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FORUM: EUROPEAN SPORT AND THE CHALLENGES OF ITS RECENT HISTORIOGRAPHY
FORUM EUROPEAN SPORT AND THE CHALLENGES OF ITS RECENT HISTORIOGRAPHY
Russian Sport and the
Challenges of Its Recent
Historiography
EKATERINA EMELIANTSEVA†
School of History, Welsh History, and Archaeology
Bangor University
Although there were some accounts of the history of sport in Russia in the early
twentieth century, it was not until the early Soviet period that scholarly research
began in earnest. The first extensive works on the subject in Western languages
appeared at the height of the Cold War in the early 1960s. In the U.S.S.R. the
majority of publications came from higher education sports institutions and
predominantly promoted Soviet physical culture and the legitimization of the
system. This article focuses on three main research topics: the beginnings of sports
and modernization in late Imperial Russia; sport and physical culture as an
element of the Soviet way of life; and Cold War politics and Soviet sports. Although a considerable number of studies appeared both in the U.S.S.R. and in
the West from the 1970s on, the most significant contributions have come in
recent decades. Not only has historical research in post-Soviet Russia and in the
West been freed from ideological pressure, but this period has also witnessed the
rise of cultural history and a concomitant increase in research on sports as a
cultural practice.
†
Correspondence to e.emeliantseva@bangor.ac.uk.
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A
S IN OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE, the emergence of modern sports in Russia from the
1880s onwards was part of a modernization process.1 Importing English sports, Russia
kept more or less in line with continental Europe where modern sport evolved several
decades later than in Britain. Up until 1917, sporting activities were mainly concentrated
in the two capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow, and large provincial cities such as Odessa
and Kiev.
The first sporting activities had emerged in Russia by the mid nineteenth century
from a mixture of the traditional leisure pursuits of the noble and bourgeois classes (horseriding and racing, hunting, fencing, yachting) and new games and exercises (tennis, cricket,
rowing, gymnastics, skating). Yet it was only after the 1880s that sporting associations
began to play a role for a broader social spectrum, especially the emerging middle classes.
By 1900, many more people, particularly young males, were interested in sports than the
member lists of sports clubs suggest or verify. It was a specific characteristic of the Russian
Empire that a certain amount of sporting activity occurred beyond and separate from the
structural framework of registered sports clubs because of the bureaucratic barriers that
existed up to 1906. Until 1917, the majority of active sportsmen (and the very few sportswomen) belonged to the upper and middle social strata. Even in the so-called workers
football clubs that were organized at large St. Petersburg factories, ordinary workers rarely
became active players. Despite the entrepreneurs’ paternalistic support for these clubs,
traditional rural fistfight contests between factories remained popular among industrial
workers of peasant origin. The beginnings of spectator sport can be traced back to the mid
1820s when horse racing became an exclusive event for the nobility, but the first modern
spectator sport to entertain urban populations of various social origins was cycling. Cycling shows became popular in Russia as early as the 1880s but lost their way as public
entertainment at the end of the nineteenth century. Horse-racing (after the introduction
of the totalizator in 1876), wrestling (after the lifting of the governmental ban on professional wrestling in 1894), and later football (from the 1910s onward) proved more attractive. Cycling and wrestling, the most successful commercial spectator sports in pre-revolutionary Russia, created the first professionals. Until the end of Tsarist Russia, sport received
no significant support from the state, with gymnastics only introduced as part of the
national school curriculum after a humiliating military defeat to Japan and the period of
political unrest during the revolution of 1905-1907. It became all too obvious, too, that
the country’s sporting infrastructure needed to be improved after Russia’s dramatic failure
at its first Olympics in 1912.
The situation changed significantly after 1917 when sport and physical education
became an important part of the state’s social engineering and propaganda programs. In
the early post-revolution years, sports policies were dominated by pre-military training.
After the Civil War, in the early 1920s, the young Soviet state introduced a new type of
physical culture, known as fizkultura. Instead of the individual achievement and competition ethos of “bourgeois” sports, Soviet mass-oriented fizkultura sought to be class-based,
collectivist, and non-competitive. Sport as a paramilitary training for the masses remained
important, and fizkultura in the form of annual gymnastics parades on Red Square on the
“day of physical culture” emphasized the collectivist ethos of Soviet workers’ sport and its
ideological difference to “bourgeois” sports. However, from the 1930s, Soviet fizkultura
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could not ignore the impact of globalizing, professional spectator sport and sought partial
integration into the international sport system. Results-oriented competition was now
seen as a way to expand the realm of ideological agitation abroad and strengthen legitimacy at home. The slogan to “catch up and overtake bourgeois records in sport” was
officially launched in 1934 and became a counterpart to the famous five-year plans. The
ideological move from mass sport to elite training complied with the general “retreat”
from the revolutionary avant-garde towards conservative cultural policies, and the partial
opening towards international professional sport had consequences for the development
of the domestic variety. Soviet football was reorganized along the lines of Western professional structures, with annual championships and cups, and professionalism was simply
permitted de facto. The Westernization of Soviet sports also affected boxing, wrestling,
basketball, shooting, and ice hockey. Pre-1939 the Sovietization of competitive sport and
the gradual Westernization of fizkultura existed side by side. In the immediate post-war
years, the system inclined to the latter, a tendency that grew even stronger towards the
peak of the Cold War. This was a watershed that divided the era of fizkultura and the era of
the Soviet “record-machine.”
After World War II, the Soviet Union dramatically enhanced its emphasis on elite
sport in order to secure superpower status and finally joined every international organization. Soccer and weight lifting were signed up first (1946) because at the time these disciplines represented the best chance of achieving international success, and Soviet participation in the Olympic games quickly followed in 1952. By the early 1950s, the Soviet Union
had established world dominance in gymnastics, weight lifting, wrestling, speed skating,
and chess. International sporting success, which brought much kudos during the Cold
War, remained the highest priority in the late U.S.S.R. The need for Olympic gold led
Soviet authorities to put more emphasis on early selection and professional training and to
set up G.D.R.-inspired sports boarding schools. The 1980 Moscow Olympics simultaneously marked the apogee and the ensuing decline of Soviet sporting dominance.
After the breakdown of the U.S.S.R., the challenge of achieving international dominance faded in significance. A lack of state support undermined the power of previously
monumental associations such as Dynamo or the army clubs but paved the way for private
sports and leisure associations that could now integrate formerly excluded social groups
(e.g., the disabled) or sports (e.g., wrestling, women’s rugby, boxing). Teams began to
compete in leagues organized by their own independent states (e.g., Russian Football
League 1991, Professional Football League of Ukraine 1996, Professional Football League
of Georgia 1990), and commercialization took hold. Nonetheless, in the Russian Federation today, a revival of state-oriented sports politics fits with a general orientation towards
recovering the “positive values” of the Soviet era.
Historical Research on Sport in Russia and the Soviet Union
Although Russian sports historiography can be traced back to the early twentieth
century, when a few sport enthusiasts and physical educators sought to introduce Russian
citizens to modern recreation, it was not until the early Soviet period that scholarly research started in earnest.2 The first extensive foreign-language works on sport in Russia
(by which is meant works in Western European languages) began appearing from the early
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1960s, when Soviet sport became a potent Cold War weapon.3 From this point, the miracle
of the Soviet record-machine has proved the main fascination for Western authors. In the
U.S.S.R. the majority of publications appeared at the higher education sports institutions
and was dominated by the promotion of Soviet physical culture and the ideological legitimization of the system.4 The classical Russian-language studies and textbooks on fizkultura
by Fedor I. Samoukov, Vitalii V. Stolbov, Ivan G. Chudinov, and Liudmila A. Finogenova
are valuable, partly for their data, but mainly as historical sources for an exploration of late
Soviet sports culture.5 It was not until the late 1980s that Russian scholarship addressed
taboo topics such as the purges in sport.6
Although a considerable number of studies appeared both in the U.S.S.R. and in the
West from the 1970s onwards, the most significant contributions have been made more
recently. Not only has historical research in post-Soviet Russia and in the West been freed
from ideological pressure over the last two decades, but this period has also witnessed the
rise of cultural history and, within this framework, a concomitant increase in research on
sports as a cultural practice. Nevertheless, many studies produced in Russia are still dominated by the chronological, empirical approach of textbooks.
In general, the history of sport in Russia and the U.S.S.R. has focused on three main
topics, which will be analyzed below: the beginnings of sports and modernization in late
Imperial Russia; sport and physical culture as an element of the Soviet way of life; and
Cold War politics and Soviet sports.
Historiography on the Beginnings of Sports in Imperial Russia
Sporting activities in Tsarist Russia only recently became a topic of Western accounts
of Russian sports history, with American historian Louise McReynolds making the main
contribution.7 Focusing mainly on St. Petersburg and Moscow, McReynolds analyzed the
social and cultural dimension of the imperial turf, hunting, and athletic clubs as well as
wrestling, yachting, cycling, football, and tennis. Arguing for the “democratising” potential of sports, she touched upon three main issues: cultural transfer, the redefinition of
social and estate boundaries, and the articulation of gender identities. However, other
recent studies that concentrate on middle-class sports in late imperial St. Petersburg argue
by contrast that the degree of social intermingling provided by sports activities was rather
low.8 With the exception of Alexis Hofmeister’s short study on Jewish sport clubs in Odessa,
very little research has been done on the development of sport outside the capitals and on
ethnic/religious minorities in sport.9 Earlier foreign language studies provide valuable insights into the development of particular sports, with the majority dealing with the beginnings of Russian football.10 Very few studies address the watershed of 1917 and related
issues such as the continuity of, or disruptions to, “bourgeois” sport in early Soviet Russia.11 Single articles analyze the formation of Russian national identity through sport and
the significance of sport in arts.12
Recent Russian language dissertations on the cultural history of sport in late Tsarist
Russia touch upon similar issues to those introduced by McReynolds and are highly valuable for their archival research.13 Further recent studies are equally important for the data
they have amassed and their new (visual) source material.14 Useful information on single
sports (wrestling, cycling, gymnastics, ice-skating, lawn tennis, athletics, football, skiing,
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swimming, fencing, chess) and more general developments has been published in recent
reference books.15 An important contribution to the history of sport in Tsarist Russia has
been made by various publications of Soviet sport journalists, despite the odd element of
fiction and the obvious lack of references.16
Historiography on Sports and Physical Culture as an Element of the Soviet Way of Life
In foreign-language scholarship on sport as part of the Soviet way of life, James Riordan’s
pioneering book Sport in Soviet Society (1997) is still relevant, despite some uncritical
usage of Soviet publications and the integration of personal and eyewitness impression.17
After Riordan, several studies by German historians analyzed the physical culture movement in general.18 Stefan Plaggenborg was one of the first to include the theme of sport in
his general work on early Soviet revolutionary culture.19 Further recent studies touch
upon the ideological background of physical education and the project of “New Soviet
Man.”20 Historian André Gounot conducted extensive research in his dissertation on the
Red Sport International;21 further studies on this topic treat Soviet sport in a comparative
perspective or discuss Red Sport on the basis of individual case studies.22
Western scholars have also recently treated the iconography of Soviet physical culture:
Nina Sobol Levent has analyzed representations of sports bodies in 1920s and 1930s art,
and Mike O’Mahony examined the visuality of Soviet sports and physical culture in the
interwar period.23 Alison Rowley and Pat Simpson carried out research specifically on
gender and the representation of women in physical culture in Stalin’s Russia, arguing
respectively for the progressive role of women (Rowly) and the conservative impetus of
Stalinist propaganda (Simpson).24 Anke Hilbrenner has discussed gender aspects of Soviet
sport in general along with the development of Russian women’s football in particular.25
Julie Gilmour and Barbara Evans Clements touched upon the promulgation of masculine
values, analyzing the journal Sovetskii sport in the 1950s.26 Focusing on the representation
of the Soviet body in the fizkultura parades of the 1930s, Malte Rolf stressed the imperial
appeal and integrative function of these orchestrated propaganda events.27 Irina Makoveeva
dealt with similar issues for the period of the thaw.28 With his analysis of lesser known
competitions in the visual depiction of chess scenes and scenarios, Andreas Nievergelt
showed how deeply the Soviet propaganda penetrated the minds of ordinary Soviet citizens: despite not being directly sanctioned by the authorities, these compositions were
nonetheless typically patriotic.29
Less research has been conducted on the significance of sport and physical culture in
Soviet everyday life. Robert Edelman studied the importance of spectator sports for Soviet
citizens, analyzing the development of Soviet football, ice hockey, and basketball from the
mid 1930s until the end of the U.S.S.R.30 Edelman’s recent research is focused on one of
the most popular football clubs, Moscow Spartak, and seeks to unveil different ways of
“being Soviet,” arguing that Soviet fan culture bore subversive power that state authorities
had to negotiate.31 With his most recent article on football, Edelman has opened a promising new research direction: sports and emotions—a relatively new field for historians of
Russia in general.32 Analyzing the emotional appeal and pressure exerted by Spartak fans
on state institutions (e.g., about unfair referees and transfers), Edelman argues against the
“totalitarian model” of Soviet state and society, his analysis chiming with Eva Maurer’s
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innovative research on Soviet mountaineering.33 Maurer discusses various discrepancies
between mass sport and individual achievement and shows how the Soviet alpinist community developed a certain subversive potential as early as the 1930s. Barbara Keys addressed the issues surrounding mass culture and the impact of the West in Stalinist Russia.34 Very few studies touched upon sports in daily life of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union.
Jörg Ganzenmüller contextualized the sports press under Chrushchev within the general
discourse of de-Stalinization.35 Manfred Zeller’s article on football fans is the most substantial contribution on sports in everyday experience during late Socialism.36 Zeller analyzed the complex entanglement of diverse and competing identifications, which could
foster Soviet football fans’ patriotism, local and national feelings, transnational affiliations
as well as specific socialist values. A recent volume on sports in Soviet culture edited by
Nikolaus Katzer, Sandra Budy, Alexandra Köhring, and Manfred Zeller presents ongoing
projects in the field.37 Research is still mainly focused on developments in central cities,
with only a few studies tackling sporting activities on the periphery or in the non-Russian
regions that belonged to the Russian Empire or the U.S.S.R.38
In Russian language scholarship, Mikhail Prozumenshchikov’s account of the history
of elite sport is the first extensive critical study of Soviet sport’s political context. 39 Moreover, recent publications on sports culture in post-Soviet Russia touch upon new topics
such as sport and the media or sport and cultural consumption.40 In the post-Soviet period, the main research has been conducted at higher education sports institutions. The
post-Soviet publications of Georgii Demeter, professor of the Moscow State Academy for
Physical Culture, provide valuable material on physical culture between 1917 and 1945.41
A significant number of outputs were produced by former Soviet sport officials, such as
the Vice President of the Russian Olympic Committee Vladimir Rodichenko, and sports
journalists such as Alexandr Nilin whose biographies of famous athletes are partly memoirs.42 Journalist and historian Aksel’ T. Vartanian made an important contribution to the
history of Soviet football between 1936 and 1954.43 Information on the development of
professional post-Soviet sports in Russia, the Ukraine, and Belarus can be gleaned from
Aleksandr V. Pochinkin’s dissertation.44 Leonid Mininberg raised important questions
about national identification(s) in his work on Jews in Russian and Soviet sport, although
his analysis remains thin.45
Historiography on Cold War Politics and Soviet Sports
Following earlier works in English46 and German,47 a number of general overviews48
of sport in the Cold War and the miracle of the Soviet “record-machine” appeared, supplemented by case studies on the inter-block rivalry in ice hockey as well as conflicts within
the Soviet block49 and between particular teams.50 New research on Cold War sport rivalries focuses on institutional development and Soviet bureaucracy,51 on gender identities,52
the impact of drugs on the concept of masculinity and femininity,53 and on the issues of
cultural contact, cultural transfer, and the transformation of national identifications.54 As
Barbara Keys has shown in her study of the first personal encounters of Soviet athletes and
sports officials with their Western counterparts in the Olympic village of Melbourne,
officials on both sides made concessions.55 On the individual level, Soviet athletes’ direct
contacts with Western sportsmen and the experience they had with Western consumerism
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could lead to critical questions about Soviet propaganda. A further important contribution is Evelyn Mertin’s dissertation, which helps our understanding of the development of
Soviet-German relationships during the Cold War.56 Research has also begun on the Cold
War sport press.57
Among Russian language publications, Mikhail Prozumenshchikov’s work remains
the most extensive study of Soviet sport’s direct dependence on political bodies and of the
personal interference of political leaders in sporting matters from Stalin to Gorbachev.58
In addition, Romanov’s work provides valuable material on the participation of Soviet
athletes in the Olympic games in the 1950s and 1960s.59
Research Agenda for the History of Sport in Russia
The cultural history of sports in Russia and the U.S.S.R. remains to be written. Only
few Western historians (primarily McReynolds, Edelman, O’Mahony, Keys, Maurer, Zeller)
have contributed in some way to the analysis of sports in Russia as a cultural practice.
For the pre-Soviet period, studies on sports clubs and sportive socializing need to be
integrated within the broader context of the history of associations and clubs in Russia.
Questions of national/religious, gendered and local identifications, of the specific dynamics of Russian urbanization as well as the emergence of a public sphere in late Tsarist Russia
need to be tackled with new archival research. The transitional period of the First World
War, revolution and the civil war remains completely untouched by sports historians of
Russia and the Soviet Union.
Despite several excellent publications, analysis of everyday practice beyond elite sports
and official propaganda in the Soviet period is still lacking, even for the 1930s. Very little
has been published for the post-War period and late Socialism. As several scholars have
already lamented, there is a problem with primary material. Soviet propaganda sources
(visual material, official documents) were widely used in research, but individual or collective modes of perception and its significance for the day-to-day experience remain obscure. Robert Edelman has made extensive use of oral history interviews, but the reliability
of these sources is questionable for the earlier period.
The end of the U.S.S.R. has brought significant new research opportunities. New
source material became accessible, but publications in different parts of the former Soviet
area are now more difficult to obtain or are published in national languages.
KEYWORDS: IMPERIAL RUSSIA, SOVIET UNION, SPORT HISTORIOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL
COLD WAR
CULTURE,
1
For references to this overview, see the literature discussed in the following sections of this article.
Among other publications by Diuperron and Lesgaft see: Georgii A. Diuperron, Bibliografiia sporta
i fizicheskogo razvitiia. Sistematicheskaia rospis’ vsekh knig, broshiur, zhurnalov, vyshedshikh v Rossii po 1913
god vkliuchitel’no (Petrograd: Kanceliariia Sov. pri Glavnonabliudaiushchem, 1915); Petr F. Lesgaft, O
zadachakh fizicheskogo vospitania (St. Peterburg: tip. Doma prizreniia maloletn. bed., 1887); Alexandr
Sunik, Ocherki otechestvennoi istoriografii istorii fizicheskoi kul’tury i sporta (Moskva: Sovetskii sport, 2010).
3
On Cold War rhetoric in sport history, see Allen Guttmann, “Sport, Politics and the Engaged
Historian,” Journal of Contemporary History 38 (2003): 363-375; Henry W. Morton, Soviet Sport, Mirror
2
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of Soviet Society (New York: Collier Books 1963); Karlheinz Gieseler, “Medaillenjagd und Massensport:
Eine Analyse des sowjetischen Sports mit mexikanischem Akzent,” Osteuropa 19 (1969): 81-96; Peter
Sendlak, “Leibesübungen und Sport in der Sowjetunion,” in Geschichte der Leibesübungen, ed. Horst
Ueberhorst, vol. 4 (Berlin: Bartels & Wernitz, 1972), 65-122; Michael A. Speak and Victor H. Ambler,
Physical Education, Recreation and Sport in the USSR (Lancaster, U.K.: Centre for Physical Education,
University of Lancaster, 1976); James Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical
Education in Russia and the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Noah N.
Shneidman, The Soviet Road to Olympus: Theory and Practice of Soviet Physical Culture and Sport (London:
Routledge, 1979).
4
Konstantin A. Kulinkovich, ed., Istoriia fizicheskoi kul’tury i sporta v SSSR: retrospektivnyi ukazatel’
literatury, 1923-1982 gg. (Minsk: n.p., 1984).
5
Fedor I. Samoukov, ed., Istoriia fizicheskoi kul’tury (Moskva: FiS, 1956); Vitalii V. Stolbov and Ivan
G. Chudinov, Istoriia fizicheskoi kul’tury (Moskva: FiS, 1962); Vitalii V. Stolbov, ed., Istoriia fizicheskoi
kul’tury. Uchebnik dlia institutov fizkul’tury (Moskva; FiS, 1975). For the new edition, see Vitalii V. Stolbov,
L.A. Finogenova, and N. Iu. Mel’nikova, Istoriia fizicheskoi kul’tury. Uchebnik dlia vuzov, 3rd ed. (Moskva:
FiS, 2000).
6
Sergei I. Gus’kov, ed., Sport i perestroika. Sbornik nauchnykh trudov po materialam Vsesoiuznoi nauchnoprakticheskoi konferencii “Gosudarstvo, sport i mir,” Moskva 20-22 aprelia 1988 g. (Proceedings of the allUnion scholarly-practical conference “State, Sport, and World,” Moscow, April 20-22,1988), Moskva,
1988.
7
Louise McReynolds, Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End of the Tsarist Era (Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University Press, 2003), 76-192; see also Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society, 9-41.
8
Ekaterina Emeliantseva, “Sport und urbane Lebenswelten im spätzarischen Sankt Petersburg, 18601914,” in Sport als städtisches Ereignis, ed. Christian Koller (Ostfildern, Ger.: Thorbecke, 2008), 31-76;
idem, “‘Ein Fußballmatch ist kein Symphoniekonzert!’ Die Fußballspiele und ihr Publikum im
spätzarischen Russland (1901-1913),” in Überall ist der Ball rund: Zur Geschichte des Fußballs in Ost- und
Südosteuropa. Zweite Halbzeit, eds. Dittmar Dahlmann, Anke Hilbrenner and Britta Lenz (Essen, Ger.:
Klartext, 2008), 13-43.
9
Alexis Hofmeister, “Autoemanzipation durch Muskelkraft. Vergleichende Überlegungen zur
Bedeutung jüdischer Sportvereine im ausgehenden Zarenreich,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West. Beiträge
zur Sportgeschichte Osteuropas im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, eds. Arié Malz, Stefan Rohdewald, and Stefan
Wiederkehr (Osnabrück, Ger.: fibre, 2007), 171-189.
10
Dittmar Dahlmann, “Vom Pausenfüller zum Massensport. Der Fußball in Russland von den 1880er
Jahren bis zum Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkrieges 1914,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann,
Hilbrenner and Lenz, 15-39; Peter A. Frykholm, “Soccer and Social Identity in Pre-Revolutionary Moscow,” Journal of Sport History 24 (1997): 143-154; Victor E. Peppard, “The Beginnings of Russian Soccer,” Stadion 8/9 (1982/1983): 151-168.
11
Robert Edelman, “A Small Way of Saying ‘No’: Moscow Working Men, Spartak Soccer, and the
Communist Party, 1900-1945,” American Historical Review 107 (2002): 1441-1474; idem, Spartak Moscow: A History of the People’s Team in the Workers’ State (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press 2009), 1041.
12
John D. Windhausen and Irina V. Tsypkina, “National Identity and the Emergence of the Sports
Movement in Late Imperial Russia,” International Journal of the History of Sport 12 (1995): 164-182;
Timoty C. Harte, “Game, Set, Stanza: Modern Sport in Russia and the Poetry of Osip Mandel’shtam,”
Russian Review 59 (2000): 353-370.
13
Irina B. Khmelnitskaia, “Stolichnyi dosug v nachale XX veka (Peterburg i Moskva)” (doctoral
dissertation, Moscow State University, 2004); idem, Sportivnye obshchestva I dosug v stolichnom gorode
nachala XX veka: Peterburg i Moskva (Moskva: Novyi khronograf, 2011); Konstantin A. Alekseev,
“Sportivnaia pressa Rossii XIX—nachala XX vv.: istoriko-tipologicheskii analiz” (doctoral dissertation,
St. Petersburg State University, 2008).
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14
Aleksandr Sunik, Rossiiskii sport i olimpiiskoe dvizhenie na rubezhe XIX-XX vekov, 2nd ed. (Moskva:
Sovetskii sport, 2004); Tatiana Andreeva and Marina Guseva, eds., Sport nashich dedov. Stranicy istorii
rossiiskogo sporta v fotografiiakh konca XIX – nachala XX veka (Sankt Peterburg: Liki Rossii, 2002);
Olimpiiskaia letopis’ Peterburga, ed., Gosudarstvennaia akademiia fizicheskoi kul’tury imeni Petra F. Lesgafta
(Sankt Peterburg, n.p., 2002); Iurii Lukosiak, Futbol. Pervye shagi, 1860-1923 (Sankt Peterburg: Soiuz
khudozhnikov, 1998).
15
I.H. Semicheva and A.T. Mar’ianovich, “Fizkul’tura i sport,” in Tri veka Sankt-Peterburga.
Ëncyklopediia v trekh tomakh, tom II: Deviatnadtsatyi vek, kniga sed’maia, U-CH (Sankt Peterburg: Fakul’tet
filologii i iskusstv Sankt-Peterburgskogo gos. universiteta, 2009), 290-296.
16
Leonid B. Gorianov, Kolumby Moskovskogo futbola (Moskva: Moskovskii rabochii, 1983).
17
Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society; idem, “The Sports Policy of the Soviet Union, 1917-1941,” in
Sport and International Politics, eds. James Riordan and Pierre Arnaud (London: E.& F.N. Spon, 1998),
67-78.
18
Karl-Heinz Ruffman, Sport und Körperkultur in der Sowjetunion (München: DTV, 1980); Sabine
Meck, Das Verhältnis von Arbeit und Körperkultur in der Sowjetunion. Versuch einer theoretischen
Standortbestimmung (Frankfurt/Main, Ger.: Lang, 1986).
19
Stefan Plaggenborg, Revolutionskultur. Menschenbilder und kulturelle Praxis in Sowjetrussland zwischen
Oktoberrevolution und Stalinismus (Köln, Ger.: Böhlau, 1996), 62-95; John Read, “Physical Culture and
Sport in the Early Soviet Period,” Australian Slavonic and East European Studies 10 (1996): 59-84. For
general remarks on the cultural significance of sport in Russian and Soviet history, see Nikolaus Katzer,
“‘Neue Menschen’ in Bewegung. Zum Verhältnis von Sport und Moderne in Russland im 20. Jahrhundert,”
in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr, 349-369.
20
Stefan Rohdewald, “Von der Schaffung des Menschen zum Sieg des ‘Neuen Menschen’ im
Weltsport? Zur Weltgeschichtlichen Funktion der Körperkultur in Sportlehrmitteln der späten Sowjetunion
(1956-1975),” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr, 327-347; David L.
Hoffman, “Bodies of Knowledge: Physical Culture and the New Soviet Man,” in Language and Revolution: Making Modern Political Identities, ed. Igal Halfin (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 269-286; Evelyn
Mertin, “Presenting Heroes: Athletes as Role Models for the New Soviet Person,” International Journal of
the History of Sport 26 (2009): 469-483.
21
André Gounot, Die rote Sportinternationale 1921-1937: Kommunistische Massenpolitik im
europäischen Arbeitersport (Münster, Ger.: LIT, 2002); idem, “Sport und Inszenierung des sozialistischen
Aufbaus: Das Projekt der Weltspartakiade in Moskau (1931-1934),” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds.
Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr, 75-91; idem, “Vom ‘Rotsport’ zu FIFA. Der sowjetische Fussball
und seine internationalen Kontakte 1922-1946,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann, Hilbrenner
and Lenz, 269-285.
22
Christian Koller, “Fussball und internationale Beziehungen 1918 bis 1950: Großbritannien,
Deutschland und die Sowjetunion im Vergleich,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald,
and Wiederkehr, 55-74; idem, “Kicken unter Hammer und Sichel: Die vergessene Geschichte des
Schweizerischen Arbeiterfussball-Verbandes 1930-1936,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann,
Hilbrenner and Lenz, 241-267.
23
Nina Sobol Levent, Healthy Spirit in a Healthy Body: Representations of the Sports Body in Soviet Art
of the 1920s and 1930s (Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2004); Mike O’Mahony, Sport in the USSR: Physical
Culture—Visual Culture (London: Reaktion, 2006).
24
Alison Rowley, “Sport in the Service of the State: Images of Physical Culture and Soviet Women,
1917–1941,” International Journal of the History of Sport 23 (2006): 1314-1340; Pat Simpson, “Parading
Myths: Imaging New Soviet Woman on Fizkul’turnik’s Day, July 1944,” Russian Review 63 (2004): 187211.
25
Anke Hilbrenner, “Auch in Russland ‘ein reiner Männersport’? Zur Geschichte und Gegenwart
des Frauenfussballs in der Russischen Föderation,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann, Hilbrenner
and Lenz, 71-96.
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JOURNAL OF SPORT HISTORY
26
Julie Gilmour and Barbara Evans Clements, “‘If You Want to Be Like Me, Train!’: The Contradictions of Soviet Masculinity,” in Russian Masculinities in History and Culture, eds. Barbara Evans Clements,
Rebecca Friedman, and Dan Healey (Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave, 2002), 210-222.
27
Malte Rolf, “Die schönen Körper des Kommunismus: Sportparaden in der Sowjetunion der
dreißiger Jahre,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr, 309-325.
28
Irina Makoveeva, “Soviet Sports as a Cultural Phenomenon: Body and/or Intellect,” Studies in
Slavic Cultures 3 (2002): 9-32.
29
Andreas Nievergelt, “Schachographie in Russland und der Sowjetunion: Ein sportliches Randgebiet
der Geschichtsdarstellung und Bildpropaganda,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald,
and Wiederkehr, 147-167. On the history of Soviet chess see Andrew Sotlis, Soviet Chess 1917-1991
(Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2000).
30
Robert Edelman, Serious Fun: A History of Spectator Sports in the USSR (New York: OUP, 1993).
31
Robert Edelman, Spartak Moscow; see idem, “A Small Way of Saying ‘No.’”
32
Robert Edelman, “Romantiki-neudachniki: ‘Spartak’ v zolotoi vek sovetskogo futbola (1945-1952),”
in Rossiiskaia imperiia chuvstv: Podkhody k kul’turnoi istorii emotsii, eds. Ian Plamper, Shamma Shakhadat,
and Mark Eli (Moskva: NLO 2010), 306-326.
33
Eva Maurer, Wege zum Pik Stalin: Sowjetische Alpinisten 1928–1953 (Zürich: Chronos, 2010);
idem, “Der sowjetische Alpinist auf Abwegen: Normvorstellungen, Kritik und Disziplinierung in der
alpinistischen Gemeinschaft, 1931-1955,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and
Wiederkehr, 287-307; idem, “Al’pinizm as Mass Sport and Elite Recreation: Soviet Mountaineering
Camps under Stalin,” in Turizm: The Russian and East European Tourist under Capitalism and Socialism,
eds. Anne E. Gorsuch and Diane P. Koenker (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006), 142-161.
34
Barbara Keys, “Soviet Sport and Transnational Mass Culture in the 1930s,” Journal of Contemporary History 38 (2003): 413-434; idem, Globalizing Sport: National Rivalry and International Community
in the 1930s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
35
Jörg Ganzenmüller, “Fussball unter Chrušèev. Sportberichterstattung als Entstalinisierungsdiskurs
in der Sowjetunion der 1950er und 1960er Jahre,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann, Hilbrenner,
and Lenz, 139-153.
36
Mandred Zeller, “Our Own Internationale, 1966, Dynamo Kiev Fans between Local Identity and
Transnational Imagination,“ Kritika 12 (2011): 53-82.
37
Nikolaus Katzer et al., eds., Euphoria and Exhaustion: Modern Sport in Soviet Culture and Society
(Frankfurt am Main, Ger.: Campus, 2010).
38
Wolf Krämer-Mandeau, “Regionale Spiele und Sportarten auf dem Gebiet der ehemaligen
Sowjetunion,” Stadion 17 (1991): 245-277; Marsil N. Farkhashatov, “Breitensport oder Wettkampf der
Industriegiganten? Fussball in Baschkirien 1970-1985,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann,
Hilbrenner and Lenz, 65-87; Margerita Imgrunt, “Aufstieg in den Adelsstand des Sports. Zur Entwicklung
des Fussballs in Lettland 1922-1940,” in Überall ist der Ball rund, eds. Dahlmann, Hilbrenner and Lenz,
181-199.
39
Mikhail Iu. Prozumenshchikov, Bol’shoii sport i bol’shaia politika (Moskva: ROSSPEN, 2004).
40
Vera Zvereva, “Televizionnyi sport,” Logos 3 (2006), <http://magazines.russ.ru/logos/2006/3/
te4.html> [20 May 2010]; idem, “Restling kak zrelishche,” Neprikosnovennyi zapas ( Emergency Reserve)
6 (2001), <http://magazines.russ.ru/nz/2001/6/zver.html> [20 May 2010]; Ol’ga Roginskaia, “Strana na
l’du. Ol’ga Roginskaia o chempionakh TV-reitinga,” Kriticheskaia massa 4 (2006), <http://
magazines.russ.ru/km/2006/4/ro2.html> [20 May 2010].
41
Georgii S. Demeter, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoi fizicheskoi kul’tury i olimpiiskogo dvizheniia
(Moskva: Sovetskii sport, 2005).
42
Vladimir S. Rodichenko, Olimpiskaia ideiia dlia Rossii. Povtorenie proidennogo (Moskva: Sovetskii
sport, 2004); Aleksandr P. Nilin, XX vek. Sport (Moskva: Molodaia gvardiia, 2005); idem, Strel’tsov. Chelovek
bez loktei (Moskva: Molodaia gvardiia, 2002).
370
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FORUM: EUROPEAN SPORT AND THE CHALLENGES OF ITS RECENT HISTORIOGRAPHY
43
Aksel’ T. Vartanian, Letopis’ sovetskogo futbola 1936-1954 gg. (Moskva: Sport-Ekspress, 2003-2010,
eBook, PDF).
44
Aleksandr V. Pochinkin, Stanovlenie i razvitie professional’nogo kommercheskogo sporta v Rossii
(Moskva: Sovetskii sport, 2006).
45
Leonid L. Mininberg, Evrei v rossiiskom i sovetskom sporte (1891-1991) (Mosvka: MK-Poligraf,
1998).
46
Henry W. Morton, “Soviet Sports: A School for Communism” (doctoral dissertation, Columbia
University, 1959); Scott Young, War on Ice: Canada in International Hockey (Toronto: McClelland and
Stewart, 1976).
47
Karlheinz Gieseler, “Medaillenjagd und Massensport: Eine Analyse des sowjetischen Sports mit
mexikanischem Akzent,” Osteuropa 19 (1969): 81-96.
48
Lawrence Martin, The Red Machine: The Soviet Quest to Dominate Canada’s Game (Toronto:
Doubleday, 1990); Victor E. Peppard and James Riordan, Playing Politics: Soviet Sport Diplomacy to 1992
(Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1993); Roy MacSkimming, Cold War: The Amazing Canada-Soviet Hockey
Series of 1972 (Vancouver, B.C.: Greystone Books, 1996); Kristina Exner-Carl, Sport und Politik in den
Beziehungen Finnlands zur Sowjetunion 1940-1952 (Wiesbaden, Ger.: Harrassowitz, 1997); Andrew Soltis,
Soviet Chess, 1917-1991 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2000); Joseph M. Turrini, “‘It Was Communism Versus Free World’: The USA-USSR Dual Track Meet Series and the Development of Track and
Field in the United States, 1958-1985,” Journal of Sport History 28 (2001): 427-471; Edmund Bruns,
“Der Kalte Krieg und seine Repräsentation auf dem Schachbrett,” Das Schachspiel als Phänomen der
Kulturgeschichte des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Münster, Ger.: LIT, 2003), 239-294; Nikolaus Katzer,
“Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn: Deutsch-russische Sportbegegnungen nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg,”
in Tauwetter, Eiszeit und gelenkte Dialoge: Russen und Deutsche nach 1945, eds. Karl Eimermacher et al.
(München: Fink, 2006), 779-809.
49
Markku Jokisipilä, “Revenge in 1969, Miracle in 1980: The Two Most Politically Charged Moments of Cold War Ice Hockey,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr,
93-111; Jörg Ganzenmüller, “Bruderzwist im Kalten Krieg: Sowjetisch-tschechoslowakische Länderspiele
im Umfeld des ‘Prager Frühlings’,” in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr,
113-130.
50
Robert F. Baumann, “The Central Army Sports Club (TsSKA): Forging a Military Tradition in
Soviet Ice Hockey,” Journal of Sport History 15 (1988): 151-166.
51
Jennifer L. Parks, “Verbal Gymnastics: Sports, Bureaucracy, and the Soviet Union’s Entrance into
the Olympic Games, 1946-1952,” in East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War, eds. Stephen Wagg and
David L. Andrews (London: Routledge, 2007), 27-44; Evelyn Mertin, “The Soviet Union and the Olympic
Games of 1980 and 1984: Explaining the Boycotts to Their Own People,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg
and Andrews, 235-252.
52
Eva Maurer, “Männerurlaub? Geschlechterkonstruktionen im sowjetischen Alpinistenlager der
Nachkriegszeit, 1945-1956,” Voyage: Jahrbuch für Reise- und Tourismusforschung 8 (2009): 70-85;
Mary G. McDonald, “‘Miraculous’ Masculinity Meets Militarization: Narrating the 1980 USSR-US
Men’s Olympic Ice Hockey Match and Cold War Politics,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg and Andrews,
222-234.
53
Jeffrey Montez de Oca, “The ‘Muscle Gap’: Physical Education and US Fears of a Depleted Masculinity,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg and Andrews, 123-148.
54
Eva Maurer, “Cold War, ‘Thaw’ and ‘Everlasting Friendship’: Soviet Mountaineers and Mount
Everest, 1953–1960,” International Journal of the History of Sport 26 (2009): 484-500; Jay Scherer, Gregory H. Duquette, and Daniel S. Mason, “The Cold War and the (Re)articulation of Canadian National
Identity: the 1972 Canada-USSR Summit Series,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg and Andrews, 163-186;
Ronnie Kowalski and Dilwyn Porter, “Cold War Football: British-European Encounters in the 1940s
and 1950s,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg and Andrews, 64-81; John Bale, “‘Oscillating Antagonism’:
Soviet-British Athletics Relations, 1945-60,” in East Plays West, eds. Wagg and Andrews, 82-99.
Fall 2011
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JOURNAL OF SPORT HISTORY
55
Barbara Keys, “The Soviet Union, Cultural Exchange and the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games,”
in Sport zwischen Ost und West, eds. Malz, Rohdewald, and Wiederkehr, 131-145.
56
Evelyn Mertin, Sowjetisch-deutsche Sportbeziehungen im “Kalten Krieg” (St. Augustin, Ger.: Academia
Verlag, 2009).
57
Evelyn Mertin, “Friend or Foe? Soviets in West German Sports Coverage,” Journal of Olympic
History 15 (2007): 32-38; Robert E. Rinehart, “Cold War Expatriate Sport: Symbolic Resistance and
International Response in Hungarian Water Polo at the Melbourne Olympics, 1956,” in East Plays West,
eds. Wagg and Andrews, 45-63.
58
Prozumenshchikov, Bol’shoii sport; idem, “Za partiinymi kulisami velikoi sportivnoi derzhavy,”
Neprikosnovennyi zapas (Emergency Reserve) 3 (2004), <http://magazines.russ.ru/nz/2004/35/pro22.html>
[15 May 2010].
59
Nikolai Romanov, Voskhozhdenie na Olimp (Moskva: Sovetskii sport, 1993); idem, Trudnye dorogi
k Olimpu (Moskva: FiS, 1987).
372
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