Traditional Children’s Games in Tanzania Rhonda Clements Margareth Messanga

Children, Youth and Environments 18(2), 2008
Traditional Children’s Games in Tanzania
Rhonda Clements
School of Education
Manhattanville College
Purchase, New York
Margareth Messanga
Messa Education Centre
Mwanza, Tanzania
Anna-Marie Millbank
Faculty of Sport, Health and Social Care
University of Gloucestershire
Gloucester, England
Citation: Clements, Rhonda, Margareth Messanga, and Anna-Marie Millbank
(2008). “Traditional Children’s Games in Tanzania.” Children, Youth and
Environments 18(2): 206-218. Retrieved [date] from
http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye.
Abstract
There is little media coverage or research on children in Africa who have succeeded
beyond the hardships of conflict, natural disasters, AIDS and poverty, and managed
to secure appropriate schooling and play environments. This field report describes
traditional children’s games played in Mwanza, Tanzania. Data were collected over
a five-year period through questionnaires, field testing with children, and ongoing
correspondence. The traditional games we have identified provide important
opportunities for Tanzanian children to use movement and problem-solving skills,
develop teamwork and creativity skills, challenge themselves, and connect with
their heritage.
Keywords: Tanzania, East Africa, culture, traditional games, education, play
© 2008 Children, Youth and Environments
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Overview
The purpose of this informal study was to obtain an understanding of some of the
traditional play activities and environments of primary school-age children in
Tanzania, East Africa. There were two main rationales for the study. First, we
realized that very few published books in Tanzania contain childhood games. The
majority of current teacher and parent resources limit their discussion to traditional
songs and dances, or children’s cultural stories and poems. However, we believe
that Tanzania’s traditional, outdoor games play a major role in enhancing children’s
physical health, imagination, and problem-solving skills. Data from field notes
indicate that these games increase children’s physical, communication, and social
skills, as well as feelings of joy.
A second need for the study grew out of the realization that many traditional games
seem to be played less and less, primarily due to the country’s recent fascination
with adult sporting events. The country has become the primary African safari
destination for Western tourists. This boost in tourism has also greatly increased
the number of spectator sports available to the general public. Over time, this new
attraction to sport-related activities could distract many children from participating
in simple, traditional games involving the names or movements of native animals.
Therefore, it is important to document and preserve the rules of these activities for
future generations.
Data collection extended over five years. It included creating and administering
informal questionnaires and field testing identified games and activities. These field
testing sessions were conducted during the school day when the children needed a
break from their academic studies. The field tests allowed us to clarify any
confusion with game rules that can occur when translating Swahili into English, and
to observe the children’s play behavior while following the established rules in their
natural environment. Following the field testing of the activities, ongoing
correspondence between the three primary investigators who live in different parts
of the world allowed us to eliminate cultural and linguistic misunderstandings.
This study’s investigators had previously worked together in multicultural education
and child’s play. We agreed that our first task should be to study Tanzania’s
common vehicles for play, and to learn more about the general nature of play in
Tanzania before working with the children at the Messa Education Centre to study
the rules of traditional games.
The Messa Education Centre
Tourism is especially prominent in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania’s second largest
city, located in the northern part of the country. The city has two large sport
stadiums that enable Mwanza residents to conduct, watch, and play most of
Tanzania’s official sports activities, such as soccer (football), netball, volleyball,
basketball, and badminton.
The Messa Education Centre is a small private school on the outskirts of Mwanza
that began in 2002 with only two children. Over the past six years, the school has
grown to an enrollment of 240 children ranging from age 4 to 12, and expanded
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from a single classroom to ten classrooms, eight offices, girls’ and boys’ hostels, a
library, a school shop, a laundry, a kitchen and dining hall, and a playground.
Figure 1. Children on the playground
The school’s curriculum follows Tanzania’s educational system, which includes
seven years of primary school and four years of secondary school, a system loosely
modeled on Britain’s. Primary schooling is taught in Swahili to enable Tanzania’s
students (wanafunzi) to maintain their cultural values and heritage. Secondary
school instruction is taught in English, however, to keep the country abreast in
world commerce. The school’s staff includes four teachers and six assistants who
instruct the children in reading, writing, spelling, math, social studies, history, and
science.
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209
Like many other private schools, no formal physical education is required at the
school in either the primary or the secondary classes. In fact, there is no word in
the Swahili language for the English word “sport.” 1 In contrast, there are several
words to describe the word “play” for children as well as adults. The noun for
traditional dance is ngoma and the verb for dance is cheza, which is also used for
the verb to play. Cheza is the most common word for play in Tanzania.
Play in Tanzania reflects cultural traditions as young children imitate (-iga) the play
of older children, who have imitated the play of the generation preceding them.
Thus, the children of the Messa Education Centre and other children reared in
Tanzania participate in and enjoy traditional dances such as sindimba and
mdundiko, drumming, and a wide variety of favorite traditional games (michezo).
The desire to maintain earlier play traditions in contrast to teaching sport skills at
the school coincides with the Messa Education Centre’s theme, “Good Foundations…
Bright Future.”
Ways That Tanzanian Children Play
Dance
In Tanzania, whole communities commonly celebrate holidays and festivals
together and display dance and drumming activities from earlier generations
(Mercer 2003). In fact, most festivals are arranged locally for the purpose of
transmitting traditions. Dance is one way in which different ages can express
sentiments such as thanks or praise, as well as communicate with ancestors (Leitao
and Keeler 2006). Many of Tanzania’ s small celebrations are somewhat less
colorful and decorative than those seen in other countries in Africa, since the
emphasis is on preserving native traditions through specific body movement
(mwendo), word pronunciations, and actions, in contrast to displaying elaborate
costumes with masks and head gear (Fitzpatrick 2002).
There are numerous types of dances that children learn, including image dances
that mimic animal movements such as stomping and lumbering elephants, low
flying birds, bounding antelopes, and slithering snakes.
There are several African music and song games that teachers in Tanzania
traditionally introduce to younger children. Many of the songs involve large motor
activities through which children physically demonstrate the words to the song,
such as the Basket Song and Where Are the Children. Other song games encourage
young children to make physical gestures while also teaching them—in the case of
the well-known Lion Song, teaching them of the need to fear the lion.
1
Tanzanians do recognize the English word “sport,” but spell it as spoti.
Traditional Children’s Games in Tanzania
Figure 2. Cultural dance (cheza)
Music
Musical instruments common to Tanzania include the marimba, which has metal
strings of varying lengths that are plucked with the thumb, kayambas which are
shakers made with grain kernels, rattles and bells made of wood or iron, horns
(siwa), tambourines (tari), and a variety of sizes of drums (ngoma).
Figure 3. Drums (ngoma)
210
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211
Toys
Like all children, Tanzanian children tend to imagine that their toys have lifelike
qualities such as the ability to move, feel, and talk. Most Tanzanian children do not
own more than a few commercially made toys during their childhood. When toys
are present in the home they usually include small dolls, toy trucks, hand puppets,
kites, model car making materials, and small figurines that can be used in the dirt
or sand.
Playmates
Playing with toys reaches a peak between three and four years of age when
children seek the company of playmates. At first their playmates may be of either
gender, but even before they are ready to enter school Tanzanian children show a
preference for playmates of their own sex. According to the classroom teachers at
the Messa Education Centre, this interest in playing with the same gender is
somewhat stronger in Tanzania than in other African countries, since Tanzanian
children have learned to play in gender-specific roles through their solitary play
with small toys. In addition, Tanzanian children most often play with children of the
same economic and social class, and it is rare that “rich” and “poor” children play
together.
Partner play contributes greatly to the socialization of children in Tanzania. By
imitating the actions of a friend or an older child, they learn patterns of behavior
that help them adjust to society’s social boundaries. Children learn, for example,
the importance of being a friend (rafiki) and not being a bully (onea), being kind
(jinsi) to smaller children, and how to forgive those who discriminate against them
(huzunika).
In the older grades, there is a definite shift towards group play, and many
Tanzanian children not only prefer playmates of the same gender, chronological
age, social maturity, and interests, but they also tend to seek friends with
personality traits such as leadership (kiongozi) and honesty (aminifu) (Stambach
2000). Most Tanzanian children also like to have friends who are successful in
physical games and have prestige in the eyes of the larger group, thus increasing
their own prestige through association (chama).
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Figure 4. Group play
Traditional Cultural Games
Children’s play in the older primary grades includes many cultural games that
involve chase and flee components. The lack of sports equipment in many primary
schools may explain why the majority of Tanzanian children still participate in
traditional games that have explicit rules and obvious physical challenges. These
games take on a particular importance for many older primary school children,
since they allow them to use their physical prowess and imagine that they are
characters or animals that possess great abilities.
Through a series of field testing with children from the Messa Education Centre we
were able to ensure the authenticity of the rules and the names of the most
common cultural games in Tanzania. These are described below because they have
been played by earlier generations of Tanzanian children, and are still played on
school playgrounds, in local villages, and by both girls and boys.
Animal Games
Tanzania boasts of having the largest number of wild herds of animals on the
continent. Its national parks and game reserves cover one-seventh of the country,
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and include Serengeti National Park, which is famous for its herds of plains animals
including wildebeest, zebra, eland, and kudu. The emphasis on games about native
animals provides children with additional understanding of animals’ predatory
natures, educating them about potential dangers as well as hunting methods.
The Hunter and Gazelle (mwindaji na swala) is a primary school-age game that
challenges children to use their imagination to catch one of Africa’s swiftest moving
animals using a blindfold and a chair, or some other obstacle to maneuver around.
To begin, one child is selected to be the Hunter and the other is the Gazelle. Both
children are blindfolded using dark blue strips of cloth known as “kaniki.” A chair or
other obstacle is placed between the Hunter and Gazelle around which both players
must navigate. The Gazelle claps his or her hands (piga makofi) every five to ten
seconds to give the Hunter clues to its location. If the Hunter catches the Gazelle,
the Hunter becomes the new Gazelle. If time expires before the Gazelle is tagged,
new players replace both the Hunter and the Gazelle.
A variation of this activity is called the Hunting Game. In this blindfold game, one
child is appointed to be the Hunter and the other is given the honor of being a wild
African animal (mnyama) such as an antelope (kogonga), a leopard (chui), a jackal
(mbweha), a rhinoceros (kifaru), or a hippopotamus (kiboko). All of the other
children form a single circle around the blindfolded Hunter and the wild animal.
Both players are spun around in the middle of the circle before the hunt begins.
While being quiet (nyamaza), both players listen for clues concerning the
whereabouts of the other in order to either catch them, or to avoid being caught. If
the animal is able to avoid being tagged during a set period of time, the animal
wins, and becomes the next Hunter. If the Hunter tags the animal, a new Hunter
and new animal are chosen for the next game. This game teaches children to learn
how to track or stalk (nyemelea) an animal silently, by listening for sound clues to
find their prey. Tanzanian children are also very watchful of wild animals, such as
the hippopotamus, that cause several deaths to adults and children each year.
Many also realize that hunters are hired to relocate the animals away from local
towns.
In the Blindfolded Horse Race, players are organized into three to four groups
depending on the number of blindfolds that are available. Each group has one
blindfold and stands behind a ground marker (i.e., a scratch mark made in the
ground). A great variety of natural items such as rocks, tree stumps, and dead
branches are positioned in front of the groups to create obstacles that a horse and
rider must navigate. A horse (farasi) is blindfolded in each group and one child from
the group is designated to be the rider. This player directs the horse around the
obstacles by walking behind the horse and giving directions such as move “right” (a
haki) or “left” (a kushoto) or “stop” (simama). The horse needs to rely on the rider
to give verbal cues in order to move through the course safely. On the signal "Go!"
(nenda!), the first set of horse and riders start walking or even running through the
course of obstacles. At the finish line, the horse may pull off the blindfold and run
(kimbia) back to its group, so that the next set of pairs can have a turn.
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Many children in Tanzania have heard stories related to large snakes (joka), and of
the large boa constrictor’s crushing powers. The game Boa Constrictor, however, is
actually a chase (fukuza) and flee activity that begins with all players scattered
throughout the playing area. One child is selected to be the snake and stands in a
designated area representing a cave (pango). At some point the boa runs and tags
other players who must then link together (fungana) and join the snake by holding
hands. As the snake grows, there is a tendency for it to break apart while chasing
runners. When this occurs, the free players can tag the broken parts of the snake,
forcing the snake to go back to its marked den to rejoin. If the snake can rejoin
before any parts are tagged, it does not need to go back to its den. The last runner
remaining untagged wins.
The game of Crocodile (Mamba) requires the use of a tug of war rope usually 20 to
30 feet long with a loop (kitanzi) tied at each end. To begin this test of strength,
three same-size groups are created. Two groups position themselves at either end
of the rope, and the third group (known as the crocodile) stands waiting to
challenge the winning group. Wooden posts are driven into the ground ten feet
behind the last player of each pulling team. On the signal "Go!" both pulling teams
try to pull the rope to the post that is positioned behind their group, and have the
last player at the end drop the loop over the post. Whichever side is successful
becomes the crocodile in the next round. In Tanzania, ropes are used to capture
and secure any crocodiles that leave the swamp (bwawa) and wander near African
villages; they are also an important export item.
Games Using Nature Objects
Nature objects are part of many children’s play games in Tanzania. The activity
How Many? (Nngapi?) requires as few as three players (mchezaji). It is a guessing
game that uses pebbles (kijiwa), corn kernels, or beads. Each player begins with 15
to 20 of the small objects. Player One secretly hides from one to four of the objects
in his or her closed fist, and then asks the other players to guess how many objects
are hiding. When all players have guessed, Player One opens his or her fist.
Whenever players guess correctly, they are awarded a pebble. If they guess
incorrectly, they must give one pebble to Player One. The activity continues until
one player has secured all the objects.
Ready (Rede) is another game that uses natural objects as players are challenged
to react and be quick (harakisha) when a stick (kijiti) topples over in a small pile of
sand (mchanga) or gravel. To begin, an eight to twelve inch-long stick is placed
upright in a pile of sand. At least four to five inches of the stick should be showing.
Players sit in a circle around the sand pile. One child begins the game by scooping
up sand (chota) with one hand, followed by a second player and so forth until the
stick falls over. When this action occurs the player immediately runs away (kimbia),
while all other children give chase. When the runner is tagged, he or she earns a
penalty point. The stick is re-positioned and the game begins again. When a player
earns a pre-determined number of penalty points (e.g., three), he or she is
eliminated from the game. The game can be adapted by identifying a home base
(e.g., a tree or hill) to which the running player can flee. If the runner reaches
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home base before being tagged, the player avoids earning a penalty point.
Beanbags can also be used to stand the stick upright if sand or dirt is not available.
Figure 5. Children playing Rede
Other Games
Kujipikirisha may be one of the oldest and most frequently played traditional games
in Tanzania. Groups of primary age children spend hours collecting used, dirty, and
discarded materials, and then placing the items in a large imaginary pot. A real fire
is set to “cook” the items. The excitement of a large fire burning in the middle of a
play area attracts many children. Obviously, the game can be dangerous if an adult
is not present, but this game is common throughout the country.
In Tanzania, poisonous berries are often used to dye cloth. The object of the
popular game Poison (Suma) is to "steal" a scarf-size cloth that was supposedly
dyed with poisonous berries. To begin, one player is chosen to be the “it” who
stands in the center of a circle formed by the other children. The cloth strip is
placed on the ground in the middle of the circle. On a signal, the child who is “it”
selects a player by calling out another player’s name from the circle to be a “thief”
(mwizi). The thief attempts to snatch the poison and return to the circle without
being tagged by the person who is “it.” If the thief is tagged before dashing back to
the open space in the circle, he or she returns to the circle and a new thief is
selected. The game ends when all players in the circle have had a turn.
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Hurley Burley originated in the early 1820s in England, but it is also played in
Tanzania because of Tanzanians’ great interest in soccer (football). In this children’s
game, a playing field is marked off with a centerline between each team's goal line.
Players are scattered over both halves of the playing area. The object of the game
is simply to kick the ball across the other group’s goal line. To begin, one child rolls
out a ball (mpira) at the center line and both groups scramble to secure it. The first
player to kick the ball across the opponent’s goal line scores a point for the group.
Players are allowed to foot pass or kick the ball. An additional challenge occurs
when players in the other group try to tag the player with the ball. When a player is
tagged while in possession of the ball, the opposite group gains control of the ball
at the place the tag was made.
Lessons Learned
The traditional games identified in this field report provide an opportunity for
Tanzanian children to (1) use different movement skills; (2) analyze a game
situation and use creative thinking in developing a simple strategy; (3) work
together in imaginary roles to solve simple chase and flee challenges; (4) acquire
greater understanding of their physical strengths and weaknesses based on their
individual skills; (5) develop trust and teamwork skills; and most importantly, (6)
take risks in a fun way as they experience feelings of uncertainty without the real
threat of failure, since the outcome of the game is not a life and death matter.
The activities also help to broaden children’s understanding of their heritage and
culture. This finding was expected to some extent since the investigators asked the
children to play several familiar games that their parents had likely played as
children. This seemed to increase the children’s sense of pride in their heritage. The
children shared many stories with us that they had been told by their parents about
growing up in Africa.
Furthermore, the children clearly found pleasure in chasing, fleeing, seeking,
hunting, speeding, acting daringly, guessing correctly, and pretending to be a
variety of fearless animals. The active nature of the games also helped the children
to develop strength, agility, and coordination, along with the ability to cooperate
and display tolerance. Practicing tolerance is considered an important value for all
teachers of the Messa Education Centre to convey in the classroom setting, and it
was obvious that the children had adopted this perspective as well.
Several teachers at the school also discussed how the games developed “inner
resources” such as generosity and cooperation. This was observed, for example,
each time a child gave up his or her turn so that a younger student could play.
Another inner resource included the need for all children to practice elements of fair
play. Younger children were quickly reprimanded by their older peers when their
behavior wandered from the task at hand. Many young children learned about the
importance of following rules for better organization and for maintaining respect
from their older peers. These types of character-building behaviors were given
great importance by the teachers in the school when they discussed the results of
field testing the games.
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Finally, the results from the field testing reinforced that each game’s simple level of
organization is a major factor in the children’s continued participation in these
traditional activities. With the exception of Kujipikirisha (which can be dangerous
unless an adult is present), a variety of age levels can successfully take part in the
games without the need for an adult to structure the activity. This factor increases
the likelihood that the children at the Messa Education Centre would continue to
participate in the games after the field testing was complete. Correspondence
between the three investigators has confirmed that this has been the case.
The Need for Additional Fieldwork
In 2006, the Messa Education Centre became the first of three schools to join the
African Schools Foundation. 2 Additional research into the play environments and
activities of the children that make up the African Schools Foundation (as well as
other children in Africa), will increase the likelihood that these children will be seen
as more than mere victims of poverty. Additional research can also shed light on
children’s developing personalities, adolescent interests, and experiences of play.
Research can also establish more facts about African children’s play culture, a
culture that is threatened by the introduction of foreign spectator sports. Finally, as
Tanzania is home to more than 34 million people and 100 different ethnic groups,
there are significant prospects for additional research on its play culture.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the great contribution of Samuel Tayali, former
Director of the Messa Education Centre, for his writings, translations, and field testing of
many activities. His sudden death at the end of this inquiry saddened all.
Rhonda Clements is the author or editor of nine teacher textbooks on children’s
play and physical activity and is a Professor of Education at Manhattanville College
in Purchase, New York.
Margareth Messanga is the School Manager at the Messa Education Centre in
Mwanza, Tanzania.
Anna-Marie Millbank is an independent play consultant, and is completing a
playwork degree at the University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, England.
References
Fitzpatrick, M. (2002). Tanzania. London: Lonely Planet Publications.
2
The African Schools Foundation is a not-for-profit organization dedicated to improving the
lives of impoverished children in schools and orphanages in Africa. Founded by Chris Jones
from the United Kingdom, it focuses on using the Internet to support institutions seeking to
help children through education, medical care, and aid. With charitable contributions from
around the world, it builds and maintains websites in several African countries.
Traditional Children’s Games in Tanzania
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Leitao, J.T. and P.A. Keeler (2006). Drumbeat in Our Feet. New York: Lee and
Low Books.
Mercer, G. (2003). Tanzania. Dorset, England: Better Directions.
Stambach, A. (2000). Lessons from Mount Kilimanjaro: Schooling, Community and
Gender in East Africa. New York: Routledge.
Relevant Websites
www.africaschoolsfoundation.org
www.messaeducationcentre.org