kojer ABSYNT FB l0.lnf(mrü W4fr@y (cAI), inrellirst conpDcr aided

kojer ABSYNT FB l0.lnf(mrü W4fr@y (cAI), inrellirst conpDcr aided

TutoN, Instructions and Helps
lleiD-I.Thole
Claus rrßbus &
kojer
Uni6ity
FB
ABSYNT
of
Oldübug
l0.lnf(mrü
Unit on Turoring aad
L€mirg Systeos
D-29@Ott nbnx
W4fr@y
The goals of this plper
inshdion, saond we wet
@nputer
Fogtuniry.
to
@ rüefold. Fißt @ wdr
help6
Third ve
{lFn
F*nr
di*üs lh. qulriy of ißrucdoN ir
vd1
ovi()lU@r AISYNT. Ir s irclud4t
nDhrliN dd
10
rhc
a &vicw ot lhe
some
tetu ed
on coDpür.r dsisir{t
'nea]!E
hmosmtußr
{tiatoss
coedins
th. cosnidresci€nce-basd deid@ndl of oü p'oe@nins
ionic insrd.lions ard tclps shich p@is 0o bo supe.i6 to lnbal
10 {iemoßtra0e
msüuction of
p@pcrly detisned
Ttis pard c@isß of lt@ prrß. In
iunErid
vüiet !@ly in@lüs6t ruloring sysllm Grg,
in lhe developn nr or o rTS is dE prop.r d6ig{ of insEwrio,. W.
Fefd
rhe fi.s1 pan (1.-5.)
w. siv. a shon inEoderion ro compü.r aided
(cAI), inrellirst conpDcr aided inslllE.id oCAI) dd ! sDeial
One of dE
b disN
rhb
ndr udeEsiml.d
prtld
nor
pmbrems
o e .t6f!.i
bu. @ a
6lnd @c@ LEl. so
the
s@!d psn (4.) daumo.s r@ dMplcs of
q?iclly Eiv6 i! rexlbmb
rd i.retligdl tubdns sysMs @rc€dins conpuu sci@ eduqdon.
llsö empld sh@ lh.t !r pttgr rhe @nsEuction of iNturic t n@ &r d.r sie@, Ttey e an uconiolted elE
for dfu ed nie@cc$ons of lhe !.udql., Thir ces ev@ prcbtens in CAt qd rCAr, eEsi.Iy fd d,e deig, of hetp
instuioD 6d
heb6
This
ts@n
w4 sFrsor.d by de Dqlghe Füschü8sg.sü$hail (DFG) h lne Spp
Psychology of Krcwleds. ü(rer
C@n!.t NqMO 293ß-2
337
rn dE dird pqt (5.) se want to dmonsüate hos .o derive
(Psr.O
prMdy u.d6 consrüton. Tlis apprwh
ANDERSON, GREENO, KLINE & NEVFJ,
iMrcriom
Ests on prodetion bos€d
l€mins theory (ANDERSON, 1983, 1987a
l98l; ANDERSON, KLIM & BEASLEY,
SIMON & LEA, 19?4; VatiI-EHN, 198?a,b), We ued tule set. !o a@alüe tle
of a gnphical
Ab6d:&r
vinur oachi.e, which
rels &d tule els, whict @
is
drivd by gapbical pogams in
be con@ived
1980; ECAN & CREENO, 1974j
tnoyledF
onnErpais: i@s ed i@ic tules, thü diag@@dc info@li@ fods de
of
Tls).
€!ftre
(ABstEd SyNLx
of the virtüal machine,
@
oleeriml sanlics
about the
the ABSYNT langulge
a a dnMble sp€cifi*tid
elving moniror
6nd helps for a probleD
oü instucuonal
m
relarEd
b
@d belp systen,
L
rcAI na
leding rh@y
hde
1wo
prqleassß:
develop€d uDds
lrincipls
a
ope@t is
a
6ly
1960s
Lshirg
and CAl. Mrchinc based @ching
unii of behavior which b condiriorcd by
nahincs. Insr4ctio.ar tDgros
teache4 but by raching
siice üe
machine b&ed
w6
o
diEt
consequ.n@
oi
tte influen@ of SKINNER'S $6ry ol oFranr conditionins. Accoldins b lhis behaviofttic
Einfoßmenl
we@ ar
This
fnr impl@entd
reinloren
on
(*ith lhe ris of ele.[onic @mputqs) th. nori@ of CAI emerg€d. Many
hop€ of @nsnücting ru!o6 vho
@ld sppon hlll@ teachd
o
reli@
rhem
ton
nt
m
mt givs by
noncldhnic oquipnerL Bur
sysrcms
we
develop€d in dD
mutine work. But the d€v€lopmcnr
of
üis neld showed Fne prEllelsn b nachine bnslarion dd naiürl ldgnage prMsi.g- Excßivoly high flp@bioß
w@ Doüished by rcsmhers
denciencica
(.{.
KLING, 19?9; TAI,BER, 1980) bu.
showed only slow pogr.ss due ro
of inslrütional rhcdi.s md shortcominss in conpularional media änd pmstumins lechniques. The
dielpoinbent ol üe mnsimrilic commnnlry led b
a
spoNEd Foj@ß in Cclmy w@ camled.
Todiy rhe in@tuion l dd naim.l s6c h$
ch
sieM
@mpud
Eeflh
cü in fundins.
rd
irstu@, in
ged som.how, which is
(KAVAI, MIZOOUCHI KAKUSHO & TOYODA,
198?)
the midseventi4
n@ly oll lhird pany
püdy oFibürable b nw dovelopmdts in
dd pady
to
pbcrss in oCdnve sci@ 6d
6sri1iv. pß'cnobsy (SLEEMAN & BRO N r98? MANDL & FISCHER, r985i KEARSLEY,
1987; WENCER, 1987),
in üe dßisn ol hdds@ (wütslltiss wilh bitnapped hish lwlution disdayt d $ftee (objer- dd rulebasd
pogmning l&guag6) @de n s@ possible to me€r rhe challerse ol desisniq inEllis.r. rutor systms Hlizble. Thc
F f@dce of ües sysr.ns sh@ld equal üal of ! hunm tDbr (ANDERSoN, 193?). Admntdy, pmgßs is stiu not npid
Pnsß
od
there
@ n@ly
no comn@ral Estens avanabb, which woDld jDsdfy the predicaE
'inEllig
t". KEARSLEY poined
.
ill.d.än.d ar pr€s€nl. Th. disrinclon b€lwen inl€llqsd cAl syslome
and compulerbased ißlrucrion prcsrads .annor b6 shalply drawn. lCAl progranr uss Al progBmming
'lcAl ie an
6m6.ging li6ld rhar
l.chniques änd aß implem€nl.d ln länguag€s as LISP and PROLOG. Dov6lop66 of lCAl sysl€ms locus
probl€ms
ol
on
knowl6dg6 repßs€.rarlon, sudenl mlsconcopllons, and int€rencing, By and la.g€, lh3y have
ignoEd inslru.rional lh€ory and pasr ßsearch ti.d.ss ln conpurorbasod insiruclion.'
Anolhd ot6iacle
d
!o fart
ICAt'Sys1@ or ITS ha
po86
in thi! field is due
o
(he
fad thr.
a
slrefd
desig., devclopddl and
er€ludld of
lobeajoi effonorEwheß fbn osninve Fycholosy, o8llitiv€, ed@do.al ed Mputer
dd goal shclDB m slinutale sci.ntific disus$ds (BODEN, 1981i SCHEERER, it
eien@. Diff@rr boctgrcu&
prso,
bur üsaally do nor povide a
lerule ovimnment for üe d.v.lopmcnlof solnvae under tine dd budgs @nstraitß,
338
2,
E.rlt
Te.ching M.chines, Conpürer Aided Insrrucri@ (CAI) rnd lltelligent Compüler Aided
BehaviorisD
!.d Tcachir3 M$bir€s
Mauoly opeEted ddll or lehing D&l'ines (PRESSEY,
1926, r92?i SKINNER, 1958)
pl€Mr.d lhe i6Euctioo!1 Mte'ial ß
dd IrS
heE, no1 rhe
M!.rSKYd latowledge sEucuft (MINSKY, 19?5). E{h f@e rqnftd
d ino@t eslone
basd on
a
systeos. They
üe stud$t had
n*r
üe
r,r move |o
Fon üe
@nomicd e&endite o{te*fting
Felß
l@in8
thal
. The
insrütions dd
lminA üe.t (GAI-ANIER,
a shon
slill 1od.y sone @nDurd eientrsß with
is
fo@neß of
lhe
n@irg
pages
sodenr Evo
rhe
rfd
pß
wirh innedirE
e
1959; HOLLAND, 1960, 1964;
a.mbeß
fedb&t
0ITEINERT, 1967). Thw dly cffm
Behaviol (HOLL"AND & SKINNER, 196r), *hich
'lbE pogmJ
rcsp.M ftom
a
intoduction or progmDed instucrion
pldning, sheduling od individualiadon of üe
vde
prcblem- The rhmerical posirion ol this tind of @china sylc was
tnedy of icrtuctior wh{h desnded trom opemr
SKINNER, 1954, 1958, 1968).
a
f.es (fre6
lin@ equoce of
r.day's CAI
of
expcctd more oprim.l
slles
or
f6jlü., rnd a n@
culmina@d in ihe
h.ok'AMlysis of
aredpl !o te&h lne üdslyin8 bebaviüi$ic Imins rh6ry wirh
qcdpt of üe Fog@
a sEong inclination
e
incbdsd in
b dilicial
.pp6dix Ä. h ß inEratirg b sc
@ folowina rh. behaviodsric
intelligence
radäon sho leachinE rh. sure{f-an symbolic mmpubr langrage SCHEME (FRIEDMAN & FELLEISEN, 198?), We
ed
pion6
included lhe tages 3
Ir wd üe
rnosledee sEucüd4
4 of ihcir
drbot
in rDpendü A.
PRESSEY (1963), who
ed ds
to
üe l&k of
a
dricipard 0E failw of posmmned instuction
sDppdirc
fld frieDdly vnonenr
for
d@ !o lhe aionizatlon or
slfpeed ed
autonooous
dplodll@
s re*
üar b..aBe of iß inhemr ißbiliry b Fovide individulüalio dd rich f*dbe,. prcgrMned
ir${cti@ @uld fuIfiI @hirg purposs ody who sNdoß w highly moliva&d, Il ü lhü nol useful fo lare. $ale
Todar
aDplisriom
viü hehßercß
Conput
Smn n
r ßa*d
sürdor DoDubtons.
buloly fd
shon üne
"6hsNs
,
lftt.ücrion (CÄI)
ws rsüzed rh.t b Fovide dE n*sdy indlvidnaliarion md fedba.l Üt@ pmgms hod b b. sbsdoned in favor
proe4s *hich could poyid. Em.nial lo!3 in ce ol sürdenr emE ü jumps ü cde of snid€nt @nFbcc.
of bmchins
dtd s!@na6 @urd not be mDrs.d emci dy by mech ü ddi@s. So @adea ,ho h.d am b ompud
Esourc* w& bdching Fo8@s in . compud lanslag€, Thü i61lnal lo Fovi.le b.mch* fü individu.lized
Th*
insEwlio tle inpleMte. dd
the
cowwD
aüdbr h.d
1o
dlicipate evqy Fsponse
(aTKr\ßoN & w]-soN, r96q BARR & ATKTNSON, 1977). Itis is n@ly imposibl€
of
ICAI which shNld Blierc mu]w@ aühc &qn
squoce in
ü@
hisrqy ol CAl.
rhe
q
r,o
nieonception or.he sbdent
&hieve
burdd ol qDlosive bmching, Todat
we
od
led
b
rhe
dendd
@8tja a rhe phe
2.2.1
R6.$ch ,nd
Bosic
The
bsr llgch fd labomtory pololy!6 (SUPPES, JERMAN & BRIAN, 1968;
1972). Regchd had beome moE mod€s dEn SKINNER md his grclp. who could not
chmcBized by
& MORNINCSTAR,
SLFPES
imasinc
fn! phs w6
Protorypes
lny cmplqiry bmics ror Foel?lmed ißEüdon. To f&ilit le
the developmenr or
l€ming ads üd re.dbdt
ol reaching e@ c@fine.l ro ü€dc skills in Dalhmalics, sdins dd conpute. prog@ming GARR &
helps, domaiN
ATKINSON, I9??),
Bnching prog.es vqe wri$en in con@.ti@al int€rative prcgEmning $ylc wirh
@ndinonal
jmps,
to achjeve
r high Fspoß{eßivily
lndr
problen
So
dha
sophi$icated
l!-s6MenB o.
1970). Bur
pal6s or srudor b€havi6, cose,@ uthd had r! aee tle *l
of cdbinabid .xplosion of alsutiw parhr in rhe disriminarion üe or system espo@s 10 slldent
ln lhc sarc period fel
leming
ncaEd
deisim shcu@.volled (ATKINSON. 1972: SMAI-LWOOD, 1962,
pßß$
10
idi6yDcEric
$ne dly developnds (@eniog
delailed b€havioral
(BARR & ATKINSON, 19??t FLETCHER, r9?5i SMITü
BLANE & MARINOV, 1975: SUPPES,
l98l;
dssmdl
& BLAINE,
lo model fie
19?6;
lemq
SMIlIl,
d
GRAVES,
SUPIES, FLETCIIER & ZANOTTI, 1975, l9?6i ) and the
Dse
or
D€ßoElciz€d) conDuds (DYWER. 1974).
2.2.2 Larye
The
Sccle AppllcrlloN
smd phe
showed
lrd Conbor.ill
Slsl.ns
laryr sys6s wirh dnm langurgq ed ellguided primittue ptublen
and
ites goerard
(U'I'rAL, ROCERS, HIERONYMOUS & ?ASICH, 1969; WE)(LER, l9?q KOFFMAN & BI-ouNT, 1975) b detelo!
Two of
lhd
PLATO
ed
lhe aüh@
(Pot@med Lrgic for A!6nanc T@hing OpcBrion) wa dcvclop.d
TUTOR by tt$dhqs
lr&etiv. Codpub Contmled
lellage
TICCIT Gine-shttd
wed
th*
sl|Lmc 0jKAN, 1971) bem. fmilid ouaide acadenic irsritotims@ den lnom todly. Tnee @?LATO (with luihü l4gurg. TUm$ ddTICCIT(wirh ldg@8. APD.
cost-etrstiv€ le&hing envionmots, Sone of
by a nainfilne
lnfümarion T€levision) lerninals
ompub. PLAIO w8 $ed fü
(DAVIS, DUCDALE, KBBEY & wEAvER,
r9?).
T1E
l*sm ir
nic@odd
style
(Conhl D.E corpmrion)
kboEtory). Sinila b
*ith sEphic copabilitis wq€
*ih dnet mdipuldton
Conbry b PLATO TICCIT clained ro
have
of lh€
d
geneli$, elcmenEry malhenatics
edMrioal
becme a amous p€Edigna in ICAI (lr.,RTON & BROWN, 1979)
üe
by CDc
at CEru (Conpuler-basd Edrcarion Res€@h
us-indf@
sa
so.
dd güc
WEST (RESNICK, l9?5) for
Eusht in PI"ATO lesons,
b. Ev
Mpl.,
ployina
whicb
qpcriDdB in
could be condücled (SITNEIDERMAN, 1983, r98?),
insEuctio?l destn fr@ewüt *hich l.d ro eme evrlMrion stndi*
(BUNDERSON, 19?4; ALDERMAN, l9??; MERzuLL, SCHNEIDER & FLErcHER, 1930; BORK, 1981, 1986).
Ar
lk Fwnt mo@r
we
s
a @vi!€r of
a!üor langugs ud$
rhe
'me
of
\dcl$m
.
Thir
Evival6
s@Ed by
blndling lhe pesoar @nputer MACINTOSE *nh rhe new objar-üienh@d HY?ERCARD darabase s$em lrcn
ATKINSON (GOODMAN, 1987; WILLIAMS, 198?).
340
,.2.1
The Deh.rd lor AI
ir
CAI
ln lhe lÄnd pi@ of CAI the shd@jngs ot üe CAI syshs be@e mor. md @e app@nr. On ltrc one sid.
dgiredng @hniqß (EquiEm{t d.lysis, sDe.jfrerios, .vatutions er.) c@ into up b r@edy d*isn flaws,
sfwe
tdd, n *s ralized thar br.rins devjca which shoüld show a sini,r comr@nc d hlne oß nc€de<t a
sftngd darericd. ncrtodolosicat and npiricat b6is (CARBONELL, t97O; BROWN, t9??; FORD, 1986, r98?:
olr
Lhe
othd
SPADA
& OPW6, I93t- Tbi. eqriEs
@gnjri* $iercc rh6d.s on kDowle<tE acquhiüon, retsieel ed
rhe c@püb !ut6 r!, ov.rc@ ,d!ffitical Aontids in
ro impDve
deduction
dd b impl@eqt Fpmble *tuwledge cobpondts in
buiüjne
nehine tut@" (wool-F, 1987),
a
n* rüti6
@
due !o dre
uexpeded eEna in üe tutoing sio,rion ad b idios),l1@iq of
shle, his prcblm solutioß, his
compül€r aided
.he
failes d{i ni3@eplions TrEs
@npbxnl.
oa
the
dm,i,
of
disow,
3tud.Tlmcming hü temhS hi.!o.y,
irsighrs led
i.st@lim qCAJ) CICHOCOVADZE, 1985; yAzDANt,
oo
specifa
his Lrowtedge
b üe worti-wid. demod of ,iDerig@r,
1986. 1981.
CÄI syslens üe chdeFized by lhe g@l oi @hjng a tdg. body of howled{e. Theü lnaericd b6is ßs on
clßical psycloloaicat l@ing ed insductioral .hetry. LrsMs ü. sElcllfed inb sequences of fmcs, The srsbn
EsIoNs @ largcly prcsp..ified. Inshclional merhodology tug6 fr.m dn41 inshcri@ !o disercry ü elptdabry
leaming.
Dmi.
a
clrful @k-retysi!
(BLOOM, 1962, l9?2; GACNE, 1974).
hehaviü sch
d
r@lt$t
bowledge is not €xpticiü
smeri@s rl!tud win
d s@
d in rhe sysrln, ID@d of
thus delivdine a
hee
dd $IurioD |tn6
is only
e
oditunbry srldcot
u*d a
a
lj\.t
niffihicrt dgoisrion
deeriplion of thc
modeüin&
t@a
lhe
d.sta phae of ü. sys@D is
jts ed te$ing pislqüjdßs
of subt
eudtitalire
n6@s
of sudenr
per$@Iity. Ttis is in &@rdoe wirh
psychologiel let. rheory FRICKE, r92; FISCHER, 1t4; SPADA t976). rDsh&rional fmals
shos h,srl wiaron:
'slide sh@s", drjrl & psti€e lessns wi.h ndtple choice aNq @pabiüd6. gm6 ad sinutarioß of mi@mrlds
(FIURZEIG, 1987: LAWLE& 1984, r98?: PAPERT,
b f@aliz€d rnwbdg. domin& tt
is €ven
ried lo
198?). The subj@
re€cti sNh
nau!
and
disü*
dirßdl dii fuzy-shc!!€d
(I-AWLER & LAWLER, 1987). So@
rhm6 @
d
mltdned
{toroins s @tural larsuss
ecodins to w.[ sbblished
comp{d br!.d cdiula r@ @piricdly evaluared
dd.lop€d in ed@rioEl pßychotogy (GAGE, t967; KLAUSMEIER, l9?l: STRITMTTER, l9?3;
FRICKE, 1974; ANDERSON, BALL, MttRplly & Asciales, 196: CRONBACg & SNOW, i977; KRAUSE & SEEIqaristic.l
19?9), The
2.3
n
rho<ls
sysm q@ ihplenorad n6tty
o
s.rcBl Ar!@
nelwe h gffil prFs d
srEial aurhq
h,gü.s*
ICAL Relcliye Envirorn.nt$ Problem-ßolvirg Moriroß ald tlt€Ilterr Tüto.itra
ICAI con6
(BRowN, r9??)
ir vri@s styl6 dd
ü Ecrive nicmrütds,
toms, Tne nain caEgori* of rCAr systons se (t) @activ. dviMnenß
(2) pbbtem-slvids monildx (SLEEMAN, t9?j)
leining sysr€ms (CARBONELL, 19?O. Tney ditrd
Fimipl6, rcüods ot hosledre Eprenhrion,
*ü e{..1lo
surdenr modelling,
g@ls, rh@@tic.l
ed
b€s,
(3)
inr.lligot $dins od
insructjon t prmesg
$birr mlq @, .vd@im
{tcsigtu
ed lan mr
,d
ldt
341
hdd/soriwm reqüiEn nß. Howevd, lney have
inporLnt 6ing fo
The nost
b
his @mp€ten@ level. This is
Tlis mms rhd
rhe
!
o
a
conmn demmiMlor, whicn is lheir ab ny b €pr€snl bDwledge of
ICAI stsan is io show adapbbiliry wirh
ICAI sysr.ß krom
sh,r *hnm $d hN
ßss
Tte expen nodnle reprssß üd
1o
of lhe
Esch (SELR 1974: DEDE, r98O. Th@ is
dclivd rte donlin howlcdge.
The
l@er dd
bd pnrdüal loowle4e
Ttem*cl6-cursc.risrhEelold:
liFraüle@ h@ !oinpl@orrhis kind ofheblrowledae.
a srudenr modde.
Bpet b idi6yrc6is
funcrion or met.knowledgc con@ming d@lDrive, diasrßric
a
expqt,
r4l
a
body
of
Eshsod
@chq modulc di.gnoss
tu.
sbB of the stude , ma*e ini@cs coemins lhc Dlqs of lte pmbld slvd, elplans @ß, gives
helps ed popos re* tlsts. The snid{t modde epee$ the acuDl howhnge s@ dd his mis€rc€ptions. TID d.dnles
qn be elahülEd, $ fiat tEy @ Bdeh or 4tenl leach6 ed sdlenß, Apatively. I! is hop€d d.t sücn nodels show a
lmwledse
g@ler ability
da
erplain theirop.Erios
to
simple nodules do.
difticdr ü ev inpdsibletoobtainteauelhehlnowle4eb6smoä€n
p$olaB.
a
rhe.ry
@r 6 cl@ly s!6nßd
Intenige.t uloing sysrens *ill only beoD. Dopulü it üey outperfom old dd @ll esublished educarional
te.hrology. Then Frf()ll@@ musr nor be irfdior b bml$ or chismn insEücnon dd should equal that of indlvidud
lsns giEn by a h@d ruror. Both @teria requi@ powernn wor*sdions wirh bimappcd hish ßolüdon er@tic displays
Th.ir ideniifiorioD ir
cllm. syshs
is
(StlITIl.IRBY. kMBA1,L. \'ERPLANK & HARSLEM.
VILIAMS, C.. 1933; WILLIAMS,
1982;
O., 1984),
diEl
manipdodm feilili€s (HUTCISNS, HOLLAN & NORMAN, 1936i SHNEIDERMAN, 1983), sophisliq&d $ftw@ lools
ed elaboered psy.holoeical gunklines (ANDERSO\ BOYLE, FARRELL & REISER,
of rhe knowLdge
equiirion
ed
of cNsewe
pßs.
rule-basd
Thc
eä*@ bls
hav€ to suppofi
obj*t di..Naied
prq@ming for emr disenGis, sürdor oodelling
@@ing
198?)
pogming
lne
opiiniaiid
for rhe dev€lopn4r
(KAVAI, MzocUCHl
and help!
KAKUSHO & TOYODA" 1987).
R@live
vircmcnlr ord prcblcm Doniloiing
sppodirg pmblen $lving
dvimmol
(e.9.
sys0Ens (PSMs) do @r insroct
! sEuctft editor),
s
lh.t
th€
apliciü-
vdking ncmory
They
d.liE a ti.ndly
d
$ls
is
load of .h. prcbLm
al a ninihM dd cdlAin clas orel@ (qg. syrEdc d6 in witins conpubpmsEms) @nol(w.In lNctim
appdoüyi. üef@ ofhelpsatodagnoes ofu e@. ürhediaAmsisisbaqlo plan diog.osiswew tdtoi.PSM.
iapt
PROUST (.'OHNSON, t986i JOHNSON & SOLOWÄY, 1985, 1987)
ed aBSYNT *hich
is
p@ndy undq constsuclid
(COLONIUS. FRANK IANKE. KOHNERT, MÖBUS. SCHRÖDER. TEOLE, 1937; JANKE
KOHNERT & JAN(E, 1988; MÖBUS, 1985, 198?) belo.g
2,3.1 SoDe
TheF is
Classic
a
ICAI
1o
rht
grcup or ICAI
&
KOHNERT, 1988;
@vimnnHß.
SFtems
c@ of hborarory sy!@ß which
e
Egrded a clasiG by vanous ddDd (BARR & FEIGENBAUM,
198? P RK, PEREZ & SEIDEL, 193?: SHAPIRO, 198?; SLEEMAN & BRO$'I',I, 198? WENGER, 198?; YAZDANI,
198O:
(l) rh!
Problem SolvinS Monirü aCE (=
nucl6 naSn.ric
sore
sleF4
Bu1
AnalyE
h@ impdl.nt
of Compld
tu thar it
Expldaddo,
üaryz6
@lrar lanS!.gp dialoss (SLEEMAN, l9?5i SLEEMAN & SENDLEY.
"ßehirg ber" s
b.€e
ofdE sMlrr
the
The sylten
dpladioß dd
1982). SLEEMAN
involvd tobehalfofdesi]denred@uoEny
aqpts inErpEbtiom of
juslifi@uoß of sidcnts
h
& HENDLEY dcle lhallhir
much
mN
'tl@bl6
ln4
simple
u2
(2) the BASIC lnsrwriond
systlm .he $@üring of rhe
lne
Eogsn Brp (BARR, BEÄRD & ATKTNSON, l9?5, t9?6), which üFd s .
lmicllun
in
fißr st6l€ms ,hich us.d dD norion of
d inimado
a
nelwork (cD0 &co.dins
mi$€d
stüde.t hodct, which
(3) de diagnslic nodeüine ehonc BUGCY
fd rie
iw
etlm which
suldotldis.
rhc tJtowledge
@pinel €mr
s
a skiX
di!g@i. t]lnr
sd
t
in thc dorain
. {bbbais (qnNCEy,
oa hacEriar
inferions,
p4o$
dd
@ty
Eprenrina üe @stery of
noß (
,
bugs") in the li€rd of pla@,
b&€d on a lrill-substiü la[icc. whi.h
latti@,
CUTDON {CL-ANCEy, 1982, 1983, 1987) shich us.d r,Dwledge of dE
NEOMYCIN !s
w6
19366). Thc goal
to rkvetop e<t
qpd syshs
inpove disamsdc
dev.loDDdt of ltc t]lor showed the inadequcy ot &e
T1E
lhe ne€d
tü Esrtuctuing
and d@mpilin& the kD*ledSe baris
üsd for insrucrion l purFß6,
tlbr INIEGRAIE
lhe
s6
very
wd o@of
denosrlE .he Do@dom,6s or Dd)'
ewnlsible b N dE@@@ of e|:m o d6j@
m
haveb€.o Egdrdcd
€mDiled laowledee ol MYCIN for l.&hing
*n@le4r aho
(ws).
sylien
ft
st b of mdicdl stdor
&p@'ted
Tt
rr
c@fut ootysis @utd
4 6dom mß.
MYCIN, EMYCIN
{t
a
stucruE of üe la3t doßsirl shich w6 fdnalüed
(4) de medicd
when n 3hould
ü't
sbrisdca, h sho,en
of a sa of eo@s
diasrosß md dalysis of
r€lüe subtution (EROWN & B(jRTON, 1978; BURTON, 1982),
wa dsived
b r.qni.ed sk s ed bs*s.
ro ch@e
by Fob€bilny
d
for syhbolic integhrion (KTMBAIL, 1982).
eppMch
ü
a hedistic
naFice, shich deeibe
fü
a given
the pr€femcc or
fi.
.ü!or connuni@t d judsnoral
in&gririor pbblm. Erpen dd stldür modets
etution appr@h6
(olmß)
jn
e
Foblen elvins sdbs
lte MEic.s coDai. .@piled bbwlcda€ in . ydy condon$n
f{m. Er@pte poblms m ch(M in such o *ay
berwq crpen ed st]d.rnt Dodel e nininiz€d. Th. tud is abte !o t@ fron üc sbdcnt, if rl&
strdols mluti@ i. supqior 10 ils own pro!6d. Stnd.nr sd qte ßodels @ cheged by upd.tins dE enries or lhe
üdtxlyil8 p@bability narics @6dirg !o bayesi{ n.rhodolog. rliu dE tulor is able !o inpro@ itr cmpedco
So
thar.hc disoepdcies
(6) lh. MACSYMT{ Advisr (GENISERETH, 1932)
M.
t
onc@lulizcd 6
d
interigor help sysh ror MACSYMA
srrtolic narkmati6 develop€d al MIT, B@@ uss fiad sm dimcotis snh
ed slilor ! tiadty hett sysLm w.d ro be a E6d ida, tn Ealiry rhe A(tliw tuained
o dpoimohl sysi.n. Ndenhrle$ s@ i rftsürg @cepts vF indodued which @ sdl Etev r.
MACSYMA b s le3e D&rlge for
MACSYMAT crrTric hessgg
So
r plrn
gadio.
MUSER, dEr shodd minic rhe pbbtcn
stvirg
b€havior of
! MACSYMA
qset
wd mtMcGd
Pld uqni.i@ wa uqtd s üe inv@ of pld gdmrio( Il w6 leal€d s s pmirg prcbtem. Stud€nts lcrios coßtilu€
th. t dirll v@bülary dd th. plonirS helhodr lh. Fwi@ nns of üe pldring Smmd. Th€ thn l@SririoD D@d@
of üe
Advild is sdting in
ddtm
a hybrid
rop-&Mi toltom-up merhodotogyr fion oven
cdm
o@spondi.g
goalssübg@lerF.brion! @@mpule4 Th. F{Ehs!6@ isconrolledby pmpasario
g@ts
or&tafld
e
infmed
dexpebrion
fiar anificial in&llis.ne baed tutd SCHOLAR_ h w6 designed by CARBONELL (19?O) !o nd* €xplicidy
h p@dign froü nzre-basn CAI !o a tiorledge-bs.d ICAI appl@h, fte l€€ching donain ws ch@r to be
(?) rh€
a
ch.nge
Elhd sitrFrer Soüh AneriM sasophy. Tn new melhodolosicd @tuepß *@ a) a mücd-iniiiarive jrsnuctiond dialog
d
lhe b@is of
r
@
gbmmd, b) lhe Ep@enr.lid of dsDain trowledg! by de
of onveßarional topics to aüow lhe s*itching of tie
ir@ple& hbwlcd8E m rh. $to. dd lh. L*nq
(8) 6€
@dve l@iry dvnonmdt
fes
ol
rhe diaroe
od
sddc
.eNük fmatisn, c) e
ascnd6
d) defadt inf.Ence !ü!regr$ !o cope wnn
side-
SOPHTE (sophi$i@Ed
[oublesh@tine. Tlte d.velopDenr Friod Bnged
tln
1973 ro
Insr@noßl Envill)mdD ws dldi@tE{t
to
eltunics
199, Th@ sysEns were conccptu.liz.d ed pddy
iDplm@te4 SoPHIE-r (BROWN & BURTON. r9?5), SOPHTE-II {BROWN & BTjRTON. t98O and SOpHTE-nr
(BROWN, BIIRTON &
&
Kr_EE& 1982),
343
Th. main eorl w4 b po! id.
a
t@ing ovtromdt I hi( h outd in rhe co@ ot üc p6ld, be e\Ended 6
'4uve
lenn iü onrire epotr aü üis vs an uI€aliltic gool s .he Brnß of d,e pmjer cl6ly shoeed. Bo&
üe pEgMic ned fü gsd cohputing tlslrcs and the fi@ricjt @*iry otEpr*ming thc qualihrive dd,or o y
ihe qutitariE @ning puess6 of the sddenls forced BROWN, B(jRTON and de KLEER lo ch g. rhen
etuh
d
expqr syseo
Fiüüer
d SOPHIE ro a
SOPHIEI @nsisted
ro
tu
prEmne s!rp,
oln
auromatic
bbmrory insEüctü
nßü€men$, A sinple co
h,
*hicl va nrde of F@edüd
surddt lt chsted de Edm&ncy ofrhepmpo&d
hr?ollM.
er of
Th€
c@i
nffinenl.
ev.n
SOPHIE tr
ü
a
implenor.<l
üee&d
p€rfomed
d a smric e@M
e
n6llm
qustions md
f&. To pmvid.
s ofrhe.iruit,
htlorElist
ü dy
quBüons
e
aüem$ k) inpmvc 6e
a
aiions
rhe oprim6liry
od wotud
@
sd
our all
dd
consisloncy ot.he
rhe
sl!d{ls,
hrTorh6* compatibte wirh
rhe
raeuse inr.rfee bscd
ATN.
capabilitics or sopHrE r. So o tsoubleshooting dxpen
a rr@ noftle w ad.ted. The exp.n ddonsrltEd
r@i.g m {ione ir a qualiltive modE which @u be
md
faut DoDos€d by dE surtenl Exlen
bc[d dplaine<l dld €rb€rized üus givirs auelly o@ingtut infmadon,
obe
n losibte
!o find the fluh by .aring
intemction mode with SO?H]E a M.jrat
lDd exddanon
Moure<l dd paEmeßrized de.ision
wd
diticiad üe doublesh@ting b€havio, of
sp.cirlisß,
(BURTON & BRO\4 t, t9?9) vas inptflenred
dia8 6ric fiareSis Sivo
with
bh.rardy w6kboch, This nDdc
and a sindared
eip.riment3 !o undcß.rnd tüe workiDgs of lhe faulrd cncDit. The srud.nr
Tno
$rdoß pe,sar evdinqt rioß aldDr.
of qper behavid. In ase of unccriajn *nowt dc. rhey corsul lhe
ef@
which
Lldalory or SOPI{E-I- Tbuble-sh@ling ps lak @pped into a smin8 eneircnndt b slinüraE
m
rhe
lhe sinDlarcd
qbalznon or
SOPHIEIII should combi.e tte supDon rd sludot ininarive ed lhd powcrin inf@n@ sr.ateg 6Dn SOpHtEl
wiln üe qu.liry of the dpla.adon capabiiry fi!6 SOPHIEII . so rhe inr@nce machin ss edcsigned lccordi,s ro
mpi.icar obsvalim or ln. cognitive sregics used by €xpd üd srud@ts, tlrc mhi@!@ @isted of r1lr mjd
exp.t modules: lhc .l4aoi. expd( lh. huble-sh@&r od .he c@h, vhici s6 orty dimenr2rity imptercnEd. The
el4ftnic erFlt utlized S.neel eletronic knosledge Dd some cißun-rp4ific tr@tedge. Infomadon novs upwü{Lg
tbrough thc layear l) pmpasario of consrzinß (of rhe tu: lF A = x, THEN B y) to ltsn üpon üe q@dErivc
=
ll@uM€nc ed the cftuit lopolog,l, Tn*o inf*n€s @ nodjfid inb qDalibdve 6senions snich m 2) used by a
prcrluction slsteD dra*ing infse@s .bo!r
sp*fic tnosledgc.
donlina
ro
The
d.
hodülc b€bavioi Tlis is 3) 6nlhd üalrzcd on dE be*srcDnd or ci4uit,
tMblash@rir& expen Bortr
üe deduclids o{
rhc
d
iop or this rh@-lay@d sysEm. Il
popos
el€[onns expqr
(9) lhe Stucttr€d
Pldiing
I98r.
els o
And Debügsin8
Mprion
Envidnenr (SPADE) fü elendllry LDCO DrcsmniDr (MILLER.
etvirg Fcs ü {ie$ribabre d a hjeschielly ors&iz.d
daisio p@as MLLER & COLDSTEIN, 196; I977rD. Only lhe teols of rhis E@ (sisr of the applidlion of nsifgr
obwable Forlon $lvil8 opdlroß, So rh. dereloprnor of conpder rmsMs is b a grat ded a pldnins üd de.isio
1979,
Trle syston
.he
ll)lr
the pmbten
poblen which codd in Finciple be dsdih€d by a pl@ing gmde. Only ir lne erd ir is a coding prcbtem. Ar inEüigsr
help tystsn shond thu giv€ süppon for ch@si.e optiml plonins sep!.
SPADE-I]
appbacn. I13
problcm
s6 cmüwl.d s a 'linit.d didatic' syst€n which wsu$d s d dploEtirc rsrb€d fü .hiJ rsmdical
s a dd{nonted Fostrning edilor, The €dibr is drivo by a conbt-ee
purp@ could b6t h. ddüibed
slvirg g@@ *hoF nonhninrb
slard for goals
d
plannina deidons
dd *hose lldinat @brtary
@Dsisß
ofraGO code, Th!progm dev.loped in a libdal rop-dNn oüed-iniriatvedialog: pot@ts oaüe srsLh ec di$Ds.d
wih dF sudd! who ls lh. Ii4don ro dere. d.a'siG dd 10 nov. lsty beN@n th. .od€s of the rM in fie probtm
344
O0) .he njlor
wHy
(STEVENS & COLLTNS, t977, tggo ; StE\.ENs, COLLTNS & cOLDrN, t9?9,
t982) whict
ried to h.Ip lhe studen. develop
studenr shourd b€ eMbled ro
@ndinons
wa ch@D b dudy
rrtical nisoneptions (e.srhe
p@ses,
thysical
inb@lim
c) to
o
cauet ßodel of
dsw
@nplq physiel
dd
pm6r
deteonlogicat @ndiri@
molre pre<ticlions. Tne
fd Einfr[
bowtedg. do@h of
The
*aüer
obriät dialoss beM6 humM te&heß dd sludenls, b) b crdsify, .xprain ed clret
cocding fads, eralionships snd tulsr ovqsdedliation, oqdifi€s.irtio, eE.) abou
I@t fn ! co.nol ßSime that i sheduling tüiüial djatoes wirh ihe ain of achieving a wcti(
o)
bugs
s.yle, This s1ylc is ch@cErized by
dereloDme of
a
qteslions, give extlanarions
htlolh*s,
. nix.d-inidarivc
disovery of @nradictic
rhe
dd
irMctio
rbe
srimdadng on rhe
dnwing of
i.femes
t@d
sids üE
&bonmos
by irsueing 6on lhe turor side
succsive qü6tions, ounteexamDla. gomlizr.io.s and e€ialiadons. To supFn the
Soar of colroling a sEric
dj.los üe ,uthm coleEd a lese s or heuistics (COLLL\S, WARNOCK ATELTO & MTLLER, tgsj CoIIrNS,
19?6,
1985; COLLINS
&
S
IEVENS, t982i t983).
2.3.2 Acrü.I Probten3
ir
2.3,2.1 Studert Modettitrg
A3
m
te&h. Th@
[CAI: St.d€nt Mod.ts, pba Dirglsrics ,nd CoAntriv. Desi3r priniples
ard plD R.cqnirioa
n{tioned @tid, tlte'in@nigen@" of d
is
IC,AI syslm deFo.ts d lhe mcratdowtedge whar wfi.m how to
m@g Esemhd ad prericids (CLANCEY, 1986b) rhar to lhis .nd *. ned
seneEl a8@menr
infomdim abo lhe knowtedgc slare or
the iudenr
ed hiefid j,r.ntim.
Thtrs, stode.t
nodelli.g and
imrel. t.s@h eoals.
Unfo-tußtEly lhe edd studd
,tn qo8nirim
b€ome
(1)
idsl
ß.ldenr.
nodet is Ds€d *nn $B d;r&dl msnings: s a nodel of üe
Tlis is ! D@adve co@pt pEsibins lhe b,owLdse ro be lcquir.d üp to
Deviadds don (his ide.l pdh
@
be
m6md dd
EnEdiat &riotu
e
b
be dqive<i, This
a
spcined dne poi,r.
,pp@.h @lt.d
,,modet
neirg'is
chND by ANDERSON (198?).
Mial sbdsL fie studdl ir cor@ptüalized d a @Ielio ot fac6, dtes, nrrr&ts .nd narnn6. Ttc taM @
snelinq called bugs". This kind of nod.lring w6 hrinly ertloftd iD üe doDain ot sinple dilhmeric (BROWN &
(2)
BURTON, 1978; BLNDY, 1983; BLTRTO\ r982i YOTJNG & O,SHEA, 198r) abebEic akins
6LEEMAN. 1982, 1983,
1984, r985i SLEEMAN & SMTTH, 1981) and nade@rjcal gades (GOLDSTEIN, 1980. 1982) wi.h pobabi[snc
Th. {iomiß hrd
1o
be sinpl€
bd3ue
rhe
coledion of
bn8
calatogB ws
a
rime nsuminSenrerprisdM$tom
by BROWN & BURTON 0978) e<t BURmN (1982), So sbdent-nodeli.s wß c@fined
stils
bot not
(3)
b domj,s whft pc.durar
pmblm $lving ahiliris wep BDonsibtc for src(6.
themcEr.studdt TtFidqb.hind rhisnoder islh.1stu{k modeuingshourdbeddc*ithlheherpofinddivc
I@ins Drues concoins n!6 ed
concepß,
Ilr@
is a
vst
body of pübtishcd
q@h
on ihis lopic trcm .hc view
of
experinan l !ßtcholosy @OURNE, 1966, 1974: BOURNE, EKSIRAND & DOMTNOWSKT, t9?t: EGAN & CREENO.
l9?4; COEDE & KLIX, r972r HAYGOOD & aOURNE, r96j; I{LNT, MARTTNE & STONB, 1966: MEDIN & SrvrrTH.
& MICHALSKL I98?; STMON & LEA, 1974). Tte se is rxe fd n.theoancat
wYsOTzKI, r98t) od dlirai.t inrllisae. H@ etuh sq ud6 rhe h*ding of inductiw
1984; MEDIN. WATTENMAKER
systehs t]'eory (UNGER &
bEhiNE lemina @IETIERICH, LONDON. CLARKSON, DROMEY, 1982i BUNDY, SILVER & PLUMMER, I935i
MICII,{LSKI, 1987; vmLEHN & BALL, t987; CARBONELL & LANCLEY, 1987).
The applicanon of
@
üere
b6ic
only a rcw papen
6 b or @s@l' on htrl@ od mochine l@ing to sudcm modelling hs jßr beeln. So
o rhe irdüctive msElcdon of l.me. mod€ts (CTLMORE & SELF. 1938: KAwAr.
MIZOGUCHI KAKUSIiIO & TOYODA. 1987; SELq 1986), R6utß
base<t on
inplcmenhdons of
hale bed FporEd by KÄVAI €t al. 0987). LANoLEY, oHr.ssoN & sacE (1984)
dd
lming
atg.iithns
SLEEMAN (1986).
Wort on onpntlto.al nodcls of plan €osnilion srarted b bc widely tnown wiö rhe dticle of SCSMIDT,
SRIDIIARAII & GOODSON O9?8). In @nß b crrssicrt wort on sudc.r nodeltins, dE lts@h on pl,, €ognirion
@
f*used on pmblem elving. H@. *e @ ssumins comptd
guidins lhe pobleD solvins
go€1
hi.@hies.
p@ss (MILLER, 1981 MILLER & GoLDSTEIN,
T[*
mutd bc used explicidy
1976, 19??a.b),
4
Ttce aürh6
a helD
shoped
sogrition and poblon sotvins 6üld be dq{rih€d by using the frMwdk of pdsing_ TIE poblem $tving
emmm fd ph..ing purpos is usd in a aemtive way. TIE sod t t offwd a go€l ts@, tn diatogicat sirüdons de
lhat plan
chms elulion
student
pa.hs. Thüs
lhe pssing t@ss is invcrEd b geneEte
prcposals
8d
pnoyide
Snidre in
rhe
Plo E .gnirion a a !üio.io of !6ing n6 a dhd sholt r6dinon. Thon8h in lin8üstics n is a stoddd opp@h l(r
ddrib€ ad expbin vqbar dd wirb b€nador by ruteb€s.d !@n6, dty atenpls !o e*cnd $e gmMdcd aplmach
ro .onveöal b€havio
Llwn.
dd probtm{olvi.e @oHL,
N€venhelss vdious shdics
sKvoRETz, 1934; sKvoRErz & FARARo, l98o) e lßs
dMibing iumn-compuü ht tudm by dstg@l6 hav.bmme 6lhe, poput r in
1973;
@e.r y6s (REiSNER, 1981, 1984; HOppE, TAIIBER & ZIEGLER, 1936i GREEN, SCHTELE & pA\l\E, 1935;
HOPPE. 198?!, b; PAYNE & GREEN, t936). Sioitd id6 w apptied b pmblem $lvi.g domains
@ESMARAIS,
LAROCHELLE & CIRO(JX, 198?i OILMORE & GREEN, l9B7; JOHNSON, t9B6; JOHNSON
& SOLOWAY.
1984:
& LEWS, r98?).
ROSS
At
pßo. nm6r üft @ oly a t w a!.mpls b h@Snre stüddt
the
b€reliß or
ü
inr.gdive app@ch
e
obvious
ClrYD,
modelling inro
pld BoSninon,
though
da
1980. rr $pporls tre developm@r of ad.priE com.rt_hsilive
tulu.ion of mbigüitier düing üe di.!n6dc pß. Thi. irctudcs td elmpte rie dility ro dplain o tu
er@r a&mdive Soal&do squ.l@- The et rlion ot se Dalh should te ba*n o lhe diagndnc infom!@
h.lps 6nd the
by
@
of
Sather€d
s f.r
in lhe
ttd
r
mod.l.
2.3.2,2 Cognitiae Destgn Pritrcipt€s
Up io
@
bc conplered by
prsaed sme design oüids{io.! @i.ty from d djficirl inreüigd@ !DiD. of vjew. mis h6 l!
dgunüa ftom @!nin@ sire ü osnitirc psychology. B@ue rhc@ is m singt. rhedy abour hlj@
we
infomdor FeBsing w
sricro@lcs b cMpuaüon
t.ognitive
lhdi*.
The
n6t g@.nl oa.hn
is ANDER_SONS
Acri - rhoy (A\DERso\ 198t.
On the bdie or the
(198,
have
poFe
a6räd$lid
The
ACF (A{t pdve Cdrot
eienr d6ign
prircipl* which
e
of
llousho - ü@y
relevdt
ANDERSON, BOYLE, FARRELL & RETSER
60. lhe consEücrioD of
interie@l tulorins sysEms. so@ of rtcß
cmpiricd b6is,
dd.dying ACF-t@ry (ANDERSON,
l) Hudd cog.ilion ce
dqe.ipim lqel
by
be hylothßizcd
b
1933)
work
@ b. sutdued udq a rd min prircipt6r
ß p6!.@crior &quen6 which cd b. hodetted
sol-rtee@d tula (lrodmdd sysßN).
d
a symbolic
346
cond!
2) The producüons ope€re on rhe
3)
P@eddrl leding bkes
ple
as
of a workins
pmductid s@ngrh ing ud knowLdge compilslior
CT.IEVES
& aNDERSON,
ANDERSO\ 1986).
1981r
The laEr prcess can be subdivided inlo
ißhrirtion
mdory wirh liniEd qpeity-
,eeduarizano. dd conp$ition. PrmenüdiztioD is son€ kind of
pemeers in production-rules dius poducing sp{iarized ru16. composiion involv* üE building of mam-
of
opüads oü of
nunbq of süccBstul single opqato4.
a
'Iie derihd prirciple
N:
rÄ!DEl!D!l!ll!&!&5i-E!dlrc!!!!-S9!
Some
nodels.
s
da@e.ß in favü of
inowledge lhar
e
@
be
2.Connnnieb
Aeoding
abo[
e:
r) The
idsl dd dE cll@t
connunisEd ssily. 3) Srudert niscon@plions
m4r
p€mrbaron of
of Ciab
DroductioD systems
slud@t should be nodell.d by
lhÄ at sch insbce in rim. $e dcviotion from lhe dqsiEd state ß med@blq 2) &ch DrodünoD is
to
and bügs
ce
a
Fo.$
pack xe of
dgeüed a !@d!cu@ olos which
be
lß.
rhe Gnal
Sturu€ ünddlrins
rhe ?ioblem- Solving
ACr* dd olhq @snitive rhdi.s succssful pmölen-solvins b€fiavior s orgaized 4 ANDpR d6
rhe obse €tion thal Fadilioul t Itb@k do rcr provi{ic sDfijcienr inlomarion
dd sbg@ls. ANDERSON sü6ss
rhe goal
8tue
ed
uE
snch
tdses n66$ry
io 6olve rhc problem.
3.-E$4d!-!s6$!ad ls.B!!E
ACla htTorhesiä lhat poducbon compil2tion onl, rrkes plee duirg pmblen $lving. Tney cdnor b€ l@ed in
L\c
ab$cr
Thus, iütsüclions de Dore
sinilarli.e orarg@endion
rs p
eff4rive for üe l@ing
the srud.nt is
loeard by @LEHN (198?), InsEülios dd helF
prcvided at the tjne of inpase in rhe problm solving
hu@ storge n*h@bn
p@s. wh6
of pacrjrs md
pm.sg
MGviry infmatio
in
Anorher
l€ls
for lh€
e
amitg
the prlducdons. A
mos.il@iive, wh.n üey
impotue
e
of rhe 6nexr ir th.
@isdes (IULVING. 1983).
@
Thc geneol
of
gdelsliry
fndirg b rhd sfud4k crcode @ncEE loowl€dCp fe m@ esly
ihe ploducriom shodd t€ pa@€Grized t!
hlw
ab6t
!&4o4lrrd
wüking memory nds d€rad€ tie sp€€d ol l@ing dd
of novi6 @ be exDlrißd a wo*ing memo.y @4.
üe
abßtur *mwledgc. Bul in
lhe
w
&r Fircipls d had.
lMd!qjz!.1üo!!qc
This
dest! principle is i! acdddce
6eory (BROWN &
V4 LEHN,
1980r
!o
also fails,
dl. strd€rt
7 aditr(
rhe
ne€ds help
rhe
@oüt
or
l@niry. To
a hjgn
clßical lcminA rhedy (BILODEAU, l96q SKINNER,
Ve LEml,
Droblcm-$lvins sLills fail !o popel ihe $lurioD-
r6mct
lr
1983a,b, 193n. A@oding 10 Epoü
the applicarion of
li@ry
p@entagc
1953)
e inpas mm.
eI@
dd r@ti.
Phen rhc
scßal rlat d@ajn itdep€rdd. h.uisris (repoiß)
dd redb6ct.
GEi. sid of Inshcrio wirh I mmint
rh. stüddl nodel should dcfne dE s6in siz of the insEetl@. B{aNe ol$e coßDnotim
ß chflsins pmanendy. This d8lmcnt 4 ale $PpüLd by 6 dilTftnr poductlon bsed ledins
The poducrions in
rhls gra,in
'la6s,
üeüv vhah s
ez
ba&d on rh. chünkiDg concept (NEWELL
& ROSENBLooM,
1981; LAIRD, ROSENBLOOM
&
NEWELL. r98O.
Sudsi€ Ailmximarions b rh. t@.t Skill
e e4.n by slving one p@b,.m of rh. Es* donain 6 car.ful s.qu.rcc of hiting l*sns hß b be
designcd, s ü.r lhe plrdwdo et m be compiled, aucDohd dd bned in . M@lh way, TlE cosE@lion of a Fodelioba*d raining e4@* @ {renmhEd by vo,LEHN (198?a).
R Frcilihre
Ai noüody 3eß
u1
Th@ is 8en@l
y!ÄL-Iboo-b$Lb
ogrn
nr ihar n is
Der.tmwledg. rh*
t]lor ,inrcligef . Tn! 6eL*!dledg. shodut 6
nal* d
Each. To inclüdc rhis kbwledge we need e4Ert ard
echs
tewt€dge od howredse about
the
n lll
sdD or the
stude
Thougl' dD
dstxcriü of a ruror ha $nc dsinMing phes, d6igr dcisioß have ß be isuicted by msnirive prjnciples
shn! enpincal evidenc.. So rhe deEtopmenl ot an ICAI systen hs b be rhe €srlt of d
TlE diosno!ß or lhc studdt h.s h€o
doDe
$rcugh modettins pmedurar
sk
s and s@l
hi@hies.
which have a rarhcr
3.
IC^I i! th. Domrlr ol ConDüter P.oA.rmbt.g
In @e.1
y6
mey rcw ICAI
eoq
3ystens app€scd on the
The etevanl
m.rice lite6t@
is conpited in
KEARSLEY 098?), LAVLER & YAZDANI (198?) snd WENGER O98n. Euopqn aDrhors dscrjbe theü work in
MANTDL &
nSCliER (1985) od SELF (1988).
h dE following e win f@ü ou an€n.ion oD lhe donai. of compud Dbgmming which is a well*Lblbhed
Ee4h @ in ICAI W. only dieu$ sysros which hrw a süo8 Eleva$ for oü own poj€r ABSYNT.
3.1
Probleb Solling Morito.: FroD PHENARETTE ro The PROgrlb Unde.sra.der tor
W. wil me Evi@ $n€
ih*
syst ms is
10
give
n@
ydi shich nsu ld üe tü.
spc{inc. dehiled
ed 'inElliAot
orneb sys@ns or pr.blen elvinE ftoni!06. The ajm of
f@dbo4r @
pogdms,s ems dls e odinary @6pitd ot
interpEu ourd do (BACKHOUSE, t979, Ch.5,6: EFE, 198?).
ln.e syslrhs is WERTZ PIIENÄXITIE (''ERTZ, t932, 1985, 198?) wbiclt h$ bem. qüi@ wellknoM
wd oieinally ioplmerted in F@cq lte prog:u d.6uSs LISP co<te with lh€ help of synd d smoiic
One of
dough n
's?e.ial16ß , *hich
e
re!ßen&d by heuistic tules, Though rh6e h.üisrtu .o.rain
arempt is tude lo include k@wl€dge abod drc pnbLms
q üe
inr€nrions
rasd DnsolmirE
of tlte plosnmDd- Itis
t
kndledxc, no
üo
@n
why
WERIZ (1982) calk PHENÄRETTE 6 sFloq?ed debuggi.S aid wbich could in principte be. backerd of.very LISP
i4tdpEter d cmpilei Ttß detti ot üdr 6diDS progms w @ficd in aarcr of süeral aDplicrbiriry of üe sysrrm.
Tnc
neil slep in the di@tion oi d@pq unddsddiDg of preg@s
(.'OHNSON, r98C IOHNSON & SOL,OWAY, 1985, r98?), Il wd d6iend
bugs in PASCAI
feedback,
F
rhar srüLnß
nisoepdoN.
PROUST
pogms, whicl
fn&
e us.Iy wir@n in d
This is in coßplere
agtffior
10 help
hade by rhe devcloDne.r of PROUST
novie
s
relario.sltips, drlw conclusions
sirh ANDERSON! desier principlcs
sddtic
pmsMDd fird ed unddsldd
impqalive sryle. PROUST do.s no.
ee €ncougsl lo lomnrde ided.
@ly nds'nllcdc buas. Thdc
s6
bugs
@ paidy
due 10
@ach
dnddt,
bul giv.s
dd
dismve.
ü.ir oM
3 and 6. tn contur ro PIIENARITIE
yortiDg n€mory em$ dd psnty duc b
348
t @EeEd d den sugAesß sht rhe bug @se in the pogüh dd üe
To cope wirh vaios ryp.s of m6 PROUST @nEins rh@ Lrowledge bäs: a desittion of lhe pDhlm
pldning emß. h {icEmircs how ln. bug could
cmld!
Foblem
dd
its
EquiM.nls,
intenlions of the
seneral
pmstrnd
Fog@ming btowledgc (lrosEmmins s.henes @ sr@ryled plo9 ed sitü.tion,s?e.ilic
(eoals). PROUST pm6 tle synBrielly mr bluepri.ß or the student !.d eoml.s fiüt
lhe EqüiEncnt Goal) srtucü@ of th€ poblem {tesiption a proposal
PASCAL code Tne pe<tict
<l
hdl.hql agairsl th.
code ts
lorl
code
rü
shich
ple
a
@
sEucture ehich
orieinated by the
cd
be
Fesfomed to
srdenr Discrpanci*
e
nt6- Nnurt lr4Mge .xpl@tioß dd @hhqdaliors @ Düt aNard rld .he diagnßß phr$,
In @nnisl ro I,üENAR!T-[E PROUST puß g@t cmthsis on plans and intentioDs ol ü. prcgmms. Thc
explaind
*ilti
diagnosis of
büg
hott lalent @uercß
seN b
nonsel4l.d PASCAL proams. Bur
s.qum6 ed
teaching
sn only
b.sue
l@ing
sElctM,
hi5!oO, of üe
epieds
OTaEBER,
J.2
An ITS Stsrer: ANDERSON'8 LISP Tütor
The
then iomalizarion in a bäckgrclDd
od
hypolhese
abo[
e.vionhenl. This
is
stldor
model. Such a
rhe stude.ß lnevious problen
$lvi.g
1988).
developtu of PHENARET'IE dd ?ROUST hs lhowD how much worr h6
hiSh qnalitt debugghg
eovery sßs o.
@ l&king individürlizd erplruriors lm el@, *hich
So they
pd$n od
mod.l conld cotle! oile a spe.ial sholt letu nmory) d.E
wAIpSzE K & WENDER,
high mor
@ rct te6.hirg explicidy drcy üe nd very nü.h cob€med *iln
borh systens
lhe bundiry of knowledge
be derived rrom the
teeüe $e authos Epon
be very sophistiated
absolutly indisp.ßrble
lü
s
to be conducted in devetoping a
@hing a compleß mn-by pro8mning
tTS
language.Soonltafewgrcups@ln@nfdt!*ingsfi fldqvor
ln
Gmdy
lh@ is @ly o.€ ITS lor
& wq\'DER, 1986: KoITNE & WEBER,
\VENDER, in pe),
pbglmming lsgu.8e (LISP) in
a compleb
198',7i
{EBER, WALOSAK & WENDER,
plqqs
1983:
OVALOSäK, WEBER
WAIOSäK
WEBER
In 6e Unir.<l Kingdom the fovoüiE ldurase
Qlire weuknow. üd e@ obEinabl.
as a
(ANDERSON, 198?; ANDERSON. BOYLE,
ANDERSON & SKWARECrI,
Melon Univdny since
1984,
1986), The
i3 PROrcC ßoss, 1987; RAJAN, r98?),
€omndial sydm (BoYLE, 1986) ß aNDERsoNs LISP
&
tAlRElI &
REISER, 198?i ANDERSON
tüd r.shs ! lul sm$u
o@
&
türor
REISER, i985;
in LlsP md is fie'd resied ar rhc
C@ed+
Ib dtm.icd foündatios w@ ANDERSON3 @gnitiE t@ry ACT. (ANDERSON, 1983a
sv.td .mpiric.l
pmgtrDing
qisls
(ÄNDERSON, 1983b: ANDERSON, FARRELL & SAUERS, 1984 1984). 11lou8h lheE
nuch publht.d work
ANDERSON, BOYLE, IARRELL & REISER, 1987) otrd
deeribing üe tüo., üe consEuction of thc sysoe'n is nor
to
6 lds?rEnl6
@onslrud the @hiLct@ of rte tu1ü, Insk d of dEl
h€tw*n lhe tuor dd the uss in cnofld 4. we thint
the
83lysü of
Tte
the
sofr*@
trl.r t€@hd
18
.ha1
w *il
the desisn ot PROUST.
analyze
lhis is moE
pßychological srudi* of LISP
ThEfoe
f,e (lo not
wt
lh. now of dialos omnünicadns trowlcüe
irpoier.
nom
!
cosniriv. scien@
pe$lar
e than
liyN.
l6Ms
Ensin8
nün Baic
LISP
io A&&ced Topiq lmplcmadng Pod@tld SysbnJ
rucliond 0.ssn
(e3s
D
ovq InEsq Bd€d ReNion' (e$on
,
l8). Corcdring insEücü@s ÄNDERSON (1985. p.161)
a small insiruciional bookl€l and many problems praclicing lho skills laughl
in ihat l€sson. our goal in deslqning ih€s6 booklets was to k€ep ii€ wriii€n inslruction io a minimum.
Th€r€ is conslderablg svldencs lhal wrlll€n tochnlcal lnslllrclion ls most ottscllvo when lt ls biet."
^Each iopic involv€s
349
This
t
itrstutioal
naterial which is ued
10
build up de knowLdSe sEucrE ha ben poblistEd
i, nodified
iln
ß
a
xthook (ANDERSON, CoRBETT & REISER, 1986).
4.
Ex.nptes For Inst.ücriou .nd Betps tn T.lchilg progrlDniDg
roRD (t987) dd pEAcHEy & MccAlLA 0986) rral dE .mphßb of tcAr I€s@h m sbdenr
nod.b ha inped€d üp
o o.hd n@ F&EbIe S@lj. Oü tu$ goab shdld b. .or@,Dd wnh nating teshing
ve acr6
wirh
l*
sFalesi* md racrics
qde of
h6ve ro
ihe
'tgch
A@dirs
ad h@.
LlchiDg sE Eeics invorre d*isioN which have
ro FORD
srudFt-mpüd im.@tio.Irch
detmiB
de.ision
b. derivEd ty edMrioal phitmphis" tite disov.ry
sn
(CLANCEY, 198?) shond rcr h.
In ANDERSONg LISP
indeFndol ot üe !üa&rrs of @ching which
lllor ti@ @ns
individual s.udenr dtough ANDERSON er
(ANDERSON, BOYLE,
ro bc
mde
ar
*h
nqromüi@tim ed l@ing sl€pl. Tte deisios
t @ing ü leming by insLü.üoo. Evd stodüt mode irg
dle
shouLc be
sn 6 a c@p1
wiü,r a
@td be crlted. ßodel of dE t@ing hisory ot tE
t€rns cll@t stud f, "ide€t slldenC, &d "nodll rainA"
!o be nolhin8 lhat
d. ule
tnc
FARIELL & RETSER, 1987). Il.le t $ concepl subsun.s the aou feduE! of his
p 443):
lldi,g
@rhodology (ANDERSON, r98?.
L
Th. tüor co.shnrly @oi1oß .he sDd@rs pobten solving dd pmvids di@rid wh.Dever lhe sbd.n
2-
The ürrü Eies ro povi{te help wirh both lhe
wa.d6 offporh.
1o
add$s lhe pl&ningi
srud@l to
3,
b.ina
4.
cmunic$.
TIE int rf&e
Thc
tis
a
solulion d rhe ptdoing. Howw,
indf&e (in lhis csc nenus) b anow üe
of the pDblem
the
üe dt,s of pbrnins.
etinidE aspc$
lo
ovd !ai.
nehoism h.d b b. inüqruc.<i jn
Iitre synlol ch€kine, which
@ i.relev&t b
the
pmblfr,$lving skin
mbed
irErf&e
is ltighly
@dve ir
rhor n
da!
mate
$he
epne
ro
*ry
synbot lhe sur&nl
mh
@plühcd by a 1000 tddücrion in6. 40% oa lh* dls nodet ffier sm@tion of Lrsp code
nodel) lnd 60% mod6l vdioN bugs. *üich v@ con€n'd by empincd obcdvrtioD ol smd6t
Tt fißr
This slral.sy is
(dl..xFn
ffi.
rcush copy or a studcnls
crct
podetim.
Eigge@d,
prcg@
is
r n lMs ü.t
Als, if a tudem shows
paNn by lhe prlduction ndc lyslen. A ruloriar
Ihe soldenr
e inpe,
ha hy?olh..icany ^u.!d
de syst h
ANDERSON d.sib€d $me tuiGiat iDptic.rim
eqk @ lte advic* (ANDERSON, 198?, p. 454):
s
a
is assiaten
wiü @h büssy
ü
cd
be
Fodrc.ion, üe appmpriaie tlr@al rulc
sulooaticalty
which esutred
ob
non
d.hine
his
Es$h,
dd rexr s€p md
The
oN
ü
approprir@
inporunt @s for oü
'ln addilion io baslng lnstrudion on a production,sysi€m anatysis änd €mphasjng communtcarion
of goal strucluras, ther€ are a number ot oth€r gsnErat recodmondations b hak€ about rhe d€sign ot
instuclional activiries- li nak6s senso to provtde the in$ruction in th€ 6nl6xi wh€rs tt shoutd be used
ro naximlzs lh€ probability lhat the stud€ni w t rgtrieve and try lo use the knowl€dg€. Atso, it mak€s
s€nss lo provid€ lhat knowledg€ in a lom üat can be mosl easity used by weak deihods, For insbncs.
w€ try lo lashion our insiruction
b
take ih€ torm ot rutes ior m€ans-€nds sotutions or ot examptes ,or
350
We
*ill
mw l@h
idoti@lly
puülished
üe e!üau@ ol dese $aien6ß. we q@re
a1
sried in rhtce ind.pendenr
ry?e
Dialoß
*irh
LISP
ANDERSON'S
o
üiainal dialoa with $e 1od, Tnis dialog is
(aNDERsoN & REISER, 1985; ANDERSoN &
ü.r $c pcsibility oi Disprinß
SKWARECKI, 1986: ANDERSO\ 1937) so
A
diclß
is Nled
@L
tllor
(.pp.dn C), 6 aNDERSoN pobß out, .he lindized teletrTe 6i@ of de @grrr
drdog, The @einal d,21oe ut6 pla.e s a een split irb rhE dialog wi(lows, wüich @ q@ed fd i.südions, code of
6e stldenr ed plil dirlqs. The outpu! of d€ trlor is giyd in nmal q?c Fhilc lhe sddcnts inpüt b prinEd in bold
Thc dialos repFsnls
Ber@ the
rsr lim .ppes
en
tlld
interrlio ts .l@dy
pL..,
Th€ dialog
s.rü
wirh m
intutioD,
how the
pde.ths @ left @t e thar dE dednäon b trMg
(l), dd s@4 dE insE@rion rlB a dernirior ehich mak6 thc s$&n1 indu@ d irEElvc aoluuotr
Ai.r tle sludol @ad lh€ i8nücri@ "Defe .hc fmdon lor ....'. h. lyTcd i.!o lhe @hine ' (dorua '. Tn tubr
<p.meb> <bodrt)'. Tn dE sluridl6!ed the tuD Nlot viih ''ic1
esponded wirh the tenpl.le '(derü @
paaneters
dd ü€
slor *nh '(r) &d s6tud b fin ir the <body> slor wilh '{Md (equoD". ar .his nmen. a n.w
felorial is r!
be
@pured. we wdr b airiciz No üinss. Fißt, all
tlet,ate is offded !o dE student The @r or dE MplaL "<dioD
surdor ha rorgoden !o lovide a.g@enß
lhr go.l is
'I'IIEN
w
!o
at
if
a
lü
vrle
dE 6rction EQUAL
eqürl.
is .4url
dd
s.r
,41
b
.har
Donot
)
<u6i@a9)
the buggy
@
be
@nn r 'l
assMe ltlat ,,,,
{hN ldt side mar.l6
lhe
se
*nn.g
a
m
6 ebe@b
!o
cldedE valEfld Zrc'
pqtlcaE." shich
eods dle buS8ü podütion
.h. so.l is io &st
ifest
is
iN
@ched
hroh4,
b
tod issH
dE buggy pod@tion. TheE ic
ouß
bn. whicn
a
dF Mtu6l
prodebon
!pn@rc.(tr@t code (ANDERSON.
?@
ue üe LISP f@d@ ZEROP,
W. thinl( $!t lhe su{te had lne
in eisode L Tne
lroduclion
Dorcn6 wid iß rignt sile lhc srudent! @de (ANDERSON & SKWARECKI, 1986, p,845). Tlle
l,rsuse
sr
c(ret
!d s
bur
r sbgoar
io @de
4g?-"
sme*hat inelicnD. id@ b us tlte f@don
eq!.l
Thc oxpl@d@
shy rerop is dE ben r cno4e i. .ot sdnci.nt
In
Ür. .?iodE
ft esw
aEsüns
3 lhe
wtuch
t]ld o16 !
glannins dialos win dre snrden! The
|nb ofid ! ndu
@ m1b he @Ni&.ed cl]ßt Th. studol ch@ üe lhid qLsdy
lo üe insEucti@ siv.n bcfoE line L But lhd ültor
qlle4
dE
slrdd b progan a e6tue
Bith teo distuloß lnal
which n
.o@r (, @dding
Frudon. So a subdialoS snn
351
soße @ncEE exmples is enteEd. whar @
qilten
en
in rh. @rhemaric.l
be s@n
@ h@
nolotio f&(n). but
rh€
t
is a mixr@ of notations. The
ble
enri* @
he did
befm
inrodes üe
but
les lh4 n'. We krow aM rlE
ftiEl€d.
us
ars
cob6r
in
m
headings ofrhc ExaMpLEs
Lrsp I Tfie eme nobtionat confusion
in üe definirion of thc factdial function. The ldlloge SCHEME shoss fiow b avoid rhis kjnd oI
L@r on ir the 'lF YOU WANT TOr" menu lhe rud
s
furction
predi@le
'l*'-
But, if the $udd1 vould
us dE operard ,ninus, ü phEs
The sudent is ao.
nemüy
Dsychology of
does no!
rhat
lrer ue üe LISP func.im
if
lik.
insLn€ offercd option 2 "Mutiply
tne con@p. LESS
LESS te woutd ger m
i!
D
n
minß r,
f&l ofone
by
re
prined, lhen sinilar concepis
@r 66sg€.
The sme is rDe whe!
frrdion MINUS. Fhich ii ued fd rulripli@rio. wilh -t_
We do tut wel b pN@ the dialog oy iriher beque it h6 b€ene obvious lhat üe infmadoD rhe luld giva
ray be @nfusing 10 a Dovice. It shows dur drc inshcri@al conponcn. of rhe tnlot is suboprimrl ed do4 not sho{
he
rhe LISP
comprtibility wilt ANDERSONS oM eighl cogrinve dßign
4.2
The D.scriDtior of
In
üir
sadon *€
qil
!n Ahlr.cl Mrchinq lh.
pßen. otho
tie6
t!
d€6ne üe
in a modified
'ANKE,
po8m srucN.
Elddr fo
visul pmgmming Laguage. In
ituAeGtio ed
t@sladon,
rhe Est of lhe
Atsytn
THOI,E, 1987). fie
fom in oü
KoHNERT, MÖBUS, SCHRöDER,
implde
DOSCH, 1934. p.154; PACAN, 193r). Our eoal is lo
19823, p.
"Calcutalion SL.et" Machine
ol insructonat !exb, ehose pnrpose is !o dptain
s6&tics of m atubcr @hina This Mtunc ß ued
(COr-ONrus. FRANK,
FircipGi
fi.
opemrtonal
(ÄEs@r
pojecl
nori@
is
ty.!!r 116)
'absEacr synd
F$sfomarioD (AHO| SETFI & WLMAN,
lhe problen
paFr we we. ro show
td
solviq noniior ABSlln
ro
üp
&d
1986j
as a runcrionat
intomat texß (BAUER & GOOS.
llo - ll6i
BERGHAMMER, DOSCI{ & OBERMEIER, 1985, p.55; DOSCH, 1984, p.t63t )
(SCHMITT-VOHLFARTH, r9?& BAl.rER & COOS, 1982, ch. 2) !o devclop vßual irsEucnons and a
üd
dragaßs
sräphiel hetp
sy8d. T1ß will h. usd in our pmblen slving nonird ac@dinE ro aNDERsoNh ognilive design priocipls ed in
agrlMr wfth BROWN & vooLEHNs E!6n rh€dy whcn impas in thö potnem slving b.havie ot lne lemq @ü.
Tlis
reIhsold
n.a ih{
visudly
pdrc;ples ddived tom
TIEE
is a
onpul!.ionsl
a
sp!.id
6ing
we fomalize the op.mional
os iconic
ü16. We viü
oSrjliw
poychology
nlh6l@g üldition ir
plßs
sdlics
of lnc nehire
show rhr. rhe speifrcanon
6
pm6s of
a sel of prodcrion tut€s which
the
no.ic rules
dd osnirive ei.@,
usins ünficial
(GARDNER, 19822). Tie
d
absEd n&nin6 ed diae@s rd
ido r! wiie dE sur.
the
d€mmsdd@ or
or c@pur2tids onto shets of
logict
in aom ot Ee3 m inbldu@d in *hml bmtr by SCHMITT WOTiLFARTH (19?8), The ida of
conpuälids is ubiqüiMs in ompuier sien@ (ABELSON, SUSSMAN & SUSSMAN, t9B5; BAUER &
LUIa,
l98D and even rarh{ *ell knoNn in psycholosy GGAN &
OREENO, 19?4r PAVEL, MARCOVICI, SHERMAN & FAI.MACNE, 1933). The abst.&l synt
*pr.$io6 ce
gapnic.lly
be
r
of puEty appljcative
r€ptwnled br KÄNToRovlc Eer (DoscH, t984. p.1@),
Oü pdely furctionrl @-like prc8@ing Lrsuase k . .oy Imsuge @np&d lo SCHEME m PASCAL. tn
oI üß lhe languge is pow.rful lftmugh ils fa.iüdes wlich all@
1980,1983; GREEN & PAYNE,19&t). TlE
the
d
p,po which show
a@Sehe
Es fü
VÖSSNER, 198r: 1984; KANTOROVIC, I95?;
@
e
shoDtd be guided by
@n
Dogmmina envionnFt ABSYNT d a
lEemh.
nod.nling &d leanirs
lbsdrion dd chunling
fddEpefwne of a smal ldClage
0estbed
for
6.dh
oa thoüshr
pr@$4
spi@
(GREEN,
is hotiwl€d by lne inbnrion lo
in pLnning di2gn6tics, help m*sag*, srudent
352
An Englisl de$ription ol.he'tablralion
n&hinc appelEd ir DOSCH (1984, D.163f):
cow of @pur.don i! - up to the &€dm iD dE erzlurioD - Iixed by rhe elculad@ sh*t 6s@iar.l wirh 4
ü qpmioß addiri@ally calls of (Miv.) ouürd acu, .hb ompularionrl nodel @ be exFnded b rrL
"me
dpr65im.
sh*l
Ia
crlcuhrior shcel bcchire.
Fü cEy mulire !ü@ ß . supply of calculatid sh@tt for dE dpr.$ion lmins iß b.dy, Ässumirg
ffiriA
roti6,
a
call,by-valw
dsülMl rÄbce@ @n inro r nw she€L Evdy such lom is c.lled e in@im
of üe oüine In greEl, of 6um, dE n xr (@aive) outire cdl Ms tefoE lh€ calcularion on rhe pEsr sh€t i.
finisn d; lhis l€lds 10 lhc mlio ot pendiDg opradons, Whd lhe compulltion |gmin&s on ! shd, üe Esurr rar@ i.
Fasfercd bact io dE pFvios sh.!t rhar iq b üc dy@ic pred6e9, TneF p€trdiDs op@tios e cvaluon, ed $ on.
Ir lnc sequddal conditordl, afEr cdcülotins uE ondition the Dor cho@ baeh G nü@led. Not thal $is leads b üe
r@
hirario
The
of
upon a call üe
ll6i@ outifts"
Gemd d.siplion of
the
mchire and vdious diag@s aom 6e onlersny bvel conpü.r sien@ lextbmk
e included in.pD€dü D.
Empniol sudid (COLONruS, FRANK. JANKE. KOI{NERT, MÖBUS, SCHRÖDER & THOLE, 1987;
SCHRöDER, FRÄNK & COI-ONIUS, 198?) hav€ sno*n rlut lh€se infomadons hdve b be nodidcd ! sst dql, if
(BAI/rER & GOOS, 19823)
oDpu6novi@s@lo Sair süfEcie rn@bdec
to be
$ur.d
elG
rhd prediction
5.
Th.
5.1
kychologlc.t Argrb.rt3 itr
Deslgtr
The nain
1o
Ftuh
so€t
ol ABSYNT is rh. comtution ol
aboul
solviq Foblms ir
i'
simple
a
pmbLm
sithneric
l,lk
slvhs
La.gu.Ae
monnü {PsM). Some PsM-Ekver
(ATIISHA, 1984; ATTISHA & YADANI.
sinple.lgebE problds (SLEEMAN, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985,
E@MEfY (ANDERSON, I983Ci ANDERSON, BOYLE, FARRELL
dd
&
REISER, T98?i
ANDERSO\ GREENO,
in @hpuler prog.dning (ANDERSON, r983b, 1987; ANDERSON, FARRELL &
SAUERS, 1982, 1934; ANDERSON
SON
F€did n.It hls
& BURTO\ 19?8i BUNDY. 1983i BURTO\ 198? VdLElS.i & BROWN, 1980i YO(NG & OSHEA,
KL]NE & NEVES, 1981)
JOI
able 10
AßSYNT
Fr$r of s Fümriolll Visull PrcgrrEni!!
1981). in qua&atic equa!@s (O SHEA, l9?9, 1982), in
1980,
b€luvid oflhe mehire $ lhal lh€y @
ßisinrrpr€llrios of dF ißlNctiml moedd.
ol our Re&tiv. Grathical Pro8rlDning EtrvirorE€rr
I!s@h h6 h€d retortd
1983; BRO\4T{
aboul tle
@ rcr .lriburlble
&
REISER, 1985; ANDERSON
&
SKWARECKI, 1986; JOBNSON, 1936;
& SOLOWAY, 1985, 1937; SOrcWAY, l936t WERTZ, 1932, 1935, 1937).
poglmirg b€suse prcblen slving tu rhe Dain rcnvny ot Eh progmn4.
4ity. We had b nale Fme mE dsign {k isioß. B@N üe PSM should nainly
we chN {E domain ol conpür.r
IunhemG,
.lm
suF tc
plani.S D@Ns of
rhe
ehürics of
ce
be diagnoscd
which cm b€
rhc
l@ed in
@griliv. $idce funcrioral loguges
Fo8@@. we de.i{ied ro e a siEpL pos@ning ldSnaee, the syn6\ .nd
nos, We d-ided !o tare a pu@ly rucuon l l suse. From the view of
a rew
have
Me
!@cr.nn€r is oblainable by $eü ttupoties,
beneraial ch!&lerisrfs. So
lss wo.kirg nemory lmd
SUSSMAN, 1985; CHEZZ| & JAZAYERI, r98?2i HENDERSON 1980, 1986),
ih@
tu a
on lhe side of lne
reieddll uespdency dd nodlldry (aBELsoN, sussMAN &
shng c@lpondency berwm prcgramer! soab
and
Fulltmo€,
rh@ is so@ 4id6ce lhar
ue oi fmcdoß (PENNINCTON, r98?i SOIOWAY,
3s3
1984 JOHNSON & SOLOWAY, 1985, 198r. So
slow up ir inFrativ€ ptuCrMnirg
w
avoid the dlrrcult Foblen or
indlevirs
phns in lhe code vhich
languag€s b€@@ it nalres l5e djagno$ or preatmmers plaro
nd6
difücuh
(SOrrwAY, t986). If w. ele fü smrEd lh:1 . g@l tu he FpesEd by a fücrjon, w @ g.in a srd fl*ibility ir dc
onming .h. prcgmmirg eyle oi lhc atudcnr we @ ofi€r hin facilitres to Fog@ in a bonom-up, 6p-ddn m
PsM
sf&sy of buildiDs up d goat fiiffihy @ @@s!ond 0o lhe &r.lopment or.he füc.ioal Dmem.
I1lqe @ $me sinila Fychologic.l ltlss for lhe üse of a visual Fog.@mina lansuase, 1oo. nEE is $nc
mid{ü€{ut sylc.
eyiGn€ lhlt
m
if dßy
The
l* wtins mmffy
te usd a
e dlenal
load is ob|dinable through thc 6e or
Eesiaily ir
they sDppod cn@dins of infodatt@
1981r GREEN, SIME
n€mory FTTTER & CREEN,
CREEN, 1984i LARKIN & SIMON. 198?).
d68ms ir
we
dm
d
d
& !TrTER, l98l i PAYNE. SIME &
lh. bt l visibility.f comrol dd dau flow üe
di:Crrnsdsftd€ .salndoles,
diasmmolic srucruing of infomtlon should aßo
The
pmduce a
mounr oi vqbal
inforutid
pnich
is
k'own lo
'eed dqgtus iI-AxxIN & SIMON, 198'7). 'Cmd diagtus podu@
of lmno objeLs, Th* @ ir oü @ objet icoDs, which @ nade of 1so
lialrcr cqrilive prsesing load thd
dromric @nbl oi .rqüon wirh
eng
@d@e the
snaight
lne lElp
com*tion lifts ed onvq ohjۧ. Imic objels oi dFe Olca @ lnoM
simulheous viJurl
infoldim pßsiry
to
contol peß.pbal smupins md
eOMERAI\Z, t985; CHASE, 1986),
conpüter Scicrce a.sed Desißn Cüid.lin* lor visürl Lrrguqes
\{o* d
a
the
dsigr of
which
becn oblojred
e
no1
drninosiotul sysld
visual
leguges hs jlsr
cdFo6&r
mong
sed
$i{ti!!s,
tw.r.y y€s aso (eg. LAICN, 1980). br
visual pmgmming bnguages
a@rdilg r., l) dsu.l .xßn( 2) sop€ fld
3)
@
be
m€ 6dls
de*rib€d
by a
have
poäi. in
Lnsü.se Gvel (SHU, 1986). a lary!.s. h,s
a
htn
visurl dt'nr il erapnics @ .or n@ il'usuruons bur p'ay ! cenral mlö in prcgr@ning. Ttet mNt be "exaüloblo
sEphics" (LAKIN, 1986), Tt spe of a lrnSü8c is a n6@ or 6. s.rcdily of lh€n appli@bilirt. Thc latsusc level
givs a hinr how sbslr*t dd hddc& indetEnd@t üe @nsb.ß otlhE Lneuage e
dsign of ! visu.l l6e!.eE ha ro b€ bded on dE co@pt of sHmljz.d i@ns (CHANG, 1937), rhich @ düal
EDrsen@ims of abslel od viMl pdll, The tyDe or sesari4d io.s m he divided inlo obitt icos od pc$ ions.
Tne
Obi@r
icds rlefft rhe r.oEsbtim of si4tic Lnslage cohshct, whe|6 prms icons sp€.iry
<rabrow
ed
coDtsoltlow. we
wdl
10
quor. cEANc (1987, pgD
d
lne
rp'€MBtio of
rhb subj4r:
An lconlc ay3l.m ls a slruclured s€i ol r€larsd icons. A compl€x icon can be comp€od lrom
oth€r icons in lho iconic sysl€m, and iherelore €xpre$ a more codPlex vislal concopt An lconlc
senlenco ... is a spatlal arrang€msnl or icons lrom an lconlc sysi€m. A vlsual languag. is a sol or
visual sont€ncss conslruclod wlth givon syntax and s€mantics. Synttcllc analy3ls ol vlsual
language (spalial paßing) is lhe analysis or lho spatial anang€m€ni ol icons
(ie
visual senlenc€s)
lo dei€,min€ ihe undedying synlactlc struciur€. Finally, somanllc analysls of vlsusl lsnguago
(spallal inielpßlation) is lhe Int€lprglallon or a visual senl€nc€ io doi€rmine ils undedying moaning.
lh6 vlew poinl ol system lmplsmsnisiion, lo design an iconlc sysi€m and a visual länguags,
lwo major soflware lools aro ßquked: e) an lconic sdilor to edil a gonslaliz€d icon; and b) an lcon
intoD€ler lo pertorm syniadic analysis and somantic analysis o, the vlsual sysi€m.'
F om
sim[$
id6
sr.n fron GLINERT & GONCZAROWSKI {1987) dd CLINERT, CONSZAROWSKI & SMml
(198?), CEANC (1986) pmpos€d 6
slcirrotion cycL in
tbe
langü.g! desiSn (Fis@ r),
We
üed dns cvcle fü oü dsign
35'4
sde sD€.ifrd in pROrcC eording ro sme idss of (aEREIRA, 1986) s a DDnable
qEitienon @AVIS, 1932). The coßsroDdine visual pais seE s?e.iaß.t obeyins ßnlrs or N oM dpiricd
Es€sh or
gmeeliziry fDdings dd @rhd! &om @gni!i@
isfdoto$r and ognirive &ie@,
The abstmr pans of dE Lrguae€
abstract representation
ol visual obiects
+-
visual
ol
Fig@
t:Ile
representation
abstract obiects
Specjficatior
CycleofaVi$.t
L
SMg! (CHANG, 1986)
Ihe conpleE tm8ltlming cnvirende[ is implrndte! in INIERLISP od rie objel qientaled lesuse Loo?s
('ANKE & KOHNERT, 198& KOHNERT & .'AIINKE, 1988) to h.ve a sysh wirh di€r meipulation qpabnins *hicn
is
äb6oru0ety
n*ssry F@quisiE ro oü
sys@m
(FAE\rßICI{ & ZEGLER, l985a.bi HUTcHlN,s_ HoLLAN &
NORMAN, 1986; SHNEIDERMAN, 1983. 1987). Following
SHU,S
din.nsi@al aaalyst, ABSYNT is a tansuagE wirn
figh visulr exknt, Ioe $op€ ed m.dim levet.
5.3
Cogtritiy€ Scieme
ard
Psychotog,
Bs€d Güidelin* for th€ Deslgr ot cr.Dhicat Obj.crs
Tho4h th@gh &qds
in pst{hotog]/, pnysiolosy od computer scioce hd ü€€n devo@d rc hlll@ dimol
'!geh
od @chi.e pd@ptioq sulls *hich cond glidc de.isions i. buitding tubrid appricados have mained on a dhd
intual levrl of'gdt6lr lawd or phoomenologial principl6 (BERTIN, 1981, t983i CAMPBEI & ROSS, 198?;
CLE\ELIND,
1985;
h oa rcr*
@n<bct€d
hr
FITIER & GREEN, t9?9: LUIZE, 1987; TUFIE, l98O; WOOD & WOOD, I98r_
we elied on empiricat srüdi6 pardy done by
otr*lve.
The
fma
iaagery sysem, Tie latEl dedr
TRANK, l9AD &d
mß
gave üs
piü'
oth6
(e,s. WEBER
ninß m@ning üe s'fthtuisrioD
the meno.y
oa the
& KOSSLYN, t98O dd pdrdy
FoFrtiß
@pr.st lion of.he r@ tfogMs
vhich Esdted 6om ntin@rFer.rioß of lhe synd
.ppsEd in BAUER & C'OOS (1982). Tle b$ v6i@ of
dre
brsü.s.
ed
which is
the
oi gnphiq
dd
d,c m.nor
(SCHRöDER, COLONTUS &
serics
of rhe digrn t
tdsus€
s
u$d for ABSTNT w6 slroqly inflMced
355
by
d
@piricrr srudy of mMERANIZ (1985) dd a ü@rencany qidb@d
POMERANTZ
oü d.sisr
*s
LAR(IN & sMoN o98n.
inlomalid p@stg, Oft @$qrc fü
rod. src @tul sludie aloü el@riE dd divi{t d aMrioo
lh* dhainddcd infdn rion hrd o be sDarirl ind.x.d by l@tions,
nl.4 ü{.hß irfmldd
sm
l@arion h idendcrl vilh ! vi$al oüj4! fte
ituIexsho
d nare dE
sp€drl ind.r Ttis
5.4
shded ülder *h.t
main
lt3@h
go€ls lic
i. lh. elplmrid &d
ompuatioml hDwledlp of dE loerdnnd, roo. Ir is
u
Itf@auon *irh
!t tmal
lt{jr
an
lon ot infomuri@
ltq.rive Speific.rior Ctcl. for lä. D.rlr.ltm ol Imlic
Co&.. r9 lhc Op.niiotd S.üaDdG oa ÄBSYNT
N
ioo,
se
The
Thugh
by
dDuld.ppca in üe
inlighß w@ $pported by
o{@l,eq r diassmdi€ EFüst
GoUß a d infmado.al eqüvaLm s odal Epr*'6rim.
(19&D. They
dicL
Obj.cl5
rLhussnu of plming
opirion du1.
w
of
N
rino
ddisn
!
of LARKIN & SIMON
c@trß lß omplhtio.l
t.d lco
p@s6 E
M
.he gmc
l@dion.Ir
c Rü16
hav.
10
dtil {ilh dF
ldguase shold have suficidl
loowlcdgedoutlnei.rp$e.eüsthdsheisabLtoprdlictüEsctofthesü.sdslale!ftohLtwlcdScoadrec!@r
st 0e, To 8.t od @nnin rhis .&cnie w. ha@ to ioplem@r @ iunütion l conponent dd a hclp sys|em- The
sFo6can@ or dE oFü!@d rmsbdg. ws nlde in d it Briw sF.ifica!@ cyclc (MöBUS, 198?a,br) (Fi8@ 2)
3s6
the
for
flteratüve sp@@0flcat[@n
eyc!@
comnputati@ma0
@p@ratl@mal
semnantl@ km@wledg]e
@r
knowledge acquisilion
(lextbooks, experts)
representation wlth a
minimal rule set A (9)
iconic representation
wllh obiect and
relaxation
of minimum
process icons
( = iconlc rules)
requirement
t_
empirical test of
lconic rules with
respect to
allention conlrol
and automatic
(-
lnferences
implementallon
In INTERLISP/
LOOPS
FisN 2 TnclEiiivc StEi&ati@
The
r4t
Cycle
fd
sr.p @nsisFd of tte tnoeledse mqütuüon
CornpütalioNl
phe. Tte nqr
ü
OFdion l SeMtic Kmwledg.
step led lo a
nrlsel A or 9 nain
gm claüs
(pl6 sooe opeatlr-spcific nl€s). The st cmlaincd th. minimal absr&t howled8! about lne irErpreiarlon ot ABSYNT
pro81ms, The onflzct srrctue of a pm8rm
GENESERETH & NILSSON (198?, ch. 2.5).
wa
romalized by a
st
of PROI-OC facts sinile to
ü
appro.ch of
3s','
Thd @ ricd ü i@ic epr44l4im oa tne facß dd gom dtus, sm @ edized ttar a vis@l FpFsdhtid
ecoding ro lhc tlmnodalions of IiRKIN & SIMON 0987) vd only po$ibL, if re "ediched' the i@ic sE@tft.
Ttis ßns düt w. t d to ldd i6nic elcmenß which we Dol pl*n1 in .h. shstacl shcrw. Tntu |gd 10 d i6Dic
stluchre which mdr.d mhdued od sd $.d s dE indfr.c or ll1. plosmmins .Nilr]lllml FICURE 3).
?roblms occuEn ia rc *dl.d &) t€p the nunt€r of icoDic o5jeE fixed düi,s a onpülalion of a raNive
posm. TIE p$tül& oa lel vtibitity led !o a visüal re wih d inlormdion ovdload (FIGURE 6). Ttne index€d
infomtim vas no. l@.rion itrdciad. So selanive atblion according b mMERANIZ 0985) ros not posible
omputio$l mB rw iwilabla
Ttis fGed üs to Elq oü EquiFrcnt ro E dly d hinnnal nuntd of otjet i@s, We @e up wth a Ebred ble
F1B witl' t4 Min rulq (plus oFr,Id-speific ru16),
Ilio
@* vieal ft@ Ti@ irdeftd info@tion v6 rcw loc.iion inder.n
h6hdvior of thee tules lead !o a
und*ind p€r.ptual Fuping could not o@d. Bü mpullriooal t@L ed i.tern.dirte esui$ s@ tept visible
6
long
ü€
*@ alslur.ly r4B$ry fd
Enpiricat €mside8tios
sult djsp!€ded fion
*6
edüddcy, Thi.
Blt dEo
still
c,&
fü
evideee üat
*
had
i! ecddan@ sth
oßpullrid,
plognnftd nrd
to.eld
tne
to
@rsdet f@d
mirinm ßüpdon
of the
10
Fndrng ru16. The
ndal nainlaee
ddsio.
of a goal
inlmalio o
5.5 l[.
Thd
fie@
M.
bdausc rheir
Dm
visual
lhnd ii6e. Firsr ruks
nnß
sla.l with D$m poi.ß. SmDd, il sc
ft
(pls opcn!ü sp€.ifD) nn
Tlü ompül3lioßl b€h.viü
a
s6ire
ß "Iiüs' in M
d.tided
s. Now
had
fN4
we
a higher
dsi\€d imic
rheE b s fair amounr of
exp€inetd
lca (BOURNE, 19?4r HAYCOOD
0o
.srd drsj@lr 4oE
&
rü16.
n@ edD& imic
inploobrion.
rh@ w6 e@
INTERLIPS,4-OOPS
Prosr.DDi!* E!viro!ü.!t ol ÄBSYNT
prcemmiog envnonDent (KOHNERT & taNKE, 1988) a üe ßult of oü sp€€ifietion cycle is tnoM in
3, Thc
dieided inlo
tne
dereloD€d with 29
rul*t
of irsnucu@ &on
et B *e @!rd hav. gotl.n rm diljwrfie rdß. Bür
conjwrrc f,nq @ 4id 6 pßß dld dtjunclive
wa
ndl,rly,
irüoducc evo
lnc thnd F@iple or FITIER & GREEN 0979).
BOURNE, 1965i MEDIN, VATTENMAKER & MICUALSIo, r9&t), So
C
@mputlt@s
send !6e dd
tulc
huN
a rhird leel
a
otl'e resns wl'ich influenced tlD de.ision to modrry dE
b€N
rhe absract
So
lhe ongoirg
d8r llF
i. mpütions
leads
v@tirg mddy l@d
fton
$ra,
we@ s@e
@6ive. Dlis
Nres
lhe
slD*d
s ih{
d ya
s@.
ü@
is
Alit hlo
slrip€s:
e
*e have a menu bü fd nodes. A tpi..r node is
nm. süiF (niddle) dd d ou9ul sErF Cbotlon). Tn@ nod$ m b. ma&
sriD.) ü arelduugs $Dplied Drünilve opeoroß or @ detu.d furcdm.
sele@l rc91@. On rhe righ. md below
inpot stipc (i.E), a
b cosr.rß ü Eübr6 (wi.h
tt4l
input
IG
Ei
=
.r
A
-t
Fig@
TIE
pogmncr s4 ir üe upFr
3r
Tte
rrqffimin!
Envionm.nt of AtSyNT
half ol üe sc@r the nain wor*sha. md in de lowcr hdf dorh$ one, lach
mrtslrcel is cdled frme. Tne @sriction on 1wo visibte soltshets ted
b
coftsponding psychologicaltt ßotjvacd
ft*don of th. indFe&r ( 57.2 ), Th. ftue is spli! inb a reft lan| ihsd!' (in semm:
''Kopr') dd inb a nsh! pan body" (in smm: Körpd ), Tte h6d onbirs üe t(.1 envtonm{r wirh p,meEr value
sticii@
in dF compuarional
bindirgs md .ne
fuctio @e
Pbgming
choss oe
node
amg€m ß of
@nnori@
pheion
Iiß
node
ü done by
ed drals
T1E hody
rükiry
lhe Dode
@nraiß
up
thqe
b
poPuFnda h ü. mr
sonerhin8
If de funclion ir
ba
s
.ha! n
node of
use.t
lnd linb, The pogmm€r
{ds
is a
rhe
m*ü br vith
lh€ mous€r
cov.r.d srid which oidq. ttje
r
6üed ü. pmrremd is @inded wilh a
nissing. !1E .di6r wms wiü flajhcs if ünsynacdc prosrms @ going b he
üe neld dd
nodes
rhe
d daE flow.
ct
.
@e is dleEd
lhe l€v6 oa tle h4rL
.he ruhclion
ß a highq or*urr. Wio
a node is
The luncrion
paEmers in
synkticdy co@t, de nm. ol
Mbe
dy of the tunction.
l@ls tidy, Conne.ions b€rll@ the nodes re dEM with rhe mouse. Tne
the nodes so thal weryrhing
@ lhe "pip.lines for dE contsol
ü.t
t
nodes
1o rhe dsned pos'lid in fie fime. re@rh lhe fraFe
coßhcr4d mssing of mmdrions, hidirg of
menu
the
!,es 6om
s
apr€d
pmbl.n hß
in de
!o be
by the pmgmmer
frme
slved
a
ide
rith üe
help
of
d in onc of rbc nod6 in rhe
c@puhion hs b
be inirisliscd by
359
lhe
qlr of
o fünc.ion.
nodes in lhe
mis @n
sd M
The
i
Tnk
is
[e
prcgmned inb the 'Sun rT@. Inidal
hß
a
t ä6e wnnout
b
.gralior ol rul6
the
a
nee" e üar
nüt ß e
the nonic
,rciit.clun of .r
qler€d by pop-uFm
us
incoMtu
b6 N 6nsisbr.
PSM or ITS
üe i elig.n@ ofo PSM lies in the quarity of the d.fign fd de feedba* sysEmbm propoed. one grolosl is the erplicn debugging attr@ch (BURTON, r982i
A wry cMial point con@mirg
In
li@tue.wo appmhes
@ing
hale
I ntr
VanLEm{,
1981):
molrolq or
niMrc.ptioß.
wjrh rhe help of a diagnG.ic
The oth6 id@
ßß
prmdm
and m
shsiE
blg con€d@ bd.k
ed
solely on lhc speilied expert krowledge
a model of
!o und.dying
hu6d
leaming
bed
(ECAN & GRTENO, 1974; SIMON & LLA, 19?4; ANDERSON, t933i V.dLEHN, r98?a,b). A@oding to thes tule
lcm.r 16 b b. om. olar lds No OTes of infomdion:lne ctrmr
*irhin ihe
which l* rpp'y. MCKENDREE (1987) could show in rhe experinems, rha( 'goal
infomalion is even mor. iDpotul $
cddition inlomrion in pmmorila lemin8 of slill. Tht type of fe€dbact
beories of
hum
skil acquünion
goal
a
prcnbm and the condilions u(ter
d4ign is moe simple
Eirhq w6y,
b
implenenr
we have
.hd
rhe
'debnggirg shEgy. Bur rh@
b speify gorlr md ruks ü expd wodd us
ABSYNT inBpred. So in dE lrd p6n of ou
When should dE tubr
1980)
pr!.r
e
still no exp.rinenbl conp€rirm berwo
when predictirg
üe @nputti@ai behaid of üe
we show how we Fy ro ehieve the
&tninisd fedbe*? Ou b6ri.t s@llgy
is
dei8n of i@nic
ills 6d
lo get iangled in), llte
le@d win &hie@
mm. Exploariw l@ing should b. supponed d long d lh@ is trebDwlcdg€ on lhe l@q side, Only if & dor
ledbact b@o@ Mesery dd inf@ation shourd h. giv@ f@ ffi @rry.
bl@ted, In thd sitüarion üe
d inpals @c6, whd the stüdent @ric6 ü ha elutlor path sho*s no poSres oi is
!o natc lcll pa0ches in tis poblem slving sr.rep wih esenl rq} heüttics
ou orüial sFar.gy qe pLn
to
siw tddbet dd heb6 only, when tns @Fn
Set
a: . Mirin.l r!r.rpr.l.r h
PROLOG
Tl. ipem@tid clcle (lie@ 2) lcd !o tüe fi6t tulest a, Th. postr
of om4rids *ticn @ Fp'tor.d by PROLOG faars. Tne .od6 llBs
numb€r,
hads !o a
C.trelogy ot Rule Seß Cotrc.rriD!.b. Oper.rtotrrl SeDrtrdcr ot aBSYNT
5,7.1 Tb. Firsr Rüb
$
@s
pdsn ri6
t]' "Epan' üe probl@ silladon- ln
5.? Tü.
l
güi(M by "relan lnory" (BROWN & vsnl-Em{,
dd follo* the dinimalisl dsisn philosophy" (CARROTÄ l984o,b).
Thi. ne@, thlr ir lhe leeE is givd l* (le$ to @4 l$s oveöa4 l$s
Äccoding o Epai. ü@ry
str
nmcod val*. Th* af'aul.s &Emirc $e l@non,
rhc
eilhin
lor aBSYNT Prog.cD!
is
dsib€n ab€tudy by a s.loa
rh. .Eibutes
stu.E ad
llic
noda dd
!
tuenme, @-trTq iisldcq
EIE
of lhcnode
360
ti.
Tle @msrions posßs
.rribues
ndq rE,
our-inst
rcc, in-insrar@ lDd iDpü-numt r. Th.y tint the
dFutfEld ora mde wih ü. inlDlfield of üorhq node.
S@1ic trNLdge
is ndld€d inro lro ry!6 oi 016, Ore 6Nisß only of on "h!nr'tule od lhe othdoaseor
rurd.
The "inpuf ruL (Fisw 4) co .im $e rr@bdse about tte nisrstid or cohpülanoD go6ls od d,h
'oüFuf
hetvq
lhe
rods. Ir'c @euf nne @üin tte trowledec
diü@r m@inss,
tr
üe
"hqd".
ft€d dif6n1 'ouqur' nnq. rrae
@ fc mst.lll
MprMim
(cdl by vale)
roosledg.
e
ro
or helEr
dd
o.
fN
Fdncl.r
nods
(eff d.fined) opqrd!. tn lhe bd
nc{
L.q
of üe
ma
dt
ü
the
gc@r.
no{r€€,
ats
10
lE
about
is
dc
for
sh
i.
the
!E
"body",
rorc
wirh
rhe
B4.w
wnhin @e nod..
!triDitirc operabr,
@ fd
üc
!'@elds @ h.ond b
"hod" re po. onro
ch6t nod6
mpuLtim
a
tu
de tü
in llE
havc
h{c
üe
rE "had,,ed oe
fo,
p.Elkl r,.hio!
e&*. FunhmN wc
lhe nod6
lhe paederqs in
to
d.n .,su@ts
ruts wtich
6rbi,
sp@r lo dFn mr d leaf s!aü6,
inpu(due(Eitu),oe{r@),iicarcqtßt!r@)Jnp!ü.(rnpübo),r"t@(val@)
!
cMsrid(n!frdFl@),nEc6)d._j's(ouLiß),in_iG(hs6e),in iur_n(hpurD)),
d9'n{fue{Fme),ireG@).ißrarF_(OuLiß),IEndN@),vatu{value))_
l.
IF
t dE goat lo Mput .hc räl@ of rh. irpr. *ith lMtq
ne Tr in rE rlne Rlne
lll@
THEN ll!@ b a sbgoat
Ollinsr,whih ii
AND
ro loot
thc
tü a c@@rid,
s@e ot.his
wnich
l€lrs
IDpuho in node
!o ll)is inpur
c@edo
üeF b dotha $bg@t !o 6pü. rhc v.te ofüe nod. Out-IDsl
(rht vale b .hd th. vatu. of lh. soar in dje tF p.n of this tu16).
FICURE 4r
nE Abßracr Inp{l RuL
fron
a
lrol.E
in lhe
y.t untoosn node
th€
361
As a funh.r
.Imple *e imlud. rh. ^@puf,nne td a higho opcrllü (FrcrrRE
5), 11ß dro
ddrib.s ü. .a!,by-
@FolGME(Rane),!e{I@).ißE c4rsr!@),'Endm),v!lü{vd6))
:'
mde@(ä!ft{Fre),uE(Ie)jßhi.qrß@Edra&(N@)).
fi (hll(arsllMt inpü{fi ,N(F@eltrle(tE)nDeic{tttsta&),
iipulD(IDpüho),vatue(A4rD 0)tisr_of_atgmrs),
&l.of(Prdhcr.r,0a(r@eo{me),rr1h€d),i6rri.4rn$_rcat),
node,wE(d,ft ,(Nme),ft 4Hd)jtrseG.(trslt40rdE(p.@erq)),
otlx@erqs),
Lisr
for.I(pdilaryl[i(kn-A4tisLofu
@erarsJ-isr_of_rrrümats),
(iod._iM(nuqN@e),[&(h@d)
jnMo4ialm),lme@m),
a9h(nod(6!nqN@e)l1l']'1ldj'slj'e0sl!ad)rme&r'),vdr.(ar)))).
tu(nuqNde),u.4E d),ißo@{rrll@LlEd)), !,
oDu(te(N.fu)3q,lEed),insbDo{trfl_@r_hed),,Dnc(N!fu),vde(vat*),
fdan()m
ary
IDi(hnnJnSJ-is of lx@el.lsiisLof-ssümdls),
(Dode_nue{täi4,lme),!*.{h6d),ißla')e{rßlEm).@e{pam)),
d{(iod.l6ee{Nm.),rü1h@d),ißbnF{üd nam)rEnqphin),wtuCA4))))),t.
/'
IF
tl@ b
rft. goal to .omDuE rhe ouqur valw of s highq op€abr nod.,
THEN {E fon@irg
,
&tqnin
-
MDüc
-
d€i.mire
6d
üe
h@d
or lhe
Ai ee mE ü
wourd
and
5.4 n is rcr
of ln. node
bidinrs
nlne
ofde lE{d rmr
i! üen lhe \EIrc or th. eoat in the
At8[d
posiblc to ftake
Oupur
a viruat
$rücnft by artdins smc n@ic elc@nr* FICURE
bok lite, if *e k !? rh. n@bo
inernedia&
Mc is idani@r b d. iodc ndc
i o rh. @ lftd oviIt)nenr
rF
pln
ot rhi! rure)
l@l ovionne
FIGURE 5: Th.
i@ic
b. sotved:
o{ üE 6rDc $,tDs
oupur vale
ule
(rhb
dsEoy üE
mr
ro
tue
yalß
r[ F@ereß
,6np .lh.
-
inpü
a|r
h.E
pm.E{Eüdr
- put dc
-
subgods
rh. node
sül$ od@purad@
oa
6
Rd. ad ! Hirrs Opa"ior
Fp@nti@ of f!€s
donGrial.s
ed ld tim scl A, Wc 'tuich.d"
how rhe
€mp!6rior
or rh.
objxr icm b ! Dininm: d@ b oDely oe fi"nc ftr
go€ls
(EpEsLd
by "?
wdLr4n
esiv.
) dispFd ph{ rc longdnerr.d to
lhe
rhc
&cjorid
@puüriotrs
@mpul.lin.
3d2
S/.Fn t ldE
t&
b -L.r dl
Imbe
qüqEly diff@L
itrioddd
of
olr @ cDn$.d ido dF wiN 6crd!.t t odaBd dF nnric'dor of rr qolld F
,&. dn iid.r. POTTGRANTZ 098t !üo*.d tn.t rbi! tfi of !.Lcdt! .n !f6 i.
drd D. E.in.bL. If tio nücri@ r.l! Ie @tdirü.d til. r re l*6iis turalt[' . diag@.tic
ed gdl
$n rhd
wiü rh.
sült
h. .orD{.Ely
dskatns,
363
o
(ü
E
o
=
€
b
E
P
's
?
5
I
E
€
a
ai
f,
o
ffi-ffi
364
5,7,2 The @od rül. s€t B
b nodify tule e1A
We had
bd.N
l) my bd6i&d peep$.| smupir8
oa
inf()mrion
2) iconic Dle6 wilh disjuclive @nditions
3) visud hidhg of
This ßquiEd
@iN
dtmnic
s@ls
modifrcadm of
lhe
AIs
1974; IIAYCTCIOD
t
a
eult
fiom oror?ints in
rhe
büd inf@tion
oFDro. nod6 ,
püt on rh.
lin6 sret
ahsrlct tulet
re4ui@
opۊd
ele.tv.
{rendon, shich
1965; MEDIN,
6us
harning e|:m lnd toiga p@sing
I98r.
WATTENMAKER & MICIIALSKI,
had !o b€ nodifrcd. WlEn a hishq
oFst6
is caled, a
fsh
copy of thc
nlDe st&L IlE e8nmenß
e
one fi,aee
b. oFrE<l üy alling 'higtd' opdre8, ve atlowed onty one calt p6 rrane at rte
! d.prh tusr !@rh
Domenl This Esults in
m
whnh
@aGd B@w w. *m@d lo avoi.l6only püdy visible spa8hcüi1s6.t ir lüe ss üd fon
ßp su@ssr fiund 6üld
ev.tEl
in
tg6s,
dd
& BOURNE,
lhe 'ouFüt' tulc fol a high$
digirol dme
,
f.an6 .lrqdy
Ionic nns wiih <tirjuetire conditios
rim. (BOIJRNE,
folovirg
of üe
in dE
@pied in
c.ll Ee. Th. copi$ of
the
pddlel irb lh. p.@eld
fan$
la6
e
ordeEd by
tme nmb{ ed @ !u1
@@ti@ e!1 the
ot llle hc!d. Nod6 and
(F. Thß all@s io Imtio-irder tinc,indcxed infmrrion. The 'ourpur" nne ro. highd
oFd6 is 3tlir inlo 1wo nn4 @sonding 1o rl& cdl lMtioD ($sn [e, bo<ty r@).
B@@ e us€d emive nns. lhe co.dol dd dala flow @ued though rtE pdnet ß. Ar iconic Ep@lation
new alEib!0e 6'ane numb.r,
müü rquie d.! lnlomcdiaE qulß should be visible oDly wha rhey bel@g to a !€ndins oFnrion. so inhedi.L
eulß die' b.f@ de coddpondiDg tuhe di6'. This ü nor oprim.l ion a @lnitive $i.@ poi of vicv, beaus a
progmnq vho {615
1o
Mapiular. .hc onpurrtion
his0ory
ha t'
Mlfu.
heneny lhc ariarty obtaincd Büts_ Ttrü
lsdr b highe worting dmory tod lo ds DoE@nq,
5.7.3
The
tli.d
ser C: oüJeci!
Tte üird tule
life of a fraße
.(ls.
.!d
r!!€s
m
noliz@d by üe F6üla&. d.1 lt qLnt oi dE inremediare eutr shold not end hef@ dE
Itis !@ned ro equi.e only r fev choger to rhe visual interf&e, Bur üe absFact rut€s had 10 be
et
t ro 'i.put' tule .ny lory.r. w. hNc 18 otpd tules inslqd wtnh aI lost their p€mer@.
Lite prodeli@ oles they @irulate de nod* diF.dy via.he drrlbdis, Coopuhtion goats ('?') dd inpur ed oDrpur
Ffü1En @Dpt Ely. Th@
vElü*
e Milq
w. h!v.
FICURE5 8
od
irlo
the nod6,
9.
Fd thb purpos
qeples for
i@luded
a
absEtct
Th. PROL@ rads in FIG(nE
FIGURE 3. Bod noda
e
in lne
rcw auibtrlc input-srdF is added ro $e no& desiprion.
paß of obj4r icoq in FIGURE 7 ed
? desdibe 1so
.xdpl6
of
fi. pmgm, Bp...ively.
input-sripc(tmpty)@c süid&.)!upur_snF(c6pry).
nm(&.),ü"n
n(0),ü@ ryF0.dr),ißu@_D{11),
inpuc$ip{dpry,@pry,esp.yl),@e$ipe(i0,
nGURE ?. Ar
cdplc fd
it
nods ed rm coü4tons in th. in@nptete pnog@ or
@r positi@ oa rh4 h€d lnd lh. tody
nod{ni@_@4h.)Jdne:r(0),[e t}qtad),i@_D(2),
nod4ninc
for dbsrlcl olcs
Absuar No&s cld
outpul,ssipe(empty)),
Cmf,edN
365
orErio(fi uDe-Dme-(ta.)d"4_io{0), re_ryp{he.d), oulinserE_n(r),
nl'iisl@,tu(D, irDur rdl)).
.t'lerid(n!rc_ndn {i&),tuc D(0),!E_q?{body),our_innanc{10).
in-insr,'e-no{u),in!u. m(3)).
Ar.rrlDlc ld
FIGURE ?:
Absl'acl No{n*
dd Corrariou
nodqf.de_@4Edc_lm0nüE no@ne m),@
ry!€G@_rlpe),
sriF-Nam eiF),
ii.lon@_n(Illsan@_io),inpulstiFcnputstiD.)Jlft
oDaDr_sriF(o!lpur_sErF)),
htlF-oF&(ndtrqN@_!rip.)).T@_tt?c
mt{nqie4re_sl'ildtue MDe@nc
j'sllp
t@-ty!€$e-tyTe)
OuQul,slripe =
?
=
sar!
@c),6!rc_Do(Fl@_no),
m(a'y ins,m'o))),
Jtrzll(on(Eld.nllnpur s.ip),v!rueGl@dD),
tdüac @(N@_sriF).lllp_tuDe_no(I@_tee_m)),
as(iNstd Eß !üip{d,re Ddr{E!@_n@),ftäne_no.eanc_m),
!e ryF.Cle_tr?e),iisae_rc{rsa!t@_m)),
m(ün @(N@_sriF),te_rcG(p_6ue_m),r€_tr1.0r*O,
tarc
copy
on
insE_r(INrr@,D_rool.had)),
rrcdiry(nsc-ErqNarc]fi!.)ds. D(Iop_e@_rc)ft._tyF{@d),
ntnd.,ro(In.llrE m mllE€d)!put_$ip{hpü_süip)),
birdlh.'lq_of_t D_6an{inrulsip(Irpd sEiF)),
nodi4,(fi ?@_@e(Nm_rl'iF),6m_no(r@_t'&ne_m),re,tnc{tmo,
iistan@-no(Ißr.r@-rc-:@ EarD,@AuL-sEi!4 ? )),
/x
IF
thtr
ü
(l) TIE
a
no.b *hich lr4 dE folowing
node
nme
(2) T1E Dod. is
€)
Tne
'4e
i3 a
lmlld
highq oD€nrorin dE
slipe ol
sld @,
.ho nod€ b lh6
(4) TIE oulFr. slripe of dE nod.
(t
THEN
]rE inDur süiF or
cl@
ih.
Ind
tmc
wirh lh.
m
lfipe
rhe
a€lrß:
rhc
inpur
@ *hich 6DEiN
vdm.
Me dd dre n s
l.p of dF trne s4k.
denod.,
D.Emirc n r t€zd mt, Fdsfer dE inDül-stipe
Bind
the
moins ! '?'.
rdL onlaiN al
c4cEtlß
of
oily inwrred orc in
ltc !68rc8ß dd pul
a
of ds tude 10
ü. i..d
'?' irlo üe @polsfipeof dE had
FIGURE 8r Absrect Rul€ 8 (Far Ddn ol
ctr-by-vare, cdr
iD
rool ,
tur*/
sh @
)
rh. nod.
366
iod4nsrc ED.{R@_IE@)n&ne_no€'arc-m),@ v!€{r@_typcl
!ß1jr@,n(l$rr@_no)jnpü-sri!€(bpulsEip.)Jme
süipe(NN_sEitc),
outp!lsriF(o!rlor-srrrE)),
s.4
higls_oFlda(nm(|rMc_sütFD,T@_tyF=
d:ift_fiFGu._Mn (Fte_i@),6arc_ndE&re m),@
inv.n
rypec@_type),
ii!,e_D(lisrds_m)),
oupur-3f iF = ?.fod(o(Elqtr6rlnpur-sripe)inlue(Eldd1)),
valuc_of_ülpcr,visiüe nrhe{OopüLsipe_@lh@d),mtqis
lowd visibb_aanc\
modify(tsd@u. lEre),t!@_no(Rare_m),ue_ty}{lE tyF),
iro1ä@
m(Ia|.e_no),ou4[rlsri!.(OuqDlsdip€:ml
he2d)),
deldtc_firDe,t m r4f,
Eü&ttnvetud
lllre süi!.(äue_iaoc(Ftm_Me),tuo-n @m_m),
te_ty1.-CrE .y!.),in!h@_D0nsa@_rcD,
1F
l'
dEc ü r
(1)rn
no<b
(2) nE @de i!
i5 a
lo.{.d
(3) nE
n@
(4) ItF
dlplr._3!iF
fto irpüLsriF
ald
d* hEd
DeLE.hc
FIGURE 9:
c Rrl€ for th.
On thc h€sis ol
rd.
s
qdrror.
re,
in dF sirit
or
no<le
ü.
b inYqc{.
nod.
or lhe nod.
6üiß
a
'?'.
@t iß .I ir!üt vEl$.
r@r or lh. üppd vbiblc
tuo.
dl'iß
! wtE dd üEe
is @
olh6
Sh.
mEN tauidüi! valuei
5.4 ko
highe
süi'E or de
(5)
vkil'I.
f*tr.s:
*hi.h üs üe folowing
@e
nod.
B
o dE
@pulsripe
upF vi*nc nee,Tü
Ab8lm mL
lBlr!.tiolrl
{rl
C
o
(S@nd
pd
CoEDor.lr
*e dddolEd
of lnc nod€.
dE inEr.don of üe nmc sripe or lh. node
ol Cd.by.va!G, @! in
rrd .
i@nic tulet
1/
)
HelD Stst€b
d4sihe lhc oDeEtiod h.navid oi rhc
inErptu
e Fpr.s brioD or dE
e rcr inpLDard ir e
ißüurionrl or t lp comporcft Bur dEy @ us! rkc*tully il apdin nE wlF@ novies e rEqes&d ro p@dicr lhe
@opütllion st.ps of$e i dpl!i.r- Eich rn @üi!ts ol I &s@ptnr of the [ilgqing silarion ed ! dceriptio of lhe
siardionaftedFtul6ns!..na!pli.d.w.ti.{tt)hat üe orc! lelfqpt@lory s Dücn a p6sible, So *d nc.d oly !
Beause of spec
poducrio-lit
ßEicriod
PROLOG
we
dls
@ @lt shop
rh.
da
10
ffi E
b6cL
nom s4 C (FIGURB r0. Ir), shict
of FIGURES 8 dd 9. At lllc
shon4ü.ductid6€xDhinlhcry !roarheimicnnB.
pltst
momdl
1Ij*
rulct
367
nule 8: Compullnq hlqher ope.alor node ln slarl lree,
Situalion
1)A hiqher opgrator node is pärt oi rh6
2)Th€r€ is no nod6 w
fl
nv€nd nam6
s)The ouFutstripe or lhe
h
lher operator
4)Th€ inpul srrip€ orthe hioh€r op€ralor
node conlains values ony
lnstruclion
oueruieru
I
flction löf
öICJ
aule 3: compurhg hlgher op€r8ror node ln 3t3n ü€e.
Action
1)liv€nir€ nd€ stpe
ol lhe hiohet
a fiäme är tF rop wilh lh€ nam6
ol lhe hiqher operalor nodo.
4or€at6
3)wrte each npul valle
of lhe higher
operator nod€ iito lhs cor€spondlng
inpul,ield ol the head @ot ot lhe fraoe.
4)Wnle each inputvalue oi ha head rool
inro the ouFut sr peolrheconnered
s)wlil€ a
'?
idlo th€ outsut slripg
ol ie
0Deruieurf Situation f
lnstrurlion
FIGI tRE l0:
lctric
Rtrle on
üe Basis of
Ab\tur
Rule 3
4] I d I
i. FIGIIRE 3
cJ
Fule
9r Fetchtng ourpur vatue tor htgher ope.ator nodE tn
sun tee,
Situation
1)A hiAheroperaior nodo is ped
2)Th€ name snipe
ollhe
oflhe highoioperalor
s)The oulputstrpe ol the hioher operabr
4)Th6 inpul stpe ol the htgh€rop66tor
node conb ns values only.
5)The€ ls a rido at lhe top with ihe
ol the hiOh€r opeGlor node.
6)The
olrplr
7)Thee is no
nd€
srrip€ oi lhe h@d rcot
tde
atüe bonom.
lnstru.tion
Rule
oueruieru
I
I€IöICJ
nctio$
9r Ferchrnq oueut vatuo tor htgher operäror node tn sian lre€.
Aclion
1)wrle the ouFutvatusotth€ head @ot
into the oulput säps of the higher
operaior nod6 wilh lhe inve.led nme
2)D€lel€ lhe upper frame.
3)Undo tbe nversion ollhe nam€ stip€ oi
d'e h !her operator nod6.
lnstruction
oueruieru
nGLRE
ll:
Iconic Rule on hc Basis of
f
Situalion
Abstut
Rule
I
<5
9 inFIGURE
S
lc,
I<9
369
We fonnd üat üe
acm. Novics wm
able !o predict
cd dis *hen
We Evi.sed
üe inl.4retlr in le$
dd
*h
snuations
6ve houß
lhe student is
u@ldn
aboul tho @lculadon
an impase in rhe conpudtional
lmins
b ro inplement üe tules for instactioMl pürpc6 $ that
The nelr sl.p
snuärion
se ential infordation is üed only in
plcs
of
pmßs
lime.
Lhe
inErpEEr beoms sltexplaining. This
fic rochino-
ü. lilrmrG o CAI dd ICAI syshs d discuss€d some d6tr prirciple fttrm . @gririv. eicnc.
@qrition d impo@t lts@h soals but also stBsd lhe impdtane of a
view. we discused slDdent nodels ond plsn
Ether nesle&d ü]piq dsisn
helps
{e
s
oa lhe
lh.t oü plar diaen$is and
introduc€d i@nic ru16 vhich
\tudfllirpu{.
we n€d vcry cmfü]and krowledsc{Efi€d
student nodelliDg
conporcnß
tüsmn infdmorion
in
!
ger Lh.
diasEmmadc
iMnons, inedaß
oppotuity b rork stislacdily.
lom. Only il
no
As
s
d
.xmple
phas of the desisn pmcs ir
@nted @ win ehieve E@ intelligdf CAI.
AaELSON, Ii., SUSSMAN, CJ. & SUSSMAN, J., SEüctre and hlerpEBtion of Computer ftoCsns, Cambridg€,
Mlswhusetls: MlTItss. 1985
A}IO, AV., SETHI, R. & ULLMAN, J.D., Conpilers: hincipls, T€hniques & Tmls, Rcading, Mdechuserß: Addisn.
Wqley Pnbl. Co.. 1936
ALDERMAN, D.t-, Evalualion of the TICCIT Compder6sisLd insEucuonal sys0en in lhe @mnunny conegq SIGCL'E
BnllcriD, 1979, 13. 5-1?
ANDERSON, J.!,, The Aehite.üle of Coenind, Gnbridge, lvlass.: Hdvdd Univdity Prss, 1983a
ANDERSON, J-R., Lsmins 10 PnEM, Pm€..dinss ol fte Eishth Intenaliorol toint Confdde on Anifßial InElisscc,
l-os Allos, Cllifmia: Morgan Krulße, 1983b
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ANDERSON, J,R., Krowledge Conpilation: Tho GoneEl
CARBONELL, T-n4 MIICHELL (eds), Machinc
L@irg M4hanisd. i.r
R.S. MICHALSKI, I.C,
lsmiDg: An Anificial Intllicen@ Approacn, Vol. II,
CalifomiaMorg Kruim Publ.,1986,289-310
ANDERSON, J.R., Podudion Syd€ms,
Plodncdd
Sysh Mod.b
ANDERSON, S.B.,
Ißey-Bas
of
t6
alr,rs,
ksning,
Iming ed
and Tübring, in: D-KLAIiR, P.LANCLEY & R.NECHES (edd,
Dcvclopmcn! Cmbridg., M6s-: MIT Pess, 198?, 437458
BAIL, S.. M(jRPI]Y. R.T. & Assciar$, Ercyclopcdia oi Educdional Evolution,
Sän !ßncisco:
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ÄNDERSON, I.1.,, BOYLE. C.F.. FARRELL. R. & REISER. B.J., Cogniriv. Principles ir Lh. Dcsign of Conpule!
Tur@, i4 P.MORRIS (ed), Modelling Coenid@, Chichesre., sDs* J.wiLy, 1937, 93-133
ANDERSON, t.R,, CORBETT, Ä,T. & REISER, BJ.,
LISP, Rqding, Mas.: Addjson-Weslcy Publ.Co., 1986
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Psyclolqy, Cmesi€-Mclon Univqsily, Pilsbugh, PA , 1982
ANDERSON, J-R., FARREII- R. & SAoIRS, R., L..ding b Prog@ in LISP, Cog.idve Scienca, 1984,8, 8?-129
ls{üd
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l*y:
Solving, Hi[s&k, Nw
Elbam Asiates, 1980, 199-235
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aTKINSO\ RC- & wlLSON, H.a. (.ds), Conpud-$üled lnsiücrid, N.r Yük a@ddi. Pr6s,
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1984
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PaDd W- l 19, Conpüer Sci@ce Dept,
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T
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lhc
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The
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nale h!
B
the
rhe
eiene Equiß faily d.Eilcd
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is a$o
d*trql
10
rqt
trE
Epidlr dpdldins cxEnsids into $ch div@
@, .d@rie üd
Dslcholndpy, Tnis boot a
eicr@
d6i8..d
hjr Espone
ol psycholosy *hich dotls sirh
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383
8,4.1 A verbll insr.mtior
t.3.3 DL G.r!Fh.) Iormul.rm.rU!.
D.rC..g d.r B.r.chnun8.in{
R.ch.ovoßchnft ist bß auaKollal.raliläl
zugcnöngcs Fomular l.slg.lcgt Kommt in Fomular sclbst wi.dcr.irc Rcchcnvoßcbrilt als Operation vor!, so ist ei. Fomulardieser Rechcnvoschift anzulcgen (,Aufrul) ünd der.D Ere.bnis schli.ßlich dctz!'
überl.aecn. Di.s rill auch l0r.in. rck!ßiv defi.icne R.cbcnvoschrift
d.! Bcso.ddhei! da0 im Laüfder ßcrechru4.nrsplech.nd d.n reülsivcn
Aüfrufin w.ir.rc Ex.npl.r. de3 Fomulas ebcü dieser Reche !!oß ch rift bc-
dur.h
.ir
iit
züjed.h Auiturwcrde. in ein neu.s Exenplardes Fomülaß zunächst
lintsscilis di. jcweiliscn Arsum.nNen. .in3etäB.n (ta,6', dr!? ). Mad
ncn jcdes solch. Excnplar cinc l rrn.iion der Recncnvoßchnfir uh dic
ÜbGichtzD behax.n, rann nan die Inkmaüonen und die enlsprecnenden
Aufruae
in
Verlaufder B.r.cnnu4 durchrun.dn n.
Für de. retußiven Fall isl es nun besond.ß bedcutsam, daß di. Follun..ßct.idun8.in. arb.itsspar.nd. Auswahl tifli: nacbded dic Pa.adeterb.
zeichnunscn dürch die lints.ilic festsestelltcn Arsln.nrw.ne eß.tzt sind,
l.rd.n dah.i aüdeo Urromular und allen lolgenden lntarnalioner nöslichsl zü.sl di. Bedingunecn aüsA.w.nd ünd sodann di. u.zulässigen
zlci8. g.tappr. Dic R.kuaion .ndel mil Intarnalioncn, in d.ned rein
zr.is m.nr v.rbl.ibi d.r.in., r.trßiven Aurture.lbäll. D'e sanze Ber.ctrünr l.milien (für.inen beslinmlen Param.teßatz), w... sie nnr.ndlich
vi.l. lntäm.lion.h b.nötißi.
Die Tälieteir ein.s M.nscnen, d.r aufdies. W.is.
nit Fomular.n
artlci-
lel han. i. .insichtiser weise auct necnanisierl werden. MaD selaqt so
zun B.8.if.incr retursiven (C.danLe. )Maschinc, der Fomul.mr$hjne,
in d.rdi.voll. Fr.iheit der B.r.chnung nocb.rhahcn tt. Man b.ach&, daß
.in ncues Er.nplarcines Fomülaß alcn danr an8ele8l wird, w.nn di. sl.ich.n Arsrn.nle schon ci.nal alrgeftl.n sjnd: dir Fomulamaschine
machl (aüf dcr hi€r gcschilden.n Stufei von.in.r nöalich.n M.hriachv.r
v.ndrng ei..s Ergebni$es kcinen G.brauch.
ob.neNehnl. Kapp.n von Zw.iA.n isi
insb.s o.d eG dann ohnc wciden Bedinsunsen kein. relusiven Aufrui. rortom'
h.r. Noch ilb.rsi chd i€ner i sr d.. Fall der lib.f.n R.kußior, bei deraußcl
dcn in d.n c'nzelren Zweiscn der Fallünlcscheiduns höchslens.in ret!ßiv.r Aulruf vo.tonnii dann wiid nänlich i. jcder l.kamatio. höchsrers
.inc treue lntarnation lngcsloß.n- Fas alle bisher b.hand.lr.n B.ispicl.
fall.n tbriB.ns in di.s. (lasse,
fjjr/a. von 2.1.2 arb.it.r .in. FomulamaschiD. wi. in Abb.59 ans.sc,
bcr. Typisch firr die Reküsion isl das,Nachklapp.m d.r B.EchnnnS: Eßt
w.n. di. Rc*ußion oit der Inkamation r.lJ) seendel hal, *erden di. zürüctsestelx.. Bcr.c!.!ns.n in r.a.o. td.rr) u.d /d.re) dürcbrühöar und !üch
dlrcn8.mhnl5i das Urromulär ,c(o) liefen schließlich das E.d4seb.G.
.Das N6chklappern kanr i. b.sohdeß
B.lasen.n Fällen ron Aulrufen zu cin.h bloßen Rüc*ob.nrag.n der Ersebnisse d.r.inz.h.n Inlar.ationc. d.scncncEn, wic Abb.60 fijr das B.ispi.l j.d/(15,9), !s1.2.3,2 zeist. Ein sol
Das
tcts döglich, senn in
ch.r Aufdl h.ißl *hlbnl. Wenn in lin.aler R.küßion ausschließlich
schücnle Auaruf. rorli.3.., sp.ichi nan von r€petniv€r Retu6iotr.
B.i linear rctüßiven Recnenvoßchnfte. ist abseseh.n von der sonsti,
s.n Kollat rah.r d.s Fomulas - di. R.ihenlola.. i. der dic bcnöricletr lo
tanadonen ansesloß.r r.rd.n, ei.deüiig bestimmt. Dies isl nicht not*.n.
in all8.n.in.. Fall: *enn in .irem zw.i! nehrer. Äürrufe vortonncn. so crlaübl di. Kollat.r.lit|i unGr Unstlind.n v.߀ni.d.n. R.ih.niol8.n und sogr Paallelarbeit.
diB so
The rerbal jnstrücdon st ns &oh üe pagq I r0- l 13 of BAUER & GOOS ( 1982)
3A4
1.4.2 A "crrcrhtlor rü..4" Drogrrln
.
...
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^tÄ
Ttrir Drqgnrn
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OOOS (r9E2).
E.4.2 A |rm.
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Fdüd.Erdni
lti! t!.c @ b. b6d d !!g.
112
e n ipi|l./t
O)
ofEAIJER & CjoOS (1982).
Thomas Christaller (Hrsg.)
Künstliche lntelligenz
5. Frühjahrsschule, KIFS-87
Günne, 28. März * 5. April 1987
Proceedings
@
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tolqyo
Thomas Christall€r
Forschungsgruppe Expertensystem€
Gesellschaft für lrathematik und Datenverarbeitung
Postfach 1240, D-5205 St. Augustin
CR Subject Classification (1987): 1.2.3-6
lsBN 3-540-50884-8 SpringeFverlag Berlin Heldelbsrg NewYork
ISBN 0-387-50884-8 SpringeFverlag NewYork Berlin Heldelbsrg
.
Fdhlahrg*hur€i
pd*dinss / KIFS - s€ ln;H€idsrb.(rl
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s. 19s7. G0nn€, 23.Mdz-5.49n1 19s7 - 1939
0 nroh.rik Fdch b€tohl€ 202 : s u b ßrh€ kondlich€
rsBN 3-s40-503341 (B6dln . . .) brosch.
rsBN o-337,503S4-S rN*Yo'k .. .) bro3ch.
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