ISLAM AND COMMERCE: WAQF AND THE BAZAAR OF

ISLAM AND COMMERCE: WAQF AND THE BAZAAR OF

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!82_Erdkunde_Band
H.:
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als Faktor bei
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ISLAM AND COMMERCE:
a. Davis,
Ph.
Waqf
und der Bazar
Religiose Stiftungen (waqf) waren eine der wichtigen
sozialen
im
der Stadt
Einrichtungen
mit dem Bazar
Weise
In besonderer
und wirtschaftlichen
islamischen
Orient.
aus diesen Stiftungen
dienten die Einkommen
verknupft,
von Moscheen,
vor allem zur Finanzierung
Koranschulen
Der
und Einrichtungen.
und anderen
religiosen Gebauden
folgende
Beitrag
untersucht
den
besonderen
S. M.
Republik
Enschede
Zusammen
E.
Geographica
(Eds.): Remote
New York
1978.
Analysis
Sensing
and Remote
-
The
Sen
1981.
O. u. Meyer,
Trachsler,
H., Koelbl,
von Luftaufnahmen
weise Auswertung
Arealstatistik.
rung der Eidgenossischen
Verstappen,
Institute
in der Pro
Jemen).
B.:
Stichproben
fiir die Erneue
Bundesamt
Bern
und Raumplanung,
1980.
inGeomorphology.
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Sensing
for Aerial
Survey
and Earth
Science
fiir
Int.
(I.T.C.).
1977.
WAQF AND THE BAZAAR OF YAZD,
Michael
Islam und Handel:
der Landnutzungsinter
zur Deutschen
Lan
Berichte
Approach.
J. R. G.: Terrain
sing. London
Statistik
Luftbildern.
29. Bad Godesberg
1962.
von Luftbildkarten
(Arabische
1, 1976.
With 3 figures (partlyas supplementsVI-VII)
Zusammenfassung:
von Yazd,
Iran
der Landnut
Herstellung
Townshend,
durch
Nr. 13. Bonn-Bad
schen Raum,
:Gewasseriiberwachung
durch
und Methodik
Bd.
Quantiative
Der
Fernerkundung
zur mittleren
im Vergleich
mittlere
Oberrhein
Saar.
im mitteleuropai
Landeskundl.
Luftbildauswertung
: Gewasseriiberwachung
-
im mitteleuropai
1961.
Luftbildauswertung
Nr. 5. Bad Godesberg
von Luftbildern.
deskunde,
H.:
Steffen,
vinz Ta'izz
des Luftbil
Bd.
schen Raum,
: Zur Technik
pretation
1962.
mit Hilfe
1982.
Photogrammetrie
Steiner,
Processing.
USA
1982.
Orlando,
der Luftbildinterpretation
S.: Die
Schneider,
Stellung
zur Deutschen
der Landesforschung.
Berichte
Landes
F.:
Data Processing Capabilities. Digest IEEE/IGARSS'85
J. A.: Urban
Intern. Symp.
I. Ann Arbor
Picture
Digital
of Zurich
University
u. Ackermann,
K.
1976.
Verfahren,
Grundlagen,
Anwendungen.
Stuttgart
E. H., Nuesch,
D. R.,
I.
K., Meier,
Staenz,
Itten, K.
a. Haefner,
H.: Resource
Oriented
Monitoring
Sensing
ofGeography
1982.
Rosenfeld,
of Geography
Schwidefsky,
by
Inventories.
Remote
Park,
Data
MSS
IRANn
and 4 tables
Bonine
? Thanks
are given
to the Alexander
von Humboldt
on the
for partial
for this research
support
I
thank
Prof.
Dr.
E.
Ehlers
Eastern
city.
(Marburg)
Foundation
Middle
for valuable
comments
and Mr.
for the excellent
originally
extended
Science
Abedi
cartography.
in 1970-71
conducted
G.
Fullenbach
Field
research
(Marburg)
in Iran was
and 1977, and thanks are
and the Social
for support by Fulbright-Hays
comments
The
Council.
ofMr. Mehdi
Research
also have
been most
helpful.
Michael
hang von Stiftungen
islamischen
Orients.
und
E. Bonine:
in der
Bazarbereich
Ausgehend
des waqf und
Kennzeichnung
men
sowie seiner historischen
von
seiner
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
Islam
des
Stadt
einer
allgemeinen
For
verschiedenen
fiir die Entwick
Bedeutung
Stadte wie Aleppo
oder Istanbul,
dient die
lung einzelner
iranische Stadt Yazd
als Fallbeispiel
fiir eine Detailanalyse.
waren
Hier
fiir die Entwicklung
des
Stiftungen
aus der engen
wie auch heute noch
und kommerzieller
Bausub
religioser
religiose
Bazars
bedeutsam,
von
Verzahnung
stanz
im Bazarbereich
Mieten
deutlich
wird.
im Bazar
fiir Geschaftsraume
Eine
war und
insofern von Bedeutung
zu
im
preise
Vergleich
privaten Vermietungen
als eine spezifische
Institution des Islam
Waqf
fiir das Verstandnis
grundsatzlicher
Bedeutung
auch
deren Charakter
der Stadt
im islamischen
der
Analyse
zeigt, dafi waqf
ist, als es die Miet
niedrig halt.
ist somit von
vom beson
Orient
und
ihrer
Entstehung.
The impact of Islam on the city in theMiddle East
is a subject fraughtwith difficulty and controversy.
The concept of the "Islamic City" as formulated
and espoused by theMarcais
brothers (W.Marqais
1928; G. Margais
1940, 1945) and promoted by von
Grunebaum (1955) depicted Islam as an urban reli
gion and the Islamic City as a settlementwhose main
were
elements
the Friday
central
Mosque,
market,
and public baths. Abu-Lughod
(1985) has shown that
this "model" was based upon a very limited number
of case studies, principally ofNorth African cities, but
also on the Syrian cities of Aleppo and Damascus,
derived
largely from the work of Jean Sauvaget
(1934, 1941). Others also have commented on the
limitations of the stereotyped model (Bonine 1979;
Hourani
1970;Wirth
1975).
Although the influence of Islam on the city in the
Middle East remains rather suspect, one religious
phenomenon which may have had a rather direct
effecton city structurehas been ignored in the geogra
phic literature and has been neglected in research by
geographers until relatively recently. This is the role
and impact of Islamic religious endowments on
city
structure.
endowments,
Religious
were
one
of
the
called waqf in Arabic2),
fundamental
institutions of the Islamic Middle
2)
social
and
term waqf is used
throughout
the common
transliteration
English
The
Arabic
although
sian pronounciation
common
Another
economic
Eastern city. They
is vaqf, and the Turkish
term in Northwest
Arabic
Arabic,
plural
Persian,
auqaf. Other
foreign words
or Turkish
form.
Iran
183
supported mainly religious structures, but also were a
means of sustaining other public works and toprovide
for the needy
-
and
even
for one's
own
family.
Waqf property itselfismainly real estate, especially
commercial shops, and so the spatial component
is most
significant.
Endowments
were
particularly
associated with theMiddle Eastern bazaar, where the
mix of commercial and religious establishments im
parted a special quality to this traditional central eco
core.
nomic
This study examines the role and impact ofwaqf on
the physical structure of theMiddle Eastern city,
emphasizing the importance for the principal com
mercial area. The small provincial city of Yazd,
Iran, isused as an example to show in detail the loca
tion and function of waqf in themain bazaar in the
1970's - before the establisment of the Islamic Re
public of Iran. Such an examination will indicate the
between
interrelationship
the
commercial
and
reli
gious sectors, as well as showing the historical
fluence
of waqf
on
the central
commercial
in
zone.
1. The institutionofwaqf
Ll.
Characteristicsand originsofwaqf
Waqf is an endowment of personal property which
is dedicated for thebenefit of some good cause, which
may be anything not incompatible with the tenets of
Islam (Heffening 1961; Schacht
1964, 126). It is
mortmain or property which has been restrained or
immobilized by the irrevocable, voluntary act of a
private individual, the founder (waqif) having full
rights of disposal over his (or her) property. Waqf
developed mainly as an Islamic institution, although
Christians and Jew sometimes had a similar type
of community/religious endowment (Goitein 1971,
112-121; Gil 1984).
Agricultural land and shares of irrigationwater are
endowed
in the rural areas,
where
commonly
can be
entire
In urban
real
areas,
villages
waqf.
such as land, houses,
or commercial
property
stitute the usual
endowment.
even
estate
con
1.2. Types ofwaqf
this article,
of the Per
term is
vakif.
is habs
Africa
(Frenchhabous).An English plural, waqfs, isused insteadof
the Arabic
of Yazd,
may
be
the
Two
types of waqf generally are distinquished:
a) public or charitable waqf (khayri or }amm) and
b) private or familywaqf (ahli, dhurri,khass or auladeh).
a) Public waqf ismost common, and it is usually
an endowment for a
religious purpose. A mosque,
theological college (madrasah), shrine, sufi hospice
41/1987
184_Erdkunde_Band
(khaniqah), sufl complex (zawiya), or any other reli
gious building may be the recipient of a waqf. Waqf
also commonly supports religious ceremonies and
feasts
as well
as baths,
water
bakeries,
and
cisterns,
other public facilities.
It is the use or usufruct of a piece ofwaqf property
which generates an income, which then is to be used
for the designated purpose. The usufruct consists of
an
annual
revenue
(or
rent)
in most
and
cases,
this
sum isused for theupkeep of the endowed structure or
activity. Another popular purpose of public waqf is
for support of the poor, sick, and disadvantaged.
Cash payments or the purchase of food or clothing
might be named in the endowment, and a particular
group
or
of people
a
specific
individual city quarter, may
recipient.
Hospitals,
such
location,
rest
and
an
as the
be designated
orphanages,
as
homes
also might be supported by waqf. One special type of
- the
endowment, the waqf of the two Holy Cities
Two Harams (Harameyn) - is used only to support the
poor and institutions ofMecca and Madina
(Ochsen
wald 1984, 39-57, 174).
in
Other special shrines, such as Imam Reza
Mashad,
in Cairo,
or
such as al-Azhar
colleges,
and widespread
considerable
pro
reknowned
also
had
toMecca
pilgrimage
the hajj or
for their support. Even
perty endowed
had
andowments.
In
theory,
however,
for some
charitable
under
Islamic
law
(shari'a), family waqf is not different than public
waqf, for theultimate purpose of a family endowment
also must
be
of the endowed
property
reverts
cause.
to a
The
religious
revenue
institu
tion or to the poor ifand when the individuals desig
nated as beneficiaries by the founder all become
deceased.
endowment is written in a foundation deed
(waqfiyya or Persian: vaqfnameh),and this document
specifies the properties involved, and the terms and
conditions of the endowment. An administrator or
An
supervisor of the waqf
receives
a
set
is named,
salary
and this nazir or
or a percentage
to receive compensation
service.
Qadis (judges) of a particular city helped insure
the integrityof waqf, seeing that the administrators
functioned properly and according to thewaqf deed's
In other
instructions.
cases,
as
inMamluk
cities
of the
14th and 15th centuries, the local governors would
have to arbitrate disputes among the ulama over the
management or control of waqf properties (Lapidus
1967, 74-77).
1.4. Motives for endowingproperty
Several primary motives can be identified for indi
viduals to convert their property into waqf. It was
a way
to circumvent
Islamic
the
inheritance
laws,
whose rigid prescriptions of division to children and
relatives
leads
to extreme
of property,
fragmentation
particularly over several generations (Coulson
serve
It could
as
as well
a means
to exclude
1971).
certain
rightfulheirs who should inherit property according
to Islamic law, particularly women (Gerholm 1985,
133).
Waqf
being
which
also was
confiscated
was
not
an attempt
by
to prevent
the government,
uncommon,
from
property
an occurrence
particularly
even
Yet,
and
larger properties.
sanctioned
law, was
perty,
by Islamic
used
the more
ruler, who
rapacious
not
such
for more
pro
waqf
to
immune
tactics
not
only to enrich his coffers, but also to undermine the
status and wealth of rivals and great families (Baer
1962, 161).
One further advantage of waqf was that charity
property was often subject to less types of taxes than
1973, 140). In
private property (al-Sayyid Marsot
for
zakat
Yemen,
instance, only
(an alms-tax) is paid
on waqf property (Serjeant a. Lewcock
1983, 151).
Although these practical reasons for establishing
important,
true religious
one
not
underestimate
charitable
motivations.
should
and
Many pious Muslims are, indeed, moved by a desire
tohelp thepoor and support theMuslim religious and
social
institutions.
Middle Eastern city
2. Waqf and the
of the
revenues - usually in the range of 5 to 15 persent.
The founder of a waqf can name himself/herself or
a family member as the administrator, even if the
endowment is public waqf. And, similar to family
waqf, members of the family also can be named in a
public waqf
at a special
were
waqf
or discount
1.3. Administrationofwaqf
mutawalli
Qur'an
valuable
b) The second type of endowment, private or
familywaqf, is for thebenefit of thedonor's family, or
for specifically designated family members and/or
relatives.
certain duties and services, such as the reading of the
for rendering
Waqf was essential for supporting the cultural and
social institutions of the traditional Islamic Middle
and powerful individuals,
Eastern city. Wealthy
and
rulers
governors, were in a position to
especially
endow considerable property in a city, and such
large-scale public acts of piety served as a means for
Michael
esteem
buying
and
prestige,
E. Bonine:
often
Islam
a means
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
of upward
mobility and entry into a city's elite class (Marcus
1985, 123). In medieval (Mamluk) Cairo the city's
local elite not only supported mosques,
religious
schools, and hospitals, but they also provided endow
ments for libraries, baths, public fountains, and even
chairs for scholars, teachers,mystics and poets (Petry
mosque,
in some
while
suitably
the commercial
active
place
imarets were
When
near
settle
Iran
of Yazd,
them,
creating
185
institutions
established,
new
stood nearby
1973,
(Inalcik
or
142).
people would
quarters.
Other cities outside Anatolia also contained con
siderable waqf property and this institutionwas im
portant
for urban
gathering
transfer
of surplus
Much
development.
of Ottoman
1981, 30).
Aleppo was waqf, principally from largewaqfs of the
Typical of a large waqf was the endowment of the 16th-18th
centuries.
the whole
suq area
Practically
in
13th
founded
late
Mamluk
century
al-Zahiriyya,
its shops,
and workshops
khans
(caravanserais),
two
A
Damascus.
complex
theological
comprising
was waqf property (Gaube a.Wirth
1984, 131-138).
colleges, a school for teaching thehadith, and a tomb, The extensive waqf inAleppo devoloped
principally
the original waqf supported 36 staffmembers, later
from foundations established by a succession of pashas
increased to a total of 141 individuals (Leiser 1984).
in the 16th century, and similar patterns of large
Another enormous tomb complex supported by waqf
foundations occurred in other major Ottoman cities,
was theRab'-e Rashidi, built by the Ilkhanid vizier,
such as Damascus and Cairo (Raymond 1979, 1984,
Rashid ad-Din, (d. 1318), inTabriz at the beginning
1985).
of the 14th century (Blair 1984). Zawiyas and other
Smaller towns could also have considerable waqf
sufi foundations also were common inOttoman Egypt
property. Studies have included the small Anatolian
(Fernandes 1981, 1985).
city of Lefke (Griswold 1984), and the Iranian cities
Waqf was, in fact, extremely important in early ofMalayer
(Momeni 1976, 30ff.) and Zabol (Rist
Ottoman cities. Inalcik (1973, 142-150) notes that
1981, 104ff.). Stober (1985) has recently analyzed
the system ofwaqf essentially created the cultural and
the waqf of Chaouen, Morocco,
where 444 waqf
commercial complexes ofMuslim
Istanbul when it
are in the small
town.
properties
was established as the capital of theOttoman empire
Considerable
rural agricultural
land also
suppor
theConquerer in themid-15th century.
byMehmed
ted the pious foundations in the cities (as well as
The key to this commercial development was the
supporting structures within villages). This waqf
bedestan,a covered market with iron doors which not
revenue, similar to taxes and goods which flowed
only protected valuable commercial goods, but also
from the countryside to the city, can be seen as part of
was the depository for themoney and jewelry of the
the rent capitalist system which has characterized
city's wealthy. The bedestan itselfwas waqf and much of theMiddle East
(Bobek 1971, 1979; Ehlers
were
as well.
erected
the structure
shops
surrounding
1978;Wirth
Faroqhi (1984, 45), for instance,
1973).
For instance, therewere 118 shops with storerooms in notes
that thewaqf of theAnatolian countryside was
Mehmed's
bedestan, with 984 shops erected in the channelled to the Ottoman
towns; part of the tax
surrounding
Bedestans
markets.
also were
this waqf-supported
property
cial center of the town. Other
grew
up
around
in other
constructed
the bedestans.
as
served
This
and
the commer
centers
trade
cities,
of
imarets, which
were
occurred
complexes
of
public buildings and institutions supported by waqf.
Important inmany Ottoman cities:
It [imaret] was a complex
of institutions
med
mosque,
traveler's hostel, water
reses, hospital,
roads
installations,
and bridges - founded with
or
charitable
and
motives,
pious
the institutions
such
as an
which
provided
revenue
which
from
village
resulted
to
in a
constant
city.
or bazaars
pattern
particularly in the large Ottoman towns of the Bal
kans, including such cities as Plovdiv, Sarajevo,
Sofia, Skopje, and Salonica.
Besides bedestans, theOttomans were responsible
for the creation
mechanism
for their upkeep,
bath house, well,
inn, market,
caravanserai,
or soup kitchen. The
dyehouse,
slaughter house
and charitable
institutions were usually
grouped
religious
a
around
3. Waqf and theYazd bazaar3)
The small provincial city of Yazd in central Iran
provides an illustration of the role ofwaqf, not only
for the evolution of thebazaar but also for influencing
the rents and types of shops which may exist in this
central
commercial
area.
Specifically,
this examina
tion of Yazd will show that: 1) waqf was significant
in the spatial evolution of the bazaar; 2) waqf within
3)
This discussion
the Yazd
bazaar
in an histo
presents
rical perspective,
and the latest time period
is the 1970's
before
the Islamic Revolution.
Hence
all proper names,
such as Shah Avenue,
refer to names before the establish
ment
of the Islamic
Republic
of Iran.
186_Erdkunde_Band
41/1987
thebazaar isprincipally for religious and public insti
south of thewall was called Mahalleh-ye
Sar-e Rig,
tutions within the bazaar complex; 3) considerable
and before 1331-32 a double rowed bazaar had been
as well
as caravanserais.
A
built,
waqf property outside the city also supports themain
large mosque,
structures
in
the
within
the
was
in
city, including
1368-69, and the
religious
completed
Masjed-e Rig,
bazaar
and 4) waqf
commercial
complex;
ture within
this
the
affects
area,
rent
struc
influence the spatial distributions of shop types due to
incomes
differential
trades.
by
Iran
repaired
contained
Yazd has been one of the principal cities of the arid,
of
associated
an
bazaar
with
the
structure,
old
and
new
The
mosque.
bazaar was joined with an existing branch, one which
3.1. Evolution of theYazd bazaar
plateau
shops
which were undoubtedly waqf.
Later an excellent bazaar with 60 shops was built
Tahher, who
by Hajeh Shams ad-Din Mohammad
also
central
had
mosque
can
hence,
and,
over
for well
a millenium,
In
shoemakers.
many
an
1421-22
excellent
bazaar was built outside theMehrijerd (Mehriz) gate.
Built by the darugheh (market overseer) of Yazd, Ali
Aqa, thebazaar had 50 shops with facing rows. Later
30 more shops were added and the bazaar was noted
for its tailors Qa'fari
1960, 50ff.).
Hence by the 15th century the present bazaar had
begun, outside the citywall (note Fig. 1) and with two
being founded during the Sassanid period (224-641
A number of villages were built in Yazd's
C.E.).
hinterland by the Sassanids and the city remained an
important center for a surrounding hinterland of
villages throughout the Islamic period (Bonine 1980,
and the other at the
foci, one near or at Masjed-e
12-15). The city is described in the 10th century as
Rig
well built, well fortified, and possessing two iron Mehrijerd
the next centuries
Over
gate.
(Mehriz)
more
and
theolo
branches,
caravanserais,
mosques,
gates, while in the llth century a large wall was
constructed
the
around
town
a moat
with
and
four
gates, as well as a great palace and Friday Mosque
the central part of the city.
the
During
14th
a great
century
in
first due to Sayyid
struction took place in Yazd,
Rukn ad-Din (d. 1331-2), the vizier to theMongol
Il-Khanid, who endowed considerable waqf property
in the city,
as well
as
qanats,
villages,
and
gardens,
1962). Then, in the
agricultural land (al-Khairat
middle of the 14th century the citywalls ofYazd were
rebuilt byMohammad Muzaffar, doubling the size of
Throughout
centuries
many
the 14th and the firsthalf of the 15th
shrines,
mosques,
schools
theological
and sufihostels were built in the city and its suburbs,
as well
as
in the rural
areas.
The
rulers,
such
as
the
and
religious
the intermix
creating
structures
typical of
(Wirth 1968, 1974-75,
1975).
The next major changes in themorphology of the
Yazd bazaar came in the latter half of the 18th cen
tury during the long reign (1747-98) of the Yazdi
governor,
Mohammad
number of theological
Madrasah-ye
new
Several
Bazar-e
the city.
constructed,
Eastern bazaar
theMiddle
of con
amount
schools were
gical
ture of commercial
Khan
bazaar
Qaysariyeh,
Khan.
Taqi
constructed
the commercial
within
branches
an
He
a
schools including the large
were
built,
well-built
especially
complex.
including
bazaar
with doors and which was entirely waqf for the sup
port of the new religious school. In the early 19th
century Bazaar-e Kashigari was made waqf (but not
built) by the son ofTaqi Khan, Ali Naqi Khan, for the
n. d.,
and Timurids, were responsible for same theological
school
Muzaffarids
(Na'ini,
184-186).
were
the
in
the
bazaar
resulted from the
Further
of
the
many
majority
buildings, although
changes
was
reign of another Yazdi governor, Mohammad Khan
actually sponsored by local patrons. This period
one of considerable growth for the city, and many
Vali, who was governor in the late 19th century. He
an exten
was
which
Khan
the Bazar-e
built
Vali,
villages were incorporated into the city as it expan
sion of the old original Bazar-e Ali Aqa outside the
ded, particularly to the south of the original city.
Although commercial districts or bazaars were Mehrijerd (Mehriz) gate. The lastmajor additions to
the bazaar came in the early 20th century, resulting
always associated with the city, the main bazaar
in
also
head of the Yazd finance
the
its
from
Mushir Mamalik,
had
which
exists
origins
today
complex
14th century. On
Muzaffar
a new
the south side of thewall built by
commercial
zone
began
to develop
near theMehrijerd (Mehriz) gate. It evolved outside
the 14th century citywall, a pattern somewhat diffe
rent
than
the inner-city
shahristan
commercial
areas
of Central Asian cities (Giese 1980) or some Iranian
cities such as Tabriz (Schweizer
1972). This area
officeduring the last fourdecades of theQajar period.
He was responsible for the building of two bazaars,
Bazar-e
vanserai
Sadri
and Afshar,
forwholesalers)
as well
as
several
sera
(cara
at one end of the Bazar-e
Khan.
The bazaar evolved and grew to its present shape
and size (Fig. 3 a (Supplement VI)) mainly due to
Michael
#
E. Bonine:
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
Islam
Wall
Old City
Bozorcheh
=
? ? ? Old CityWall Alignment
Major ReligiousBuilding
Bazaar Qld CitadelArea
Main
187
Iran
of Yazd,
"
?
Major Avenue
2??
Sm?" S,ree,S 'Kuches)
1967 68
National
BasedonYazd,1 :2 500, Iranian
Centre,
Source:FieldSurvey
Cartographic
byAuthor,
Fig.
1: Distribution
Verteilung
of bazarchehs
von Viertelsbazaren
and major
und
religious
bedeutenden
the actions of individuals, and this growth was not
a
necessarily
slow
accretion
due
to economic
needs.
structures were
established particularly
Religious
influential
and
beneficent
governors, and shops
by
were founded as waqf to help support these struc
tures.
religiosen
shops
were
the most
effect
on
the commercial
structure
because
itwas built right through the bazaar (note Fig. 1
and 3 (Supplement VI, VII)). And, even though the
avenues
came
traditional
commercial
remained
(Bonine
to have
a viable,
many
area,
more
shops
the bazar
important
has
economic
than
the
nonethe
center
1981).
tures
In the early 1970's theYazd bazaar comprised 954
separate shops and 20 wholesaling sera. About 1,500
the avenues
and
in 60 smaller neighborhood bazaars
scattered,
another
1,000
(bazarcheh) or as
The
establishments.
separate
bazarcheh
and separate shops provide many of the daily necessi
ties, themain bazaar specializes especially in textiles
avenues
the main
and
a
have
majo
rity of the personal goods and services, household
provisions, and daily necessities (Bonine 1981).
Associated with the commercial structures of the
are
bazaar
main
four
mosques,
four
smaller
eight
as
two shrines,
large mosques,
and
schools,
theological
well as other religious structures nearby (Fig. 3 a
(Supplement VI)). Many of the religious structures in
thebazaar are partially supported by rents from shops
which have been endowed for those specific build
ings.
In
fact, waqf
property
one
almost
constitutes
fourth of the bazaar. Of the 954 shops (occupied and
closed), 229 are waqf and five are partly endowed.
The purpose of the waqf indicates that almost all
are
the endowments
complex
3.2. Distribution andfunction ofwaqf and religiousstruc
on
located
von Yazd
im Zentrum
Gebauden
and metalwork,
Major changes also occured in the form and func
tion of the commercial zones within thePahlavi period
due to the construction of large avenues through the
city and the bazaar. As has been observed for other
Iranian cities (Wirth 1968; Bonine 1979), the policy
instituted by Reza Shah Pahlavi had a profound
influence on the bazaar of Yazd. Shah Avenue had
less
in central Yazd
buildings
to
(Table
structures
Masjed-e
former
Some
center.
outside
Fort and
mosque
for structures
1). Only
the
within
the bazaar
five shops are endowed
bazaar,
these
the Friday Mosque,
is, in fact,
next
and
the
to the bazaar.
is for outside
however,
waqf,
common
A
practice
for
being
in Yazd
the commercial
is for a
shop
188 Erdkunde Band 41/1987
Table
1: Purposes
ofwaqf property in the Yazd
von
Zuordnungen
1971
Waqf-Eigentum
bazaar,
im Bazar
No.
1971
von Yazd
Annual
of
(within bazaar
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Masjed-e
Mosques
Mulla
complex)
Ism'ail
Rig
Hajji Hosayn Pustini
Beya Khan
Tabriziyan
Amir Chakhmaq
Mesgari
(outside
bazaar
rent
(tumans)
15
29
4
8
4
1
1,426
5,540
830
Madrasah-ye
1,760
725
240
1 50
had many
schools
Theological
bazaar
(within
complex)
Madrasah-ye Khan
Madrasah-ye Shafi'yeh
Madrasah-ye Mosalay
Abd
Madrasah-ye
(within
bazaar
complex)
Shahzadeh-ye Fazel
Water storages
Imam Hosayn (forrouzeh)
FeedingMullas
Zoroastrian
Private
waqf
Unknown
waqf
(for gahambar)
13,644
1,729
1,260
1
300
5
26
1
844
4 390
5,218
3,000*
15
1,896
8
auladeh)
(waqf-e
purpose
84
17
8
al-Rahim
Khan
Shrines
3 950
272
2
1
1,117
Total 237**>
42,091
($ 5,538)
#)One
very large confectionary
**> Includes
are
three of which
five shops partly waqf,
twice because
counted
they are waqf for two institutions
Source:
Field
madrasahs.
survey by author,
1971
central
waqf-an
Mohammad
unusual
occurrence.
Ali
Khan
This
zone
commercial
Khan,
waqf
Zoroastrian
is for digaham
school
structures:
four
Mas
Shafi'yeh,
Ism'ail, and the 14th centuryMasjed-e
it
should be mentioned thatMadrasah-ye
Rig. And,
which
has eight waqf shops, actually once
Mosalay,
more
construction
in the bazaar,
but the
shops
the branch
Avenue
destroyed
endowed
of Shah
along the front of the school and these shops were
rebuilt
the avenue.
along
One
interesting phenomenon is the existence of
five shops that are only partially waqf (Table 2). Their
exact division reflects the practice of ownership being
reckoned in six dang. Further subdivisions often are
as
reckoned
of one
parts
as has
dang,
to two
occured
of the shops. The four split-waqf shops in Bazar-e
Maydan-e Khan are probably four of the five shops
that each had four dang (= % waqf for each shop)
endowed by Ali Naqi Khan in the early 19th century
(Ayati 1938, 376).
The distribution of waqf property in the bazaar
occurs
usually
in specific
clusters
or branches
3a
(Fig.
This pattern is partly due to the
(Supplement VI)).
stalls
of commercial
to
adjacent
parti
cular religious structures when these buildings were
established (or repaired). Hence, waqf shops are
one
around
Masjed-e
or more
sides
Khan,
Madrasah-ye
toMasjed-e
Beya
have
ofMasjed-e
Madrasah-ye
Rig,
Mosalay,
Khan.
The
waqf
shops,
Bazar-e
Kashigari,
Khan.
Small
mosques
are
is for only
Madrasah-ye
jed-e Mulla
may
in Bazar-e
gathering
the religious
Khan,
Madrasah-ye
however,
keeper tomake his shop waqf for Imam Hosayn, and
the rent from such an endowment goes forconducting
mourning ceremonies (rouzeh) during themonth of
Moharram, when these Shi'a bewail the tragedy and
death of their third Imam. A specificmosque (which
could be in the bazaar), Hosayniyeh (a takiyehor open
square specifically forMoharram
ceremonies), or
other location, including private houses, are designa
ted as the location of the rouzeh. Fifteen of the shops
at a
is served
in the 18th century, has 84
built by Taqi Khan
endowed shops, 35 percent of all the waqf shops in
the bazaar. Two-thirds of the waqf property in the
construction
400
free food
where
Except for eight shops which are private or family
waqf, the rest are public or charitable waqf. In fact,
80 percent of thewaqf shops support eithermosques or
shops
complex)
Masjed-e Fort
Masjed-e Jami (FridayMosque)
event
endowed
Public waqf (waqf-e khayri)
Mosques
bar, an
of Zoroastrians.
one
or
Mulla
Ism'ail,
Madrasah-ye
Shafi'yeh,
the entrance
and along
largest concentration
is in Bazar-e
Qaysariyeh
for Madrasah-ye
endowed
both
two
and
water
contiguous
of
and
cisterns
shops
(abambar)
for their up
keep. The few scattered waqf shops include endow
ments for various major religious institutions in the
bazaar (and outside it),much of the private waqf, and
some of the shops for Imam Hosayn. The location
and purposes of all thewaqf in the central bazaar is
illustrated in Fig. 3 b (Supplement VII).
Most of thewholesaling sera that are interspersed
throughout the bazaar are privately owned, although
in a number of cases the ownership has been divided
over many generations and is reckoned in hundreds
of shares (sahm). Sera-ye Tehrani, however, is entirely
E. Bonine:
Michael
Table
2: Division
of Yazd
bazaar
shops partly waqf,
von Geschaften
Eigentumsverhaltnisse
Bazaar
Shop
Islam
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
of Yazd,
Iran
189
1971
im Bazar
mit Waqf-Anteilen
branch
division*
Dang
1971
or owner
Waqf
3
Khan
1
Meydan-e
von Yazd
Madrasah-ye
Waqf:
2Waqf:
Madrasah-ye
1 Landlord
4
Khan
2
Meydan-e
4
Khan
2)2
) 1part
Waqf:
Madrasah-ye
Khan
Khan
Waqf: Madrasah-ye Shafi'yeh
Landlord
parts
Private2
Khan
4Meydan-e
Shafi'yeh
Waqf: Madrasah-ye Shafi'yeh
Shopkeeper
parts
part
2)2
) 1
3
Meydan-e
Madrasah-ye
Waqf:
Khan
waqf
3 Landlord
1 Shopkeeper
Private
2
waqf
5 Ja'far Khan
*
6 dang
Source:
4 Landlord
= entire
property
Field
1971
survey by author,
and water cistern (Fig. 2).
praying), Hosayniyeh,
The rent from the shops is for support of theHosay
Qadim has two dang waqf (= xhof the revenues) for niyeh only. A similar complex isBazarcheh-ye Sayyed
Imam Hosayn, while Timcheh-ye Mesgari has four Gol-e Sorkh, where the rent of four shops help to
and one-half dang waqf (= 3Aof the revenues), partly
support a shrine,mosque, Hosayniyeh, houzkhaneh,
and water cistern (Fig. 2). Vacant land around the
for a rouzeh, but also to help support a water storage
is Bazarcheh
last illustration
iswaqf.
One
Sheshbad
shrine also
facility outside the bazaar inMahalleh-ye
out
of
fourteen
where
Abambar-e
shops, five
yeMahallah-ye Tal,
Sheshbadgir).
gir (for
are waqf for the nearby Masjed-e Mahallah-ye Tal
the exact use
often are very specific,
Endowments
and one shop is private waqf (Fig. 2). Within the
being stated in the waqf deed. Although Bazar-e
are a water
are
for
the mosque,
and
Bazar-e
both
besides
cistern,
waqf
Kashigari
Qaysariyeh
complex,
are for
rents
from
the former
Khan,
public bath, and houzkhaneh.
Madrasah-ye
One furtherpoint should be mentioned about waqf
upkeep and repairs of the school, while rents from the
for the religious structures of the Yazd bazaar. It
latter are only for the living expenses of the religious
should not be construed because of the support of
students (taleb).
Even though considerable property is found in the
these structures by shops within thebazaar that this is
Yazd
should
be
that
endow
their only support or even their principal support.
it
bazaar,
recognized
ments do exist throughout the city, including other Besides other waqf property within the city for some
waqf
for
ten-day
Imam
rouzeh
the
and
Hosayn,
during
Moharram.
rent
Sera-ye
supports
a
Khan-e
shops, houses, and land. Some of thiswaqf is also for
the structures in the bazaar, but much (if not the
majority) is for other mosques
(such as the Friday
shrines,
schools,
rouzehs, and
theological
Mosque),
various other purposes. Usually thewaqf will be fora
structure
or event
in the same
neighborhood.
Many of the small bazarcheh, for example, are
waqf and have shops associated with local religious
structures
or water
cisterns.
Bazarcheh-ye
Shah
Abul
is a node of six shops with a large mosque,
Qasem
smaller mosque,
houzkhaneh (for ablutions before
of
these
structures,
the hinterland
of Yazd
contains
considerable waqf for the city. Inmany of the villages
there are gardens (bagh), agricultural land, and espe
cially shares of qanat irrigationwater which are waqf
for religious structures inYazd. Although the waqf
deeds and contemporary waqf statistics of theOffice
ofWaqf (Edare-ye Auqaf) were unavailable to the
author, data from themid-19th century found in the
Yazd
Ketabcheh-ye Mouqufat-e
(Taraz
1841-42)
illustrates the types of total support of a particular
structure.
For
instance,
the waqf
for Madrasah-ye
190_Erdkunde_Band
Bazarcheh-ye
Shah Abul Qasem
41/1987
Bazarcheh-ye
Sayyed
0
1
50
25
,i_i_i
Gol-e Sorkh
100m
, i
75
Bazarcheh-ye
Tal
Mahallah-ye
C/,
Mosque
A
Houzkhaneh
^ Shrine
<^r^anzn;
A/JG-
rpzJ -tj
"
/
//
//?C7/
II
II
JZfl
^
CY> Water Storage
^Z^^l/H)
^^f^
011111111111
CoveredLane
//FTP! Waqf Shops
rm
Source: Field Survey byAuthor, Based on Yazd, 1:2500,
Fig.
2:
Examples
Beispiele
Khan
and Madrasah-ye
Shafi'yeh
port from outside the bazaar
Khan
Madrasah-ye
indicate
shows
of waqf
great
sup
that more
money
was
obtained from the surrounding village waqf than by
the urban endowments. Although the amount of pay
ments
are
not
indicated
for Madrasah-ye
Shafi'yeh,
very possibly thevillages also may have contributed a
greater percentage of the support for this religious
school.
1841-42 four shops in Meydan-e
Khwajah
Shafi'yeh
[Khan] were partly waqf forMadrasah-ye
(each two shares of nine shares). As previously shown
(Table 2), there are still four split-waqf shops in
Meydan-e Khan, two of which are the same as the
In
Non-Waqf Shops
IranianNational Cartographic Centre, 1967-68
distribution
der Waqf-Verteilung
(Table 3). Payments for
Hosayniyeh
Hammam
in bazarchehs
in Viertelsbazaren
earlier divisions, and a third still
partly for themadra
sah. The fourth shop, however, is now
private waqf.
3.3. Rents, keymoney, and theinfluence
ofwaqf
Rents for shops inYazd are collected at the
begin
ning of thePersian New Year (March 21) and are paid
fora year in advance. If the
shopkeeper possesses the
key money (see below) the landlord cannot remove
him - but the landlord can attempt to raise the rent,
which now may be set fora period of three to fiveyears
or have built-in raises for inflation.
Often, however,
the same rent tends to be perpetuated fora
particular
shopkeeper (there is no lease from landlords), and
Michael
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
Islam
E. Bonine:
of Yazd,
Iran_
191
Table 3: Waqf property
for twomadrasahs,1841/42
von
Waqf-Eigentum
zwei Koranschulen
1841/42
Amount
Payment
Khan
Madrasah-ye
City (= bazaar)
Bazar-e
26
Qaysariyeh
Baker
beside
minaret
Outside City
Water
of Gerd
shares
+)
1
[= Gerd
Faramarz]
of meydan
Falamarz
T 12
shop
shares
Water
of Shamsabad-e
Madrasah-ye
130T
jurreh"0
130
Water shares ofMaryabad [= Maryamabad] ?
Water shares ofAbrumobarakeh [=Mobarakeh]?
Water shares of new suburb
150T
shops
Mint (Zarrabkhaneh)+> 1 mint 75 T
+
D
88175,000
jurreh
26T/5,000D
jurreh
130
65
190
Maybod
60T/1,250D
jurreh
130
(?)
60T/1,250D
jurreh
Shafi'yeh
City (= bazaar)
Meydan-e Khwajah
Meydan-e Khwajah
near
Shops
Outside
Water
[Khan]
the school
city
shares
4
[Khan]
12
of Ashkezar
shops
Meydan
of 9 shares each)
(2 of 9 shares each)
(2
land
shops
53 jurreh
32 qafiz*1*0
land of Ashkezar
Agricultural
shares
Water
of Roknabad-e
Ashkezar
38 jurreh
4 qafiz
land of Roknabad-e
Ashkezar
Agricultural
shares of Allahabad-e
Ashkezar
53 jurreh
Water
Water
shares of Abrumobarakeh
65 jurreh
[= Mobarakeh]?
31 jurreh
shares of Taft
Water
T
=
D
Tuman,
+)
of new water
shares
Water
(?) for the school
7 jurreh
= Dinar
the mint
In the latter part of the 19th century
was
located
in Bazar-e
location in 1841/42
+ + )
located at one corner ofMeydan-e
Rig,
from 120-196 units (jurreh) per 24 hours
in cycles of 6-16 days
the minaret
ofMasjed-e
Undoubtedly
*)Water
shares are time units, varying
for the annual
**) One
Source:
qafiz
equals
Abd
Taraz,
use
of these
900-1,000
al-Vahhab,
shares
square meters
1841-42.
in the Yazd
Present-day
author's fieldwork (Bonine 1979, 1980, 1982)
only when
a new
shopkeeper
comes
to the establish
rents
of shops
in the same
location
can
occur.
A man
who has been inhis shop for ten years may be paying
200 tumans ($ 26) annually while a shop next door
(and the same size) thatwas occupied by a new shop
keeper one year previously may have a rent of 500
tumans ($67)4).
4) In
1971, 7.6 tumans (or 76 rials) equalled $ 1.00;
7 tumans (or 70 rials) equalled $ 1.00.
1977,
by
was
it probably
in the same
Khan
in the Yazd
region,
the rent being
paid
region
equivalent
ment will a new (and current) rent rate be applied.
Rents for new shops had been increasing rapidly in
the 1960's and 1970's, and so great inequalities in the
and
Qaysariyeh,
of villages,
Besides
variable
income
ment
locations,
units
the temporal element,
shops
based
partly
upon
there is another
to a
Analogous
graduated
there
is an understood
agree
are
more
to generate
which
going
the
affecting
tax structure
that
and
rents.
income should be able topay more rent (and more key
money). A goldsmith or modern appliance seller is
expected
to make
more
money
than
a
tinsmith
or a
carpenter, and so the former two tenants might pay
more for the same shop than the latter.
Of course, there is a minimum value imposed by
the land value due to the location and accessibility
which will keep out many lower income trades and
shops. Sometimes a landlord will establish a mini
192 Erdkunde Band 41/1987
Table
4: Waqf
Mieten
Bazaar
and non-waqf
fiir Geschafte
rents in the Yazd
mit Waqf-
branch
No.
Ja'farKhan
'Alaqabandi
Panj-eAli
Tabriziyan
Qaysariyeh
Chitsazi
Masjed-e Rig
Meydan-e Khan
Kashigari
Hazrat-e Abbas
Mesgari
Khan
Zargari
Afshar
Sadri
24
19
3
19
12
282
200
150
300
213
7
4
42
100
240
360
11
18
73
28
8
24
180
180
360
360
270
240
45422
294
2
150
12
301
15
0
201
310
6
126
17
330
10
374
280
195
16
7
201
7
532
411
8
2590
252 0
Total
292
number
Underlined
+)
non-waqf
mum
rent that is rather high for the location and
survey by author,
inflexible.
Such
remain
may
shops
unoccu
pied foryears until a shopkeeper decides he can afford
the rent or the landlord lowers his rent. Shops also
remain closed for long periods while the shopkeeper
the
outside
city,
even
sometimes
for
several
years.
Unlike the renting arrangements with private land
shops
are
rented
on a lease.
Such
an agree
ment may be foronly a few years, but more often it is
a
long-term
240
115
150
160
100
60
72
180
160
227
135
151
185
129
77
88
241
225
8
24
46 300 180
21
285
250
15
150
34 299300
12 201213
31
240
13 130100
21 193180
56*>
360
100
28
27 125 100
25 170180
506360
80
36 369330
259 270
252 240
150
227
341
129
181477*>
and waqf;
dashed
line indicates
same
value
lease
-
even
up
to 99
years.
The
muta
(or the Edareh-ye Auqaf) is in charge of the
leasing arrangements and is responsible for negotia
walli
in the same
establishments
non-waqf
location.
Of
the
11 bazaar branches that have both types the contrast
is often striking, indicating much lower rents for the
waqf shops in the same bazaar (Table 4). Because of
the long leases waqf property is less influenced by the
market
values.
lords, waqf
177
200
150
297
-
No.
1971
Field
works
120
200
150
300
-
shops
rent
(tumans)+)
Median
Mean
Annual
(1971)
4 shops part waqf
Source:
remain
1971
= $1.00
7.6 tumans
** Includes
lower figure between
indicates
von Yazd
im Bazar
All
Non-waqf
Waqf
rent (tumans)+)
Annual
No.
Median
Mean
rent (tumans)+)
Mean
Median
Annual
Mohammad Ali Khan
1971
bazaar,
und Nicht-waqf-Charakter
and less apt
economy
same
rent tends
The
to reflect
to be
current
perpetuated
market
even
when changes occur in the occupancy (unless a new
lease is negotiated). The waqf shops have been taken
out of themore fluid competitive pricing system and
adjustments to increasing land values of inflation lag
behind
the private
sector.
This situation is especially evident where thewaqf
is half or less than the non-waqf median
median
new
also
is
The
mutawalli
arrangements.
ting any
not
Bazar-e
in
tenant
Mohammad Ali Khan, Meydan-e Khan,
does
responsible for insuring that the
to
Hazrat-e
or
the
Abbas, Mesgari, Khan, and Zargari (and
damage the shop make changes unacceptable
are even
the means
differences
between
the
cannot
his
busi
endowment. A shopkeeper
greater).
change
are the more
and properous
bazaars
ness ifthe change means a degrading or less sanctified These
vigorous
to de
rents have
due
increased
occupation. There have even been cases inYazd in ones, and non-waqf
to
due
the
out
mand.
his
of
which the shopkeeper has been forced
opposite situation, in
Similarly,
shop
by themutawalli.
The
long-term
Bazar-e
leases
of waqf
shops
create
a diffe
rential in the rents of these stalls compared to private
property. Rents on waqf shops tend to be less than
Chitsazi
waqf
rents
are
lower
than non-waqf
ones. This small, morbund bazaar, bypassed by the
main flow of pedestrians, ismuch less important than
many decades ago when the chitsazi (printed cloth)
Michael
were
craftsmen
rents
waqf
ones.
-
here
located
have
E. Bonine:
actually
the non
hence,
and,
become
and commerce: waqf and the bazaar
Islam
than
less
the waqf
from waqf shops compared to the nearby
non-waqf shops are not only less, but they tend to be
more uniform as well, similar to the situation of one
landlord having the same rents for all his adjacent
Rents
is the best example of
shops. Bazar-e Qaysariyeh
this phenomenon,
because
bazaar
the entire
is waqf
and 19 of 31 shops have the same annual rent of 240
tumans ($ 32). This bazaar, consisting of a majority
sellers,
is a rather
Maydan-e
Khan
of cloth
Bazar-e
one
prosperous
and
between
Ali,
Panj-e
and
the
rents would undoubtedly be higher (and more vari
able) if itwere not waqf.
Waqf rents can influence the spatial and economic
structure
of the bazaar.
are more
rents
that
shops,
to the leases
Due
and
regular
and
shopkeepers
and
can
craftsmen
the fact
than
lower
nearby
remain
who
might be forced out by higher rents.
Key money (sarqofli) is a payment for the right
a
to occupy
usufruct
establishment.
particular
of a specific
no
and
shop
It proclaims
can
dispossess
one
the shopkeeper of that right - not even the landlord.
In one sense the rent of a shop is to the landlord for the
space or the land and the shop itselfis "owned" by the
occupant. If a shopkeeper repairs or rebuilds the shop
this expense becomes part or all of the key money. A
new shopkeeper may take possession of a delapidated
shop without any key money and his investment in
repairing the shop becomes his keymoney. Payments
are made
between
for possession
shopkeepers
of the
shop (which can be the landlord ifhe is also the shop
keeper).
One
minimize
not
On
of the key money
consequence
investments
get rid of a tenant
the other hand, itmaximizes
keeper
and he
because
can
get
system is to
can
because
by landlords
they
once he
structure.
the
occupies
he
knows
he
a
return
on
inputs by the shop
cannot
his
be
forced
investment
by
out,
the
key money (besides any increase due to inflation or
accessibility changes). In fact, many older shop
keepers may keep possession of their shops, making
littleprofit in their trade because of the rapidly rising
- and
key money
holding out until the amount be
comes
too attractive
or
too
needy.
The
right
of occu
pancy also helps to explain the large number of closed
shops inYazd. Even ifa shopkeeper is leaving the city
for six months
or a year,
he will
not
"sub-lease"
his
shop to another person, because he may not be able to
remove
him
upon
his
return.
Key money varies tremendously, both temporally
and spatially. Within the last several decades key
money
avenues
poorer
has
risen
some
and
bazaar
193
Iran
of Yazd,
on certain
of the
sections
rapidly
in a few of the
while
of the bazaars,
has
the key money
brances
actually
declined. In the early 1970's the payments ranged
from 10,000 to 60,000 tumans ($ 1,316-$ 7,895) on
themain sections of the avenues to 500-2,000 tumans
avenues. In 1971
($ 67-$ 263) toward the end of the
within the very poor branches of the bazaar there
was either no keymoney, or only 500-1,000 tumans
as Bazar-e Kashi
($ 67-$ 131) paid in such branches
or
Ja'far Khan. On the other
gari, Masjed-e Rig,
hand, payments of 10,000-20,000 tumans ($ 1,316
$ 2,632) were made in the goldsmith bazaar (Bazar-e
Zargari), and even as high as 30,000 tumans ($3,974)
in the center
of Bazar-e
sections
the esteemed
Khan,
cloth bazaar. However, the inflationof themid-1970's
sent these figuresup considerable. By 1977 keymoney
was often over 100,000 tumans ($ 14,286) for the
better bazaar locations, and in the neighborhood of
tumans ($ 42,857-$ 71,429) for the
300,000-500,000
best
locations
on
the avenues.
Key money creates a problem in regard to waqf
shops (and even forprivately owned stalls). Sarqofli is
forbidden in Islamic law because, similar to usury,
the money
not
is considered
to be
earned,
and
there
fore is improper. Pious Muslims,
therefore,will not
or
most
Since
receive
give
keymoney.
public waqf is
for religious
purposes,
it becomes
the previous
tenant
even more
impor
tant to follow Islamic principles for renting these
shops. Hence, either no key money is exchanged or
sometimes a hileh-yesharVa (religious legal device or
trick) is used. In Islamic law it is the letter of the law
which is important, so these devices enable various
prescriptions to be circumvented. Instead of paying
keymoney, a new shopkeeper may buy an old chair or
book
from
-
for
tumans
10,000
($ 1,316)! Of course, these devices may be used to
circumvent
key money
even
for non-waqf
shops.
Key money payments (or theirhileh substitute) for
waqf shops often are slightly higher than non-waqf
shops in the same location. It is recognized that the
rents of the endowed
shops
in the long-term
are
lower.
Because of the leases, rents will be raised less often
than privately owned shops.
3.4. Waqf and theYazd bazaar: thesignificance
Waqf property in the Yazd bazaar indicates the
significance of religious institutions in this commer
cial center, and sheds light on understanding the
traditional, conservative attitude oibazaris in Iranian
society. The great number ofmajor religious build
ings intermixed within the bazaar branches and sera,
41/1987
194_Erdkunde_Band
as well as the large percentage of shops endowed to
these various institutions, imparts a religious dimen
sion to this traditional economic center ofYazd.
Although waqf takesmoney out of the private eco
nomic sector, it is a means by which themajor socio
religious institutions of the city can be supported. In
one
serve
endowments
sense,
nism, collecting money
or
quarter
used
and,
hence,
mecha
banking
for reinvestment in the local
a mosque
or
city. When
local
retailers,
artisans,
is repaired,
are
a
as
school
religious
and
craftsmen
Even
supported.
a rouzeh
uses
local food, drink and materials as well as paying the
orator of the tragedy at Kerbala and the processional
groups.
The waqf of theYazd bazaar is supporting religious
buildings and activities mainly within thebazaar area
itself.
Secondarily,
functions
the
religious
and
zone, has been illustrated by the example of Yazd.
Property from the countryside also was endowed
for these structures within the bazaar
(and rest
of the city), substantiating the pattern of urban
dominance that characterized much of the traditional
Middle East.
structures
the
Yet,
ture
link
between
more
requires
Islam
and
urban
The
role
of waqf
research.
struc
in the
broader context of the Islamic legal system and its
on urban
influence
If it can be
shown,
use
land
still needs
for instance,
that
investigation.
as a
Islam
legal
- has had a
significant impact on the spatial
organization and structure of the city, (for which,
Hakim (1986) is a beginning), then we can start to
system
in earnest
evaluate
that elusive,
the Islamic City.
-
concept
perplexing
in other
parts of the city are the recipients of the endowments.
And, even much of thewaqf in the hinterland is to
support
Waqf
and
economy
4.
city's
as
infrastructure
well.
was an integral part of the traditional urban
its social
being
met
in pre-modern
one of the means
but whether
order,
times.
of maintaining
-
or how
-
the urban
Islamic
-
of
Is
for the
commercial
establishments,
which
with
the main
commercial
area,
as bazaar
shops and even branches were founded as waqf for
these religious institutions. Often, large complexes
founded
as a unit,
as among
ima
the Ottoman
rets and bedestans; or in other cases, only a few
waqf shopsmay have supported a particular building
or purpose. That a variety of religious and public
structures
can
be
located
in the bazaar
area
Functions
and
be
supported by waqf shops in that central commercial
ed. by M.T.
of the Ulama
of the Economic
1987,
Ayati,
and
The
A.
H.:
Ateshkadeh
Yazdan
[The
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1955, 141-158;
published
originally
islamische
Stadt. In: Saeculum
6, 1955, 138-153.
In: Islam.
und Entwicklungsten
In: Erdkunde
22, 1968,
101-128.
:
Die
der orientalisch-islamischen
Stadt zur
Beziehungen
Theorie
des Rentenkapitalismus.
In: Geographie
heute.
Ernst Plewe zu seinem 65. Geburts
Einheit und Vielfalt,
und Schulern
tag von seinen Freunden
baden
1973, 323-333.
- :
Zum Problem
des Bazars
(suq, carsi).
Wies
gewidmet.
In: Der
Islam
51,
1974, 203-260; 52, 1975, 6-46.
-
:Die
Tradition.
as Die
41/1987
_Band
orientalische
Stadt:
Ein Uberblick
zur materiellen
gerer Forschungen
26, 1975, 45-94.
DUALITY OF MARKET STRUCTURES
IN
NINETEENTH
AND EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
Kultur.
jiin
aufgrund
In: Saeculum
OMAN
With 5 figures and 5 tables
Mark
Speege
der Marktsysteme
Der Dualismus
Zusammenfassung:
Oman
wahrend
des 19. und friihen 20. Jahrhunderts
Duale
Strukturen
gehend
Handel
die Geschichte
haben
So war
gepragt.
der Kiistensaum
und die weltoffenen
ausgerichtet
des sozialen
stellten Brennpunkte
Region
schen Lebens
traditionell
Omans
in
durch
stets auf
Stadte
und
den
okonomi
Gesellschaft
sich u. a.
in der
aus den Jahrzehnten
mit
dem
Landesinnere
das
erster Linie
den
von
immer mehr
des
internationalen
Omans
System;
Fehlen
einer
der
Handel.
hatte keinen Anteil
es war
vielmehr
an diesem
charakterisiert
Die
integrierten Marktstruktur.
als Zentren
fungierten
gewohnlich
ohne nennenswerte
lokalen Marktbereichen
Innern
darauf
verschiedenen
Omans
war die Kiistehregion
iiber ein
Omans
von Marktorten
mit dem
gestuftes
System
Innerhalb
des Indischen
Ozeans
Handelsnetz
verkniipft.
Markte
die untergeordneten
dieses Systems waren
jeweils
der Handler
von kleinen,
zu anderen Markten
Beziehungen
zum internationalen
Handelsnetz.
und
um
dieser
Das
Marktorte
Die
des Marktwesens
nieder.
Organisation
in der Zeit vor dem Beginn
raumlichen
Strukturen Omans
von politi
der Olforderung
sind am besten in den Berichten
Zu
samen Kontakt
durch
Dieser
gekennzeichnet.
sehr unterschiedlichen
und Reisenden
Herkunft
hierarchischen
raumlichen
schen Reprasentanten
1900 dokumentiert.
ethnische
Diese Ver
arabischen
Omans.
eingesessenen
Bevolkerung
von einem wirk
haltnisse
isolierten die breite Bevolkerung
dieser
war das Innere Omans
dar. Demgegeniiber
stammes
durch eine auf sich selbst bezogene,
organisierte
mafiig
Dualismus
schlug
die
des Binnenlandes
Ihre Standorte
den Austausch
oder
waren
in
zwischen
ausgerichtet,
kulturellen
sozialen,
naturraumlichen,
Einheiten
der traditionellen
Gesellschaft
politischen
zu erleichtern.
Zeit
hierarchisch
nur
auf einen Markt
die Guterstrome
den
hoherer
flossen
unmittelbar
Ordnung
ausgerichtet,
innerhalb der Markthierarchie
iiber-
oder
Horizontale
untergeordneten
zwischen
Markten
und
zu
Zentren.
Guterstrome
gleicher
Hierarchie
die benachbarte
oder Strome,
Rangordnung
waren
sehr selten. Auf der untersten
stufen umgingen,
Marktebene
mit
waren
wachsender
Araber
Rangordnung
doch
des Handels,
die Trager
der Markte
entfernte sich
1.
Introduction
The history ofOman is largely a story of competi
tion, and often conflict, between two vastly different
entities. This duality was even symbolized by the
name of the country, The Sultanate ofMuscat and
Oman, until 1970. The Sultanate was formed from
the fusion of the Batinah coastal plain and its port
Beilage VI zu ERDKUNDE 41,3 Beitrag Bonine
Fig.3a: Waqf,
and Commercial
Religious Institutions
i Commercial Structures of the Yazd
Bazaar
^^^^^^^^^
and
^^el'gious
Structures
Commercial
BIB! Mosque
^^^^^^^B
Madraseh
'I
B^^^^^^bI^W
H^^^I^^^h^Ell^h^
BazaarShopWaqf
(
) f^VSi Shrine
BazaarShop
I.
Hosayniyeh
(Non-Waqf
)
_
i^^^l
??
Source:
Cl
0
Bazaar Shop
( Partly Waqf
i^^^l
^^^m
)
Shops on Avenues
(Undifferentiated )
,-.
I
^^H^B
t^^B^BT^^^
^
^Hfl 1@3
-J^^?1
??'e
r??
Caravanserai
(
Waqf
Caravanserai
( Partly-Waqf )
Caravanserai
(Non-Waqf
)
_?
)
"5
^
5
-g
5
| Built up Area
Field Survey by Author, Based on Yazd,
1 : 2 500,
Iranian National
Cartographic
Centre, 1967
6
Mohammad
q
yv /
^~
j^^H
<
?
?i
Khan
?
x x
x
_
? ? ?
MPStS^&J
////
Hajii
Khan
?
Qaysariyeh
?
A?
Zargari
A Darvazeh - ye Mehriz
Afshar
?HI *\\\*
Khan
Meydan-e
7777 Sadri
Masjed-eRig
/'/'
Mesgari
JfJ1^^"/6
=rr=TFKhajeh
o o o o Chitsazi
^H^H -g
^
Hazrat - e 'Abbas
q^oT
Alaqabandi
77zrz Pani" Ali
?n ? n ? Lard- e Hammalun
Kashigari
^jjj^gy
(S)
(?)
-68
Sera-ye
5Sera
^
tographic Centre, 1967
i Ja'far
=
-z-jrr-r Tabriziyan
_
*E flB^B
^
?
^^^^H^H
q-
^B^I^^^h
gfefcj
?i
r
^^^^J
Ali Khan
-
ye
Tehrani
Khan
-
e
Old Citv Wnll
^
s_
Qadim
^
Timcheh
ye Mesgari
|.
1346 /
, (Bui,t
. , kA . .. 7)
Old Mehnjerd
Beilage VII zu ERDKUNDE 41,3 Beitrag Bonine
Fig.3b: Waqf,
n
^
ow?1
and Commer
Religious Institutions
ii
w
o
ego
|&
^
pfcr
n?jf^
~
>mmercialStructures of the Yazd
Bazaar
Religiousand CommercialStructures^^^^^^^^
^^"^^^
f^^^
Mosque
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1
^^11 Madraseh
HI
m
|m
IHH
^^^^^^^^^ff^^^^H
Shrine
^^^^^^^^^B
Hosayniyeh^ 1
Caravanserai
Caravanserai
(
Waqf
)
(Partly-Waqf
Caravanserai 1-1
)
Field Survey by Author, Based on Yazd,
^^^J
Ba*aars
Lanes
,R??fed
A,so on MaP aa?d)
I
(Non-Waqf)
Source:
6 ^^^^H
1 : 2 500,
(
I Built-upArea
Iranian National
Cartographic
Centre, V
P urposes
of
Mulla
S// G3 Masjed-e
Ismail
Rig
[ ] Masjed-e
rrnMasjed - e Hajji Hosayn
^
Pustini
g E3 Masjed
O* 51
)L
^
fWbl
*
\Jpy
?HI
Beya Khan
Masjed-e
@
-e
Tabriziyan
Masjed-e
Amirchakhmaq
Masjed-e
Mesgari
Waqf
Q] Madrasah-ye
Madrasah-ye
^
mmMadrasah-ye
U
Rahim Khan
Shahzadeh-ye
Q
[2) Water
Fazel
Storage
[a] Imam Hosayn
(for Rouzeh
Fedding Mullas
Q
03 ,n0i,iej I
c
(
r
i iD Waqf- e Ouladeh
Complex )"
,Pri?oteFamj,y
Waqf j
Khan
Madrasah-ye
Non-Waqf
Unknown Purpose
Shop
^ Old CityWall (Built1346/7)
Hi
68
Mosalay
Abd al
B
| 0 Masjed-For,
" J?mi'f
"O
: Centre, 1967
Shafiyeh
fr
Old Mehrijerd
(Mehriz ) Gate
)