Review Paper Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier] wine production technology, composition,

Review Paper
Natural Product Radiance, Vol. 8(4), 2009, pp.356-365
An overview on Strawberry [Fragaria × ananassa (Weston)
Duchesne ex Rozier] wine production technology, composition,
maturation and quality evaluation
Somesh Sharma*, V K Joshi and Ghanshyam Abrol
Department of Postharvest Technology
Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry
Nauni, Solan – 173 230, Himachal Pradesh, India
*
Correspondent author, E-mail: sharmawine@gmail.com
Received 14 April 2009; Accepted 20 June 2009
Abstract
Strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa (Weston) Duchesne ex Rozier is an important
fruit of family Rosaceae, occupies an important place among the small fruit plants and is grown
throughout the world. Deep red in colour with a unique shape, highly perishable fruit has a
pleasant flavour. It is rich in vitamin C, sugar, organic acids, anthocyanin, phosphorus, iron, other
minerals, vitamins, etc. and its flavour is characterized as fruity, sweet and tart. It is utilized for the
production of purees, juice concentrate, juice, jams, preserves and rose red wine. Different methods
used to make wine are carbonic maceration, on the skin fermentation and thermovinification.
Thermovinification method produces the wine of better quality than the others. The cultivars
evaluated for wine production are: ‘Chandler’, ‘Doughlas’, ‘Camarosa’, ‘Elsanta’, ‘Polka’ and
‘Tenira’. Wines from ‘Camarosa’ cultivar are found to have many desirable characteristics such as
esters, optimum acidity, redder colour units, alcohol and total phenols, while ‘Chandler’ cultivar
had higher amount of ethyl alcohol, more phenols, anthocyanin than other cultivars. The method
of vinification has influenced the phenolic content. Different phenolic compounds identified by
TLC in wines from all the strawberry cultivars are catechin, epicatechin, quercitin and ellagic acid
which are known to play a key role of antioxidants. During maturation various changes took place
including increase in esters, a decrease in phenol content whereas ethanol content, TSS and acid
remained unchanged. In flavour profiling, out of 14 descriptors attempted, 6 had very high
intensity like, alcoholic, phenolic, higher alcoholic, astringency and bitterness and the vegetative,
yeasty and earthy were found to have lower intensity. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has also
been applied to the wine. The present paper is presenting an overview on production technology,
composition, maturation and quality evaluation of strawberry wine.
Keywords: Fragaria × ananassa, Strawberry wine, Carbonic maceration, Fermentation on
the skin, Thermovinification, Flavour profiling, Principal Component Analysis, Descriptors, Phenolic
compounds.
IPC code; Int. cl.8—C12G 1/00
Introduction
Strawberry, Fragaria ×
ananassa (Weston) Duchesne ex
Rozier (Family-Rosaceae) is an important
small fruit, grown throughout the world.
It is deep red in colour with unique shape
and flavour. The major strawberry
producing countries of the world are USA,
356
Spain, Japan, Poland, Korea and Russian
Federation (Fig. 1). The estimated
production of strawberries in the world
during 2007 was 3822 thousand tonnes7.
In India, it is cultivated near the vicinity
of metropolitan cities, some areas of
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun),
Maharashtra (Mahabaleshwar), and some
other places1-7.
Strawberry is rich in vitamin
C, iron and other minerals (Table 1). Its
Table 1 : Composition of strawberry
fruit2-5, 14-17
Constituents
Average Range
Edible portion (%)
Water (%)
Total soluble solids (oB)
Total sugars (%)
Sucrose
Fructose
Glucose
Titratable acidity (%)
Organic acids (mg/100g)
Citric
Malic
Ascorbic
Succinic
Tartaric
Pyruvic
Shikimic
Total phenols (mg/l)
Protein (%)
Total anthocyanin (mg/l)
Minerals(mg/100g)
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc
97
89.9-92.4
7-10.2
3.3-9.1
0.2-2.5
1.7-3.5
1.4-3.1
0.52-2.26
420-1240
90-680
26-120
100
17
5
Trace
58-210
0.23
55-145
130
6
13
8
0.6
0.2
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evaluation of strawberry wine is being
presented in this paper.
1,200
1,000
Wine production technology
800
600
Production 000MT
400
200
0
USA Russia Span Turkey Korea
Japan Poland Mexico Germany Ezypt
Fig. 1 : Top ten strawberry producing countries
flavour is characterized as fruity, sweet and
tart. The aroma notes are floral, green
strawberry, caramel and fruity in nature.
The major constituent like other fruits,
however, is water whereas phenolic
compounds such as quercitin, catechin,
chlorogenic, ferulic and ellagic acid are
present in the fruits and its wine.
Strawberry aroma is mainly determined
by a complex mixture of esters, aldehydes,
alcohols and sulfur compounds. Esters are
responsible for imparting the fruity and
floral notes to the fruit. Ethyl and methyl
esters are qualitatively and quantitatively,
the most important class of volatile
compounds present in strawberry flavour
and aroma8-13.
Strawberry fruits are delicious
but highly perishable needing immediate
utilization as dessert fruit or processed
product. Different cultivars of strawberry
(Plate 1) are used for preparation of
purees, juice concentrate, juice, jams,
preserves and preparation of alcoholic
beverages including strawberry wine. The
cultivars ‘Chandler’, ‘Doughlas’ and
‘Camarosa’ are used for making wine,
however, ‘Camarosa’ was rated superior
to ‘Chandler’ and ‘Doughlas’. Other
cultivars, viz. ‘Elsanta’, ‘Polka’, ‘Jewel’,
Vol 8(4) July-August 2009
‘Honeoye’ and ‘Tenira’ are suitable for
processing purpose. Strawberry flavour is
used extensively in the food industry for
the production of beverages,
confectioneries, bakery fillings, yoghurts,
ice creams, cake mixes, etc1-6.
An overview of the relevant
literature on the preparation technology,
composition, maturation and quality
a
b
c
Plate 1: Different fruit cultivars suitable for
strawberry wine production — a: Camarosa;
b: Chandler; c: Doughlas
The estimated world production
of wine during 2008 was 26444 thousand
tonnes out of which Italy alone produced
5050 thousand tonnes7. Theoretically,
wine can be prepared from any fruit having
fermentable sugars and nutrients required
for fermentation and different fruits have
been utilized in wine production including
strawberry1, 4, 5, 18-25.
Production process
Unlike grapes, the fruits of
strawberry are highly acidic in nature
like plum or apricot. But they possess
colour to make wine of appealing
colour. From methodology point of view,
preparation of strawberry wine
resembles with stone fruits. To make a
palatable wine, dilution of pulp with
50% water is the alternative available to
reduce its acidity4,5. Besides, the fruit is
pulpy and thus, its dilution is carried out
to make wine since the fruits have lower
sugar content than the grapes thus,
ameliorating the pulp to the desired level
is essential.
A method for preparation of rose
red strawberry wine has also been
described4. For strawberry wine, dilution
of heated berries with 50% water at
60-65°C for 5-6 min and raising the TSS
after crushing to 24oB produced wine with
acceptable sensory quality. Pasteurized and
depectinized red raspberry wine by
addition of 100ppm of liquid pectic
enzyme was most acceptable from
sensory and colour stability point of
view25. Unit operations for the production
of strawberry wine with the thermo357
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vinification method1 are shown in flow
chart (Fig. 2).
Pretreatments: In strawberry like grapes
to prepare quality red wine, several
processes like crushing, carbonic
maceration, thermovinification and
fermentation on the skin are
practised1,5,18,26.
Crushing: Strawberries were
destemmed, crushed and SO2 50 ppm was
added and the pulp was
diluted with 50% water1, 5.
STRAWBERRY
Carbonic maceration:
FRUITS
Carbonic maceration is very
ancient but technically a
Washing
simple process. For the last
half a century, it has come
Thermovinification
under close scientific
scrutiny in Southern France27.
Water
The berries were
filled in the tank, which was
Heating (5-6 min at
sealed and flushed thoroughly
60-65°C)
for 10 min and CO2 gas was
introduced by connecting a
Pressing
pipe to the bottom of the
tank (Plate 2). After flushing
Juice
with CO2, pressure in the
tank was adjusted to about
15lbs and was held at 27°C
Must (24° B)
for the duration of the treatment 1,4.
Vinification involving longer CO 2
maceration time proved suitable to
prepare mellow red wines. The longer
carbonic maceration time (14-20 days)
considerably increased the phenolic
constituents of the wine28. Amerine and
Ough29 reported that the fermenting must
under strongly reducing (low oxygen)
conditions or in the pressure
fermentations have slightly higher alcohol
levels. Benard et al30 found that holding
whole grapes under CO2 pressure slows
down fermentation and consequently,
helps in preventing an undue rise in
temperature.
Thermovinification:
Thermovinification is used to improve
colour extraction from weakly coloured
grape cultivars 31. In addition,
thermovinification favours the wines
which initially are deeper in colour than
their traditionally fermented counterparts,
although clarification may be slower
Fermentation
After completion of
fermentation
X
Siphoning (2-3
times)
Maturation
Add 50 ppm
SO2
X
Filteration
a
Bottling and Corking
Pasteurization
(62°C for 20 min)
Strawberry fruit wine
Fig. 2 : Flow Chart showing unit operations for
the production of strawberry wine with the thermovinification
358
b
Plate 2 : Carbonic maceration (a) macerated fruits; (b) wine
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because of increased phenolic
extraction. Wrolstad et al32 found that
blanching improved the colour stability
of strawberry juice. The strawberry wine
of cv. ‘Camarosa’ prepared by
thermovinification (heating of berries at
65-70°C in 50% water for 5-6 min) have
better physico-chemical and sensory
characteristics than carbonic macerated
wines and fermented with the skin wine1,4,5.
Joslyn and Goldstein 33 observed that
heating of berries at 74oC for 1min was
sufficient for colour extraction in
carginane grapes.
Fermented on the skin: For
production of red table wine, the crushed
grapes should be fermented along with
their skin for some time i.e. until
reasonable amount of colour gets
extracted to impart the wine dark red
colour21. Sims and Bates34 reported that
maximum colour and anthocyanin
extraction occurred within four days of
skin fermentation at optimum maturity
of fruits but continued through 6 days with
later maturity fruits. However, the wines
had less muscadine aroma and were more
astringent. Sharma1 and Joshi et al 5
prepared strawberry wine by fermentation
on the skin. The berries were washed,
destined and mixed with 50% water in a
5lt flask containing SO2 (50 ppm), DAHP
(0.1%) and yeast. But the yeast culture
(activate) was added after 24h and initial
TSS was raised to 24°B. The berries were
kept for 4 days and then the pressed juice
was fermented to dryness.
Physico-chemical
characteristics of wine
A typical wine contains sugars,
acids, ethyl alcohol, higher alcohols or
fusel oils, tannins, aldehydes, esters,
Vol 8(4) July-August 2009
amino acids, minerals, vitamins,
anthocyanin, fatty acids, minor
constituents like methanol, a number of
flavouring compounds, etc. Physicochemical characteristics of strawberry
wine are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 : Physico-chemical
characteristics of
strawberry fruit wine1,4,5
Characteristics
Range
Total soluble solids (°B)
Titratable acidity(%)
Volatile acidity (% A.A)
Ethanol (% v/v)
Total esters (mg/l)
Total phenols (mg/l)
Colour - Tintometer colour
units (TCU)
8.1-9.6
0.63-0.73
0.027-0.030
10.3-10.8
84.1-99.1
126.8-142.3
9.93-12.97
15.25-18.53
Titratable acidity is an important
characteristic varying between 0.63 to
0.73 per cent (Table 2). Carbonic
macerated wines have less titratable
acid (0.63%), malate and tartarate
concentration1,5,29,30,35,36 and thermovinified
(0.73%) has highest and found in wines
from ‘Doughlas’ cultivar. Effect of
cultivars on physico-chemical
characteristics of wine have also been
reported by various workers (Table 3).
Ethanol
It is the component on which the
type of wine can be characterized.
Sharma, 2000, Joshi et al, 2005 and Joshi
et al, 2006 also reported slightly higher
yield of alcohol in strawberry wine1, 4, 5.
The alcohol in different wines was
recorded in the range between 9.2 to 11.5
per cent. Further, longer period of
carbonic maceration gave lower alcohol
Table 3 : Effect of cultivars on physico-chemical
characteristics of strawberry wine38
Characteristics
‘Camarosa’
‘Chandler’
‘Doughlas’
TSS (ºB)
Total sugars (%)
Reducing sugars (%)
Titratable acidity
(% Citric acid)
pH
Colour (Red)
(Yellow)
Alcohol (%v/v)
Higher alcohol
(mg/l)
Volatile acidity
(% Acetic acid)
Esters (mg/l)
Phenols (mg/l)
Anthocyanins
(OD/ml of wine)
9.7
1.7
0.135
0.65
8.1
0.6
0.124
0.73
8.8
1.0
0.128
0.65
3.18
14.38
17.40
11.2
155
3.21
10.72
19.33
11.5
169
3.26
9.45
14.85
9.2
151
0.026
0.032
0.025
90.9
144.7
0.150
78.3
129.8
0.145
102.4
135.2
0.104
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concentration than shorter period of
carbonic maceration37. ‘Chandler’ cultivar
was found to contain highest ethanol
content (11.5%) (Table 3). Not only this,
red wines often have lower alcohol levels
than white wines with the same initial
sugar content26.
Higher alcohol
The formation of higher alcohol
is the important criteria on which the
acceptability of wine depends. The
formation of these characteristics during
fermentation is closely related to the type
of yeast, cultivar of fruits and conditions
during fermentation1,4,5,18. Higher alcohols
in wines are formed due to amino acid
biosynthesis from carbohydrates or
directly from existing amino acids by
deamination and decarboxylation 18.
Strawberry wine prepared by different
methods, ranged from 154 to 162 mg/l
while in different cultivars it ranged from
151-169mg/l1,4,5 and the highest higher
alcohols (169mg/l) was found in
thermovinified wine from ‘Chandler’
cultivar (Table 3).
period 18,39. In strawberry wine also
thermovinification yielded higher content
of phenols followed by wines prepared by
fermentation on slices, carbonic
maceration and control1,4,5. Total phenols
(mg/l) in different strawberry wine are
shown in Table 4 while the types of
phenolic compounds are listed in
Table 5.
Esters
The esters in wine are formed as
a result of esterification of alcohols with
the respective acids18. The total esters in
strawberry wines of different cultivars
ranged from 78.3 to 102.7mg/l
(Table 3) and in wines prepared by
different methods ranged from 84.1 to
99.1 mg/l1,4,5. In general esters have fruity
and floral impact characteristics that are
Colour intensity
Wines made from more mature
fruits had greater colour intensity and
higher levels of anthocyanins 34.
Anthocyanin content in carbonic
macerated free run wines showed higher
value compared to those skins fermented
or pressed wines. Overripe fruits of
‘Bentom’ and ‘Totem’ cultivars of
strawberry with higher anthocyanin and
total phenolics gave wines with better
colour than fully ripe fruit25.
Table 4 : Total phenols (mg/l) in different strawberry wine40.
Cultivars
‘Camarosa’
‘Chandler’
‘Doughlas’
Mean
Tannin
important in sensory properties of
wine26. The strawberry wines prepared by
carbonic maceration have higher content
of esters than wine prepared by
thermovinification or fermentation on the
skin1,4,5.
Treatment
Control
Thermovinification
Carbonic
maceration
Fermentation
on the skin
Mean
139.7
117.0
123.7
126.8
150.2
137.5
146.0
144.5
138.7
131.5
128.2
132.8
150.3
133.2
143.2
142.2
144.7
129.8
135.2
Amount of tannin in wines varied
from 100 to 200 mg/l depending upon
the type of wine, yeast, fermentation
conditions, containers and the maturation CD(P≥0.05)= Treatment, 3.94; Cultivars, 3.41; Treatment ×Cultivars , 4.82
Table 5 : Identification of phenolic compounds in strawberry wine40
Type of phenols
RF
Control
Catechin
Epicatechin
Quercitin
Ellagic acid
0.48
0.54
0.70
0.68
+1-3
+1-3
+1-3
+1-3
Thermovinified wines
+1-3
+1-3
-
Fermented on the skin
Carbonic maceration
+1-3
+1-3
+1-2
+1-3
+1-3
+1-3
+1-3
+1-3
+, Present; -, Absent
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Biochemical changes during
ageing/maturation of wine
Ageing is divided for convenience
into minimally oxidative maturation
(before bottling) and strictly reductive
ageing (after bottling). Maturation
involves several independent events
that improve wine quality41. In general,
the maturation of strawberry wines
improved the quality of wines 1,4,5,40
and shown effect on contents, volatile
acidity, higher alcohols, colour and
esters.
Alcohol
In general alcohols in wines react
with organic acids like tartaric, malic,
succinic and lactic acid to form esters
which have been reported to increase with
ageing of wines17. During maturation of
strawberry wine for nine months, a nonsignificant decrease in alcohol content
took place1,4,5 which might be due to the
reaction of alcohol with acids to form
esters18,26.
Volatile acidity
The concentration of total
volatile compounds also increased during
fermentation as well as in storage. During
ageing, acetic acid (volatile acidity) can
result from the coupled oxidation of wine
phenolics to yield peroxide which in turn
oxidizes ethanol to acetaldehyde and
subsequently to acetic acid 26 . In
strawberry wines during maturation of 9
months an increase in volatile acidity was
reported as the cultivar behaved differently
registering either a decrease or increase.
The wines made from different methods
(thermovinification, carbonic maceration
and fermentation on skin) also registered
enhancement of volatile acidity (0.024 to
Vol 8(4) July-August 2009
0.032 %) due to ageing but remained in reactive phenolics and anthocyanin was
found to be a major cause of colour
the legal limit1,4,38.
deterioration in strawberry preserves45.
Higher alcohols
During ageing of red wines, both coloured
Higher alcohols were formed and non-coloured phenolics are reported
throughout the fermentation and have to play important roles and durable
been found to be closely related to aroma quality is associated with high phenolic
and taste of wine42,43. In strawberry wines content46. These phenolic compounds
during maturation of 9 months, higher undergo a number of transformations
alcohols decreased slightly38. The fusel oil depending upon the temperature, sulfur
formation is the result of transamination dioxide concentration, degree of
of corresponding amino acids due to oxidation, time and the anthocyanate to
which initially there were more alcohols, tannin ratio26. In strawberry wines of
but with maturation these were used for different
treatments
(control,
ester formation, hence decrease thermovinification, carbonic maceration
occurred26. Thus, loss of higher alcohols and fermentation on the skin) decrease
to form esters is desirable for better in total phenols was recorded during
sensory properties of wines.
maturation 1,38 . The content of the
anthocyanins decreased and that of
Colour changes
polymeric pigments increased in
During maturation, decrease in thermovinified, carbonic macerated and
tannins due to complexing of tannins with fermented on the skin wines.
protein and polymerization takes place. Thermovinified and carbonic macerated
Due to these changes, some of molecules wines, however, increased in colour
become so massive that they precipitate, despite the anthocyanin losses47 (Plate 3).
resulting in slow smoothening of the Condensation reactions occur between
taste18,44. The most documented changes anthocyanins and tannins which form
that occur during ageing are those anthocyanate complex, leading to intensiaffecting colour. The polymerization of fication toward purple or tile red hues48.
a
b
c
Plate 3 : Strawberry wine after different treatment; (a): thermovinified wines;
(b): carbonic macerated wines; (c): skin fermented wines
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Esters
Esters have fruity and floral
impact and are important in sensory
properties of wines. In addition to the
esters contributed by fruit, esters are also
formed as a result of reaction between
acetate and ethanol as well as other higher
alcohols or from ethanol by reaction with
straight chain fatty acids precursors26. In
strawberry wines of three cultivars
(‘Chandler’, ‘Camarosa’ and ‘Doughlas’)
prepared by different methods on increase
in ester content was reported during
maturation of 9 months1, 38. Increase in
total esters during maturation is attributed
to the phenomenon of ageing that is
desirable for the development of proper
flavour.
Sensory qualities
Appearance, colour, aroma, taste
and subtle taste factors such as flavour of
wine constitute the quality18. Sharma1,
Joshi et al5 and Joshi et al4 reported that
aroma and taste of wines is very complex
and depend on a number of factors such
as cultivars, agricultural land, vinification
practices, fermentation and maturation
(Table 6). Beelman & Mcardle35 and
Carroll36 reported that carbonic macerated
young wines are softer, tasting and possess
a special spicy odour which is not present
in wines made by traditional methods. A
cooked or dried fruit like odour is also
present, but a cinnamon like odour was
predominating. Thermovinified young red
wines were found to be less harsh and
astringent26.
Flavour profiling
In strawberry wines out of the 14
descriptors attempted for evaluating
flavour profile only 6 had very high
intensity (strawberry like, alcoholic,
phenolic, higher alcohol, astringency and
bitterness) and remaining (vegetative,
yeasty and earthy) were found to have
lower intensity1,49. It is further elaborated
that the method of preparation of wine
affected the flavour profile of strawberry
wine. The flavour profiling of wines of
various treatments and cultivars by
descriptive analysis (Table 7) show that
the flavour attributes like vegetative,
alcoholic, fruity, vinegary, all spice like,
earthy, bitterness, sweety, astringency,
sour, yeasty, phenolic, higher alcoholic and
strawberry like were the significant terms.
The mean intensity ratings for the three
cultivars and four treatments were plotted
on a polar coordinate or “cobweb” graph
(Fig. 3) using 14 descriptors which
differed significantly across the cultivars
and treatments.
‘Camarosa’ and ‘Chandler’ has
significantly higher flavour intensities than
‘Doughlas’ for alcoholic, vinegary,
astringency, sour phenolic and strawberry
like but lower than ‘Doughlas’ for fruity
and higher alcoholic whereas, all the 3
cultivars had almost the same intensity for
yeasty descriptor. ‘Chandler’ however,
differed from ‘Camarosa’ and ‘Doughlas’
in having higher intensity for bitterness,
vegetative and earthy descriptors. However,
Table 6 : Comparison of sensory scores of strawberry wine of different treatments1
Attributes
Treatments (mean score)
Maximum
score
Control
Thermovinification
Carbonicmaceration
Fermented
on skin
Colour
Aroma and bouquet
Appearance
Volatile acidity
Total acidity
Sweetness
Body
Flavour
Bitterness
Astringency
Overall acceptability
2.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.35
3.42
1.42
1.49
1.57
0.68
0.58
1.24
0.57
0.64
1.62
1.51
3.58
1.58
1.53
1.55
0.71
0.74
1.75
0.68
0.66
1.76
1.15
3.72
1.39
1.36
1.70
0.68
0.70
1.57
0.70
0.68
1.66
1.40
3.46
1.29
1.32
1.54
0.66
0.68
1.63
0.68
0.67
1.66
Total score
20
14.58
16.05
15.31
14.99
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6
Strawberry like
‘Camarosa’ and ‘Doughlas’ differed in
having higher intensity of sweety descriptor.
Based on Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) it was found that
strawberry like attribute exerted maximum
influence on PC-I, while the PC-II was
affected by sweety attribute49.
Alcoholic
5
Higher alcoholic
4
Vinegary
3
Phenolic
Fruity
Conclusion
Yeasty
All spices like
Sour
Control
Thermovinification
Carbonic maceration
Fermented on skin
Earthy
Astringency
Bitterness
Fig. 3 : Effect of treatments on the flavour profiling of strawberry wine
Table 7 : Details of descriptors and summary of analysis of variance of
strawberry wines from different cultivars and treatments49
Treatment
No
Descriptor
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Vegetative
Alcoholic
Vinegary
Fruity
All spices like
Earthy
Bitterness
Sweety
Astringency
Sour
Yeasty
Phenolic
Higher
alcoholic
Strawberry like
14.
Standard
F value
Strawberry fruits being rich in
several nutrients especially phenolics with
red colour due to anthocyanins hold
promise for production of quality red
wine with medicinal properties. Different
methods of vinification influenced both
physico-chemical and sensory
characteristics of the wines produced. The
strawberry wine prepared by
thermovinification is better treatments to
produce rose red wine. In strawberry wine
the presence of phenolic compounds
imparted the antioxidant properties and
the phenolic composition can be modified
by choosing the appropriate method of
wine production. Sensory attributes
discussed in this paper can describe the
strawberry wine of variable quality.
References
Shredded cabbage pieces
Ethyl alcohol (8% v/v)
Vinegar diluted 25 times
Raspberry essence
Spices extract (diluted)
Bentonite (0.5%)
Tea leaves extract
Sugar solution (2%)
Aonla extract
Citric acid (0.8%)
Fermenting must
Tannic acid (100 mg/l)
Propyl alcohol (1%)
6.58*
10.50*
4.69*
13.75*
9.27*
10.20*
5.33*
22.07**
5.59*
25.09**
5.33*
13.83*
10.91*
Strawberry jams
10.34*
**Significant at 5% level of significance, * Significant at 1% level of significance
Vol 8(4) July-August 2009
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