Read More - Raphael - Prints And Drawings
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Read More - Raphael - Prints And Drawings
5 56 Raphael Sketches for the Disputa (verso) c. 1508–9 Pen and brown ink, over black chalk 200 × 153 mm Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, 1935 In November 1507 Pope Julius II decided to move from the Borgia Apartments to the second floor of the Vatican Palace.1 He launched a campaign of redecorating the suite of rooms constructed half a century earlier for Pope Nicholas V (1447−1455), and his original idea was to assign the whole task to Perugino. When the ageing master refused such an extensive commission and undertook only a small part of the work, other painters were brought in to help.2 The decoration of the new state rooms, called Stanze, was then simultaneously entrusted to several independent workshops: the Stanza dell’Incendio to Perugino’s,3 the Stanza della Segnatura to that of Sodoma and the Flemish Johannes Ruysch (1460?−1533),4 while the Stanza di Eliodoro went to Luca Signorelli, later augmented by Bramantino (c. 1465−1430) and Lorenzo Lotto (1480−1556).5 Raphael arrived in Rome probably in the autumn of 1508 to join the illustrious group of artists summoned from far and wide.6 Although the painter had already completed prestigious commissions in Umbria and the Marches, his fame was not yet established in Rome.7 Vasari reports that Raphael was recommended to the pope by Donato Bra- mante, one of the most influential artists at the papal court,8 but Julius could also have learned of the painter through the Della Rovere inheritance of Urbino. Whatever the case, it is clear that Raphael’s name was not completely unknown in Rome, where some of the colleagues he had previously collaborated with were also recipients of papal commissions. Besides Perugino and Pintoricchio,9 Signorelli was also working in the town at that time;10 moreover, the humanist Baldassare Castiglione and Pietro Bembo already knew the young artist.11 Nevertheless, Raphael himself was also manoeuvring for the papal commission: in his last letter from Florence of 21 April, 1508, he asked his uncle to obtain a letter of recommendation on his behalf.12 The oldest surviving document relating to Raphael’s Roman activity is a payment dated 13 January, 1509, for work effected in a vaulted room (sala a volta), in all likelihood the Stanza della Segnatura.13 For Raphael, still inexperienced in largescale, multi-figured decorations and in the technique of wall-painting,14 the Vatican commission must have posed a serious challenge.15 He began work in the central room, called camera della Segnatura by Vasari, for by the 82 57 Raphael Study for the Disputa c. 1509 Brush and wash in brown ink, heightened with white, over stylus and charcoal 276 × 283 mm Windsor, Royal Collection, RL 12732 time he wrote the Lives it had already housed sessions of the Signatura gratiae, a division of the supreme tribunal of the Curia.16 There is copious evidence, however, that the room was originally the library of Pope Julius II.17 Although documents are not explicit about the location of the Bibliotheca Iulia, it is identified with the Stanza della Segnatura primarily for its decorative scheme, which reflects the traditional arrangement of Renaissance libraries.18 Female personifications of the Four Faculties (Theology, Poetry, Philosophy and Jurispru- dence) appear in the tondi of the vault, and were amplified by the main frescoes showing antique and contemporary personalities engaged in activities appropriate to the disciplines. The decorative program was intended to illustrate the spiritual and temporal mission of Julius’s pontificate. Its iconographical content must have been developed by the pope’s theologians and humanist advisors,19 who also surely closely supervised the execution.20 Vasari claimed that on seeing Raphael’s first fresco, the pope was so overawed that 83 he dismissed the other artists, had their works destroyed and entrusted Raphael exclusively with the decoration.21 This view is no longer plausible, as it has been demonstrated that Raphael’s success and complete control over the Stanze actually grew far more gradually.22 The prestigious commission, the highly educated milieu of the papal court, and the rivalry between the artists working side by side all encouraged the young and ambitious painter. While he assumed control over the frescoes of the Stanza della Segnatura as early as 1509, it was only later that he replaced his fellow painters at work in the Stanza di Eliodoro and Stanza dell’Incendio. The post of inspector of all artistic enterprises of Pope Julius II was probably assigned to him simultaneously with his appointment as Papal Secretary (Scriptor Brevum) in October 1511.23 According to Vasari, Raphael left intact the architectural divisions,24 the grotesque ornamentation and the minor scenes on 58 Raphael Study for the Disputa c. 1509 Brush and wash in brown ink, heightened with white, 233 × 400 mm Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, 542 Sodoma’s vault of the Stanza della Segnatura, and repainted the larger areas.25 It is more likely, however, that Sodoma and Raphael worked side by side on the vault, at least for some time,26 and that the framing grotesques were executed by Ruysch.27 Contrary to the general belief deriving from Vasari’s assertions, Raphael probably never worked unaided in the Stanze.28 The new arrival did not yet command his own workshop, and so must have initially shared the assistants of his colleagues. Towards the end of work in the Stanza della Segnatura, partly because of the sudden change to the original programme29 and partly perhaps because of the pressure of the approaching deadline, Raphael involved other painters in the work. The scene portraying Tribonian Presenting the Pandects to the Emperor Justinian on the Jurisprudence wall, due to its difference in technique and style from the other frescoes, has been recently attributed to Lorenzo 84 Lotto.30 Near the completion of the room, Raphael must have worked in close collaboration with the Venetian artist,31 and it seems that Baldassare Peruzzi (1481−1536) also assisted in the painting of the last wall.32 Raphael entrusting the execution of smaller, but not insignificant sections of the frescoes to talented, independent painters foreshadows his later working method. The fourth wall of the Stanza della Segnatura, created under Raphael’s control but with the involvement of skilled artists, may be regarded as an early example of Raphael’s gradually evolving workshop practice.33 The sequence of work in the Stanza della Segnatura remains a matter of debate to this day. Even Raphael’s early biographers held different views: Vasari believed that the School of Athens was the painter’s first Vatican work, which established his Roman success,34 while towards the end of the seventeenth-century Giovanni Pietro Bellori (1613−1696), followed 85 59 Raphael Disputa c. 1509 Fresco Rome, Palazzi Vaticani 60 Detail of fig. 59 by the majority of modern scholars, argued for the precedence of the Disputa.35 Although technical evidence has recently been applied in attempts to determine the relative chronological order of the two frescoes, which were executed in close sequence,36 conclusions are primarily based on the preparatory drawings. Raphael created more drawings for the Disputa than for any other work in his career, and more than the total of drawings for all the other scenes in the Stanza della Segna tura; no less than thirty sheets have survived.37 Raphael always improved his works through whole series of drawings, but the sophisticated composition of the Disputa [fig. 59] demanded exceptionally careful preparation. This was the first time Raphael employed his Florentine experiences in composing complex, multi-figured narratives. This explains why the studies for the Disputa are more markedly related to Raphael’s Florentine practice than the drawings for the other walls of the Stanza della Segnatura.38 The monumental figures of the Disputa were chiefly inspired by the works of Leonardo and Fra Bartolommeo, and the manner of the early sketches for the upper section of the fresco also reveal their influence.39 During the preparatory process for the Disputa, Raphael applied the same method as for the elaboration of The Massacre of the Innocents. His initial concept was considerably different from the fresco. The radical changes in the composition were due in part to the artist’s endeavour to find a visual means of expressing the intricate theological content, and perhaps also to meet the gradually evolving demands of the papal advisors. Raphael’s early studies for the fresco, preserved at the Royal Collection, Windsor, and the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, follow traditional patterns [figs. 57 and 58].40 Their static, frontal view, and symmetrical, compact grouping closely corresponds with Pintoricchio’s previous frescoes in the Borgia Apartments. On the other hand, they evoke the arrangement of Fra Bartolommeo’s Last Judgement in the convent of San Marco in Florence, which had already served as a model for Raphael’s early fresco in San Severo, Perugia. Raphael achieved the painted version of the Disputa, comprised of sophisticated groups of figures in various poses, through discarded and finalized solutions in his preparatory drawings.41 The central figure of the Budapest drawing, outlined with flowing pen lines, was intended for the angel in profile in the upper right of the fresco [fig. 60], while at the top of the fragmented sheet Raphael sketched a detail for the group of cherubs [fig. 56]. In this rapid sketch, the painter was imitating Leonardo’s method of producing compositional studies. Leonardo strove to draw his initial ideas as quickly as 61 Raphael Angels for the Disputa (recto) c. 1508–9 Pen and brown ink, 254 × 176 mm Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, 549 87 62 Raphael Angels for the Disputa (verso) c. 1508–9 Black chalk, 252 × 356 mm London, British Museum, 1895,0915.621 possible. He considered none of the forms in his sketches to be final; he altered them repeatedly, adding in new lines (pentimenti) in search of the ideal solution. This procedure counted as revolutionary, for it prioritized the artist’s first concept (primo pensiero) over the assured and infallible lines of the centuries-old practice of producing highly finished and elaborated drawings.42 Leonardo’s compositional method had found fertile ground in the art of Raphael, although he used pentimenti sparingly, reaching for a new sheet when in doubt. In the Budapest drawing, the painter was seeking the ideal pose of the angel, so he only rapidly sketched the half figure’s main contours. The same angel reappears in a drawing at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, in which the more developed nude study was summarily modelled with parallel hatching [fig. 61].43 Only one further sketch for the angels in the upper part of the fresco has survived: in the chalk study at the British Museum, London, the figures are more detailed, but only slightly modelled, while Raphael executed another version of the angel on the verso [fig. 62].44 The three surviving drawings, however, do not suffice to reconstruct the evolution of the figure, which must have been further elaborated in additional detailed studies. In all probability, the Budapest primo pensiero is one of Raphael’s earliest drawings for the fresco. The pen drawing on the other side of the Budapest sheet, depicting a sculptural ensemble, bears no relation to the Disputa and was presumably created somewhat later. 89 63 Raphael Design for a Temporary Decoration (recto) after 1509 Pen and brown ink, over black chalk 200 × 153 mm Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, 1935 The main figure and the small putto hold a slightly modified pose of the famous Apollo Belvedere. In the 1490s, this antique marble was the property of Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere and was set up in the garden of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, as documented by the inscription of a drawing in the Codex Escurialensis. When the cardinal was elected pope as Julius II in 1503, the statue was moved to the Vatican and installed within a niche in the Belvedere courtyard.45 The marble, now considered a Roman copy of a Hellenistic bronze, awakened the interest of all artists visiting Rome. Located in the Cortile delle Statue, the Apollo Belvedere was accessible for direct study, but its fame spread even wider through drawn, sculpted and engraved copies.46 Artists were fascinated above all by the anatomy and harmonious gestures of the tall, slender figure of ideal beauty, whose posture they transferred in their own works into both secular and religious iconographic contexts. In the Budapest sheet the Apollo Belvedere reappears probably in the guise of Mars.47 Raphael altered the statue’s contrapposto into a lighter, more open pose, supplementing the antique model with arms and trophies laid at its feet. The puzzling Budapest drawing has been interpreted as a preliminary study for a statue,48 but in a more plausible hypothesis, it is seen as an initial sketch for a temporary decoration.49 However, very little is known about Raphael’s role in temporary decorations, and no surviving document indicates that the painter ever received such a commission, so the purpose of the Budapest drawing remains shrouded in mystery.50 While the figure of Mars generally alludes to a victory celebration,51 the putto with the inverted torch implies rather a funeral context.52 Without any other related drawing, it seems likely that the decoration designed in the Budapest sheet never progressed beyond the preliminary stage and was never carried out. 90 1 Julius II had already temporarily occupied the second floor apartments; for his decision to move there permanently, see Shearman 1971, pp. 5–6 and 27, note 10; Jones and Penny 1983, p. 49. 2 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 6, p. 385; Mancinelli and Nesselrath 1993, pp. 292–98. 3 In the Stanza dell’Incendio Perugino painted the vault frescoes, see Scarpellini 1984, no. 159. 4 Nesselrath 2004a, pp. 282–84. 5 Nesselrath 1992, pp. 31–33; Nesselrath 1993, pp. 203, 216; Nesselrath in Bonn 1998–99, no. 302; Henry and Kanter 2002, pp. 70 and 216; Nesselrath 2004b. 6 Francesco Albertini’s Opusculum de mirabilibus novae et veteris Urbis Romae, completed 3 June, 1509, mentions a group of excellent artists (pictoribus concertantibus), see Bartalini 2001, p. 547, note 19. For the individual artists working in the Stanze, see Shearman 2003, pp. 124–28; Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, p. 64, note 211. 7 This is also suggested by the painter’s first biographer, Paolo Giovio, see Shearman 2003, p. 807. 8 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 4, pp. 164 and 328–29. Julius II, while still a cardinal, had already met Bramante in Milan. After he was elected pope, he entrusted the architect to design the new scheme for the Vatican Palace and Saint Peter’s, and put him in overall charge of all architectural and artistic enterprises in Rome. For Bramante’s Roman activity, see Nesselrath 2004a, p. 293, note 17. 9 At that time, Pintoricchio was decorating the vault of the chapel of the choir of Santa Maria del Popolo, see Schulz 1962. For his frescoes designed with the assistance of Raphael for the Piccolomini Library in Siena, see chapter 1, note 43. 10 For the relationship between Signorelli and Raphael, and a drawing in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford that reveals their contact, see chapter 2, note 14. 11 Henry and Joannides 2012–13, p. 20. 12 For this issue, and for the possible interpretations of ‘una certa stanza’ and ‘sua S.’, see Shearman 2003, pp. 112–18. For Raphael’s letter, see also chapter 4. Vasari referred to the Vatican rooms also as ‘certe stanze’, see Vasari (ed. Milanesi) vol. 4, p. 329. 13 Shearman 2003, pp. 122–23. 14 The only wall paintings Raphael had executed previously were those of the San Severo, Perugia in 1505, see Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, p. 33. 15 In Rome, Raphael initially concentrated almost exclusively on the Vatican frescoes, besides which he only painted several Madonnas, see Meyer zur Capellen 2005, nos. 48–51. 16 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 4, p. 330; the room had already been described as Camera della Segna tura by the papal master of ceremonies, Paris de Grassis, see Dussler 1971, p. 69. 17 For the room’s original function, see Shearman 1965, pp. 159–60; Dussler 1971, pp. 69–70; Shearman 1971, pp. 13–17; Jones and Penny 1983, pp. 49–50; Nesselrath 2004a, p. 293, note 31. Its identification as the papal library is supported by the fact that in 1509 Ruysch was documented as working ‘in camera bibliothece’, see Shearman 2003, p. 126. 18 Shearman 1993, p. 23. For the location of the papal library, see Bartalini 2001, p. 550, note 32. Julius II was not noted for his literary interest, and the list of books made after his death, containing perhaps only the most precious items, records no more than some 220 volumes (Dorez 1896). However, the room’s original function as a library is also suggested by the large number of books Raphael included in the frescoes (Jones and Penny 1983, pp. 49–50). 19 For the iconographic program of the Stanza della Segnatura, and the hypothesis that the involved humanist advisor may have been the papal librarian, Tommaso Inghirami, see Joost-Gaugier 2002. 20 The decorative scheme of the Stanza della Segnatura was inspired by Perugino’s frescoes in the Collegio del Cambio, Perugia, and Pintoricchio’s decorations in the Borgia Apartments, see Jones and Penny 1983, p. 52. 21 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 4, pp. 332–33; for the Stanze, see comprehensively Shearman 1971 and 1993. 22 Pon 2004a, pp. 64, 184, note 3. 23 Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, pp. 51 and 64, note 214. 24 The vault has its place in the revival of all’antica illusionistic decorations. Its models may be found in late fifteenth-century ornamental cycles in Rome, an excellent early example of which is Pintoricchio’s decoration in the choir chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo, see Bartalini 2001, pp. 550–51. 25 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 6, pp. 385–86; Shearman 1993, pp. 21–22; Bartalini 2001, pp. 548–51; Shearman 2003, pp. 124–28. 26 This is also supported by the evidence of painted layers and the giornate, see Nesselrath 2004a, pp. 284 and 293, notes 39 and 40. For the technique of Sodoma and his assistants, markedly different from that of Raphael, see Bartalini 2001, p. 549; for Sodoma’s and Raphael’s role in the decoration of the Stanza della Segnatura, see ibid., p. 552. 27 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 6, p. 550; Shearman 1965, p. 160; Jones and Penny 1983, p. 56; Shearman 1993, pp. 21–22; Bartalini 2001, pp. 549–50. 28 For the possible participation of assistants in the early phase of the decoration, see Shearman 1983, pp. 44–45. 29 Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, p. 55. 30 Nesselrath 2000. For Lotto’s Roman activity between 1509 and 1511, see ibid., p. 7, note 9; for his contribution in the Stanza di Eliodoro, see Nesselrath 2004b. 31 For the supposition that Lotto employed drawings or even cartoons by Raphael, see Nesselrath 2000, pp. 10–11. 32 Nesselrath in Bonn 1998–99, p. 245. 33 For Raphael’s Roman workshop, see chapter 7. 34 Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 4, pp. 330–33. 35 Bellori 1695, pp. 22–24. 36 For technical observations supporting the precedence of the School of Athens, see Nesselrath 2004a, pp. 284–88; cf. Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, pp. 54 and 64, note 219. 37 Joannides 1983, nos. 197–226. The title Disputa, in general use since the late seventeenth century, originates from Vasari, see Vasari (ed. Milanesi), vol. 4, p. 335-36. For the interpretation of the subject and identification of the figures, see Dussler 1971, pp. 71–73; Jones and Penny 1983, pp. 50–58; Joost-Gaugier 2002. 38 Hugo Chapman in Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, p. 233. 39 Jones and Penny 1983, p. 60; Hugo Chapman in Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, p. 235. 40 Joannides 1983, nos. 197 and 198; Gere and Turner 1983, nos. 85 and 87. 91 41 Joannides 1983, no. 204; Gere and Turner 1983, no. 89. For the preparatory drawings of the Disputa, see most recently Hugo Chapman in Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, nos. 78–86, and Joachim Jacoby in Frankfurt am Main 2012–13, nos. 15–18. 42 For Leonardo’s drawing method, see Gombrich 1966. 43 Joannides 1983, no. 216r; Gere and Turner 1983, no. 98. 44 Joannides 1983, no. 217v; Gere and Turner 1983, no. 99. 45 The early placement of the Apollo Belvedere in the church garden is documented by the inscription of a drawing in the Codex Escurialensis, executed before 1509 and attributed to the workshop of Antonio da Sangallo, see Athens 2003–4, p. 324. The sculpture was restored between 1532 and 1533 by Giovanni Montorsoli; before that date artists completed the sculpture’s fragmentary right arm and missing left hand according to their own imagination. For the suppositions about the location and date of the sculpture’s rediscovery, see Winner 1998. 46 Dürer’s awareness of the statue also derived from drawings and engravings. The German artist devised an ideal male figure based on classic proportions, whose pose quotes the Apollo Belvedere, see Athens 2003–4, p. 324. The most significant early prints representing the statue are by Marcantonio Raimondi (Bartsch XIV.249.330) and Agostino Veneziano (Bartsch XIV.248.328 and 329). 47 Middeldorf 1945, no. 65. 48 Pulszky 1881b, pp. 81–82 and 1882, see also ibid., pp. 23–29. For Raphael’s hypothetical sculpture workshop, see Henry and Joannides 2012–13, p. 22. 49 Fischel, vol. 6, no. 302. 50 For the most significant festival decoration of the age, the Florentine entry of Pope Leo X in 1515, see Shearman 1975. 51 For the supposition that Raphael intended the drawing as a design for the celebration of Pope Julius II’s victory over the Venetians in May 1509, see Fischel vol. 6, no. 302. 52 For iconographic interpretations and further hypotheses for the purpose of the drawing, see Zentai 1998, no. 7. 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Timothy Clifford, exhibition catalogue, Edinburgh, National Galleries of Scotland 1994 Ferino-Pagden 1983 Sylvia Ferino-Pagden, ‘Pintoricchio, Perugino or the Young Raphael? A Problem of Connoisseurship’, The Burlington Magazine 125 (1983), pp. 87–88 Egger 1905–6 Hermann Egger (ed.): Codex Escurialensis: Ein Skizzenbuch aus der Werkstatt Domenico Ghirlandaios, Vienna 1905–6 Ferino-Pagden 1984 Sylvia Ferino-Pagden, Disegni umbri. Gallerie dell’Accademia di Venezia, Milan 1984 Ekserdjian 1993 David Ekserdjian, ‘Parmigianino and Michelangelo’, Master Drawings 31 (1993), pp. 390–94 Elen 1995 Albert J. 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Wolfram Prinz and Max Seidel, (Atti del Convegno Internazionale Firenze, 16–18 ottobre 1994), Florence 1996, pp. 175–98 Nesselrath 1996b Arnold Nesselrath, Raphael’s School of Athens, Vatican 1996 Nesselrath 2000 Arnold Nesselrath, ‘Lorenzo Lotto in the Stanza della Segnatura’, The Burlington Magazine 142 (2000), pp. 4–12 Nagler 1836 Georg Kaspar Nagler, Rafael als Mensch und Künstler, Munich 1836 Nesselrath 2004a Arnold Nesselrath, Raphael and Pope Julius II, in Chapman, Henry, and Plazzotta 2004, pp. 281–93 Nanni and Monaco 2007 Romano Nanni and Chiara Monaco, Leda: Storia di un mito dalle origini a Leonardo, Florence 2007 Nesselrath 2004b Arnold Nesselrath, Il Vaticano–La Cappella Sistina: Il Quattrocento, Parma 2004 O’Malley 2005 Michelle O’Malley, The Business of Art: Contracts and the Commissioning Process in Renaissance Italy, New Haven and London 2005 O’Malley 2007 Michelle O’Malley, ‘Quality, Demand, and Pressures of Reputation: Rethinking Perugino’, The Art Bulletin 89 (2007), pp. 674–93 Oberhuber 1966 Konrad Oberhuber, Renaissance in Italien: 16. Jahrhundert, exhibition catalogue, Vienna, Albertina 1966 Oberhuber 1972 Konrad Oberhuber, Raphaels Zeichnungen: Abteilung IX, Entwürfe zu Werken Raphaels und seiner Schule im Vatikan 1511–12 bis 1520, Berlin 1972 Oberhuber 1978 Konrad Oberhuber, ‘The Colonna Altarpiece in the Metropolitan Museum and Problems of the Early Style of Raphael’, The Metropolitan Museum Journal 12 (1978), pp. 55–90 Oberhuber 1982 Konrad Oberhuber, Raffaello, Milan 1982 Oberhuber 1983 Konrad Oberhuber, Späte Römische Jahre, in Knab, Mitsch, and Oberhuber 1983, pp. 113–44 Oberhuber 1984–85 Konrad Oberhuber, Raffaello e l’incisione, in Vatican 1984–85, pp. 333–42 Oberhuber 1985 Konrad Oberhuber, ‘The Drawings of Dürer and Raphael’, Drawing 7 (1985), pp. 25–29 148 Oberhuber 1986a Konrad Oberhuber, Raphael and Pintoricchio, in Beck 1986, pp. 155–72 Oberhuber 1986b Konrad Oberhuber, Raphael’s Drawings for the Loggia of Psyche in the Farnesina, in Rome 1986, pp. 189–216 Oberhuber 1988 Konrad Oberhuber, Marcantonio Raimondi: Gli inizi a Bologna ed il primo periodo romano, in Bologna 1988, pp. 51–88 Oberhuber 1998 Konrad Oberhuber, Die Werkstatt Raffaels, in Künstlerwerksätten der Renaissance, (ed.) Roberto Casselli, Milan, Zürich, and Düsseldorf 1998, pp. 257–74 Oberhuber 1999 Konrad Oberhuber, Raphael: The Paintings, Munich, London, and New York 1999 Oberhuber and Gnann 1999 Konrad Oberhuber and Achim Gnann: Raphael und der klassische Stil in Rom: 1515–1527, exhibition catalogue, Mantua, Palazzo Tè and Vienna, Albertina 1999 Olszewski 2009 Edward J. Olszewski, ‘Bring on the Clones. 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