Conserving and managing trees and woodlands in Scotland`s

Practice Guide
Conserving and managing trees
and woodlands in Scotland’s
designed landscapes
Practice Guide
Conserving and managing
trees and woodlands
in Scotland’s designed
landscapes
Peter McGowan
with Christopher Dingwall
Forestry Commission Scotland: Edinburgh
© Crown Copyright 2011
pplications for reproduction of any part of this publication should be addressed to the: Office of Public
A
Sector Information, Licensing Division, St Clements House, 2–16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ.
First published in 2011 by the Forestry Commission Scotland
231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT.
ISBN 978-0-85538-846-1
McGowan, P. with Dingwall, C. (2011).
Conserving and managing trees and woodlands in Scotland’s designed landscapes.
Forestry Commission Scotland Practice Guide.
Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. i–iv + 1–56 pp.
Keywords: designed landscapes, woodlands.
Printed in the United Kingdom
FCPG102/FCS(AC)/JT-1K/DEC11
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Acknowledgements
The text was written by Peter McGowan of Peter McGowan Associates, landscape architects, with Christopher Dingwall. The project
was initiated and financed by Forestry Commission Scotland and carried out under the direction of a Steering Group made up of
Historic Scotland, Woodland Trust, Associaiton of Local Government Archaeological Officers, Garden History Society, National Trust
for Scotland, Archaeology Scotland and Scottish Borders Council.
All photographs by Peter McGowan unless otherwise stated. Historic images supplied by Christopher Dingwall. Box 1 sketch
designed by Peter McGowan and illustrated by Clare Hewitt.
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Contents
Introduction
Purpose and coverage of this Practice Guide
1
1
Legislation, policies and guidelines
Legislation, planning policies and planning guidance
UK Forestry Standard and Guidelines
The Scottish Forestry Strategy
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3
6
7
Trees and woodlands in designed landscapes
Components of designed landscapes
Values and uses of designed landscapes
Landscape design styles and historic periods
Conservation documents, surveys and management plans
8
8
9
10
18
Guidance section
Conservation and management of trees in designed landscapes
Woodland management and silvicultural systems
General management issues
Access and interpretation
Invasive species, pests and diseases Climate change and effects on woods and trees
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20
30
35
40
41
44
Appendices Research sources, maps and websites in site assessment
Sources of funding
Organisations for further information and advice
General reading
Glossary and acronyms
48
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50
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53
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iv
Introduction
Purpose and coverage of this Practice Guide
Designed landscapes and their woodlands, parkland and trees make a major contribution to
the scenery of many parts of Scotland. This guidance has been prepared to assist owners and
managers in caring for all the tree components in the fine heritage of designed landscapes
throughout Scotland. The guidance sets out to:
• aid understanding of what comprises an historic designed landscape
• outline the components of designed landscapes, in particular their tree features, their design
principles and common management issues
• help plan a restoration, replanting or management project
• assist owners in deciding what actions may be necessary when seeking funding for
conservation management
• provide background information and links to further sources of information.
What is a designed landscape?
Designed landscape is a term describing the ornamental grounds of country houses and
institutions, public parks and similar sites. This includes gardens and policies i.e. ‘the enclosed,
planted and partly embellished park or demesne land lying around a country house’ – what in
England would be termed the park. The following definition of designed landscapes is used here:
Grounds deliberately enclosed and laid out for aesthetic effect by any combination of
landforming, building, water management and planting, and incorporating the natural
landscape, for pleasure, agriculture and forestry purposes.
Designed landscapes in the 21st century
Most designed landscapes in the form they exist today are the product of the 19th century and
earlier periods. The problems adapting to the huge economic and social changes of the 20th
century – reduced estate incomes, loss of manpower, costs of maintenance and development
pressures – affect all properties to a greater or lesser degree. Most sites have been through
processes of change periodically. Further adaptation and change, including new uses and
development, may have to be part of the future of many sites. This can be possible without
detriment if done in a sensitive and planned way, based on a full understanding of the values of
the place. An aim of this guidance is to assist in achieving this type of change.
1
Figure 1 Dawyck, Scottish Borders.
2
Legislation, policies and
guidelines
Legislation, planning policies and planning guidance
In contrast with most other facets of Scotland’s natural and cultural heritage, the listing and
protection of designed landscapes and their trees and woodlands through legislation and
Scotland’s town and country planning system is a comparatively recent development.
Trees and woodland
Town and Country Planning Act 1947 gives powers to local authorities to designate Tree
Preservation Orders to protect individual trees and small areas of woodland, usually in urban
and suburban areas, where these are considered to have high amenity value. Similar protection
is afforded to trees in Conservation Areas through the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation
Areas)(Scotland) Act 1997, though its effect, too, is largely confined to urban areas. Outwith urban
areas the principal control over the management of woodland is through the issuing of a Felling
Licences, first introduced under the Forestry Act 1967, which requires the landowner to consult
with the Forestry Commission Scotland on proposals to fell existing woodland, although there are
significant exemptions for trees in private gardens, orchards and churchyards.
Many local authorities employ officers who are able to offer advice on matters to do with trees
and woodland. These officers are backed up in many areas by voluntary tree wardens, who
operate under the aegis of the Tree Council.
Scheduled monuments and Listed buildings
Archaeological or architectural features within a park or designed landscape may be either
scheduled (as monuments of national importance) or listed. Although the aforementioned
Planning Act 1997 does not give explicit recognition of gardens and designed landscapes it
includes provisions that are intended to protect the setting of listed buildings. Government policy
and guidance on this subject is also stated in Scottish Planning Policy 23: Planning and the Historic
Environment. At the time of writing Historic Scotland is in the process of developing a new advice
note under the headline Managing Change in the Historic Environment: Setting.
Figure 2 © Crown Copyright reproduced courtesy of Historic Scotland –
www.historicscotlandimages.gov.uk
The Antonine Wall ditch in
Callendar Park, Falkirk. Scheduled
ancient monument and World
Heritage Site.
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Inventory of gardens and designed landscapes
The Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland was originally published in 1987,
covering 282 sites, with additional sites being added from 2001 onwards following regional
resurveys. The last published list (2007) included 386 sites. In 2008 a comprehensive area-based
Inventory resurvey programme was begun, designed to provide a more up-to-date resource. This
project entails a full revision of all existing Inventory sites, the selection of new candidates and the
identification and removal of sites which no longer meet the criteria for inclusion.
Although Inventory status is not a statutory designation (and therefore different from the
scheduling of monuments and listing of buildings) it has been a material consideration in the
Scottish planning system since 1992. The terms of the Town and Country Planning (Development
Management Procedure) (Scotland) Regulations 2008, (formerly the General Development Procedure
Order) require local authorities to consult Historic Scotland on development proposals affecting
Inventory sites. It should be noted that Historic Scotland’s locus is restricted to development
which requires planning permission. They do not have a formal role in the day-to-day
management or maintenance of Inventory sites.
The Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland with a description and evaluation of
each site is available on Historic Scotland’s website (www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/gardens).
In addition, the Historic Land-use Assessment on the HLAmap website of the Royal Commission
on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland shows the location of the core area of
many designed landscapes (hla.rcahms.gov.uk).
Figure 3 Inventory designed landscape.
Monteviot, Scottish Borders.
Non-Inventory gardens and designed landscapes and planning policies
Scottish Ministers encourage local authorities to formulate policies for the identification and
management of non-Inventory sites which nevertheless make a positive contribution to the local
or regional historic environment.
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It is for local authorities to identify such sites and develop policies within development plans
for their protection and future management. Local authorities are encouraged to formulate
policies for both Inventory and non-Inventory sites. All local authority development plans now
contain policies in respect of Inventory sites, but only a few currently cover non-Inventory sites.
Some local authorities have undertaken systematic surveys of non-Inventory sites with a view to
including them under planning policies.
Figure 4 Non-Inventory designed landscape. Cawder, East Dumbartonshire.
Ancient woodland
Designed landscapes may include land designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest, or even
as a National Nature Reserve, but many more include areas identified by Scottish Natural Heritage
(SNH) as Ancient Woodland, or long-established semi-natural or plantation woodland. Designated
areas are included in the Ancient Woodland Inventory maintained by SNH and are defined
on maps on the Forestry Commission’s GLADE Land Information Search website. Woodland
operations within designated sites are generally made the subject of management agreements
between the agency and the landowner, where grant aid is involved. The overall objectives of SNH
in respect of trees and woodland are set out in its policy statement Natural Heritage Futures, Forests
and Woodlands (2002) (www.snh.org.uk).
Felling licences
Permission from the Forestry Commission Scotland is normally needed to fell growing trees.
Forestry Commission Scotland give this with a felling licence or with approval under a Dedication
Scheme. In certain circumstances you may also need special permission from another
organisation for any proposed felling.
Everyone involved in the felling of trees, whether doing the work or by engaging others, e.g.
the owner, agent, timber merchant or contractor, must ensure that a felling licence or approval
under a Dedication Scheme has been issued before any felling is carried out or that one of the
exemptions apply. They must also ensure that the work is carried out in accordance with the
terms of a Forestry Commission permission. If there is no licence or other valid permission, or if
the wrong trees are felled, anyone involved can be prosecuted. Any felling carried out without
either a licence or other permission is an offence, unless it is covered by an exemption.
In any calendar quarter, you may fell up to 5 m3 on your property without a licence as long as no
more than 2 m3 are sold.
5
Certain types of felling do not need permission. Forestry Commission publication Tree Felling,
getting permission (www.forestry.gov.uk/publications) explains the requirements and exceptions
further. The Forestry Act 1967, as amended, and related regulations give the exceptions in full.
British Standards
When carrying out work to trees the following British Standards should be adhered to:
BS 3998:2100 Recommendations for Tree Work
BS 5837:2005 Trees in Relation to Construction
Scotland Rural Development Programme and Single Farm Payment
These rural and agricultural support schemes have conditions that may affect historic landscapes
and are considered under Funding in the Appendices.
Figure 5 A range of historic sites from the Roman period onwards and several designed landscapes in the
Tweed valley below the Eildon Hills. Scott’s View, Bemersyde, Scottish Borders.
UK Forestry Standard and Guidelines
In achieving sustainable forest management (SFM), the conservation of heritage features and
achievement of landscape quality are promoted in the UK Forestry Standard (1998). Their
respective SFM requirements are for:
• important heritage features are protected.
• due account is taken of cultural, historic or designed landscapes.
• landscape quality is enhanced.
The Forestry Commission Forestry Practice Advice Note 3 – Woodlands in Designed Landscapes
(1995, out of print) provided basic information for woodland managers on the history, identification,
value and care of the tree and woodland components of a designed landscape. The present
guidance replaces that earlier national guidance with particular reference to Scotland and relates
it to current grant and other funding opportunities.
A suite of design guidelines – Forest Landscape Design, Lowland Landscape Design and Community
Woodland Design – all contain advice on the principles and processes of designing and managing
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forests and woodlands in the UK landscape. Much of this advice is relevant to the restoration,
rejuvenation and sustainable management of designed landscapes.
Both the UK Forestry Standard (UKFS) and associated suite of Guidelines are to be superseded by new
publications available late 2011. Besides the new UKFS, of relevance to this guidance are the new
Forests and the Landscape Guidelines and Forests and the Historic Environment Guidelines.
Figure 6 An outstanding non-Inventory site with many typical features. Stobs Castle, Scottish Borders.
The Scottish Forestry Strategy
The Scottish Forestry Strategy (2006) acknowledges the contribution made by trees and woodland
to landscape character and quality, placing a high priority on increasing structural and species
diversity, and on the provision of well designed and well managed woods. Recognition is afforded
to designed landscapes that contain non-native trees and shrubs. The strategy encourages the
sympathetic management of trees and woodlands in sites listed in the Inventory, as well as valued
individual ancient and heritage trees.
Scotland’s Woodlands and the Historic Environment
The Foresty Commission Scotland policy statement Scotland’s Woodlands and the Historic
Environment (2008) was developed for all those with an interest in Scotland’s trees, woodlands and
forests and brings together Scottish Historic Environment Policy (SHEP; Historic Scotland, 2009) and
the Scottish Forestry Strategy to:
• C
ommunicate the forestry sector’s shared understanding of how forests and woodlands
contribute towards Scotland’s historic environment.
• Promote the appreciation of the history of Scotland’s forests and woodlands, and their
contribution towards our cultural heritage.
• Confirm how the forestry sector will endeavour to deliver the required outcomes of Scottish
Ministers’ strategic policies for the historic environment.
• Outline what practical measures the forestry sector can take to ensure that all our activities
enhance the stewardship of the historic environment.
The Foresty Commission Scotland Policy Statement can be found at:
www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
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Trees and woodlands in
designed landscapes
Components of designed landscapes
Designed landscapes were laid out over ground with natural landform, watercourses and
vegetation, sometimes already improved for agricultural use. The natural landscape usually
still plays a major role in the design together with the following man-made features – both
constructed and planted.
• B
uildings – mansion house, stables, estate cottages and lodges – are essential components,
together with garden buildings – follies and eye-catchers, dovecots, ice-houses and walled
gardens with glasshouses, conservatories and bothies.
• Enclosures – hahas, terrace walls and balustrades, estate fences, field boundaries, estate walls.
• Landform – terrace banks, ground-moulding, causeways, rockwork.
• Circulation – drives, estate roads, rides, walks, footpaths, steps and bridges.
• Water features – may be adapted natural watercourses – rills, cascades, glens – or formal elements
fed by them – canals, lakes, artificial rivers, ponds, pools, fountains.
• Views and visual structure – while these components are not physical they are as much
part of the design as the other features and include vistas (narrow axial views), broader views
and panoramas, and the contained and linked spaces formed by planting and walls. External
views, whether expansive or directed at specific features, are often also important.
• Planted features – parkland with clumps, groups and individual trees, avenues; boundary
tree belts, shelter belts, roadside and boundary trees and hedges; shrubberies, ornamental
woodland, and arboretums; policy woodland, forestry plantations and areas of semi-natural
woodland; kitchen gardens and other gardens in all their variety.
Each of these component groups needs regular management, maintenance and repair for
their survival, and may entail substantial investment to restore neglected features. Each is a
specialist area that may require professional inputs and skilled craftsmen. While recognising all
the components that comprise a designed landscape, this guidance deals in detail only with the
planted components and the visual structure that they create.
Figure 7 The mansion house, focus of the landscape, Dumfries House.
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Figure 8 Ornamental canal, Newliston.
Figure 9 Axial ride, Dawyck.
How can designed landscapes be identified?
In many parts of Scotland, from around our towns and cities to more remote areas, designed
landscapes account for much of the land we view as countryside. Many people do not recognise that
these particularly fine areas of landscape have been deliberately designed because they have become an essential part of the landscapes we travel through and enjoy. From the roadside, estate walls,
boundary tree belts and formal gateways and lodges are indicators. Planting features will include
avenues of mature trees, parkland grazing with large trees and tree clumps, and a variety of woodland
types. Near the main house may be terraced gardens, shrubberies, wild gardens and collections of
fine trees. Within the site will also be found a walled or kitchen garden, stables block, estate cottages,
dovecot, ice-house and, possibly, ornamental buildings and follies. In the outer parts of the site
pasture and arable farmland and large-scale commercial forestry plantations may play a part.
The forms that designed landscapes take can be identified on maps and on the ground, although
their variability and degree of design can sometimes make this difficult. Also, the designed
landscapes may display features from different design periods which can make understanding the
chronological development of the landscape a challenge.
Values and uses of designed landscapes
Perhaps the main value of designed landscape and the tree components in terms of their
everyday impact on our lives is their contribution to Scottish scenery whether in the vicinity of
towns or rural areas of the Lowlands, Highlands and islands. The landscapes we see as we travel
through landscapes, either on a daily basis or as an occasional visitor, often depend for their
quality to a large degree on the deliberate planting of trees over many centuries and at different
scales by estate owners. But this important part of our heritage and has many values including:
• A
rtistic value for their design that combines natural landscape and man-made built and
planted features
• Historical value on account of family history, role in national or local history, association
with famous people including designers and plant collectors
• Horticultural value due to excellence of garden or plant collections, or arboricultural value
for its variety of trees
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• A
rchitectural value as the setting for listed buildings and works by renowned architects
• Scenic value for contribution to the local landscape, either individually or in a group or sequence
• Nature conservation value on account of the habitats and diversity of species of native
flora and fauna
• Archaeological value for physical remains from any period including evidence of gardens
from earlier periods
• Recreational value for public and/or private use and for many activities
• Educational value whether through interpretation or more formal types of teaching and
field study at primary, secondary and tertiary level, covering any of the above topics
• Climatic value – trees and forests contribute towards mitigation and adaptation of climate
change in many different ways.
In terms of use, all sites have a combination of pleasure and productive land-uses, including:
•
•
•
•
ecreational uses both by owners, paying or free access by visitors or by the local community
R
Agriculture and forestry
Sporting use (game birds, deer stalking, fishing)
Direct and indirect contribution to local tourism.
Figure 10 Hillside parkland with high aesthetic and scenic value. Leny House, Callander, Stirlingshire.
Landscape design styles and historic periods
This section gives a summary of the styles of designed landscape and their historic development.
A site may show one particular design period or style clearly, often because substantial re-design
has taken place at one time and survived, in which case much of the tree planting may be of a
fairly uniform age. Alternatively, the surviving landscape may be a series of layers, representing
additions and changes through successive periods, where trees might be of a wide age range.
Natural and semi-natural woodland
Scattered remnants of Scotland’s native woodland are to be found within many designed
landscapes throughout Scotland. In the more cultivated parts of the Lowlands, woodland of this
sort generally occurs in inaccessible locations such as cliffs, gorges and steep sided dens, where
10
it cannot easily be exploited for its timber or reached by grazing animals. In many designed
landscapes, however, the native woodland has generally become depleted through past
exploitation, has been invaded by self-seeded non-native species trees such as sycamore, or has
been deliberately interplanted with ornamental species to add visual interest or timber value.
Within the Highlands remnants of native woodland tend to survive only on the steepest slopes,
in the remotest glens, or on islands in lochs, where they have escaped the combined pressures
of burning and grazing. Even here there may be evidence of past exploitation, sometimes by
extracting timber by floating on lochs and rivers. Some native woodland has also survived in the
form of wood pasture, where a balance is maintained between grazing and natural regeneration,
creating a patchwork of woodland and open grassland. Such landscapes are often rich in
biodiversity. Although wood pasture derived from natural woodland is different in character from
parkland deliberately planted with clumps and individual trees, both can make an important
contribution to landscape character.
Early forest management
The systematic management and exploitation of Scotland’s forests began in medieval times. With
the gradual expansion of agriculture, it became necessary to impose some controls over forest
clearance and grazing. These controls were mostly exercised directly by the Crown or through
grants of land to religious houses and feudal barons, with penalties to be imposed on those who
disobeyed the law. Some religious orders, notably the Cistercians, are known to have employed
foresters to manage their woods, while favoured barons were able to enjoy special rights and
privileges over the land and forest which was placed under their jurisdiction.
While some woods and forests were managed and exploited for their timber, others were
protected and maintained as hunting reserves. In the Lowlands and more settled parts of the
country this often involved the creation of wooded parks, usually bounded by fences and
ditches, some of which are depicted on early maps of Scotland such as those of Timothy
Pont and Johan Blaeu. Traces of these medieval hunting reserves still survive in some places
as earthworks, often found in close proximity to royal palaces and high status houses of the
medieval period. Their former existence may also be revealed by place-names which include
words such as ‘forest’, ‘park’, ‘hart’ and ‘hind’. Though primarily intended for the raising of deer,
these parks sometimes included other features such as fishponds and rabbit warrens or ‘cunningars.’
Figure 11 Figure 12
Stirling Castle and Kings Park from Timothy Pont
map c.1595.
The castle and new park of Cumbernauld from
Johan Blaeu map, 1654.
11
Geometrical planting
A fondness for order and proportion in the landscape, as in the architecture to which it was often
related, was evident in the plantations surrounding Scottish houses from an early date. Scotland’s
earliest gardening book The Scots Gard’ner by John Reid, first published in 1683, encouraged
landowners to “ … make all the buildings and plantings lie so about the house as that the house may be the
centre … whatever you have on the one hand, make as much, and of the same form and in the same place,
on the other.” Although the natural topography often made it difficult to achieve absolute symmetry,
many landscapes of the late 17th century and early 18th century exhibited this sort of regularity,
frequently centred on an axial line running through the house, with a cross-axis set at right angles to
it. Where the surrounding plantations formed part of the pleasure grounds, they were frequently cut
through with intersecting walks and rides, or with narrow vistas radiating from a single point. Until
the mid 18th century formal plantations of this sort were generally referred to as wildernesses.
Figure 13
Figure 14
Plan from The Scots Gard’ner by John Reid, 1683.
Typical plan c.1700.
Figure 15 Vista in Wilderness. Newliston, City of Edinburgh.
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The avenues and vistas that were a feature of these landscapes served in some cases as the main
approach to the house, or in other cases as edges to frame views to and from the house. They
were normally in the form of rows of regularly spaced standard trees, or narrow parallel belts
of planting. Where they stretched out into the surrounding landscape they could be seen as
symbolic of a landowner’s power and influence over his surroundings – as John Reid observed
“… being like the sun sending forth his beams”. One characteristic of many of these landscapes was
the alignment of the main axis on a distant feature such as a castle or prominent hill-top. Where a
plantation was cut into a star shape or rond-point, each of the radiating vistas might be aligned on
a different landscape feature. Early tourists such as Daniel Defoe c.1710 and John Macky c.1723
described many such landscapes in their journals.
The formality of the policies surrounding the mansion house was frequently extended into the
surrounding landscape in the form of rectangular enclosures or parks, bounded by hedges or
walls, along which standard trees were planted at regular intervals. In more exposed situations
these lines of trees could be thickened into narrow tree-belts, to serve as wind-breaks.
Although changing fashion in the late-18th century saw many of these geometrical landscapes
altered, with ancient avenues uprooted or left to decline, there was a revival of interest in formality
in Victorian and Edwardian times, resulting in the renewal of old avenues or the planting of new
ones, sometimes with exotic conifers such as giant sequoia or monkey puzzle.
Naturalistic or parkland landscapes
The aim of creating an idealised classical landscape, influenced by the paintings of the
Claude Lorrain and Salvator Rosa and the sights of the grand tour, brought about a change in
fashion in landscape improvement in the mid-18th century. The new style reflected a growing
appreciation of the natural character of a site. Added to these considerations was the cost
of maintaining wilderness plantations, where the formal walks and rides required frequent
pruning and mowing. The new style, which came to be known as the ‘English’ landscape
garden or natural style, paid more attention to natural topography and sought to exploit the
scenic opportunities which it offered. Although the style is closely associated with three English
landscape designers – William Kent, Lancelot Capability Brown and Humphry Repton – they
did not practise north of the Border (apart for one site in Fife by Repton), so its application in
Scotland is attributable to others.
Figure 16 Figure 17
Parkland planting. Blair Adam, Kinross.
Parkland planting styles by William Gilpin.
13
In place of the formal avenues and regular plantations of earlier times there developed new
parkland landscapes bounded by plantations with sinuous edges, embracing broad areas of
grassland, ornamented with irregular clumps, groups or scattered individual trees. Often the natural
topography helped to determine the pattern of planting – in the words of one contemporary writer
“I just plant what winna pleugh, and nature does the rest.” Sweeping drives allowed much greater
variety in forming the approaches to a house, adding interest by exploiting the favourite 18th
century device of concealment and surprise. Carefully placed trees and plantations served to frame
distant views, and in others to hide public roads, service drives and unsightly features from view.
From the mid-18th century many parkland landscapes were planted with individual parkland
trees and clumps, carefully chosen for their form and visual interest. Whether observed from
a fixed point such as a house, or seen from the windows of a moving carriage, the pattern of
planting was designed to add variety and depth to the fore ground and middle ground of views.
Parkland was almost invariably maintained as permanent pasture or hay-meadow, with grazing
animals adding to its pastoral character. In many landscapes the sunken fence or ha-ha was
introduced, to maintain open views while keeping stock out of the areas closest to the house. In
such landscapes farm buildings and stable blocks might be positioned at some distance from the
house, either hidden or with features to serve as eye-catchers. On more distant hilltops, other
eye-catchers in the form of artificial ruins, obelisks or monuments would be placed. Walled
kitchen gardens were generally at some distance from the house, sheltered by tree planting which
could be underplanted with shade-bearing herbaceous plants such as bluebells and daffodils, or
with ornamental shrubs such as rhododendrons and azaleas, to create attractive woodland walks.
Elsewhere, especially where landscapes were being managed for their sporting value, underwood
was planted with particular shrub species to provide cover for game birds.
Figure 18
Figure 19
Typical plan c.1800.
Parkland, Balloch castle, Loch Lomond.
Picturesque and sublime landscapes
The wilder aspects of nature, shunned by earlier generations, began to attract attention from the
mid-18th century onwards. As one contemporary writer was moved to comment in verse in the
1720s “Still other harsh and frightful objects be / Which not a little grace a country seat / If only
brought within the bounds of sight.” Many Scottish landowners began to seek out wild glens in the
vicinity of their houses, and to incorporate them into their designs by with new paths, drives,
14
Figure 20
Figure 21
Typical plan c.1890.
Picturesque view at Barskimming.
bridges and planting. These led visitors to viewpoints overlooking dramatic landscape features
such as cliffs, crags and waterfalls. While many such landscapes were already partially wooded by
nature, others benefited from new planting put in to add visual interest, or to frame views. Such
scenes, eagerly sought out by tourists from the mid 18th century onwards, remain popular with
visitors to Scotland two and a half centuries on.
As in tamer landscapes, the device of concealment and surprise was frequently employed to add
to the drama, with paths leading through woodland to viewpoints offering carefully contrived
glimpses or views, often described as picturesque or sublime. Although picturesque and sublime
landscapes were to be found in the Lowlands, mostly centred on river gorges and waterfalls, it
was amongst the hills and mountains that some of the most dramatic scenes of nature were to be
found. The purpose of these landscapes was to thrill the observer without putting them in danger
and were carefully laid out and planted to maximise their effect.
Figure 22
Sublime landscape at Falls of Bruar.
15
Exotic trees, arboretums and American gardens
With the exploration of the world leading to a rapid expansion in the range of trees available to
planters from late 18th century, new and exciting opportunities were opened up to planters, gaining
momentum through the 19th century. Exotic conifers, in particular, attracted the attention of foresters
and landowners, whether for their potential as timber trees, or for their beauty and rarity. Their varied
forms and evergreen foliage were able to provide winter colour in wooded landscapes. Landowners
and nurserymen, who were prominent amongst the membership of organisations such as the Oregon
Botanical Association, sought to outdo each other in the creation of experimental plantations and
arboreta, designed to show off these new introductions to best effect. Referred to initially as American
gardens, these exotic tree collections soon became an established feature of many Scottish estates.
Figure 23 Exotic tree groups, Balloch castle,
Loch Lomond.
Those tree species which were found to be tolerant of the exposed conditions and poor
soils of the Highlands and on the West Coast allowed landowners to expand their landscape
improvement through extensive hill planting, entailing the forestation of landscapes long stripped
of their natural woodland cover. Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine soon established themselves
as the most favoured species for such hill planting, alongside earlier but less hardy introductions
such as Norwegian spruce and larch, and the native Scots pine. After Britain’s lack of a timber
reserve was highlighted in the First World War, government in the 20th century invested heavily in
new planting of these fast growing trees through the establishment of the Forestry Commission,
offering generous grants to landowners. As a result, many estate policy woodlands which had
been felled during the two wars were replanted with commercial conifers. Some such plantings
have been criticised for their establishment without due regard for other interests and sensitivities,
including an adverse effect on landscape character.
Today, most of Scotland’s tallest trees are exotic conifers, located within designed landscapes
where they have been allowed to grow to maturity. Consequently, it is often possible to identify
such landscapes with the help of these signature trees. Exotic broadleaved trees, too, have found
a place in these woodlands, though these are less prominent in the landscape because of their
resemblance to native species. While recent years have seen a marked trend, encouraged by
altered government grants, towards the replanting of woodlands with native species, exotic trees
deliberately planted in prominent positions continue to add variety, provide autumn colour and
make landmarks, among other effects, in designed landscapes.
16
Designed agricultural landscapes
While not part of the policies surrounding country houses, planting in the surrounding countryside
often shows clear evidence of deliberate design. From monastic times onwards tree-planting has
always been seen as an important part of agricultural improvement, whether for amenity or for
shelter. This is most often seen in roadside and field boundary planting, with trees spaced at regular
intervals along field dykes and hedgerows, especially along the approach and boundary roads to a
house or estate. In some areas, the hedgerows themselves become a characteristic feature of the
rural landscape. Though essentially practical in their purpose, windbreaks, too, are often planted
with visual amenity in mind. In some instances, where there is no big house to act as a focus, the
pattern of fields and plantations can be seen as a designed landscape in its own right.
Figure 24 Designed agricultural landscape.
Given that the structure of much of Scotland’s agricultural landscape was established in the late-18th
and 19th centuries, many of the trees which were so carefully chosen and planted by our forebears are
now mature or over-mature. With the enlargement of fields and the mechanisation of agriculture, field
boundary and parkland trees have come to be regarded by some landowners as an inconvenience,
leading to their loss or deliberate removal, with a consequent impact on landscape character.
Regional variations
There is considerable regional variation in the styles and types of designed landscapes found
around Scotland. Distinctive types include West coast wild and rhododendron gardens, often with
tree collections; Highland hunting lodges; northern isles designed landscapes with few trees and
grass terraces; coastal and lochside landscapes generally.
Under SNH’s Natural Heritage Zones (NHZ) Programme in 1999 the regional characteristics in
respect of designed landscapes of each of the twenty-one NHZs was assessed in terms of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abundance and distribution
Characteristics of sites in zone
Overall status within national resource
Sites of special significance
Pressures and threats
Objectives and funding
17
Conservation documents, surveys and management plans
Conservation Management Plans
All major decisions in the management of designed landscape, including dealing with many
of the issues in the following sections, should be made in the context of a Conservation
Management Plan. Such plans have the advantage of dealing with all the factors relevant to
managing a landscape in a comprehensive way to reach balanced polices and courses of action.
A Conservation Management Plan is often required by funding bodies and may itself be grant
aided. One may be required also by a planning authority where new development or large-scale
change is proposed in a designed landscape recognised in its planning policies.
A Conservation Management Plan is a document produced by an experienced professional or
site manager that:
• g ives a detailed understanding of the site and its features through research, consultations
and surveys
• provides a statement of cultural significance of the whole site and its major components
• assesses the threats to its heritage and other management issues
• sets out conservation policies as the basis for future management, conservation works and
new developments or changes
• lays down management policies and proposals.
The detailed understanding will involve historical research and site surveys in sufficient detail to
produce an informed statement of significance and develop detailed policies and proposals, and
deal with the mitigation of the effects of any development that may be proposed.
Historical research may involve study of primary sources (unpublished documents such as estate
archives and manuscript maps and plans) and secondary sources (published books, maps etc.).
Repositories for these include local libraries, estate offices, council and university archives, and national
repositories such as the National Archives of Scotland, General Register Office for Scotland (these two
soon to be merged), Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and
the National Library of Scotland, all in Edinburgh, or the British Library in London. Increasingly all kinds
of documents are available online at the websites of these and many other organisations.
Historic maps and plans, and records of existing land classifications and designations are usually
the most useful starting point in gathering information about a site. A short guide to research
sources, maps and websites in site assessment is given as an Appendix in Section 15.
A sample brief for a Designed Landscape Conservation Management Plan can be found at:
www.hlf.org.uk/howtoapply
Balancing priorities
The value of the Conservation Management Plan process is that by rating the significance of the
different aspects of the landscape, priorities can be established and balance achieved between
different objectives, for example between:
18
•
•
•
•
conserving the surviving trees of the historic landscape
restoring the planted and built features of the designed landscape
preserving visual amenity and the scenic value of the site
ensuring the viability of agriculture and forestry
•
•
•
•
conserving habitats and encouraging species diversity
providing for the requirements for field sports and private uses
providing public access and visitor attractions
achieving the best use of available resources.
Tree and woodland surveys
A comprehensive record of the existing resource is a valuable tool for understanding in detail the
characteristics and management requirements of the individual trees and tree groupings of a site. Trees
may require surveying either as individuals – as in the case of parkland, small groups, avenue, specimen
and veteran trees – or as areas, in the case of clumps, belts, woods and more extensive plantations.
Trees in some situations are likely to require tree work to maintain their health and vigour and for
public safety, or to require replacement with young trees. Surveys for the basis for organising tree work,
both initially and periodically thereafter, and for monitoring the tree stock in the longer term.
Tree surveys should generally be undertaken to BS 5837 : 2005, but may be tailored to the
requirements of a particular site and the special needs of the project. Tree surveys should be
undertaken by a qualified and experienced arboriculturalist, preferably an Arboricultural Association
registered Tree Consultant (www.trees.org.uk), or a member of the Royal Scottish Forestry Society
(www.rsfs.org) or Royal Institute of Chartered Foresters (www.charteredforesters.org).
Forest Plans
A Forest Plan aims to deliver long-term environmental benefits through sustainable forest
management and consists of a strategic plan describing the major forest operations over a 20 year
period. A Forest Plan may be a stand-alone document for a designed landscape, or incorporated
in a Conservation Management Plan.
Forestry Commission Scotland can provide support to help prepare a Forest Plan, through the
Woodland Improvement Grant (WIG) for long-term forest planning. An approved Forest Plan will
give a 10 year approval for felling, thinning and the means of accessing grants for restructuring
felling and regeneration. It will also provide access to other grant support through Rural
Development Contracts – Rural Priorities (see Sources of Funding).
Information on Woodland Improvement Grants including long-term forest planning can be
found at: www.forestry.gov.uk/glscotland
The format of the Forest Plan has been designed for use in any woodland. The Plan will not
necessarily need to be complex but the detail included in the Plan should be in line with the
scale, complexity and sensitivity of the woodland. Forestry Commission Scotland have prepared
a number of Forest Plan examples to give an indication of what is expected in a range of different
situations. These are available from www.forestry.gov.uk/wighelp as follows:
• Large Upland Mixed Conifer Forest
• Small Community Woodland
• Native Woodland
Planning a restoration or restocking project
Planning a planting project will require an experienced land manager or professional advisor
such as a forester or landscape architect. The size and types of trees, ground preparation, planting
technique and protection will vary depending on site characteristics, including soil type and
microclimate. The information included in the following sections gives outline guidance only.
19
Guidance section
This section provides the main body of the guidance and considers the different tree features of
designed landscapes, specific management issues relating to them that have been identified and
more general management issues that commonly occur.
Conservation and management of trees in designed landscapes
Parkland trees – individual trees, groups, roundels and clumps
Figure 25 Planning of parkland planting,
William Kemp (1890?).
Grazed parkland is perhaps the most common design feature derived from the English landscape garden tradition, seen in confined to extensive areas in practically all designed
landscapes. Tree components in parkland can include individual or standard trees, small groups,
roundels, clumps and small irregularly-shaped plantations. These tree features are often arranged
to create a sense of depth in the principal views from house and drives, by their overlapping
forms to disguise boundaries, to channel views, and to create a character of open woodland
that can be visually similar to wood pasture. Often parkland planting appears quite random and
unrefined, while still creating a distinct character, and in other places can be subtly planned to
create particular visual effects.
If no detailed estate surveys are available and it is considered both desirable and appropriate
to recreate the original layout, the best basis for restoring the pattern of planting is the 1:2500
1st edition Ordnance Survey, generally surveyed in the period 1850–1870, which is available
for much of Scotland (available from the National Library of Scotland Map Library). Ideally the
original tree species should be used and it is essential to protect against livestock, horses, deer
and rabbits. Most of the features would have been protected when first planted by a fence or by
hedge planted on a mound, evidence for which can often be seen.
• P
arkland tree species in Scotland – commonly beech, lime, oak and sycamore; frequently
ash, horse chestnut, sweet chestnut; occasional use of conifers including cedars, larch, Scots
pine, Wellingtonia and others.
• Restocking parkland trees – 2.75–3.00 m high standard trees or lighter / heavier for
individual parkland trees and small groups or roundels – staked and tied for the first year or
two, with rabbit protection and stock-proof guards or fences. Larger clumps may be more
suited to planting with forestry transplants, with tree-shelters or rabbit and stock fences.
Figure 26
Figure 27
Parkland trees restocked by Borders Forest Trust.
Scots pine and Wellingtonia as parkland trees.
20
• N
urse trees – faster growing species were often planted with the trees that were
intended as mature trees in groups, clumps and roundels, as well as in belts and small
woods. Typically Scots pine or larch would be planted with, for example, beech or oak,
to provide shelter, with the intention that they would be removed after they had served
their purpose. Frequently nurse trees can be seen remaining in the mature tree features.
Use of nurse trees in restocking these features is an option.
Figure 28 Figure 29
Parkland in traditional pasture use, with declining trees.
Reduced tree group endangered by close ploughing.
Parkland cultivation and use
Often areas that were originally parkland grazing with permanent pasture and individual trees and
tree groups are now managed more intensively, with regularly resown grass pasture or arable crops
involving frequent use of heavy agricultural machinery, pesticides and fertilizers. Issues here include:
• c ultivation (especially ploughing) close to trees, damaging roots and altering soil levels
leading to tree deaths
• soil compaction from agricultural machinery
• fertilizer regimes affect the natural balance of tree nutrients and their uptake, which can
affect the mycorrhizal fungal associations and make them more vulnerable to pathogens
• increased stock numbers with ‘poaching’ of the ground causing compaction and
waterlogging from animals’ feet and excessive dunging that can damage tree roots
• gradual reduction of the number of trees in groups due to lack of boundary protection,
leading to eventual loss of the whole feature.
When trees were originally established under less intensive agricultural practices it would have
been intended that parkland pasture would be grazed by cattle, sheep or deer. Most trees and
tree groups would have had protective fences, hedges or hedges banks around them in their early
years. In many cases this protection has been lost or broken down, leading to animals using the
trees for shelter or cultivation closer to or over tree roots.
Estates commonly hold events in parkland and woodland areas, including cross-country riding,
motor shows and music festivals, that can all have potential impacts on the trees in terms of
compaction and direct physical damage, that can be exacerbated in wet weather. An impact
assessment during the planning for events needs to be undertaken to identify potential problems
and necessary mitigation measures put in place.
21
Parkland – loss to woodland
Parkland and other fields within designed landscapes typically have irregular boundaries with
adjoining woodland, or the boundary is disguised from the main viewpoints by the placing of
tree groups. The temptation for managers is to simplify boundaries into straight fence lines and
to plant up awkward corners leading to a loss of essential character and visual diversity. In some
cases whole areas of less productive parkland grazing located away from the main house have
been targeted for planting. Parkland has been lost in this way through the 20th century and is
currently under pressure due to the promotion of native woodland creation under SRDP.
Confusion can be caused by land in designed landscapes being often shown as ‘Potential core
woodland’ in GLADE, the Forestry Commission’s Land Information Search tool (www.forestry.gov.uk/lis). Owners are encouraged to undertake more detailed assessment of site
values and design before committing to woodland planting in parkland areas.
Figure 30 Figure 31
Planting parkland to simplify boundaries resulting in loss of character.
Conifers infill in policy woodland.
Parkland that is important to the design and character of a landscape and should be identified in
a Conservation Management Plan. New planting should be limited to areas where effects on the
integrity of the design are of low consequence and where it can make a positive contribution to
other values such as biodiversity.
Wood pasture
Ancient wood pastures are areas of grazed pasture, heath or open hill with a scattering of opengrown veteran trees. Once a common feature of the Scottish landscape, they provided shelter,
pasture and fodder for livestock, as well as wood products for local people. Some trees may have
been pollarded (cut back to a high stump out of reach of grazing animals), regenerating with
multiple stems to provide poles, or browse for livestock in harsh times. The grazing prevented
competition by younger trees, allowing some individual trees to survive to a great age.
In many places the wood pasture structure has been erased by modern land-uses, but sites
remain where the combination of old trees and pasture gives us a glimpse of an earlier managed
landscape and the culture and traditions that created it. The trees themselves are inspiring; some
are many centuries old and may have a lineage on that site stretching back to prehistory.
22
Oaks in wood pasture.
Veteran and younger oaks in wood pasture, Dalkeith, Midlothian.
Courtesy of The Woodland Trust.
Figure 33
Courtesy of The Woodland Trust.
Figure 32 As well as being historic landscapes of cultural importance, ancient wood pastures now provide
a precious habitat for some rare and specialised wildlife that depend on the old trees. Conserving
these species requires protection of the habitat by managing the grazing and ensuring there will
be a continuing supply of old trees into the future.
Wood Pasture and Parkland is a priority habitat of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan with targets
for its conservation, restoration and expansion. Previously listed as Lowland Wood Pasture and
Parkland the scope of the plan was extended in 2008 to include upland sites.
Grant funding is available through the Scotland Rural Development Programme to support the
management of ancient wood pastures.
Forestry Commission Scotland Guidance on management of ancient wood pasture
(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications) provides an introduction to the restoration and management
of ancient wood pasture and includes references and online links to a wide range of other
relevant publications on the subject by SNH, English Nature, The Woodland Trust and others.
Picturesque glens
The fashion for picturesque or sublime landscapes that developed from the natural style of
landscape gardening took form in Scotland in the improvement of natural glens where they
occurred on estates. Many designed landscapes have a picturesque steep-sided glen located in
the outer part of the landscape beyond the parkland and policy woods. The glen will have been
improved by paths, bridges over the rushing burn or river, viewpoints of waterfalls, follies such as a
hermitage, and planting of woodland and feature trees. Sometimes these glens are quite separate
from the main policies, e.g. Falls of Bruar (Blair Castle) and Falls of Acharn (Taymouth) and vary
greatly in scale depending on the natural assets of the site – from the magnificent Falls of Clyde (part
of adjoining Bonnington and Corehouse estates) to unnamed glens of smaller estates. Woodland
planting in these landscapes is, by default, of native species, although conifer nurse species were
often used and newly introduced exotics added either as specimens or for larger shelter plantations.
Subtle clumps of trees perched on gorge edges are often seen, several oaks planted together to
create a multi-stemmed effect or twinned with Scots pine, for all appearances a natural occurrence.
Picturesque glens require particularly sensitive management to conserve their special qualities and
are easily damaged by intrusive actions so are best tackled by a Conservation Management Plan.
23
Figure 34 Bonnington Linn, Falls of Clyde, Lanarkshire.
Almost inevitably natural heritage values are prominent and may need to be given precedence
over design issues if the site has protected status such as a Site of Special Scientific Interest.
Avenues
Avenues of lime, beech, sycamore or oak may survive from the formal landscapes of 17th and
18th century or may be of later origin (using newly introduced conifers in some cases) either
accompanying principal drives or forming main vistas. Avenues may be single or double rows,
or even narrow belts. The difficulty is how to restock the avenue while the retaining the valuable
original, usually veteran, trees – whether to thin the old trees and interplant in the row, to replace
with a parallel row – or, as a last resort, to fell wholesale and plant a complete new avenue. The
solution will vary depending of the characteristics of the each avenue, the original spacing of the
trees, the trees surviving in the rows and their vigour, their value as veteran trees, the width between
rows and the adjoining space available. Here, as elsewhere when dealing with veteran trees, the
emphasis should be on conserving the old trees wherever possible and for as long as possible.
Revitalising trees by hard pruning is a management option in some cases, e.g. lime avenues of a
certain age and condition, although this approach needs to be based on good arboricultural advice.
Figure 35 Figure 36
Avenue restocking by interplanting.
Avenue replanting by parallel interplanting.
24
•Avenues tree species in Scotland – commonly beech, lime, oak and sycamore; sometimes
ash, elm and sweet chestnut; occasional use of Douglas fir, Scots pine and Wellingtonia.
•Restocking avenue trees – 2.75–3.00 m high standard trees or lighter/heavier – staked and
tied for the first year or two, with rabbit protection and stock-proof guards or fences.
Figure 37 Avenue replanting.
Overgrown hedges
Overgrown hedges are a frequent sight in designed landscapes both where the site has suffered
long-term neglect and where hedges have been unmanaged at a critical period in their growth.
Most commonly beech hedges where the individual plants have grown into mature trees are
seen, sometime to impressive effect. There is no easy answer to the correct procedure and much
will depend on the size to which the trees have grown, whether to accept the trees as a feature of
historic interest or to cut them back and regrow the hedge.
Figure 38
Overgrown beech hedge and
avenue trees.
Boundary belts and strips
Tree belts of mixed broadleaves, often with some Scots pine or larch, are the traditional
form of enclosure for estate boundaries and parks within the designed landscape. Often the
presence of pine and larch is the result of use as a nurse crop that has not been removed during
management when the primary tree species have become established. Belts may be geometric
25
and of regular width or of more naturalistic shapes related to the landform. Frequently belts and
other policy woods were felled in the WW2 period and often have since been left to regenerate
naturally with no regular management. The most common problem is gaps or sections planted
with commercial conifer species, particularly Sitka spruce, in the 1960s and 1970s, reducing
the character of the belts and the spaces they form. Felling these areas and restocking with
broadleaves, plus Scots pine where appropriate, is the preferred solution.
•Boundary belts tree species in Scotland – typically ash, beech, lime, oak, sycamore, Scots
pine, larch.
•Restocking boundary belts – forestry transplants 45–60 cm high – with tree-shelters or
rabbit and stock fences.
Figure 39
Figure 40
Broadleaved boundary and internal tree belts.
Neglected tree belt.
Roadside trees and hedges
Hedges planted with distinctive species or simple quickthorn hedges are a feature of estate
landscapes in many parts of Scotland, for example, beech hedges with sides shaped to a batter are
characteristic of some areas of the Borders, in most cases planted by the local estate, sometimes
with mature trees in the adjoining verge. Where trees occur in the hedgeline itself, it is usually set
back from the road edge. Roadside trees are sometimes seen as a hazard, although few accidents
26
Figure 41
Figure 42
Estate planting of roadside trees.
Ageing, potentially dangerous roadside trees.
occur and timeous replacement with young trees can avoid the problem. Hedges generally survive
remarkably well, although often gaps need to be replanted, but depend on continued regular
maintenance. Over Scotland, the roadside tree stock is generally aged or over-mature and requires
a programme of replacement planting to preserve the local character of these roads. Although
primarily concerned here with planted features, conservation of estate walls, march dykes and field
boundary dykes should also be part of the programme of landscape conservation.
•Field roadsides tree species in Scotland – typically ash, beech, oak, sycamore.
•Restocking roadside trees – 2.75–3.00 m high standard trees or lighter/heavier – staked and
tied for the first year or two, with rabbit protection and stock-proof guards.
Field boundary trees
In some parts of the Scotland, field boundary trees and hedges are an essential part of the outer
agricultural areas of estate landscapes. As with roadside trees, they are invariably ageing and
gradually disappearing. Again, replacement planting is needed to perpetuate the character of
these areas.
•Field boundary tree species in Scotland – ash, beech, oak, sycamore.
•Restocking boundaries trees – 2.75–3.00 m high standard trees or lighter/heavier – staked
and tied for the first year or two, with rabbit protection and stock-proof guards.
Figure 43 Tall conifers pinpoint a small designed landscape in its wider setting.
Ornamental planting and collections
Close to the main house and principal approaches use of exotic broadleaves and conifers with
flowering and evergreen shrubs is the norm. Such planting forms both the setting for the building
and routes and provides visual delight and natural beauty. Often tall specimen conifers in these
areas pinpoint the core of the landscape when seen over the tree-tops from a distance. At their
most ambitious such tree planting is organised into arboretums or pinetums that have scientific as
well as ornamental value.
Many sites have arboretums and pinetums that can be very valuable as arboricultural and
scientific resources. At present there is no national inventory of such places or systematic
cataloguing of the species and provenance of the trees grown there.
27
Figure 44
Figure 45
Field boundary trees.
Ornamental and exotic trees in garden area.
Trees from lost features
The progressive development of many designed landscapes through successive stylistic periods results
in old trees surviving from one period to the next in a different setting. Most commonly trees from the
avenues, allées and planted vistas in the formal layouts of the 17th and earlier 18th centuries survive as
isolated trees or intermittent rows among the naturalistically scattered parkland trees of the late 18th
and 19th centuries. The effect can be seen clearly on many 19th century Ordnance Survey maps at 6”
or 25” scale, where broken rows of trees can still be discerned among otherwise irregular planting. In
many cases these rows can still be seen today, although the tree numbers may be reduced.
The value of conserving trees from lost features is self-evident, being a living record of the
development of the landscape, as well as having all the other values of veteran trees (see below).
Whether the lost feature should be perpetuated by replacement planting is a more difficult
question. Such an issue can only be explored and resolved if considered with all the other factors
in a Conservation Management Plan.
Individual notable trees
Sites sometime possess individual trees that are notable on account of the size, age, species or
their history. Examples include the Capon Tree (near Jedburgh, Scottish Borders), the Dunkeld
larch (Perthshire) and the Camperdown elm (Dundee). Such trees will be of special public interest
and may be visitor attractions in their own right. Local authorities or voluntary group sometime
28
Figure 46
Figure 47
Capon Tree, near Jedburgh, Scottish Borders.
Champion variegated sycamore.
publish lists of such trees in their areas and many occur within designed landscapes. Heritage Trees
of Scotland by Rodger, Stokes & Ogilvie (The Tree Council, 2003) is a good national guide.
Inevitably the preservation and care of such trees is a issue for management. Actions may
include fencing to protect the tree and for public safety from dangerous limbs, tree work such as
propping and bracing, interpretation, and replacement planting in order to have a young tree in
its place when it eventually fails and to preserve the genetic stock of the tree.
Veteran and ancient trees
Veteran or ancient trees have immense historical, aesthetic and biodiversity values within designed
landscapes, particularly in parkland but potentially in any tree component of a site. Mature and
ageing trees bring problems of safety and appearance, as well as the issue of planting replacements.
Where old trees are near drives, footpaths or other public areas, owners have a responsibility to
keep them in a safe condition. Elsewhere there are strong aesthetic and nature conservation reasons
to retain old and ancient (over 200 years) trees, particularly where they have no timber value.
Long-established woodland, parkland or wood pasture may also include areas of remnant
coppice woodland or individual ancient coppiced trees. These have the additional interest of
evidence of former management systems and again the priority should be their conservation.
Natural England handbook Veteran Trees: A Guide to Good Management (naturalengland.
etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop) is a comprehensive guide to the subject. Other useful
sources include:
• A
ncient Tree Forum, Ancient Trees guide series (frontpage.woodland-trust.org.uk/
ancient-tree-forum)
• Forestry Commission, Estimating the Age of Large and Veteran Trees in Britain
(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
Figure 48
Veteran Cadzow oaks, Hamilton
High Parks, Lanarkshire.
Orchards
Many designed landscapes have small orchards, often associated with the walled garden – either
within or immediately outside its walls – and including wall-trained fruit trees. The benefits
of orchards can be many, including preservation of old fruit varieties, growing locally grown
and sustainably produced fruit, encouraging healthy eating and others. The conservation and
cultivation of orchards should be encouraged wherever possible.
29
There is growing interest in orchards with a number of local initiatives. Scottish Orchards is a new
organisation for anyone interested in promoting and developing orchards in Scotland.
Use of walled gardens
Very few walled gardens survive in traditional use as productive kitchen gardens for vegetables,
fruit and flowers. Their excellent growing conditions resulting from their design and build-up of
fertile soil suggests a preference for horticultural uses rather than uses such as single or multiple
house plots. Successful examples exist around Scotland of:
• continued use as flower and produce garden on a reduced scale
• hotel vegetable and ornamental garden
• retail plant nursery or garden centre
• market gardening / organic vegetable growing
• communal allotments
• commercial tree nursery
Figure 49
Walled garden retained in
traditional use by a hotel.
Woodland management and silvicultural systems
Policy woodlands and plantation edges
Policies are the ornamental grounds of a large country house – what in England is called the park.
Policy woodlands are any woods within this area, although more typically the term excludes
the most ornamental features such as woodland gardens, arboretums and such like. The size
and type of woods in a designed landscape will grade from smaller belts and clumps near the
centre to extensive forestry plantations on the outer hill land, with the primary function grading
from ornamental or amenity to commercial forestry. Policy woodlands typically should have
some of both functions and will have had good timber trees removed for sale periodically. Many
woods today suffer from a prevalence of introduced conifers and require restructuring to mixed
broadleaves, plus Scots pine and/or larch where appropriate.
The design of policy woodlands depends on the style of the landscape and may be geometric
blocks or organically-shaped areas. Various degrees of irregularity relate to the character of
individual designs. Often the complexity of a layout and its woodland edges has been lost in the
desire to save on the cost of boundary dykes and fences, or to infill parts or entire grazed parks.
The reinstatement of woodland boundaries and the reforming of original spaces is an essential
item in restoring a designed landscape.
30
Figure 50
Figure 51
Long-established policy woodlands.
Conifers dominating an estate entrance in the place
of avenue trees, mixed tree belts or parkland planting.
•Policy woodland and boundary belts tree species in Scotland – typically ash, beech, lime,
oak, sycamore, Scots pine, larch.
•Restocking policy woodlands – forestry transplants 45–60cm high – with tree-shelters or
rabbit, deer and stock fences.
Silvicultural systems
Among typical management issues faced in policy woodlands are:
lder woods that may have been neglected and developed a uniformity of structure with
• o
little natural regeneration
• woods felled during WWII or at some time since and not replanted, dominated by dense
natural regeneration of sycamore and ash, and with a uniformity of age
• older woods where gaps have been planted up with conifers as a short term measure
• small woods and belts in visually prominent positions that have been replaced wholesale
with conifers to the detriment of the landscape.
Figure 52
Tree features replanted with
conifers.
All these situations require the woodland cover to be modified to achieve better tree species and
age diversity over time in line with current management objectives. The general movement away
from clear-felling with replanting and towards continuous cover silvicultural systems in forest and
woodland management is particularly appropriate for the woods of designed landscapes where
pleasure use and visual amenity are major considerations. It is also the type of system that has
been used historically.
31
Management systems with a lower impact than clear-felling are also likely to prove an effective
way to increase the resilience of forests with respect to climate change. In semi-natural woodland,
lower impact systems are recommended in accordance with the relevant Forest Practice Guide.
A silvicultural system is the process of tending, harvesting and regenerating a forest or woodland.
Systems adopted for woodland management should be driven by management objectives
defined in terms of the broader objectives for the management of the whole designed landscape.
Ideally this will be set out in a Conservation Management Plan. Typical objectives for policy
woodlands will include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
general visual amenity
preserving the function in the landscape design
enhancing nature conservation values
recreational uses
provision for sporting use and game cover
growing timber of commercial value
There are many different types of silvicultural systems and a broad classification can be made
based on the pattern of regeneration and how the tree canopy is reduced or removed. Generally
woods or forests managed using clear felling and shelterwood systems tend to be even-aged
(only possess one or two canopy strata) and those managed using selection systems are unevenaged (have three or more canopy strata).
Silvicultural systems will be determined most by the characteristics of the woodland at the
start of the management programme in terms of species composition, age classes, density and
distribution of species and classes, their general condition and the soil, the micro-climate and
associated fungi, flora and fauna.
Under continuous cover systems applied to policy woodlands, the variables to be considered will be:
•Method of thinning or felling – trees to be removed e.g. weakest, most mature, best
timber, undesirable species; pattern of removal e.g. individuals, groups, small coupes.
•Re-stocking method and woodland type – natural regeneration; planting semi-natural
woodland species; planting based on historic composition; planting for other objectives
including commercial timber species.
•Details of planting method – cultivation/ground preparation, drainage, plant size, notch
planting, method of protection against rabbit, deer etc.
As a guideline, in semi-natural woodland, limit felling to 10% of the area in any 5-year period,
unless there are overriding biodiversity or social advantages to felling a greater percentage area.
Principles of the continuous cover approach
32
•Adapt the wood to the site – Continuous cover forestry (CCF) seeks to work with the site
and to respect ecological processes and inherent variation rather than impose artificial
uniformity. In practice, this leads to a presumption towards the use of natural regeneration
and the development of mixed species and mixed-age stands.
•Adopt a holistic approach to forest management – CCF regards the whole woodland
ecosystem as the ‘production capital’. This includes the soil, the forest micro-climate,
associated fungi, flora and fauna, as well as the trees themselves. Management for timber
production is directed towards the creation, maintenance and enhancement of a functioning
ecosystem rather than the periodic creation and removal of individual crops of trees.
•Maintain forest conditions without clearfelling – CCF regards the maintenance of forest
conditions as an essential tool in achieving its aims. The use of the overstorey to influence
the amount of light reaching the forest floor, to limit ground vegetation, trigger regeneration,
and then control its development is crucial. If clear felling takes place, forest conditions are
lost, the benefits of shelter reduced and regeneration becomes more difficult.
•The growing stock – Under CCF management, stand improvement is concentrated on
the development of preferred individuals rather than the creation of a block of stems with
uniform spacing and average stem characteristics. A characteristic of permanently-irregular
stands is that yield control is based on measurements of stem-diameter and increment
rather than age and area.
Figure 53
Estate broadleaved woodland
managed for hardwood.
Felling and restocking larger woods
Many 20th century woodlands were planted or felled and re-planted over a short time with little
diversity. Other older woods may have been neglected and developed a uniformity of structure.
At felling and restocking, opportunities are presented to restructure age classes to develop
forest diversity. In even aged woodlands, this may involve advancing felling in some areas and
delaying felling and restocking in others. Following restructuring, further age-class diversity can be
introduced in subsequent rotations. The design of future felling coupes can also be addressed at
restocking by developing a long-term forest structure with future felling coupes defined by open
ground, watercourses and semi-natural habitats General guidelines include:
• In forests where there is little age-class diversity, retain stands adjoining felled areas until the
restocking of the first coupe has reached an average height of 2 m: for planning purposes
this is likely to be between 5–15 years depending on establishment success and growth rates.
• Develop a long-term forest structure by making use of permanent features such as
watercourses and open space; in upland forests identify future felling boundaries and
manage crop edges to increase stability.
• Identify sites for long-term forest cover and thin them early.
Commercial conifers and forestry plantations
Plantations of commercial conifers have been part of the Scottish landscape for centuries, with
Scots pine, European silver fir, Norway spruce and European larch in use during the 18th century
and with a greatly expanded choice of species from North America added in the 19th century.
At different scales, conifers have both ornamental and commercial roles in designed landscapes.
However, on many estates such plantings have become the dominant woodland type, replacing
broadleaved woodland to the detriment of visual and ecological diversity.
33
During the latter part of the 20th century the strategic timber resource imperative that drove
many commercial conifer plantings was gradually supplanted by the appreciation that all
woodlands had the potential to provide multiple benefits. More recent policies and associated
grant programmes have encouraged a wide range of woodland types, promoting native
broadleaves and amenity planting related to public access in many situations. Over time, this
should promote further change and the restoration of previous woodland features
Ornamental planting close to the main house often features large north American and other
conifers – cedars, Douglas fir, grand fir, noble fir, monkey puzzle, yew, western hemlock,
Wellingtonia – while forestry on the outer hill land may be almost exclusively coniferous. There
are locations in designed landscapes for these planting types but their siting requires careful
planning, preferably within the context of a Conservation Management Plan.
Forestry planting on the wider scale is covered by the Forestry Commission’s suite of guidelines,
with the principles and process of restructuring conifer plantations described in the Forestry
Commission Practice Guide Forest design planning: a guide to good practice (1998)
(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications).
Figure 54 Extensive afforestation in Tweed valley enclosing designed landscapes.
Figure 55 Woodland replanting ignoring original pattern of clumps and boundaries.
34
General management issues
Clearance to restore views, spaces and routes
Once the historic layout and the design of a site are understood and before any new or
replacement planting is undertaken, a first step may be to clear vegetation that is in the wrong
place. It may be possible to significantly improve and restore the landscape by removal of
undergrowth and natural regeneration to re-open intended views or vistas, clear overgrown
spaces and make lost paths and drives accessible again. Depending on how altered or overgrown
the landscape has become, it may be possible by clearance of later additions and undergrowth to
recreate lost spaces and reform field boundary lines.
Figure 56
Figure 57
Abandoned drive.
Overgrown lime avenue.
Figure 58
Reopening a view to an eye-catcher.
Removal of vegetation should be should be carefully considered and be a balanced decision
based on a full appreciation of its current value (landscape, cultural heritage and biodiversity),
preferably determined though a Conservation Management Plan. Also, if the vegetation in
question constitutes woodland or forest then the manager should be aware of the Scottish
Government Policy on Control of Woodland Removal (www.forestry.gov.ukpublications).
35
Selection of species
The starting point for all planting in designed landscapes is the historic precedent – in most cases
owners and managers in the 17th to 19th centuries had greater empathy with their land and
knowledge of planting than we have now and their original choices are the best to follow and, in
some situations, should be followed for historical accuracy. Although trees native to the region
are preferable in many situations, long-established policy planting may have a greater range of
British, European and even north American species. Typical species for different features are given
elsewhere in this section.
The effects of climate change and the management objectives of the project, including aims for
biodiversity, will also need to be considered in selecting species for planting.
Wych elm is omitted from the lists given above due to Dutch elm disease. Precise species of birch, oak, lime etc will vary depending on the site characteristics. Cultivars may be appropriate in some situations. Where the aim is to create semi-natural woodland habitats, local strains may
be sourced.
Planting for biodiversity
The values of designed landscapes include nature conservation and contribution to biodiversity.
While the focus of this guidance is on design and conservation of the man-made or planted
features of the historic environment, any opportunity to enhance biodiversity of the landscape by
adding beneficial species or otherwise enriching habitats should be taken when planting.
Many areas of designed landscapes – parkland, wood pasture, woods, tree belts, artificial water
bodies, natural burns and rivers – may be significant habitats as well as important visual and
amenity features in the design layout. Even more formal features such as avenues, walled gardens,
woodland gardens and arboretums may have developed significant nature conservation interest
through long-establishment or neglect and invasion of more natural species. Both in dealing with
past neglect and in new or replacement planting opportunities occur to optimise biodiversity, for
example by modifying tree species in shelterbelts to include the most beneficial native species.
Figure 59 Minimum protection of individual parkland or avenue trees.
More general information can be found on Scottish Natural Heritage’s website at:
www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature
Of particular interest may be Habitat Action Plans for habitats associated with designed landscapes
e.g. Wood-Pasture and Parkland, included in the UK Habitat Action Plan (www.ukbap.org.uk).
Protection of planting
Protection of young trees from grazing stock, deer, hares and rabbits can be a major cost of a
planting project but is essential for successful establishment.
Permanent protection from stock is necessary for trees adjoining or within grazing land. Field
boundaries and fences around clumps and roundels need to be kept secure and appropriate and
durable forms of barrier maintained around the trunks of parkland trees.
36
•Protection of parkland and avenue trees – robust timber tree guards to keep stem and
branches out of the reach of stock and deer, and withstanding brushing by cattle, also
provided with rabbit protection (wire mesh or spiral guard etc). After establishment, steel
tree guards are a good solution providing they are adjusted or upgraded as the girth of tree
trunks increase.
•Protection of roundels and clumps – rabbit- and stock-proof fence (in grazed parkland) as
Forestry Commission Technical Guide, Forest Fencing.
•Protection of woods and belts – deer-, livestock- and rabbit-proof fencing as Forestry
Commission Technical Guide, Forest Fencing.
Figure 60
Protection of individual trees
needs to be robust to protect
against cattle, horses and deer.
Maintenance of planting
Many planting and restocking schemes fail due to lack of after care. Maintenance is limited to
a few seasonal or annual operations and is not onerous but needs to be allowed for in annual
budgets and planned into contracts or work schedules. Operations will depend on the features of
the planting scheme and will include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
weed control to reduce competition – vital in the early years of establishment
adjustment of tree ties; checking rabbit protection; removal of stakes; removal of tree shelters
beating up or replacement of dead plants
brashing and thinning to final spacing
control of litter
maintenance of tree protection
There is a need to facilitate safe access over fences to planting areas for maintenance by means of
gates or stiles.
Figure 61
Tree protection needs to be
maintained.
37
Fences and signs
Although this guidance is concerned primarily with planting in designed landscapes, fencing and
signage can have a significant impact on landscape quality. Use of urban fence types that are out
of character and a proliferation of signs can be problematic, particularly where sites are in divided
ownership, with several uses, and there is no coordinated management.
Traditional iron estate railings are preferable where a stock-proof fence is needed along drives,
although their expense means that timber rail or agricultural fences may be a necessary alternative.
Similar fences should be used in other parts of the landscape. Where present, drystone walls and
hawthorn, beech or mixed-species hedges should be maintained wherever possible.
Figure 62
Traditional iron estate fencing
survives in some places, but is
difficult to repair and expensive
to replace.
Forest managers have traditionally used fences as one option to protect young trees from damage
by herbivorous wild animals such as deer and rabbits.
However, it is an expensive control measure, particularly in remote areas or where access is
difficult. It can also be contentious, drawing opposition from groups such as environmental
organisations, ramblers, hill walkers and local communities.
It is therefore vital that the appropriate type of fence is designed, located and erected to high
specifications, and then maintained properly to ensure that it fulfils its role cost-effectively and with
minimal environmental and landscape impact until it has finished its job and can be removed.
The Forestry Commission therefore published a revised guide in 2006 that updates its previous
advice on forest fencing. It takes into account recent developments such as new fencing materials
on the market, temporary and electric fencing, marking fences to reduce deaths of woodland
birds from collisions, and the use of machinery
Technical Guide: Forest Fencing (www.forestry.gov.uk/publications), was written by Roger Trout
of Forest Research, and Harry Pepper, and replaces Forestry Commission Bulletin 102: Forest
Fencing, first published in 1992.
It recommends best-practice principles for managers as a guide to planning, assessment and
mitigation of adverse factors, and choosing the fence design appropriate for the target species.
It also indicates the key practical steps in construction. It helps in identifying the normal
specifications of components required to accommodate typical situations and when taking
account of special local circumstances.
38
When considering deer fencing, reference should be made to the joint agency statement on deer
fencing, available on the SNH website at: www.snh.gov.uk
Signage should also be well considered. All signs will be intrusive to a degree in a rural landscape
and so their use should be minimised. Materials and graphic design should be chosen to balance
the need to be visible and deliver a message with the requirement that signs fit into their setting. It
is preferable to use a single style of sign if several are required.
Statutory nature conservation designations in designed landscapes
A designed landscape that has been neglected can have developed nature conservation values
that, in terms of its significance rating, may outweigh its value as a designed landscape, for
example, a woodland may have been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) on
account of its woodland flora or deadwood invertebrates giving it statutory protection and value
at a national level compared to the non-statutory and possible lower ranking as a designed
landscape. Other SSSIs may have been designated as a result of long use as woodland, parkland
or wood pasture. More commonly, woodlands in designed landscape are designated as Ancient
woodland or Long-established woodlands of plantation origin and included in SNH’s Ancient
Woodland Inventory. In a few instances National Nature Reserves overlap the boundaries of
designed landscapes. In addition, protected species of birds, other animals and plants occurring
within designed landscapes. It is an offence for people to kill or capture birds and other animals,
or to uproot plants. The law also prohibits the disturbance of some wild creatures, and their nests
or resting places, and the picking of any part of some plants.
All SSSIs have management guidance produced by SNH to assist owners and a list of management
operations for the site that require consent. Where a SSSI occurs in a designed landscape and restoration
or replanting is proposed, careful consideration of management actions and detailed discussions with
the SNH’s local office will be necessary in order to avoid potentially damaging impacts on the natural
heritage interest of the site. Written consent for agreed management operations must be achieved.
The statutory protection for special sites and protected species means that by law it is necessary
for the nature conservation interests to take precedence over other designed landscape values
or issues such as aesthetics, use of exotic species etc. However, it is to be hoped that a balanced
approach can be achieved by cooperative working in which aims for both the natural and cultural
heritage can be achieved.
Figure 63 Policy woodland and SSSI, Clyde valley.
39
Fragmentation of sites
Country estates are often sold as a number of lots and result in divided ownership and a lack of
coordinated management and maintenance. In some cases the main house retains only a small
part of the gardens or the house has been lost due to fire so the landscape has no focus. In many
instances new houses have been built in parts of the grounds or other new uses like golf added to
the landscape. Often in these situations, more common close to urban areas, no-one has overall
responsibility for management and features such as tree belts, hedges and drives that cross ownership
boundaries have no clear owner and become neglected or subject to different treatments.
There can be significant communal and public benefit in conserving such fragmented sites through
coordinated management, that may include public uses such as community woodland, that is best
achieved through a Conservation Management Plan. A new management organisation or Trust may
be appropriate in some cases and involvement of owners and other stakeholders will be essential.
Access and interpretation
Many designed landscapes are outstanding resources for public access in scenic situations and
public areas can often be managed alongside privately used parts of the estate. Their great range
of cultural and natural interests means that waymarked walks and interpretation can add greatly
to people’s enjoyment of the place.
Access rights
The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 (www.snh.gov.uk/land-and-sea) established statutory rights
of responsible access to land and inland water for:
• outdoor recreation
• crossing land
• some educational and commercial purposes.
These are known as Scottish access rights.
The Scottish Outdoor Access Code gives detailed guidance on the responsibilities of those
exercising access rights and of those managing land and water. The Act sets out where and when
access rights apply and how land should be managed with regard to access. The Code defines
how access rights should be exercised. The three principles for responsible access apply to both
the public and land managers:
espect the interests of other people: be considerate, respect privacy and livelihoods, and
• R
the needs of those enjoying the outdoors.
• Care for the environment: Look after the places you visit and enjoy. Care for wildlife and
historic sites.
• Take responsibility for your own actions: The outdoors cannot be made risk-free for
people exercising access rights; land managers should act with care for people’s safety.
Full details of Scottish access rights can be found on the Scottish Outdoor Access Code website at:
www.outdooraccess-scotland.com
40
Figure 64
Dean Castle Country Park,
Kilmarnock – several estate
landscapes are now country
parks with good public access.
Planning for access and interpretation
Planning for public access and provision of information on the heritage of a site are often
prerequisites to grant aid for restoration and restocking sites. Good sources of guidance are
available for both of these subject areas from the SNH website, and its is essential that these
issues are considered at the earliest stage of a project.
The most appropriate media for interpretation will vary with each site. It is usually preferable to
avoid panels on site, due to their limitations in terms of intrusion, durability and vulnerability to
abuse, in preference to leaflets, for example.
The history of an estate and its designed landscape is a theme of great interest to many visitors,
although surveys show that is seldom interpreted.
Invasive species, pests and diseases
Invasive species
A number of non-native shrub and herbaceous plant species were once used extensively in estate
planting for shelter, game cover or ornament and have proven highly invasive, vigorously spreading
to exclude more desirable native species. Rhododendron ponticum is the most widespread invasive
species, often responsible for overgrowing paths and other features, and was planted as game
cover or as the rootstock for species rhododendron that have since reverted. Rhododendron
ponticum and hybrids is one of six species of flora and fauna included in the Scottish Natural
Heritage (SNH) Species Action Framework ( January, 2007) that sets out a framework for the
management of species in Scotland and lists species for which clear, targeted action over the next
five years could make the most difference to biodiversity. Less widespread but locally creating
severe problems are snowberry (Symphoricarpos rivularis) and salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis).
Among herbaceous plants three large perennials stand out. All are garden escapees originally
planted for their ornamental effect.
• J apanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica, syn. Polygonum cuspidatum) – listed on Schedule
9 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which makes it an offence to plant or cause
this plant to grow in the wild. It is not an offence if it is growing in your garden or on your
land and there is no specific duty either to notify anyone of its presence or to control it. Japanese knotweed is able to regenerate from very small pieces of plant and its rhizome
41
system can be up to 3 m deep, making it extremely difficult to eradicate once established.
It causes ecological problems as a result of out-competing native plants. It can also be
commercially damaging because of the cost of eradication and its ability to damage
structures and road surfaces.
• Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) – can often be found on waste ground and
riverbanks. It grows up to 5 m tall and each flower head produces thousands of seeds that
are readily dispersed by wind and water. If sap from the plant gets on to the skin and is then
exposed to sunlight, it can blister and cause severe skin irritation.
• Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) – an attractive garden escapee that can be
often found along riverbanks. It can outgrow native flora, creating an ecologically-harmful
monoculture in which native species are unable to thrive. It is able to project its seed over a
radius of up to 4 m and so spreads readily.
Figure 65
Figure 66
Rhododendron ponticum enclosing drive, Scottish
Borders.
Salmonberry, Rousay.
Figure 67
Figure 68
Japanese knotweed.
Giant hogweed.
For other non-native invasive species in Scotland visit: www.scotland.gov.uk
The Scottish Government along with Defra and the Welsh Assembly Government launched the
Invasive Non-native Species Framework Strategy (secure.fera.defra.gov.uk) for Great Britain on 28
May 2008. Its overarching aim is to minimise the risk posed and reduce the negative impacts
caused by invasive non-native species in Great Britain. It is intended to provide a strategic
framework within which the actions of government departments, their related bodies and key
stakeholders can be better coordinated.
42
Pest and diseases
Pest and diseases affecting trees and shrubs can have a major affect on our landscapes, none
more so than the devastating effect of Dutch Elm Disease on elms across Britain during the early
to mid-1970s, which continues to be active in Scotland. More recently Phytophthora, a fungus-like
pathogen known in a number of forms, is causing extensive damage and mortality to trees and
shrubs in parts of the United Kingdom including designed landscapes such as Brodick, Balloch
Castle and Ross Priory, affecting rhododendrons, beech, yew, larch and other plants.
With a recent increase in findings of new pest and diseases it is clear that Britain’s trees are under
unprecedented threat. Science indicates that climate change will create the conditions for even
more pest activity.
Figure 69
Ground sterilisation to combat
phytophthora, Loch Lomondside.
These heightened threats require us to take a more strategic approach to forest and tree health
and the Forestry Commission has recently formed a Biosecurity Programme Board with members
drawn from a number of organisations with environmental interests in the private and voluntary
sectors together with experts from the Commission and its Forest Research branch.
The top threats already present in Britain are:
• A
cute oak decline – a disease affecting oak trees in parts of Britain, in which bacteria,
including one species previously unknown to science, are believed to be involved.
• Bleeding canker of horse chestnut (Pseudomonas syringae pathovar aesculi) – a bacterium that
causes death to horse chestnut trees. Up to half of Britain’s horse chestnut trees have symptoms.
• Great spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus micans) – is present throughout much of the
Eurasian region, practically everywhere that spruce trees grow.
• Horse chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella) – first found in London 2002. Its range has
expanded over the years to many locations in southern England and parts of Wales.
• Oak pinhole borer (Platypus cylindrus) – used to be rare in Britain, but populations grew in
the south and southeast of England as a result of the 1987 gales, when it took advantage of
the sudden glut of suitable breeding material.
• Oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea) – defoliates oak trees and can cause
them to die. Trees are weakened and become prone to attack by other pests.
•Phytophthora kernoviae – has so far only been found in Britain, and only in a very few trees.
It can damage a number of tree species, including beech and English oak.
43
•Phytophthora ramorum – a fungus-like organism which attacks a range of trees and shrubs.
Japanese larch has recently been found to be a host.
• Pine tree lappet moth (Dendrolimus pini) – has been captured in pine forests in Invernessshire. A serious defoliator of pine and other conifer species in its native range in northern
and eastern Europe and Russia.
• Red band needle blight – caused by the fungus Dothistroma septosporum, can cause
mortality and loss of timber yield in pine trees. Main host is Corsican pine.
Plant health inspections of trees and woodland by Forestry Commission plant health inspectors
play an important role in efforts to manage outbreaks of pests and diseases. The Commission’s
Guidance for Plant Health Inspectors (www.forestry.gov.uk/planthealth) can help you understand
what to expect if an inspector needs to visit your property.
For more information about Phytophthora kernoviae and Phytophthora ramorum in Scotland visit:
www.forestry.gov.uk/phytophthora
Climate change and effects on woods and trees
Perhaps the greatest issue affecting the tree components of designed landscapes in the long-term
is climate change. Climate change is now one of the greatest global challenges and research
is underway to establish the likely impacts on all aspects of the environment. There are many
uncertainties in the extent and range of climate change, and its likely impact on trees, ecosystems,
native species and management operations. A key basis for risk planning and management is
diversification; from broadening the choice of genetic material, mixing tree species in stands, to
varying management systems and the timing of operations.
In this rapidly developing field of knowledge it is difficult to give precise advice on how to adapt a
planting project to restore the tree components of a designed landscape so that it is more resilient
to climate change. But there are emerging recommendations from research by the Forestry
Commission Scotland and Scottish Natural Heritage, and it will be necessary to keep in touch
with developments through dedicated areas of their websites.
Forestry Commission and climate change
The Forestry Commission’s programme of climate change research on trees, woodlands and
forests is wide-ranging, covering important aspects of climate change impacts, adaptation and
mitigation. The research aims to inform both policy and forest management practice. It also
supports biosecurity policy, and relates strongly to the ecosystem services approach to evaluating
the goods and services that trees and woodlands provide to society. The Forestry Commission
spends around a quarter of its research budget with Forest Research on climate change and
related programmes.
Forestry Commission policy
Forestry Commission policy on climate change stems from the UK Government’s response to the
Kyoto Protocol with the publication of the strategic document on climate change: Climate Change
– the UK programme published in November 2000.
The Scottish Forestry Strategy identifies climate change as the number one theme cross-cutting all
other aspects of forestry. The strategy calls for a robust adaptation policy to prepare the industry
to adjust and maintain or improve sustainable forest management.
44
Within the continuously developing and expanding knowledge of climate change and its effects
and based on the current known trends, Forestry Commission Scotland predicts the following
effects on tree growth and cultivation and makes the recommendations that follow.
Key findings:
• T he expected warmer climate will improve tree growth nationally, but particularly in southern and
eastern Scotland. Productivity will increase generally, and this could be by 2 to 4 cubic metres per
hectare per year (m3/ha/yr) for conifers on sites where water and nutrients are not limiting.
• The climate of southern and eastern Scotland will be more favourable for growing highquality broadleaved trees on suitable deep, fertile soils.
• Droughty soils in eastern Scotland will become unfavourable for Sitka spruce and other
drought-sensitive species.
• Changes in the seasonal distribution of rainfall will cause more frequent summer drought
and more frequent winter flooding.
• Changes in the frequency of extreme winds will cause more wind damage. However wind
scenarios have a high uncertainty attached.
• Pest and disease ecology will change with the climate; for example, more frequent greenspruce aphid attacks may reduce growth in eastern and southern Scotland.
• Scotland’s aspiration to expand woodland from 17% to 25% by 2050 provides an opportunity
to target reforestation within habitat networks. This will reduce woodland fragmentation and
thereby help improve the resilience of woodland ecosystems to climate change.
Emerging recommendations
• L ow-impact silvicultural systems (LISS) and the use of mixtures could provide the basis for
adaptation strategies.
• Where other management regimes are used, a wider range of species and a broader range
of genetic material within a species will increase stand resilience in a changing climate.
• Acceptance of natural colonisation of woodlands of non-native tree species may be a valid
adaptation strategy, but this must be reviewed where conservation is a major objective.
• Forest nurseries in eastern Scotland will have to adapt to the drier summers (for example by
using more irrigation) and to wetter winters (for example by avoiding soil damage).
• Contingency plans need to provide an adequate response to increasing risks of catastrophic
wind damage, fire, and pest or disease outbreaks.
• The upper wind exposure limit, defined in terms of the detailed aspect method of scoring, for
productive conifer plantations may need to be reduced.
Selected Forestry Commission and SNH reports and publications giving further information on
climate change issues include:
• Impacts of climate change on forests in Scotland - final report, Duncan Ray with Dave
Wainhouse, Joan Webber and Barry Gardiner; January 2008.
• The evidence supporting the use of Continuous Cover Forestry in adapting Scotland’s forests
to the risks of climate change, Victoria Stokes and Gary Kerr, October 2009.
• Climate change and the future for broadleaved tree species in Britain, M. Broadmeadow, D.
Ray and C. Samuel; Forestry 78:145–167.
• Climate Change and British Woodland, M. Broadmeadow and D. Ray; Forestry Commission
Information Note 69.
• SNH’s Climate Change Action Plan ( July 2009) sets out in some detail the actions it intends
to take over the current five year period.
• Effects on nature and landscapes are set out in terms of species, habitats and geology, soils
and landscapes in a dedicated area of SNH’s website.
45
Box 1 General sketch showing selected issues.
26
25
24
23
6
2
3
1
7
4
12
13
14
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Park trees and groups in need of restocking
Parkland trees from early avenue
Veteran trees, biodiversity value
Standing and fallen deadwood, biodiversity value
Drive-side tree groups positioned for views to house
Ha-ha separating lawn from grazed park
Iron estate fencing around park
Former woodland garden
46
11
9. Unmanaged woodland garden area with natural regeneration,
balancing management objectives in future management
10. Woodland management in relation to watercourses
11. Unmanaged policy woodland
12. Estate planted roadside trees, potentially dangerous and requiring
replacement
13. Roadside trees from former avenue
14. Hedges requiring regular maintenance and gapping up
27
21
22
20
19
18
18
17
5
16
8
9
15. Rhododendron invasion
16. Inappropriately located conifer infill
17. Abandoned walled garden, new use required
18. Old trees from lost early avenue
19. Ornamental tree groups including north American conifers
20. Parkland managed as improved pasture with damage trees and
declining tree groups
15
21. Restocking of main avenue; retained element from 18th century layout
22. Formal gardens
23. Simplification of park boundaries by infill tree planting
24. Outer park planted with trees
25. Commercial forestry on outer hillsides
26. Picturesque glen with wild character and man-made features
27. Former wood pasture with veteran trees
47
Illustrated by Clare Hewitt.
10
Appendices
Research sources, maps and websites in site assessment
There can be problems in deciding the extent of designed landscapes where there is a gradual
transition from parkland and policy woodland into the surrounding agricultural or forestry
landscape. In assessing the extent of these landscapes from map evidence, one is looking for
signature features such as field shape, gate-lodges, avenues, walled gardens etc. Confusion
may be caused by landscapes that have been combined, subdivided, or diminished in size. For
example, should the boundary mark the present extent, or the maximum area historically, of the
designed landscape, even where part of it may have become degraded or built over?
Historic Scotland, Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland
The maps in the original published volumes defined key landscape elements such as parkland,
drives, walled gardens etc, and included ‘land historically influenced by the designed landscape’
within a dotted line, and the maps included in the supplementary volumes for Lothian, Fife and
Highlands & Islands, defined additional elements such as ‘principal views or vistas’ and ‘essential
setting.’ On the maps with the online version of the Inventory (www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/
index/gardens) only the site boundaries are marked and there is no internal detail included. In
some instances the ‘land historically influenced by the designed landscape’ has been omitted
from the online site maps, leading to uncertainty about the true extent of the designed landscape.
Historic Scotland are currently carrying out a systematic resurvey of the Inventory which will
address these concerns.
RCAHMS, Pastmap
This online map, which allows zooming, panning and downloading of images, defines the extent of
Inventory landscapes clearly with yellow shading. No internal detail is included. Boundaries are not
shown for non-Inventory sites. Designed landscape elements of non-Inventory sites – gate-lodges,
walled gardens, stable blocks, view-houses etc – may be identified by using the colour coded buttons
for scheduled monuments, listed buildings, items on county sites and monuments records etc, this is
point-based information, and does not help in assessing the extent of designed landscapes.
Historic Land-use Assessment (RCAHMS)
The Historic Land-use Assessment (HLA) is a joint project between Historic Scotland and
RCAHMS. It is an online GIS-based map – available at HLAmap (hla.rcahms.gov.uk) – that depicts
the historic origin of land-use patterns, describing them by period, form and function. Its purpose
is to enhance our knowledge and understanding of the historic dimension of the landscape and
to inform management decisions relating to it. It highlights relict archaeological landscapes and
helps identify areas where further survey could usefully be targeted.
The HLA will be useful in forest planning and design; in considering the historic elements within
most Forestry Commission Scotland grants and licensing activities; and in considering historic
landscape character for Local Authority Woodland and Forestry Strategies.
HLA is compiled at a scale of 1:25 000 (enabling a comprehensive broad overview). The smallest
area that it is therefore practical to map is 1 ha (1000 m²). The assessment is based on the analysis
of key data sources, such as early maps, the National Monuments Record of Scotland, aerial
photography and archaeological survey results. It identifies individual historic land-use types,
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grouped together under thematic headings (categories) and assigned a likely chronological
period. These historic land-use types survive within current land-use patterns and contain
information in regard to landscape character and development. It also depicts relict land-use;
archaeological landscape features that survive but have fallen out of use.
The Historic Land-use Assessment uses evidence of the historic environment derived from a
variety of sources to produce three distinct but complementary categories of information:
•Category is designed to aid the user by sorting the individual land-use types into fourteen
national land-use categories for ease of reference. Land-use categories include forestry,
agriculture, urban, transport and mineral extraction
•Period is designed to aid the user by indicating likely chronological period of any given
feature and is indicated by century (and medieval / prehistoric etc).
•Type is extensive with over 50 land-uses, from medieval fields through to cemeteries,
charcoal platforms, fortifications and relict golf courses. Each type is characterised by its
period of origin, alongside its form and function.
HLA data is currently available for around 73% of the country.
Forestry Commission Scotland Historic Land-Use Assessment User Guide is available at:
www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
National Library of Scotland, County Maps
Although coverage of the country is both patchy and uneven, depending on the date of the
survey, the scale of the map, and the level of detail included by the individual surveyor, preOrdnance Survey maps (i.e. pre-1850) can be valuable in assessing the extent of designed
landscapes. On maps drawn at a larger scale, it may be possible to distinguish parkland and
policies with the help of shading and/or conventional symbols used, though these are not
standardised between maps. Almost all the County Maps are available online at the National
Library of Scotland’s website (maps.nls.uk/counties), which allows panning, zooming and
downloading of the map images.
National Library of Scotland, Ordnance Survey Maps
Ordnance Survey maps at a range of scales were produced from c.1850 onwards – the most
useful scales for assessing individual designed landscapes being 1:10 560 (6 inches to the mile)
and 1:2 500 (25 inches to the mile). The identification of designed landscapes on the OS 1st
edition 1:10 560 sheets is assisted in many cases by the parkland within the policies being
distinguished by a grey stipple. It may also be possible to distinguish between policy planting
and more commercial planting from the species mix, evident from conventional symbols for
broadleaves and conifers. The 6 inch OS sheets also include details of gate-lodges, footpaths, view
houses etc, which can be useful in defining landscape boundaries and extent.
Where they exist, covering most lowland and settled areas, the 1:2 500 (25 inch) sheets, are
easier to read and interpret, but do not contain much more detail.
Both the 1 inch OS c.1900 and 1 inch OS Popular Edition c.1925–30, though drawn at too small
a scale to show internal detail, use grey stipple to distinguish parkland and are useful for giving
an impression of the distribution and extent of designed landscapes in an area. All of these scales
and dates of Ordnance Survey maps are available from the Map Library online, with the ability
to pan, zoom and download images (maps.nls.uk/series). In some instances the character and
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composition of named woods is described in the OS Object Name Books, microfilm copies of
which are available from RCAHMS.
Forestry Commission, GLADE Land Information Search
Although it is not the purpose of this website to show the extent of designed landscapes, the
‘Ancient Woodland’ overlay which can be generated by clicking on the relevant box will often be
found to coincide closely with the extent of long-established policy woodland within designed
landscapes. The GLADE site (www.forestry.gov.uk/lis) is also an excellent source for related mapping
of land classifications and designations, and for all forestry grants that are already in place.
Historic Environment Information and Advice for Forest and Woodland
Managers in Scotland
An essential guide to the resources available to forest and woodland managers relating to the
historic environment of Scotland. It has been designed as a routemap to the most pertinent
available information and advice. Available as a free download from the Forestry Commission
Scotland website at: www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
Aerial Photographs
Although there are several websites giving access to detailed aerial photographic images, such
as Google Maps and Bing Map, coverage of the country is very uneven, and the quality and scale
of the images is very variable and not dated. Aerial photographs can be useful for corroborative
purposes, but are less valuable on their own.
RCAHMS hold the national collection of aerial photography with periodic coverage of many
sites from post-WW2 onwards, enabling assessment of change over the last 50–60 years with
much detail legible, particularly when viewed stereoscopically. Aerial photographs also record
Scheduled Ancient Monuments and other sites of archaeological interest, often under different
weather conditions to reveal otherwise hidden information. RCAHMS aerial photography is not
currently available online.
Sources of funding
Scotland Rural Development Programme (SRDP)
The SRDP brings together a wide range of formerly separate support schemes including those
covering the farming, forestry and primary processing sectors, rural enterprise and business
development, diversification and rural tourism. It includes measures to support and encourage rural
communities and delivers the LEADER initiative for local innovation in rural areas. Within SRDP the
most applicable grant mechanisms for design landscapes are:
• R
ural Priorities – this is a competitive grant scheme delivered jointly by Scottish Government
Rural Payments Inspections Directorate, Scottish Natural Heritage and Forestry Commission
Scotland through area offices.
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Contracts
are awarded for the proposals which are best able to deliver the agreed Regional
priorities. The most relevant priorities to designed landscapes are ‘Landscape Priorities’ and ‘Built
& Cultural Heritage’ Priorities.
• C
hallenge Funds – consists of Woodlands In and Around Towns (WIAT) and Forest for People
(F4P) and are administered by Forestry Commission Scotland. The WIAT fund is the most
relevant fund to support designed landscapes. The WIAT scheme aims to improve the quality
of life in towns and cities and focuses on woods within 1km of settlements with a population of
over 2000 people. The core objectives are:
– Bringing neglected woodland into management
– Creating new woodlands
– Supporting people to use and enjoy their local woods
An Action Plan has been developed to support delivery from 2011–2014 (www.forestry.gov.uk/wiat).
Figure 70
Figure 71
Many designed landscapes adjoin town centres. Dalkeith, Midlothian.
Woods, tree belts and water bodies from estate
designed landscapes often survive as valuable
resources within the built-up area of towns.
• L EADER – Links Between Activities Developing the Rural Economy – LEADER is a bottom-up
method of delivering support for rural development through implementing local development
strategies. Support, awarded by Local Action Groups (LAGs), is aimed at local projects with a
wide community benefit that show an element of originality or experimentation where possible,
and complement other activities within the local development strategy.
T he aim of LEADER is to increase the capacity of local rural community and business networks
to build knowledge and skills, and encourage innovation and co-operation in order to tackle
local development objectives. LEADER accounts for 6% of the total Scottish Rural Development
Programme SRDP allocation.
For application forms, guidance and advice contact your Local Action Group.
Full details about Scotland’s Rural Development Programme can be found at the Scottish
Government’s SRDP website.
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Central Scotland Green Network (CSGN)
The Scottish Government’s second National Planning Framework (NPF2) designates the Central
Scotland Green Network (CSGN) as one of only 14 National Developments. The CSGN is
intended to deliver “a step change in environmental quality, woodland cover and recreational
opportunities”, to make Central Scotland “a more attractive place to live and do business, help to
absorb CO2, enhance biodiversity, and promote healthier, more active lifestyles”.
Forestry Commission Scotland, in its capacity as joint lead partner for the CSGN, invites
applications to a new fund, to support the development of early CSGN delivery projects.
For information covering the scope of the funding, eligibility criteria, and the application process,
visit the CSGN website (www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org).
Heritage Lottery Fund
The Heritage Lottery Fund uses money from the National Lottery to give grants for a wide range
of projects involving the local, regional and national heritage of the United Kingdom. HLF’s award
programmes (details of how to apply can be found at www.hlf.org.uk/howtoapply) that can be
relevant to designed landscapes projects include:
eritage Grants (grants above £50,000): This is the main programme for grants over
• H
£50,000 for all kinds of heritage that relate to the national, regional and local heritage of the
UK. It is open to all not-for-profit organisations.
• Your Heritage (£3000 to £50,000): This is the general small grants programme for all types
of heritage projects. It is a flexible programme particularly designed for voluntary and
community groups and first-time applicants.
• Parks for People (£250,000 to £5million): Parks for People is for whole park projects that
support the regeneration of existing designed urban or rural green spaces, the main purpose
of which is for informal recreation and enjoyment.
• Landscape Partnerships (£250,000 to £2million): This programme supports schemes that
are led by partnerships of local, regional and national interests, which aim to conserve areas
of distinctive landscape character throughout the UK.
• Skills for the future (£100,000 to £1million): Skills for the Future funded projects which
provide paid training placements to meet a skills gap in the heritage sector, and fully support
trainees to learn practical skills.
Historic Scotland
Historic Scotland’s grants are directed primarily at listed buildings, scheduled ancient monuments
and other archaeological sites, and conservation areas. Grants can be a source of funding for work
to these structures or areas that are in or part of a designed landscape.
Historic Scotland can award Landscape Management Plan Grants for the preparation of
landscape management plans for sites included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed
Landscapes in Scotland.
Applications are considered throughout the year on Historic Scotland’s Landscape Management
Plan application form (www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/grants). Grants can be awarded
at rates of up to 50% of the cost of preparing a plan prepared by a consultant who has an
established record of work to historic gardens and designed landscapes.
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For further details visit the Historic Scotland Landscape Management Plan Grants webpage at:
www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/grants
Organisations for further information and advice
•Forestry Commission – www.forestry.gov.uk
Grants and licences; forestry initiatives; extensive technical advice on all aspects of tree
cultivation, woodlands and forestry; land information search.
• Ancient Tree Forum – frontpage.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum
• Central Scotland Forest Trust – www.csft.org.uk
• Central Scotland Green Network – www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org
• Edinburgh and the Lothians Forest Habitat Network partnership – www.elfhnp.org.uk
•Garden History Society in Scotland – www.gardenhistorysociety.org
Independent source of information and advice.
• Glasgow Clyde Valley Green Network Partnership – www.gcvgreennetwork.gov.uk
• Greenspace Scotland – www.greenspacescotland.org.uk
• Historic Scotland – www.historic-scotland.gov.uk
Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscape in Scotland; landscape management plan
grants; listed buildings.
• The Landscape Institute – www.landscapeinstitute.org
Appointing a Landscape Architect, list of practices.
• National Library of Scotland, Map Library – maps.nls.uk
• The National Trust for Scotland – www.nts.org.uk
•Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland –
www.rcahms.gov.uk
• Royal Scottish Forestry Society – www.rsfs.org
Journal, events and research related to trees, woods and forestry in Scotland.
•Scottish Government Rural Payments and Inspections Directorate –
www.scotland.gov.uk/topics/farmingrural/srdp
Scotland Rural Development Programme (SRDP).
• Scottish Natural Heritage – www.snh.org.uk
Statutory protection of sites and species; Outdoor Access Code; country parks; grants and
licences; interpretation; access design guidance; signs guidance.
• The Woodland Trust – www.woodsforpeople.info
Woods for people.
General reading
Many specialist publications are listed under different topics in other parts of the preceding
Guidance. The following is a short bibliography of general reading on the subject, both published
books and online resources.
Bell, S. (1998). Forest design planning: a guide to good practice. Forestry Commission Practice
Guide. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. (www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
Forestry Commission Scotland (2008). Scotland’s Woodlands and the Historic Environment.
Forestry Commission Scotland, Edinburgh. (www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
Land Use Consultants (2008). An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland.
Vols. 1–5 (1987), later supplements and online Inventory (www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/
heritage/gardens).
Reid, J. (1988). The Scots Gard’ner, 1683. Reprinted by Mainstream Publishing Company,
Edinburgh. Introduction by Annette Hope.
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Scottish Natural Heritage (1997). Designed Landscapes in Scotland: notes on their planting
and management. SNH Review No. 82. Scottish Natural Heritage, Inverness.
Tait, A.A. (1980). The Landscape Garden in Scotland 1735–1835. Edinburgh University Press,
Edinburgh.
Watkins and Wright (2007). The Management & Maintenance of Historic Parks, Garden &
Landscapes. English Heritage Handbook. English Hertitage, London.
Relevant legislation and publications
A Preliminary and Interim List of Parks and Gardens of Outstanding Historic Interest, ICOMOS-UK 1979
An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland 1987
An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland, List of Sites 2007
Ancient Woodland Inventory, Scottish Natural Heritage
European Landscape Convention 2000
Forestry Act 1967
Natural Heritage Futures, Forests and Woodlands 2002
Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas)(Scotland) Act 1997
Rural Development Contracts, Land Managers Options 2008
Scotland Rural Development Programme 2007–2013
Scottish Historic Environment Policy 2009
Scottish Planning Policy 2010
The Scottish Forestry Strategy 2006
The Tree Council’s Tree Warden Scheme, Tree Warden Handbook
Town and Country Planning Act 1947
Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure)(Scotland) Order 1992
Glossary and acronyms
Historic Environment Information and Advice for Forest and Woodland Managers in Scotland
www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy List of acronyms.
Symes, M. (2006). A Glossary of Garden History. Shire Garden History series, 3rd revised edition.
The most useful published Glossary.
Gardenvisit.com – www.gardenvisit.com/garden_glossary – Online glossary of garden terms.
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The Scottish Historic Environment Policy ( July 2009) describes gardens and designed
landscapes as, ‘Gardens and designed landscapes can be defined as grounds that are
consciously laid out for artistic effect. They are often the setting of important buildings
and, in addition to parkland, woodland, water and formal garden elements, can often have
significant archaeological and scientific interest.’
Since Medieval times, designed landscapes have evolved and at times changed dramatically
in style and character. Throughout all periods and recognised styles however, trees have
been an essential feature. In the 20th century social and economic changes proved
challenging times for land management, with a combination of estate fragmentation,
decline and changed land-use policies, specifically regarding new objectives for forest
expansion and management. Now designed landscapes are appreciated for their contribution
to local landscape character and the distinctiveness of many of Scotland’s landscapes.
Cover - David Robertson/www.scot-image.co.uk
Today the challenge is to protect, restore and rejuvenate the remaining legacy, whilst
ensuring arboricultural and silvicultural practices can deal with the changes anticipated
from climate change. This guidance is an essential contributor in helping ensure designed
landscapes can meet those challenges.
231 Corstorphine Road
Edinburgh
EH12 7AT
£5.00
www.forestry.gov.uk/scotland