Manyara Rift - Goethe

University of Dar es Salaam Evolution and Ecology of Pleistocene Hominids and Landscape Reconstruction in the East African Rift Valley Excursion guide July 2009 Contents A. The Lake Manyara Area 1. Relief development and topography in the Lake Manyara Area (Ina Haase) 1 2. Geology and tectonics in the Manyara Rift (Miriam Wellmann) 4 Poster: Manyara Rift Geology and Tectonics (Bastian Förster and Miriam Wellmann) 5 3. Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Manyara Beds (Serife Arda) 6 4. Taphonomy of the Manyara Beds (Julia Hoffmann) 7 Poster: Archaeology (Ina Haase and Jan Hilbig) 9 B. Regional Context 5. Geology and tectonics of the East African Rift System (EARS) (Bastian Förster) 10 6. Soils of East Africa with particular focus on Tanzania (Stefan Seitz) 12 Poster: Tropical Soils of Northern Tanzania (Stefan Seitz) 15 7. Palaeoclimate development (Tanja Rutz) 16 Poster: Paleoclimate (Michael Kubi and Martin Schaefer) 19 8. Paleontological Context: Laetoli (Marthe‐Susann Wegner) 20 9. Paleontological Context: Olduvai (Markus Schaefer) 23 Poster: Biostratigraphy (Julia Hoffmann and Tanja Rutz) 24 10. East African Paleoanthropology and Homo erectus (Nicole Frölich and Martin Kempe) 25 Poster: Pleistocene Hominids in East Africa (Nicole Frölich und Martin Kempe) 27 11. Ecology of large mammal faunas in East Africa (Michael Kubi and Jan Hilbig) 28 Poster: Mammalian Anatomy (Serife Arda and Marthe‐Susann Wegner) 36 C. Miscellaneous 12. Geoelectrics and Geomagnetics (Benedikt Hahn and Johannes Bender) 37 D. References E. Species list Relief development and topography in the Lake Manyara Area written by: Ina Haase BSc Physical Geography, University Frankfurt/Main Tanzania field school 2009 Overview of the research area: Makuyuni Relief situation of the Manyara area with some places of interest Map modified, source: GoogleMaps Geological situation of the Manyara area: •
Mostly: o Undifferentiated Neogene to Quaternary continental sedimentary formations o Continental and lacustrine sedimentary formation, Cenozoic o Quartenary “recent” alkaline volcanics and pyroclastics o Undifferentiated Neogene and Pleistocene volcanic and pyroclastic formations (including “older extrusions”) •
•
•
Part of the East African rift system Æ Tanzania divergence zone (ca. 300 – 400 km long) In this area: explosive volcanism since 1.2 mio Tanzania divergence zone consists of 3 separate rifts: ƒ Eyasi Rift ƒ Manyara Rift ƒ Pangani Rift 1 •
Manyara rift: o ca. 100 km long o includes Lake Manyara and Lake Burungi o Plio‐ and Pleistocene sediment fillings o Volcanic material Ring et al (2005) Digital elevation model: •
•
B D Topographic structures of the Manyara area: •
fluvial system/ river delta: o created at the mouth of a river o formed from the deposition of the sediment carried by the river o origin: Greek letter delta: Δ Æ characteristic form 2 Lake Manyara river follows tectonic structure
recent river form Delta area of the river flowing into Lake Manyara Map modified, source: GoogleMaps •
black “lacustrine clay”: o dimension of the lake was larger o tectonic feature: horsts on former lake bed (Æ climatic or tectonic reasons) •
beach ridge at Lake Manyara Peneplain east of Lake Manyara •
•
•
•
old land surface denudation processes condition of development: warm/ humid climate and intensive stone weathering dendritically fluviatile system •
peneplain east of Lake Manyara with typically river systems source: GoogleMaps 3 Geology and tectonics in the Manyara Rift The Tanzanian rifts are the southern termination of the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift. There is a splay at the termination, which is called the Tanzanian Divergence Zone. It is 300 to 400 km wide. The Tanzania craton is likely to cause the splaying of the Rift. There are three separate graben, the Eyasi Rift, the Pangani Rift, and the Manyara Rift. The length of the Manyara Rift is 100 km . It has an asymmetrical geometry typical for continental rift zones. Lake Manyara is a part of the rift. There is a 500 m high escarpment west of Lake Manyara with no eastern equivalent. Manyara beds The sediments in this area are called the Manyara beds, which are divided in two sections. The Lower Members (lacustrine facies) are up to 15 m thick. They consist of light grey to light greenish‐grey mudstones, siltstones, fine‐grained sandstones, diatomites, marls and tuffs. They are 1.7 to 0.7 mio old. They are exposed 10 km east of Makuyuni to MtoWaMbu and Magugu There is a border with differences in colour, grain size and erosion. The Upper Members (floodplain, channel and debris flow facies) are up to 13 m thick. They consist of reddish‐brown to buff‐coloured mudstones, siltstones, tuffaceous conglomerates and breccias . They are 0.7 to 0.4 mio old. They are exposed northwest of Makuyuni. Vertebrate fossils like fish or mammals have been found in both the upper and the lower member of the Manyara beds. Lake Manyara exists since the middle Pleistocene. It was 4 times larger than today, the eastern shore was 40 km more in the east. The sediments show that it moved to the west. Faulting in the Manyara Rift started in the Pleistocene. The faults seem to be unrelated to the structures in the basement, there are different extension directions, but the main extension direction is east/north‐east oriented. Volcanoes caused local radial extension. 4 Manyara Rift: Geology and Tectonics
East African Rift System (EARS):
• tertiary to recent
• length: 3,500 km
• width: 50 to 150 km
• Afar Triangle in Ethiopia to the estuary mouth of the Sambesi in Mozambique
• connection at the Afar triple junction to the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden with
Aden with the middle
middle‐oceanic
oceanic ridge
• spread: ca. 0.5 cm per year
• higher volcanic activity than in the western branch
• higher volume of surface volcanites
• The Tanzanian rifts are the southern termination of the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift
• Tanzanian Divergence Zone (300 – 400 km wide)
• 3 separate graben: Eyasi Rift, Manyara Rift, Pangani Rift
• Tanzania craton caused the splaying of the Rift
p y g
Manyara Rift
• 100 km long
• asymmetrical geometry
• 500 m high escarpment
• Lake Manyara →
Upper Member
• up to 13 m thick
• reddish‐brown to buff‐coloured
• mudstones
• siltstones
• tuffaceous conglomerates
• breccias
• floodplain, channel and debris flow facies
• 0.7 – 0.4 Ma old
Supported by
Lower Member
• up to 15 m thick
• light grey to light
greenish‐grey
greenish
grey
• mudstones
• siltstones
• fine‐grained sandstones
• diatomites
• marls
• tuffs
• lacustrine facies
• 1.7 –
1 7 0.7 Ma old
0 7 Ma old
Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Manyara Beds -
first geological researches by Kent in 1942 Ædeposits suggest lacustrine paleo‐ environment in middle Pleistocene -
1993‐1995 Hominid Corridor Research Project • classification into two stratigraphical layer (Fig.1): 1. Upper Manyara bed 2. Lower Manyara bed Fig.1: schematic picture of Manyara beds Upper Manyara beds Scheduling -
Diggings -
categorized to Late Pleistocene MK 7‐11, MK 15, MK 18 und MK 20‐21 Paleoecology -
Lower Manyara beds -
dry, wooded savannah one big river or several smaller rivers nearby -
categorized to Early Pleistocene MK 2‐6, MK 12‐14, MK 16‐
17, MK 19 und TG 1 find spots of hominid‐
fossils in MK 4 and MK2 similar to present ecology saline‐alkaline mudflat next to the lake short grassland close‐by the lake high grass with shrubs farther away wooded westward and northward from the lake Hominid­Fossils: MK 4: -
part of the right parietal‐bone (Os parietale) of a Homo erectus scull, called MH1 (Fig.2) MK 2: left upper incisivor, called MH2 Fig.2: MH 1
6
Taphonomy Makuyuni
Julia Homann, Bachelor Geowissenschaften,
Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main
1
Taphonomy
The study of taphonomy concerns the processes leading from death to fossilisation of an
organism. This transition of organic remains from the biosphere to the asthenosphere is the
result of many intimately connected geological and biological phenomena. A distinction is
drawn between the following taphonomic processes:
ˆ Death: The cause of death is one of the most important sources of information in ta-
phonomy, as conditions during life can readily be inferred through interpretation of the
circumstances of death.
ˆ Dissolution of cadaver: The cause of death aects further destructions, depending on
whether the cadaver was accessible for heterotrophs or not. Surface traces on bones are
important for the reconstruction of necrotic processes, as they reect the taphonomic
history.
ˆ Dissolution of skeleton: Remains, which are exposed to alteration, can be modied to
unidentiability due to abrasion or corrosion, including water, wind, sun and humidity,
as well as invertebrates, plants or even trampling.
ˆ Embedding: Sedimentation rates mainly depend on the intensity of rearrangement and
the subsequent delivery of sediment. Depending upon the overlying load, fracture and
deformation can occur.
ˆ Fossilisation: The transition of bones from the biosphere to the lithosphere is determined
by sedimentological factors. The deposition of minerals is eected by the recrystallisation
of Apatite in bones.
ˆ Recovery: Most fossil discoveries are enabled by erosion. Then the fossils are exposed to
the elements.
ˆ Preparation: Mechanical preparation can cause microscopical variances on the surface
of the bones and can overlay existing marks, which are very important for the reconstruction of taphonomic processes.
1
ˆ Transport: Post mortem transport is an inuential parameter in taphonomic processes.
Transport processes can change the composition of biocenosis, or even destroy. As a
result the embedding location of several elements can be a long way away from each
other. Transport is carried out by water and gravitation, as well as carnivores and also
hominids.
ÜTaphonomy is a continuum of processes, in which every stage can be terminal; the fossilisation of organic matter is the absolute exception. A combination and/or repitition of the
above mentioned taphonomic stages lead to preservation.
2
Makuyuni
Most of the fossils around Lake Manyara are located on the ground, few specimens can be
found in situ. Predominantly there are mammal fossils, admittedly almost only isolated skeletal elements (85œof the ndings are teeth), which are weathered or otherwise modied.
Because of bad conservation, fossils of Lake Manyara allegorize very complicated material for
taphonomic analysis.
The intensity of alteration provides information concerning the sedimentation rate. In the
area round Makuyuni all phases of alteration are visible. This is an indication of a long-dated,
gradual accumulation of skeletal remains prior to embedding.
The status of abrasion provides information about degradation of surfaces before sedimentation. The level of rounding on fractured bones shows that there were no uviatile inuences;
physical weathering is primarily due to aeolian abrasion.
The mineralisation grade of the bones is high. The bone tissue is primarily impregnated with
calcite. The carbonates come from the soil but it is assumed that they could also come from
alkaline volcanism.
The multiplicity of toothmarks and recurring examples of skeletal corrosion shows the activity
of carnivores in the palaeohabitat.
On the bones, cutting marks, scraping marks and heeling marks can be found, as well as
artefacts of bifaces, which shows the activity of Homo erectus in this area.
For the reconstruction of the palaeohabitat a great number of Suidae were important. In the
Manyara-Beds, many dierent species of Suidae are represented, few from open habitates,
other from delta- and ow areas. With this information a reconstruction of the palaeohabitat
is possible. The palaeolandscape must have consisted savanna, as well as wetlands. It is assumed that the structure of the Gregory-Rift had a great eect on the palaeohabitat at Lake
Manyara.
3
Sources
ˆ Dissertation Thomas Kaiser, 1997, "Die Taphonomie plio-pleistozäner Hominidenfund-
stellen Ostafrikas"
ˆ Dissertation Charles B. Saanane, 2002, "Taphonomy and Palaeoecology of Laetoli as
well as Makuyuni, Arusha Region, Northern Tanzania"
2
Archeology
Elements of Archeology
‡
Excavation site of Makuyuni
Definition:
from the greek: archaiologia = ancient/old and
logia = device
Archeology is known as the science of the development of
human culture. This contains analysis, recovery, documentation
and interpretation of
material remains like artefakts and
architecture.
‡
‡
Survey map of the discovery area at the base of the
western trench at the southern Gregory Rift in NorthTanzania:
‡
The hill located in the south-west of Makuyuni with the
locality of MK4:
Methods:
Survey:
Excavation:
Analysis:
Exploration of the environment via surface
survey, aerial survey or geophysical survey
can
reveal
three-dimensional
structures
and
therefor
more
detailed
information;
most expensive phase of a archeological
reserach
Evaluations of the discovered structures
and artefacts to gain data and information
Cultural development in the
Early Stone Age
‡
Oldowan:
2,4 Ma to 1,5 Ma
Contains the oldest industrial complex of stone tools
probably used by the first representatives of the species ÄHomo³
and Australopithecus.
chopper
Tools:
±
±
chopper
discus shaped
stone cores
Scraper
±
Material:
±
quartz; basalt; lava;flint
‡
scraper
Acheulean:
1,5 Ma to 100.000 a
affected by handaxes Æ
most popular stone tool
used by Homo erectus
Material:
±
quartz
handaxe
all graphics are taken from: Kaiser et al (2005)
(beside ÄOldupai³
Supported by
Geology and tectonics of the East African Rift System (EARS) Basic informations: •
formed in tertiary to recent •
length: 3500 km •
width: 50 to 150 km •
Afar Triangle in Ethiopia to the estuary mouth of the Sambesi in Mozambique •
connection at the Afar triple junction to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden with the middle‐oceanic ridge •
spread: ca. 0.5 cm per year •
In East Africa the valley divides into Î Western Branch (high seismicity) Î Eastern Branch (high volcanic activity) •
volcanites in the north of the Eastern Branch are much older than in the south Æ The outcome of this is that the volcanism began in the north Topography and Geomorphology of the EARS: • Dome regions and regions of depression • Dome: Afar­ Dome and Eastafrica­ Dome • Afar‐ Dome: 1500m; Eastafrica‐ Dome: 1200m • the Turkana depression splits the Afar‐ Dome from the Eastafrica‐ Dome • High volcanic activity (since oligocene) • the elevation of the turkana‐expression is caused by the magmatic underplating/ elevation of lithosphere‐heating • the rift system is affected by the precambrian, crystalline Basement • Tanzania‐craton plays a prominent role 10 Theory of the transmission of stress (by Nyablade 2002) •
progress of the EARS in the precambrian lithosphere •
the Tanzania craton is a compact, undeformable block •
the rift systems circulate the cratone •
the volcanism in Western Branch starts when the Eastern Branch collides with the Tanzania‐craton Ethiopian rift: volcanism: 45‐37 million years ago geology: eruption of basalt, generation of Ignimbrites and Rhyolites Kenia/ Tanzania rift: volcanism: North of Kenia 35‐30 million years ago; Central‐Kenia 15 million years ago; Tanzania 8 million years ago geology: Eruption of phonolites, trachytes, alkali‐basalts and carbonatites (Ol Doinyo Lengai is the only active carbonatit‐volcan worldwide) Western Branch: volcanism: 12 million years ago geology: mostly basalt 11 Soils of East­Africa with particular focus on Tanzania Definition of Soil: The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants. The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate (including water and temperature effects), and macro‐ and microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. A product‐soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics. The following table shows the major soiltypes of Tanzania: Number Soiltypes Km² Prozent % Number Soiltypes Km² Prozent % 1 Regosols 1196.15 0,13 11 Fluvisols 26223.13 2,77 2 Gleysols 1486.19 0,16 12 Planosols 28197.84 2,98 3 Solonchaks 2750.92 0,29 13 Lixisols 46888.61 4,95 4 Histosols 3791.45 0,4 14 Vertisols 47497.85 5,02 5 Chernozems 4734.96 0,5 15 Water bodies 58836.73 6,22 6 Andosols 15904.46 1,68 16 Ferralsols 59852.62 6,32 7 Solonetz 19626.46 2,07 17 Luvisols 68706.15 7,26 8 Nitisols 21001.11 2,22 18 Leptosols 76738.02 8,11 9 Arenosols 21926.33 2,32 19 Acrisols 81642.50 8,63 10 Phaeozems 22190.10 2,34 20 Cambisols 337353.69 35,64 The last seven soiltypes of the table cover 75.93% of landscape of Tanzania. In fact of this, these soiltypes will be explained in the following part of this paper. Acrisol (from L. acris, very acid): Connotation: Strongly weathered acid soils with low base saturation. Parent material: Most extensive on acid rock weathering, notably in strongly weathered clays, which are undergoing further degradation. Environment: Mostly old land surfaces with hilly or undulating topography, in regions with a wet tropical/monsoonal, subtropical or warm temperate climate. Light forest is the natural vegetation type. Profile development: AEBtC‐profiles. Cambisols (from L. cambiare, to change): Connotation: Soils with beginning horizon differentiation evident from changes in colour, structure or carbonate content. Parent material: Medium and fine‐textured materials derived from a wide range of rocks, mostly in colluvial, alluvial or aeolian deposits. Environment: level to mountainous terrain in all climates and under a wide range of vegetation types. Profile development: ABC profiles. 12 Ferralsols (from L. ferrum, iron and aluminium, alum): Connotation: Red and yellow tropical soils with a high content of sesquioxides. Parent material: Strongly weathered material on old, stable geomorphic surfaces. Environment: Typically in level to undulating land of Pleistocene age or older. Perhumid or humid tropics. Profile development: ABC profiles. Leptosols (from Gr. leptos, thin): Connotation: Shallow soils. Parent material: Various kinds of rock or unconsolidated materials with less than 10 percent fine earth. Environment: Mostly land at high or medium altitude and with strongly dissected topography. Leptosols are found in all climatic zones, particular in strongly eroding areas. Profile development: A(B)R‐ or A(B)C‐profiles with a thin A‐horizon. Lixisols (from L.lixivia, washed‐out substances): Connotation: Strongly weathered soils in which clay is washed down from the surface soil to an accumulation horizon at some depth. Parent material: Unconsolidated, strongly weathered and strongly leached, finely textured materials. Environment: Regions with a tropical, subtropical or warm temperate climate with a pronounced dry season. Profile development: ABtC‐profiles. Luvisol (from L. luere, to wash): 0 Connotation: Soils in which clay is washed down from the surface soil to an accumulation horizon at some depth. A Parent material: A wide variety of unconsolidated materials including glacial till, and aeolian, alluvial and colluvial deposits. E Environment: Most common in flat or gently sloping land in cool temperate regions and in warm (e.g. Mediterranean) regions with distinct dry and wet Bt seasons. Profile development: ABtC profiles. CBt 13 Vertisols (from L. vertere, to turn): Connotation: Churning heavy clay soils. Parent material: Sediments that contain a high proportion of smectitic clay, or products of rock weathering that have the characteristics of smectitic clay. Environment: Depressions and level to undulating areas, mainly in tropical, semi‐arid to (sub)humid climates with an alternation of distinct wet and dry seasons. Profile development: A(B)C-profiles.
14 Tropical Soils of Northern Tanzania
World Soil Map
Major Soil Groups of Tanzania
http://www.geo.uni‐bayreuth.de/bodenkunde/downloads/Nitisole.pdf
Nitosols (from L. nitidus, shiny):
Connotation: Deep, red, well-drained tropical soils with a clayey
subsurface horizon that has typical, polyhedric, blocky
structure elements with shiny ped faces.
Parent material: Finely textured weathering products of
intermediate to basic parent rock.
Environment: Nitisols are predominantly found in level to hilly
land under tropical rain forest or savannah vegetation.
Profile
o e de
development:
e op e AB(t)C-profiles.
( )C p o es
Phaeozems (from Gr. phaios, dusky, and R. zemlja, earth, land):
Connotation: Dark soils rich in organic matter.
Parent material: Aeolian (loess), glacial till and other
unconsolidated, predominantly basic materials.
Environment: Flat to undulating land in warm to cool (e.g.
tropical highland) regions, humid enough that there is
some percolation of the soil in most years but also with
periods in which the soil dries out.
Profile development: Mostly AhBC profiles.
profiles
Changed by: http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/metadata.show?id=14116
http://www.geo.uni-bayreuth.de/bodenkunde/downloads/Luvisole.pdf
Luvisol (from L. luere, to wash):
C
Connotation:
t ti
S il in
Soils
i which
hi h clay
l
i washed
is
h d down
d
f
from
th
the
surface soil to an accumulation horizon at some depth.
Parent material: A wide variety of unconsolidated materials
including glacial till, and aeolian, alluvial and colluvial
deposits.
Environment: Most common in flat or gently sloping land in cool
temperate regions and in warm (e.g. Mediterranean)
regions with distinct dry and wet seasons.
Profile development: ABtC profiles.
Supported by
Solonetz (from R. sol, salt, and etz, strongly expressed):
Connotation: Soils with a high content of exchangeable sodium
and/or magnesium ions.
Parent material: Unconsolidated materials, mostly fine-textured
sediments.
Environment: Solonetz are normally associated with flat lands in
a climate with hot, dry summers.
Profile development: ABtnC and AEBtnC profiles.
profiles
Vertisols (from L. vertere, to turn):
Connotation: Churning heavy clay soils.
Parent material: Sediments that contain a high proportion of
smectitic clay, or products of rock weathering that have
the characteristics of smectitic clay.
Environment: Depressions and level to undulating areas, mainly
in tropical, semi-arid to (sub)humid climates with an
alternation of distinct wet and dry seasons.
seasons
Profile development: A(B)C-profiles.
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/kapitel/vertisol.htm
ml
http://www.geo.uni-bayreuth.de/bodenkunde/downloads/Ferralsole.pdf
Ferralsols (from L. ferrum, iron and aluminium, alum):
Connotation: Red and yellow tropical soils with a high content of
sesquioxides.
Parent material: Strongly weathered material on old, stable
geomorphic surfaces.
Environment: Typically in level to undulating land of Pleistocene
age or older. Perhumid or humid tropics.
Profile development: ABC profiles.
Solonchaks (from R. sol, salt, and R. chak, salty area):
Connotation: Saline soils.
Parent material: Virtually any unconsolidated soil material.
Environment: Arid and semi-arid regions, notably in seasonally
or permanently waterlogged areas.
Profile development: Mostly AC or ABC profiles.
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/bilder/socha2.JPG
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/bilder/chern.jpg
Chernozems (from R. chern, black, and zemlja, earth or land):
Connotation: Black soils rich in organic matter.
Parent material: Mostly aeolian sediments (loess).
Environment: Regions with a continental climate with cold
winters and hot summers.
Profile development: AhBC profiles.
Planosols (from L. planus, flat):
Connotation: Soils with a degraded, eluvial surface horizon
abruptly over dense subsoil, typically in seasonally
waterlogged flat lands.
Parent material: Mostly clayey alluvial and colluvial deposits.
Environment: Seasonally or periodically wet, plateau areas,
mainly in sub-tropical regions with light forest or grass
vegetation.
Profile development: AEBC profiles.
profiles
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/bilder/socha2.JPG
http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/events/SummerSchool_2005/cd_rom/SS200
5_Files/2DAY/Cambisols_OSpaargaren_U.pdf
Cambisols (from L. cambiare, to change):
C
Connotation:
t ti
S il with
Soils
ith beginning
b i i horizon
h i
diff
differentiation
ti ti evident
id t
from changes in colour, structure or carbonate content.
Parent material: Medium and fine-textured materials derived
from a wide range of rocks, mostly in colluvial, alluvial
or aeolian deposits.
Environment: level to mountainous terrain in all climates and
under a wide range of vegetation types.
Profile development: ABC profiles.
http://www.isric.org/ISRIC/webdocs/docs/major_soils_of_the_world/sett9/pl/pla_prof.pdf
http:://www.geo.uni-bayreuth.de/bodenkunde/downloads/Acrisole.pdf
Acrisol (from L. acris, very acid):
Connotation: Strongly weathered acid soils with low base
saturation.
Parent material: Most extensive on acid rock weathering,
notably in strongly weathered clays, which are
undergoing further degradation.
Environment: Mostly old land surfaces with hilly or undulating
topography, in regions with a wet tropical/monsoonal,
subtropical or warm temperate climate. Light forest is
the natural vegetation type.
Profile development: AEBtC-profiles.
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/bilder/phae.jpg
Changed by:
http://www.agriculture.go.tz/agricultural%20maps/
Tanzania%20Soil%20Maps/Webbased%20Distric
ts%20Agricultural%20maps/Districts%20Soil/Soil
s%20of%20Tanzania.pdf
Sources:
http://www.agriculture.go.tz/agricultural%20maps/Tanzania%20Soil%20Maps/Soil%20maps.htm
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGL/agll/key2soil.stm
http://library.wur.nl/isric/
http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/order.html
http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~kehl/project/lv-twk/16-trop-sum3-twk.htm
http://www.geo.unizh.ch/bodenkunde/kapitel/start.html
Palaeoclimate development (by Tanja Rutz) Compared to the present, the Africa 5 million years ago used to be wetter and warmer than today and East Africa was covered with tropical rain forest. At the beginning of climate change the weather conditions turned from wetter and warmer to drier and cooler all over Africa, especially in East Africa. There are three trends that can be noticed (Fig. 01): Cores of ocean sediments show gradual increases in the rate of influx of continental dust after 4.5 mio ago. This trend has been interpreted as a sign of progressive drying that reduced the vegetation cover and exposed larger areas to erosion by winds. Additional evidence for long‐term drying comes from pollen changes. Gradually decreasing amounts of forest pollen and increasing amounts of savanna and desert scrub pollen indicate a progressive trend toward dry‐adapted vegetation. Another cause of the observed vegetation change could be a long‐term decrease in atmospheric CO2. Woody vegetation belongs to C3 plants and grass vegetation belongs to C4 plants. When atmospheric CO2 levels are above 600 ppm C3 vegetation outcompetes C4 vegetation. For levels below 500 ppm the reverse is true. In addition, the δ18O trend toward more positive values throughout the last 4 mio shows that global climate cooled, along with greater storage of 16O‐rich water in ice sheets, since 2.75 mio ago. Fig. 01 Long­term changes in African dust and vegetation Many competing hypotheses have been proposed in attempts to explain the African climate change. I am going to give a general and simplified overview of the most important theories: 1) Onset of northern hemisphere glaciation Changes in circulation of the North Atlantic Ocean due to the closing of the Isthmus of Panama from 2.5 to 3 mio lead to global climate cooling and with it the last glacial epoch 16
started. It is suggested that these early glaciations created cycles of cooling and drying in Africa. 2) Closing of the Indonesian seaway The closure of the Indonesian seaway 3‐4 mio ago could be responsible for the global climate change, in particular the aridification of Africa. The northward displacement of New Guinea, about 5 mio ago, may have switched the ocean circulation through Indonesia – from warm South Pacific to relatively cold North Pacific waters. This would have decreased sea surface temperature in the Indian Ocean, leading to reduced rainfall over eastern Africa. The changes in the equatorial Pacific may have reduced atmospheric heat transport from the tropics to higher latitudes, stimulating global cooling and the eventual growth of ice sheets. 3) Tectonic Uplift A massive uplift of eastern African topography started 8 mio ago. The reduced topographic barrier before 8 mio ago permitted a zonal circulation with associated moisture transport and strong precipitations. The uplift led to drastic reorganization of atmospheric circulation, engendering the strong aridification and paleoenvironmental changes. 4) African Monsoon During the early and mid Holocene the global climate was about 2‐5 degrees warmer than today. In some regions this meant a drier climate, but for most of Africa, it meant more rain and more stable rainfalls. In the northern half of Africa, this meant that the African monsoon went much further north and especially the Central Sahara had a moister climate (“greening of the Sahara”). Because the weather conditions in East Africa are related to the intensity of the African Monsoon, East Africa was much wetter during the early Holocene than it is today. The amplification of the intensity of the African Monsoon occurred more often in the past. 5) Milankovitch cycles It is known that Milankovitch cycles have effects on changes in earth’s climate. As the earth spins around it’s axis and orbits around the sun, several periodic variations occur. There are three aspects to recognize: The changes in the orbital eccentricity (a measure of the departure of the ellipse from circularity with a period of 100 kyr), obliquity (angel of the earth’s axial tilt varies with a period of 41 kyr) and precession (change in the direction of the Earth's axis of rotation relative to the fixed stars with a period of 23 kyr). Such changes in movement and orientation, change the amount and location of solar radiation reaching the earth (solar forcing). An interpretation of ocean sediment records around Africa indicate that hydrological cycle in tropical Africa is mainly controlled by low‐latitude heating by solar radiation via its impact on monsoon dynamics. Variances in the ocean sediment records (happened 2.5, 1.8 and 1 mio ago) all coincided with 400 kyr eccentricity maximum. These dates have also matched with periods of enhanced speciation and extinction events. East African climate change is thought to have influenced the evolution of hominins. There are four key junctures in hominin evolution caused by notably climate changes: - 6‐4 mio ago: development of the upright walking linked with the progressive increase of open grassland - 2.5 mio ago: earliest members of the genus Homo appeared 17
- 1.8 mio ago: Homo erectus left Africa - 1 mio ago: Homo erectus became extinct These events can be linked with shifts towards more arid and variable conditions during the onset and amplification of high‐latitude glacial cycles or with eccentricity maximum or with the Tectonic Uplift. The final truth is not found yet. 18
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Paleontological Context: Laetoli­ also spelled Laetolil (from Marthe‐S. Wegner) ‐ anthropological and archaeological site, dated to the Plio‐Pleistocene (5.3 – 1.8 mio) ‐ located 45 km south of Olduvai Gorge (northernTanzania) in the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift Valley • Geological Context Fig. 1 Stratigraphy of Laetoli ‐the majority of fossils are from the Upper Laetolil and NdolanyaBeds ‐the beds consist of Aeolian tuff (tuff =type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption); the ash derives from the vulcan Sadiman, which is 20 km eastern from Laetoli located =>Eastern Branch of the East African Rift Valley has a higher volcanic activity ‐Lower Laetolil Beds: dated to 4.3 and older – 3.8 mio; only a small fauna has been recovered ‐Upper Laetolil Beds: dated to 3.8 – 3.5 mio; high diversity of the fauna; all of the Australopithecus afarensis specimens have been recorded from here •
Australopithecus afarensis ‐the most famous Australopithecine fossil is „Lucy“ (AL 288‐1);the nearly 40% complete 20 skeleton discovered in 1974 at Hadar(Ethiopian) ‐the discovery of this hominin fossil shows evidence of small skull capacity of Australopithecines comparable to that of apes and of bipedal upright walk similar to that of humans ‐furthermore it supports the theory that bipedalism preceded increase in brainsize in human evolution (the skeleton of these fossils also show that the ability for climbing on trees was available yet) ‐Australopithecus afarensis could have reached a weight of 30 – 50 kg and a bodysize of 1.20 m; the molars are very big for chewing abrasive nutrition (plants), which could be found in a savannah‐like habitat located in the near of a tropical rainforest •
The fossils ‐LH4: ‐>reference specimen of Australopithecus afarensis discovered 1974 in the Upper Laetolil Beds by Mary Leakey (dated to 3.7 – 3.6 million years) ‐>mandible (lower jaw) with nine teeth ‐>the fossils from Hadar are in a better condition than the Laetoli fossils are, but for intensifying the association between the
two localities, LH4 was chosen as the reference specimen; furthermore this mandible is very characteristic for this early
hominin‐specimen ‐Laetoli footprints ‐>discovered 1978 in the Upper Laetolil Beds by Paul Abbell/ Mary Leakey (dated to 3.7 mio) ‐>due to the age of the footprints one assumes they only can derive from Australopithecus afarensis ‐>evidence for the bipedal upright walking ability before using
stonetools ‐>origination: vulcan Sadiman spread ash, which settled on the
ground; because of the rainy season rain falls and turned the ash to mud; now the hominins walked up a distance of 30 m through this mud leaving footprints; before rain could have washed the
footprints away a new layer of ash covered them =>preservation ‐>the prints are showing that there were two individuals walking very close to each other and a third one followed them by stepping in the prints of one walking ahead ‐>parts of the 30 m long passage weren`t in a good condition, other remain so well, that details of the foots anatomy can be detected 21 Fig. 2 Comparison of a Homo sapien foot and the
Laetoli footprints 22 Paleontological Context: Olduvai Discovery history 1911: Prof. Wilhelm Kattwinkel (1866‐1935) (german medic) ‐ found horse with 3 toes (Hipparion) 1913: Prof. Hans Reck (1886‐1937) (german geologist) ‐ complete Homo sapiens skull (about 20.000 years old) 1931: Louis Leakey (1903‐1972) (paleo‐anthropologist) ‐ his wife Mary Leakey (1913‐1996) found in 1959 Paranthropus boisei („Nutcracker Man“) Current dig from Professor Fidelis Masao of the Open University of Tanzania and teamsfrom Rutgers University Fossils 23 BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Olduvai‐Beds
Bed IV
‐ Hominidae: Homo erectus
‐ Suidae
‐ Bovidae: Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, Reduncini,
Antilopini, Tragelaphini, Bovini
‐Hominidae: Paranthropus boisei, Homo habilis, Homo erectus
‐Carnivora: Hyaenidae, Felidae
‐ Elephantidae
‐Equidae
‐Suidae
S id
‐Hippopotamidae
‐ Giraffidae
‐Bovidae: Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, Reduncini, Antilopini, Tragelaphini, Bovini
‐ Hominidae: Paranthropus boisei, Homo habilis
‐Carnivora: Hyaenidae, Felidae
‐ Suidae
‐ Hippopotamidae
‐Bovidae: Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, Reduncini,
Antilopini, Tragelaphini, Bovini
Bed III
Bed II
Bed II
Tuff IF
Tuff IB
‐Bovidae: Alcelaphini, Antilopini, Bovini,
Hippotragini, Reduncini, Tragelaphini
‐ Elephantidae
‐Carnivora
‐ Equidae: Equus
‐ Giraffa
‐ Hippopotamidae
‐ Suidae
‐ Reptilia: Crocodilus
‐Bovidae: Alcelaphini, Antilopini, Bovini, Hippotragini, Reduncini, Tragelaphini
‐ Elephantidae
‐ Equidae: Equus, Hipparion
‐ Giraffidae
Gi ffid
‐ Hippopotamidae
‐ Homininae
‐ Suidae
‐ Reptilia: Crocodilus
‐ Rhinoceratidae
‐ Pisces cichlid
Bed I
Naabi Ignimbrite
Laetoli‐Beds
‐Carnivora: Felidae
‐ Elephantidae
‐Equidae
q
‐Bovidae: Bovini, Alcelaphini
Antilopini
‐ Suidae
‐Carnivora
‐Elephantidae
‐Equidae
‐Bovidae: Bovini, Alcelaphini, Antilopini
‐Primates
‐Carnivora: Hyaenidae, Felidae
‐ Elephantidae
‐ Equidae: Hipparion
‐ Bovidae: Bovini, Alcelaphini, Antilopini,
Hippotragini
‐ Giraffidae
‐Suidae
‐Hominidae: Australopithecus afarensis
‐Canidae
C id
‐Primates
Supported by
East African Paleoanthropology and Homo erectus • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Tribus: Hominini Genus: Homo „gracile“ Australopithecines: A. anamensis 4.2 – 3.9 mio years premolars and molars parallel thin acoustic meatus A. africanus 3.2 – 2.5 mio years brain volume 425 – 510 ccm shorter canine body height 115 – 138 cm A. garhi 2.5 mio years crista sagittalis brain volume 450 ccm premolars and molars semi‐oval thick dental enamel with diestema A. africanus 3.2 – 2.5 mio years brain volume 425 – 510 ccm smaller canine body height 115 – 138 Paranthropus: “robust” Australopithecines 2.6 – 1.4 mio years body height 140 cm Brain volume 400 – 540 ccm Also called: „robust“ Australopithecus Body size mostly similar to Australopithecus, but different sculls: Strong dentition with a lot of adamantine and great occlusion area Crista sagittalis for a great Musculus temporalis Strong zygomatic arch and torus supraorbitalis P. aethiopicus 2.6 – 1.9 mio years brain volume 400 – 490 ccm Hugh crista sagittalis • • • P. bosei • 2.3 – 1.4 mio years • brain volume 475 – 545 ccm 25
Anatomical peculiarities between H. sapiens and H. erectus Order: Primates lived around 1.8 Mio to nearly 40k years Superfamily: Hominoidea in Africa, Europe and Asia Family: Hominidae Tribus: Hominini Genus: Homo Skull: ‐ thick torus supraorbitalis (brow bridge) ‐ more acute angle at the end of occipitalis with occipital torus ‐ parasagittal depression ‐ keeling of the sagittal fissure ‐ braincase long, flat and low ‐ receding forehead ‐ allover more solid bone stucture os os - H. erectus was the first hominid who leaved the African continent! Pictures from Conroy, Glenn, 2005, Reconstructing Human Origins, W. W. Norton&Co. New York 26
Pleistocene Hominids in East Africa
t d
today
Homo sapiens
Homo erectus
• appears around 200k years (Omo)
•1.8 – 0.3 mio years (maybe up to 12k years)
• 180 cm on an average
•140 to 180 cm body height
• Brain size 1,500 – 2,000 ccm
• Brain size is increased
• Spread all over the earth
the first time within a species
• cultural & technical evolution
from 700 to more than 1,200 ccm
• Anatomy: take a look in the mirror
• massive Torus supraorbitalis
• Foramen magnum further under the skull
• Body proportion nearly human like
BOU-VP-16/1
http://nauka21vek.ru/wphttp://nauka21vek
ru/wp
content/2009/02/erectussapiensbones.jpg
200 k years
Conroy, Glenn, 2005, Reconstructing Human
Origins, W. W. Norton&Co. New York
1 mio years
Homo ergaster
g
•1.9 – 1.2 mio years
Homo habilis
• Brain volume 700 – 900 ccm
•1.8 – 1.4 mio years
• up to 180 cm height
• Body height 140 cm
• Weight up to 80kg
• Reduced third Molar
• Rounded tooth sector
• Reduced third Molar
• No possibility of splaying out the
KNM ER 3733
great toe anymore
• More cranial curvature than erectus
KNM WT 15000
(Turkana Boy)
• More gracile build than erectus (asthenic)
Homo rudolfensis
2.5 – 1.8 mio years
Brain volume 752 – 824 ccm
No torus supraorbitalis
Body height 150 cm
Maybe first use of stonetools
3 mio years
Paranthropus:
• 2.6 – 1.4 mio years
• Body height 140 cm
• Brain volume 400 – 540 ccm
• Also called:
„robust“ Australopithecus
• Body size mostly similar to
Australopithecus, but different skulls:
A. afarensis
• Strong dentition with a lot of enamel and great
occlusion area
• Crista sagittalis for a great Musculus temporalis
• Strong zygomatic arch and torus supraorbitalis
A. Anamensis
4 mio years
Supported by
• Brain volume 580 – 680 ccm
2 mio years
KNM ER 1470
Australopithecus
• 4.2 – 2.5 mio years
• Reduced Canines
• premolars and molars parallel like
chimpanzee or row of teeth
only semi-oval
• Brain volume 400 – 550 ccm
• body height105 – 150 cm
• Stone tools: Oldowan
Ecology of large mammal faunas in East Africa 1. Savannas Definition of Savanna: A savanna, or savannah, is a tropical grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. Savannas are wide spread in Africa north and south of the tropical rainforests. With growing aridity they blend to [übergehen] semi‐desert. The rainy season lasts about 5 to 7 months; the rainfall is up to 1500 mm per year, but mostly less than 800 mm. The rainy season is mostly identical with the vegetation period of the plants. According to the amount of rainfall savannas are segmented in wet savannas (7 to 9 rainy month, rainfall 1000 to 1500 mm per year), dry savannas (5 to 7 rainy month, rainfall 500 to 1000 mm per year) and thorn savannas (2 to 4 rainy month, rainfall 400 to 600 mm per year). According to geography, rainy seasons and vegetation there are several types of savanna. 2. Mammals of Eastern Africa There are over 1100 mammal species in Africa south of Sahara excluding Madagascar, which are all placental mammals. In the Serengeti National Park there are 136 mammal species. 2.1.
Carnivores Jackals (Canis): Three species, all are omnivores: 1. Golden jackal () in open grasslands, semi deserts and desterts, HB 65‐105 cm 2. Side‐striped jackal (Canis adustus) in wooden savannas, swamps and thickets, HB 70 – 80 cm 3. Black‐backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) in dry Acacia savannas, HB 70 – 100 cm 28 Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) HB: 76 – 112 cm , W 18 – 36 kg In woodlands, savannas, grasslands and steppes. Prefer to feed on the commonest medium‐sized antelopes not more than twice their own weight. The social behavior of a pack centres on a breeding pair, with non breeding adults assisting in the feeding of litters that can number up to 16 puppies. Bat­eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) HB 47 – 66 cm, ca. 5 kg In dry savannas. Food: termites and other invertebrates. Have between 46 and 50 sharp teeth, the largest number known for any non‐marsupial land mammal. 13 cm long ears allow bat eared foxes to pick up the sounds of underground prey. Spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) HB 100 – 180 cm, W 40 – 90 kg In savannas and open woodlands. Where food is super‐abundant a single clan number can number over 100, territories average about 30 km2. Clan is build up around a hierarchy of related females. Females mime male genital organs and often have a higher testosterone level than males. Leopard (Panthera pardus) HB: 130 – 190 cm, W up to 90 kg Mainly in wooden areas and forests. Food: mainly small to medium large mammals, but very diverse foods are taken. Numerous, black and brown rosettes on back and upper limbs, but single, solid spots on face, lower limbs and underside. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) HB: 110 – 150 cm, W 50 kg, up to 112 km/h fast. A very tall, slender cat with evenly spaced, circular spots all over a tawny‐cream background. The face is notable for its rounded verticality, a structural peculiarity emphasized by black tear stripes that link eyes and mouth. Food: small and medium‐
large antelopes Lion (Panthera leo) HB 250 cm, W 150 – 260 kg In all savannas of Africa, small population in India. The only social cats. Up to 20 related adult females and 2 – 8 adult males. Adult males leave the group. Females do mostly hunting. Hunt everything from 50 to 300 kg 29 2.2.
Primates Angola colobus (Colobus angolensis) HB: 50‐70 cm T: 75 cm W: 9‐20 kg Black fur and a black face, surrounded by long, white locks of hair. It also has a mantle of white hair on the shoulders. The Angola Colobus occurs in dense rainforests of the Congo Basin, in East Africa, especially in the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania. Food: Leafs, fruits and seeds. Live in groups of one male, 2‐6 females and their offspring, but temporary herds of up to 300 animals. Mantled guereza (Colobus guereza) HB: 50‐67 cm T: 52‐90 cm W: 7‐14 kg Coat is a glossy black with its face and rump surrounded by white and a U‐shaped white mantle on its sides and rear of back. Native to much of west central and east Africa, tropical forests, woodlands and wooded grassland. Food: Leaves, fruits, lowers, twigs, buds, seeds and shoots. Groups of 6‐9 animals with one or more adult males. Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) HB: 60‐84 cm W 12‐25 kg Slim body with long arms and legs and yellowish‐brown hair, hairless black face. Inhabits savannas and light forests in the eastern Africa. Food: Omnivorous with a preference for fruits. Lives in complex mixed gender social groups. Olive baboon (Papio anubis) HB: 60‐70 cm W: 14‐24 kg Darker colour (green‐grey) than yellow baboons, but also a black/dark grey face. Inhibates savannahs, steppes, and forest areas in 25 countries of Africa. Food: Omnivorous. 2.3.
Tubulidentata Aardvark (Oryteropus afer) HB: 100‐158 cm, W: 40‐82 kg 30 In large parts of sub‐Saharan Africa, areas with ambundance of ants and termites. Digs warrens of few meters in length. Shy nocturnal animal, rarely seen. Food: Ants, termites and larvae 2.4.
Proboscidea African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) SH: 2,4‐3,4m (female); 3‐4m (male) W: 2200‐3500 kg (f); 4000‐6300 kg (m) In formerly most of Africa except driest regions of the Sahra. Lives in all major vegetation types, is dependent on shade and water. Travels in `matriarchal´family‐
groups (clans) mostly ten females with their offspring males are driven out at the age of 10‐14. Food: Grass and browse (5% of body weight in 24h). 2.5.
Perissodactyla Common zebra (Equus quagga) HB: 217‐246 cm SH: 127‐140 cm W: 175‐250kg (f); 220‐322kg (m) In Grasslands, steppes, savannahs and woodlands. E.q. boehmi found in central and East Africa. Food: Grass of most available species. Up to six females and their young live in stable `harems´. One harem stallion herds the females and threatens other males coming too close. Browse (Black) rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) HB: 290‐375 cm H: 137‐180 cm W: 700‐1400 kg Populations are on the brink of extinction, only hold out in small areas ‐ D. b. michaeli: upland East Africa. Favour edges of thickets and savannahs with areas of short woody regrowth and numerous shrubs and herbs. Food: Low level browse. One female with her young is the basic social unit. Adult females may form temporary associations. Home ranges can cover from 2,6 km² up to 130 km². Males are more likely to be agressive. 2.6.
Artiodactyla 31 Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) HB: 280‐350 cm SH: 130‐165 cm W: 510‐2500 kg (f); 650‐3200 kg (m) Formerly distributed from the Nile delta to the Cape. Recent populations remain at permanent watersources at the dry season and disperse widely in the rains. Inhabitate lakes or slowly floating rivers withs sandbanks. Hippos have a very hierarchical society and can be very agressive! Food: creeping and tussock grasses (up to 60 kg at night) Common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) HB: 105‐152 cm SH: 55‐85 cm W: 45‐75 kg (f); 60‐150 kg (m) In arid and open areas (unusual pigs), great tolerance of heat and cold. Commonest on alluvial soils in lightly wooded country, savannah and open‐woodland areas. P.a. massaicus: East and central Africa. Food: Grazing throughout the rains, leaf bases and rhizomes in the dry season. Mothers and their female offsprings retain enduring bonds. Family units join each other and live in ‘clan‐areas’. Males remain with mother until driven off. Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) HB: 3,5‐4,8 m Total height: 3,5‐4,7 m (f); 3,9‐5,2 m (m) W: 450‐1180 kg (f); 1800‐1930 kg (m) Lenght of the giraffe’s neck is matched by that of its legs. Can run at 60 kph. Formerly widespread throughout drier savannahs of Africa, now mostely in East and South Africa in savannahs and woodlands. G.c. tippelskirchi – East Africa. Food: Known over 100 species of plant. Social units are temporary. Adult males may be territorial, femals have unstable home ranges but year long periods of motherhood and traditional calving area. African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) HB: 170‐340 cm H: 100‐170 cm W: 250‐850 kg Across sub‐Saharan Africa. Greatly reduced by hunting, habitate loss and the 1980’s rinderpest in southern localities. Forest buffalo lives in savannahs, swamps, floodplains as well as mopane grasslands, and forests of the major mountains of Africa. Food: Grazer, favours rapid grass regrowth. Forest buffalo forms small groups up to 12 animals (females with their offspring) and one or more attendant males. Savannah buffaloes assemble in much larger aggregations, in clan‐like associations also attended by bulls. Buffaloes have an unpredictable nature and can be very dangerous. Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) HB: 185‐245 cm SH: 100‐150 cm W: 120‐215 kg (f); 190‐320 kg (m) Spiral horns with record length of 181 cm in male. In East and South Africa, in tree savannahs, thickets and arid areas. Can suvive without water, if browse is moist. Food: 32 Wide range of foliage, herbs, vines, flowers, fruits, succulents and grass. Wide dispersion during the rains, sexes seperatet. Maing peak during the dry season (2‐25 animals). Eland (Taurotragus oryx) HB: 200‐345 cm Sh 125‐178 cm W: 300‐600 kg (f); 400‐945 kg (m) Both sexes with horns, a dewlap and a long tail with a tufted tip. In East, South and central African woodlands and woodland‐savannah – T.o. pattersoni: East Africa. Food: Browse consists of foliage and herbs. Elands are gregarious but have a fluid and open system. Often juvenile herds (up to 50 animals) Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsyprimus) SH: 100‐130 cm W: 160‐240 kg Has a white ring on its rump surrounding its tail. In well‐watered valleys, sandwiched between desert and forest – : Northeast, central and West Africa. Food: Many grass species, including reeds and rushes. Males and females remain for long periods (up to 8 years) on the same home range. Thomson’s gazelle (Eudorcas thomsoni) HB: 80‐120 cm H: 55‐82 cm W: 15‐35 kg Compact little gazelle with white underparts seperated by a black flank band. In dry grasslands and shrubby steppes of Sahel and similar (but moister) habitates in East Africa. Prefer heavily grazed, trampled or burnt grasslands or open steppe. Food: mainly growing green grass in the rains, herbs, the foliage oh shrubs and seeds ain the dry season. Socially flexible. Loose mosaic of overlapping female herds. Solitary territorial males. Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) HB: 140‐166 cm SH: 78‐91 cm W: 38‐67 kg (f); 60‐82 kg (m) Large gazelle with long horns and small eyes in characteristic, leaf‐shaped eye patches (black). ‘Rift valley gazelle’ – its distribtion spills over from the E rift. Lives in open grass plains and frequently found in bushy savannas, avoids areas that have high grass. Food: Herbs and shrub foliage in the later wet and dry season, grass is only grazed when it’s green. A gregarious, territorial, and migratory species. Impala (Aepyceros melampus) HB: 120‐160 cm H: 75‐95 cm W: 40‐60 kg (f); 55‐80 kg (m) Medium sized gazelle‐like antelope. In SE Africa in ‘edges’ between grassland and denser woodlands. Food: Almost wholly grazers during the rains. Browsing on herbs, shrubs, 33 pods and seeds. Female clans, up to 120 animales. Male offspring share mother’s home range until they mature and begin to wander. Common Tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus) HB: 150‐230 cm W: 75‐160 kg Large compact antelope with deep chest an long face. In sumplands and floodplains in otherwise rlative dry regionssouth of the Sahara. Food: Most valley grasses are taken. Large migratory herds, neighbours to small clusters of residential animals. Kongoni (Hartebeest) (Alcelaphus buselaphus) HB: 160‐215 cm H: 107‐150 cm W: 116‐218 kg A large, high‐shouldered antelope with a very lomg, narrow face. A.b.cokei lives in savannahs of Kenia and Tansania, commonest species. Food: Grazers. Females are gregarious and males territorial. Brindled gnu, or wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) HB: 170‐240 cm SH: 115‐145 cm W: 140‐260 kg (f); 165‐290kg (m) A dumpy, thick‐necked, long‐faced antelope with horns like cows. In open bushland and grassy plains in relatively dry areas of E, SE and south‐central Afrika – C.t. albojubatus (White‐bearded gnu) in S Kenya and N Tanzania. Food: A wide variety of nutritious grasses that form short swards. Sozial grazers in large herds, moving if food an water dries out. The largest population is in the Serengeti, numbering over one million animals. Blue Wildebeests are a favorite prey item to lions and spotted hyenas. They also fall prey to cheetahs, leopards, wild dogs and crocodiles. Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) HB: 190‐240 cm H126‐145 cm W: 225‐300 kg A tall, powerfull antelope with long ears and massive arched horns (50‐100 cm in males). In central, E, W and S Africa found in woodland and grassland savanna – H.e. langheldi (E Africa). Food: Grazers of medium to short grasses. Herds (average about 10 animals) made up of females and theit young, attended by one single adult male. Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) HB: 190‐255 cm SH: 117‐143 cm W: 190‐270 kg Females are dark brown and males are black. In wooded savannahs in East Africa, south of Kenya, and in Southern Africa. Food: Mid‐length grass and leaves. Form herds of ten to thirty females and calves led by a single male. 34 East African oryx (Oryx beisa) HB 160‐190 cm SH: 110‐120 cm W: 150‐200 kg They have a grey coat with a white underside, separated by a stripe of black. Found in E Afrika in semi‐deserts, savannahs and steppes. Food: Grass, leaves, fruit and buds. Herds of five to forty animals often with females moving at the front and large male guarding from the rear. 35 Mammalian Anatomy
The anatomy of mammals is quite specific and can be summarized in a few
points. The majority of the mammals has seven cervicals (a
exeption is for example the sloth), which can be coadunate (for
example in whales). In contrast to the classes Aves and Reptilia
mammals possess two bones between occipital bone (skull) and
the first cervical. The two bones are the atlas, which is connected
to the skull and the axis, which is associated to the cervical. The
mandible consists of a single bone (dental) with two condyles,
which are connected with the temporal of the skull.
skull This enables
movements of the lower jaw in four directions. The now unused
quadratum and articulare are forming incus and malleus
(ossicles).The limbs of mammals are attached below the body. This
leads to a possibility of rapid locomotion, which is supported by
breathing with diaphragm given by the relatively short thorax.
There is a high variability of specialized limbs (for example the fin of a seal
or the wing of a bat). The skeleton of a cat (Felidae) is designed for
hunting To provide higher flexibility,
hunting.
flexibility radius and ulna are separated
(Fig. 1). The spine can be bent, streched and compressed (very
elastic), which is needed when accelerating. The long tail
guarantees the balance during fast running. The cat is moving on
front paw with five and back paw with four toes (digitigrady). The
position of the hind legs is typical for jumping (clavicle is
rudimentary, because it would break by hitting the ground), which is
needed in hunting.
The cow (Bovidae) is also moving on the toes (unguligrady), restricted to
phalanx III and IV, which are elongated and strengthened, possess
hooves made of horn (Fig. 2). Phalanx I is absent and phalanx II
and V are reduced. Compared to the cat skeleton the humerus is
relatively short, therefore metacarpus and -tarsus are elongated.
Radius and ulna are fitting close to each other, which implies that
the cow is limited in her lateral movements of the extremities. The
cow`s clavicle and fibula are also rudimentary.
Fig.
g 3 shows that Homo sapiens
p
possesses a clavicle, which is connected
p
to the scapula. The locomotion occures bipedally and on the sole of
the feet (plantigrady). The extremities are pentadactyl and, in
proportion to the torso, comparatively long (especially femur, tibia).
For high mobility radius and ulna are separated (the same is true
for fibula and tibia). The ilium is extended and composes along with
the pubis a bowl-like construction, which can carry the weight of the
internal organs (also important for pregnancy). The thorax is more
flat than recognized for cat and cow. The displacement of scapula
from lateral to the back ensures high flexibility of the arms. The
human hand has the abilitiy for finger rotation.
rotation When the fingers are
flexed, they rotate towards the central axis so that the finger tips
can meet the tip of the thumb.
The anatomical terms of location are equal for all mammals. In Fig.4 are
shown the standard direction terms for the entire body. Figs. 5, 6
and 7 illustrate general nomenclature for the dentition. The number
of teeth varies within the mammals. The primary dentition includes
3 incisors, 1 caninus, 4 premolars an 3 molars. This formula can be
seen today in moles. All other mammals (exept for dolphins) have
a reduced dentition. For example, the wildcat has a reduction in the
rear sector (dental formula: upper jaw: 3I-1C-3P-1M; lower jaw: 3I1C-2P-1M).
Fig. 7 shows the nomenclature on the occlusal surface of two molars, first
the upper first molar (M1 superior) and second the lower first molar
(M1 inferior). The cusps on the upper molars are named as –conus
and on the lower molar as –conid. The pits on the surface are
called trigon
g in the upper molars and trigonid
g
and talonid in lower
molars.
Supported by
Field school Tanzania
Benedikt Hahn
29.04.2009
Geoelectricity
1. Purpose
Geoelectric ground monitoring will be performed in order to find raw material or
waste deposits, groundwater occurrence or archeological relics. During our field
school in Tanzania we will primary focus on search of biface and surface drying
cracks.
2. Functionality
The basic functionally goes ahead with the Ohm’s law (R=U/I) applied on a rack
configuration with 2 power-electrodes and 2 voltage-electrodes (figure 1).
The greater the resistance, the
lower the current flow - the
conductivity. The spacing
between the electrodes are of
great importance, because the
resistance increases with the
distance.
(figure 1)
Sample resistances (in Ohmmeter):
dry sand ~ 104, dry silt ~ 20-200,
limestone (loose) ~ 100, limestone (tight) ~ 105
Voltage – electrodes
Control device
Power – electrodes
Geoelectric field mapping (rack method)
Information of spreading of lithological layers as well as localization of fault zones
and channels including progressive determination of lateral resistance distribution.
+ flexible use, only few devices, low complexity
- always same depth range, inappropriate to many problems
Multielectrode geoelectric - sound mapping (Tiefensondierung?)
Use for structural models of stratified subsoil.
Gives information of lithology, pore waters,
resistance values for specific rocks and
anthropogenic deposits.
Application of a profile with eligible electrode
spacing depending on the required penetration
depth.
(figure 2)
+ individual use depending on problem
- lots of equipment needed (figure 2), fragile, only allows presumption
Field school Tanzania
3. Results
Mapping results of a 50m x 15m field
with rack method shows higher (blue)
and lower (yellow) specific resistances
(figure 3a).
Multielectrode mapping results with a
chain over 100 meter length give subsoil
information of a depth up to 20 meter.
Lower specific resistances in blue
compared to higher resistances in red
presumably solid rocks under sediments
(figure 3b).
Benedikt Hahn
29.04.2009
(figure 3)
4. Problems
Slope, underground pipes and metal fences parallel to the arrangement of the probes
may lead to misinterpretations. Sufficient coupling to the underground needed,
otherwise use of sponges and saltwater necessary.
General: Geoelectricity provides only circumstantial evidence of substrate changes or
their dispersal.
Geomagnetism The geomagnetic field of the earth is approximately a magnetic dipole. The existence of the earth’s magnetic field is the very basis for geomagnetism. The field is generated by electric currents. The physical unit for the magnetic flux density is Tesla (T). 1 Tesla corresponds to 10^9 nano Tesla. 3 parts form the magnetic field of the earth: 1. The main field originates from the earth’s interior. This field changes very slowly within years and decades. The main magnetic field in Europe amounts 40000 to 52000 Nanotesla. (Tanzania amounts 30000 to 35000 Nanotesla) 2. The variation field originates from the exterior of the earth (Ionosphere). The variation field changes quickly, within fractions of seconds up to days. Break‐ins can be caused by magnetic storms. Solar flares require one or two days until they reach the magnetic field of the earth. The magnet field contracts, Particle flux increases. The variation field varies from 0,1 to some 100 nT. 3. The anomaly field is a nearly constant field. It reflects the varying magnetisation of the upper lithosphere. The anomaly field amounts up to several 1000 nT. All elements in the earth’s magnetic field have magnetic property. Due to the induction process, this is called “induced magnetism”. All bodies of rock turn into a magnet, surrounded by an own magnetic field. This magnetic field produces anomalies in the normal field. There are diverse stones and minerals (e.g. iron, steel, magnetic pyrites, basalt, magnetite,…) where we have to differentiate. In this case magnetism already arises with the formation of the rocks, it is not induced. Cooling‐down of the glaze, chemical transformations, mechanic effect or stroke of lightning leads to magnetisation, called “remanent magnetism”. 39
Geomagnetism analyses sterical changes and explores their causes. Our geomagnetic researches focus on the near surface subsurface. The first magnetometer was developed in 1832 by the physician and mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauß. The lokal anomaly field of the earth is not just dependent on the size and magnetization of the magnetic body, but in a great extent on the depth. The differences of the upper and lower sensor deliver information about the relation between object and surface. Figure 2: Relation between object and surface If an object is located near the surface, the lower sensor will, unlike the upper sensor, measure a high magnetic field strength. The difference between the measurements of the two sensors is rather huge (see fig 2a). If the object is located beneath the subsurface, the 2 sensors measure a rather low magnetic field strength. The difference tends to be smaller (see fig 2b). : If the object is unknown, the size and magnetization of the object in the surface or subsurface is unidentified. If too many variables are unknown, no unique solution can be induced. The magnetic field can be used for orientation, navigation, geologic application areas, such as mineral and oil exploration or locating tectonic disturbance zones, but also just to find anomalies in the near subsurface, like cables, litter or construction waste. 40
References Belbo; Umweltgeophysik Hochauflösende Magnetik, Ernst &Sohn Conroy, Glenn C. (2005): Reconstructing Human Origins. Norton, New York. Hahn et al (08); Exkursionsbericht zum Seminar Oberflächennaher Untergrund Junge; teaching material Kaiser, Thomas (1996): Die Taphonomie plio‐pleistozäner Hominiden‐Fundstellen Ostafrikas. Dissertation am Fachbereich Geowissenschaften und Geographie der TH Darmstadt, Darmstadt Kinematic and sedimentological evolution of the Manyara Rift in northern Tanzania, East Africa (2005): Geological Magazine 142 (4): 355‐368. Kingdon, Jonathan (1990): Island Africa. The Evolution of Africa’s Rare Animals and Plants. Collins, London. Knödel et al; Geophysik BGR, Springer Verlag Leser (05); Wörterbuch Allgemeine Geographie, Diercke Verlag M. Cane & P. Molnar, Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to east African aridification around 3‐4 million years ago, 2001 M.H. Trauth et al., Trend, rhythms and events in Plio‐Pleistocene African climate, 2009 P.B. de Menocal, African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene‐
Pleistocene, 2004 P. Sepulchre et al., Tectonic Uplift and Eastern Africa Aridification, 2006 Ring et al, 2005 Saanane, Charles B. (2002): Taphonomy and Palaeoecology of Laetoli as well as Makuyuni, Arusha Region, in Northern Tanzania. Dissertation am Fachbereich Biologie, JW Goethe Universität, Frankfurt/Main. Schlüter, Thomas (1997): Geology of East Africa, Bornträger, Kap. 7;S. 394‐410. Schrenk, Friedemann (2008): Die Frühzeit des Menschen – der Weg zum Homo sapiens. CH Beck, München. W.F. Ruddiman, Earth’s climate – Past and Future, 2001 Recent mammal species in Northern Tanzania and Kenya
Order / Family
Name (syn.)
Insectivora
Erinaceidae Atelerix albiventris
Soricidae Crocidura sp.
Macroscelidea
Macroscelidae Elephantulus sp.
Petrodromus tetradactylus
Chiroptera
Pteropodidae Eidolon helvum
Rousettus aegyptiacus
Lissonycteris angolensis
Emballonuridae Coleura afra
Taphozous sp.
Nycteridae Nycteris sp.
Megadermatidae Lavia frons
Cardioderma cor
Rhinolophus sp.
Hipposideros sp.
Vespertillionidae Myotis sp.
Kerivula sp.
Chalinolobus sp.
Eptesicus sp.
Laephotis sp.
Mimetilllus moloneyi
Nyctecius schlieffeni
Pipistrellus sp.
Scotoecus sp.
Scotophilus sp.
Miniopterus sp.
Molossidae Tadaridae sp.
Chaerophon sp.
Mops sp.
Myopterus sp.
p
p
Mormopterus sp.
Platymops setiger
Otomops martiensseni
Primates
Colobidae Piliocolobus kirkii
Colobus angolensis
Colobus guereza
Cercopithecidae Papio anubis
Papio cynocephalus
Chlorocebus pygerythrus
description
common name (engl.)
Pomel 1848
Wagler, 1832
African hedgehog
whithe‐toothed shrews
Thomas & Schwann, 1906
Peters, 1846
Lesser elephant shrews or sengis
Four‐toed elephant shrew or sengi
(Kerr) 1792
(E. Geoffroy) 1810
Straw‐coloured fruit bat
Rousette bat
Angola fruit bat
African sheath‐tailed bat
tomb bats
slit‐faced bats
yellow‐winged bat
heart‐nosed bat
horseshoe bats
leaf‐nosed bats
hairy bats
wooly bats
butterfly bats
serotine bats
tropical long‐eared bats
Moloney's flat‐headed bat
Schlieffen's twilight bat
Pipistrelles
evening bats
house bats
long‐fingered bats
guano bats
wrinkle‐lipped bats
Mops free‐tailed bats
winged‐rat free‐tailed bats
Flat‐headed bat
East African flat‐headed bat
giant Mastiff bat
(E. Geoffroy 1810)
common name (Swahili)
Sengi
Isanje
Gray, 1868
P. Sclater, 1860
Rüppell, 1835
Lesson, 1827
Linnaeus, 1758
F. Cuvier, 1821
Zanzibar red colobus
Angola pied colobus
Guereza colobus
olive baboon
yellow baboon
vervet monkey
Mbega
Mbega
Nyani
Nyani
Tumbili, Ngedere
Sykes, 1831
Schreber, 1795
E. Geoffroy, 1812
Bartlett, 1863
E. Geoffroy, 1796
A. Smith, 1836
blue monkey
Patas monkey
greater galago
gilver galago
Senegal galago
South African galago
Komba ya Miombo
Komba ya Kavirondo
Komba ya Senegal
Komba ya kusini
syn. Cercopithecus pygerythrus
Cercopithecus albogularis
Erythrocebus patas
Galagonidae Otolemur crassicaudatus
Otolemur monteiri
Galago senegalensis
Galago moholi
Rodentia
Sciuridae Xerus rutilus
Euxerus erythropus
Paraxerus ochraceus
Heliosciurus rufobrachium
Peditidae Pedetes capensis Gliridae Gaphiurus sp.
Bathyergidae Heliophobius argenteocinereus
Hystricidae Hystrix cristata
Hystrix africaeaustralis
Thryonomyidae Thryonomys gregorianus
Thryonomys swinderianus
Muridae Lophiomys imhausi
Gerbillus sp.
Tatera sp.
Dendromus sp.
Steatomys sp.
Cricetomys gambianus
Saccostomus sp.
Otomys sp.
Tachyoryctes sp.
Acomys sp.
Lophuromys sp.
Hylomyscus sp.
Mus sp.
Thallomys sp.
Grammomys sp.
(Huet 1880)
(Waterhouse 1842)
Forster 1778
Smuts, 1832
Peters, 1846
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Milne Edwards, 1867
unstriped ground squirrel
striped ground squirrel
bush squirrel
red‐legged sun squirrel
Spring hare
African dormice
silky blesmol
crested porcupine
South African porcupine
Savannah cane rat
Marsh cane rat
crested (mane) rat
gerbils
Naked‐soled gerbils
Climbing mice
Fat mice
giant pouched rats
puched mice
groove‐toothed rats
root rats
spiny mice
brush‐furred mice
African wood mice
common mice
Acacia rats
narrow‐footed woodland mice
Kamendegere
Nnungu
Nnungu
notes
Order / Family
Name (syn.)
Muridae (contd.)
Arvicanthis sp.
Pelomys sp.
description
common name (engl.)
common name (Swahili)
unstriped grass rats
Lagomorpha
Leporidae Lepus capensis
Lepus saxatilis
Pronolagus rupestris
Carnivora
Canidae Canis mesomelas
Canis aureus
Canis adustus
Lycaon pictus
Otocyon megalotis
Mustelidae Poecilogale albinucha
Mellivora capensis
Aonyx capensis
Herpestidae Herpestes ichneumon
Galerella sanguinea
Linnaeus 1758
F. Cuvier, 1823
Cape hare
Scrub hare
Smith's red rock hare
Sungura
Sungura ya Mawe
Schreber, 1775
Linnaeus 1758
Sundevall, 1847
Temminck, 1820
Desmarest, 1822
Gray, 1864
Schreber, 1776
Lesson, 1827
Linnaeus, 1758
Gray, 1865
black‐backed or silver‐backed jackal
golden jackal
side‐striped jackal
wild dog
bat‐eared fox
striped weasel
Ratel or honey badger
African clawless otter
Ichneumon mongoose
slender mongoose
Bweha nyekundu
Bweha wa mbuga
Bweha
Mbwa mwitu
Bweha masigio
Chororo
Nyegere
Fisi maji kubwa
Nguchiro
Gray, 1861
Gmelin, 1788
F. Cuvier, 1821
G. Cuvier, 1829
Linnaeus, 1758
Erxleben, 1777
Sparrman, 1783
Linnaeus, 1758
Schreber, 1776
Gray, 1830
Schreber, 1775
Schreber, 1776
dwarf mongoose
banded mongoose
marsh mongoose
white‐tailed mongoosed
striped hyena
spotted hyena
Aardwolf
common or small‐spotted genet
blotched genet
African civet
African palm civet
wild cat
serval cat
Kitafe
Nkuchiro
Nguchiro wa maji
Karambago
Fisi
Nyangao, Fisi
Fisi ya nkole
Kanu
Kanu
Fungo
Schreber, 1776
caracal
Simba mangu
Panthera pardus
Panthera leo
Acinonyx jubatus
Linnaeus, 1758
Linnaeus, 1758
Schreber 1775
leopard
lion
cheetah
Chui
Simba
Dumba
Manis tetradactyla
Linnaeus, 1766
long‐tailed pangolin
Smuts, 1832
ground pangolin
Kakakuona
(Pallas, 1766)
aardvark
Kukukifuku
Blumenbach, 1797
African elephant
Ndovu, Tembo
Pallas, 1766
Gray, 1868
A. Smith, 1827
black‐necked rock hyrax
yellow‐spotted bush hyrax
tree hyrax
Pimbe
Perere mawa
Perere
Bodaert, 1785
Oustalet, 1882
Linnaeus, 1758
Burchell, 1817
common zebra
Grevy's zebra
black rhino
white rhino
Punda milia
Punda milia Somali
Faru
Kiaru ya majani
Linnaeus, 1758
Gray, 1854
Thomas, 1904
F. Cuvier, 1817
(Linnaeus, 1758)
(Sparrman, 1779)
(Pallas, 1766)
(Ogilby, 1837)
(Blyth, 1869)
(Pallas, 1766)
Wagner, 1855
(Linnaeus, 1758)
(Thunberg, 1798)
(Thunberg, 1811)
(Zimmermann, 1783)
(Zimmermann, 1783)
Günther, 1880
(Pallas, 1767)
(Afzelius, 1815)
(Ogilby, 1833)
(Brooke, 1872)
hippopotamus
bush pig
giant hog
warthog
giraffe
African buffalo
bushbuck
bongo
Lesser Kudu
Greater Kudu
eland
bush duiker
blue duiker
steinbuck, steenbok
Oribi
klipspringer
Kirk's dikdik
Bohor reedbuck
Mountain reedbuck
common waterbuck
Grant's gazelle
Kiboko
Nguruwe
Nguruwe nyeusi
Ngiri
Twiga
Nyati, Mbogo
Mbawala, Pongo
Bongo, Ndongoro
Tandala ndogo
Tandala
Pofu
Nsya
Ndimba, Chesi
Isha, Dondor
Taya
Ngurunguru, Mbuzi mawe
Suguya, Digidigi
Forhi, Tohe
Tohe ya milima
Kuru
Swali granti
syn. Herpestes sanguinea
Helogale parvula
Mungos mungo
Atilax paludinosus
Ichneumia albicaudata
Hyaenidae Hyaena hyaena
Crocuta crocuta
Proteles cristata
Viverridae Genetta genetta
Genetta tigrina
Civettictis civetta
Nandinia binotata
Felidae Felis sylvestris
Lepitailurus serval
Paka mwitu
Mondo
syn. Felis serval
Caracal caracal
syn. Felis caracal
Pholidota
syn. Uromanis tetradactyla
Manis temminckii
syn. Smutsia temminckii
Tubulidentata
Orycteropodidae Orycteropus afer
Proboscidea
Elephantidae Loxodonta africana
Hyracoidea
Procavidae Procavia johnstoni
Heterohyrax brucei
Dendrohyrax arboreus
Perissodactyla
Equidae Equus quagga
Equus grevyi
Rhinocerotidae Diceros bicornis
Ceratotherium simum
Artiodactyla
Hippopotamidae Hippopotamus amphibius
Suidae Potamochoerus larvatus
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni
Phacochoerus africanus
Giraffidae Giraffa camelopardalis
Bovidae Syncerus caffer
Tragelaphus scriptus
Tragelaphus euryceros
Tragelaphus imberbis
Tragelaphus strepsiceros
Taurotragus oryx
Sylvicapra grimmia
Cephalophus monticola
Raphicerus campestris
Ourebia ourebi
Oreotragus oreotragus
Madoqua kirkii
Redunca redunca
Redunca fulvorufula
Kobus ellipsiprymnus
Nanger granti
syn. Gazella granti
notes
Order / Family
Name (syn.)
Artiodactyla (contd.)
Bovidae (contd.) Eudorcas thomsoni
description
common name (engl.)
common name (Swahili)
(Günther, 1884)
Thomson's gazelle
Swali tomi
(Brooke, 1878)
(Lichtenstein, 1812)
Burchell, 1823
(Pallas, 1766)
(Burchell, 1823)
(Desmarest, 1804)
(Harris, 1838)
(Rüppell, 1935)
Gerenuk
Impala
Topi
Kongoni, hartebeest
wildebeest
roan antelope
sable antelope
Beisa oryx
Swala twiga, Njonga
Swala pala
Nyamea, Topi
Kongoni
Nyumbu
Korongo
Mbarapi, Palahala
Choroa, Bara bara
syn. Gazella rufifrons
Litocranius walleri
Aepyceros melampus
Damaliscus lunatus
Alcelaphus buselaphus
Connochaetes taurinus
Hippotragus equinus
Hippotragus niger
Oryx beisa
Sources:
distribution
The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals
descriptions
http://de.wikipedia.org/
systematics
Starck, D. (1995): Kaestner's Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie. Vol. II‐Vertebrates, Part 5: Mammalia, 2 vols. Fischer, Stuttgart
* incomplete listings, note that some groups (Chiroptera, Insectivora etc.) are entirely missing
notes