fulltext

I
Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft
Phänomene des Religiösen
II
Römisch-Germanische Kommission, Frankfurt a. M.
Eurasien-Abteilung, Berlin
des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
Kolloquien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte
Band 12
Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH · Bonn 2009
III
Römisch-Germanische Kommission, Frankfurt a. M.
Österreichische Akademie der wissenschaften
Archäologisches Museum Frankfurt
Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft
Phänomene des Religiösen im 1. Jahrtausend n. Chr.
in Mittel- und Nordeuropa
Akten des 59. Internationalen Sachsensymposions
und der
Grundprobleme der frühgeschichtlichen Entwicklung im Mitteldonauraum
herausgegeben von
Uta von Freeden, Herwig Friesinger und Egon Wamers
Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH · Bonn 2009
IV
X, 532 Seiten mit 413 Abbildungen
Titelbild
Anhänger aus Silber aus Galgebakke, Nordjütland
(S. 296 Abb. 12,2).
Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation
in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische
Daten sind im Internet über < http : // dnb . d-nb . de > abrufbar
© 2009 by Römisch-Germanische Kommission
des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Frankfurt a. M.
Satz: http : // wisa - print . de
Druck: druckhaus köthen GmbH, Köthen
gedruckt auf alterungsbeständigem Papier
ISBN 978-3-7749-3663-8
V
Vorwort
Die frühgeschichtliche Archäologie Mitteleuropas kennt mit den
„Grundproblemen der frühgeschichtlichen Entwicklung im Mitteldonauraum“ und dem „Internationalen Sachsensymposion“ zwei
weit verzweigte Netzwerke, in denen sich Wissenschaftlerinnen
und Wissenschaftler aus vierzehn Ländern Mittel- und Nordeuropas in jährlichen Tagungen zusammenfinden. Es lag auf der Hand,
beide Kreise in einer Konferenz zusammenzuführen, auf der
grundlegende Fragen der Frühgeschichte Europas dargestellt und
diskutiert werden sollten. Vor diesem Hintergrund entwickelte ein
Gremium von zehn Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftlern
seit 2006 ein Tagungskonzept, das unter dem Thema „Glaube, Kult
und Herrschaft. Phänomene des Religiösen im 1. Jahrtausend in
Mittel- und Nordeuropa“ beide Kreise zur inhaltlichen Diskussion, aber auch zum näheren Kennenlernen zusammenbringen
sollte. Vom 8. bis 14. November 2008 fand schließlich diese Konferenz im Archäologischen Museum der Stadt Frankfurt in Frankfurt
am Main statt, ermöglicht durch die finanzielle Förderung des
­Archäologischen Museums sowie der Römisch-Germanischen
Kommission des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts und der
­Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
„Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft“ war das große Rahmenthema
dieser Tagung. Aufgelöst in die drei Zeitscheiben „Römische Kaiserzeit“, „Völkerwanderungszeit“ und „Frühes Mittelalter“ sowie
ferner ergänzt durch einen diachronen Block wurden zentrale
Themen dieses Problemkreises erörtert. Im Mittelpunkt eines ers­
ten Abschnittes stand dabei die Manifestation von Macht im Reli­
giösen, wofür sich in unserem Arbeitsgebiet sowohl aus dem Imperium als auch im Barbaricum herausragende Beispiele aus dem
1. bis 10. Jahrhundert finden lassen. Dabei kommt den eigentlichen
Kulthandlungen und deren archäologischer Evidenz eine zentrale
Bedeutung zu. Daneben zu stellen sind die Bestattungen und das
Bestattungszeremoniell der Herrschenden, aber auch die Architektur von Kultbauten im weitesten Sinne. In diachronem Ansatz
konnte so der Vergleich zwischen herausragenden Denkmalkomplexen, königlichen Grablegen und den frühen Kirchen gewagt
werden. Dabei durften die paganen Riten der frühgeschichtlichen
Ethnien Ostmitteleuropas nicht vernachlässigt werden, selbst wenn
die archäologische Basis für weiterführende Interpretationen nicht
immer so tragfähig ist wie in anderen Regionen West- und Nordeuropas.
VI
Vorwort
Eine lange, kulturhistorisch und mentalitätsgeschichtlich
grundlegende Traditionslinie lässt sich im Bereich der Amulette
und der Kultbilder nachvollziehen. Die Amulette stellen basale
Formen der Volksreligiosität mit einer erstaunlichen Traditions­
beständigkeit dar. In der Auseinandersetzung zwischen Hochkultur und Barbaricum entwickelt sich in der ersten Hälfte des
1. nachchristlichen Jahrtausends eine Symbolsprache, die zunächst
in den germanisch geprägten Kulturen und dann in der Bildsprache des christlichen Frühmittelalters erste überregionale und damit
europäische Verständigungsebenen findet.
Es war den Mitgliedern des vorbereitenden Ausschusses durchaus bewusst, dass im Rahmen dieser Konferenz kaum ein abschließendes oder gar vollständiges Bild entwickelt werden konnte. Das
wissenschaftliche Konzept zielte vielmehr auf die Integration einzelner Themenkomplexe aus jenen Bereichen und Regionen Europas, für die die „Grundprobleme“ und das „Sachsensymposion“
seit vielen Jahren wesentlicher Motor wissenschaftlicher Diskussion und archäologischen Erkenntnisgewinnes sind. Wir sind uns
allerdings sicher, dass so ein umfassender Einblick in zentrale Fragen zur Archäologie von „Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft“ gewonnen
werden konnte, wofür der vorliegende Band ein eindrucksvolles
Zeugnis ist.
Unser Dank gilt den Kolleginnen und Kollegen, die sich so
intensiv und kooperativ für die Vorbereitung der gemeinsamen
Konferenz engagiert haben: Für die Grundprobleme im Mitteldonauraum sind dies Prof. Dr. C. Bálint (Budapest), Prof. Dr. F.
Daim (Mainz), Dr. K. Pieta (Nitra), Dr. A. Stuppner (Wien) sowie
Dr. J. Tejral (Brünn), für das Internationale Sachsensymposion
Dr. U. von Freeden (Frankfurt), Prof. Dr. E. Wamers (Frankfurt) und
Dr. L. Webster (London) sowie die Unterzeichnenden. Der RömischGermanischen Kommission und ihrem Direktor, Herrn Prof. Dr.
Friedrich Lüth danken wir für ihre Gastfreundschaft vor und während der Tagung. Die RGK erklärte sich zudem bereit, den vorliegenden Band in ihre Reihe Kollquien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte
aufzunehmen, wofür wir ebenfalls besonders dankbar sind. Unser
ganz besonderer Dank gilt Dr. Uta von Freeden und Herrn Prof.
Dr. Egon Wamers sowie den Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeitern
der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission und des Archäologischen
Museums, die die Konferenz selbst in großer Gastfreundschaft und
Herzlichkeit organisierten und die den vorliegenden Band schon
ein Jahr nach der Frankfurter Tagung der Fachöffentlichkeit vor­
legen.
Claus von Carnap-Bornheim
Schleswig
Herwig Friesinger
Wien
August 2009August 2009
VII
Inhalt
vorwort
Eröffnungsvortrag
1Ernst Künzl
Das Herrschergrab im Altertum von Alexander bis Theoderich
Opferfunde – Ausdruck von Kult und Herrschaft
25Claus von Carnap-Bornheim und Andreas Rau
Zwischen religiöser Zeremonie und politischer Demonstration –
Überlegungen zu den südskandinavischen Kriegsbeuteopfern
37Anne Nørgård Jørgensen
Weapon-offering types in Denmark, 350 bc to 1200 ad.
Definitions, chronology and previous interpretations
53 Xenia Pauli Jensen
From fertility rituals to weapon sacrifices.
The case of the south Scandinavian bog finds
Religion und Kult – Spätantike und Völkerwanderungszeit
67 Werner Jobst
Staatsreligion und Grenzsicherung.
Der römische Jupiterkult im Mitteldonauraum
81Alois Stuppner
Herrschaftszentren an der mittleren Donau und spätrömische
religiöse Organisationsstrukturen
95 Franz Glaser
Kirchen in Noricum als Spiegel von Glaube und Herrschaft
Gräber – Ausdruck von Glaube und Macht
107 Karol Pieta
Das germanische Fürstengrab aus Poprad-Matejovce
123 Jaroslav Tejral
Langobardische Fürstengräber nördlich der mittleren Donau
163Eva Drozdová, Josef Unger, Václav Smrčka, Alena Němečková and Petr Krupa
Anthropological examination of skeletal remains of a princess buried at the
“Žuráň” barrow (south Moravia, Czech Republic)
173 Patrick Périn
Les tombes mérovingiennes de la basilique de Saint-Denis.
Nouvelles recherches interdisciplinaires
185Svante Fischer, Jean Soulat and Helena Victor
Two papers on chamber graves
VIII
Inhalt
Bedeutung – Zeichen und Symbole
203Alexandra Pesch
Iconologia Sacra. Zur Entwicklung und Bedeutung
der germanischen Bildersprache im 1. Jahrtausend
219Birgit Arrhenius
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
231Bente Magnus
The broken brooches
239Arnold Angenendt
Die Reliquien und ihre Verehrung im Mittelalter
Amulette – Magie und Glaube
253Annette Lennartz
Tradition und Wandel paganer Amulettbräuche in Mitteleuropa
zwischen Antike und Frühem Mittelalter
261Tivadar Vida
Herkunft und Funktion von Privatreliquiaren und Amulettkapseln
im frühgeschichtlichen Europa
281 Judit Sándor
Multi-step analysis of ancient remnants contained in a capsule
from Szihalom-Budaszög
287Anne Pedersen
Amulette und Amulettsitte der jüngeren Eisen- und Wikingerzeit
in Südskandinavien
Plätze – macht und Kult
305 Hauke Jöns
Aktuelle Forschungen am Zentralplatz von Sievern, Elb-Weser-Dreieck
319 Günther Binding
Karolingische Pfalzen. Vorbild und Imitation
329Lars Jørgensen
Pre-Christian cult at aristocratic residences and settlement
complexes in southern Scandinavia in the 3rd – 10th centuries ad
355 Karl-Magnus Lenntorp and Birgitta Hårdh
Uppåkra, investigations in 2005 – 2008
359 Pavel Kouřil
Vom Burgwall zur Curtis bei den oberdonauländischen Slawen.
Zur Problematik der Entwicklung, Datierung und Struktur
der Herrenhöfe während der großmährischen Periode
377Sebastian Messal
Zur Herrschaftsbildung bei den Slawen am Beispiel des Burgwalls
von Friedrichsruhe, Lkr. Parchim
Organisation – Macht und Kirche
385Babette Ludowici
Gedanken zu Phänomenen des Religiösen bei den kontinentalen
Sachsen vom 6. bis 10. Jahrhundert im Spiegel archäologischer Quellen
395Béla Miklós Szőke
Karolingische Kirchenorganisation in Pannonien
Inhalt
417Lumír Poláček
Die Kirchen von Mikulčice als Spiegel von Glaube und Herrschaft
437Alexander T. Ruttkay
Der Burgwall Bojná I - Valy. Ein machtpolitisches und kirchliches Zentrum
des 9. Jahrhunderts in der Westslowakei
Exkursion
449Michaela Jansen
Die Arnheider Kapelle St. Bartholomäus im Odenwald: ein frühmittelalterlicher Sakralbau
461 Rainer Atzbach
Das Palatium in Seligenstadt. Stadtherrschaft im archäologischen Befund
von der Frühgeschichte bis zum 13. Jahrhundert
Poster
483Uta von Freeden und Andrea Hampel
Ein frühmittelalterliches Gräberfeld in Frankfurt-Harheim
489Nick Stoodley and Jörn Schuster
Collingbourne Ducis, Wiltshire: an Early Saxon cemetery with bed burial
497Sofie Debruyne and Rica Annaert
The Merovingian cemetery of Broechem
501Lone Gebauer Thomsen
Pit houses on Zealand in the Late Iron Age and the Viking period –
a survey based on the material from the excavation at Tissø
511 Jörn Schuster and Chris J. Stevens
A medieval type of Grubenhaus bakery or kitchen from Kent
517Maria Panum Baastrup
Carolingian-Ottonian disc brooches – early Christian symbols in Viking age Denmark
SchluSSwort
529Torsten Capelle
Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft. Eine Bilanz aus dem ersten Jahrtausend
IX
X
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
219
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
Birgit Arrhenius
Introduction
In many old cultures there exist precious jewels
often with magical properties and dedicated to a
special god or goddess or given as a favour from
the god or a king. In ancient Egypt the hieroglyph
for gold is a collar, and golden collars of different
shapes were important messages of royal as well as
divine power 2. Especially known was the necklace
of the cow god Hathor, the Menet (Menat, Menit),
also depicted as a hieroglyph (fig. 1). The Menet
necklace was later adopted also by the fertility god­
dess Isis 3. Among the Jews the breastplate of the
highest Rabbi with twelve precious stones symbol­
izing the twelve Jewish tribes is known 4 and the
Roman emperors had huge fibulae with a central
setting of a sardonyx like the fibula from Szilagy
Somlyo / Simleul Silvaniei 5.
Also in Scandinavia in the Nordic sagas special
jewellery is known. One is the neck ring used by
the Svea tribe and called Sveagris (e. g. the pig of
the Svear). The name may mean that the neck ring
had ornaments in the shape of pigs (boars). Such
pig devices are found on broad golden collars from
the Migration period 6. Of certain importance in
this case may be the find of a small piece of such
a golden collar in the so called west mound in Old
Uppsala, the burial place of the Svea kings 7. In
the Ynglinga saga Snorri tells of how the Sveagris
was stolen from the Svea king Adils by the Dan­
ish prince Rolf Krake. During pursuit of the thief,
Rolf Krake threw away the Sveagris and king Adils
stooped to pick it up, whereupon Krake exclaimed,
“Now I have got the wealthiest of the Svear to bow
down like a pig” 8.
Another famous piece of northern jewellery is
the Brisingamen worn by the goddess Freyja. Most
detailed is the jewellery described in the Thrym­s­
kvida: Thor has lost his hammer to the giant Thrym
and the latter claims Freyja as his bride in exchange
for returning the hammer to Thor. When Thor goes
to Freyja with Thrym’s proposal, she becomes so
upset that the Brisingamen breaks. So Thor used
the Brisingamen instead, and went to the giant
Thrym disguised as Freyja. The poem describes in
detail how Thor was dressed as a bride with broad
beads on his chest. The poem does not make it clear
whether the beads are part of the Brisingamen,
and most probably the author did not know what
kind of jewellery the Brisingamen actually was. As
Mc Kinell 9 has argued convincingly, the Thryms­k­
vida was probably conceptualised in Anglo-Scan­
dinavian northern England. It is interesting in this
connection that the piece of jewellery called Bro­
sungamen in the Old English poem Beowulf is most
probably meant to be the Brisingamen 10.
The etymology of Brisingamen
Generally the word men has been translated as
“necklace” 11. However, the etymology of the word
men is perhaps not so clear as it may seem. The
word menni is known from Old German as the des­
ignation for a dog’s accessory, normally understood
as a dog’s collar 12. Use of the special name menni in
my opinion indicates that the accessory was not the
I would like to thank Professor Dr Lana Troy who has given
me valuable information on the Menet necklace.
2
Cf. Aldred 1971, 14 ff.
3
Cf. below.
4
Cf. Kunz 1971.
5
Fettich 1932, 21 ff.; Roth 1979, Abb. 46a.
6
Cf. Holmqvist 1980.
7
Lindqvist 1936, 179 fig. 100.
8
Snorre, Skaldskapurmål, stanza 44, in: Johansson / Malm
1997, 161.
9
McKinell 2001, 327 ff.
10
Cf. ibid. 334.
11
Cf. de Vries 1962, 384.
12
Cf. Meyer-Lübke 1911, 401.
1
220
Birgit Arrhenius
commonly used collar but a more special adorn­
ment, perhaps a broader collar. Returning to the
Brisingamen, an adornment on the chest rather than
a common necklace would provide a more plausi­
ble explanation of Freyja’s reaction to the message
from the giant Thrym. Heaving one’s chest in anger
is more natural than the throat swelling so much
that it causes a necklace to burst. Also the naming
of Loki as the thief of the Brisinga girdle 13 is more in
congruence with the etymology of men as a broad
collar adorning the chest. And finally the word men
corresponds closely to the word for the necklace of
the Egyptian cow god Hathor, with many strings of
beads – namely Menet (Menat or Menit), the name
used in Roman times as an attribute of the goddess
Isis. The word brising is described by Mc Kinell 14 as
a heiti for “fire”. Since brising is used only in con­
nection with Freyja’s jewellery in the Nordic sagas,
however, I have argued in an earlier paper 15 that
brising is a more specialized heiti for red transpar­
ent gemstones, mostly garnets, known as carbun­
culus in Latin and ἄνθραξ in Greek. The Latin and
Greek names allude to the fire-like colour of the
stone, and brising similarly describes this property
of the garnet gemstone. Therefore I would propose
the following etymology for Brisingamen:
men corresponding to Menet, (Menat, Menit) =
broad necklace
brising corresponding to carbunculus (ἄνθραξ) =
red garnet stones
The properties of garnets in ancient sources
In these circumstances it can be of relevance to
refer to the properties characterizing carbunculus
(ἄνθραξ) in lapidaries from ancient times. Theo­
phrastus 16 tells us that the gemstone anthrax had an
inner glow. Pliny in Historia naturalis 17 writes that
carbunculus took first place among gemstones and
derived its name from its resemblance to fire, but
also that some of these stones had such inner heat
that they could melt sealing wax. In later lapidarian
texts we learn that the stone could give its user love
and power. A Normannic lapidarium puts it like
this “(E)done amur de Deu e de gent. Dámi e dámie
ensement” 18. As is shown by Evans 19, the magical
properties attached to gemstones from the Middle
Ages are the same as can be traced back to Hellen­
istic time. It is therefore no wonder that we often
find garnets cut in the shape of a heart by Hellen­
istic and Roman-Byzantine goldsmiths. More in­
triguing is the fact that we find intaglios and gems
in garnets depicting the originally Egyptian fertil­
ity goddess Isis 20 as well as items belonging to her
1 The symbol
of the Menet necklace
with its counterpoise.
2 The symbol of Isis,
in ancient Egypt Asis,
meaning “throne”.
cult 21. It should be added that pictures of Eros were
also often cut in garnet 22, which is probably to be
explained by the connection between Eros and the
Horus child of Isis 23.
The cult of the goddess Isis
The cult of Isis spread from Egypt in the Hellenistic
period and became well established in the Roman
world in the first centuries ad. By this time Isis had
assumed most of the properties previously attrib­
uted to other Greek and Roman fertility goddesses.
Isis was called the goddess with the many names
such as Isis-Athena, Isis-Minerva, Isis-Artemis,
Isis-Aphrodite, Isis-Venus etc. Isis became an al­
mighty goddess, an Alma Mater; and her family
consisting of her husband (and brother) Osiris, re­
named Serapis in the Hellenistic era, her son Horus
and servant Anubis all belonged to the cult of Isis.
In Roman times the bull god Apis and the cow god
Hathor as well as the sphinx and birds such as the
ibis and some heraldic animals like the lion were
also associated with Isis. Isis was the queen of the
universe and supposed to have power over nature.
At the same time she was the goddess who had in­
spired the development of ancient civilization. She
was the goddess of navigation and knew magical
McKinnell 2001, 334.
Ibid.
15
Arrhenius 1969.
16
Caley / Richards 1956.
17
Cf. Eicholz 1962.
18
Marbodius of Rhennes in: Studer / Evans 1924, 89.
19
Evans 1922.
20
Brandt 1968, 439; 440; 441.
21
Ibid. figs. 368; 370; 378; 444; 437.
22
Ibid. figs. 381; 475; 476; 477; 484.
23
Merkelbach 1995, 263.
13
14
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
crafts as well as fortune-telling. She was known as
the benefactor of love between man and woman as
children and parents 24. In the Greco-Roman world
she was above all the faithful wife and divine pa­
troness of family life and instructor in domestic
arts 25. The name Isis is the Greek derivative of the
Egyptian name Aset (or Auset), meaning throne,
and a throne was the hieroglyph of Isis (fig. 2). We
know from the writings of Tacitus 26 and Ammi­
anus (330 – 395) that Germanic tribes also adopted
the cult of Isis. Of special importance is the fact, re­
corded in Ammianus, that the Alamannic king who
got to know the cult of Isis as a hostage in Gaul and
was so taken with it that he renamed his own son
Agenarikus Serapio 27.
The relations between Isis and Freyja
Recently here has been discussion of the impor­
tance of the Roman cult of Mitras to the develop­
ment of the cult of Odin 28. The significance of the
Isis cult as an inspiration for the development of the
fertility cult in the Germanic world has in my opin­
ion not been properly evaluated. The description of
the goddess Freyja has thus taken on many details
from the Isis cult. The vague references to an orien­
tal cult in main 29 is not sufficient in my opinion, as
there are more direct connections between the cult
of Isis and Freyja. It should be remembered that the
cult of Isis had a much longer duration than other
oriental fertility cults in Europe and even inspired
the cult of Queen Mary 30. The name Freyja lends
support to the virtues characterizing a housewife
e.g. Fru, just as Isis also supported the virtues of
the housewife. Moreover, stories such as Freyja’s
search for her dead husband Odr and her introduc­
tion of Seidr to the Asa gods have certain resem­
blances to Isis’s search for her dead husband Osiris.
Freyja’s trickery is illustrated by the story, told by
Diaconus 31, of how Freyja induces Odin to give the
name Longobards to the tribe she is protecting: she
instructs the women in the tribe to drape their long
hair as beards, Odin asks who the “long beards”,
i. e. the Longobards, are, and Freyja states that
when giving them a name, he also has to protect the
Longobards so they could combat their enemies.
This story could be compared with the story of Isis
shaping a snake that poisons the sun god Ra, for­
merly the mightiest of the gods. Isis offers to cure
him if he reveals his secret name. Reluctantly Ra
whispers the name and is healed but thereafter Isis,
knowing his name, possesses his power of life and
death. In an earlier paper I have pointed out that
the influence of the Isis cult on the Germanic fertil­
221
ity cult already begins in early Migration period 32.
In this paper I will concentrate on some Viking-era
finds and their possible connection to the famous
jewellery of Freyja’s Brisingamen, and the symbols
and amulets originally used here may have been
taken from the Isis cult.
The necklace in the Hoen treasure
When Signe Fuglesang 33 published the splendid
necklace with 57 pendants from Hoen, she rightly
pointed out that the necklace had a counterpart –
though simpler – in the necklace found in grave
632 in Birka with fourteen pendants. Like the neck­
lace in Hoen, many of the pendants in the Birka
grave consisted of small pieces with ornaments of
Carolingian origin. In grave 632 there was also a
snake pendant which could be compared to such
a pendant from Hoen (fig. 3). Fuglesang also noted
that the necklace in Birka grave 632 seems to have
been worn in a loop according to the excavation
plan made by Stolpe 34. The many pendants of the
Hoen necklace also suggest that parts of the neck­
lace were possibly worn in loops. Hayo Vierck 35
has made a very convincing reconstruction of how
the interred figure in grave 632 wore her necklace,
and claims that the loop was a way of emphasizing
three important pendants – a snake, a chair and a
coin of Theophrastus keeping the pendants in her
hand (fig. 4). Grave 632 in Birka is a chamber grave
with another secondary grave above it. Besides the
necklace the woman had two oval brooches of Pe­
tersens type 42 which has a predominant frequency
in Norway but which also is found in ten graves
in Birka 36. Whereas the dating of this type of oval
brooch in Norway seems to be in the 9th century, in
Birka 37 they occur somewhat later, i. e. at the begin­
ning of the 10th century, hence grave 632 may be
somewhat younger than the Hoen treasure.
Cf. Solmsen 1979; Widman 1970; Witt 1971.
Heyob 1975, 44.
26
Cf. Timpe 1992, 465.
27
Cf. Rolfe 1935, 12.
28
Kaliff / Sundqvist 2004.
29
Cf. Ström 1985, 182 ff.
30
Cf. Cavalli Björkman 1996; Begg 1985.
31
Diaconus, first book: Weimarck / Erikson 1971.
32
Arrhenius 2001.
33
Fuglesang in: Fuglesang / Wilson 2006.
34
Arbman 1940, 211 ff.
35
Vierck 2002.
36
Jansson 1985, 58.
37
Cf. Jansson 1985, 174; 182.
24
25
222
Birgit Arrhenius
3 Hoen treasure. The snake.
The treasure from Eketorp Nerike
The combination of a snake pendant and a chair
pendant is also found in the treasure from Eketorp
in Närke (Nerike) 38. This treasure has much in com­
mon with the Hoen treasure, although there is only
one item of gold in Eketorp. The gold item is circu­
lar pendant, now broken into two pieces, consisting
of a circular frame with garnet cloisonné surround­
ing a central field decorated with cloisonné pattern
with empty cells. In Hoen there was also a pendant,
a boss, with garnet cloisonné. Originally the boss
was probably a part of a Christian reliquary which
was reworked as a pendant 39. The pendant in Eke­
torp probably belongs to a necklace consisting of
beads and fourteen other pendants all made of sil­
ver. Among these pendants three are cast and orna­
mented in Borre style and three have filigree deco­
ration of which two are round pendants and one
cruciform, of so called Terslev type. Of the other
pendants, four are in thin silver plate in the shape
of a strike-a-light, and one in the shape of a small
Thor’s hammer. Further pendants are an elaborate
chair (fig. 5) and a human figure with hollow eyes,
(representing a dead man?, fig. 7) with a sword in
his hands, and lastly a snake pendant more or less
identical with a pendant from Nordfjord, Norway 40
but in this case made of silver (fig. 6). The chair
pendant has a pillow which is concave as though
someone were actually sitting on the chair. Also be­
longing to this necklace are 24 beads of silver, of
which 19 have filigree decoration and five consist
of coiled silver thread. Altogether the necklace con­
sisted of 96 pieces, among them another 57 beads of
which two were of amber and the others of glass, 19
of them with mosaic inlays.
Beyond this the Eketorp treasure included two
twisted neck-rings of silver, six brooches of which
two were round and four tongue-shaped. They
were all ornamented with filigree, the round ones
in a cruciform pattern, whereas the tongue-shaped
4 Birka, grave 632.
Remark the pendants 1 –­3 carried in a loop.
brooch had animal ornaments in filigree. Further­
more the treasure included four ball-shaped termi­
nals to pen annular brooches. The ball-shaped ter­
minals had applications with filigree in gold and
this type of filigree was also found on a globular
hollow collar, perhaps used for a wooden staff. It is
noticeable that the decoration of the globular collar
is much less worn than the ball-shaped terminals.
Finally the treasure included coins of which the ma­
jority were dirhems and mostly fragmented, which
corresponds to other pieces of so called hacksilver
in the treasure. The date of the deposition is pro­
vided by dirhems, the latest of which is from 954.
However, many of the items, as well brooches as
pendants, are of an older date.
Ekelund 1956.
Cf. B. Arrhenius in: Fuglesang / Wilson 2006, 123 ff.
40
Fuglesang / Wilson 2006, pl. 38F.
38
39
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
6 Eketorp. The snake pendant.
5 Eketorp. The chair or throne, note the concave pillow.
The grave find from Hagebyhöga Aska,
Östergötland
Another parallel to the pendant necklace of the
Hoen treasure was found in a large mound (no. 1)
in a cemetery at Aska Frälsegård in Östergötland.
It is a cremation grave, but as T. J. Arne emphasiz­
es the rich grave gifts are reminiscent of the boat
graves at Vendel and Tuna in Alsike 41. The mound
was opened by the owner of the field, and there
may have been contamination of the grave contents
from the present grave and a secondary grave,
since among the gifts were three oval brooches and
a three-lobed brooch of silver decorated in Borre
style. Otherwise the grave goods consisted of a
harness-bow mount and various equipment for a
wagon, two bronze vessels of which one was an
oriental jug and one a hanging bowl. The jewellery
comprised the brooches mentioned above and a
pendant necklace related to Hoen and Eketorp. Be­
sides 46 beads, most of glass and some with mosaic
inlays, there were also beads of rock crystal and
(perhaps) carnelian. Most probably another nine
41
Arne 1932.
7 Eketorp. The man with hollow eyes and a sword.
223
224
Birgit Arrhenius
8 Hagebyhöga. Pendants imitating Roman berloques.
pendants also belonged to the necklace: five were
pear-shaped berloques of a type known in gold
from the Roman period but here made of silver
(fig. 8). Furthermore there was a square pendant
with Borre style ornaments and a round pendant
with filigree and granulation ornaments, and lastly
two pendants, of silver probably gilded, depicting
humans. One of these consisted of a hollow-cast
man’s head. Prominence is given to the eyes with
drooping eyebrows and the curling moustaches
above a heart-shaped mouth. The helmet-like
crest consist of a bird spread over the top of the
head with a hooked beak resting on the bridge of
the man’s nose (fig. 9). The other pendant shows a
woman seated, with her arms resting on the knees
and dressed in a cloak (fig. 10). The prominent traits
are the woman’s jewellery consisting of a huge but­
ton and bow brooch and a necklace consisting of
four rows of beads of which the lowest row shows
somewhat larger beads or pendants. It may be that
the beaded contour following her folded arms in­
dicates that parts of the necklace also were carried
in a loop. It should also be noted that the seated
woman is probably pregnant. This large buttonon-bow brooch is also known from other pictures
from the time and is depicted for instance on a fig­
ure gold foil from Helgö (fig. 11) where the woman
is embracing and kissing a man.
The great button-on-bow brooches
In Scandinavia the button-on-bow brooch is a
brooch that was mainly used for garnet inlays in
the Vendel period 42. In Sweden and Denmark there
are many grave finds with such brooches 43. Where­
as the majority of these brooches are rather small,
around 10 – 15 cm, and often used pair wise, there
exist from the end of the Vendel period (around
700 – 750 ad) a group of larger brooches of this
type 44 (cf. fig. 14). But most conspicuous are some
giant brooches, e. g. more than 25 cm in length
and around 15 cm in height. These giant brooches
cannot have been worn by humans 45. In an earlier
paper 46 I have suggested that these giant brooches
were in fact the Brisingamen, but I am now modify­
ing this, believing that the button and bow brooch
only is one detail in the jewellery set called the Bris­
ingamen. It is the high significance of the garnet
inlays that made the button-on-bow brooch be­
come a part of this jewellery, but other items with
garnet inlays could have had the same function. So
the garnet pendants from Hoen and Eketorp had
the same significance. In the Merovingian empire
and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms the round brooch
was the foremost carrier of garnet inlays and is also
depicted on some figure gold foils from Helgö as
well as other places. An interesting picture (fig. 12),
found in a grave situated in Solberga, Östergöt­
land 47 not so far from Hagebyhöga, shows a lady
with her jewellery consisting of a bead collar and
a round brooch. In this case she will probably pro­
Cf. Arrhenius 1985, 182 ff.
Cf. Ørsnes 1966, 105 ff.
44
Cf. Arwidsson 1942, 110.
45
Arrhenius 1969, 56 ff.
46
Ibid.
47
Arbman 1939.
42
43
225
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
9
Hagebyhöga. A man’s head with a helmet.
1
Hagebyhöga. The woman.
vide a rich harvest to a fisherman. From above we
learn that the depicted female on the pendant from
Hagebyhöga belongs to a series of pictures of pros­
perous women, all wearing a special jewellery set
and engaged in activities related to fertility 48. Most
probably these pictures show us Freyja with her fa­
mous Brisingamen. And the male figure found on
the same necklace would therefore most probably
have been her dead husband Odr.
The boat graves from Tuna in Badelunda
A final parallel to the pendant necklace of Hoen is a
necklace parts of which were found in boat graves
75 and 35 in Tuna Badelunda (fig. 13 – 14) 49. In grave
75 the necklace had fourteen pendants consisting
of copies of kufic coins made in thin silver sheet.
The placement in the grave indicated that the neck­
lace consisted of at least two rows of beads, alto­
gether 140, of which the pendant coins made the
lowest row. The pendants were adapted between
small segmented beads (cf. fig. 13). The beads were
placed between the two tortoise brooches but there
was no evidence of how the beads were attached to
the brooches. Besides this jewellery the grave con­
tents consisted of a set of vessels made of wood.
The vessels consisted of a beaker with a foot and
above the foot engraved furrows, and furthermore
a wooden dish and a birch bark box. A spoon of
wood also belonged to the set.
48
49
Cf. Näsström 2002, 144 ff.
Nylén / Schönbäck 1994.
11
12
Helgö. Picture foil.
Solberga. The mount.
226
Birgit Arrhenius
13 Tuna in Badelunda, grave 75. The bead necklace.
From the same period there is another boat grave
with jewellery, grave no. 35, in the Tuna cemetery.
In this case the jewellery consists of a huge buttonon-bow brooch with garnet inlays (cf. fig. 14), one
small oval brooch and one equal-armed brooch.
This rather heterogeneous jewellery set also com­
prises 33 beads of which one is made of gilded
bronze and the rest of glass with a predominance
of mosaic beads. Three pendants of gilded bronze
in the shape of a strike-a-light also belonged to the
jewellery set. Among other finds in the grave was a
simple knife of iron. The boat itself was of the same
type as in grave 75, i. e. in both cases with sown
boards. Modern DNA analysis revealed that the in­
dividuals buried in these two graves were females
with a close kinship, either a mother and daughter
or two sisters 50. I believe that this kinship is sig­
nificant and allows us to suppose that the jewel­
lery in both graves originally belonged to the same
set composed of a large button-on-bow brooch and
four rows of beads, one row of which consisted of
coin copies and strike-a-light pendants.
The Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
Above we have seen a jewellery sets with some
distinctive traits. One trait is the many pendants
either being loops with some beads or real pen­
dants in the shape of coins, odd pieces of foreign
ornaments, antiquities or even copies of antiques
and finally magical amulets. A garnet brooch or a
garnet pendant was an important part of the jewel­
lery set. The many pendants must have influenced
the wearing of the jewellery inasmuch as they gave
out a certain sound like jingle bells. I believe that
this jingle sound is a property that connects the
Brisingamen with the Menet necklace. The Menet
necklace was used alongside the sistrum in cer­
emonies 51 in which the rattling of the Menet con­
stituted an important property. The rattling sound
of the Menet depends on the necklace consisting of
beads of stones or faïence and the rattling could be
produced when it was held in its counterpoise or
simply lifted.
Unlike the Brisingamen the Menet necklace does
not have any amulets, but instead there are pictures
illustrating the cult on the counterpoise. As men­
tioned above, the Menet necklace was dedicated to
Isis also in the Hellenistic period, when the cult of
Isis spread to the Greeks and Romans, though now
perhaps it was used as a votive item more than ac­
tually being worn. In the middle of the 4th century,
after the death of Constantine and during the reign
of Julian the Apostate, oriental religions flourished
and the cult of Isis proved especially attractive to
females in the empire 52. Towards the end of the
4th century and during the 5th, the Germanic tribes
formed into small kingdoms in response to pres­
Götherström 2001; Götherström / Malmström / Lidén in
press.
51
Cf. Troy 1986, 89 ff.; Daumas 1969.
52
Heyob 1975, 109 ff.
50
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
14 Tuna in Badelunda, grave 35.
The button and bow brooch.
sure from the Huns. In this period when Germanic
troops were engaged in the imperial war against
the Huns, but also took part in raids along the Ro­
man border, the Germanic tribes most probably
took on traits from other pagan religions, incorpo­
rating them in their indigenous religion. It is from
this time that we hear of the above-mentioned sto­
ry of how Freyja induced her husband Odin to give
the Longobards their name. As I have pointed out
in a previous paper 53 the Germanic treasure finds
from this period include two finds with very rich
garnet jewellery with possible links to an Isis cult –
the treasures from Petroassa 54 and Szilagy Somlyo
(Silvan Silvanei) 55. In the Petroassa treasure Isis is
depicted on the large silver bowl 56, and at least one
of her servants is wearing a Menet necklace 57. Very
intriguing in our context is the golden necklace
with 52 pendants that are miniatures of different
tools, but also a man paddling a canoe, and a large
crystal ball found in treasure I in Szilagy Somlyo 58.
Found in the same deposit and most probably be­
longing to the same jewellery set were fourteen Ro­
man medallions and a large golden disc pendant
with garnets in cloisonné. As Lindqvist pointed
out first 59 the frame of one of the medallions has
a border with facial masks that shows a close con­
nection to Germanic gold bracteates. This border
ornament also is an indication that the jewellery
set was arranged in a Germanic workshop, and I
would suggest that what we see here is an early
forerunner of a Brisingamen, the miniatures being
symbols of ancient handicrafts and the canoe sym­
bolizing navigation, both virtues of which Isis was
a benefactor. And the crystal ball could have been
used in connection with divination. As pointed out
by Capelle, who recently made a thorough study of
the chain with the 52 pendants 60, there are finds of
miniatures of this kind here and there in Germanic
227
female graves, particularly in graves belonging to
the Černjachov culture, but also further north in
Germania Libra 61.
The gold bracteates occur mainly in the Nor­
dic countries, but also spread to eastern as well as
western Europe 62. The gold bracteates are mostly
found in deposits and are rare in graves 63. Some­
times they seem to have been used as Charon coins
in graves, but more commonly they were placed
on strings with other beads. In a deposition from
Agerskov, Denmark, the strings of beads and brac­
teates are arranged in loops 64 and the strings are
made of leather.
The bracteates certainly had many functions in
the society 65 but I would like to suggest that they
formed part of the jewellery set that was called
the Brisingamen. When gold bracteates ceased to
be manufactured, the Brisingamen acquired a new
shape consisting of rows of beads 66 and a buttonon-bow brooch. Pendants in the shape of a throne
(Isis), a snake or antiques (representations of old
civilizations) were already added in the early Vi­
king period. One may wonder if these amulets are
a consequence of the renewed contacts with southeastern Europe (where all kinds of amulets seem
to have been in constant use) or if they were the
visual examples of a tradition going back to the Ro­
man Iron Age. The individual shapes of the amu­
lets 67 depicting the finds of the chairs indicate that
they were an indigenous attempt to visualize old
myths. The visual renderings of oral myths may
also have been inspired by the rich Christian mis­
sionary art that the Vikings encountered on their
travels abroad.
Arrhenius 2001.
Odobescu 1889 – 1900.
55
Fettich 1932.
56
von Heland 1973, fig. 32.
57
Ibid. fig. 38.
58
Capelle 1994.
59
Lindqvist 1926, 20.
60
Capelle 1994.
61
Ibid. 90.
62
Cf. map of distribution in Axboe 2007, fig. 1.
63
Ibid. 105 ff.
64
Ibid. 106 and fig. 77.
65
Ibid. 111 who has summarized this discussion.
66
Cf. Arrhenius 1960.
67
Cf. Price 2002, 41 – 49.
53
54
Illustration credits: Fig. 3 After Fuglesang / Wilson 2006. –
Fig. 4 Reconstruction after Vierck 2002. – Fig. 5 After Ekelund
1956. – Fig. 6 After Ekelund 1956. – Fig. 7 After Ekelund 1956.
– Fig. 8 After Arne 1932. – Fig. 9 After Arne 1932. – Fig. 10 Draw­
ing by B. Händel. – Fig. 12 After Arbman 1939. – Fig. 13 After
Nylén / Schönbäck 1994. – Fig. 14 After Nylén / Schönbäck 1994.
228
Birgit Arrhenius
Abstract
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
This article discusses the jewellery worn by the
goddess Freyja, the Brisingamen. The author has
previously claimed that brising (“glowing”) is a
heiti for “garnet”, in Latin called carbunculus and in
Greek ἄνθραξ. The word men has been compared
by other authors to the Old German word menni
meaning a collar for a dog. However, its origin may
have been the Menet (alternatively Menat or Men­
it) – originally the necklace of the cow god Hathor
which in the Greco-Roman time was taken over by
the fertility goddess Isis. The Menet necklace was
mostly used in ceremonies together with the mu­
sical instrument sistrum, when the rattling of the
Menet was an important element. The late Roman
cult of Isis most probably also influenced the old
Nordic religion where the goddess Freyja took over
many properties dedicated to Isis. The Germanic
Menet necklace also consisted of many strings, but
metal pendants like bracteates or coin imitations
and garnet jewellery were important elements, too.
Owing to its many metal pendants the Brisinga­
men could have produced a sound, though in this
case not rattling but rather a sound more like jingle
bells. This paper presents several precious items of
jewellery representing Freyja’s Brisingamen from
the Viking period, the most exquisite examples be­
ing the necklaces from Hoen in Norway and Eke­
torp in Sweden.
Zusammenfassung
Brisingamen und der Menet Halsschmuck
Brisingamen, der Schmuck der Göttin Freja, steht im
Mittelpunkt der Erörterungen. Früher war von der
Autorin die Meinung vertreten worden, dass „bri­
sing“ (glühend) als heiti für Granate steht, die la­
teinisch carbunculus oder griechisch ἄνθραξ heißen.
Den Wortbestandteil men haben andere Autoren
mit dem altgermanischen Begriff menni verglichen,
der „Halsband für einen Hund“ bedeutet. Mögli­
cherweise geht das Wort aber auf menet (menat,
menit) zurück. Dies bezeichnet ursprünglich den
Halsschmuck der kuhgestaltigen Göttin Hathor,
die in griechisch-römischer Zeit mit der Frucht­
barkeitsgöttin Isis gleichgesetzt wurde. Der Menet
Halsschmuck gehörte zusammen mit dem Sistrum
zu Zeremonien, bei denen das Klappern des Menet
ein wichtiger Bestandteil war. Der spätrömische
Isiskult beeinflusste wohl die nordgermanische Re­
ligion, in der die Göttin Freja viele Eigenschaften
übernahm, die der Isis zugeschrieben wurden. Der
germanische Menet Halsschmuck bestand ebenfalls
aus mehreren Reihen. Metallanhänger wie Brakte­
aten, Münzen und Granatschmuck stellten wichti­
ge Elemente dar. Anstelle des Klapperns erzeugte
der Brisinga Men wegen der vielen Metallanhän­
ger wohl eher den Klang von klingelnden Glocken.
In diesem Beitrag wird verschiedener kostbarer
Schmuck dieser Art aus der Wikingerzeit vorge­
stellt. Dabei stellen der Halsschmuck von Hoen in
Norwegen und von Eketorp in Schweden die auser­
lesensten Beispiele für Frejas Brisingamen dar.
Brisingamen and the Menet necklace
229
Bibliography
Aldred 1971
C. Aldred, Jewels of the Pharaos. Egyptian jewellery
of the Dynastic Period (London 1971).
Arbman 1939
H. Arbman, Östgötska storbondegravar från 700-talet
e. Kr. Östergötlands Fornm. Tidskr. 1939 – 1941, 57 – 77.
Arbman 1940
H. Arbman, Birka I, Die Gräber. Text (Uppsala 1940).
Arne 1932
T. J. Arne, Ein bemerkenswerter Fund in Östergötland.
Acta Arch. (København) 3, 1932, 67 – 112.
Arrhenius 1960
B. Arrhenius, En vendeltida smyckeuppsättning.
Fornvännen 1960, 65 – 91.
Arrhenius 1969
B. Arrhenius, Zum symbolischer Sinn des Almandin
im frühen Mittelalter. Frühmittelalterl. Stud. 3, 1969,
47 – 59.
Arrhenius 1985
B. Arrhenius, Merovingian Garnet Jewellery. Emer­
gence and social implications. Kungl. Vitterhets Hist.
och Ant. Akad. (Stockholm 1985).
Arrhenius 2001
B. Arrhenius, Beliefs behind the use of polychrome
jewellery. In: B. Magnus (ed.), Roman gold and the
development of the early Germanic kingdoms. Kungl.
Vitterhet Hist. och Ant. Akad., Konferenser 51 (Stock­
holm 2001) 297 – 310.
Arwidsson 1942
G. Arwidsson, Vendelstile, Email und Glas im 7. – 8.
Jahrhundert. Acta. Mus. Ant. Uppsala 2 (Uppsala,
Stockholm 1942).
Axboe 2007
M. Axboe, Brakteatstudier. Nord. Fortidsminder B 25.
(København 2007).
Begg 1985
E. Begg, The cult of the Black Virgin (London 1985).
Brandt 1968
E. Brandt, Griechische Gemmen von Minoischer Zeit
bis zum späten Hellenismus. Antike Gemmen in deut­
schen Sammlungen 1 (München 1968).
Caley / Richards 1956
E. R. Caley / J. F. C. Richards, Theophrastus. On
stones. (Columbus 1956).
Capelle 1994
T. Capelle, Die Miniaturkette von Szilágysomlyó
(Simleul Silvaniei). Univforsch. Prähist. Arch. 22 (Bonn
1994).
Cavalli Björkman 1996
G. Cavalli Björkman, Den svarta madonnan (Stock­
holm 1996).
Daumas 1969
F. Daumas, Dendara et le temple d’Hathor. Notice
sommaire. Publ. Inst. Arch. Franç. Arch. Orientale,
Rech. Arch. Philol. et Hist. 39 (Le Caire 1969).
Eicholz 1962
D. E. Eicholz (Translator), Pliny Natural History, Vol­
ume 10, Books 36 – 37. Loeb Class. Library 419 (London
1962).
Ekelund 1956
G. Ekelund, Silverskatten från Eketorp. Från bergslag
och bondebygd. Örebro läns hembygdförbunds års­
bok (Örebro 1956).
Evans 1922
J. Evans, Magical jewels of the Middle Ages an the Re­
naissance (Oxford 1922).
Fettich 1932
N. Fettich, Der zweite Schatz von Szilágysomlyó.
Arch. Hungarica 8 (Budapest 1932).
Fuglesang / Wilson 2006
S. Fuglesang / D. M. Wilson (eds.), The Hoen hoard.
A Viking gold treasure of the ninth century. Acta Arch.
Artium Hist. Pertinentia 14 (Rom 2006).
Götherström 2001
A. Götherström, Acquired or inherited Prestige? Mo­
lecular studies of family structures and local horses in
Central Svealand during the Early Medieval Period.
Theses and Papers in Scientific Archaeology 4 (Stock­
holm 2001).
Götherström / Malmström / Lidén in press
A. Götherström / H. Malmström / K. Lidén, Matrili­
nearity? Femal boat graves in Tuna in Badelunda, cen­
tral Sweden. Tor (in press).
von Heland 1973
M. von Heland, The golden bowl from Pietroasa. Acta
Univ. Stockholm Stud. Hist. Art 24 (Stockholm 1973).
Heyob 1975
S. K. Heyob, The cult of Isis among women in the Grae­
co-Roman World (Leiden 1975).
Holmqvist 1980
W. Homqvist, Guldhalskragana (Stockholm 1980).
Jansson 1985
I. Jansson, Ovala spännbucklor. En studie av vikingat­
ida standardsmycken med utgångspunkt från Björkö­
fynden. Aun 7 (Uppsala 1985).
Johansson / Malm 1997
K. G. Johansson / M. Malm, Snorres Edda (Stockholm
1997).
Kaliff / Sundqvist 2004
A. Kaliff / O. Sundqvist, Oden och Mithraskulten.
Religiös ackulturation under romersk järnålder och
folkvandringstid. Occasional Papers Arch. 35 (Uppsala
2004).
Kunz 1971
G. G. Kunz, The curios lore of precious stones 3(New
York 1971).
Lindqvist 1926
S. Lindqvist, Vendeltidskulturens ålder och ursprung.
Kungl. Viterhet Hit. och Ant. Akad. 36,1 (Stockholm
1926).
230
B. Arrhenius, Brisingamen
Birgit Arrhenius
and the Menet necklace
Lindqvist 1936
S. Lindqvist, Uppsala Högar och Ottarshögen (Stock­
holm 1936).
McKinell 2001
J. McKinell, Eddic poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian
northern England. In: J. Graham-Campbell / R. Hall / J. Jesch / D. N. Parsons (eds.), Vikings and the Dane­
law. Proc. Thirteenth Viking Congress (Exeter 2001)
327 – 344.
Merkelbach 1995
R. Merkelbach, Isis Regina – Zeus Sarapis. Die grie­
chisch-ägyptische Religion nach den Quellen dar­
gestellt (Stuttgart, Leipzig 1995).
Meyer-Lübke 1911
W. Meyer-Lübke, Romanisches Etymologisches Wör­
terbuch (Heidelberg 1911).
Näsström 2002
B.-M. Näsström, Fornskandinavisk religion. En grund­
bok (Lund 2002).
Nylén / Schönbäck 1994
E. Nylén / B. Schönbäck, Tuna i Badelunda. Guld,
kvinnor, båtar. I – II. V Västerås kulturnämnds Skr.
(Västerås 1994).
Odobescu 1889 – 1900
A. Odobescu, Le tresor de Pétrossa. HistoriqueDéscription. Étude sur l’orfèverie antique 1 – 3 (Paris
1889 – 1900).
Ørsnes 1966
M. Ørsnes, Form og stil i Sydskandinaviens yngre ger­
manske jernalder. Nationalmus. Skr. Ark. Hist. R. 11
(København 1966).
Solmsen 1979
F. Solmsen, Isis among the Greeks and Romans. Martin
Class. Lectures 25 (Cambridge / Mass., Lonson 1979).
Studer / Evans 1924
P. Studer / J. Evans (eds.), Anglonorman Lapidaries
(Paris 1924).
Ström 1985
F. Ström, Nordisk hedendom. Tro och sed i förkristen
tid (Stockholm 1985).
Timpe 1992
D. Timpe, Tacitus’ Germania als religionsgeschichtliche
Quelle. In: D. Beck / D. Ellmers / K. Schier (Hrsg.), Ger­
manische Religionsgeschichte. Quellen und Quellen­
probleme. RGA Ergbd. 5 (Berlin 1992).
Troy 1986
L. Troy, Patterns of Queenship in ancient Egyptian
myth and history. Acta Univ. Uppsaliensis Boreas 14
(Uppsala 1986).
Vierck 2002
H. Vierck, Zwei Amulettbilder als Zeugnisse des aus­
gehenden Heidentums in Haithabu. In: Das Achäolo­
gische Fundmaterial 7. Ber. Ausgr. Haithabu 34 (Neu­
münster 2002) 9 – 67.
de Vries 1962
J. de Vries, Altnordisches, etymologisches Wörterbuch
(Leiden 1962).
Price 2002
N. S. Price, The Viking way. Religion and war in late
iron age Scandinavia. Aun 31 (Uppsala 2002).
Weimarck / Erikson 1971
H. Weimarck / A. Erikson, Paulus Diaconus, Longo­
bardernas historia (Stockholm 1971).
Widman 1970
L. Widman, Isis und Sarapis bei den Griechen und
Römern (Berlin 1970).
Witt 1971
R. E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman world. Aspects of
Greek and Roman Life (London 1971).
Rolfe 1935
J. C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus. Roman His­
tory 1 – 3. Loeb classical library 16 (London, Cam­
bridge / Mass. 1935).
Roth 1979
H. Roth, Kunst der Völkerwqanderungszeit. Pro­
pyläen Kunstgesch. Supplbd. 4 (Oldenburg 1979).
Birgit Arrhenius
Stockholms Universitet
AFL, Wallenberg-Laboratoriet
106 91 Stockholm
Schweden
birgit.arrhenius@arklab.su.se