F-box protein specificity for g1 cyclins is dictated by subcellular

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University of Massachusetts Medical School
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Program in Gene Function and Expression
7-26-2012
F-box protein specificity for g1 cyclins is dictated by
subcellular localization
Benjamin D. Landry
University of Massachusetts Medical School, benjamin.landry@umassmed.edu
John P. Doyle
University of California San Francisco
David P. Toczyski
University of California San Francisco
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Landry, Benjamin D.; Doyle, John P.; Toczyski, David P.; and Benanti, Jennifer A., "F-box protein specificity for g1 cyclins is dictated
by subcellular localization" (2012). Program in Gene Function and Expression Publications and Presentations. Paper 200.
http://escholarship.umassmed.edu/pgfe_pp/200
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F-box protein specificity for g1 cyclins is dictated by subcellular
localization
Authors
Benjamin D. Landry, John P. Doyle, David P. Toczyski, and Jennifer A. Benanti
Comments
Citation: Landry BD, Doyle JP, Toczyski DP, Benanti JA (2012) F-Box Protein Specificity for G1 Cyclins Is
Dictated by Subcellular Localization. PLoS Genet 8(7): e1002851. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002851. Link
to article on publisher's site
Copyright: © 2012 Landry et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
This article is available at eScholarship@UMMS: http://escholarship.umassmed.edu/pgfe_pp/200
F-Box Protein Specificity for G1 Cyclins Is Dictated by
Subcellular Localization
Benjamin D. Landry1,2, John P. Doyle3, David P. Toczyski3, Jennifer A. Benanti1,2*
1 Program in Gene Function and Expression, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America, 2 Program in Molecular
Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America, 3 Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of
California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
Abstract
Levels of G1 cyclins fluctuate in response to environmental cues and couple mitotic signaling to cell cycle entry. The G1
cyclin Cln3 is a key regulator of cell size and cell cycle entry in budding yeast. Cln3 degradation is essential for proper cell
cycle control; however, the mechanisms that control Cln3 degradation are largely unknown. Here we show that two SCF
ubiquitin ligases, SCFCdc4 and SCFGrr1, redundantly target Cln3 for degradation. While the F-box proteins (FBPs) Cdc4 and
Grr1 were previously thought to target non-overlapping sets of substrates, we find that Cdc4 and Grr1 each bind to all 3 G1
cyclins in cell extracts, yet only Cln3 is redundantly targeted in vivo, due in part to its nuclear localization. The related cyclin
Cln2 is cytoplasmic and exclusively targeted by Grr1. However, Cdc4 can interact with Cdk-phosphorylated Cln2 and target
it for degradation when cytoplasmic Cdc4 localization is forced in vivo. These findings suggest that Cdc4 and Grr1 may share
additional redundant targets and, consistent with this possibility, grr1D cdc4-1 cells demonstrate a CLN3-independent
synergistic growth defect. Our findings demonstrate that structurally distinct FBPs are capable of interacting with some of
the same substrates; however, in vivo specificity is achieved in part by subcellular localization. Additionally, the FBPs Cdc4
and Grr1 are partially redundant for proliferation and viability, likely sharing additional redundant substrates whose
degradation is important for cell cycle progression.
Citation: Landry BD, Doyle JP, Toczyski DP, Benanti JA (2012) F-Box Protein Specificity for G1 Cyclins Is Dictated by Subcellular Localization. PLoS Genet 8(7):
e1002851. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002851
Editor: Gregory P. Copenhaver, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States of America
Received February 1, 2012; Accepted June 6, 2012; Published July 26, 2012
Copyright: ß 2012 Landry et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants R00GM085013 (JAB) and R01GM070539 (DPT). The funders had no role in study design,
data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: Jennifer.Benanti@umassmed.edu
dependent kinase (Cdk). This group of substrates includes several
proteins that regulate entry into S phase including the Grr1
substrates Cln1 and Cln2 [9], as well as the Cdc4 substrates Sic1
[10] and Cdc6 [11]. In addition to this group of defined SCF
targets, Cdk phosphorylates hundreds of yeast proteins [12,13],
and many of these are rapidly degraded [14], suggesting that there
is a widespread connection between Cdk phosphorylation and
protein degradation. However, the majority of these proteins have
not been identified in genome-wide screens for Cdc4 or Grr1
targets [15,16], suggesting that they may be targeted for
degradation by alternate ubiquitin ligases.
One such Cdk-phosphorylated protein is the G1 cyclin Cln3.
Similar to cyclin D1 in mammals, Cln3 is the furthest upstream
cyclin, which senses growth cues and triggers entry into the cell
cycle. Cells become committed to progress through the cell cycle
upon phosphorylation of the transcriptional repressor protein
Whi5 by Cln3/Cdc28, which leads to Whi5 inactivation and
increased expression of downstream genes including the related
cyclins Cln1 and Cln2 [17,18]. Consistent with Cln3 having a
critical role in cell cycle entry, its levels are very tightly controlled.
In addition to being regulated by transcription [19,20] and
subcellular localization [21–23], Cln3 is rapidly degraded. This
proteolytic degradation is critical to restrain Cln3 activity, since
expression of a truncated and stable form of the Cln3 protein
drives cells through G1 phase prematurely, resulting in a
significant reduction in cell size [24–26]. Despite the physiological
Introduction
The ubiquitin-proteasome system plays an essential role in
controlling passage through the eukaryotic cell cycle [1]. A
significant fraction of cell cycle-regulated ubiquitination is carried
out by SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box protein) family ubiquitin ligases,
which target numerous cell cycle regulators for proteasomal
degradation. All SCF ligases consist of three core subunits: a
structural cullin subunit (Cdc53 in yeast, Cul1 in mammals), an
adaptor protein (Skp1) and a RING finger protein (Rbx1), plus
one of a family of modular substrate-specificity subunits called Fbox proteins (FBPs) [2–7]. There are large numbers of FBPs in all
eukaryotes, and each is believed to target the SCF to a specific set
of substrates by interacting with distinct epitopes in those proteins.
In almost all instances, FBPs recognize proteins that have been
post-translationally modified, usually by phosphorylation, which
enables ubiquitination to be regulated by substrate modification
[8].
In budding yeast, the FBPs Cdc4 and Grr1 have wellestablished cell cycle-regulatory roles [1]. Both FBPs recognize
phosphorylated epitopes in their substrates, however they bind to
these epitopes through distinct phosphorecognition domains: a
WD40 repeat domain in Cdc4 and a leucine rich repeat domain in
Grr1 [8]. Interestingly, although Grr1 and Cdc4 are thought to
have entirely non-overlapping sets of substrates, each is capable of
interacting with targets that have been phosphorylated by cyclin
PLoS Genetics | www.plosgenetics.org
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July 2012 | Volume 8 | Issue 7 | e1002851
Regulation of G1 Cyclin Degradation
significant increase in Cln3 protein levels. Furthermore, inactivation of the essential FBP Cdc4 did not stabilize Cln3 (Figure 2B;
Figure S1D). Together, these data suggested that Cln3 might be
redundantly targeted by two or more FBPs. The most likely
candidate FBPs to redundantly regulate Cln3 were Grr1 and
Cdc4, since each of these proteins is known to target Cdkphosphorylated substrates [9–11,30,31]. Indeed, we found that
simultaneous inactivation of Grr1 and Cdc4 led to complete
stabilization of Cln3, whereas deletion of GRR1 or inactivation of
Cdc4 alone had no significant effect on Cln3 levels or stability
(Figure 2B). Cln3 protein was almost undetectable in both single
mutant strains after only 2 minutes of cycloheximide treatment
(Figure 2C), and reintroduction of either Cdc4 or Grr1 into grr1D
cdc4-1 cells led to an equivalent reduction of Cln3 levels (Figure
S2A). Consistent with these observations, overexpression of Cln3
in either grr1D cells, or cells with limiting amounts of Cdc4 (cdc4-1
grown at the permissive temperature) was lethal (Figure 2D),
indicating that both FBPs are required for the cell to tolerate high
levels of Cln3. Together, these data demonstrate that Cln3 is
redundantly regulated by Cdc4 and Grr1.
Author Summary
Most cells only divide when they receive the proper cues.
When a cell receives a signal to divide, levels of G1 cyclin
proteins increase and drive entry into the cell division
cycle. Overexpression of G1 cyclins can drive cells into the
cell cycle inappropriately and thus may contribute to the
hyperproliferation of cancer cells. Despite the importance
of controlling G1 cyclin levels, the mechanisms regulating
the degradation of these proteins are not well understood.
We have now elucidated the mechanism of degradation of
the yeast G1 cyclin Cln3. In contrast to related cyclins in
yeast, Cln3 is targeted for degradation by two redundant
pathways, which act to keep Cln3 levels extremely low.
This finding may have implications for understanding how
G1 cyclins are degraded in human cells and how
expression of G1 cyclins may be misregulated during
cancer development.
importance of Cln3 degradation, the ubiquitin ligase that targets
Cln3 for degradation has not been identified.
Previous studies have implicated an SCF ligase in Cln3
degradation [26,27], however no FBP has been identified that
recognizes Cln3. Here, we show that Cdc4 and Grr1 redundantly
target Cdk-phosphorylated Cln3 for degradation. Mutation of
either FBP alone has no detectable effect on Cln3 levels or
stability, yet Cln3 is completely stable in double mutant cells.
Surprisingly, we find that both Cdc4 and Grr1 interact with all 3
G1 cyclins (Cln1, Cln2 and Cln3) in cell extracts, however only
Cln3 is redundantly targeted in vivo, because it is the only G1 cyclin
that localizes primarily to the nucleus. Cln2 is cytoplasmic and
exclusively targeted by Grr1 [9,28]. However, we show that Cdc4
can target Cln2 for degradation when cytoplasmic Cdc4
localization is forced in vivo. Finally, we observed a synthetic
growth defect in cdc4 grr1 double mutant cells that is not
suppressed by deletion of CLN3. In sum, these data demonstrate
that the binding specificities of FBPs do not necessarily dictate
which proteins are in vivo targets, and suggest that Cdc4 and Grr1
have additional redundant targets whose regulated degradation is
necessary for normal cell cycle control.
Cdc4 and Grr1 Interact with Cdk-Phosphorylated Cln3
In order to demonstrate that Cdc4 and Grr1 directly target
Cln3, we examined the binding of Cln3 to each FBP. Because
complexes between ubiquitin ligases and substrates are unstable
and often difficult to detect, we assayed binding of Cln3 to GSTtagged Grr1 or Cdc4 proteins that lack the F-box domain and
therefore cannot interact with the remainder of the SCF ubiquitin
ligase complex (Cdc4DF and Grr1DF) [15,32]. In contrast to the
full-length proteins, expression of GST-Cdc4DF or GST-Grr1DF
had no effect on levels of Cln3 (Figure S2A), confirming that they
were not incorporated into active SCF complexes. Upon pulldown of GST-tagged proteins from cellular lysates, Cln3
associated with both Cdc4DF and Grr1DF proteins but not with
GST (Figure 3A, lane 2), supporting the model Cdc4 and Grr1
directly target Cln3 in vivo.
Previous studies suggested that the C-terminal tail of Cln3 is
required for its degradation [26] . To verify this result and narrow
down the region required for Cln3 degradation we constructed a
series of C-terminal truncation mutants (Figure S2B) and
examined their half-lives in vivo. With the exception of the largest
deletion of 177 amino acids (equivalent to the previously
characterized allele Cln3-1; [26]), all mutants were still turned
over at significant rates (Figure 3B). Although each of these
mutants was slightly more stable than wild-type Cln3, cells
expressing these mutants did not show any obvious changes in cell
cycle progression (Figure S2E–S2F), suggesting that partial
stabilization does not impact the cell cycle in vivo. However, since
each truncated protein was more stable than wild-type Cln3 in
either grr1D or cdc4-1 cells (Figure 2B), this indicates that these
mutations must partially interfere with degradation by both FBPs.
The large size of the C-terminal tail makes it possible that each
FBP recognizes a distinct epitope within this domain. Therefore,
to further narrow down the requirements for binding to each FBP,
we analyzed the binding of the C-terminal Cln3 truncation
mutants to Cdc4 and Grr1. Interestingly, we found that all
truncations disrupted binding to Cdc4 (Figure 3A, middle panels),
including the smallest deletion of just 22 amino acids. In contrast,
all truncations except for the largest deletion (Cln3-1) bound well
to Grr1, albeit at reduced levels (Figure 3A, bottom panels). These
data suggest that while Grr1 and Cdc4 both require the Cln3 Cterminus for binding, they do not bind identical epitopes.
Cdk-phosphorylation of the Cln3 C-terminus is also required
for its degradation [27,33]. Since both Cdc4 and Grr1 bind Cdk-
Results
SCFGrr1 and SCFCdc4 Redundantly Target Cln3 for
Degradation
To better understand the regulation of Cln3 degradation, we
examined Cln3 protein levels throughout the cell cycle and found
that they paralleled the reported transcriptional expression profiles
[19,20,29], rising in mitosis, shortly after the mitotic cyclin Clb2,
and persisting through G1 phase (Figure 1A; Figure S1A). Cln3
was rapidly degraded in cells arrested in either G1 or mitosis,
demonstrating that it is degraded throughout the cell cycle
(Figure 1B; Figure S1B). Previous data suggested that an SCF
ubiquitin ligase is responsible for targeting Cln3 [26,27].
Consistent with these observations, we found that phosphorylated
Cln3 is stable and accumulates in cells expressing a temperaturesensitive allele of CDC53 (cdc53-1) upon shift to the restrictive
temperature (Figure 1C; Figure S1C). Similarly, transcriptional
shut-off of the genes encoding Cdc53 or Cdc34 (the E2 enzyme
that functions with SCF ligases) stabilized Cln3 (Figure S1D).
We next attempted to identify the specific FBP that targets Cln3
for degradation. Cln3 levels were compared among strains
carrying single deletions of every non-essential yeast F-box protein
(Figure 2A; data not shown), however no single deletion caused a
2
Figure 1. Cell cycle regulation of Cln3. (A) Cln3 levels peak in mitosis. Cells expressing Cln3-13Myc were synchronized in G1 with alpha-factor
and released into the cell cycle. Samples were collected for flow cytometry and Western blot analysis at 15-minute intervals. Western blots for Cln313Myc, Clb2 and Cdc28 are shown. Cell cycle position was monitored by flow cytometry, right. Quantification of Cln3 protein levels is shown in Figure
S1A. (B) Cln3 is unstable in G1 and mitosis. Cycloheximide-chase assay showing levels of Cln3-13Myc and Cdc28 in cells arrested in G1 with alphafactor, or in mitosis (M) with nocodazole, and then treated with cycloheximide for the indicated number of minutes (min chx). Cell cycle profiles are
shown in Figure S1B. (C) Cln3 stability is regulated by Cdc53. Cycloheximide-chase assay showing levels of Cln3-13Myc and Cdc28 in wild-type cells
(CDC53) and cdc53-1 temperature-sensitive cells before (23uC) and after (37uC) incubation at the non-permissive temperature. Following incubation at
37uC, cycloheximide was added for the indicated number of minutes. Cell cycle profiles are shown in Figure S1C. For all gels, molecular weight
markers are indicated at the left.
doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002851.g001
phosphorylated epitopes, this suggested that both FBPs might bind
to the Cln3 C-terminus in a phospho-dependent manner. To test
this, we first constructed a stable, Cdk-deficient allele of Cln3. The
Cln3 C-terminus includes 10 serine/threonine-proline motifs,
constituting the minimal Cdk-consensus site. A previous report
demonstrated that mutation of the single full Cdk consensus site
(S/TPxK) in the C-terminus of Cln3, serine 468, partially
stabilized a Cln3 C-terminus-b-Gal fusion protein [27]. Notably,
mutation of this site in the context of the full-length protein only
had a minor effect on Cln3 stability and did not affect cell cycle
position (Figure S2C–S2D). We then changed all of the remaining
C-terminal Cdk consensus sites to alanine residues within the
endogenous CLN3 locus and assayed the stability of the mutated
Cln3 proteins. Mutation of the 9 most C-terminal sites completely
stabilized Cln3 (Figure 4A, Cln3-9A), and led to a cell cycle profile
consistent with a significantly shortened G1 phase (Figure 4B).
Next, we tested whether Cln3-9A could interact with Cdc4 and
Grr1. Consistent with our prediction, significantly less Cln3-9A
bound to each FBP, in comparison to wild-type Cln3 (Figure 4C,
compare lanes 6 & 8, 10 & 12). These data strongly suggest that
phosphorylation of the Cln3 C-terminus contributes to its
interaction with both Cdc4 and Grr1.
Although Cdk phosphorylation of the C-terminus is required for
Cln3 degradation, our binding data suggested that each FBP
recognizes a distinct epitope within this domain, so we further
analyzed the requirements for these C-terminal phosphosites in
degradation by each FBP. Both Cdc4 and Grr1 are thought to
target regions of their substrates that include multiple Cdkphosphorylated residues [9–11,30,31], so we mutated two clusters
of Cdk phosphosites in attempt to specifically interfere with
binding to one or the other FBP (Figure S2B). First, we mutated
five Cdk sites in the N-terminal half of the C-terminal domain,
spanning residues 447–468 (designated Cln3-5A). Interestingly, we
found that Cln3-5A was partially stabilized in wild-type cells
(Figure 4A), and Cln3-5A-expressing cultures contained a slightly
reduced fraction of cells in G1 phase (Figure 4B). Since
degradation of wild-type Cln3 is unaffected in either cdc4-1 or
grr1D cells, the partial stabilization of the Cln3-5A protein
suggested that these mutations partially interfered with targeting
by both Cdc4 and Grr1. Consistent with this possibility, Cln3-5A
was further stabilized in both cdc4-1 and grr1D single mutant cells
(Figure 4D, top panels).
Next, we mutated three sites at the extreme C-terminus
(designated Cln3-3A). Notably, these sites are adjacent to the
region required for Cdc4 interaction (Figure 3A), and are
separated by two amino acids each, which matches the doubly
phosphorylated degron motif that is preferred by Cdc4 [34,35]. In
wild-type cells Cln3-3A was rapidly degraded and its expression
had no effect on cell cycle progression (Figure 4A–4B). However,
Cln3-3A was degraded differently in cells lacking GRR1 and
3
Figure 2. Cln3 degradation is redundantly regulated by Cdc4 and Grr1. (A) Cln3 levels are not regulated by any single F-box protein.
Western blot of Cln3-13Myc in wild-type cells (wt) and cells deleted for individual F-box protein genes, as indicated. All cells were arrested in mitosis,
to control for differences in cell cycle position. The F-box protein Met30 is essential, so Cln3-13Myc was examined in cells lacking both Met30 and its
target Met4, which renders Met30 nonessential. (B) Cln3 is stable in grr1D cdc4-1 cells. Cycloheximide-chase assay showing levels of Cln3-13Myc in
wild-type (wt), grr1D, cdc4-1, and grr1D cdc4-1 cells after shifting to the non-permissive temperature for 2 hours, followed by treatment with
cycloheximide for the indicated number of minutes (min chx). Levels of Cln3-13Myc and Cdc28 are shown. (C) Cln3 is unstable in grr1D and cdc4-1
single mutant strains. Cycloheximide-chase assay as in (B) except that cells were collected at 2 minute intervals. For all gels, molecular weight markers
are indicated at the left. (D) Cells with the indicated genotypes were transformed with a high-copy plasmid expressing CLN3 from a galactose
inducible promoter (pGAL-CLN3) or a control high-copy plasmid expressing GST (pGAL-GST). 5-fold dilutions of cells were plated on glucose (CLN3
transcription OFF) and galactose (CLN3 transcription ON) and incubated at 23uC (the permissive temperature for cdc4-1).
CDC4: Cln3-3A turnover was unaffected in cdc4-1 cells, but almost
completely blocked in grr1D cells (Figure 4D, bottom panels). This
demonstrates that Cln3-3A cannot be targeted by Cdc4 and is
consistent with the prediction that degradation by Cdc4, but not
Grr1, requires phosphorylation of these three C-terminal sites.
Together, these data suggest that although the Cdk-phosphorylated C-terminus of Cln3 is required for its targeting by Cdc4 and
Grr1, the two FBPs recognize different epitopes within this
domain. However, since Cln3 is thought to be constitutively bound
to Cdk, it is possible that these sites are all constitutively
phosphorylated in cis and that this phosphorylation allows Cln3
to be degraded by both FBPs throughout the cell cycle. A second
possibility is that Cln3 is phosphorylated in trans by an alternate
cyclin/Cdk complex in order to be targeted for degradation.
4
recognize non-overlapping sets of targets [36]. This raises the
question of what is unique about Cln3 that enables it to be
recognized by both F-box proteins. To address this issue, we
compared Cln3 and the related cyclin Cln2, which is targeted for
degradation exclusively by Grr1 [9]. Like Cln3, Cln2 has an Nterminal cyclin box and a C-terminus that includes a PEST
domain and Cdk phosphorylation sites (Figure 5A; [37]).
Moreover, the 169 C-terminal amino acids of Cln2 constitute a
transferrable degron, which can direct Grr1-mediated degradation
of a heterologous protein [38]. Together, this suggests that all of
the FBP specificity resides within the C-terminal domains of both
cyclins.
To test this possibility, chimeric proteins were created by
exchanging the C-terminal degron domains of Cln2 and Cln3
(Figure 5A) and the stability of these chimeric proteins was assayed
in strains lacking Grr1, Cdc4, or both FBPs. As expected for a
Grr1 target, Cln2 was degraded rapidly in wild-type cells, but
completely stable in grr1D cells (Figure 5B, top panels). Moreover,
Cln2 was degraded in cdc4-1 cells, although the protein level was
higher overall (which was expected because cdc4-1 cells arrest in
G1/S phase when CLN2 transcription peaks). In contrast to Cln2,
Cln3 was not affected by loss of either Grr1 or Cdc4, but was
completely stabilized in grr1D cdc4-1 cells (Figure 2B). However,
when the C-terminus of Cln3 was replaced with the C-terminus of
Cln2 (Cln3-2C), the Cln3 degradation profile was nearly identical
to that of Cln2 (Figure 5B, middle panels). In wild-type cells, the
half-life of Cln3-2C was longer than Cln3 (compare Figure 2B to
Figure 4B) and, importantly, Cln3-2C was completely stable in
grr1D cells, demonstrating that it could no longer be targeted by
Cdc4. When the C-terminus of Cln2 was replaced with the Cterminus of Cln3 (Cln2-3C), the opposite result was observed
(Figure 5B, bottom panels). In wild-type cells, Cln2-3C was
considerably less stable than Cln2. In addition, unlike Cln2, Cln23C was degraded in grr1D cells (although it was slightly more stable
than in wild-type cells). However, Cln2-3C was stable in grr1D
cdc4-1 cells. Together, these data demonstrate the C-termini of
Cln2 and Cln3 confer their FBP specificity, and indicate that there
is a unique feature in the Cln3 C-terminus that promotes Cdc4mediated turnover.
Figure 3. Cln3 interacts with Cdc4 and Grr1. (A) Cln3 interacts with
Cdc4 and Grr1. Myc and GST Western blots showing pull-downs of GST,
GST-Cdc4DF and GST-Grr1DF proteins from grr1D cdc4-1 cells expressing Cln3-13Myc (wt) or Cln3 truncation mutants (described in Figure
S2B). 2% input (i) and glutathione-sepharose bound proteins (b) are
shown. (B) Cycloheximide-chase assay of Cln3 truncation mutants from
(A) expressed in wild-type cells. Western blots for Myc and Cdc28 are
shown. For all gels, molecular weight markers are indicated at the left.
Subcellular Localization Regulates G1 Cyclin Degradation
Our analysis of Cln3 truncation mutants demonstrated that the
last 22 amino acids of Cln3 are important for interaction with
Cdc4 but not Grr1 (Figure 3A). Interestingly, this 22 amino acid
sequence in Cln3 includes a bipartite nuclear localization signal
(NLS), which is important for Cln3 nuclear localization (Figure S3;
[21,22]). In contrast, Cln2 does not have an NLS motif and it is
predominantly cytoplasmic [22,28]. This raises the possibility that
the localization of G1 cyclins may also contribute to FBP
specificity in vivo. The localization of the FBPs supports this
model: Grr1 is both cytoplasmic and nuclear, whereas Cdc4 is
exclusively nuclear [39]. Therefore, since Cln2 is primarily
cytoplasmic, it may only be accessible to Grr1. In contrast, since
Cln3 is primarily nuclear, this may enable targeting by both Grr1
and Cdc4. Consistent with this model, the Cln3D22 mutant, which
lacks the NLS sequence and is primarily cytoplasmic (Figure S3;
[22]), is almost completely stable in grr1D cells (Figure 5C).
Notably, we find that Cln3D22 is considerably more stable than
full-length Cln3 expressed in cells lacking Cdc4 (compare
Figure 5C and Figure 2B), despite that fact that it can bind to
Grr1 as well as the full-length protein in whole cell extracts
(Figure 3A). This suggests that nuclear Cln3 is more susceptible to
degradation than cytoplasmic Cln3, perhaps because most
cytoplasmic Cln3 is tethered to the ER and not fully active [23].
Phosphorylation in trans could lead to cell cycle-regulated Cln3
degradation. To test whether cis phosphorylation of Cln3 by Cdk is
required for its turnover, we constructed an N-terminal truncation
mutant of Cln3 that removes the cyclin box and therefore can not
bind to Cdk (Cln3DN). Interestingly, blocking cis phosphorylation
in this manner led to almost complete stabilization of Cln3 protein
(Figure 4E). The subtle degradation that was observed was
dependent upon Cdk-phosphorylation, since mutation of the 9 Cterminal Cdk sites further stabilized the protein, suggesting that
this protein could be phosphorylated by alternative cyclin/Cdk
complexes. However, since Cln3DN is considerably more stable
that full length Cln3, we conclude that the primary mode of Cln3
degradation depends upon phosphorylation in cis.
C-terminal Domains of G1 Cyclins Confer F-box Protein
Specificity
Although Cdc4 and Grr1 have both been shown to bind and
ubiquitinate Cdk-phosphorylated proteins, they are thought to
5
Figure 4. Cdk-phosphorylation of the Cln3 C-terminus is required for its degradation. (A) Mutation of Cdk consensus sites stabilizes Cln3.
Cycloheximide-chase assay showing levels of Cln3-13Myc, Cln3-5A-13Myc, Cln3-3A-13Myc and Cln3-9A-13Myc after the addition of cycloheximide for
the indicated number of minutes (min chx). Cdc28 is shown as a loading control. Diagram of mutant alleles is shown in Figure S2B. (B) Expression of
Cln3-9A accelerates progression through G1 phase. Cell cycle profiles of asynchronous wild-type cells and cells expressing Cln3-3A, Cln3-5A, or Cln39A. (C) Cdc4 and Grr1 bind to Cdk-phosphorylated Cln3. Myc and GST Western blots showing pull-downs of GST, GST-Cdc4DF and GST-Grr1DF
proteins from grr1D cdc4-1 cells expressing Cln3-13Myc (wt) or Cln3-9A-13Myc (9A). 2% input (i) and glutathione-sepharose bound proteins (b) are
shown. (D) Cdc4 and Grr1 require different regions of the Cln3 C-terminus for targeting. Cycloheximide-chase assays of Cln3-5A-13Myc (top panels)
and Cln3-3A-13Myc (bottom panels) in wild-type (wt), grr1D or cdc4-1 cells. Cells were shifted to 37uC for 2 hours and cycloheximide was added for
the indicated number of minutes. Cln3-13Myc and Cdc28 Western blots are shown. (E) Cdk-phosphorylation of Cln3 occurs in cis. Cycloheximidechase assay of full-length Cln3-13Myc, Cln3DN-13Myc (Cln3 lacking amino acids 2-207), and Cln3DN-9A-13Myc. Each protein is expressed from the
TEF1 promoter. For all gels, molecular weight markers are indicated at the left.
Another prediction from our data is that Cdc4 may be capable
of targeting Cln2 for degradation, but does not do so in vivo only
because Cln2 is predominantly localized to the cytoplasm. To test
this idea, we first tested whether Cln2 could interact with Cdc4.
Importantly, Cln2 associated with both Cdc4DF and Grr1DF
proteins in extracts (Figure 6A, lanes 6 & 10). Moreover, Cln24T3S, a stable Cln2 protein that has mutations in 7 Cdk-consensus
sites [37], was unable to bind to Grr1 or Cdc4 (Figure 6A, lanes 8
&12), suggesting that Cdc4 and Grr1 bind to similar Cdkphosphorylated epitopes. In addition, we found that the third G1
cyclin, Cln1, also interacted with both Cdc4 and Grr1 (Figure S4).
Thus, like Cln2, Cln1 is a potential target of both Cdc4 and Grr1,
but may be regulated exclusively by Grr1 in vivo by virtue of its
cytoplasmic localization.
Since Cdc4 interacts with Cln1 and Cln2 in extracts, this
suggests that Cdc4 might be capable of targeting all three G1
cyclins in vivo, if it were localized in the same subcellular
compartment as all three cyclins. To test this, we utilized a
previously characterized Cdc4 protein (NES-Cdc4) that is fused to
a nuclear export signal and localizes to the cytoplasm [39].
Expression of NES-Cdc4 in grr1D cells led to decreased Cln2
protein levels, whereas expression of wild-type Cdc4 had no effect
(Figure 6B). In addition, this downregulation was dependent upon
Cdk-phosphorylation of Cln2, since levels of Cln2-4T3S were
unaffected by NES-Cdc4 expression (Figure 6B). Together, these
data show that localization of yeast G1 cyclins determines which of
the FBPs can target each in vivo, and that the binding specificities of
the FBPs do not dictate which proteins are in vivo targets.
6
Cln3 for degradation in vivo, suggests that these two FBPs may
share a number of overlapping targets that are important for cell
cycle progression. In support of this possibility, we found that cells
carrying a GRR1 deletion and having compromised Cdc4 function
(grr1D cdc4-1, grown at the permissive temperature for cdc4-1)
demonstrate a synergistic growth defect well beyond that predicted
for a combination of the individual (minor) growth phenotypes
(Figure 7). This type of negative genetic interaction is consistent
with Cdc4 and Grr1 having partially redundant roles in one or
more common cellular functions [40]. Importantly, deletion of
CLN3 did not reverse this growth defect (Figure 7), supporting the
idea that additional proteins are redundantly targeted by Cdc4
and Grr1. Alternatively, it is possible that Cdc4 and Grr1 have
specific substrates that cause a synergistic growth defect when their
levels are elevated. However, the large number of unstable, Cdkphosphorylated proteins in the cell [13,14,41], combined with the
ability of Grr1 and Cdc4 to bind some targets in common, raises
the intriguing possibility that these two FBPs target a significant
fraction of the cell cycle proteome for degradation.
Discussion
Cln3 turnover is essential for accurate entry into the cell cycle
and for proper cell size control [24–26], however the identity of
the ubiquitin ligase that targets Cln3 for destruction has remained
a long-standing question. Here, we show that Cln3 is redundantly
targeted by two F-box proteins with key cell cycle-regulatory roles,
Cdc4 and Grr1. Interestingly, inactivation of either FBP alone has
no detectable effect on Cln3 expression or half-life, yet Cln3 is
completely stable in double mutant cells (Figure 2B–2C). This
result is quite surprising because, although redundant regulation of
degradation has been previously found for other proteasome
substrates in both yeast and mammals [42–44], in most cases
elimination of one ubiquitin ligase or the other leads to a partial
stabilization of the substrate, which we do not observe with Cln3.
This may be because targeting of these other substrates by two
ligases is only partially redundant in the sense that the ligases may
recognize different epitopes on the substrate, or respond to
different physiological cues.
In the case of Cln3, our data suggests that both Cdc4 and Grr1
recognize the Cdk-phosphorylated C-terminus of Cln3 (Figure 4).
However, the two FBPs do not recognize identical epitopes. Cdc4
targeting requires three phosphosites at the extreme C-terminus of
Cln3, whereas mutation of these sites have no effect on targeting
by Grr1 (Cln3-3A, Figure 4D, bottom panels). Interestingly,
mutation of a second cluster of five phosphosites partially interferes
with targeting by both Cdc4 and Grr1 (Cln3-5A, Figure 4D, top
panels). This suggests that the two FBPs may also interact with
some overlapping residues. Alternatively, these five phosphosites
may be required as priming sites that promote the phosphorylation
of the three C-terminal sites that Cdc4 requires, in a mechanism
similar to what has recently been demonstrated for the Cdc4specific target Sic1 [35]. Further work will be required to dissect
the mechanism of targeting by each FBP. However, since the Cln3
C-terminus is likely to be constitutively phosphorylated by Cdk in
cis (Figure 4E), and we have not been able to identify any condition
when only one FBP targets Cln3, this suggests that Cdc4 and Grr1
are truly redundant for Cln3 degradation.
The fact that there is no significant change in Cln3 levels in
either single mutant, along with the observed genetic interaction
between CDC4 and GRR1 (Figure 7), raises the possibility that
there are additional redundant targets of Cdc4 and Grr1 that have
not yet been identified. A likely possibility is that other Cdkphosphorylated, nuclear proteins are dual-regulated targets. Given
Figure 5. The C-terminal domains of G1 cyclins confer F-box
protein specificity. (A) Diagram showing the domain organization of
Cln3 and Cln2, as well as chimeric proteins. Cln3 sequence is shown in
black, Cln2 sequence in grey. Domains labeled degron refer to Cterminal sequences that have been demonstrated to confer Grr1- or
Grr1/Cdc4-dependent degradation, which are exchanged in the
chimeric proteins. (B) Cycloheximide-chase assay of Cln2-13Myc, Cln32C-13Myc and Cln2-3C-13Myc in wild-type (wt), grr1D, cdc4-1, and grr1D
cdc4-1 cells, after shifting to the non-permissive temperature for
2 hours, followed by treatment with cycloheximide for the indicated
number of minutes (min chx). Levels of Myc-tagged proteins and Cdc28
are shown. (C) Cycloheximide-chase assay of Cln3-13Myc and Cln3D2213Myc in wild-type (GRR1) and grr1D cells. Levels of Myc-tagged Cln3
proteins and Cdc28 are shown after incubation with cycloheximide for
the indicated number of minutes (min chx). Immunofluorescence images
confirming the cytoplasmic localization of Cln3D22 are shown in Figure
S3. For all gels, molecular weight markers are indicated at the left.
Genetic Interaction between GRR1 and CDC4
The finding that Cdc4 and Grr1 can bind to some of the same
Cdk-phosphorylated proteins, and that they redundantly target
7
the large number of Cdk-phosphorylated proteins that are
expressed in a cell cycle-dependent pattern [12,13,19,20], it is
possible that Cdc4 and Grr1 recognize a much larger fraction of
all cell cycle-regulated proteolysis than was previously recognized.
However, Cdk-phosphorylation cannot be the only factor that
determines whether a protein can be an in vivo substrate of both
Grr1 and Cdc4, since established Cdk-phosphorylated Cdc4
targets, such as Sic1 and Far1, cannot be targeted by Grr1 in vivo
or in vitro [4,39]. In addition, we find that deletion of SIC1 does not
reverse the synthetic sickness of grr1D cdc4-1 strains (data not
shown). Whether the synthetic growth defect observed for cdc4 and
grr1 is due to upregulation of a single common target protein that is
crucial for proliferation, or multiple targets (either shared or
specific) that each play a modest role in the cell cycle is a key
question requiring further study.
In contrast to Cln3, which is targeted by both Cdc4 and Grr1,
the related cyclins Cln1 and Cln2 are targeted exclusively by Grr1
in vivo [9]. Interestingly, we find that Cdc4 can interact with both
Cln1 and Cln2 in extracts (Figure S4; Figure 6). Moreover,
previous studies with recombinant proteins reported a weak
association between Cln2 and Cdc4 [4] and demonstrated that
Cdc4 can ubiquitinate Cln2 in vitro [39]. Interestingly, since Cln2
has been shown to phosphorylate Whi5 in the nucleus [45], this
suggests that Cdc4 may have an unappreciated role in targeting a
small but important nuclear fraction of Cln1/2. Alternatively, the
small fraction of nuclear Cln2 may be protected from degradation
in some way. In addition, these data indicate that FBPs do not
necessarily have the exquisite binding specificity for substrates that
has been proposed, and that co-localization of FBPs and substrates
also contributes to substrate specificity in vivo. In the future it will
be of interest to investigate whether any other Grr1 substrates can
interact with Cdc4, or be targeted by Cdc4 upon co-localization.
Importantly, the finding that FBP specificity for G1 cyclins
depends upon the localization of cyclins may aid in our
understanding of the mechanism of degradation of the mammalian cyclin D1 protein. Several FBPs have been implicated in
cyclin D1 degradation [46–51], and it is possible that it is regulated
by similar redundant mechanisms. It is interesting to note that
degradation of the furthest upstream G1 cyclins appears to be
quite complex and include redundancy. Since both Cln3 and
cyclin D1 are crucial regulators that act as sensors of extracellular
growth signals and trigger entry into the cell cycle, cells may have
evolved redundant mechanisms to degrade these cyclins in order
to buffer cells against dramatic fluctuations in cyclin synthesis and
inappropriate cell cycle entry.
Materials and Methods
Yeast Strains and Plasmids
A complete list of strains, including the specific experiments
each was used in, is provided in Table S1. Unless otherwise
indicated, all strains are in the S288c background and have a
Figure 6. Cdc4 can target Cln2 for degradation upon co-localization. (A) Cdk-phosphorylated Cln2 interacts with Cdc4 and Grr1. Myc and
GST Western blots showing pull-down of GST, GST-Cdc4DF and GST-Grr1DF proteins from grr1D cells expressing Cln2-13Myc (wt) or Cln2-4T3S-13Myc
(4T3S). 2% input (i) and glutathione-sepharose bound proteins (b) are shown. (B) Expression of cytoplasmic Cdc4 downregulates Cdk-phosphorylated
Cln2. Western blot showing levels of Cln2-13Myc, or Cln2-4T3S-13Myc, in grr1D cells after induction of GST, GST-Cdc4-FLAG, or GST-NES-Cdc4-FLAG
expression following the addition of galactose for the indicated number of hours. Levels of FLAG-tagged proteins and Cdc28 are also shown. For all
gels, molecular-weight markers are indicated at the left.
8
Figure 7. Genetic interaction between CDC4 and GRR1. 5-fold dilutions of cells with the indicated genotypes were grown at 23uC (the
permissive temperature for cdc4-1). All strains are rgt1D, which alleviates the glucose repression defect in grr1D strains. Note that grr1D cdc4-1 cells
are growing, but at a much slower rate than single mutant strains. Plates are shown at an early time point when wild-type and single mutant strains
have not reached saturation, to better illustrate the differences in growth rates among the strains.
13Myc-HIS3MX C-terminal tagging cassette integrated at the
CLN3 or CLN2 genomic locus. Strains carrying point mutations in
phosphorylation sites were generated by integrating a PCR
product containing the desired mutations, the 13Myc tag, and
the HIS3MX marker at the CLN3 or CLN2 genomic locus. The
integration of each mutation was then confirmed by sequencing.
Plasmids expressing GST and GST-tagged Grr1 have been
described previously [32]. To construct pYES2-GST-CDC4, the
CDC4 sequence was amplified from genomic DNA by PCR and
cloned into the pYES2-GST vector. pYES2-CDC4DF was
constructed similarly, except that the sequence corresponding to
amino acids 323–475 was amplified and cloned into pYES2-GST.
To construct the GST-NES-CDC4 plasmid, a DNA fragment
including the NES and the CDC4 N-terminal sequences was
subcloned from pBM138 (provided by Matthias Peter, [39]) into
pYES2-GST-CDC4.
All strains were grown in YM-1 complete medium with 2%
dextrose, with the exception of strains carrying GST plasmids,
which were grown in C medium lacking uracil with 2% dextrose
or raffinose [15]. To arrest cells in G1, 20 mg/ml alpha-factor
(United Biochemical Research, Inc.) was added for 2–3 hours. To
arrest cells in mitosis, 10 mg/ml nocodazole (US Biological) was
added to cells for 2 hours. Strains carrying temperature-sensitive
alleles of CDC53 or CDC4 were grown at 23uC and shifted to 37uC
for 2 hours to inactivate the respective proteins. Strains carrying
tetracycline-regulated alleles of CDC53, CDC4 and CDC34 were
treated with 10 mg/ml doxycycline (EMD Biosciences) for 8 hours
to shut off transcription from the tetracycline-regulated promoters
(Figure S1D). For GST-pulldown assays to analyze Cln3 binding
(Figure 3A; Figure 4C), grr1D cdc4-1 strains carrying GST plasmids
were grown in 2% raffinose and then induced by the addition of
2% galactose for 20–22 hours. For GST-pulldown assays to
analyze Cln1 and Cln2 binding (Figure 6A; Figure S4), grr1D
strains carrying GST plasmids were grown in 2% raffinose and
then induced by the addition of 2% galactose for 8 hours. To
examine levels of Cln2 and Cln2-4T3S following expression of
GST, GST-CDC4, and GST-NES-CDC4 (Figure 6B), grr1D cells
carrying GST plasmids were grown in 2% raffinose and expression
was induced by the addition of 0.05% galactose for the indicated
number of hours.
Western Blotting
Equivalent optical densities of cells were pelleted, lysed in
pre-heated SDS sample buffer (50 mM Tris pH 7.5, 5 mM
EDTA, 5% SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.5% b-mercaptoethanol,
bromophenol blue, 1 mg/ml leupeptin, 1 mg/ml bestatin, 1 mM
benzamidine, 1 mg/ml pepstatin A, 17 mg/ml PMSF, 5 mM
sodium fluoride, 80 mM b-glycerophosphate and 1 mM sodium orthovanadate) and heated to 95uC for 5 minutes. Glass
beads were then added and samples were bead-beat for
3 minutes in a Mini-BeadBeater-96 (Biospec), followed by
centrifugation. For cycloheximide assays with two minute time
points, cell pellets were lysed in cold TCA buffer (10 mM Tris
pH 8.0, 10% trichloroacetic acid, 25 mM ammonium acetate,
1 mM EDTA) and incubated on ice. Samples were then
centrifuged and the pellets resuspended in Resuspension
Solution (0.1 M Tris pH 11.0, 3% SDS). Samples were heated
to 95uC for 5 minutes, allowed to cool to room temperature,
and clarified by centrifugation. Supernatants were added to 46
SDS-PAGE Sample Buffer (0.25 M Tris pH 6.8, 8% SDS, 40%
glycerol, 20% b-mercaptoethanol) and heated to 95uC for
5 minutes. Extracts were then subjected to SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE), followed by transfer to
nitrocellulose membranes, and Western blotting with antibodies against Myc (Clone 9E10, Covance) Cdc28 (sc-6709, Santa
Cruz Biotechnology), Clb2 (sc-9071, Santa Cruz Biotechnology), Cdc53 (sc-6717, Santa Cruz Biotechnology), Flag (Clone
M2, Sigma) and GST (Clone 4C10, Covance).
9
CDC4 genes were treated with doxycycline for 8 hours to shut off
transcription, and then cycloheximide was added for the indicated
number of minutes (min chx). Levels of Cln3-13Myc, Cdc53 and
Cdc28 are shown. For all gels, molecular-weight markers are
indicated at the left. Cell cycle profiles of doxycycline-treated cells,
prior to the addition of cycloheximide, are shown on the right.
(TIF)
Cycloheximide-Chase Assays
Cells were grown to mid-log phase, or arrested as indicated,
then treated with 50 mg/ml cycloheximide. Samples were fixed for
flow cytometry, and cell pellets from equivalent optical densities of
cells were collected for Western blotting at indicated time points.
Cell Cycle Analysis
Cells were fixed with 70% ethanol and stored at 4uC overnight.
Cells were then sonicated, treated with 0.25 mg/ml RNase A for
1 hour at 50uC, followed by digestion with 0.125 mg/ml
Proteinase K for 1 hour at 50uC and labeling with 1 mM Sytox
Green (Invitrogen). Data was collected using a FACScan (Becton
Dickinson) and analyzed with FlowJo (Tree Star, Inc.) software.
Figure S2 Regulation of Cln3 degradation. (A) Western blot of
Cln3-13Myc in grr1D cdc4-1 cells expressing GST (empty) or F-box
proteins tagged with an N-terminal GST and a C-terminal FLAG tag
(Cdc4, Cdc4DF, Grr1, Grr1DF). All proteins are expressed from the
GAL1 promoter. Levels of Cln3, FLAG-tagged fusion proteins and
Cdc28 are shown. (B) Diagram of the Cln3 C-terminus, corresponding to amino acids 404–580. PEST domains are shown in blue boxes
and numbered 1–5. Minimal Cdk consensus sites (S/TP), T420,
S447, T455, S462, S464, T478, S514, T517, and T520, are shown as
yellow stars, the single full Cdk consensus site (S/TPxK), S468, is
shown as a red star. The nuclear localization signal (NLS) is at the
extreme C-terminus and is indicated by a purple box. Positions of
truncation mutants (from Figure 3) are shown with dashed lines.
Groups of consensus sites mutated to alanine in Figure 4 are indicated
above the diagram. (C) Mutation of the full Cdk-consensus site, S468,
has a small effect on Cln3 stability. Cycloheximide-chase assay
showing levels of Cln3-13Myc and Cln3-S468A-13Myc after the
addition of cycloheximide for the indicated number of minutes (min
chx). Cdc28 is shown as a loading control. For all gels, molecularweight markers are indicated at the left. (D) The Cln3-S468A
mutation has no detectable effect on the cell cycle. Cell cycle position
of cells from (C) before the addition of cycloheximide. (E) Cell cycle
position of cells from Figure 3E. Only the Cln3-1 truncation has a
detectable effect on cycle position. (F) Cell cycle position of wild-type
or grr1D cells expressing Cln3 mutant proteins.
(TIF)
GST-Pulldown Assays
Cell pellets containing 20–30 optical densities of cells were lysed in
HEPES lysis buffer (25 mM HEPES pH 7.6, 400 mM NaCl, 0.2%
Triton X-100, 1 mM EDTA, 10% glycerol, 1 mg/ml leupeptin,
1 mg/ml bestatin, 1 mM benzamidine, 1 mg/ml pepstatin A, 17 mg/
ml PMSF, 5 mM sodium fluoride, 80 mM b-glycerophosphate and
1 mM sodium orthovanadate) by bead beating in a cold block for
3 minutes and clarified by centrifugation at 4uC. Extracts were
incubated with 20 ml of a 50% slurry of glutathione-sepharose 4B in
lysis buffer (GE Healthcare), while rotating at 4uC for 2 hours. Beads
were collected by centrifugation and washed seven times with 1 ml
lysis buffer. Proteins were eluted by boiling in 26 SDS-PAGE
sample buffer and analyzed by Western blotting against the GST
and Myc tags. 2% input of each extract is also shown.
Immunofluorescence
Cells expressing Myc-tagged Cln3 proteins were fixed in 3.7%
formaldehyde for 1 hour at 23uC followed by two washes in
potassium phosphate buffer (83 mM K2HPO4, 17 mM KH2PO4,
pH 7.5) and one wash in sorbitol phosphate buffer (1.2 M sorbitol,
83 mM K2HPO4, 17 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.5). Cells were then
spheroplasted with zymolyase and adhered to poly-L-lysine coated
slides. Cells on slides were permeabilized with methanol and
acetone, then blocked in PBS-BSA (10 mg/ml bovine serum
albumin, 0.04 M K2HPO4, 0.01 M KH2PO4, 0.15 M NaCl,
0.1%NaN3). Cells were then incubated with rabbit anti-Myc
antibody (sc-789, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) overnight, followed
by 5 washes in PBS-BSA, and incubation with Alexafluor 488conjugated goat anti-mouse secondary antibody (Invitrogen). Cells
were again washed 5 times with PBS-BSA, then stained with 1 mg/
ml DAPI and mounted with ProLong Gold Antifade reagent
(Invitrogen). Microscopy was carried out using a Zeiss Axioskop 2
fluorescence microscope with an 1006 1.3NA Plan-NEOFLAUR
objective. Images were taken with a RT Monochrome SPOT
camera (Diagnostic Instruments, Inc.) and accompanying software.
Image analysis was done with Adobe Photoshop software. All
images were captured for the same exposure times and adjustments
to contrast and brightness were performed equally on all panels.
Figure S3 Localization of Cln3 proteins. Immunofluorescence
of 13Myc-tagged Cln3 proteins and corresponding DAPI images.
Note that Cln3 is primarily nuclear in wild-type (GRR1 CDC4) and
grr1D cdc4-1 cells, whereas Cln3D22 is primarily cytoplasmic in
wild-type and grr1D cells. Also, the stable Cln3-9A mutant is
primarily nuclear. Scale bar represents 5 mm.
(TIF)
Figure S4 Cln1 interacts with both Cdc4 and Grr1. (A) Cln1 is
targeted by Grr1 in vivo. Cycloheximide chase assay showing levels
of Cln1-13Myc after the addition of cycloheximide for the
indicated number of minutes (min chx). (B) Cln1 interacts with
both Grr1 and Cdc4 in extracts. Myc and GST Western blots
showing pull-downs of GST, GST-Cdc4DF and GST-Grr1DF
proteins from grr1D cells expressing Cln1-13Myc. 2% input and
glutathione-sepharose bound proteins (bound) are shown. For all
gels, molecular-weight markers are indicated at the left.
(TIF)
Table S1 Strains list.
(PDF)
Supporting Information
Acknowledgments
Figure S1 Cell cycle regulation of Cln3. (A) Quantification of Cln3
levels from Figure 1A by densitometry. The ratios of Cln3 signal to
Cdc28 signal for each time point are plotted on a log2 scale. (B) Cell
cycle profile of cells arrested in G1 with alpha-factor, or in mitosis
with nocodazole, prior to the addition of cycloheximide (control for
Figure 1B). (C) Cell cycle profiles of wild-type (CDC53) and cdc53-1
cells after shifting to the restrictive temperature for 2 hours, prior to
the addition of cycloheximide (control for Figure 1C). (D) Wild-type
(wt) and strains expressing tetracycline-regulated CDC53, CDC34 and
We thank Peter Pryciak, Nick Rhind, and members of the Benanti and
Toczyski laboratories for helpful discussions. We also thank Tom Fazzio
and Peter Pryciak for critical reading of this manuscript.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: JAB DPT. Performed the
experiments: JAB BDL JPD. Analyzed the data: JAB. Wrote the paper:
JAB.
10
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