Cultural policy in Nigeria - unesdoc

Transcription

Cultural policy
m Nigeria
T. A. Fasuyi
Unesco Paris 1973
Studies and documents on cultural policies
In this series
Cultural policy: a preliminary study
Cultural policy in the United States
by Charles C. Mark
Cultural rights as human rights
Cultural policy in Japan
by Nobuya Shikaumi
Some aspects of French cultural policy
by the Studies and Research Department
of the French Ministry of Culture
Cultural policy in Tunisia
by Rafik Said
Cultural policy in Great Britain
by Michael Green and Michael Wilding,
in consultation with Richard Hoggart
Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
by A. A. Zvorykin with the assistance of
N. I. Golubtsova and E. I. Rabinovitch
Cultural policy in Czechoslovakia
by Miroslav Marek, Milan. Hromadka
and Josef Chroust
Cultural policy in Italy
A survey prepared under the auspices of
the Italian National Commission for Unesco
Cultural policy in Yugoslavia
by Stevan Majstorovic
Cultural policy in Bulgaria
by Kostadine Popov
Some aspects of cultural policies in India
by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan
Cultural policy in Cuba
by Lisandro Otero with the assistance of
Francisco Martinez Hinojosa
Cultural policy in Egypt
by Magdi Wahba
Cultural policy in Finland
A study prepared under the auspices
of the Finnish National Commission
for Unesco
Cultural policy in Ceylon
by H. H. Bandar a
Cultural policy in Nigeria
by T. A. Fasuyi
The serial numbering of titles in this series,
the presentation of which has been modified,
was discontinued with the volume
Cultural policy in Italy
00&.004. 1
FAS
Published by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by
Presses Universitaires de France, Vendome
ISBN 92-3-101029-8
LC No. 72-95232
© Unesco 1973
Printed in France
Preface
The purpose of this series is to show how cultural policies are planned and
implemented in various Member States.
As cultures differ, so does the approach to them; it is for each Member
State to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its own
conception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and technical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those of
general development policy) have certain common problems; these are
largely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the need
has increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and information
about them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible a
similar pattern so as to make comparison easier, is mainly concerned with
these technical aspects of cultural policy.
In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of cultural
policy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and management, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legislation,
budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education,
cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel, institutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the safeguarding
of the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of the arts, international cultural co-operation and other related subjects.
The studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social and
economic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, present
therefore a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy.
Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries which have yet
to establish cultural policies, while all countries, especially those seeking new
formulations of such policies, can profit by the experience (already gained.
This study was prepared for Unesco by T. A. Fasuyi, Head of the Art
Section, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria.
The opinions expressed are the author's and do not necessarily reflect
the views of Unesco.
Contents
9
Introduction
11
Before the colonial conquest
17
Traditional organization of culture
20
Nigerian culture under colonial rule
26
Current administration and financing of culture
37
Art agencies and cultural organizations
42
The transmission of culture
61
The future
Introduction
Nigeria had acquired great reputation in the world of art long before she
attained her present political and economic position in the world of nations.
Nigeria is singularly distinguished in Africa, south of the Sahara, for her
rich and vast cultural manifestations, a heritage of the past and a pride of
the present generation. Her antiquities, especially the masterpieces from
the ancient cultures of Ife, Benin and Nok, contributed more than any
other factor towards her reputation. Such masterpieces, exhibited in leading
museums and galleries all over the world, have become part of the sum total
of the cultural heritage of mankind.
Ideally, the cultural policy of a country should reflect the established traditions and culture of the people. European countries with longestablished traditions and continuous administrative structures, extending
over centuries, find it easy to formulate or discuss their cultural policy.
But African countries, having undergone diiferent and drastic political
and administrative change within the last century, cannot formulate their
policy without looking into their glorious past.
It is therefore necessary in this study to look back into history, not
to relay mere historical facts, but in order to portray the cultural situation in Nigeria, past and present, in its true historical and traditional
context.
Nigerian cultural policy reflects three political phases: (a) the precolonial period during which tribal kingdoms or empires existed and under
which the ancient art of Nigeria flourished; (b) the period between 1900
and 1960 when Nigeria was under British rule and influence; (c) the current
phase: present administrative machinery for art and culture, and an evaluation of cultural needs and development within the context of a cultural
policy.
In the pre-colonial period, cultural policies were determined and administered by the traditional rulers or heads of the different cultures that
existed within the boundaries of what is now known as Nigeria. During the
Introduction
colonial period, a cultural policy was imported and operated for Nigeria by
the colonial administrators. The cultural policy of Nigeria during the past
ten years of her independence could be attributed to the political leaders
who emerged after the departure of the British administrators.
10
Long before the advent of the white man to the western coast of Africa,
there had existed many ancient kingdoms and empires founded and administered exclusively by Africans. But the origins and development of the
kingdoms are obscure as there were no written records. However there exist
fairly reliable legends in oral tradition describing their origins; and some of
the facts contained in the legends are being confirmed by recent archaeological and historical findings. Most notable among the kingdoms that
flourished in areas now covered by Nigeria include the Yoruba kingdom,
the Benin empire in the south; the Bornu empire and the Hausa States in
the north. Recent archaeological findings have also confirmed the existence
of an early culture around Nok,1 a village near the centre of the present
Nigeria.
Kingdoms in the south
Ife is regarded as the cradle of the two major kingdoms that flourished in
the southern parts of Nigeria, west of the Niger. The origin of Ife itself is
obscure; but the most acceptable legend has it that Oduduwa, the founder
of Ife, came from the north-eastern part of Africa,2 stopping in one or two
places before finally settling down at Ife with his people. His seven sons
later became the founders and rulers of the seven crown divisions of what
later became the Yoruba land. Ife has since remained the ancestral home
of the Yorubas; and the Oni of Ife, the traditional ruler of Ife, is always
regarded as the spiritual head of the Yorubas.
1. 'The Nok Culture', West African Review, 156.
2. Rev. S. Johnson, The History of the Yorubas, London, Routledge, 1921.
11
OYO KINGDOM
The most powerful kingdom to emerge from Yoruba land was Oyo, founded
by Oranmiyan, son of Oduduwa, who became the first Alafin of Oyo. As a
result of its power and influence, Oyo later became the administrative and
political centre of the old Oyo kingdom which flourished until the early
nineteenth century. Historically notable among the early Alafins were
Shango, who was later deified as 'god of thunder'; Ajiboyede, who regained
old Oyo from the Nupes and captured their king, and during whose reign
there was peace in Oyo; and Abiodun, who was the last Alafin to reign
before the collapse of the kingdom.
At the height of its glory, the Oyo kingdom cut across the present
boundaries of Nupe to the north, Dahomey and Togo, to the west, extending
eastwards to the River Niger.1 The supreme head of the kingdom was the
Alafin of Oyo who was regarded by his subjects as second only to the gods.
The kingdom was divided into a number of provinces headed by Oba or
viceroys who owed allegiance to and depended on the Alafin for external
protection. The internal administration and organization of each sectional
or provincial unit rested with the Oba, who in turn established a council
of chiefs for the over-all control of his area. Members of the council usually
included heads of various cult societies, outstanding warriors, religious and
political leaders.
The council of chiefs was responsible, after due ritual consultations, for
the election of the Oba from the ruling house. Once elected and crowned the
Oba assumed the spiritual and political power of his domain. The excesses
of any Oba could however be checked by the chiefs in council. For example,
in Oyo itself, the Oyomesi (Local Council of Chiefs), constituted a check
on the Alafin as all important policies were usually discussed and approved
by them before they could be effected.
It was by this highly organized system of administration that Oyo, the
largest kingdom of the Guinea Coast,2 was administered. The system did
not however eradicate internal rifts and dissensions among the smaller
provincial units whose rulers wanted to be independent.
Encouraged by external European influences and aid from the south,
and by the powerful Fulani invasion from the north, some of the rulers
started to agitate against the Alafin. One after the other, each Oba declared
himself independent, and the kingdom gradually collapsed. The collapse of
Oyo was followed by smouldering hostilities among the newly independent
towns and villages, and this led to intensive inter-tribal wars. The Fulanis,
taking advantage of the situation, invaded the kingdom and captured a
number of towns, including Oyo itself in 1837. The Dahomeans launched
1. R. Akpofure and M. Crowder, Nigeria, London, Faber, 1966.
2. J. D. Fage, Introduction to the History of West Africa, Cambridge University Press,
1962.
12
an attack from the south; but their invasions were <juickly halted by
British intervention. It was this timely intervention that gave the British
the opportunity to establish their influence over the Yorubas.
BENIN KINGDOM
Another important ancient kingdom in the south was centred in Benin,
and its influence and power covered the remaining areas of southern Nigeria
outside the Yoruba kingdom: those extending from the west of the River
Niger to Dahomey. Its coastal area was named the 'Bight of Benin' by
early European explorers, foremost among whom were the Portuguese.
There were regular contacts between the Benin and Yoruba kingdoms.
They had common borders, and both regarded Ife as their spiritual home.
In fact it was from Ife that Oranrniyan, founder of the present dynasty of
Benin, came at the request of the Benin elders. He did not, however, stay
long; but his son, Eweka, later became the first Oba of Benin. After him,
came a line of over thirty Obas, prominent among whom were Oguoba,
who built the great city wall and introduced brasswork, and Ewuare, a
famous warrior who introduced ivory- and wood-carving, and during whose
reign the kingdom was greatly expanded.
At the zenith of its power, the Benin kingdom was highly organized
under the Oba, who was both the political and spiritual head of his people.
The Oba was regarded as divine, but he shared his political power with the
seven Uzama chiefs who were next in rank to him. Other important chiefs
were the Eghavbo, the feudal and war lords and the chiefs of the royal
household. There were also three aristocratic societies who performed some
ceremonial duties in the Oba's palace. To maintain order and good government in the kingdom, the Oba maintained a large army.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Benin and to trade
with them. After the Portuguese, other European traders came; and during
the period of the slave trade, Benin became a very famous centre. The king-
dom later disintegrated as a result of tribal wars. British rule was established
in Benin in 1897 after the ill-fated mission of Consul Phillips and the conse(juent punitive expedition.
Because of its power and size, the Benin kingdom enjoyed a prosperous
economy that was based on agriculture and industry. Its stability and
prosperity gave the citizens ample time to practise their arts and crafts,
survivals of which are now regarded as masterpieces all over the world.
Benin and Oyo were similar not only in their highly organized adminis-
tration, their cultural and artistic maturity, but also in their indigenous
growth, without Islamic or European contacts.
13
Kingdoms in the north
NOK CULTURE
This stone-age culture is believed to have flourished between 500 B.C. and
A.D. 200 about the centre of the present Northern Nigeria. The first evidence
of the culture was the finding, in 1936, of a terracotta in Nok, a village in
the Bauchi Plateau. Further archaeological relics were discovered in 1944
in another village called Jemaa;1 and similarities in the works led to the
assumption that the culture might have existed along the areas now covered
by Katsina Ala, stretching north-westwards to Kagara.
Detailed studies of the Nok terracotta revealed that the people were
agriculturists and probably kept cattle. The ornaments on it also suggested
that they were fond of ornaments and body decorations. They seemed to
have practised some iron smelting (as indicated by their tin and quartz
beads, found in some tin mines). Considering their similarities, it is also
believed that Nok art may have influenced early Yoruba art.2
THE H A U S A STATES
Daura was the spiritual home of the early Hausa States, founded between
A.D. 1000 and 1200.3 Other States, including Zamfawa, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari
and Yauri, later came under Hausa influence. Because of their geographical and trading positions, Kano and Katsina developed regular trading
contacts with the kingdoms of Bornu in the north and Mali on the western
coast.
To help in the administration and organization of the States, the ruler
of each State appointed a number of district heads. The district heads in
turn appointed village leaders through whom taxes were collected from
farmers and cattle dealers for the central authority.
During the fifteenth century there reigned a powerful queen in Zaria
called Amina who conquered some of the older Hausa States in addition to
Nupe and Kororofa. She later directed the building of the great defence
walls to protect her cities; some of the walls still survive. Zaria later became
a slave trading centre while Kano developed her leather industries and
agriculture. Each of the States rose to power and prominence from time to
time until Bornu became their overlord.
1. 'Mining for History', Nigeria (Lagos), 71.
2. 'The Nok Culture', op. cit.
3.
C. R. Niven, A Short History of Nigeria, London, Longmans, 1955.
14
K I N G D O M OF B O R N U
The Kingdom of Bornu was the first part of northern Nigeria to emerge
clearly into history at about A.D. 750.1 It was well placed geographically
for development, being a convenient settlement area for early peoples
coming from the east through Egypt. A forerunner kingdom of Zaghawa
was believed to have existed near the present Western Sudan; it collapsed,
breaking up into several kingdoms. One of the kingdoms, located around
Karen basin, now partly corresponds to the present Bornu Province in
Nigeria. The extended kingdom later became powerful enough to exact
tribute from Kano and other Hausa States. The kingdom was centrally
ruled by the Mai through his appointed provincial governors.
PtTLANI E M P I R E
The Fulanis, whose origin is historically uncertain, were ardent Moslems
who had settled peacefully in many Hausa States. They intermarried with
local people and gained positions of influence as a result of their great
understanding of the Koran. Their unmixed loyalty and devotion to the
cause of Islam caused concern among the Hausa kings against whom they
preached; the kings were accused of tolerating pagans in their domains,
contrary to the teaching of Islam.
A local disturbance in Gobi, one of the strongest Hausa States, gave
the Fulanis under Usman Dan Fodio the opportunity of launching the
Jihad—the holy war against the infidels. With their well-organized and
united army, devoted to the ideals of Islam, they attacked the uncoordinated Hausa States, which crumpled one after the other. By 1830
the Fulanis had conquered all modern Northern Nigeria excepting
Bornu, which strongly resisted them. The Jihad later spread southwards to
Illorin where the ancient Yoruba town was captured.
The Fulani empire, too large to be ruled centrally, was divided into two
big provinces with headquarters in Sokoto and G-wandu. Sokoto was
however the imperial capital with the She as the spiritual and temporal
ruler. The indirect system of administration inherited from the Hausa
States was continued with necessary modifications. The Jihad not only
established Islam firmly in all the empire, but brought political and economic stability.
Other settlements
Outside the kingdoms and empires that were centrally organized and ruled
by historically known Obas and Emirs, there were other settlements and
tribal groups in northern and southern Nigeria. The tribal groups include
1.
Akpofure and Crowder, op. cit.
15
Igala, Idoma, Junkum and Tiv in the north, and the Ibo, Ibibio and Ijaw
in the south. Within the tribal settings there were organized towns and
villages in which the elders directed the administration of social and cultural
programmes. Some big towns had traditional rulers, similar to those in
Yoruba and the Hausa States. Early European explorers, traders and
missionaries have recorded their meetings with such traditional rulers,
especially those along the Bight of Biafra. Old Calabar, Brass, Opobo,
Bonny and Okrika were some of the notable and highly developed towns.
During the efforts of the British Government to stop the slave trade and
extend British rule, treaties had to be signed with traditional rulers. Some
of the northern groups were not concjuered during the war of Jihad and,
until British rule was established, remained independent kingdoms.
16
Traditional organization
of culture
Art and cultural activities were closely interwoven with, the social life of
the kingdoms under the traditional rulers, who were not only political heads
but also the spiritual leaders of their people. In the States and locally,
councils or meetings of elders advised the traditional heads in planning the
cultural programmes. The main administration of cultural programmes
came under each traditional head, who in turn delegated his powers to
his chiefs. The local chiefs would then assign different aspects to people
according to their ability and talents. Under this division of labour, the
different members of the society contributed their quota towards the success
of the programme. The carvers made masks; the costume-designers made
dresses; the musicians and the dancers created dances with the relevant
drum beats and music. The priests performed rituals according to the direction of the gods while the farmers and palm-wine tappers were responsible
for providing food and drinks.
This traditional administration of cultural activities was to some extent
a social obligation system in which everybody was willing to contribute his
(juota for the success of the agreed socio-cultural programme. It encouraged
active and willing participation by the people in cultural programmes.
Talents used for the benefit of the society were appreciated. It was, in short,
a system that was very suitable for the needs and condition of the time.
Role of artists
In many of the cultural settings that existed in Nigeria, the arts contributed
in no small way to most of the social activities, and enhanced them spiritually and aesthetically.
In such societies where art and cultural activities were closely interwoven with social life the importance and status of artists were unique.
As all social activities usually centred around the traditional head of the
17
society, his house, Ms dress, his dances and so on were designed by artists
who were in a position to know what was aesthetically and spiritually
suitable. The traditional head in turn bestowed such important duties. As
a result, the artists were highly respected in the community and their
contributions were highly valued and appreciated.
It was the artists who dictated the cultural pace of the society; and it
was they who directed the social taste. In the absence of machines or other
technological devices, most articles were designed and produced by artists
and craftsmen. Many people were skilled in one or more crafts, but the
works of the competent and talented were always in great demand. This
gave the artist or craftsman a measure of control in the economic life of
the society.
Recompense
The chief artist was usually left to organize the actual and physical production of art works for cultural programmes, either in his compound or
at an allocated area within the community. He was empowered to scout
for the talented and experienced artists and assign duties to them. He gave
duties to each type of artist (carver, musician, drummer and so on),
according to his ability and experience. As they were all working for the
same purpose, there was co-operation and understanding among the different
artists in planning and carrying out the cultural or religious programmes of
their society. Artists undertook their different assignments usually without
pay; but they received the personal gratitude of the Oba and the society's
praise in general. It was also usual for artists to receive free cash crops,
cattle and clothing to cover their needs while thus serving the society.
When some financial compensation was involved, the traditional head met
their demands; but the artists valued the social honour and praise more than
any financial compensation. After the completion of a programme, they
returned to their main occupation until they were commissioned again.
Financial subsidies or material assistance were therefore given only while
the artists were contributing to a cultural programme.
Training
As there was no formal education in Nigeria before the European missionaries came, artists (sculptors, musicians, poets, dancers) were trained under
an apprenticeship system. Each of the arts was usually practised as a
family trade and the techniques and secrets were handed over from the
elders to their children. For example, a child born to a wood-carver would
start as early as six years of age to practise his father's craft. He first
learned the different types of the woods, then the tools and techniques
used by his father in carving. By the time he was 16 or so, he had acquired
18
enough skill and confidence to produce good work on his own. In addition
to being taught how to carve, he was also introduced to the social and
religious uses of different types of carvings.
Freely was he given his training; and freely was he expected to train
others for the family trade circle to grow. Although the works of the family
guild were done collectively, yet there was room for individual and original
innovations. Individual talents were recognized and admired; and new
inventions or innovations by any member were adopted by the entire guild.
As members of a family, they shared the joys of their achievement, or
reverses when they occurred. Every family guild of musicians, drummers or
singers trained their young to accpiire and retain the family tradition with
minimal external diffusion.
This apprenticeship and family system of training gave the child enough
early confidence to learn with ease, and left him in harmony with his
family or village background. It enabled the child to develop according to
his ability, without any serious emotional tension. It developed in different
Nigerian cultural settings, and achieved the main purpose of modern art
education which, in Herbert Read's definition, is 'to foster the growth of
what is individual in each human being, at the same time harmonizing the
individuality thus educated with the organic unity of the social group to
which the individual belongs'.1
1.
Herbert Read, Education through Art, London, 1958.
19
Nigerian culture
under colonial rule
When the slave trade was brought to a halt, the European colonizers met
in Paris and agreed to partition Africa among themselves. By the end of
the nineteenth century, every square foot of the western coast of Africa had
been allocated to the different colonial powers. The old kingdoms and
empires having been arbitrarily shared, each European country established
its authority over its conquered or allocated areas. The areas in Nigeria,
comprising the major parts of the Fulani empire in the north, the Yoruba
and Benin kingdoms and the Ibo, Calabar and Ibibio tribes were allocated
to Britain.
Constitutional developments
In 1900 the administration of all the areas allocated to Britain was formally
taken over by the British Government after the Royal Niger Company's
Charter had been revoked. In 1906 the colony and protectorate of Lagos
became part of Southern Nigeria and a protectorate was established over
the northern provinces. On 1 January 1914, the two protectorates were
merged, with Lagos, into the colony and protectorate of Nigeria. A legislative council was established to advise the governor for Lagos and the
southern provinces, but the administration of the northern provinces
remained the sole responsibility of the governor.
In 1946, a new constitution was introduced, establishing a central legis-
lative council to administer the whole country. Regional houses of assembly
were also established to act as advisory bodies to the central legislature on
regional matters. Further revisions of the constitution were carried out
in 1951 and 1954, to give the regions autonomy and greatly increased
powers. Lagos was declared a federal territory and separated from the
western region. After further constitutional talks, regional self-government
was given to the eastern and western regions in 1957; and to the northern
region in 1959. The country became independent on 1 October 1960.
20
Effects of colonization on traditional culture
With, the collapse of the former empires and the spread of British rule the
authority and influence of the traditional rulers was undermined. They
were obliged to swear allegiance to the Crown of England and to sign
treaties of loyalty and obedience.
In most of the big towns, the cultural activities formerly encouraged
by the traditional rulers were greatly curtailed, if not suspended. In the
smaller towns and villages, however, where the people still had a measure
of control over their own affairs, the people continued to carry on their
traditional cultural pursuits.
The traditional status and important social functions of the artists were
greatly reduced, with the consequent adverse effects on the quality and
quantity of artistic expression.
The early missionaries came to introduce a new religion; all the former
religious rites and manifestations (including the dance and music) were
banned, and the new converts were encouraged to dispose of any art works
which had been used in religious rites.
The West European educational system was introduced, replacing the
informal traditional system; it was geared to the needs of the colonial
administration. This objective was stated in a 1921 speech by the first
Governor of Nigeria: 'The chief function of Government Primary and
Secondary Schools ... is to train the more promising boys from the village
schools as teachers for those schools, as clerks for the local native courts,
and as interpreters. . . .n
Formal education was started in towns and big villages by the missionaries. In order to pass the prescribed examinations set and marked in
England, the students had to learn things which had little bearing on their
own way of life, e.g. the geography and the political, social and economic
history of Britain and the British Empire. Foreign literature was studied.
English became the official language, in which all transactions were effected.
Indigenous languages were neglected; oral traditional poetry gave way to
Shakespeare and English literature. Those who managed to study abroad
frequently came back alienated from their own society.
European dances were introduced to replace the traditional dances.
Western music was introduced, through gramophone records, to accompany
the new dance forms, as were films, photography and other graphic arts.
All these new cultural forms, which were in most cases strange and exciting,
developed at the expense of traditional art and culture; a new sense and
set of values began to emerge. It was difficult for Nigerians to sense the
possible dangers of this development, but a few expatriates did. Commenting
1.
Otinfci Nduka, Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background, Nigeria,
1965.
21
on the situation in 1938, E. H. Duckworth, editor of the governmentowned Nigeria magazine,
maeazine, wrote:
. . . Many of the old crafts, especially those of wood-carving and brass casting, are
in very great danger of dying out owing to lack of support.
In the past, many of the chiefs and other important men employed carvers to
construct beautiful stools, carved doors, panels and posts. Benin City became
world-famous as a result of the high standard of workmanship in metal casting
and engraving attained by her craftsmen in years past. Now, as we travel about
the country, we see carved doors and posts rotting and neglected; and on the other
hand, churches with cheap imported hymn boards and brass-eagle reading desks,
also Native Administration Council Halls, as at Ibadan and llesha, completely
devoid of everything African.
At Benin City we might at least expect to see carving or brass work incorporated in the Court House, Post Office, Police Station and other public buildings,
but our search will be in vain; even the new Middle School is equally barren. The
skilled brass workers of Benin have received so little encouragement during the
past few years that most of them have abandoned the craft and taken to other
work. Two years ago it was impossible to get any of suitable quality.
Let us now cross the Niger and visit Awka. Surely here they will have employed local carvers to decorate the doors of some of the public buildings, but we
are again disappointed, and only find doors of dull Public Works Department
type. Our search for African art work in modern buildings will indeed be a difficult one unless we are told where to go. . . .
The art of the people of Nigeria is something they may well be proud of. It
can be easily adapted to modern conditions and is one of the contributions they
can make to civilisation and something that brings honour and respect to the
African race. Yet many of our men, African and European, in high positions are
completely unmindful of this fact.
Commenting on the unsuitability of European dress for a tropical climate,
he continued:
We suggest that more use should be made of African hand-made cloth and
African dress designs.
This hand-made cloth is a little more expensive than machine-made cloth, but
it will last for years, and by purchasing such material encouragement is given to
one of our important village industries. In our study of import and export statistics we are liable to forget the value of our internal trade, especially from the
point of view of the health and happiness of our people. Some of our village industries give employment in the aggregate to a vast number of people. It is estimated
that at least 60,000 people are engaged in the mat-making industry alone.
We cannot lightly neglect the fostering and development of our home industries.
Our weavers, dyers and carvers especially need our patronage if they are to
survive the impact of shoddy machine-made_goods. Some people say, why not
start machine-run factories in Nigeria? We doubt if such factories would bring
happiness; on the other hand, we are certain that by giving more attention to our
village crafts and to practical forms of education, and also to the education of our
girls, we could transform our villages into places of health, centres alive with little
22
home industries carried on by educated people not ashamed to work with their
hands and prepared at times to engage in work for the community....
These were the words of an. expatriate observer; and they constituted a
factual and objective review of the cultural situation in the country. His
ideas were re-echoed and confirmed in another article written in the same
magazine by K. C. Murray, who wrote as follows:
African art, however, is now in. a transitional stage, and it is yet uncertain
whether it will gradually disappear or whether it will be able to assimilate ideas
from Europe and still keep its character.
Under modern conditions it cannot stand still, but if it is to develop and survive as art and keep its valuable qualities, it must be firmly based on the traditional work.
The younger generation who have been to school axe unfortunately mostly
ignorant... of their local traditions and history, and fail to appreciate ... African
art. The old religious carvings are gone or are disappearing. . . . No study is being
made of Nigerian music, and it is neglected in schools.
In craft work, improvements in technique are taken up by newcomers so that
the traditional craftsmen, who are not being helped, are likely to die out gradually
along with their inherited knowledge of materials and design.
Europeans, many of whom have a great respect for African art, could help to
make circumstances favourable for its survival but, officially, practically nothing
has been done to foster and encourage its survival. On the very rare occasions
that buildings have been decorated with African work it has been due to individual initiative and not to official policy.
European action and admiration, however, cannot save African art; its existence finally depends on the respect, admiration and support of Africans themselves.
Cultural landmarks during the period
The colonial era did see some development or improvement in artistic or cultural matters; there were some developments which could be regarded as cultural landmarks of the era. They included: (a) the establishment of Nigeria
magazine; (b) the establishment of museums of antiquities; (c) the creation
of the post of the Federal Art Adviser; (d) the creation of departments of art.
Some of these developments have been taken over and continued by the
independent Nigerian Government. Their subsequent history is discussed
in later chapters, but their beginnings can be briefly mentioned here.
NIGERIA MAGAZINE
Nigeria magazine was first published in 1923 as Nigerian Teacher, a government publication on educational and cultural matters. The title was changed
in 1927 to Nigeria and later developed into the federal government cultural
information journal.
23
It has regularly carried features and articles since on cultural activities
from all parts of the country. It startedîts literary supplement about four
years ago. The literary supplement carries literary and scholarly articles and
research works of Nigerian scholars prominent in art and culture. Photographs of dances and other performances are regularly featured. Notable
among its past editors are E. H. Duckworth and Michael Crowder, both
of whom used the magazine to publicize and promote Nigerian art and
culture.
MUSEUMS
After the punitive expedition to Benin in 1897, many of the captured
bronzes were sold as scrap metal. It was really owing to the initiative of the
Germans, who preserved the majority of the works in their museums, that
Benin became famous. In 1911, a German professor came to Nigeria and
brought to light the treasures of Ife; some of the best works are now in
Frankfurt Museum.1
Some British administrators realized that the disappearance of such
works would be a great loss to both the British and Nigerian peoples. They
therefore campaigned for the creation of local museums where remaining
specimens could be preserved and displayed. Outstanding among the advocates of this policy were S. Milburn and E. H. Ducfcworth (both former
editors of Nigeria magazine). They used the magazine not only to popularize other aspects of Nigerian art and culture, but also to appeal to the
government to build museums to keep the best of the Nigerian art works.
E. H. Duckworth in an editorial in the paper in 1937 wrote about Nigerian
art and culture as follows:
Our African contributors by researching into and describing the antiquities, the
craft work, the customs of the country, can help to create in the mass of the people
an appreciation of Nigerian art and culture. The museums of Europe and America
contain great and valuable collections of Nigerian craft work. Some of these art
treasures were sold by the original owners to foreigners for a mere pittance. . . .
Help to build up an appreciation of the old things; do not be afraid of them.
Respect the past, record its history, treasure its signposts, help to build museums
in Nigeria. The day may come when people will voyage from all parts of the world
to see the museums and exhibition rooms of Lagos, Abeokuta, Ife and Benin
City.
The Jos Museum was the first to be built in Nigeria and was opened to the
public in 1952. It housed the Department of Antiquities until 1963 when
it was shifted to the Nigerian National Museum, Lagos.
1.
K. C. Murray, 'Museums', Nigeria (Lagos), 14, 1938.
24
FEDERAL ART ADVISER
Another landmark was the creation in 1947 of the post of the Art Supervisor.
A Nigerian artist, Ben Enwonwu, who had taught art in a government
college and been formally trained in a London art school, was appointed
to the post. His duties included the promotion of Nigerian art, locally and
abroad, through exhibitions and lectures. In 1955 the post was redesignated
as Federal Art Adviser. In 1957 he was transferred to the Ministry of Education and his duties widened to include the inspection and teaching of
art in schools. He was also expected to advise the government on matters
of cultural importance.
He felt himself hindered by being under civil-service control; the usual
long procedure of getting financial or formal support for his ideas was
frustrating. He continued, however, to work as a professional artist and
held several exhibitions in Nigeria and abroad. Among his many outstanding
sculptures is the statue of the Queen of England made to commemorate
Nigeria's independence and now set up in front of the Nigerian Parliament
in Lagos.
D E P A R T M E N T S OF ART
The establishment of a Department of Fine Art as part of the Nigerian
College of Art, Science and Technology is worth mentioning under the
heading of art-education development of the colonial period. The department started in 1953 with a handful of European lecturers and some
interested Nigerian students at the Ibadan branch of the college. It was
later transferred to the Zaria branch where the Art Department expanded
to enable it to introduce a four-year diploma course.
Graduates since 1959 have been taking up teaching jobs in schools and
colleges. Some have gone into advertising, publishing and television. Unfortunately, the training provided under the European lecturers was based
mainly on European art standards and values.
Before the establishment of the college in Zaria, some sandwich art
courses had been started at the Yaba Technical Institute, founded in 1948.
Art classes introduced there in 1952 were designed to provide in-service
training for graphic artists in the different government departments. Both
departments of art are further discussed below.
25
Current administration
and financing of culture
Under the Nigerian Constitution, each of the states has considerable powers
regarding its own cultural policy and administration. Each can initiate
cultural programmes; build and maintain cultural centres; and decide what
type of cultural education it believes best for its citizens. While the states
are thus autonomous in their cultural pursuits, the federal government
initiates national programmes to promote national cultural unity. International cultural exchanges and programmes are the exclusive domain of
the federal government.
Federal administration and financing
There is no separate Ministry of Culture, Nigeria in this differing from many
European and African countries whose art and cultural programmes are
planned and implemented by a single ministry. Cultural policy is therefore
not embodied in a single document. Every ministry formulates its own
policies and federal art and cultural responsibilities are shared among
different ministries as follows:
Federal Ministry of Information: (a) cultural promotion; (b) international
cultural exchanges; (c) cultural information and publications; (d) mass
media.
Federal Ministry of Education: (a) art and cultural education; (b) art exhibitions and artists' societies; (c) museums and monuments; (d) Unescosponsored cultural activities.
Federal Ministry of External Affairs: (a) international cultural exchanges
(see Federal Ministry of Information above); (b) industrial and cultural
exhibitions.
Federal Ministry of Trade and Industry: (a) international trade fair and
cultural display; (b) promotion of art and crafts industries.
26
F E D E R A L M I N I S T R Y OF I N F O R M A T I O N
Cultural promotion
The Cultural Division of the ministry plans and handles major government
cultural programmes (e.g. the annual independence celebration, local and
international festivals of the arts, international cultural exchanges) and
maintains an exhibition centre for art exhibitions of local and foreign
artists. Until 1968 the division was headed by the editor of Nigeria magazine, assisted by a few officials. In that year the new post of Federal Cultural
Adviser was created to give professional guidance. The former Federal Art
Adviser, a renowned and experienced Nigerian artist, was appointed into
the post. As the division does not have snineient professionally trained staff,
it often sets up ad hoc committees or calls on the Nigerian Arts Council
to help.
International cultural exchanges
Various cultural agreements with other nations are prepared by the
ministry after due consultation in ad hoc meetings (usually with the
ministries of external affairs, education, trade and industries).
Cultural information and publications
The Information Division regularly publishes books, pamphlets, journals
and documentation on government activities, programmes and policies
(e.g. information and photographs of official, social and cultural events,
articles on Nigeria's participation in international festivals, pamphlets
entitled Our Cultural Heritage, Nigerian Music, Nigerian Drama).
The photographic section of the division arranges regular film and photo
exhibitions on important events; its film unit has produced some documentary and feature films.
The administrative head of the Information Division is a civil servant,
but his staff are professionally trained for their different jobs.
Moss media
The major government mass media (broadcasting, television, film, photography, libraries, press) come under the direction or supervision of the
ministry, the services being allocated either to departments of the ministry or
to autonomous bodies, established and financed by the government through
the ministry (broadcasting and television come under the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation, library services under the Nigerian Library Board,
government publications under the Nigerian Press Corporation, while the
Department of Film and Photography is part of the Information Division
of the ministry). The financial and administrative structures are as follows.
27
Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). The NEC was set up by an Act
of Parliament in 1956 as a corporate body to succeed the old Nigerian
Broadcasting Service (which, was a department of the Federal Ministry of
Information) and 'to reflect the wealth of culture in the country; and to
promote the unity of the federation'. The corporation is headed by a
director-general. It has four directors, one of whom is in charge of the
television services.
Transmission was at first centralized in Lagos and picked up by the other
stations. Later, the system was decentralized to give each of the former
three regions an opportunity of listening to local programmes, often given
in the local languages.
The corporation now maintains a network of stations through which it
transmits its programmes to all the states in the federation. State broadcasting houses have powers to originate and relay their own cultural programmes; these may also be incorporated in the national programmes.
State and provincial broadcasting reflect local cultures and carry the services of the NBC to Nigerians in the villages and hamlets.
NBC-TV operates on channel 10 in Lagos and covers the parts of
Western State which are near Lagos. There is an estimated 35,000 sets in
the Lagos area and 50,000 in the whole country. At an average of seven
viewers per set, some 250,000 watch NBC-TV programmes within a fortymile radius from Lagos. One of the aims of the television service is to
promote awareness of the Nigerian cultural heritage.
National Library Board. The ministry is responsible for national library
services through its National Library Board, whose members include educationists, eminent citizens and government officials.
A director is responsible for the general administrative and professional
aspects. The board co-ordinates the work of the regional and other institutional libraries.
Film censorship. New films coming to Nigeria are first viewed to decide
their suitability for adults or children by the Film Censorship Board, set up
by the ministry. Its members include representatives of the Ministry of
Education, the police and the Social Welfare Department. The board can
take disciplinary action against any cinema house contravening its orders.
Nigerian National Board. The federal board for newspapers and other publications has a chairman who is responsible to the Commissioner or Minister
of Information. The board works in co-operation with the Information
Division of the federal Ministry of Information to publicize government
activities and to relay information to the public.
28
F E D E R A L M I N I S T R Y OF E D U C A T I O N
The section of the ministry which deals with the art and cultural programmes is headed by the Federal Art Adviser.
Art and cultural education
The ministry plays a leading role in the promotion of art and cultural
subjects in schools and colleges. It helps the states in reviewing the syllabus
and in planning the curriculum; and if the state so requests, in inspecting
the state's art schools. It circulates visual aids, including Unesco art
slides, to schools and colleges. The head of the Art Section also serves on
examination panels, so ensuring a certain standardization in the art
examinations.
Art scholarships. The government awards only a few scholarships annually to
art students, as the main priority for awards goes to science and technical
subjects. This trend in most developing countries is justified only by the
dire need for more technical personnel for economic development; it must
be realized, however, that art and cultural education is likewise needed to
give the necessary spiritual and aesthetic overtones to scientific and technical education.
The attitude of the government in regard to the training of teachers is
more positive. In 1968 it started a 'crash programme for the training of
teachers'. Scholarships are awarded on a quota basis: 60 per cent for science,
30 per cent for liberal arts, 10 per cent for cultural and creative subjects.
Over one hundred art, music and drama students had been awarded 'crash
scholarships' during the past two years. Once they have completed their
courses, the number of specialist art teachers available to schools and
colleges will be greatly increased.
Schools exhibition. The ministry organizes an All-Nigeria Schools Art
Exhibition and Competition:
1. To promote cultural contact and understanding among children in all the
states of the federation, with a view to developing a common national artistic
heritage.
2. To enable children to see how their counterparts in other states solve their aesthetic problems—their methods and techniques, their materials and improvisation.
3. To give art teachers the opportunity of seeing the standard of works in other
schools so as to improve and guide the teaching of art in schools.
The state ministries of education help in the collection and selection of
works. The original scheme was started to coincide with the tenth anni-
versary of Nigeria's independence. After its opening show in Lagos the
29
exhibition, is sent round the state capitals. Prizes in the form of art materials
are awarded to students for outstanding works.
International children's art exhibitions. The ministry arranges Nigerian participation in international exhibitions of children's art; it keeps a library
from which selections are made and forwarded. During the past few years
Nigerian children have been consistently winning major prizes in these
exhibitions: in 1970 alone, seventeen prizes were won at international art
exhibitions in Venezuela, Tanzania, Japan and India. This of course is a
source of pride and encouragement to both the officials and the schools.
Artists' societies
Matters concerning art and artists' organizations are also dealt with by the
ministry. Some of the organizations apply either for government recognition
or for subvention, or both. Some have been recognized and given subventions. The Society for Art and Humanities (whose main objective was the
collection of art works for the proposed Museum of Modern Art) received
over £30,000 in subventions in four years from the ministry. The International Institute of African Languages and Culture also receives an annual
subvention of £500. Other societies that have been recognized or aided
include the Society of Nigerian Artists, the Society for Education through
Art, the Nigerian Museum Society and the Society of Art Teachers.
National museums
Government grants to the national museums are channelled through the
Ministry of Education, which is also responsible for their administration.
The Federal Commissioner or Minister of Education is responsible for the
appointment of members to the National Antiquities Commission, which is
composed of distinguished men of culture and notable scholars in the arts
and humanities. The commission is responsible for the establishment and
maintenance of museums and for the discovery, preserving and study of traditional art and culture; it also has power to schedule monuments and antiquities, and to control archaeological excavations and the export of antiquities.
The Director of Antiquities is professionally and administratively responsible for museums all over the country; he has the assistance of a deputy
director and the curators of the different museums. Other officers concentrate on archaeological, iconographical and architectural research. Government expenditure on the Department of Antiquities over the past ten years
has been as follows: 1960/61, £47,190; 1961/62, £54,240; 1962/63, £98,790;
1963/64, £87,100; 1964/65, £87,500; 1965/66, £83,870; 1966/67, £91,340;
1967/68, £92,650; 1968/69, £81,250; 1969/70, £79,610.
30
Unesco-sponsored cultural activities
The Art Section of the ministry works with the National Commission for
Unesco in planning and organizing Nigeria's participation in Unesco cultural and sponsored special programmes, e.g. the recent Education Year
celebrations, in which the Art Section, in collaboration with state ministries
of education, mounted art exhibitions and put on cultural displays. The
section coEects materials for publication and promotes the circulation of
Unesco papers, journals, visual aids and so on.
FEDERAL M I N I S T R Y OF E X T E R N A L AFFAIRS
This ministry has a Department of Information which also covers cultural
matters, including publicity and information through embassies abroad.
Information officers attached to the embassies perform, the duties usually
covered by cultural attache's.
The ministry receives an allocation for cultural and industrial exhibitions, and participates in the drafting and implementing of cultural
agreements.
The ministry determines Nigeria's foreign cultural policy; after the
necessary political consideration, it makes recommendations regarding the
countries with which Nigeria should be culturally associated.
F E D E R A L M I N I S T R Y OF TRADE AND I N D U S T R Y
This ministry's connexion with cultural affairs is through the promotion of
indigenous art and craft industries. In co-operation with the state ministries
of trade, it encourages the production of local materials and arts and crafts,
and subsidizes and encourages corporative societies. Products are regularly
collected and exhibited in local and international trade fairs. Occasionally,
other cultural displays are arranged as part of such trade fairs. The
ministry initiates the programmes; the expenditure is borne by the Federal
Ministry of Information.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
ON ART AND CULTURE
It is very difficult to know how much exactly the federal government spends
annually on art and culture. As already indicated, four ministries are involved, and even within them, more than one division may be dealing with
cultural matters (cf. the account of the Ministry of Information above).
The figures given in Tables 1 and 2 below are derived from the annual
estimates and do not necessarily mean the actual amounts spent. In fact,
the government invariably spent more on art and culture than the sums
given in the annual estimates. This is because certain programmes were
31
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33
arranged after the estimates had been prepared and the money had to be
found for them.
This happened in 1970/71 for example. By the end of 1970, three months
before the end of the financial year, the government had spent about
£100,000 on different cultural programmes including (a) £30,000 for a
Nigerian group sent to Expo '70 in Japan, (b) £30,000 for the 1970 AllNigeria Festival of Art, (c) £10,000 for participation in a trade fair in
Dahomey, (d) £16,000 on cultural exchangeprogramm.es. Thus, money is provided for approved cultural programmes from time to time, regardless of what
the estimate foresees.
The states
ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY
After the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern territories in 1914,
Nigeria was ruled centrally by a colonial federal government in Lagos,
through a number of provincial administrative centres.
Following a constitutional review, Nigeria was divided in 1952 into three
regions. Lagos, the federal capital, remained a separate territory administered by the federal government through the local council. Each regional
government was autonomous and had powers on many constitutional matters, including education and culture. Art and cultural matters were dealt
with in the regions under different ministries: Eastern Region, Internal
Affairs; Western Region, Home Affairs; Northern Region, Local Government and Tourism. The Western Region was later subdivided, so increasing
the number of regions to four. The Ministry of Community Development was
made responsible for the festival in the mid-West.
In 1967, the country was redivided into twelve state units (including the
State of Lagos), which became responsible for local cultural matters. Like
the federal government itself, they have no written cultural policy and do
not concentrate cultural matters under one ministry. Provincial and local
councils have a major role in planning and executing local cultural programmes, most of which they also finance. The state governments' cultural
duties cover: cultural promotion and festivals of the arts; art and cultural
education; cultural and community centres; museums and libraries; mass
media and cultural information; State expenditure on culture.
State festival of the arts
Each provincial authority is requested to organize local festivals and select
the best group to participate in the state festival, usually held in the state
capital. The provincial authorities are responsible for the practical and
financial administration of the local festivals and for arranging participation in the state festivals.
34
Art and cultural education (primary and secondary schools)
Regardless of political or administrative changes, formal art education Las
always come under the federal and state ministries of education. As
already mentioned, education is a domain in the Constitution in which both
the federal and state governments have powers in regard to policy, planning
and administration. Primary and secondary schools and colleges are states'
matters (although the federal government maintains some inter-state
secondary schools, known as the Federal Government Colleges). The states'
ministries are now responsible for the policy-making, administration and
inspection of their individual systems of education.
Some state ministries establish local school boards who share powers
with them; others control education centrally. Some states' ministries have
art departments for the planning and inspection of cultural subjects; some
also have local inspectors, attached to the different local councils through
whom the state inspectors work. Although art, music and drama are listed
in the state educational planning, many primary and secondary schools do
not teach them, mainly for lack of teachers and materials. During the last
decade, however, the situation improved as more trained teachers became
available.
Some states appoint specialists in cultural subjects to tour their schools,
giving demonstrations and organizing exhibitions with a view to improving
standards. Some also include the arts in their adult education schemes;
Lagos State, for example, runs a school of art and crafts as one of the
centres for its adult education evening classes. Many states give scholarships annually for the training of teachers, including those specialists in art
and cultural subjects.
Museums and cultural centres
One or two states give subventions for the upkeep and maintenance of
museums. However, most museums, even if located in states, are maintained
by the federal government. There are also very few state cultural centres,
although some local councils maintain community and youth centres. It has
always been difficult to indicate separately the amount spent in such cases
on specifically cultural activities.
Library services
Each state is now responsible for its library services. The former regions
established separate library boards through which library services are extended to all parts of the regions. Local and district councils maintain local
libraries. Foreign embassies have regularly donated books. Other notable
donors are the British Council and the United States Library Services.
35
Moss
The former regional governments had separate broadcasting and television
services, with local cultural programmes (in various Nigerian languages)
which might also be relayed nationally. Again it is difficult to know exactly
how much each station spends on cultural programmes. With the creation
of the twelve states, it may be necessary to review the status and operations
of the regional services.
State expenditure on culture
The state governments annually give subsidies to each provincial or local
council to finance local activities and programmes, including culture and
festivals. It is difficult to separate out the amounts spent on purely cultural
programmes.
Regional government subventions for art festivals since independence
are as shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Region
North
West
Mid-West
East
Regional government subventions for art festivals
1960/61-1967/68 (in pounds)
1960/61 1961/62
_
250
—
200
_
250
—
200
1962/63
1963/64
1964/65
1965/66
1966/67
1967/68
5,000
250
—
700
5,000
250
—
500
5,000
250
—
300
5,000
250
250
300
5,000
250
250
300
5,000
230
250
300
These subventions are small as compared with expenditure and subventions for other programmes. But they grossly under-indicate the amounts
spent on art and culture. They do not include, for example, the cost of
transporting, feeding and housing some 300 or more participants at a typical
festival, or government subventions for art workshops and industries. None
the less, one must agree that expenditure on culture is exceedingly small, as
compared with that on economic and political matters. However, subventions have been increasing gradually since independence and with more
political stability it is expected that state governments will substantially
increase their subventions and grants for cultural programmes.
36
Art agencies and
cultural organizations
Ait agencies and cultural organizations have contributed in very great
measure to the general cultural awareness and development in Nigeria. They
provide the living forces behind all cultural activities and compensated
somewhat for the seeming official indifference. They can be broadly divided
into three groups: agencies for the promotion of the arts; societies of professional artists; institutional or tribal cultural groups (which are found all
over the country).
Arts agencies
Arts agencies or organizations spring up from time to time on the initiative
of people who, though not necessarily artists, are interested in the arts. They
include Nigerians and non-Nigerians in different walks of life. Members
usually pay a subscription. If influential enough, or carrying out activities
considered important by the government, they may get official recognition
or a subvention, e.g. the Society for Arts and Humanities and the Nigerian
Arts Council.
S O C I E T Y F O R ARTS A N D H U M A N I T I E S
This society was founded in 1963 by a group of Nigerians and expatriates
collaborating in general cultural programmes in Lagos. Its main objective
is to establish a museum of modern art. A foreign foundation indicated its
readiness to help with grants to build the museum, but the civil war intervened. Meantime, the Federal Ministry of Education gives the society an
annual subvention to finance the collection of art works.
N I G E R I A N ARTS C O U N C I L
The council was founded in 1959 on the eve of independence by the
then Minister of Information and Social Services and some Nigerians and
37
Nigerian Arts Council
Advises the Federal Government on cultural matters;
plans and organizes national and international
cultural programmes; promotes art. and culture;
secures aids for cultural programmes
Members
Federal government officials, state government
representatives, state art council representatives,
university representatives and co-opted artists
Executive Council
Plans and executes all cultural
programmes
Members
Elected officials, government officials
IT
Art and Gallery
•Committee
Plans and organizes
art activities, museums,
galleries and art societies
Members
Selected professional
artist-painters,
sculptors, designers
and arcliitects
T
Music Committee
Plans and organizes all
musical activities
Members
artistes, musicians,
musicologists,
directors
Festival Committee
Dance ami Drama
Research Committee
festival activities
Members
Government
representatives,
state representatives,
university representatives,
council officials,
other co-opted members
drama activities
Research and studies
in culture,
art education,
films, slides,
reproductions
Members
University representatives,
art educationists, -writers,
Members
artistes/playwrights,
poets, authors, actors,
General Purpose Committee
Takes urgent decisions for the council;
Council Gallery
Curator
supervises the secretariat and gallery
Five council members resident in. Lagos
Secretariat
Organizing Secretary
Other secretariat staff
Organization chart of the Nigerian Arts Council.
38
iilm producers,
expatriates as a private organization to promote the advancement of arts
in Nigeria. The objectives were set out as follows (see also the organ-
ization chart opposite):
The council shall work towards the promotion, revival development and encouragement of literary, visual and performing arts of Nigeria by: (a) assisting and
encouraging deserving Nigerian artists and craftsmen; (b) initiating and participating in the revival, organization and conduct of cultural festivals, exhibitions,
concerts and displays; (c) promoting and publicizing Nigerian arts in and outside
Nigeria; (d) advising in the acquisition and preservation of art and cultural monuments; (e) fostering appreciation and pride in local tradition and culture by encouraging the compilation of publications on local history and monuments, the
giving of lectures on local history and by education in the value of their artistic
heritage; (f) encouraging the performance and exhibition of the forms of nonNigerian cultural activities in Nigeria with a view to the development of indigenous arts by the impact of international culture.
The council quickly received government and public recognition, an annual
subvention of £5,000 being approved by Parliament in 1961. It was the
first cultural organization in Nigeria to receive government financial
and moral support. It soon co-opted distinguished artists and men of
culture.
In connexion with the independence celebrations in i960, the council
mounted an exhibition of ancient and contemporary Nigerian art works and
organized some cultural dances and manifestations. In 1961 its Lagos
branch established the gallery LABAC for the exhibition and sale of
Nigerian art and crafts products. The council gradually became the main
agent for government cultural activities. It was reconstituted in 1964 so as
to include representatives of all the regional governments.
In co-operation with the Federal Ministry of Information, it organized
Nigerian participation in the 1965 British Commonwealth Festival of Art
and the first Negro Festival of Art in Dakar; it was also responsible for
arranging participation in other international events, including the 1968
Olympic Games.
In 1968, the council was reorganized and its constitution reviewed to
reflect new political changes and cultural development. Membership was
enlarged to accommodate representatives of the newly created twelve states
of the federation; in addition, all federal government officials concerned
with art and cultural duties were co-opted. The council also has representatives from all five universities.
The Executive Committee of the council is made up of elected officers as
follows: president; three vice-presidents; secretary; treasurer; financial
secretary; publicity secretary; four co-opted members.
The Executive Committee meets once or twice a year to consider.-the
reports and recommendations of the different committees which are also
elected annually.
.
••
39
Permanent committees deal with the following matters: art and art
galleries; dance and drama; music; festivals; research.
The five or six members of each committee meet from time to time to
discuss matters concerning their assigned duties and make recommendations.
The council maintains a secretariat and a gallery, both located in the
same premises in Lagos. Its permanent officials include two organizing secretaries and a gallery curator. The day-to-day running of the council is left
to the Honorary Secretary, who is helped by a General Purposes Committee.
Among its other functions, the council organizes the annual national
festival.
The new constitution of the council provides for the creation of state art
councils, i.e. each state has a branch of the Nigerian Arts Council which is
responsible for local cultural activities and their co-ordination.
The Nigerian Cultural Society was founded in Kaduna in the old Northern
Region for the same purposes as the Nigerian Arts Council (which was originally active mainly in the south). It was recognized and financed by the
then regional government, to plan and implement cultural programmes. It
had a secretariat in Kaduna, and was responsible for the annual art festival.
Members included professional artists, government officials and statesmen.
It was also affected by the division of the region in 1968 into six new states.
It operated under the Interim. Joint Common Service of the new states, and
got money from the states to organize a festival in 1963. The festival was
elaborately planned and other states were invited. After consultations, the
society agreed to merge with the Nigerian Arts Council, which took over its
responsibilities. Its president became first vice-president of the council.
Artists' societies
Painters, musicians, writers and other artists group together to meet, plan
activities and try to find solutions to their common problems. Some of their
activities may get government subventions. Notable examples are the
Society of Nigerian Artists, the Union of Nigerian Musicians, the Musical
Cultural Society, the Mbari Club. The Society of Nigerian Artists is requested each year to organize art exhibitions as part of the independence
celebration. The Mbari Club was very active during the early 1960s when it
organized many cultural activities in the then regional capitals.
Cultural groups
Cultural organizations exist in most towns and villages to promote their
own ethnic or tribal culture and traditions. Members subscribe for regular
activities, some of which commemorate events of local historical or cultural
40
Typical Nigerian traditional cultural centre
in Northern Nigeria.
Typical Nigerian traditional cultural centre
in Southern Nigeria.
Typical Northern Nigeria architecture.
Two Nigerian artists painting a mural commissioned by
a commercial firm in Lagos, Nigeria.
Potters in Abuja at work.
Typical Northern Nigeria
traditional music makers.
A Nigerian musician
teaching his son the secret
of his profession.
A traditional ruler
at the Ojofa cultural
festival surrounded by
his Odis chiefs.
Photos:
Federal Ministry
of Information,
Nigeria.
significance. In cities and towns, people from clans or villages come
together as cultural groups to continue the traditions from which they are
otherwise cut off in their new place of residence; sometimes the purpose is
to raise funds for educational and social development in their home villages.
Similar to the tribal groups are societies grounded in a common
religious or educational institution. They too organize regular art and
cultural programmes for members, and invite the public.
41
Cultural centres
Cultural centres can be either specially designed, permanent structures, or
existing buildings adapted or adopted for cultural purposes. In the pre-
colonial era, special cultural centres were few, for the single reason that
most of the traditional activities and performances did not need them,
taking place mainly in the open air at appropriate places in towns and
villages. Rites for ancestral worship, for the celebration of the new yam,
the marriage ceremony, and initiation into cults, took place in towns, or
sometimes in the bush. Some traditional performances like the Northern
durbars could be performed only in the open. The few cultural structures
that existed were mostly religious: shrines (e.g. Ibo Mbari shrines) and the
Moslem moscjues.
When new art forms were introduced and assimilated, it became necessary to provide more formally organized premises. These are of four main
kinds: (a) cultural centres staffed and equipped by the public authorities;
(b) public buildings, available part-time (e.g. town halls, community
centres, schools); (c) centres specially provided by art and artists' organizations; (d) centres provided by foreign embassies, mainly for international cultural exchanges.
MUSEUMS1
Notable among the centres provided by the public authorities are the six
museums, in different parts of the country, which mainly display Nigerian
antiquities.
Jos Museum. Jos displays the Nofc terracottas, Ife and Benin bronzes,
wood-carvings and other sculpture from different parts of the country,
1.
Written in consultation with Efcpo Eyo, Director of Museums.
42
unique Abuja pottery and books written by Northern scholars. Other
items on display include masks, stone and iron implements of prehistoric
communities.
Traditional craftsmanship is being revived as part of the museum's
activities. There are two Buji blacksmiths, a woman potter from the
Jawara village, an Igala wood-carver and a brass-smith—all working with
traditional equipment in the museum grounds.
A zoo was started in the museum grounds in 1955. The animals include
various types of monkeys and a 250-year-old tortoise.
Ife Museum. Opened in November 1954, the museum has on display the
world-famous Ife bronze heads which have been acclaimed by experts as
among the finest bronze casts in the world. There are also terracotta heads,
Ife stone sculpture, finds excavated by the Department of Antiquities.
Benin Museum. Opened in 1960, this museum contains some of the earliest
and finest Benin bronzes, some of which were dug up accidentally in constructing the modern city of Benin. Benin has produced some of the finest
bronze heads and statues ever made, and they are the most widely known
of all Nigerian arts in the outside world. Apart from the bronzes, there are
also on display carvings and brasswork, commemorating Obas and princesses and the history of the Edo people.
Nigerian National Museum. This, the principal museum in Nigeria, was
opened to the public in 1957. It is situated near King George V Memorial
Park, in Lagos. The museum has three main galleries.
The first contains ethnographic objects, some of which are exceedingly
rare specimens: wood-carvings which include ancestor figures from Oron
(regarded as the oldest wood-carvings in Africa) and Yoruba carvings—divination bowls and boards, figures representing dead twins, gelede masks,
carved door panels and tools; water spirit masks from Ibo and Ibibio areas;
carved heads covered with skin, made more impressive by the curling horns,
beads and feathers fixed on to them (a unique art form not produced anywhere else in West Africa); calabashes, and pottery.
The second, smaller, gallery on the ground floor contains the largest
terracotta Nok head, from one of the specialized cultures that flourished in
Nigeria some 2,000 years ago; terracottas from Ife; some of the famous Ife
bronze heads; a very fine one-metre-high Ogboni bronze figure; iron lamps
from Yoruba land; brass bowls from Bida; and archaeological stone tools
(scrapers, razors, grinding stones, axes and other implements of daily use).
In the courtyard, stone age slabs reveal how stone figures were produced*
The third gallery, the Benin gallery on the first floor, contains some
world-famous works: bronze plaques from the walls of the Oba's palace
depicting events and life in the court of Benin, a unique queen-mother's
bronze head, beautiful bronze leopards, ancestral heads representing
43
previous Obas, carved tusks and other ivory-carvings. A considerable number of these objects were recovered from Europe where they had been taken
after the British expedition to Benin in 1897.
The objects are aesthetically arranged in such a way as to provide a
cross-section of the Nigerian community and its individual traditions.
Other museums. There are small museums at Oron, Esie, Kano and Owo, and
at Mbari houses at Ibadan, Benin and Oshogbo.
All museums are open, to the public daily from dawn to dusk. Nigerian
museums and monuments enhance the world's knowledge of the people who
have inhabited Africa; they are helping to open the door to man's past and
to increase the world's respect for the African people.
MONUMENTS1
The scheduled monuments of Nigeria include sites of prehistoric rock paintings, ancient city walls, traditional buildings of architectural interest, tombs
of historic Nigerians, monoliths, carved stone figures and talking drums.
These are protected by law under the Antiquities Act of 1963. In some cases,
the monuments are in towns, e.g. the old Iga Idunganran in Lagos which is
of both architectural and historic interest. In many cases the tourist may
have to travel out of town to view them.
The following are some of the outstanding monuments.
Rock paintings: Birnin Kudu and Geji. These rock paintings, in Kano and
Bauchi provinces respectively, are the most important so far found in
Nigeria. The Birnin Kudu cattle paintings and symbolic drawings have affinities with some of the Sahara paintings. Both are accessible by motor
road.
Gobirau minaret: Katsina. This is a fifty-foot tower built of mud and palm
timber. It is the remains of the mosque constructed in Habe times, before
the holy wars of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio. Parts of the tower are thought
to be 250 years old.
Carved monoliths: Ikom. The most accessible of these monoliths are in a
grove by the roadside near Maghabe on the Enugu-Ogoja-Gboko road.
There are many circles with stone-carvings representing human beings;
some show affinities with wood-carvings of the Oran clan. The carvings
are sacred, and an annual festival is held here at the end of the dry
season.
1.
Adapted from Paul Coremans, 'Preservation of the Cultural Heritage in Tropical
Africa', Museum (Paris, Unesco), Vol. XVIII, No. 3, 1965.
44
Makama's House: Kano. This is one of the oldest remaining houses in Kano.
It has been declared a monument and converted into a museum for antiquities and the arts and crafts of the Hausa and Fulani of the Kano area.
Slit Drums: Ikot Ekpene. These drums are carved from hard wood and are
about nine feet long and three feet in diameter. These Ikuruk drums are
treasured possessions of many villages in the Oron, Afaha and Otoro clan
areas of Uyo Province.
Jebba and Tada bronzes. These are nine extraordinary bronze figures associated with Tsede, founder of the Nupe Kingdom in the fifteenth century.
Six are the largest cast bronzes in Africa. They show affinities with early Ife
and Benin works.
Apart from their aesthetic appeal, each has a history. The monuments
are useful for educational purposes and also interest tourists. Their presence
is adequately sign-posted at convenient places on the road leading to
them.
The Department of Antiquities is responsible for protecting monuments
and keeping them in good condition.
PUBLIC HALLS A N D C O M M U N I T Y C E N T R E S
In most towns and big villages there are public halls and community centres
suitable for day-to-day local cultural activities. They are built and maintained by the local authority. Some are designed to accommodate modern
theatre, musical performances, dances, lectures, exhibitions and perhaps
film shows. The staff are usually not artists, but look after bookings and
arrangements. They vary in design and capacity, from the city hall with
room for a thousand to the local community centre holding less than a
hundred. Organizations are allowed to bring in their own equipment for
performances. A hiring fee may or may not be charged.
Theatre or auditorium. Schools and colleges may have suitable halls designed
and equipped to accommodate performances. However, they are not usually
available for outside use except perhaps during school holidays.
Cinemas. In addition to normal film shows, cinemas may at times be available for other shows and for music and drama rehearsals.
Clubs. A few organizations use rented houses or premises which they staif
and equip themselves as cultural centres, mainly for members, e.g. the Mbari
houses established in different parts of the country in the early 1960s,
which accommodate drama, music and dance performances, art exhibitions,
seminars and lectures. The public is usually admitted on payment of an
entry charge. The Mbari houses also publish journals and periodicals which
45
may be offered for public sale. The Nigerian Arts Council has always had a
centre (at secretariat headquarters) for cultural activities, including art
exhibitions, lectures and seminars.
E M B A S S Y CULTURAL CENTRES
Some foreign embassies run centres as a means of promoting international
contacts and understanding, and regularly arrange art exhibitions, film
shows, concerts and plays. They sponsor exhibitions by local artists and
bring works of foreign artists for show in Nigeria. Activities in the centres are
usually filmed by the embassies and the films are sent to the home countries,
and occasionally shown in Nigeria. The United States Information Service,
the British Council and the German Cultural Institute all have centres both
in Lagos and in the former regional capitals.
Many new Western cultural forms and values have been assimilated, but
lack structural facilities; in particular, there is a great need for more cultural
centres. A few organizations are doing their best, but the scale of faculties
needed for national and international cultural festivals is definitely beyond
the reach of private organizations; only the government or the really big
commercial firms could cope.
The positive step taken by the federal government in allocating
£500,000 for the building of a national theatre in its four-year development
programme is very encouraging. The money will probably be used to build
a theatre in Lagos capable of accommodating the different festivals. It is
hoped that each state government will build theatres in its capital and other
cities. Meanwhile, existing halls should be equipped to accommodate film
shows, lectures, seminars and so on.
There is no reason why the states should not have their own museums
and museum services, collecting and displaying local objects of artistic and
historical significance. This would increase the tourist attraction and allow
more people to experience art. As part of the museum, states could collect
and snow contemporary art and crafts. However, it is important to avoid
state rivalries. Each could have its own museum, but works of art discovered
or produced locally should also be exhibited in other states and at the
national museums. As facilities for the training of museum personnel are
inadequate, a centrally organized training service would provide a good
solution.
The proposed extension of the National Museum, in Lagos should be
done qiiickly, and local facilities should be provided to allow Nigeria to
display the richness of its artistic heritage to the world.
Galleries for contemporary works are also needed—the existing galleries
are usually over-booked; and a national museum of modern art should be
established for the permanent display of outstanding contemporary works.
46
Mass media
Radio and television. Radio and television have played very significant roles
in spreading art and culture and fostering contacts and awareness of music
and the arts. Television seems to have produced the more effective and
lasting impact, mainly because of its visual quality (particularly important,
obviously, in e.g. dances and acrobatic displays).
Radio broadcasting is mainly limited to music and drama. Some
3.5 million radios have an estimated audience of 20-25 million listeners.
Radio covers all parts of the country, and hence has a wider audience than
television. Regular features and talks, by professional artists, scholars and
specialists, have helped to promote a better understanding and appreciation
of the arts. Editors also interview artists.
School units produce and relay educational and cultural programmes to
schools and colleges, in co-operation with the ministries of education, and
usually during school hours. Specialists in art, music and drama are commissioned to prepare lessons suitable for the different categories of students.
Programmes and visual aids are circulated in advance so that students can
follow the lessons or talks intelligently. Other school programmes include
live art, music, and drama broadcasts, model-making for teenagers and
arts and crafts demonstrations.
Visual arts. Television interviews with local and foreign artists, often in
connexion with exhibitions, are a regular feature. Most Nigerian artists are
formally trained in local and foreign universities and use media that are new
to the Nigerian public. During such programmes, artists can explain their materials, methods and techniques and their approach to creative work, while
the general public has a chance to hear at first hand what the contemporary
artist has to say. Nigerian television, which is mainly black-and-white, has
been fairly effective in bringing the modern arts nearer to the people, thereby
increasing the hearing given to artists and making publicity for them (it is
not uncommon for artists to get a new commission after an appearance on
television). Exhibitions of foreign works allow the public to compare local
and foreign talent, show local artists how their colleagues abroad solve
similar problems and are also very helpful to art teachers and students.
Music. Music programmes are similarly educationally beneficial to the
public, local musicians and musicologists, music students and teachers.
Drama. Drama programmes are very popular with viewers. They vary in
types and in manner of production. Some traditional plays are often performed by amateur actors in Nigerian languages; other plays are performed
by professional actors in English. Some of the plays comment on or reflect
local social, religious or political events.
47
Dance. Traditional dances from different parts of the country make exciting
television and show not only the diversity but also the complexity of the
traditional dance systems. Apart from weekly programmes, foreign films
and occasional documentaries, the big cultural occasions and festivals are
transmitted live.
Cinema. The film industry is comparatively new but the Federal Film Unit
has produced some good documentary films and features. These however
are rarely shown in the commercial cinemas, which prefer to show foreign
films. No film of real cultural significance has so far been produced.
As stated above, a federal Films Censorship Board screens films before
they are shown to the public. Cinemas in many towns and villages attract
teenage and older spectators, most of whom have no other way of spending
their evenings. The films are mostly foreign, from America, India and
Britain.
Foreign films display the subtleties of foreign cultures, but unfortunately
also their violent aspects. Their effects on society are not always healthy.
There is now a growing tendency for people to stay at home and watch
television rather than go to the cinema.
Libraries. The role of the library in promoting cultural diffusion is steadily
increasing as more and more libraries are opened in towns and villages.
Unfortunately, most of their books (like films in the cinemas) are foreign,
written and published abroad. While there are few Nigerian authors (and
fewer still on cultural subjects), some of the novels and literature by
Nigerian writers succeed in reflecting Nigerian life and culture. The National
Library and some of the bigger libraries periodically organize programmes
with films and slides. A few libraries also adorn their premises with Nigerian
paintings and sculpture.
Newspaper critics. There are very few trained art critics in Nigeria, but
articles on art or artists nevertheless appear in the different newspapers.
Whatever their limitations, they play a useful role in publicizing artists,
art exhibitions and other programmes. They report talks or lectures given
by art scholars and sometimes publish pictures of works of art and various
cultural activities.
Festivals of the arts
The origin of these festivals dates back to 1938 when Nigeria participated
in the British Empire Exhibition at Glasgow and art and crafts from Nigeria
were exhibited along with the works of artists of other countries. Nigeria's
participation was not very successful. After the exhibition a group of
expatriate officials was invited to organize local festivals in preparation for
48
such international exhibitions. The government later provided some subventions. However, these festivals differed greatly from the traditional local
festivals held in towns and villages today.
Festival administration first came under the Public Relations Office in
Lagos; it was later transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Social Welfare and finally to the Federal Ministry of Information.
For many years, the festivals were centrally organized from Lagos, but
artists all over the country participated. The main events were traditional
and modern drama, instrumental and choral music, traditional folk-lore,
dances, poetry writing and reading, and art and crafts. There were junior
competitions for schools and senior competitions open to all professional
artists.
Following the creation of the regions and later, of the states, changes
were made in the festival organization and administration. Each local
council is now responsible for the selection of groups and troupes to participate in the provincial or state festival. From the state festival the best
troupes are selected to participate in the National Festival of the Arts. The
practical and financial organization is undertaken, first by the local councils
and later, by the states' arts councils. In the past ad hoc committees
organized the National Festival, but this is now done by the Nigerian Arts
Council under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Information. The
federal government bears the main cost (a grant of over £30,000 was made
to the council to organize the 1970 festival).
The council intends to hold the National Festival successively in
the different state capitals, to encourage the spread of culture and promote national unity. Firms and private organizations made contributions
towards the costs of the 1970 National Festival. Selected items from the
National Festival may also represent Nigeria in international or other festivals—which, in recent years, have included the Commonwealth Festival
of Arts, the World Festival of Negro Arts, the All-African Cultural Festival
sponsored by the Organization of African Unity, Expo '67 in Canada, and
Expo '70 in Japan.
-Premises are a major difficulty. There is at present not a single theatre
in Nigeria that could cope with the National Festival. Those at present
available are inadequate. Nigeria urgently needs a proper national theatre.
As indicated above, the government's four-year development programme
includes provision to spend some £500,000 on one.
Finance is another problem. The expenditure on lodging, hotels and
transport is so heavy that it can only be met by the government. Unless it
and the states contribute, it may be difficult to organize future festivals
(especially in the states).
The competitive nature of the festivals poses another problem. What
should be judged in the traditional dances of a state or ethnic group and
who is qualified to make the judgement? And does the judgement presuppose that some cultures are better than others?
49
There is also potentially a shortage of personnel capable of handling the
actual physical organization. When the National Festival moves to some of
the newly created states it may be difficult to get enough hands to cope. In
Lagos there is a concentration of art experts, many of whom work in different federal ministries and organizations. A possible solution would be to
give enough funds to the Nigerian Arts Council to enable it to employ more
permanent staff" who could be posted temporarily to cover the festivals.
Art education and personnel training
FORMAL T E A C H I N G
The introduction of formal teaching in cultural subjects in Nigerian schools
was a fairly late development.
The first Nigerian to train as an artist was the late Chief Aina Onabolu,
who studied art in London and Paris before returning in 1923 to teach art
in schools in Lagos. He also continued to paint—mainly portraits of eminent citizens and administrators.
Chief Onabolu was credited with having convinced the government to
invite expatriate teachers to come to teach art.1 The first to accept the
invitation was K. C. Murray, an Englishman, who arrived in Nigeria in 1927
and formally introduced the teaching of art at government colleges in Lagos
and Umuahia.
However, there was still no government policy regarding the teaching of
art or other cultural subjects. The teachers were left to teach in any way
they liked and with any material they chose. Most of the European teachers
used imported materials with which they were familiar and exhibited the
results from time to time for the inspectors who went round occasionally to
give them encouragement. But their efforts did not induce the inspectors to
press for more attention to creative subjects; these continued to be rated
low and taught least in the schools and colleges.
Today the situation is not much better. None of the cultural and creative subjects are compulsory in primary and secondary schools in Nigeria.
Even at the teacher-training colleges, art and music are either optional or
not available. As a result, over 80 per cent of primary-school teachers have
not had any formal art training. Getting materials creates further problems.
It is only in schools where there are trained or interested teachers and sufficient funds from the head of the school to buy materials that the subjects
are taught. Such schools constitute a very low percentage of the primary
schools.
The position is better in the secondary schools, where art and cultural
subjects have gradually been taking their rightful place in the curriculum.
1.
Nigeria Magazine (Lagos), 79.
50
Art teachers are graduating every year, with a corresponding increase in
the number of secondary schools that can offer art teaching. The subject's
popularity has been greatly enhanced by the success of students in local art
examinations and international exhibitions. Music has also been formally
introduced into many schools, especially those directly administered by the
federal or state ministries of education. But as compared with other
countries, the position still needs to be improved. A former Chief Art
Examiner, R. Carline, said in a recent survey of art education in Nigeria:
It is perhaps relevant to observe that in Great Britain, with a population comparable to that of Nigeria, it would be hard to find any school that does not
include art in its curriculum. Even so, the schools are under constant pressure to
give the subject yet more attention. Meanwhile, the number of candidates in art
at Ordinary Level in Great Britain must be nearly one hundred times as great as
in Nigeria. Comparison with countries in an equivalent stage of development may
be relevant. In Uganda, for example, 80 per cent of its fifty-two schools listed for
School Certificate enter candidates in art, and the number (1,300) far exceeds that
of Nigeria, although Uganda's population is so infinitely smaller. The same is true,
but to a slightly lesser extent, in the other East African countries (Kenya,
Tanzania, Zambia). Mauritius enters as many candidates in art as Nigeria, and
Malaysia enters thirty times as many. In both these two countries, nearly all the
secondary schools—those which teach up to the School Certificate level—include
the teaching of art.1
As far as art training in higher education institutions is concerned, covering
visual arts, music, drama, architecture, etc., the different courses given by
the principal universities and colleges are as follows.
Ahmadu Bella University, Zaria. This was the first university to start a
four-year diploma and graduate course in art. Specializations include painting, sculpture, design, textiles, ceramics, with subsidiary courses in printing,
photography, history of art. Following a recent reorganization, the university now runs the following courses, differing in duration, entry qualifications and academic level:
B.A. (Art) (three years). Entry qualification: General Certificate of Education, Advanced level (GCE 'A' level) in art and one other subject.
M.A./Ph.D. Two- or three-year M.A. or Ph.D. courses in fine art are open
to B.A. graduates in art.
Diploma course (four years). Entry qualification: GCE Ordinary level, or
the Nigerian Grade Two Teacher Certificate.
Proficiency course (one year). A specialization course for practising and
professional artists.
Art teachers' course. A post-graduate one-year course run jointly by the
faculties of education and of fine art provides opportunities for artists
1.
R. Carline, Art Education Survey, Lagos, 1967.
51
wishing to teach, enables them to learn the principles, materials and
methods of art teaching.
As far as architecture is concerned, a four-year B.A. (Arch.) course is open
to students who hold the GCE 'A' level in relevant subjects. Subsequent
professional examinations are arranged by the Nigerian Institute of Architecture in co-operation with the university.
University of Nsukka. This university also offers a B.A. (Art) course.
Specializations include painting, sculpture and design, with archaeology,
printing, photography and journalism as subsidiary subjects. There is also
a three-year diploma (non-graduate) course for vocational teachers.
The university's Showande College of Music offers a four-year B.A.
course and a three-year diploma course in music.
University of Ife. A newly created Art Department under the Faculty of
Education offers a three-year B.Ed. (Art) course, primarily intended to train
art teachers and educationists; students attend education courses and obtain teaching practice.
The Music Department of the university is still part of the Institute of
African Studies. Students can take music as a supplementary subject for
their degrees. Talented students from other departments have also attended
practical courses with very good results.
Yaba College of Technology. A two-year programme for personnel needed in
government departments, commercial firms and the private sector offers
courses in general art, printing, commercial design, sculpture, pottery and
fashion design. A four-year Higher Diploma course, expected to start soon,
will give more advanced training. The college also runs part-time evening
courses.
Training of art teachers. Apart from university courses, courses at some six
advanced teacher-training colleges include art as a subject for the Nigerian
Certificate of Education.
University of Ibadan. The School of Drama runs a course in drama and
allied subjects. The school has a travelling theatre which brings plays to all
parts of the country.
In addition to the Schools of Arts already mentioned, all the universities have institutes of African studies where courses are available in
African literature, languages, anthropology, archaeology, African history
and sociology.
52
INFORMAL TRAINING
Not all practising artists and craftsmen in Nigeria have received formal
training or would even want to. The academic and financial demands are too
heavy for some, and these mostly learn through an apprenticeship system.
During the early part of his training, the apprentice is maintained by his
master for whom he does all sorts of odd jobs. After some time (depending
on his ability), the apprentice may be able, at a modest price, to sell some of
what he produces. When he has gained skill enough he sets up on his own
and apprentices come to him in turn for training. The system may be less
strict but it has produced many outstanding craftsmen.
The duration of training depends on the type of craft. Carving, weaving,
casting and ironwork take about three years; calabash decoration, tying
and dyeing, and embroidery, take about two. Other new crafts in which
Nigerians train informally include printing, photography and sign-writing.
Co-operative craft industries. Informal apprenticeship training and the
ministries of trade and industry encourage craftsmen to come together and
set up a co-operative crafts workshop. These get government subventions
and many local industries have prospered in consequence in towns and
villages where suitable local materials are available. The workshops are not
directly controlled by the ministry, which does however arrange for displays
and publicity, especially at national and international trade fairs. Some
examples of local crafts industries: carving (Benin); pottery (Ado-Ekiti);
weaving (Iseyin and Okenne); calabash workshop (Oyo); leather (Kano
and Kaduna); weaving (Akwete); dyeing (Ilorin and Abeokuta); pottery
(Abujah); ceramics (Ikorodu).
Other workshops. Besides the regular co-operative industries, periodic art
workshops are organized by art societies for the people who could not study
at established institutions. The Mbari Club ran a series of art, drama and
music workshops before the civil war. Participants included illiterate freelance artists, and schoolteachers wanting to learn new art techniques.
Courses included painting in different media, wood printing, etching and
traditional terracotta.
The Ori-Olokun Art Centre of the University of Ife now runs similar
courses, and products from it are regularly exhibited in Ibadan and Lagos.
Arts and crafts trade centres. Post-primary trade centres have recently
been established in some Northern states. Subjects at the centres include
painting and decoration and traditional crafts (leather, weaving, pottery,
calabash decoration). The main course lasts for about three years, after
which the students go out to establish or work in industries where their
skills are needed. The training is organized under specialist and trained
instructors; unlike the co-operative workshops, the trade centres admit
students between the ages of 12 and 18 years only.
There is a federal government trade centre in Lagos; the training provided is more technical than creative, and concludes with examinations.
53
The transmission, of culture
PROBLEMS OF ART EDUCATION
Primary and secondary. The major problems are the lack of qualified
teachers, of art rooms and art materials, and of visual aids and textbooks.
The first problem is gradually being solved by the number of art teachers
graduating yearly from institutions of higher learning and by the concerted
government efforts to train more teachers under a crash programme. Unfortunately, such teachers tend to work only in the secondary schools, where
they have enhanced status; the problem of the primary schools remains.
Only a very few teacher-training colleges have made an effort to include
art in the curriculum. Serving teachers in primary schools have no opportunity of learning the subjects, as no in-service training in art is available,
and this will continue unless drastic government measures are taken to
improve it. The state ministries of education could run part-time evening
courses in art and crafts for such teachers, or refresher courses during the
holidays. They could also make art and music compulsory in the teachertraining colleges.
Most headmasters or school authorities still regard art and music as
'luxury' subjects for which no funds can be provided to purchase materials
and equipment. Few schools have art rooms, space having been allocated
long before art and music were included in the curricula. With no rooms or
materials, the art teacher finds it extremely difficult to work. Even when
funds are available, the materials may not be, as they are mostly imported.
Examinations demand the use of more imported than local materials—out
of the six sections of the School Certificate Art examination, only one
(crafts) can be done with local materials. A government embargo on the
import of certain materials also adversely affected teaching in textile print-
ing and embroidery.
Very few books on art, visual aids or reproduction are available; slides are
fewer still. In view of the present financial situation in the schools, only
ministries and school authorities can provide the funds for such aids and
provide regular refresher courses for both primary and secondary teachers.
Most of the latter have to work in isolation in towns and villages, usually
several miles apart, with none of the regular contacts or exchanges that
refresher courses could provide.
Universities. Although the educational system was inherited from the
United Kingdom, there are no independent art schools. Art departments
are part of the universities and are controlled by them. Many educational
administrators have very little understanding of the arts and little time for
cultural subjects; they may superficially agree that these subjects should
54
be encouraged along with the others, but in practice find it difficult to
equate them to other disciplines.
Opinions vary. Some doubt whether art can be academically equated
with science and other subjects—if so, must not art students present the
same entry academic qualifications, irrespective of their talents in the arts?
But then, should students who only have their outstanding ability in the
arts be excluded from the university? What roles are art graduates expected
to play in society? Should they be treated as people with special talents, or
as other graduates in administrative or executive appointments? Will art
graduates be capable of holding administrative or other responsible posts if
their training is artistic only?
Content. The question of content raises other problems for art education
planners. In view of Nigeria's reputation in the arts, it is often held
that art education should be unequivocally based on traditional forms.
Others feel it should develop along the same lines as in other countries.
And some favour a compromise between the two. If a compromise is
the solution, what are to be the proportions of foreign and traditional
art?
Again, what jobs are graduate artists likely to find? At present, over
90 per cent are engaged in teaching. They have few openings in the civil
service, industry or commerce. As still more art teachers are needed in
schools, it has been suggested that the art course shoiild include courses in
education. This may be one of the reasons for the University of Ife B.Ed,
course in art and for the introduction of education as a subsidiary subject
for art students in Ahmadu Bello (Zaria) and Nsukka. On the other hand,
the time taken by education may adversely affect the art course and distract
the art student. At present, the only feasible solution is to train on the
assumption of a future teaching career. Perhaps growth in industry and
advertising will provide a better market for free-lance artists, and justify
a change of direction in art courses.
Finances. Apart from materials, equipment may also be essential, i.e. lighting and costumes for a play or concert. College authorities are usually slow
to appreciate the need to spend so much money on art departments for
results which are not tangibly or economically evident, and the resulting
scarcity or lack of funds means hardship for both art students and teachers.
Departments have to cancel or postpone studies, teach without essential
visual aids (e.g. reproductions, slides), and without suitable references or
textbooks.
Staffing. From the time the first art department was set up in Nigeria,
expatriates dominated the staffing, as few Nigerians were qualified, and
they introduced the systems and kind of education with which they were
familiar. The results have been ably desciibed by Demas Nwoko, a lecturer
55
in drama in one of the Nigerian universities, in a paper read at an African
symposium:
Many of our students are now employed in radio and television, and many more
are teaching in grammar schools, but I regret to say that it seems we have not
made African artists out of them. As I said earlier, by the very system we use,
which is an amalgamation of the European and American university systems,
added to the situation where available teaching materials were almost entirely on
Western theatre forms, they stepped out of our school as if they had trained in
any drama school in London. There is very little one can do to change the orientation of the school since our university is international in character and our staff
from all over.
This also reflects the situation in other art subjects and steps must be taken
to improve it. One way would be to recruit more qualified and experienced
Nigerians into the departments teaching art and cultural subjects, people
who know and feel Nigerian cultural values and can gradually help them
to permeate our cultural education; this would transform the present
system and enable it really to reflect the traditions and aspirations of the
people.
TRAINING OF P E R S O N N E L
There are few directors of theatres, curators of museums and galleries, and
other such administrators, for the simple reason that Nigeria has few such
institutions. Those which do exist have staff who are trained locally and
send a small number abroad for more advanced training.
Museum personnel. In addition to departmental and overseas training,
an international bilingual centre in Jos, run with Unesco aid and experts,
provides training for museum technicians from Nigeria and other tropical
countries. The principal and the instructors are bilingual. Courses last about
nine months. Entry qualification is the GCE '0' level. Practical training
includes conservation techniques, display design, moulding of replicas, production of audio-visual aids.
Museum education services. The Department of Antiquities in Lagos has
started a schools and colleges programme. Experts have been invited from
abroad to run short courses and seminars for officials and schoolteachers.
Regular workshops are helping to revive traditional arts and crafts, and
popularize them in schools.
Television staff training. NBC-TV, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation, has a staff training school and also arranges for advanced training
and attachments overseas.
Local authority training. Western State and a few others run in-service
training courses for local government officials, including those in charge of
community centres and local libraries. The training seldom covers arts
administration, but certainly enhances ability and confidence.
56
Citizenship and leadership training. The federal government has sponsored
courses in different parts of the country to train people capable of taking
leading roles in local social, sporting and cultural activities. More formal
and specifically designed training will be necessary for staff of the proposed
national theatre, the Museum of Modern Art and other developments likely
to take place within the next few years.
INTENSIFIED CULTURAL AWARENESS
Cultural education has a very vital role to play in bridging the gaps between
the illiterate majority and the educated minority. It transmits and perpetuates in addition to serving as an instrument of unity, development and
change. Formally or informally, a good system of cultural education should
reach everyone, irrespective of age, sex, religion, ethnic origin or language;
through it, the culture of a people can be effectively transmitted; with its
help, the spiritual challenges posed by the modern world can be confidently
faced. The Nigerian educational system must give more attention to cultural subjects—this will definitely promote inter-tribal understanding and
national unity.
Cultural education can be made more effective by more youth exchanges,
through festivals, exhibitions and literary and cultural seminars. These in
turn suppose having cultural and sports centres throughout the country,
and the formation of art clubs and cultural societies. Prizes and study grants
should be awarded to those having outstanding artistic or creative abilities.
Papers for children should help to counteract the perhaps excessive
influence of foreign newspapers and magazines and enough publications on
Nigerian art, music, folk-lore and traditional poetry should be made available to occupy a gieat portion of their reading time.
Efforts should also be made to introduce the major Nigerian languages
into the school curricula, which in turn should give greater weight to things,
envisaging comparative local studies to eradicate prejudice and promote
cultural harmony. It is when cultural education has inculcated the idea of
national unity that a national policy becomes really practicable; cultural
education is a potential instrument of peace that has never been adequately
used and, at this present time of national reconstruction and reconciliation,
it should not be neglected. It should be used to reduce antagonisms between
tribal, religious, social and political groups, to promote the inter-tribal
understanding that can lead to active cultural co-operation in a new awareness of a common cultural heritage.
Art patronage and the artist's problems
As a result of the new patronage and new social functions of the arts, certain
traditional forms of aid have largely disappeared. New forms of financial
57
aid and other encouragement are being given by those who are now in a
position to patronize the arts: public authorities, firms, foundations and
local art organizations.
Government aid. Government grants are limited, and usually come as subventions for the making or purchases of specially needed works. Thus, the
federal government has commissioned certain items to commemorate historical occasions in Nigeria or for presentation to other countries or world
organizations in similar circumstances (e.g. at the time of Independence,
the bronze statue of the Queen of England which now stands in front of
the Parliament). Regional and state governments have also commissioned
statues and paintings to mark special occasions or to honour heroes or
statesmen.
The Federal Ministry of Education makes an annual subvention for the
collection of art works for the proposed Museum of Modern Art (a total of
over £30,000 during the past six years). This has allowed the purchase of
over a hundred items from leading Nigerian artists. The Federal Ministry
of Information also subsidizes the purchase of art works for embassies
abroad, or government offices and public buildings in Lagos.
Government honours for artists. Artists have not been left out in honour
awards. The late Chief Aina Onabolu, who could be regarded the father of
Nigerian modern art, was also the first artist to receive a national honour,
the colonial government awarding him the Order of the British Empire. Two
other artists (one a musician) received the Member of the British Empire
order before British honours were renounced shortly after independence. A
Nigerian architect and a woman potter were later awarded the Order of the
Niger. The Federal Cultural Adviser has received an honorary doctor of
letters degree from a Nigerian university. These awards carry no financial
benefits, but are valued and appreciated by artists so rewarded and encourage others who can likewise aspire to them.
Firms. Commercial firms, including banks and hotels, have constituted the
main patrons, commissioning or purchasing murals, paintings and sculpture
to decorate offices and residences. Almost all the big hotels and banks
possess murals or art works by Nigerian artists and many free-lance artists
depend on their patronage. A few firms give annual prizes or scholarships to
art and architecture students in Nigerian universities.
Art associations. The Nigerian Arts Council makes annual cash awards for
different competitive events in the National Festival. The Society of
Nigerian Artists awards cash prizes to outstanding art students in schools
and colleges. Some private patrons (mostly European collectors) pro-
vide financial or other help for artists, but it is difficult to say how
much.
58
Tlie transmission of culture
The artist's problems. The artist has problems in relation both to his art and
to society. Nigeria has two main categories of artists: traditional and
'modern'.
The traditional artists are mainly illiterate. They lack formal education
but have inherited a family tradition. Found mostly in towns and villages,
the most successful among them live in the cities. They simply continue
traditional techniques and have very few problems. After an apprenticeship, they settle down to reproduce in quantity what they have learnt to
make and sell easily to tourists and foreign collectors.
The others, formally trained locally or abroad, assimilate foreign techniques and attitudes. Some settle down to permanent jobs, mainly in
teaching. Modem in outlook, their art is understood and appreciated only
by foreigners and some more sophisticated Nigerians. Very often neither
their own families nor the public understand. Their work, similar to what
is produced in Europe (or produced in Nigeria by Europeans), does not find
a ready market. Tourists and foreign collectors are seldom interested in a
kind of art they can easily collect anywhere in Europe or America.
In their efforts to find a market, some of the artists fall back on copying
traditional forms, or working local materials with western techniques. Unfortunately, many lack conviction in using their newly acquired techniques
and remain undecided about their proper line of development. Some have
withdrawn altogether, and packed away their easels and chisels. This problem is not confined to the visual artists: musicians and playwrights are
equally affected.
The academic artist can hardly survive on a free-lance basis because the
demand for his works is so limited. There are few openings for him in the
civil service or in commercial firms. Some are therefore forced to take up
teaching jobs in small towns and villages, doing their art work only in their
spare time. For lack of facilities, publicity and patronage, such artists are
usually less favoured than their counterparts in the cities. Even in some big
towns the acquiring of art materials can present difficulties. But in the
small towns and villages, the artist receives little or no public attention, as
the press is mainly concerned with the cities. His work is rarely seen on
television. Anything he sells, he has to sell cheap. The local people will have
little appreciation of 'modern' or academic works. He therefore can only
hope for the occasional visits of foreign collectors.
Even in his school, the village artist is usually isolated. The school head
and other teachers attach less importance to his subject and anything he
may produce. He is misunderstood, especially if he puts himself forward as
an artist; and this hostile environment can hardly be called encouraging.
Writers have a special problem—that of language. English has become
the official language and the accepted language in which to communicate
ideas. But Nigeria has over ten languages and some 200 dialects. To the
playwright or poet, this language problem raises obstacles of communication. In any local language his writing may fail to attract the attention of
59
foreign publishers, for whom a first condition is a language they can understand, and for which type-faces are available. The writer therefore has
either to write in English or take a chance on finding a local publisher. As
local publishing, and hence, locally published books tend to be more expensive, the local reader tends to prefer cheaper foreign books.
When the writer uses English, he is naturally handicapped by having to
translate local concepts and ideas into a foreign idiom. But if he does get
published, he will also be widely publicized and reviewed by local critics,
and may quickly go on to national fame. Outstanding writers in local
languages will thus be less known than mediocre writers who use the English
language, because circulation is usually limited to the areas in which the
language used is understood.
Musicians face a similar kind of problem. Their academic training is
based on foreign instruments, and few will have explored the possibility of
local instruments which, in any case, are not suited for use in compositions
intended, more often than not, for a foreign audience. Nigerian musicians
who have achieved international fame are little known or appreciated at
home where, again, their admirers are limited to trained connoisseurs.
These are problems facing artists and writers in Nigeria. Some can be
solved only by the artists themselves, others through a new kind of cultural
education that will link artists better with their environment and traditions.
60
The future
Nigeria has had no specific written government cultural policy since it
attained independence. The colonial government did not bother to formulate a policy. Towards the end of the colonial period, Nigerian politicians
who were in control of the administrative and financial machinery concentrated all their efforts and attention on political and economic programmes.
This is understandable in a newly independent country still struggling against
the strains of poverty and underdevelopment.
Indifference was also caused by the erroneous belief that, culture being
interwoven with Nigerian social life, it needed no special development
measures. However, with more political and economic stability, the government and people are increasingly aware that culture is the essence of civilization and the federal and state governments are getting more and more
involved not only in promotion but also in cultural education and in
preserving the national heritage.
The federal government inherited and continued the colonial administration policy on antiquities. Annual subventions are made to museums all
over the country, and arrangements to develop them and to build a national
theatre are well in hand.
There have been growing demands by artists, writers, educationists and
men of culture in different walks of life for a government policy on culture,
and the creation of a unified ministry or department of culture as opposed
to the present system of leaving cultural matters to a series of different
ministries. Officials dealing with art and culture have also been trying to
co-ordinate their efforts and have unanimously recommended the creation
of a federal government cultural council as a prelude to the creation of a
department of culture.
Six senior officials in different ministries could provide the nucleus of
such a department: (a) the Federal Cultural Adviser in the Ministry of
Information; (b) the Federal Art Adviser in the Ministry of Education;
(c) the Director of Museums (Ministry of Education); (d) the Controller of
61
The future
Archives (Ministry of Education); (e) the Head of the Cultural Division,
Ministry of External Affairs; (f) the officer in charge of trade affairs in the
Ministry of Trade and Industry.
They could be brought together under the Federal Cultural Adviser and,
with some administrative assistance, could form a Ministry of Culture.
Cultural education, promotion and preservation could then be directed
centrally and organized more effectively. After due consultations the officials
could formulate a cultural policy for submission to the government.
In formulating a national cultural policy, however, the complex geographical, social and cultural patterns of the country must be taken into
consideration. A national policy should avoid the over-centralization of
programmes. The present constitutional position in regard to culture is
satisfactory. The state governments and the local authorities should be
consulted, to ensure that the federal cultural policy adopted makes sense
also to people in towns and villages and is not made only for a privileged
and already cultured elite in the cities. It must respect cherished customs
and traditions, and aim at enhancing life for everyone, irrespective of their
sex, age, or religion.
Admitting this need for participation, there is at the same time a great
need for a central policy-making and co-ordinating body. It could help to
forge a common national identity and cultural image; promote inter-State
cultural co-operation and understanding; plan national festivals and other
programmes that enhance national cultural awareness; and arrange Nigerian
participation in international festivals and other cultural activities.
Many people believe that the present Nigerian Arts Council should be
reconstituted and given the same terms of reference in regard to cultural
matters as the Nigerian Sports Council has in sport, i.e. that of a subsidized
and semi-autonomous agency acting for the government but with a minimum of State interference. The council is at present greatly handicapped by
the smalbiess of its subvention, the delay in actually getting it and a lack
of recognized authority.
The federal government is expected to take a definite step towards
defining both a national and an international cultural policy. Cultural plans
should be integrated with political and economic programmes in the fouryear development programmes. This would, inter alia, avoid the confusion
that often arises at the time of international festivals.
The above are some of the proposals that are in the air. The government
has taken no decision on them yet. However, commissioners and governors
have publicly stressed the need for a ministry of culture or similarly
national body.
The present mood of national reconstruction and reconciliation offers a
good opportunity for government-concerted cultural development. In a
multi-tribal society such as exists in Nigeria, cultural programmes could be
very effective in bringing about mutual understanding and national unity,
as cultural programmes and exchanges do foster a better understanding and
62
The future
appreciation of other people's way of life. The more people know of one
another, the less grounds do they have for irrational suspicions.
A country is not judged by its political and economic development
alone—its arts, literature, and music also count. Nigeria has rich cultural
potentialities which, if developed and properly organized, should enhance
her role in Africa. Countries relatively less favoured have been concerned
for their arts, and earned world-wide attention. The performances of
Nigeria in international festivals still leaves a lot to be desired; and improvement implies better organization. Only through a coherent government
policy can Nigeria's cultural potentialities be fully developed.
63
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Cultural policy in Nigeria - unesdoc

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