ATHENS - THE ATKLETIC BY Donald G. Kyle
Transcription
ATHENS - THE ATKLETIC BY Donald G. Kyle
ATHENS - THE ATKLETIC BY Donald G. Kyle University o f Texas Arlington As the queen o f s i t e s of Greek a t h l e t i c competition, Olympia has earned and had the r o y a l share of t h e a t t e n t i o n of historians; i t remains the ancient (and l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h e modern) i d e a l and model. Yet by v i r t u e o f i t s very status as Panhellenic center and sanctuary, Olympia should n o t be perceived as the norm f o r ancient Greek sport. I n a d d i t i o n t o the great Panhellenic Games, which were h e l d a t sanctuaries and o f f i c i a l l y o f f e r e d only symbolic crowns as prizes, the Greeks had hundreds o f **local** games which A much f u l l e r understanding o f t h e v a r i e t y of o f f e r e d m a t e r i a l prizes. v i t a l i t y o f Greek sport can be gained by l o o k i n g beyond Olympia t o study l*localw, "prizeq* o r l * c i v i l * * a t h l e t i c s . Studies o f c i v i c h i s t o r y and l o c a l a t h l e t i c s enhance each other, and studies of sport i n i n d i v i d u a l c i t i e s can add t o our understanding o f Greek sport o v e r a l l . As the best documented city-state, and because o f i t s fame f o r the v a r i e t y and grandeur o f i t s a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s and events, Athens i s an obvious choice f o r study. To most people **athleticsgri n ancient Greece means the Olympic Games and '*Athensv means democracy and culture. We should a l s o r e a l i z e how much the Athenians p a r t i c i p a t e d i n , supported a ~ dappreciated the t h r i v i n g a t h l e t i c l i f e o f t h e i r famous city-state. I n h i s t o r i e s o f Athens, understandably, a t h l e t i c s have been overshadowed by p o l i t i c s , l i t e r a t u r e and a r t , but a t h l e t i c s , as a very popular p a r t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and even p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f Athens, a f f e c t e d and were affected by h i s t o r i c a l developments. At Athens "localq* o r '*prize1* a t h l e t i c s developed i n t o " c i v i c * * a t h l e t i c s , a term used herein t o designate a t h l e t i c s w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t degree o f s t a t e involvement, as i n t h e o f f i c i a l administration o f contests and f a c i l i t i e s . I n tune w i t h the recent growth o f the study o f sport i n a l l cultures, research on the h i s t o r i c a l development and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a t h l e t i c s i n ancient Athens has c o l l e c t e d archaeological and l i t e r a r y evidence t o provide a f r e s h perspective on Athenian l i f e down t o the Macedonian occupation i n 322 BC. At Athens the sites, circumstances, prizes, p a r t i c i p a n t s and changing nature of a t h l e t i c s show t h a t the h i s t o r i e s o f Athens and i t s a t h l e t i c s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e r r e l a t e d . We need t o appreciate more f u l l y the significance o f a t h l e t i c s i n a d d i t i o n t o p o l i t i c s drama and other areas i n Athenian h i s t o r y . Athens* main c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c i v i l i z a t i o n were n o t a t h l e t i c b u t Athens was renowned for i t s grand f e s t i v a l s , numerous t o r c h races and specialized equestrian events. Athenians saw the value o f hosting as w e l l as winning contests. Unlike Olympia Athens housed team events and gave p r i z e s f o r more than f i r s t place. Unlike Olympia and the homes o f the great Panhellenic Games, Athens was much more than a r e l i g i o u s sanctuary o r oracular center. C l a s s i c a l Athens was a dynamic c i t y - s t a t e u s u a l l y a t o r near the center o f Greek h i s t o r y . As a p u b l i c and popular a c t i v i t y , Athenian a t h l e t i c s developed i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h p u b l i c l i f e , urbanization, the s o c i a l e l i t e , and c i v i c administration and finance. While a t h l e t i c s were o f r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l importance t o a l l Greeks, a t Athens they a l s o influenced- and were influenced themselves by- t h e c i v i c and p o l i t i c a l experience of t h e Athenians. Several questions can be asked concerning t h e r i s e , expansion and changing nature of a t h l e t i c s i n pre-Hellenistic Athens. When and why did a t h l e t i c s on a c i v i c b a s i s appear and surpass private, a r i s t o c r a t i c sport? How was t h e a t h l e t i c l i f e of t h e c i t y - e s p e c i a l l y its f e s t i v a l s and eventsinfluenced by tyranny, m i l i t a r y f a c t o r s , urbanization and changing p o l i t i c a l and economic conditions? What a t h l e t i c s i t e s and f a c i l i t i e s were a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e a t h l e t e s ? Who organized and who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n f e s t i v a l s and f a c i l i t i e s ? What was t h e s o c i a l background of t h e over one hundred known and possible Athenian a t h l e t e s ? What motivated and how s i n c e r e o r i n f l u e n t i a l were c m e n t s and criticisms by ancient authors? To what e x t e n t were c i v i c a t h l e t i c s a f a c t o r i n t h e urban development, topography and administration of Athens? Where t h e r e c o r r e l a t i o n s between Athens1 p o l i t i c a l l i f e and her a t h l e t i c s ? The answers t o such questions demonstrate t h a t t h e h i s t o r i e s of t h e c i t y and its a t h l e t i c s shared s i g n i f i c a n t s t a g e s and developments. Athenian a t h l e t i c s can f i r s t be studied when t h e e a r l i e s t eveidence becomes a v a i l a b l e i n t h e archaic age, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e period from t h e f i r s t recorded Olympic v i c t o r i n 776 t o t h e archonship of Solon i n 594, by which time Athens and a t h l e t i c s were both gaining increased a t t e n t i o n . Early Athens was an a r i s t o c r a t i c s t a t e c o n t r o l l e d by r i v a l , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y connected, baronial f a m i l i e s with c o n f l i c t i n g ambitions. The spontaneity, t h e informal arrangements, and t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c ideology of e a r l y a t h l e t i c s a s depicted i n Homer probably correspond well with t h e p r a c t i c e s of t h e e a r l y Athenians; they would have agreed with Homer t h a t n t h e r e is no grea e r qlory f o r a man than t h a t which he achieves by h i s hands and feet.f k a r l y but uncertain i n d i c a t i o n s of a t h l e t i c s , possibly held i n t h e Agora, t h e market square, suggest t h a t a t h l e t i c c o n t e s t s were a n a t u r a l development from f u n e r a l games and t h e c u l t of t h e heroized dead i n e a r l y Athens. A s t h e c i t y eveloped h i s t o r i c a l l y , s o did its a t h l e t i c s . It is not merely a coincidence t h a Athens1 f i r s t Olympic victory i n 696, t h a t of Pantakles i n t h e s p r i n t race. followed upon the r i s e of t h e 011s i t s e l f and upon t h e completion of t h e process of u n i f i c a t i o n ( s y n ; e c ! of t h e c i t y and surrounding Attica, s l i g h t l y preceding t h e term o t e e a r l i e s t known Athenian archon (Kreon) i n 682/1. Victors i n t h i s period seem t o have been men of wealth and standing; Phrynon t h e Olympic v i c t o r i n t h e pankration (roughly a corrbination of boxing and wrestling) was probably t h e same Phrynon who became a general and a founder of colonies. Kylon, i n h i s i l l - f a t e d attempt t o become t y r a n t of Athens a f t e r h i s Olympic victory a s a runner, represents t h e growth of both a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c a l turmoil. Although Athens was t h e home of a t h l e t e s and a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t y , a t h l e t i c s were a c l a n o r regional r a t h e r than a c i v i c matter. llCivicl' i n f a c t has l i t t l e a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h i s e r a of Athenian h i s t o r y , f o r t h e organs of s t a t e and t h e sense of c m u n i t y were still very limited. 5 I n t h e next period, from Solonls archonship t o t h e b a t t l e of Marathon (ca. 594-4901, Athens endured c r i s e s and factionalisml appealed t o Solon f o r r e l i e f , and prospered under a tyranny. Influenced by its i n t e r n a l maturation, a s well a s by e x t e r n a l Greek trends, t h e s t a t e advanced from u n o f f i c i a l t o c i v i c a l l y oriented and administered a t h l e t i c s . Athens f i r s t had t o become a viable p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y before c i v i c concern and influence could expand t o encompass a t h l e t i c s . The reforms of t h e enigmatic Solon aided t h e r u l e of law and t h e promotion of c i v i c consciousness, t h u s contributing t o t h e p o l i t i c a l and a t h l e t i c l i f e of Athens. Solon d i r e c t e d o f f i c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e growing a c t i v i t y of a t h l e t i c s by l e g i s l a t i n g rewards f o r v i c t o r s (500 drachmas f o r an Olympic victory and 100 f o r an Isthmian) and possibly by codifying other s o c i a l laws r e l a t i n g t o a t h l e t i c s S 3 Through h i s introduction of t h e r o l e of t h e c i t y and law i n t o a t h l e t i c s , Solon helped prepare t h e way f o r c i v i c athletics. After Solonvs work, adolescent Athens moved on t o t h e systematic organization of a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s . Athenian t r a d i t i o n preferred t o c r e d i t t h e o r i g i n s of its a t h l e t i c s and f e s t i v a l s t o heroes l i k e Theseus, but we a r e s t i l l uncertain about t h e exact circunstances of t h e reorganization of t h e appropriately named ~ a n a t h e n a e a . ~ Apparently an old f e s t i v a l was expanded t o include a t h l e t i c contests, e s p e c i a l l y with t h e "Greatvv Panathenaea every four years. This introduction of arguably vvcivicvva t h l e t i c s a t Athens is conventionally dated t o 566 and a n a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e t y r a n t P i s i s t r a t u s seems very l i k e l y . P i s i s t r a t u s reinforced h i s own p o s i t i o n by f o s t e r i n g t h e a n t i - a r i s t o c r a t i c , p a t r i o t i c influence of c i v i c a t h l e t i c s and popular c u l t s . P i s i s t r a t i d p o l i c i e s brought t h e p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and u n i f i c a t i o n t h a t encouraged c i v i c a t h l e t i c s r a t h e r than t h e e a r l i e r a t h l e t i c s of c l a n and c u l t . By t h e end of t h e tyranny various l e s s e r and l o c a l c u l t s and f e s t i v a l s had been nationalized and t h e Panathenaic program and administration were well established. The program included a l a r g e s l a t e of a t h l e t i c competitions a t l e a s t a s extensive a s a t Olympia, and t h e Athenian f e s t i v a l was a l s o d i s t i n c t i v e f o r its torch race s n o r i s (horse c a r t ) race and a obates race, With i n which an armed man d e s c e n d e k a n d ascended a moving symbolic y e t valuable p r i z e s , an ethnocentric f e s t i v a l y e t open t o a l l Greeks, t h e Panathenaea combined aspects of t h e Panhellenic Games and of l o c a l f e s t i v a l s . The p r i z e Panathenaic amphoras themselves, f i l l e d with sacred o l i v e o i l and depicting Athena on one s i d e and an a t h l e t i c event on t h e other, a p t l y symbolize the purpose and nature of Athenian c i v i c a t h l e t i c s , a s s o c i a t i n g both t h e popular a c t i v i t y and t h e devine patroness of t h e c i t y . Both c i t y and a c t i v i t y benefitted from t h e association. The significance of t h e games was f e s t i v e and a t h l e t i c : they were t o c e l e b r a t e and t o g l o r i f y t h e c i t y and its gods and heroes, and t o s a t i s f y t h e a g o n i s t i c i n c l i n a t i o n s of t h e Athenians d i r e c t l y by competition and vicariously by observation. J u s t a s t h e Panathenae-in myth and i n t h e s i x t h century motivation behind its success- was a f e s t i v a l of u n i t y , Athenian a t h l e t i c s o v e r a l l reminded t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e shared glory of Athens. k A s Athensv a t h l e t i c s developed from informal games i n t o organized a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s , a need arose f o r s p e c i a l i z e d a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s (both f o r p r a c t i c e and competition) t o supplement t h e e a r l y use of n a t u r a l l y s u i t a b l e s i t e s . Athensv t h r e e g r e a t gymnasia, t h e Academy, t h e Lyceum and Kynosarges, developed from pre-architectural suburban sites i n t o simple a r c h i t e c t u r a l arrangements, still probably no more than s p e c i f i e d a r e a s with limited arrangements f o r exercising and bathing. 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This applied a l s o t o a continuing t r a d i t i o n o f games associated w i t h funerary and hero c u l t s , notably the Epitaphia and Theseia. I n the f i f t h century the Epitaphia included p u b l i c funeral games f o r Athenst war dead. The general and p o l i t i c i a n , Kimon 11 returned the supposed "bones o f Theseus" t o Athens f o s t e r i n g the Theseia, a f e s t i v a l w i t h an extensive program o f a t h l e t i c s . O f Kimonrs actions Plutarch said: "This a f f a i r d i d more than any other achievement o f Kimonls t o endear him t o t h e people.tq8 Yet the empire and the f e s t i v a l s and p r o j e c t s i t helped finance met w i t h some opposition. The anonymus t r e a t i s e by t h e "Old Oligarchtv charges t h a t the demos was r u i n i n g physical education by b u i l d i n g sports f a c i l i t i e s f o r i t s e l f d by supporting a f e s t i v a l and l i t u r g i c a l program t h a t forced the r i c h t o pay f o r games and races from which the poor gained pleasure and p r o f i t . 9 Nevertheless, o f f i c i a l games and c u l t s were maintained and expanded as e s s e n t i a l r i t u a l s o f democratic Athens, as O C C ~ S ~ Owhen ~ S c i t i z e n s gathered and appreciated the value o f the community. Since Athensf a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s formed a topographically and f u n c t i o n a l l y prominent p a r t o f the state, they received embellishment and increasing a r c h i t e c t u r a l expression i n t h i s age o f energetic p u b l i c building. Although occasional and informal, the race course i n the Agora near the A l t a r of the Twelve Gods syrnbolizes the i n t e g r a t i o n o f a t h l e t i c s , r e l i g i o n and c i v i c l i f e . Along w i t h a r c h i t e c u t r a l e v o l u t i o n and f u n c t i o n a l needs, t h e p o l i t i c a l ambitions o f men l i k e Themistocles, Kimon and P e r i c l e s influenced the growth and character o f Athensf gymnasia. Kimon used h i s own p r i v a t e wealth t o b e a u t i f y both the Academy and the Agora. As Plutarch comments, Kimon was "the f i r s t t o adorn the c i t y w i t h those spacious and elegant places o f p u b l i c by transforming the Academy from a parched and barren wilderness resort" i n t o a well-watered grove which he provided w i t h shady baths t o walk i n and c l e a r t r a c k s f o r races.11T0 Recent discoveries i n the northern Agora may include t h e water channel involved. Praised by popular leaders and attacked by conservatives, p u b l i c a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s flourished. The e f f e c t of the Sophists has been exaggerated, l a r g e l y due t o Aristophanes who charged t h a t the "New Education" was undermining the physical and moral worth o f c i t i z e n s ; l i f e was becoming more multifaceted but gymnastics d i d n o t cease nor were the gymnasia and wrestling schools empty. ... The reputation o f Athens1 athletes i n the f i f t h century was aided by v i c t o r s l i k e K a l i a s the son od Didymias, a pankratiast who won a t Olympia i n 472 and a l s o won f i v e times a t the 1 s t i a , f o u r times a t Nemea, twice a t t h e Pythia and a t l e a s t once a t Athens.lP Leading men o f f i f t h - c e n t u r y fithens were involved w i t h a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c s b u t t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s and the nature o f t h e i r involvement were changing i n l i n e w i t h developments i n Athenian society and culture, especially i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f the century. Athenian a t h l e t i c s , obviously and especially equestrian competition, remained demonstrably e l i t i s t r a t h e r than e g a l i t a r i a n i n p r a c t i c e b u t there was a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n g from an e l i t i s m o f b i r t h t o one o f wealth. The predominance o f the aristocracy and o f equestrian events gave was as a t h l e t e s from new f a m i l i e s and groups appeared, most notably i n gymnastic events. These new a t h l e t e s seem t o have acquired t h e wealth, l e i s u r e and i n c l i n a t i o n f o r competing i n a t h l e t i c s (and p o l i t i c s ) from non-traditional sources. Once they became v i c t o r s i n major games, they could become very wealthy. In a recent study of a t h l e t i c p r o f i t s i n ancient Greece, David C. Young estimates t h a t a Panathenaic p r i z e of 100 amphoras of o i l f o r t h e men's s p r i n t i n t h e e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r - was worth about 1200 drachmas o r t h e equivalent of over One should note, however, t h a t a t h l e t e s regarded such $67,000 US (1980). winnings a s g i f t s r a t h e r than wages; t h e modern c a t e g o r i e s of amateur and professional a r e anachronistic f o r ancient Greek a t h l e t i c s . Slandered by t h e old guard, t h e newcomers nevertheless tended t o be of respectable b i r t h and economically they were well o f f . Autolykos, v i c t o r i n t h e Panathenaic pankration of 421/0 came from a good family; he probably was t h e son of one of t h e accusers of Socrates, t h e demagogue Lykon, and was himself l a t e r put t o death by t h e Thirty Tyrants. Despite public gymnasia and c i v i c rewards f o r v i c t o r s , no revolutionary popularization of a t h l e t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n took place a t Athens. Although a growing f a c t o r i n p o l i t i c s , t h e mass remained a t t e n t i v e observers a t t h e games. The f i f t h century was a time of complex and changing p o l i t i c i a l a c t i v i t y through which democracy f u r t h e r emerged. This period of Athenian a t h l e t i c h i s t o r y reveals a development away from t h e e a r l i e r d i r e c t , personal competition i n games, a s a means t o fame and thence t o p o l i t i c a l advancement, and a movement by a s p i r i n g l e a d e r s toward i n d i r e c t , p a r a p o l i t i c a l involvement v i a t h e f o s t e r i n g o r administration of a t h l e t i c s . With t h e demanding and non-complementary preparations needed f o r major sucess i n e i t h e r a t h l e t i c s o r p o l i t i c s i n t h i s e r a , leading statesmen tended t o avoid personal a t h l e t i c competition a s a means t o public influence. After Themistocles, t h e hero of Salamis, showed t h e value o f a t h l e t i c s i t e s a s public forums by a t t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n t o himself a t Olympia and Kynosarges, p o l i t i c i a n s approached a t h l e t i c s i n d i r e c t l y a s benefactors o r administrators. They t h u s gained a popular and p o s i t i v e association with t h e demos and t h e c i t y ( r a t h e r than t h e family and region) and avoided t h e t i m m d pains of rigorous a t h l e t i c training. The i n d i r e c t approach was used by Kimn I1 with p r i v a t e funds, but t h e popular p o l i t i c i a n P e r i c l e s perfected t h e method with public funds. Plutarch depicted P e r i c l e s metaphorically a s a p o l i t i c a n wrestler; c l e a r l y he was an a t h l e t i c "booster1t and he applauds Athens1 nrecreationsl ( c o n t e s t s and s a c r i f i c e s ) i n t h e famous Funeral 0ration.13 The c a r e e r of Alcibiades shows t h a t chariot-racing s t i l l brought fame t o t h e wealthy v i c t o r and was s t i l l an a l t e r n a t i v e route t o public exposure, but Alcibiades flaunted and exhausted t h i s a s an e f f e c t i v e means t o public support. He entered seven c h a r i o t s , one apparently s t o l e n from an acquaintance, i n t h e Olympics of 416, placed f i r s t , second and fourth, and went on t o use t h i s t o h i s p o l i t i c a l advantage; but h i s f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l extravagances ultimately brought him disfavor and exile. The a t t i t u d e s of P e r i c l e s and Alcibiades t o a t h l e t i c s , t h e democratic popularity and magnificence of f e s t i v a l s , and t h e requirements and r e s u l t s of technical a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g a l l compounded a t t a c k s on a t h l e t i c s by Athenian intellectuals C r i t i c s show t h a t t h e old ~ h ~ s i c ai ld e a l was becoming l n t e l l e c t u r a l i z e d and d i v e r s i f i e d , but modern s c o a r s have overreacted t o t h e c r i t i c i s m s and t h e demise of t h e narrow a t h l e t i c i d e a l . With e a r l i e r . non-Athenian c r i t i c i s m by Xenophanes and others, conventional l i t e r a r y motif; had arisen: t h e value o f t h e a t h l e t e a s s o l d i e r and c i t i z e n was deprecated, and disproportionate honours f o r athletes--rather than intellectuals--were condemmed. Such comments have a remarkably modern r i n g t o them. Major Athenian c r i t i c i s m s appear i n t h e l a s t t h i r d o f t h e f i f t h century i n t h e context o f the Peloponnesian War and Sophism. E a r l i e r c r i t i c i s m s o f the popular evaluation o f a t h l e t e s now were supplemented by c r i t i c i s m s o f excessive athletic training (especially eating habits) and over-s p e c i a l i z a t i o n as w e l l as c r i t i c i s m s o f the d e c l i n e o f physical education. Aristophanes, ever suspicious o f new trends i n society, claimed i n the Clouds t h a t the younger generation was no longer f i t , t r a i n e d o r modest, t h a t they preferred the courts and baths t o the gymnasia. Euripides i n a fragment o f a satyr p l a y o f around 420 wrote a condemnation o f a t h l e t e s as overly f l a t t e r e d and p r e t t y i n youth b u t r e a l l y q u i t e unprepared t o be u s e f u l c i t i z e n s . "Of the thousands o f e v i l s which e x i s t i n Greece there i s no greater e v i l than the race o f athletes. I n the f i r s t place, they are incapable o f l i v i n g , o r o f l e a r n i n g t o l i v e , properly. How can a man who i s a slave t o h i jaws and a servant t o h i s b e l l y acquire more wealth than h i s father?" Literary conventions now included the a t h l e t e as a physical caricature, b u t w r i t e r s could choose from e i t h e r c r i t i c a l o r laudatory commonplaces depending on the nature and purpose o f the work being written. I n f a c t , the c r i t i c s themselves t e s t i f y t o the spread and p o p u l a r i t y o f c i v i c a t h l e t i c s ; they show t h a t a t h l e t i c s were n e i t h e r diminishing nor p o p i l a r l y d i s l i k e d . I n terms o f a t h l e t i c p r a c t i c e t h e c r i t i c s had no appreciable e f f e c t . The p r a c t i c e o f sitesis--the o f f i c i a l awarding o f a d a i l y f r e e meal i n the town h a l l - apparently was renewed f o r v i c t o r s i n Periclean Athens as a gesture o f c i v i c appreciation f o r an accomplishment a i d i n g both c i t i z e n and state.15 A t h l e t i c t r a d i t i o n s , l i k e f e s t i v a l s , f a c i l i t i e s , and rewards, were e s s e n t i a l t o the g l o r i o u s image o f which Athenians were very proud i n the f i f t h century. 5 I n the h a l f century a f t e r the Peloponnesian War (ca. 404-355) Athens was busy recovering from the war and attempting t o reassert i t s power. In t h i s age o f o r a t o r s and generals, Athens revived economically but never regained i t s former p o s i t i o n i n the Greek world. Nevertheless, the a t h l e t i c l i f e o f the c i t y endured. Although the s t a t e lacked the resources f o r extravagance, and the a t h l e t i c i d e a l was challenged f u r t h e r by philosophical c r i t i c i s m , there were i n d i c a t i o n s o f expanded pograms and p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Games continued even i n times o f stress, and a t h l e t i c s seem t o have grown even as the c i t y i t s e l f became eclipsed. I n t h i s p e r i o d the number o f a t h l e t i c events, i f perhaps n o t f e s t i v a l s , increased, and an i n s c r i b e d Panathenaic p r i z e l i s t o f ca. 38 reveals a program w i t h three age groupings and f a r more events than O l y m p i a j 6 Rather than i n an e a r l i e r era when one might expect it, m i l i t a r y influeces, such as t h a t o f t h e cavalry and ephebeia, t h e m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g o f youths f o r two years p r i o r t o f u l l citizenship, became more obvious i n Athenian events such as the a n t h i a s i a a m i l i t a r y tatoo f o r cavalry units--and t h e contest i n casting &*a horseback a t a s h i e l d suspended on a post. Despite a decrease i n known equestrian v i c t o r s and i n a t h l e t i c scenes painted on non-prize vases, the o f f i c i a l program apparently was f u l l y operational. I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n and p u b l i c p o p u l a r i t y insured t h a t a t h l e t i c s were retained as a conspicuous element i n Athens1 calendar, topography and i d e n t i t y . A r c h i t e c t u r a l l y , Athens* a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s g i v e l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n i n t h i s period. The r i s e o f schools o f philosophy i n association w i t h gymnasia, notably Platols a t the Academy, along w i t h changes i n educational and s o c i a l l i f e , however, suggest t h a t gymnasia were developing f u n c t i o n a l l y . The r o l e o f gymnasia as educational and s o c i a l centers was growing, b u t as y e t t h i s necessitated no p h y s i c a l changes i n t h e facilities. Elsewhere, a t Athens1 stadium and probably a t i t s hippodrome i n f o r m a l arrangements s t i l l seem t o have sufficed. Available information on Athenian a t h l e t e s a t t h i s time i n d i c a t e s continuing p a r t i c i p a t i o n and e l i t i s m . F i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may have influenced the decrease o f horse-racing o r the persistence o f heavy a t h l e t i c s . Apparently corning from the new s o c i a l e l i t e , a t h l e t e s tended t o be nouveaux riches who d i d l i t t l e beyond sport. The funds f o r t r a i n i n g and t r a v e l remained p r i v a t e and f a m i l i a l ; a v a i l a b l e evidence does n o t i n d i c a t e the dependency o f a t h l e t e s on income from v i c t o r i e s . New f a m i l i e s and odd names appear i n t h e context o f a t h l e t i c specialization, but there i s no evidence o f sponsorship o r r i s i n g a t h l e t e s by i n d i v i d u a l s o r the c i t y i n pre-Hellenistic Athens. I f mprofessionalismn existed i n t h i s era, i t was i n terms o f t r a i n i n g and expertise r a t h e r than occupation. Athletes appear t o have been respectable c i t i z e n s , o f t e n characterized i n l i t e r a t u r e and society by t h e i r a t h l e t i c experience. This was an age o f haute bou eoisie, o f economic and p r i v a t e r a t h e r than p o l i t i c a l and p u b l i c c o e s . upper-class families, o f t e n w i t h members conspicuous i n war o r oratory, took over the former preeminence o f the o l d a r i s t o c r a t i c families. The c o l l e c t i v e e t h i c o f the o l d o l i s was being replaced by individualism and apathy; wealth and peace were p r e e r r e d t o g l o r y and p u b l i c l i f e . Maintaining a t h l e t i c t r a d i t i o n s was s t i l l a c i v i c concern, but competition and involvement seem t o have changed from a means t o p u b l i c i n f l u e n c e i n t o a p r i v a t e matter o f self-display and status. % % The realism o f a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c a l leadership diverged i n t h i s p e r i o d as men no longer competed d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n both areas. Athens1 preoccupation w i t h foreign a f f a i r s and finance, t h e self-perpetuating i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a t h l e t i c s , and the technical and temporal demands o f a t h l e t i c and p o l i t i c a l success-all these i n p a r t may explain why a t h l e t i c s were continuing b u t ceased t o be a means t o p o l i t i c a l power. Intellectual c r i t i c s were n o t the cause o f such developments; t h e i r continuing condemnations o f excessive rewards and t r a i n i n g were redundant and ineffectual. I n the Apology Socrates compares h i s own worth as a moral benefactor f o r the c i t y t o t h a t o f victors.17 The jury, representing popular opinion, d i d not agree w i t h h i s contention t h a t he deserved and needed s t a t e maintenance more than v i c t o r s . H i s f e l l o w c i t i z e n s condemned him and continued t o honor athletes. P l a t o c r i t i c i z e d contemporary a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g and medical gymnastics and r e j e c t e d these f o r the Guardians o f h i s i d e a l state, but P l a t o d i d not speak f o r the average Athenian. I n t h e p e r i o d from the S o c i a l War t o the Macedonian occupation (ca. 355-322) Athens revived f o r a time under Lycurgus' care but f i n a l l y l o s t i t s independence t o Macedon. I n the h i s t o r y o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s t h i s p e r i o d i s b e t t e r characterized as proto-Helenistic than as a degeneration o f classical traditions. Paradoxically, a t Athens a t h l e t i c s seemed t o have t h r i v e d even as the p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y faltered. Aristotlels Constitution o f Athens d e t a i l s how a t h l e t i c s were thoroughly i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and c a r e f u l l y administered.18 Still a major part of civic life, athletics increasingly involved Athens1 educational and military system rather than its political rivalries. The development of the ephebeia under Lycurgus lead to an expanded Theseia, and military and cavalry influences were reflected in festivals like the Olympieia to Zeus and in contests like the javelin throw from horseback. Atens maintained its reputation for unusual and spectacular events including the apobates contest and numerous torch races, but curiously boat races were a late and llmited development. As elsewhere in late classical Greece, Athenian athletic facilities gained monumental stature in this era, especially through the projects of Lycurgus. The Lyceum became the site of Aristotlels school and was enhanced or expanded, possibly to accomodate increasing educational, philosophical and social functions. Later in Hellenistic times Athens1 gymnasia housed much more than athletics and came to be architectural complexes and indispensable components in the physical form of this center of philosophy and culture. The Lycurgan construction of the Panathenaic Stadium may represent a trend to specialization of facilities or a social shift to increasing spectatorship-developments more Hellenistic than classical. Although Lycurgus aimed at the glory of Periclean Athens, his methods and his administration were protoHellenistic. In this age of financial and private concerns, Athenian athletes still appear to have come from comfortable families, and there was even a revival of equestrian victories as nouveaux riches apparently sought social status. The career of Dioxippos may indicate that financial professionalism in athletics was not far off; a famous strongman and an Olympic victor, Dioxippos accompanied Alexander the Great only to be forced to s ide after killing a man in single combat for Alexander's entertainment?$ In the Hellenistic age the route to athletic succcess via the ephebic system would remain elitist, but the route via sponsorship and athletic guilds was to attract lower-class individuals seeking a livelihood. As Macedon overshadowed Athens, people seem to have pursued or watched athletics for private, selfish motives; no longer were athletics a means to political influence. Criticisms of the excessive training and popularity of athletics continued, and would continue, like the very trends they denounced. There now seems to be more basis for the charge that athletes contributed little to the city as we encounter the anomalous situation of Kallippos a pentathlete accused of bribery at Olympia in 332.20 Rather than the athlete aiding the city, Athens sent the orator Hyperides to defend the athlete. As well as raising questions of criteria and relevance, the conventional image of decline in athletics, as presented by E.N. Gardiner, H.A. Harris and others, has not improved our understanding of how Athenian athletics experienced significant transformations by the late fourth century. Admittedly, the narrow athletic ideal may have lost some of its earlier attraction, and the morality and motivations of athletes may have changed. Yet, technically, athletic performances should have improved with specialization. The social shift from an elitism of birth to one of wealth can be seen as progress or decline, depending on one's predisposition. Even acknowledging the proliferation of sources over time, the numbers of willing Athenian p a r t i c i p a n t s and spectators seems t o have increased. The l i s t o f fourth-century Athenian v i c t o r i e s a t Olympia i n d i c a t e s success n o t f a i l u r e : we know o f more Olympic s p r i n t champions from Athens f o r the f o u r t h century than f o r e a r l i e r periods. A t h e l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s became grander, programs were elaborate, and games and p r i z e s were maintained as expressions o f Athenian p r i d e i n the past g l o r i e s and present beauties o f the c i t y . A t h l e t i c s ceased t o be a source o f p o l i t i c a l influence, but r e a l p o l i t i c a l power no longer rested i n Athens. I r o n i c a l l y , the fame and p r a c t i c e o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s fared b e t t e r than the c i t y i t s e l f : they remained a very s i g n i f i c a n t element i n the c i v i c l i f e o f a c i t y which i t s e l f suffered p o l i t i c a l l y and m i l i t a r i l y i n the H e l l e n i s t i c era. Perhaps antiquarian i n t e r e s t i n the legacy o f Athens was a factor, o r perhaps the longevity o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s can be credited t o the planning o f Lycurgus. Clearly, the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between the h i s t o r i e s o f Athens and i t s a t h l e t i c s was s i g n i f i c a n t and continuous. From the eighth t o the f o u r t h century, as w e l l as evolving i n t e r n a l l y toward increased t r a i n i n g and specialization, Athenian a t h l e t i c s were influenced by developments a t Athens such as the r i s e o f c i v i c consciousness and the p o l i c i e s o f leaders. I n turn, a t h l e t i c s a f f e c t e d the topography, f e s t i v e calendar, administration and i n t e l l e c t u a l concerns o f Athens. When Solon wanted t o q u i e t the state, when P i s i s t r a t u s and P e r i c l e s wanted t o advance the state, when Themistocles and Kimon wanted t o l e a d the state, and u l t i m a t e l y when Lycurgus wanted t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e state, they p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o the a t h l e t i c l i f e o f Athens. The reason i s simple. A t h l e t i c s were a public, i n t e g r a l , and p o t e n t i a l l y u n i f y i n g o r d i s r u p t i v e element i n the c i v i c experience o f the Athenians. Overall the r e l a t i o n s h i s p between Athens and a t h l e t i c s was constructive and harmonious. The Athenian as v i c t o r , benefactor o r spectator gained glory, recognition o r pleasure; and the c i t y b e n e f i t t e d from f l a t t e r i n g f e s t i v a l s and f a c i l i t i e s , and from an enhanced c i v i c consciousness. I n late c l a s s i c a l times Athens and a t h l e t i c s seem t o a n t i c i p a t e H e l l e n i s t i c trends, b u t a t h e t i c s "declinedt1 ( o r became l e s s qlcivicw) only i n t h e sense t h a t a l l aspects of Athenian l i f e can be s a i d t o have declined i n the absence o f power and independence. Altered b u t active, a t h l e t i c s remained a v i t a l p a r t o f the glory, i d e n t i f y and legacy o f Athens. NOTES 1. Od. 8.147-148. 2. Moretti, Olympiorikai, No. 25. 3. See Donald G. Kyle, ItSolon and Athletics,ll The Ancient World 9, 1984, 91-105. 4. See J.A. Davison, "Notes on the Panathenea," Journal of Hellenic Studies 78, 1958, 23-42. 5. A race or racecourse: Raubitschak, E,No. 326-328. 6. See T. Leslie Shear Jr., "The Panathenaii Way," Hesperic 44, 1975, 362-365. 7. Herodotus 6:103. 8. Plutarch, Theseus 36:l. 9. Old Oligarch, 2:lO. 10. Plutarch, x, l3:7. 11. Moretti, op,cit., No. 228. 12. David C. Young, The Olympic Myth of Greek Amateur Athletics, Chicago: Ares, 1984, 115-127. 13. Plutarch, Pericles, 8.5. 14. Euripides, Autolykos FRAG 282. Trans. S.G. Miller. 15. IG '1 77. 16. IG 1 1 2311. ~ 17. Socrates, Apology 36dc. 18. Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 60.1, 62.2. 19. Moretti, op.cit., no. 458. 20. e., no. 460.