6.26,
6.30, 6.37, 6.39, 6.45, 6.52
Glued joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
Glue tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
Grammage (see: basis weight)
Graphic design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25, 3.26, 6.60
H
Handling . . . . . . . . . 2.4, 2.18, 3.8, 3.11, 3.12, 3.17,
3.22, 4.3, 4.7, 4.11, 4.17, 5.2,
5.9, 5.10, 5.15, 6.1–6.3,
6.46, 6.50, 6.55, 6.63
Hardwood fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
RESOURCES
6.69
Hazardous materials
(hazmat). . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 2.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.16, 4.17,
6.6, 6.10, 6.13, 6.14, 6.26, 6.60
Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8, 4.17
Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 1.13
Humidity . . . . . . . . . 3.4, 3.11 3.17, 3.22, 5.3, 5.16,
5.19, 6.8, 6.57
I
Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 3.30, 6.53
Independent company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Ink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7, 1.11, 1.12, 3.27, 3.28, 4.9,
6.8, 6.15–6.19, 6.23, 6.24, 6.49,
6.52–6.56, 6.58, 6.63
Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3, 3.19
Integrated company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Item 222 . . . . 3.5, 3.10, 4.11–4.14, 6.12, 6.26, 6.28,
6.31–6.36, 6.38–6.41, 6.53, 6.55
Interior packaging
(Inner containers, interior
packing forms, inner
packing pieces) . . . . . . . . 2.1, 2.2, 2.10, 2.13, 2.14,
2.17, 3.15, 3.30, 4.17, 5.2,
5.5, 6.13, 6.30, 6.33–6.37,
6.38, 6.45, 6.47, 6.53, 6.54
Interleaved Two of Five (ITF) . . . . . . . . . 6.15, 6.16
Interlocking
(Interlocked stacking) . . . 2.5, 2.7, 2.18, 3.17, 3.18,
4.3, 4.5, 6.38, 6.39
Intermodal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 4.13
International Air Transport
Association (IATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17, 6.62
International Corrugated Case
Association (ICCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2, 4.12, 6.63
International Corrugated
Packaging Foundation
(ICPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19, 6.61, 6.63, 6.65
International Maritime Dangerous
Goods (IMDG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
International Safe Transit
Association (ISTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14, 4.14, 6.3,
6.31, 6.40, 6.62
International Standards
Organization (ISO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11, 6.6
Interstacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13
J
Joint (see: manufacturer’s joint)
K
Knocked-down (KD) boxes
(KD, knocked-down
flat, KDF) . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2–5.4, 5.7, 5.8, 6.52, 6.53
Kraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 1.13, 3.26, 6.6, 6.18,
6.22–6.24, 6.53
L
Labeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8, 6.53
Laminate (Laminator,
lamination) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9, 1.12, 3.19, 3.27,
3.30, 6.4, 6.36, 6.41
Legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8, 3.13, 4.15
Less than truckload (LTL) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 3.14
Letterpress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28, 3.29, 6.52, 6.53
Lignin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 1.3, 6.56
Lift truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18, 4.3, 6.42
Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26–3.29, 6.54
Litho-label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
Loading. . . . . 3.6, 3.11, 3.18, 3.23, 6.40, 6.51, 6.55
Load sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19
Load stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 4.1, 4.5, 4.6
M
Manufacturer’s joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5, 3.21, 5.8,
6.10, 6.52–6.54
Manufacturing issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Marketing . . . . . . . 3.8, 3.12, 3.13, 3.22, 3.23, 6.62
Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8, 3.12, 4.10, 4.11,
4.15–4.18, 6.10, 6.13
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) . . . . . . . . 5.15
McKee formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
Mechanical separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
Military specifications
(see: government specifications)
Modular (Modular container
systems, modularity) . . . . . . 2.13, 4.2, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7
Moisture content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3, 6.8, 6.50
Moisture resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Moisture Resistant Adhesive (MRA) . . . . . . . . . 3.4
Moisture retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Motor freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 3.18, 6.50
Mullen (see: burst strength)
RESOURCES
6.70
N
National Motor Freight
Classification (NMFC). . . . . . 3.14, 4,11–4.13, 6.10,
6.12, 6.26, 6.42, 6.53
National Railroad Freight Committee . . . . . . 4.13
Non-skid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Numbered Package . . . . . . . 4.11, 4.14, 6.12, 6.26,
6.29, 6.32, 6.33,
6.40, 6.54, 6.55
O
Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) . . . . . . . . 4.17, 5.15
Offset lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26–3.29, 6.55
Oil and grease resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Oil-based inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8, 1.12
Old corrugated containers
(OCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 1.11–1.13
Other uses for corrugated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19
Overhang . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17, 3.19, 3.22, 4.4, 4.6
Ozone-depleting substances
(ODS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13, 4.18
P
Package configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
Package engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7, 3.8
Pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9, 2.3, 2.14, 2.17, 6.34–6.37,
6.41, 6.47, 6.49, 6.55
Pallet . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 2.18, 2.19, 3.11, 3.17, 3.19,
3.22, 3.23, 3.30, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5–4.7,
4.9, 5.2–5.7, 6.33, 6.41, 6.42,
6.45, 6.47, 6.49, 6.55
Pallet overhang (see: overhang)
Palletizing, palletization. . . . . . . 3.6, 3.19, 4.7, 5.2,
5.5–5.7, 6.55
Paperboard . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3, 1.11, 1.13, 4.18, 6.2,
6.5–6.8, 6.35, 6.40,
6.49–6.56, 6.58
Paper mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1–1.3, 1.12
Paper recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
Partition. . . . . . . . . 1.9, 2.14, 2.16, 3.19, 6.34–6.36,
6.41, 6.47, 6.50
Performance testing. . . . . . . 1.14, 3.14, 3.17–3.20,
4.2, 4.14, 4.16–4.19, 5.2,
5.3, 5.5, 5.9, 5.12, 5.15,
6.1, 6.3, 6.10, 6.31, 6.33,
6.39, 6.40, 6.54, 6.60
Pictorial marking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10–5.14, 5.16
Platen die cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
Point-of-purchase displays (POP)
(see: display)
Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11, 1.12
Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 6.6, 6.19
Post-print (Direct printing) . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26, 6.53
Preprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26, 3.29
Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . 2.5, 3.3, 3.9, 3.11, 4.14, 5.12,
5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 6.16, 6.19,
6.23, 6.30, 6.50
Printer’s specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16
Printer-slotter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6, 1.7, 6.55
Printing . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5, 1.7, 3.25–3.30, 4.9, 4.12,
6.12, 6.15–6.25, 6.46, 6.52–6.57
Puncture
(puncture resistance) . . . . . 3.9, 3.11, 3.21, 5.4, 6.5,
6.11, 6.26, 6.27, 6.29,
6.31, 6.33, 6.41, 6.43, 6.47
Q
Qualification . . . . 3.14, 3.24, 4.13, 4.16, 6.10, 6.26
R
Radio frequency identification (RFID) . . . . 4.8, 4.9
Rail regulations (see: Rule 41)
Raw materials . . . . . . 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.14, 1.12, 6.50
Receptacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 4.7
Recessed End Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11, 6.39
Recycle
(recycling, recycled paper,
recycled fibers,
recycled content) . . . . i, 1.2, 1.10–1.13, 3.13, 4.12,
4.18, 6.12, 6.50–6.52, 6.54,
6.55, 6.57
Recycling symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
Regular slotted
container (RSC). . . . . . 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.8, 2.12, 2.14,
3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.22, 5.7,
6.6, 6.38, 6.51, 6.56, 6.57
Regulatory markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 3.30, 5.17, 5.19, 6.17
Renewable resource. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
Returnable plastic containers (RPCs). . . . . 4.6, 4.7
Rigid box (see: bliss box)
Ring crush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 6.7, 6.11, 6.43
Rotary die cutter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
Rule 41. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10, 4.11–4.14, 6.12, 6.55
RESOURCES
6.71
S
Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13, 3.13, 4.17, 5.15,
5.17, 5.18, 6.15
Scored and slotted sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2, 5.6
Scorelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5, 5.7, 5.8, 6.56
Scoring allowances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
Screen printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28, 3.29
Self-erecting boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
Semi-chemical (semi-chem) . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 6.56
Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12, 3.22, 3.23, 3.29, 5.2
Sheet feeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Sheet plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Shipping. . . . . . . 3.22, 4.3, 4.6, 4.10–4.15, 6.1–6.3,
6.5, 6.10, 6.12, 6.15, 6.20, 6.25, 6.33,
6.40, 6.45, 6.49, 6.50–6.54, 6.56, 6.60
Shock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9, 3.11, 3.18–3.20, 6.3
Short span compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7
Shrink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.12, 4.7, 5.2, 6.58
Shrink wrap (see: stretch wrap)
Silk screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26, 6.56
Singleface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8, 3.2, 3.27, 6.51
Singlewall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6, 1.8, 3.2, 3.19, 4.16,
5.5, 5.7, 5.14, 6.51, 6.57
Skin-pack adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Slip sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19, 3.19, 3.22, 4.2–4.4,
5.2, 6.41, 6.45, 6.55
Slit . . . . . . . . . 5.5, 6.19, 6.30, 6.45, 6.46, 6.55, 6.56
Slot . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5–1.8, 2.2–2.7, 2.12, 2.14, 2.18,
3.5, 3.15, 3.21, 3.27, 5.2, 5.5–5.8,
6.6, 6.19, 6.30, 6.37–6.41, 6.45,
6.49, 6.51, 6.52–6.58
Slotted box . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2, 2.3, 2.11, 6.39, 6.54
Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
Small parcel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10
Spot label. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27, 6.53
Solid fiber
(Solid fiberboard) . . . . . . . 1.6, 2.3, 2.14, 4.3, 4.13,
4.16, 5.2–5.4, 6.26, 6.27, 6.30,
6.36, 6.39, 6.40, 6.41, 6.45–6.58
Stacking. . . . . . . . . . 3.15, 3.17, 3.19, 3.22, 4.3–4.6,
4.7, 4.14, 4.18, 5.4, 6.2, 6.47,
6.52, 6.54, 6.57
Stacking performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13, 4.13
Stacking strength . . . . . . . . . . 2.4, 2.17, 3.15, 3.17,
3.19, 3.23, 4.3, 5.4, 6.2,
6.47, 6.54, 6.57
Static electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Static loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.18
STFI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 6.7, 6.11
Stitched joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
Stitcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8, 6.57
Storage . . . . . . . 3.11, 3.12, 3.17, 4.2, 4.3, 5.2, 5.3,
5.5, 5.7, 5.15, 5.19, 6.1, 6.2, 6.57
Strapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 2.7, 3.12, 4.5, 5.2,
6.49, 6.58
Stretch wrap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22, 4.5
Sulfate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2, 6.53
Sulfite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
Symbols (see: pictorial marking)
T
Tabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13, 4.3
Taped joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5, 6.54
Taper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8, 6.57
Telescope box . . . . . . . . . 2.2, 2.6, 6.38, 6.39, 6.46
Temperature . . . . . . . 3.3, 3.9, 3.11, 5.3, 5.16–5.19,
6.8, 6.44, 6.50, 6.52, 6.57
Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21, 6.8, 6.44, 6.57
Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8, 3.19, 4.13, 4.17, 5.10–5.13,
6.1–6.7, 6.11, 6.26–6.28,
6.33, 6.35, 6.57
Tier sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22, 6.45
Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3, 1.11
Top loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
Transportation . . . . . . . . 3.8–3.11, 3.14, 3.18, 4.2,
4.5, 4.11, 4.13, 6.6, 6.10,
6.13, 6.50, 6.62
Tray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9, 2.6, 2.10, 2.12, 3.23,
6.46, 6.47, 6.51
Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19, 3.30
Triplewall. . . . . . . 1.6, 1.8, 3.2, 3.4, 3.19, 4.15, 6.51
Truck regulations (see: Item 222)
Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7, 2.14, 2.18, 5.11, 6.36–6.39,
6.41, 6.56, 6.57
U
UN (UN markings, UN packaging,
UN certification) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17, 6.10, 6.13
Underhang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
Uniform Freight Classification
(UFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11–4.14, 6.10, 6.13, 6.55
United Parcel Service (UPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Unitizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17, 3.19, 3.22, 4.1– 4.11,
5.2–5.4, 6.58
Universal Product
Code (UPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9, 6.15, 6.20, 6.24,
6.53, 6.58
RESOURCES
6.72
V
Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12, 5.9–5.15
Vibration. . . . . . . . . . . 3.9, 3.11, 3.18–3.20, 5.5, 6.3
Virgin fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3, 6.58
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs). . . . . . . . 1.12
Voluntary guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1, 5.2, 5.9, 6.6
W
Warp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3, 5.6, 5.8, 5.15, 6.6
Waste water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Water-based inks. . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7, 1.8, 1.11, 3.29
Water Proof Adhesive (WPA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4
Water resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4, 3.30, 4.16, 6.3,
6.26, 6.41, 6.58
Water Resistant Adhesives (WRA) . . . . . . 3.4, 6.30
Wax (Wax replacement, wax
treatments, wax cascading/
dipping, wax curtain coating,
wax alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12, 3.4, 3.27,
6.7, 6.58
Weather resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Weight of facings
(see: basis weight/grammage)
Wet strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4
RESOURCES
6.73
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Contents - Cypress

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