17 Methods of Persuasion C h a p t e r

Transcription

C h a p t e r
17
• Methods of Persuasion
Methods of Persuasion/Ch 16
Slide 1
Introduction to Public Speaking
Methods of Persuasion
• Building credibility
(ethos)
• Using evidence
• Reasoning
(logos)
• Appealing to emotions
(pathos)
Slide 2
Ethos
The name used by Aristotle for what
modern students of communication
refer to as credibility.
Slide 3
Credibility
The audience's perception of whether
a speaker is qualified to speak on a
given topic.
Slide 4
Factors of Credibility
• Competence
• Character
Slide 5
Competence
How an audience regards a
speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and
knowledge of the subject.
Slide 6
Character
How an audience regards a speaker’s
sincerity, trustworthiness, and
concern for the well-being of the
audience.
Slide 7
Types of Credibility
• Initial
• Derived
• Terminal
Slide 8
Initial Credibility
The credibility of a speaker
before she or he starts to speak.
Slide 9
Derived Credibility
The credibility of a speaker
produced by everything she or he
says and does during the speech.
Slide 10
Terminal Credibility
The credibility of a speaker at the
end of the speech.
Slide 11
Tips for Enhancing Credibility
• Explain your competence
• Establish common ground with
your audience
• Deliver your speeches fluently,
expressively, and with conviction
Slide 12
Logos
The name used by Aristotle for the
logical appeal of a speaker. The two
major elements of logos are evidence
and reasoning.
Slide 13
Evidence
Supporting materials used to prove
or disprove something.
Slide 14
Tips for Using Evidence
•
•
•
•
Use specific evidence
Use novel evidence
Use evidence from credible sources
Make clear the point of your
evidence
Slide 15
Reasoning
The process of drawing a conclusion
on the basis of evidence.
Slide 16
Four Types of Reasoning
•
•
•
•
Reasoning from specific instances
Reasoning from principle
Causal reasoning
Analogical reasoning
Slide 17
Reasoning from Specific
Instances
Reasoning that moves from particular
facts to a general conclusion.
Slide 18
Reasoning from Specific Instances
Example:
Contrary to what the chemical industry argues,
limiting pesticide use does not threaten the food
supply. (1.)Sweden has cut back on pesticides by 50
percent over the last few years with almost no
decrease in its harvest. (2.)The Campbell Soup
Company uses no pesticides at all on tomatoes grown in
Mexico, and they reap as much fruit as ever. (3.)
Many California farmers who practice pesticide-free
agriculture have actually experienced increases in
their crop yields.
1 example
+1 example
+1 example
= conclusion
Slide 19
Guidelines for Reasoning from
Specific Instances
• Avoid hasty generalizations
• If your evidence does not justify a
sweeping conclusion, qualify your
argument
• Reinforce your argument with
statistics or testimony
Slide 20
Reasoning from Principle
Reasoning that moves from a general
principle to a specific conclusion.
Slide 21
Reasoning from Principle
Example:
Reasoning must be valid and all of the premises
must be true.
1. To be elected President of the United
States, a person must be at least 35 years
of age.
2. Bill Clinton was elected President of the
United States.
3. Therefore, Bill Clinton was at least 35 years
of age when elected.
Slide 22
Guidelines for Reasoning
from Principle
• Make sure listeners will accept your
general principle (premise)
• Provide evidence to support your
minor premise
Slide 23
Causal Reasoning
Reasoning that seeks to establish
the relationship between causes
and effects.
Slide 24
Causal Reasoning
Example:
Because the ice was on the
step, I fell and broke my leg.
Slide 25
Guidelines for Causal
Reasoning
• Avoid the fallacy of false cause
• Do not assume that events have
only a single cause
Slide 26
Analogical Reasoning
Reasoning in which a speaker
compares two similar cases and
implies that what is true for the
first case is also true for the
second.
Slide 27
Analogical Reasoning
Example:
Almost every industrialized nation in the
world except for the United States has
a national curriculum and national tests
to help ensure that schools throughout
the country are meeting high standards
of education. If such a system can work
elsewhere, it can work in the United
States as well.
Slide 28
Guidelines for Analogical
Reasoning
Above all, make sure the two cases
being compared are essentially alike
Slide 29
Fallacy
An error in reasoning.
Slide 30
Fallacies
• Hasty
generalization
• False cause
• Invalid analogy
• Red herring
•
•
•
•
Slide 31
Ad hominem
Either-or
Bandwagon
Slippery slope
Hasty Generalization
A fallacy in which a speaker jumps
to a general conclusion on the basis
of insufficient evidence. (associated
with reasoning from specifics)
Slide 32
Example: Hasty Generalization
“Last year alone three members of
our state legislature were convicted
of corruption. We can conclude, then,
that all of our state's politicians are
corrupt.”
1 member
+ 1 member
+ 1 member
= all politicians
Slide 33
False Cause
A fallacy in which a speaker
mistakenly assumes that because
one event follows another, the first
event is the cause of the second.
(associated with causal reasoning)
Slide 34
Example: False Cause
“I'm sure the stock market will rise
this year. It usually goes up when
the American League wins the
World Series.”
Slide 35
Invalid Analogy
An analogy in which the two
cases being compared are not essentially
alike. (associated with analogical reasoning)
Slide 36
Example: Invalid Analogy
“Of course Lisheng can prepare great
Italian food; his Chinese cooking is
fabulous.”
Slide 37
Red Herring
A fallacy that introduces an
irrelevant issue to divert attention
from the subject under discussion.
Slide 38
Example: Red Herring
“Why should we worry about
endangered animal species when
thousands of people are killed in
automobile accidents each year?”
Slide 39
Ad Hominem
A fallacy that attacks the person
rather than dealing with the real
issue in dispute.
Slide 40
Example: Ad Hominem
“The governor has a number of
interesting economic proposals, but
let’s not forget that she comes
from a very wealthy family.”
Slide 41
Either-Or
A fallacy that forces listeners to
choose between two alternatives when
more than two alternatives exist.
Slide 42
Example: Either-Or
“The government must either raise
taxes or reduce services for the
poor.”
Slide 43
Bandwagon
A fallacy that assumes that because
something is popular, it is therefore
good, correct, or desirable.
Slide 44
Example: Bandwagon
“The President must be correct in
his approach to domestic policy;
after all, polls show that 60
percent of the people support him.”
Slide 45
Slippery Slope
A fallacy that assumes that taking
a first step will lead to subsequent
steps that cannot be prevented.
Slide 46
Example: Slippery Slope
“Passing federal laws to control the
amount of violence on television is
the first step in a process that will
result in absolute government
control of the media and total
censorship over all forms of artistic
expression.”
Slide 47
Pathos
The name used by Aristotle for what
modern students of communication
refer to as emotional appeal.
Slide 48
Emotional Appeals
Appeals that are intended to make
listeners feel sad, angry, guilty,
afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic,
reverent, etc.
Slide 49
Tips for Generating
Emotional Appeal
• Use emotional language
• Develop vivid examples
• Speak with sincerity and conviction
Slide 50
Using Emotional Appeal
Ethically
• Make sure emotional appeal is
appropriate to the speech topic
• Do not substitute emotional appeal
for evidence and reasoning
Slide 51
True-False Quiz
1. The more favorably listeners view a speaker’s
competence and character, the more likely
they are to accept what the speaker says.
2. Because it moves from a general principle to a
specific conclusion, reasoning from principle is
the opposite of reasoning from specific
instances.
3. Research shows that skeptical listeners are
more likely to be persuaded by evidence they
are already familiar with than by evidence
that is new to them.
Slide 52
True-False Quiz
4. It is usually inappropriate for persuasive
speakers to refer to their personal experience
in an attempt to bolster their credibility.
5. The red herring fallacy refers to statements
that introduce an irrelevant issue to divert
attention from the subject under discussion.
6. A speaker can have high credibility for one
audience and low credibility for another
audience.
Slide 53
True-False Quiz
7. Arguments guilty of the ad hominem fallacy
attack the person rather than dealing with the
real issue in dispute.
8. Studies have shown that speakers with low
initial credibility need to use more evidence
than speakers with high initial credibility.
9. According to your textbook, emotional appeals
are often appropriate in persuasive speeches
on questions of policy.
Slide 54
True-False Quiz
10. The following statement is an example of
reasoning by analogy: “The United Nations
charter establishes the right of all people to
live free of political repression. The
government of North Korea subjects its people
to political repression. Therefore, the
government of North Korea is violating the
U.N. charter.”
Slide 55
Review Methods of Persuasion
Slide 56

17 Methods of Persuasion C h a p t e r

Transcription

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