CH205 Early Church History (30-451)

Mary Andrews College
Cathy Harris S2 2016
Early Church History
(Advanced) Diploma of Theology/Ministry
Semester 2 2016
CH205
Early Church History (30-451)
Lecturer: Cathy Harris Location: City
cathyharris@mac.edu.au; 92841475
Lecture 8: The Church and Empire until Constantine
1. Persecution
Christianity became an illegal religion (a religio illicita) from the time of Nero (once the Romans
realised the Church was not a Jewish sect) and Nerva (96-98AD) officially denied Christians the tax
exemptions granted to the Jews. Persecution of Christians became sporadic and localised and
between 100,000 – 200,000 Christians were martyred in the first three centuries. Contributing to
these martyrdom were several factors.
Caesar Augustus introduced the concept of the divinisation of the emperor, and had united the role
of the Pontifex Maximus (high priest) with that of emperor. (Julius Caesar had also held the role of
Pontifex Maximus, but he had taken on that role before becoming emperor and did not explicitly link
it with his rule of Rome). Domitian (81-96AD) had insisted on the title Dominus et Deus (Lord and
God). In 202AD Septimus Severus made it illegal for Christians and Jews to proselytise, and for
pagans to convert to Christianity or Judaism. Alexandra Severus (222-235AD) was partial to
Christians and erected a statue of Christ in his private chapel (along with the other gods). With the
succession of Maximin, after the death of Alexandra Severus, Christians became scapegoats for the
serious earthquakes in Cappadocia. With their impressive formal Episcopal structure (despite the
various divisions) the Church was becoming just about the strongest and most stable organisation
in the Empire. It was beginning to look like an alternative command structure to rival imperial
authority, which began to make emperors nervous. Decius came to power in 249AD.
Decius (249-251AD)
During the mid third century, there was instability within the Roman Empire. Rome lost command of
the Mediterranean to the Visigoths (nomadic tribes of the Germanic people) and the barbarians
were pressing into Gaul, Spain, Greece and Asia Minor (see map of invasions and rebellions on the
following page). Inflation was high and rising and the plague was a constant danger. Prior to this
time, Cyprian in the 250’s had written that the world was “tottering towards its doom”.
In times of instability, religious unity was a traditional means used by emperors to cement the
various peoples of the Empire together and so Decius took this route by turning on the church with
intense empire-wide persecution. This persecution was designed to produce apostates, those who
“did the right thing” and sacrificed to the gods, rather than become martyrs. He had noticed that
martyrdom only seemed to encourage Christian zeal.
The Universal Order to Sacrifice (250AD)
This order was the first of its kind in the history of the Roman Empire, and was an attempt to unite
the empire around the state cults. Each person was required to obtain a certificate (libellus)
attesting to their compliance with this law. Those caught up in persecution as a result of this
included:
•
•
•
Fabian of Rome and Babylas of Antioch (martyred)
Origen (imprisoned and tortured)
Dionysius of Alexandria and Cyprian of Carthage (narrowly escaped)
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Cathy Harris S2 2016
Early Church History
Significant numbers of Christians who renounced their faith and escaped death in the short
term.
After Decius
251AD
253AD
257AD
260AD
270-5AD
276-82 AD
Decius dies.
His successor, Gallus is murdered.
Valerian renewed persecution – he forbade all religious meetings and deported,
then executed, all bishops and presbyters. Cyprian of Carthage is martyred.
Gallienus disbanded persecution of Christians.
Auralian was unfavourable to Christians, but did not live long enough to take action.
Little is known of the reign of Probus in relation to the church.
It is clear from this high turnover of emperors that times continued to be unstable.
Diocletian
The conservative Diocletian became emperor in 284AD. He assumed the title Jovius (Jupiter). He
spent 19 years trying to restore the army, administration and economy. He launched an extensive
building program and in 301AD dealt with inflation by setting maximum prices in an edict that was
meant to last forever!
Eusebius lamented that the Church had become lax and full of rivalry during this time of peace.
Division of the Empire
Diocletian was concerned that the empire was too big to be ruled by one man. He also wanted to
address the violence and chaos that tended to characterise succession. So, in 286AD, he divided
the empire between two joint-Augusti: Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West. Under each
Augustus was a Caesar. The Caesars acted as “apprentice Augusti”.
Note the growing importance of the East, indicated by Diocletian’s choice of the East for himself.
In many ways, Diocletian and Maximian made a great team, and left the Empire on a much better
footing than they found it.
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Early Church History
Of the four, Galerius, urged on by his pagan mother, seems
to have been the main instigator of persecution against
Christians.
The Great Persecution
• Members of Diocletian’s household were ordered to
sacrifice.
•
This order was soon extended to the army and civil
service.
•
Church buildings and books were destroyed.
•
Christians lost their positions in the public service.
•
Four edicts appeared in quick succession:
286
Maximian
Augustus
Diocletian
Augustus
Constantius
Caesar
Galerius
Caesar
1. The first edict (303AD): Meetings for worship were prohibited and all Church buildings and
copies of Scriptures were to be destroyed. Some clever Christians handed over heretical
books instead. The soldiers didn’t know the difference.
2. The second edict (303AD): Clergy were arrested and forced to sacrifice – this edict does not
seem to have been promulgated in the West.
3. The third edict (303AD): Clergy who agreed to sacrifice were to be released; those who
would not were to be tortured and/or sent to the copper mines. Some were eventually
released to relieve overcrowding in the prisons.
4. The fourth edict (304?): All inhabitants of the empire were ordered to sacrifice to the gods.
This was the work of Galerius and was probably not promulgated in the West.
•
Christians were blamed and executed for two fires in the imperial palace in Nicomedia.
•
In total, across the empire, about 3,000 – 3,500 Christians were executed.
•
One town in Phrygia was utterly destroyed because it was totally Christian.
•
In the West, persecution probably lasted less than two years, but in the East it continued to rage
with intensity. Constantius seemed particularly reluctant to persecute.
•
305
Constantius
Augustus
Galerius
Augustus
In the East, ordinary citizens opposed the persecution by
protecting, hiding and helping Christians to escape to the
West.
Diocletian abdicated in 305AD and retired to grow prize
cabbages in his palace in Split, Yugoslavia. As he died, he
apparently claimed that he had saved the world. In order to
ensure a smooth transfer of power, Diocletian convinced
Maximian to abdicate as well, though he was younger and still
healthy. His later actions show that he was not at all happy
about this forced retirement.
Constantius and Galerius were now Augusti.
Maximin
Caesar
Severus
Caesar
In 307AD, Maximin brought in savage mutilation and slave labour
as a punishment for refusing to sacrifice.
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Early Church History
As he died in 311AD, Galerius published an edict of toleration for Christians (as long as public order
was preserved). However, Maximin let loose a final barrage of hostility. Peter of Alexandria and
Methodius of Olympus were executed. Maximin also began a propaganda war against the church.
He publicised the fictional “Acts of Pilate” and bribed prostitutes to say they had taken part in
Christian orgies.
Edict of Milan
In 313AD, Constantine, the son of Constantius, along with co-Augusti Licinius, issued an edict of
religious toleration. Licinius later attempted to rekindle persecution (322-3AD) but to little effect, and
he was ultimately defeated by Constantine.
2. The ‘Conversion’ of Constantine
His Father
Constantius was a peasant who became a highly successful officer in the Roman army, and
ultimately an Augustus. His early wife, Helena, may have been a barmaid. This was a turbulent
time when few emperors died of old age. Constantius’ rise to power had been impressive. From
army officer, he became governor of Dalmatia in 284-5AD. By 289AD he was the emperor
Maximian’s prefect in Gaul. By this stage it was beneath his dignity to be married to a peasant
woman, so he divorced Helena and sought further advancement by marrying Theodora, Maximian’s
daughter.
Helena was a Christian, and it is possible that Constantius was as well, given that he named one of
his daughters Anastasia (resurrection). Constantine spoke of his father as a Christian. We can, at
least, be reasonably certain that Constantine was exposed to Christian beliefs and practices as a
child. It appears that in the great persecution Constantius allowed no executions in his territory, but
did burn some churches. Constantius became Augustus after the abdication of Maximian.
Constantius died in York around 306AD.
Constantine’s Early Life
Constantine was born around 272AD to Helena and Constantius in Naissus, Serbia. He joined the
army and fought alongside his father. He was nicknamed “Bullneck” by his army colleagues,
possibly because he was tall and solid but more likely because he had a violent temper. From what
is known of his writings and life, Constantine appears to have been semi-educated, power-hungry
and reckless with public money. (In other words, he was in many ways a typical Roman Emperor).
When Constantius died in York, Constantine escaped west from Galarius.
The army of Britain acclaimed Constantine as Augustus, but Galerius recognised him only as
Caesar. Remember that Diocletian had put in place a succession plan that was not related to birth.
Diocletian, presumably, did not foresee the trouble this would cause since he had no son of his own.
At the time of Constantius’ death, Constantine was not part of that succession plan. Yet it can
hardly be surprising that the son of an emperor might have ambitions! Eventually, there were four
Augusti: Galerius, Licinius, Constantine and Maximin. There were also two usurpers: Maxentius
(the son of Maximian, who, understandably feeling a bit left out, had taken control of Rome while the
Augusti’s attention was elsewhere) and Alexander.
Constantine’s initial religious policy was to restore what had been taken from Christians. Spain
revolted against Maxentius and recognised Constantine as Augustus (expanding his territory to
Britain, Gaul and Spain.) Maxentius retained Rome. After the death of Galerius, in 311AD, Maximin
occupied Galerius’ Asiatic dominions, and Licinius his European dominions.
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Early Church History
Milvian Bridge
th
On the 28 of October 312AD, Constantine prepared to face Maxentius.
•
The Sibylline oracles had said, with convenient openness to interpretation, that the enemy of
the Romans would die that day.
•
According to the Christian author (and tutor of Contantine’s son)
Lactantius, Constantine saw a vision of the Christian symbol ChiRho, and an instruction to mark his soldiers’ shields with this
symbol before the battle. (Chi and rho are the first two Greek
letters of Christ - cristo~)
•
Lactantius testifies that this was Constantine’s conversion to
Christianity, however, Constantine had saved Lactantius from
extreme poverty, so Lactantius may have been motivated by
gratitude and self-preservation to testify to the genuineness of
Constantine’s conversion. On the other hand, if Constantine had
not been genuinely converted, why would he employ a povertystricken Christian as his son’s tutor?
•
Constantine was so certain of victory that he attacked with only one quarter of his troops.
Maxentius drowned and Constantine was victorious.
•
Constantine then defeated Licinius in 324AD, uniting the empire under himself.
Lactantius’ account of Constantine’s dream: On the Deaths of the Persecutions, 44.3-6
Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his
soldiers and thus to join battle. He did as he was ordered, and with the cross-shaped letter X,
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with its top bent over, he marked Christ on the shields.
Eusebius’ account of Constantine’s vision:
Being convinced that he required greater aid than military force of the wicked and magical
enchantments that were so diligently practiced by the tyrant’s court, he sought divine aid,
counting the possession of arms and of a numerous soldiery of secondary importance…but
declaring the co-operating power of God to be irresistible and unconquerable. He considered
therefore what god he should choose as his patron…
Constantine saw the contrast between the gods of paganism who failed to protect their
worshippers, and his father Constantius’ monotheism, and decided to cleave to the latter.
[…] And while he thus was praying with fervent entreaty, a most incredible sign appeared to him
from heaven […]. He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he
saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and an
inscription, CONQUER BY THIS attatched to it. At this sight he himself was struck with
amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the
miracle. [...] And while he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night overtook him;
then in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen in the
heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness of that sign which he had seen in the
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heavens, and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies.
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Lactantius, On the Deaths of Persecutors, 44.3-6 in A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of
the Church to AD337 (second edition, revised by W.H.C. Frend; J.Stevenson (ed.), London: SPCK
Publishing, 1987), 283.
2
Gwatkin, Selections from early Christian Writers, p.175-7 in A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the
history of the Church to AD337 (second edition, revised by W.H.C. Frend; J.Stevenson (ed.), London: SPCK
Publishing, 1987), 283-4.
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Early Church History
The genuineness of Constantine’s conversion continues to be hotly debated among historians.
Some claim that he could see that Christians were in the ascendancy and sided with the church for
reasons of political expediency. It should be noted that imperial currency continued to be issued in
honour of Hercules, Mars, Jupiter and particularly the Unconquered Sun for five years into
Constantine’s reign.
However, it is not at all certain that siding with Christians could have been seen as an expedient
move at the time. The senatorial aristocracy, the senior public servants, and the army officers were
almost all pagan. Christians would have comprised about 10% of the Empire. That is impressive
for a new religion, but hardly an unbeatable power base.
Constantine as Sole Emperor
Constantine had formed an alliance with Licinius so that while Constantine dealt with Maxentius,
Licinius defeated Maximin. [And then there were two…]. The Constantine-Licinius alliance lasted
until 324AD. Together, in 313AD, they signed the Edict of Milan, declaring religious tolerance.
Constantine then defeated Licinius in 324 AD, uniting the Empire under himself. [And then there was
one!]
Constantine and the Church
On October 29, 312AD, when Constanine entered Rome in victory, he declined to ascend the capitol
to perform the customary sacrifices to give thanks to Jupiter. His Christian sensibilities did not,
however, prevent him from parading Maxentius’ head through the streets of Rome!
He continued to mark his army’s shields with chi-rho symbol, and designed
the labarum, a military standard with which he led his armies into battle.
After a while rumours developed that the labarum had magical powers.
By 313AD he was subsidising the church from public funds. Clergy were
released from public burdens. The Edict of Milan granted freedom of
worship. Imperial rhetoricians refrained from using pagan references in their
odes to Constantine.
In 320AD he repealed Augustus’ laws against celibacy and childless marriages. (Celibacy had
increasingly become the norm for Christian priests and bishops) and in 321AD he legalised bequests
to the church. Manumissions (the freeing of slaves) before the bishop became valid. This had
previously been done before a pagan priest.
Constantine took a very active role in the church councils and had no tolerance for church conflict or
controversy. He was determined that the church be united, and looked to the church to be the
cement that would keep the empire together.
Gladiatorial shows were prohibited in 325AD. Sunday, the day of resurrection, was recognised as a
special day. Crucifixion was prohibited and divorce laws were tightened.
Constantine was baptised on his deathbed in 337AD by Eusebius of Nicomedia.
Constantinople
What has turned out to be (arguably) Constantine’s most significant contribution to Christian faith
was his establishment of the new Imperial capital on the old city of Byzantium, which he renamed
Constantinople. Constantinople was so well defended by its huge thick walls, and so well
positioned geographically that it held back the progress of Islam (and preserved Greco-Roman
civilisation) for hundreds of years.
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Early Church History
After Constantine’s death the empire was divided between his sons Constantine II, Constantius II
and Constans.
Bibliography
Stevenson, J (ed.)
A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of the Church to
AD337. Second Edition. Revised by W.H.C. Frend; London: SPCK
Publishing, 1987.
Wesley, Margaret
‘The Later Persecutions’, lecture 5:1, unpublished lecture notes. ‘Early
Church History’, Mary Andrews College, 2013.
Wesley, Margaret
‘The “Conversion” of Constantine’, lecture 5:2, unpublished lecture notes.
‘Early Church History’, Mary Andrews College, 2013.
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