Coconut Oil as a Biofuel in Pacific Islands– Challenges and Opportunities

Transcription

Coconut Oil as a Biofuel in Pacific Islands–
Challenges and Opportunities
Jan Cloin
South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission
In the Pacific, there are opportunities to utilise coconut oil and other vegetable oils as a fuel for transport
and electricity generation. Technologies exist to combust crude coconut oil in adapted compression engines
or by means of esterification into biodiesel, using standard compression engines.
The initiatives undertaken in the Pacific to utilise coconut oil in cars and generators have had different
degrees of success. The technological challenges can be solved and economic applications can be found, if
the supply of oil is secured. Economically attractive niches can be found in the use of raw coconut oil in
adapted engines in remote communities with an abundant supply of coconuts and milling capacity.
The production of biodiesel from coconut oil in combination with other (used) vegetable oils can be set up
commercially in larger communities for provision of cleaner fuels in cars and electricity generators.
1. Introduction
The use of biofuels is nearly as old as
the diesel engine itself, as Mr. Diesel
designed his original engine running on
peanut oil. During periods in history
when
regular
diesel
supply
was
hampered seriously such as WW-II,
throughout
the
world
vegetable
alternatives from different sources and
in different forms have been used.
In the Pacific, only recently has there
been renewed interest in the use of
coconut oil as a biofuel. The need to
substitute for diesel imports, safeguard
the local agricultural industry and
reduce the impact of diesel exhaust on
the environment, has led to a range of
initiatives using coconut oil as a biofuel
in the past 10 years.
Figure 1: Coconut: “The Tree of Life”
In this report, first an overview of worldwide research and experience using
vegetable oils, including coconut oil will be given. This will lead to
recommendations on the best technical application of coconut oil in compression
(diesel) engines. After that, economic issues including the price and supply of oil
will be highlighted. Lastly, the specific challenges and opportunities for the Pacific
islands will be discussed.
2. Objective
The objective of this paper is to seek economic opportunities in the Pacific for the
use of environmentally friendly coconut oil to replace diesel in compression
engines. This will be done through collecting experience throughout the region
and analysing results in a Pacific context.
3. Coconut Oil Fuel Technology
First, the study on the use of coconut oil as part of the research on straight
vegetable oils as fuel will be described. Secondly, possible adaptations to diesel
[SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 592 – Cloin]
2
Coconut Oil as a biofuel in Pacific Islands – Challenges and Opportunities
engines are listed to enable coconut oil to be used in compression engines.
Thirdly, the use of biodiesel in unmodified engines will be discussed (Figure 2).
3.1. Use of Pure Coconut Oil in Unmodified Engines
Many studies involving the use of un-modified vegetable oils (including copra1
oil) were conducted in the early 1980s. Short-term engine testing indicates that
vegetable oils can readily be used as a fuel or in a range of blends with diesel
fuel. Long-term engine research however shows that engine durability is
questionable when fuel blends contain more than 20% vegetable oil [1, 11, 12].
The lower iodine value of coconut oil compared to other vegetable oils works
favourably for its lower carbon deposits, however not many successful
experiences have been found [3]. Deposits on the pistons, valves, combustion
chambers and injectors, in particular, can cause severe loss of output power,
engine lubricant deterioration or even catastrophic failure to engines [11].
Dual fuel system
Coconut Oil
Waste Oil
Modify Engine:
Adapt fuel pump, fuel
tank, filters, injectors.
Bio
Diesel
Generator / Car
Modify Engine:
Compression Engine
(diesel motor)
Diesel
Figure 2: Overview of Biofuel Choices for Compression (Diesel) Engine
Under specific circumstances unmodified engines have been running on 100%
copra oil [17,20]. Key variables for successful operation on raw copra oil include:
1)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Stable and controlled copra drying / milling process;
Removal of water, Free Fatty Acids (FFA) and solids;
Filtration up to 1 micron;
Pre-heating of copra oil up to 70 0C;
Blending with regular diesel or kerosene for better viscosity;
Application of engine in upper load curve (>70%);
Use in Direct Injection2 system.
The long-term use of raw coconut oil in unmodified diesel engines is currently
such a specialised case that it is not recommended without special technical
supervision. Further research should describe and define the key variables in
order to minimise modification costs to engines. Current experiences in Vanuatu
1
Copra Oil is coconut oil produced in the traditional manner of husking, shelling coconuts, drying on a smoky
fire and finally pressing the oil out by means of an expeller. The bulk of coconut oil is still produced in this way,
however in the last 10 years other ways to produce oil have been explored, including Direct Micro Expelling
(DME) in which the copra is grated, dried and expelled batch-wise in a metal cylinder. This process, even
though more labour-intensive, produces higher quality oil with less Free Fatty Acids.
2
Most modern car engines employ an indirect injection system that yields higher efficiencies through greater
compression ratios. The use of the pre-combustion chamber in this engine can lead to greater deposits when
using vegetable oils as fuel. Older cars and most stationary generators make use of the direct injection system
that creates less deposit problems.
3
in the transport sector are promising and deserve follow-up activities in other
Pacific island countries.
3.2. Use of Pure Coconut Oil in Modified Engines
There have been a number of successful modified diesel engines that have run
on both mixtures of vegetable oil and diesel as well as 100% vegetable oil. There
are mainly two types of modifications to an engine: firstly to add an extra fuel
supply system to the existing diesel supply and secondly to adapt the fuel supply
system and injectors.
As coconut oil has up to 30 times higher viscosity than regular diesel at the same
temperature, most engine modifications include a fuel heater. This device heats
the fuel up to 70-800C before injection, using the engine coolant cross flow with
the fuel in a heat exchanger. By heating up the coconut oil, the resulting oil
viscosity can approximate the viscosity of diesel [13].
3.2.1. Dual Fuel systems
These systems start and stop on
regular diesel. As soon as the engine
is rated at operating temperature, the
fuel supply is switched to vegetable
oil and just before shutting down, the
supply is switched back to diesel to
ensure that the fuel system has diesel
ready for a cold start and to avoid
residues in the fuel system.
In some areas there is also an
electrical heater incorporated in the
fuel tank, to ensure that the fuel
remains liquid, even at ambient
Figure 3: Extra fuel pump and fuel
temperatures below 25oC. A technical
filter for generator in Welagi, Fiji
challenge is to ensure that the return
line of the alternative fuel does not
cause contamination of the regular diesel. This can be done through using a third
“day”-tank that assembles the excess mixture fuel during switching, or to shortcircuit the return line and using an extra pump during operation on vegetable oil.
A good example of a dual fuel system is the village electrification system in
Welagi, Taveuni, Fiji Islands (Figure 3), that uses a dual-fuel system for both
diesel and copra oil fed into a 55 kVA diesel generator. As part of the French
funded project, the village obtained a small copra oil press enabling the local
small-scale oil production by means of dried copra from the Mataqali’s3 pastures.
Technically this system has proven to operate with little problems.
This generator has however suffered from problems related to spare parts but
are not directly attributable to the use of copra oil. The challenge with the
system has been to keep it running on copra oil, as first a cyclone deprived the
Mataqali of coconuts for 6 months and the acquisition of coconut oil from other
mills proved to be more expensive than regular diesel. The local production of
coconut oil has also proven to be a very laborious process, that can only be
maintained with a strong community commitment.
3
A Mataqali is an important unit in the Fiji social system that can comprise of one or more extended families.
4
Because the generator has often only been used for a small portion of its design
load (as low as 17%), excessive carbon deposits have been found on the exhaust
gaskets of the generator. This can cause engine failure in the long term and
could be solved by connecting a useful extra load such as water pumping or
street lighting, when the generator is running at low load.
In Europe and the United States, the use of dual-fuel systems, mainly in
automotive applications, is slowly developing. Through promotional projects such
as the Veggie Van in the US and the VegBurner in the UK, these applications
have gained wide publicity. Through a combination of very high taxation on fuels
(particularly in Europe), low vegetable oil prices (particularly in the US) and
growing environmental concerns, an increasing number of consumers have
acquired an alternative fuel system built into their (diesel) vehicles. The
emissions reductions measured as a result of the use of these fuels in regular
cars have been mixed as compared with the baseline of regular diesel [14].
3.2.2. Adapted Fuel System
Engines with adapted fuel systems can run on pure coconut oil and use no fossil
fuels. Mostly, they feature adapted fuel injectors, special pumps and extra filters.
The quality of the coconut oil is not always stable, especially if it is manufactured
locally on a small scale. Regular quality control and a number of filtering stages
are therefore essential to long service of this type of system. Often an electricaloperated fuel-heating system is incorporated for ambient temperatures below
25oC.
A good example of this is the pilot plant in Ouvea implemented by SPC and
CIRAD in the 1990’s. The generator is currently not in use because of supply
problems with locally-produced oil. Further feasibility studies have shown a
favourable opportunity for the Lory Co-operation on Espirito Santo in Vanuatu.
This study also describes the incorporation of the use of raw copra oil in a small
number of modified taxi engines [18].
3.3. The use of Biodiesel in unmodified engines
Biodiesel is a standardised fuel that consists of vegetable oil Methyl Ester. It is a
product of crude vegetable oil that reacts with an alcohol and a catalyst, such as
sodium hydroxide. This process generates two products: glycerine, which can be
used in soap production, and Vegetable Oil Methyl Ester4 (VOME), also called
biodiesel.
There are two fully-developed standards of biodiesel, ASTM-D6751 in the United
States and EN 14214 in the European Union. If these standards are followed, the
validity of all manufacturer guarantees remains sound if used up to 5% [7].
Individual manufacturers have declared certain models can be run with
remaining guarantee up to 20% and some even 100%. Positive impacts on
engines include increased lubricity and a reduction of visible particles in the
exhaust. Some engines need replacement of rubber hoses and O-rings, as
biodiesel can be slightly abrasive [4,12,21].
The use of biodiesel is becoming more mainstream practice in the US and the EU
Total production in the EU grew 35% in 2003 to 1.44 million tonnes and in the
4
If the basis for biodiesel has been coconut oil, often the abbreviation COME, Coconut Oil Methyl Ester, is used.
With waste vegetable oil as the basis for biodiesel, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) is used.
5
US to 83,270 tonnes5. It is mostly mixed in regular diesel in low blends. In
Germany only, there are already 800 biodiesel refuelling stations. In Hawaii, 1,2
Ml of biodiesel is produced annually from used vegetable oil and sold as B1 (1%)
B20 (20%) or B100, 100 % biodiesel. In winter time, blend ratios have to be
decreased as biodiesel has a higher cloud point than regular diesel.
The major disadvantage of biodiesel is that it has to be prepared in a chemical
facility. The production cost per litre is estimated to be three times as high as the
selling price of regular diesel. Because of return on the associated by-products, a
Canadian study has estimated that biodiesel cost tend to be equal to the price of
the original vegetable oil [4]. If the biodiesel is produced from waste vegetable
oil or beef tallow in large volumes, the price might come down to twice the cost
of regular diesel. There are also options to produce biodiesel on a very small
scale, as has been done in the Philippines [2] – however it does not appear to be
attractive for small island communities because of the use of potentially
dangerous chemicals in a high-hygiene working environment.
3.4. Conclusion
Table 1 below gives an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the
options discussed above.
Table 1: Pros and Cons of different Coconut Oil uses in Compression Engines
Advantages
Disadvantages
Straight Coconut Oil in
Unmodified Engine
Low cost of fuel
No modification costs
Works only in certain cases
High Quality Oil Required
Coconut Oil in Modified
Engine – Dual Fuel
Lowest-cost fuel can be chosen
Flexible
Coconut Oil in Modified
Engine – Pure
100% Renewable
Low cost of fuel
Small island communities can produce
own fuel for electricity
Continued diesel imports
Extra components risk extra failure
Possible contamination of fuels
Dependence on local oil production
Non-standard components
Requires heating under ambient temperatures
of 250C
Biodiesel
Standardised, Guarantee remains
Opportunity to co-source used oil
Chemical Facility required
Some rubber parts need replacement
Technically speaking, the production of biodiesel is the best way to use
vegetable oils in compression engines. Because of the high production
cost of biodiesel, niches for modified engines and dual-fuel systems can
be found, depending on the location and the availability and quality of
coconut oil. The use of straight coconut oil in unmodified engines is not
recommended without strict technical supervision.
4. Coconut Oil Economics
In every consideration for the use of biomass resources in energy technology,
the steady supply of fuel must be safeguarded. Quite a number of initiatives on
the use of biofuel have been experiencing difficulties through hampered supply.
Mills stop production, coconut trees become senile6, rural farmers switch to other
forms of income-generating activities. These socio-economic changes all have
their impact on local availability of coconut oil. First, let us have a look at the
global copra oil market.
5
Source: European Biodiesel Board, National Biodiesel Board, U.S. (2004).
6
Coconut trees have a hyperbolic yield graph with growing number of coconuts in the first years after planting
and slowly decreasing after 20-30 years.
6
4.1. Global Copra Oil Market supply
The world production of coconuts in copra equivalent has been floating around 10
million tonnes. Of this market between 1 and 2 million tonnes has been traded
on the world market as oil in the last 5 years. Figure 4 shows the volume of the
global copra oil market and the associated price per litre.
CNO World Export Market and price per litre
0.8
2.5
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.5
0.4
1
0.3
US$/litre
Million tonnes
2
0.2
0.5
0.1
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
0
2003
Market Volume
US$ per litre
Figure 4: Copra Oil World Export Market and Price
As can be seen from the graph, the price fluctuation is significant, between 0.3
and 0.7 US$/litre. However, the volumes seem to be relatively constant, around
2 million tonnes. The trading volume of copra oil tends to go up when its price
goes down, as it replaces the use of other vegetable oils in industrial processes.
Since the Pacific island countries only produce a small percentage of the world
supply (PNG: 2.2%, Solomon Islands: 1% Samoa 0.4%, Fiji 0.3%), it can be
safely stated that any increase or decrease in production in the Pacific will not
significantly alter the world price. Therefore, the opportunity costs for selling
coconut oil as biofuel locally as opposed to exporting oil for the copra mill are
determined by the world price minus the cost of transporting and financing the
oil.
4.2. Local Copra Oil Market supply
Local coconut supply on remote islands can be an interesting source of copra for
small- to medium-scale copra oil production. Especially if the transport costs for
both copra export and diesel import are significant, a niche application can be
identified. The challenge has been proven to be the safeguarding of the supply
chain throughout the lifetime of the project.
Figure 5 gives an overview of the supply chain and the steps required to obtain
oil at a generator or fuel pump. At each stage a number of important aspects is
included. From the plantation the nuts are collected and transported to a dryer.
There they are cut and the copra is separated from the husk and the shell. After
drying, the copra is collected in bags and transported to the mill, where it is
stored in bulk for milling. The mill processes the copra by means of heat, steam,
grinding and pressing the oil. After milling the oil will be filtered from solids and
7
Coconut
Plantation
Coconut
Cutting /
Drying
Copra
Milling
Copra Oil
Filtering
Copra Oil
Storage
-> Clean
pastures
-> Replanting
schemes
- Transport
system
-> Labour
-> Constant
drying quality
-> Constant
quality
-> Sufficient
capacity
-> Free Fatty
Acids content
-> Water
content
-> Clean
-> Safety
-> Sufficient
capacity
Figure 5: Traditional Supply Chain Copra Oil with points that determine quality
water. Often, for edible oils and cosmetics, the Free Fatty Acids (FFA) are
reduced through purification stages, deodorising and bleaching.
4.3. Copra Oil Price
Table 2 shows the composition of the price of crude exported copra oil
throughout distinctive stages in the supply chain. As can be seen in the table, the
most labour-intensive activity of cutting and drying the copra is responsible for
43% of the value of a litre of oil produced – however, the reward for the labour
is very low.
Table 2: Traditional Copra Price Composition7
Price in Oil
Equivalent [US$/l]
Coconuts collected on field
Copra cutting and drying
Copra drying at mill
Copra Milling and Filtering
Crude Copra Oil
CIF Cost Export
Benefit to PIC
Value added in Oil
Equivalent [US$/l]
0.224
Share of Crude
Export Oil [%]
39
0.245
0.469
43
81
0.107
0.577
19
100
– 0.120
– 14
0.497
Other emerging alternative sources of rural income, has contributed to the
deterioration of the copra industry in a number of Pacific islands. In most
countries, significant replanting is necessary to get back to the pre-1990
production levels by 2010. To revive the industry on the supply side, there are
two options that can be considered.
The first option is to increase the payment for dried copra to increase the reward
for the cutting / drying of copra. This can be done by either a subsidy8 or by
means of further rationalising the milling process, and thus decrease its
operational margin. This however will both push up the price of the end product
and will make it more difficult to compete with both the price level of diesel fuel
and the export oil markets. A further disadvantage is that it will require
government involvement and possibly further politicise the coconut market.
7
Based on prices in Fiji and FOB prices Rotterdam, July 2004.
8
Subsidies have been a traditional measure by governments in the copra sector as an ‘alternative social
security system’ in a range of Pacific island countries, especially during times of low copra prices on the world
market. With the current regional trade agreements being implemented in the Pacific, subsidies are becoming
increasingly difficult to apply.
8
Secondly, a more mechanised and rationalised process might be looked into,
where the coconuts are collected, transported to the mill where they are cut for
copra and dried in a mechanised process. However, such a process requires
significant investment in machinery and transport equipment. A second
disadvantage is the cost of transporting whole coconuts instead of dried copra,
adds to the overall cost of the production process.
4.4. Copra Oil vs. Regular Diesel
Given the volatility of both the world market price for copra oil and diesel, the
best option seems to be a dual-supply system. This could facilitate the use of
copra oil in times of high supply and low world prices and also provide a cushion
for times when copra oil ceases to be produced as has happened in a number of
previous projects. Figure 69 shows the retail and wholesale prices of Diesel (ADO)
in the region.
The line in the graph depicts the benefits10 of exporting the copra oil versus using
it locally as a fuel. The benefits will differ from country to country and increase
as transport costs to remote islands increase.
This analysis does not take into account the benefits that an individual country
might gain from exporting goods and therefore improving their balance of
payments.
Regional ADO Prices US$cents/litre
Niue
Vanuatu
French Polynesia
Cook Islands
Tuvalu
New Caledonia
Marshall Islands
Palau
Australia
Tonga
Kiribati
FSM- Pohnpei
World market price of copra oil minus CIF costs
Hawaii
Samoa
Fiji
Retail
American Samoa
Wholesale
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
cpl
Figure 6: PIC Diesel Prices and the World Market Price of Copra Oil
4.5. Conclusion
The copra oil world market price is variable, however the long-term expectation
is in the range 0.4 – 0.6 US$ per litre. The reward for the labour involved in the
traditional copra process is too low to safeguard the long-term supply in most
Pacific islands. Given the low benefits for exporting copra oil in most Pacific
islands, there is a strong case for using copra oil locally instead of exporting. This
does not necessarily mean the reward for copra production sold locally is enough
9
Source: PIFS Fuel Price Monitor May-June 2004.
10
Based on FOB prices Rotterdam July 2004, minus Freight, Insurance, Finance and destination charges from Fiji.
9
to sustain sufficient supply and therefore has to be looked into on a case-by-case
basis. The further rationalisation and mechanisation of the coconut oil supply
chain will increase the security of supply, however this requires significant
investment in the coconut oil sector.
5. Opportunities for Coconut Oil as a Biofuel
From the above, it can be concluded that there are three niches for coconut oil as
a biofuel.
Table 3: Niches and Risks for Coconut Oil as a Biofuel
1. Pure
Coconut Oil
Size
Small
Scale
2. Dual Fuel
Medium
Scale
3. Biodiesel
Large
Scale
Niche
Small Island with absolute
abundance of coconut oil and
own milling facility
Small Island with high
transport cost (partly)
displacing diesel fuel.
Larger Islands and urban
centres with access to
industrial milling capacity
Challenge
Keep the copra supply
going; Keep components
standard and available
Earn back investment while
prices of oils fluctuate
Achieve sufficient economy
of scale
For coconut oil as a fuel to be a sustainable alternative to diesel fuel in
the Pacific on a large scale, a restructuring of the coconut industry and
replanting is required. Seeking alternatives from the traditional coprabased, government-controlled industries toward more de-centralised
production of oil, including high quality control.
The technological challenges can be solved and economic applications
can be found, if the supply of oil is secured. Economically attractive
niches can be found in the use of raw coconut oil in adapted engines in
remote communities with an abundant supply of coconuts and milling
capacity, or the combination with recycled waste vegetable oil to
produce biodiesel for low blends in transport and electricity generation.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the essential contributions of: Yogita Bhikabai, Jake Burnyeat,
Charlie Blair, Patrice Courty, Tony Deamer, Phillip Hill, Intiyaz Khan, Martin O’Neill, Jared
Morris, Alicia Scanlon David Parmenter, Ken Roberts, Gilles Vaitilingom, Robert Waters
and Joseph Walter.
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10
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<http:www.fao.org/deorep/T4470E/t4470e08.htm>.
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fuels” (1997), U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.
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(1999), Special Volume of the South Pacific Journal of Natural Science, USP, Fiji.
[18] Ribier, V. et al “Etude de faisabilité d’un projet de valorisation de l’huile de coprah à l’échelle villageoise –
le cas de la coopérative ‘Lory’, Nord Santo” (2004) CIRAD, France.
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oil fuels” (1981) Paper presented at the National Conference on fuels from crops, Melbourne, Australia.
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Demonstration Project – Crude Copra Oil, Biofuel for Diesel Engines” (1998), SPC, New Caledonia.
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Related Links
Australian Biodiesel Board
Australian Biodiesel Standards
Biodiesel Production Equipment
Driving on Biodiesel
Driving on Biodiesel / Forum
Hawaii Biodiesel Production
Literature on Biofuel
SOPAC work on Biofuels
Straight Vegetable Oil Technology
http://www.biodiesel.org.au
http://www.deh.gov.au/atmosphere/biodiesel/index.html
http://www.biodieselgear.com
http://www.veggievan.org
http://www.vegburner.co.uk
http://www.biodiesel.com
http://www.journeytoforever.org/biofuel_library.html
http://www.sopac.org/tiki/tiki-index.php?page=Energy+Projects+COPRA
http://www.greasel.com
11
International Commercial Terms (INCOTERMS) and other Acronyms used
in this report
ADO
ASTM
CIF
CIRAD
–
–
–
–
CNO
COME
DME
EMA
EU
FAME
FFA
FOB
GCSI
GEF
ICCEPT
PIC
PIFS
PNG
SPC
UK
UNDP
US
USP
VOME
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Automotive Diesel Oil
American Society for Testing and Materials (original name)
Cost, Insurance and Freight
Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le
Développement
Crude Coconut Oil
Coconut Oil Methyl Ester
Direct Micro Expelling
Engine Manufacturers Association (US)
European Union
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
Free Fatty Acids
Free On Board
Global Change Strategies International Inc.
Global Environment Facility
Imperial College Centre for Energy Policy and Technology
Pacific Island Country
Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
Papua New Guinea
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
United Kingdom
United Nations Development Programme
United States of America
University of the South Pacific
Vegetable Oil Methyl Ester
Acknowledgement
The Netherlands Government is acknowledged for providing the services of
Energy Adviser, Jan Cloin, to the SOPAC Secretariat through the Associate Expert
programme of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UNDESA).

Coconut Oil as a Biofuel in Pacific Islands– Challenges and Opportunities

Transcription

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