Operators - Zellig Harris

II
-0.
i,tet.tr.r{
_
n,nri
Optrratorrr
g}S.:S,llgl[-ig;.rryinq,
!"le begfrr wl Eh r:orels,
not
. ?.helr crnly otructural prop$rty
(l'e' thi:lr only c1;::+aiflcstlorr)
la by thelr arguT:lent-r*qrrirer+lnt, wh'ch
cete'rrinea thelr areJer of €.intry
{nro a er{sc'urse (or senterrce).
l_.ormd norptre:ee
1i,rre
argu*:rncs trlrleh ve
r"1
only
Ll recognlze are rrord-classea
prevr.ous1y defrned by
&rgunsni-requlremcnt' 'rhrm no vor<ls
r-drl L.e defrned aa being restrrcted
to
operete on gofte ed hoc eet of vortlg
ns argtsnents. te r,ilr algo r1".r:lr.<I
ag r:iuch
as pr:eelble hardng olnplle trord
appear ln nore than cne el.ossrflcatron
't
(r+rret
Bloo:lfLcl<! callect cLasg*c1ec,?agrl);
but th{s *rJl1 not slts&,:rr* be poetihle.
'fhe above progrant ean be F&afsfled
becauge ooe cen def:tne ffrct
a aet of
elen*ntsn' sr8u:rsnt', {'e. serdn r+hose
ergtment rcqufreni:nt ,.s uero. firese
&re & eubset of nc'uns, lI, genernlly
those of concrcte r:eclr{rrg (Ln afly
ease
noe
reletlonal
0nes lr.F;e
!qt-,s:, &nd not cterr.ved ones lr.ke !gl!!, $ugtescrs,,i!),
and also J.nCeflnlre nouns ltke thlgg,
pgrs-on (g*q"g.), jlrg{, pgg.
Each
operator he,o lnequallties of lik-el{hood
of occrrrrcnce (called selection) in
Eespect Eo tl:e lndLrldu*l
'*r*rdg 1n {.tg &rgu*ent <{onatn. .g<ine oper{rtors
hnvsr
relnt'*n' witose proi:eirtres cen bu, stated
a general w*y, not nerery by
llotl'ng the Lncqualltles- 1,'d certarn
oper'torB ere sirdl&r to eacrr other
rn
r"n
their eelectlnn"
J1]i,i}e$i1_a3:X}:
orrr ., et'c'
1'
i'
I on: ai.:':,rp-: JCg-_t-:e.epr_
o-14: Jgrin--t"--Jr:,1
ur':
Jelg.-lgJg.
T?re
dtffercncea bet,.tlerr vsrti!t, a'{Jeetl,v*r' etc.
d^e
oper*rorn &re rlue to t{:nce
(rv 3)" rt le nct clc*r lhsthar ttj;:rG
aro noLlrls tn on: the clcss{.flar
IgNC8 OEPA RT{W ENT
Unluersitg af Pennsgluania
LINGU
Phlladolphia,
Penn*,
19104
nau:.g
:l
rrp.
2
-tgt' lu_S oqf.l.:-U r;llcul,l pcrfi;rpn bn conglCcrcd a.r tho eecond argrment
of f.he On', tg :r ncli,i:r of. ?h*n A cr.t {a n n;rrnrsl ls i.n effect Carlvecl frorn
(J:*- n
1i1iut:tf*fij.li.i_"1,-t.)_:ai:{, srlth rhrl npprolrl.trn verb {s r*:nirer of
the set heing rctlucer! to ls. f\re cllfftctrlt.r r:lch tllJ.s lr thnt clas:rtfier:-norms
A cat 1::
;t
of?.etr lraue adJect.l'rirl
fonxr:
to sn'.'thnE tlrtg
rre would lr.'.r'*
docs not nnke
the,l dl-rect operstor*, lrut t:n.'1dlectL...: forrr J4 r'lt* to s {urther (ntpectrral)
oper&tor on tlre lg*r*iihe r"-*f r:lth tto Recand srgi,r.*eirt (tho cl nrstf l"er-nourl)
Certaln occurreilces of On ar
JolilrJ!rqgl9' Ml)
:lF:]arc.:!
t
sr,n (ri{*-_:!,'-f! _g-J-ori-A}_ry:p
C.tn b.r ii:rnI'gartrl
cf
(l-n nany casca r*-usl.ng the oprrr.lt<lr r"or,l)
operator
cvn
rroun-forrr vaflantfi
,r!.Ji
R l''orrlC,lng "perfecEtrd.zf,ng"
:T*c!rl*j;1-tn_l1;\, l::l:::-*11^ir.:1r,-1.
Irgai:
Jd'-tl-::*:rji:"-
fathcr:
John 1s fethr:' of IJrr;r!:,
The oceurrence of t'frrigre c:i.!rJrt.rr$
(III !.3):
{gtg*g:l: (lirrt
-I1.",
'.r:
i: 1.
tholi[ $fr({;it'! firIrj:a'rnt d!t dtrc to
*.1-,r1.:.._r.-1ry1}.
::-1_:':"j-1.-l:.11I. _.'c''l'n t-s*(a)
fath.er,. Perhal* {n r;s;i: cnscrl lt ur\f;l trt;ri a};"r&!'s !'nt}r *fi
a
geeoncl arlluni'.ilt :rny
Ls not clear
frorrr
; nt
the 0n (1.e. on -S.:l_ej-, etc.!
L.2 onn: gqq, llq-q;:
zeroLng
.
uhe t!te
r
bc
irr,lri'rtli'1i-'i191'*'
.!c!'"tt
Jolg-:tttllgj|:lfl':l
t1t {-nl' q l:
il tr.:rl'er tlf i'*ih t!**rr*s.
,r't .qri i * .r o:'e;: . ,1* :: 1
(or ttr"r i tla!
f1,r nnrl
;lf
a{ r,:.i.* | l:tioI t
nlso r{1th
Thutr
{t
,rr r:'1ltv * aefolng
!r'!rrr ?\{;:\ri ilrnf;
S
(r*here S lncJlcrrtfln rltltt r:lenft:11'*r).
In nany lnngu*licrl tlle
$srr:*rl'i *tr:\ti.r:ti
9+ t*;i|$f
by order but also hY n:'r ef f{x err i f."r:! 1f I ! iia.l
COSe).
If
$Ot-??
necara*rtly)
ar gentttr"s
i ni r',.,rri.l:.,*.,1*ttl'*.
53i " q t irf il";&.1itr l.Jrf
OpgfilfO!.S !15i',r rl:e t &4it ie-' ! '*l t
rFi!:-rllr'r
r''::ei i',rr t"o
OpefaEor$ haVe SnOtli*i1', !'* ::1$|fe1$
e.g. rcly.ot.
1'ri'f grl.v (Of
lrc""r(1".'r!rr
7l nlt {1'nf;nl; it
r:r " trn
l' * i r i t '* " +:
r':oulc! have to ;inalYeiJ tltg l'1'le- t'r
nci ri" ' I '
contrectitrg X Co tlts ll sll tch 1's'"
4
t
F
1,-ir
., **
;'trt
erf
f i:t{rfflii
ttrc OpeffltOr:
f niF9
ri?. :!.,r,1::efjitCt,
i 1rr;r;s,',{
{rf
le other
.n.
r
!.'e
rrP. 3
!1f.}
's
"nnn'
re ts not cerefiln that linglleh ha-r operato's lrilor-re
nrgu,.€nt
cnree or nore cienxrrrtRry ar$Ls',:€nts. Sons
apparcnt
and
irl
-.1:jbnsesdor occur
aloo cu orrrr, in
requtrernent
orrnn, such as _:grq.lignrg.
sftuatJ.on* uhlch aro pot, necessarlly
annlyenbl'a as due
to & ueroccr lniieflnrte tirird irrgu*ant:
l:rytrg:r
echool at tirls
ru:ettnx, but
v u L' aleo X reprcsents th
%'-:;r'
"r'" -r*1-11r'Jirgl!a*lre.ji3-1:1ve ;
of Franee to Enfil_nn{but aLr:o X Le
r._lt*_thsgs-rygq{qr
nrr.nan
lggff-ql-l rlg,
A
.X
{s
the -.I:US_'E
g:'!:q-qsU' A'lso, r:iost *pParent onnn have severar
posnibl"e prepoaiEiong
the{r tirlrd argun:enr (-f.l.r".gj::fg-_*__tjt_S..qtqre"gg",
before
,
.*
1 ln
flE, ln, to, cte., as Oo' oper{rior$
on,, oPeratora) and
A more
to exl'tl
(b)
dtfflcurt
nrost cuses tha bent analysle seene
crn
the palr:
to
be
(s} -Igff!_?gg. (and slrnllar
e.o:rferencg, govnll\lent, ece.
John prr!_ryoqey
is
ln prrl, for r,rhJ ch a' or.,r, forrn does not seem
on qhg tgblg, but *ftU:gLEonSX. ltcn^,ever,
there
case
aeen
are rnany ellf ferent preposLeloas before th* tlrlrrl
*r8u'Fent, anti nany adverbe
ln plaee of tlrls: Jolin-_prie-r.x-rney ln n hoil,
J
, {ghn
put the lrjolc dcr...?nr.Ioir: prrt trrs plcture
rqc; fer Bone aacontr crgurentr the
adverb gtv-es aa extended or alno*t uetapirorle
*eentnsr As {n Jgtp__n:L$S.-g9l
ottt' Johrr put the icle;r
-over. I{e cannot say tlrat trre nrgur*nt*r of put nre tr}-o
noto'a a*d en aclvarb (or PN), liccauac 1n the preseRt
thcor). no Fsrtn cf speech
are prlFrcLve entlties, rrnd tha argrtnents of arr op*r,lltor
cart only ho worcl
claoseg deflned prevlou.ely
pttt ln terrou
in tha llrar,n&r. The onlv ennvclrteng us./ of snnlyzlag
of the prercnt theoty ruy ba to trcsc ie a^r a vnrl*ne
of an o*o
operator such fl'n _ejgls, whlch thc
ia lLocatl'onal:
"ca,r:;ri cnn t.rf:,l
tilian tlrn qpqg6Eor rmdar lt
Wrq
-q9.-"tii-,it ,J.trr: ,uig-*tg-p-!cj,rg *i:g.
Tha resEr:tctfan an ths tlrird firgrr$i:fl| of
l:111 t]rua.r,ero:rln r r-ertrtctlon on tbe
Pttt- varinnt of gj:lfg ulelt real)ect t$ (i:o arrr{)nri $rfrr-r*re.ne oj. th,: g*concJ
arp,uq,ent, of carr-ge.
It
Iit'.4
A dlffereut pro'Leru Ls rct uJ.th in
!1i!3g'*q, as tn par{s ls betueen
j':":r::ll@.
I:f1::l
IJ€ cen loolc
Il q -!.ttery:L
for a rtartvatlo";;
oonethlng llltei
t! bo-rmte-tl lrrr v. _a!rd_ v. (tdrlr tretlreren as
rnorplrcpironenle varl;'flt of ln an gqs.radiri"f
ll i,,urr,gd r,,:/); rrere the and
r,'htcJi
1s a b!-ec:ntentl;rl rrpf:r$tor on
trrrr {u terval,. Vincennes borrrd,t
lq,rrnlll,lt
'orl-r<rc
_!Is_*!rri_ry4.
.lnal1'sea sudr ns trre above
for p.qt anct !sg.1g13 are a etep Ln the drrectLon
of dl'et::lbut{orally*}:e.scd vocebulary' faetorizntfon.
suclr factorl.zaELon,
thorrgh besed on the dlstributl.on of the
exLstlng vocsbularyr crrn go beyontl
the
Byscen praseuted
here, and requlres caraful preparatl.on.
2.- gper*tofs on qjle tHqcor.irse q:lg Oo
factr IIts bein$ rre.Iqll
ques
ts-.a -fngq.
tion, l:lS_.klg
.
: lss.lgluttgglfl" tnrirorr.tnr.
pose ib.le:
!le.J13inL nlF faulr is poff*ble.
lnportant
continue: {ile grhJ.l{s
I.h*jEllg_19__rrench
FoJ .Iolrn _to see
-thl1J_s. J:jrrrgrraJ,L.
_cryf,_qfi continued.
Ilhen a dlgcourse (sentence) becor:es an
operancl of a further operator lt
recelves arr, lndlcator -rj--tnf, or
_L\3t..:-:-; certal' operi{tors J^rnpose $r*qi}g"..L
on their.perancr, ,..fiJ.clr conslsta of g: on two
or
cliscourses. The
'.ore
explenntlou for thls ls ghren Lir 4 bei"ow. These
i-ndlcators can be consl.dered
portlons of cacir o,, operator, ruhicir nre attached
to the operend of c1e oo.
An opernnd 1{J-..}:-.i{A can rec*tve not only
the forrc.l{1re-_V_1ng l{2 but
alot:
j}-:i__-lllq of .it'
v{r.rs
of
}11 (ee1.,r:etatty
rf v iq oo),.Iil
y-llg-jl.LJir.
(see
IV 3.5.) If the operand raceivcri a tense, (secr
IV Z), t,!re tense enters the
-thnt:-" or rgLq!hgl:-.: forn. operatoro uhl.clr are eharacterlstlcarLy
'-l
I
"l
I
I
before
t*elr opermds ln tr'a esn attech the vartant Errr:t-,..srroJ.rltr...,
(or $at,r_:..
tdth no teiroo)' or f,!,r-'-:-:!9..-:- to tir,:lr operan,l. IIe
clc noc 1.n6., vhat determlnes
H
n
t1
tiIIt{
ru
ilt{
il
Ir l) r J
lhtr use of one --:|:fn ior:n or nnofher, nor rrliy certnl*
operntor6 {npooe
-E:_::
on tltelr operantl wltlrouE hevl.ng tlrc aho.ra tfu,e-relat{on.
,.,re faets can
reatll.l}. l)e stflted, lrut in tlre prerrcnt theorl,
se r*oul<l $rish to eccou4t for
tlrun by zerced opcratorlt cr b;r llkcllhcoql
rclrtton*r not bv frce varLatlcn or
by creatrn;i s*irseefr &;1d rentrreEJcn.r. Tlre
analysrc of *Lg**glr-:- presenta o
problen dor ti:e present tlieory' beclusc
ttre operetors r*hich lnpose lt rcqulre
-q{ (r'e' & dl'Junctl0n of crlscotrrses) es opersnd. rt nay ri€ nccessary
to
analyze tltese operstors an clerfvecl fron 06o (s.e
5.2).
fn
sone Oo operators r*h{c}r lravc
lhq_-: ag well as ulreshar..-_- oJ._.. on
eheir operancls the sb:'rttr-q{.
-gr.-:-. lg due to on internrerllate zeroe<l approprtate
operator! E$!t'.t I,. ltl"l.t
or So ls n l:r-otrle!+@
to"
ttle$$r-i@'
go
J.s. the.
qrrsstlor: or
Thls dlffers
frc*"Ii@
nr
.__i.l rrhat T nskctl.
ccrtairr apparent oo nouns have recelved thel,r no,'n-for,o
secondarLly, drre
to'JuraElr-rz'eng a-spectuar operacors'n oo
acrJectlrres, or m oo or
r,rr:rbs:
Qno
.Xt.f
; ll:--Xggilgflrome
ro rlsr .
Iug*Legg{g[.lqr]?lg-LJ-p'r, others s.re due co a
reducrlon fron approprt6,reverb to ,f:;.: l!!.e l"l-ri": r'r..".gl"lnvqFes
(or:
rrr€rs 161,ous
rl_qlgqgg1.I*og[
)-,;riis !:arn!nq@.
-a.prob_lgl
-{gortS.:-gg.
A11 clir"se trpi)3rent (iiertvec!) oo norns do noE
EeJie the
!i$.r.re
vilrl;rnts (trnns-
fon::ntrffrs) crrst trie orl"5"t*;rl 00 no-r.ms cro. Thue The
-facr.*-of hls_!-g!n&-r:gr.,q...,
The -fgcri*$'ar
jg {g-I3-t.il..'i r,ur n'q-rs.'l:-l,r:_-:s.rq_Tur-t--rglg...,
-!bgg '!il*L':!-gla:*Jji9t:n" '
n!]_qjry.
i 'il{l 141-.1%
}'Eer$!..., il}e
rlle pfODlcm
problcm
*It--th-l'iEr.lgs-jil*rl'..,
:::.'::jj::.:j.t__j_'.,-.:l:-:::
"llLo---lialilt:ir rlret lr* ts lcpr:rr:o Tr--*
An exrrerleLy L:''1iortru:t brr[ ]-ittle-r+:cognlea.J
s*t of ftn operators are t'e
aspectuel c':leg' r*rrc' itil ilre "rrci'f{rct.'w:" or ,,mo:,.,,r11
tfineous,, (g!._,fd .1t R-.n.rinr}ne,
or the "l.i::pcrfecri*r" .r "tlltrerlv{:" (irt-S
_r-figU$f.fil,.-Lf-,i{.-oj!, or rhc
"boun<il,!" LL (or _1r-.J.g) nir:T':*t-. A:r & r.rattcr
of r{:l{:ctiton, cert{rln op.r&lors
l1
.
r,'1
6
norrally tn(lar ths rort:nCnneorrs (e.n.
l:f.Lyg), ot}.ters no:rnnlly tr,rCer tire
riurrtl.vc (*.it. f -t,1,*), or!:i:r* neltlrt:r or botir (e,fl,
Iltj!:), As r,rlll be see-u
lielcrr, tlrese asrnc:ctrr*! ci)errlcor:s g{lnerra.rry zer*sd, l.r:rt
renvc effects on tlra
{rccrrr
tense suff{xes whlc}i tirt: rperntors (verbs) turcler
ttrer-.r receft.e (r:speclally ln
lrut;;ulrgt:s raltlr rr-cher c,:ln$c rysicn:r;, Brrclr
as Frtrnch) , on flre conblnablll tir o f
tlie vtlrhg rrr-trr bn.fo.r: erre! ,aftt:r, ,*nd on tlre af ft:ral
slrtftlng of t.'ordg as l-rctr.reen
verb-forn, noln.- forrn, ad iectlve_form (e. g.
ls morc
durat{ve
-rq.cjr;:!_+*v-g-
t.}ran
r:eeel_g).
c'erta:fn o,, verbe
or acljectLver:, no8cly hawlng an artpecttral (duratlvfztng
cr nonetltrncous) effecf,.tre slR. fotm,l (tn the sane
or varlant fon:ri beforo
thelr:!-rg or lo.:J,- artlu:ent,
S
, If@
to c-ry. Th:[:r varlsnt posLt{on lr.tll be dlscussecl i_n flf
2.6. There are also
aspectrral oo r'rlth prcposl.tlanal forrn rirleir clo
not have thln vnrlant: lle nte
|'.
.t11, frorn
Iie ete -i-t.
A particula:: sct of these (snl, gorl{,
Ill,r-, r{.d!!-, gl!ll!, stlould, ancl ghe
co'l';lna't'lon of operators
x-,.,!j!.q anrr optionally !.ru.ht ?gr) hare
*or t-o"- on trre{r r.nn.edlate l'erb-argrn:ent, rurt! sppeer prln*rlll' 'ettrrer_1ing
Lrefore lt
.1t
(l.e.1nthe.IlJ0!.evarl"irntpon1t1on}:@.Tnthestan(lard
po*iEloit' sfter t'hc argunr:nt, these oper.qtorr* have
only r,.ri.pletJ.ve paraplrasee:
sentetlrf'ng1{l.e!lt11tvo.|]rl.g.i']reneoperatorshlrve
thelr o::l-gln lu
Ono verbn
uhfch oceurrer{ prope.rly.rftcr thelr f:trslt
arg**,:nt:
S4ll as operntcrr on s!il{ anrl a sentence wliose verb Lq ggl}:. I..}ren t}ris
letter
senlenco pern:lncntl'r ieroect lts eubjoct becnrr,.re
r,t r.ras arucys tlre sRms *s .he
cubJect of cen, thn can treeane no lon5;ar an Cno
operslr)r, truc en oo opc:rrlror,
e.g. Fttrely on g!!&_q1]j.f (cr,.,r.r tliorrXh
Slrj|.l,t uns the suh.lnct of
cs of tir1.k), I's Oo, 9,tll can be parnphrsr;cd fry arrtr)o aftcr.Llri-k,
.c_.1n
ns rrglt
cnrrving
n
reilcrr:nce lndtc;rtinf; th,at tlre srrbJect of
l_*]rr: ie alrio [rre etrhJocc of q,n-.
The rrord
l{-Llt
con:nonl-y conr:{.(lered
to
bei
{rr tlrt.s rrr!t i$
ncru
l,cnt annl;lzerl ns
n
IIp.
7
vsrl&nt of elt*r., coriparabla t,o the -arl vartant of
]l5folg, 1... I ten$6,
(T'he or1.1;lnnl o,.o yl"U nklo dxlete : jjg
.l Corrl_rt, n
Ii{flJ*' slojl4, tl?gl',i I'n sonn of rhatr
;:lus peet, tensc (ses IV 2).
oecurrence$ &rrli
-9g}-rF{r."1x.,
eirall, rrlll
Anotli*'r oo operator -u-1th tltlr a.bove*r*ntl.cnetl varLnnt poslElon
ie nqt,
ulrlch ls Lndlrectly nspecEusl, hawlng a ciuratlvlzfrrg effect.
rn ehe basLc 0o
posltLcn r*e have to es$uni] rs--Ig.L-tgt- gnse'
l-L-Ils,!-lg *r tiru Llke; the usual
fori.r, nqr, l-g lrr the varlrlrlr pasLrion:
Ii:S_J:
^o,.l*rhe-
cajqtr
ie. rn the present theor-y, theae fon:rs arree
-l
fron the t.ense enEertng after the not_ or aspeccual clr other operator
has
enccred (and after lt has therctrpoa teJ<,en chs varL*nt posltlon,
Lf it does at
all) ' (rf not-r or gg!3grtg' entet.a afte r the elne opcrirtor, r,a wourd
get
,tiljtot-bejore anct sg]ul-nqqs-!-L.re-!,:ig:g.) ['hereas on the other nspectrrars,
ns for all operators x, be !gJe, en,l al1 operators hava eg varLa$ts
--ect and q.l
'
sttfflxed to x, on !g! the befolg and
-gr- are placed before the J,..ot, *r1th tle
t+ord :Jg carrylng rlrerre sufft:<eo:
llg-Jpll]!:$$g_t.o._jlgry, lg*(I{rlgqr* jl,rdl.
!,_
3.
I
Ore:Slo fg_qq
.e-leme n r
a
rX_ a5gtarg n r s an C
-qiy.._
j
$Sgg ry s .
orro
A o*'ple caeo
ia neiln i.n &ll_:grg$g,LEgd::_sgg,llrljg_U,u_gl*..
rn
tire parslvo n{iny of theee looli lllie *o,.,:
!gi11!_1_::gf:Srn" t',u-L*lcgj*q"
:gP-q.Iq.Gt!l]'y.-&Ut-. For e(,t-'ra operetora, tire nacanr! (.1.a. dlscourge) argurrent
lras a PnrtLcular Preposf'tlon (case, as !.* 1.2):
'.!:ht-!.qgiggll'rtr*:-:gg,igg
tha-g*lcg. Tirere &re softe opefstor:r for which te 1s rlif flcult
or lnposslble
t'oflnda;r-lt$fcirinoft'heope:rand:.Lj:!b:tr]$,r!,{'llJ'*no.c.,nt'1sdrrbicu.s
.t
(!*iSUS:.::4'-i"_:$Ur
ftora rro), an<i
I_U!.l.,.yl_r,U.t1.ri__:,_q,-t$*!,ngqg*
urcerrain,
r"lr1L: ,*i f,"L!1:g..t*.Jfj-:-t-,Ulg:Slgg- ts, riorivable
f mr:r Lt,eLt..nyj__!1f_!:q*I$r11-tjog
s-q-u]--te.!u!rL:qgg.L: rirr-s 1g drrrrvcblc fror* Erre r),.,r, op{?rsior belteve tn
(I
1."1,'ar,n t- 1.i
.-:-.';i;-t_:,:':yl1_jil*illJ-l)
-J<;ririr,ci i,i' g!:c.]: ro l!,:_I*:,-..:-*1'1ngq,,.-ns t:r rr nlrlrilrrhn
r.
Ifir,
(r"lth
ttre-.
gtlqa.r_:l$_o_{_!.$.1*firJgLaqtl .!ftl-1!311gggr:-1:, ns Ln Trr
B
?.3). ,
,.,
z\s lo tlre second arg,rrient. of thei Orru operatar
]3-!lg:,r: r r*,e riirly hnve to accept
tlte {!-*t'-'.. fon:r rntirer tltrrn the -t-nX fornI t}rt$ ls a sl-trratlon rlrore conrjlon
ln F::encir then irr
i"-tnqlis'h.
Oile ntglrt con:;ldc:r;ur altenrntlv,: anal;:sls ln uh;tclr,rgpQrqr
-Lnry, !lg!*:tn,
ete'; t"ould lle taken as having for eeconcl argrrrrent rlor a <il.scourse (Bentence)
but a noun: f"acr, or rhe llke. Then r hrcr.r rl11q liq--ls_Jgrg r,roulcl be analyzeci
es
!31fl:
}:* ltl,*ru: i:.hic}r on !_}.}o,i*,1*f_*gln Tl-rsr he Lsl,nfg ts
uou1d be cire second er8ru:enr of lgowr and. also the operator
ril,1 _{.tg.t*r}-a!.
g-lgg.q' llere,
.fggq.
on Ile Ls ]rere, and
it
can be zeroed here as {.ntercediace operator
(III 1.4).
of the Ono have no norln r.'h{ch can occur lnstead of a dl.scourse
argunent: e.g. I19pg, be!-fg1g (brrr perhapa Lgl1|g-.jg_e_g!g!g*e.n!).
Hou'everr soile
as $econ(l
one cou1d,
r
of ceiur$e, use tire lndeflr"rlto
pronorgr g_g1gthl}.t.,
or the llke:
horre soJqrllr:tru'
!lr:l!e'rp*:gr.g.!1,'rsr, r kno-'*l".qc_rne.c.hln3., Bur, rrrls gong"q$gg.
I'e douirtfrrlly an ouer:.ttor: That he l"s here -ts
U31g!l5g le only wltir cllfflcuJ.ty
I coil?onent gor lbel{:;g,Ls.qff,_{fj:}g--g$_ct r".-li,llj:g..ls lrere,
whl'ch 1s virat wortld be neede<l as a source for I b-elleve th.et l.re ls
here. A
avallabJ.e as
more serlous obJectlorr
to thla enaly*is ls tl'rat, aside fron
pronouns, tlle nouns rreecjecl es replaccrr'errLs
of the eecond
cire
indeflnite
rrp,l$lenc
of
Orro
opcrators are quite d:lfferent from the noirnfl rr]rleh are $.]cond argurcnta of
ooo operators: eft- ha$ nlqac, .&g, eie,, and vrtth lo,.r likc,llhood L%,
ox.zflcr!,
eEc,, but not at al.l Iggq, l.]!-gl:r":Jf!; U,-g:,
st'&tenint' i{rq3gsl!, hur not at;rll r:j!,
JlgLq_,
I,S!Lo::q can have
i*e!r
-t1ifjxl, etc. iience this analysls
does not reciuee'tlrtr Ctnn .'ler to onnl tire dlff*rerrce.lrct'*eein thc tr.'o sets
of
operfitor$ rer:al-ns nrr cl11'fercnr setn*-noe tilffercnt selectlona--of secc,nd
arglnl'inc$"
Sl"nce J.r'r tlrc
Itreseilt illicrlr-r'1t 18 possll:le to <lcf{.ne tlre arg,urrlenrs
of eilch operaf or st:t {n tfrrn$ of irrcv,torr:rl./ dtrfinr:el worrJ-s.rts, it ta prefer&bl.e
to give tire gccont! c.rgtrrreng sf lrnalr, l]-ry..q., eEc.,
arr rJre
nct of
oFerecors
IIir. I
{or dlncourlcs) roch':r tlt*rn ag tlro only luc!lrtrctly defl.rrablc net .f
!1et-,
(''!r1cir
eBc.
rlre nFrr,]1.; cert;rlrr oo aperatora on d{scourses).
"li.]1trinr
I'lost oor oi)e1.1 ro'{$ lritv*;t ratJri:r:rt.ronf; pr,efcr*nce
for hurrs,n or htgherarrf rrrr-l crrb jects ( I'ir* | arp,rrixnt)
. Iiorrever, 1t ls nat poirslhlc to e>:crudc any
elernelttary €lrP,urrrnt fro:l l,Ellrrf, a suh.Ject of tirege
op$r&tors, at least as a
fs'r*reachi'ug ar falr"l-tale t)r nonseirs-rLcaL u.se:
1'l':j{.k-qn lgr.a*ql$-_liJ!l"
l'ga r'1:uld l'uv !t.
Ilcnce chc hunan f.lrst.-argur4enc ls a strong
serect{on of
these cpsrators' rsLhclr than a nJieeifLc strbclags
to r+irich they are resrricted.
Ag to clttr operand-:l-nriJ.cator tshLclr the orro !.rrpones
on its
sec'nd ergunentr
certain or.o Ii'Tposrl cl{ffererit lncllcators ln aciciltton
to or Lnstecc of
llgted in L'2'
Thus
chose
for g-(3, !r:rE r'ie flnd not onL-'r r-*gli Jolurrs cross{neg
^. -a:,1:_J--aur- : _c_ro:rs
1. 11
t}
tlre
str,eelr l..-.o:,lr:Iil!-_.iqitr]_g9_:rI,:4*tE-*rr-.rgg!, bur
also L-sar., John croga rhe
srtr.'e€:t: rlrfvcnr i,o,,
!J"L_r*-"!g,.iJ4IL'.q_SIg:]t,rg__g.l!LsLtgg! (br-rr nor *I"-g:gv*rgS!t
!b:$'-jl9j$-*qr:-11{{,.-j-i:::qt- or jJl.reJsr-g,{_
a'<1 alao
LJ,r-gvEntr:tl_.lgtrr frtS_cr:qT{Ui_g}g--...1!1:ieJ..
It
nray be
possll,le ro eonsLder
tltese other incllcators as srmi:ly varl-ruts of tire
-lng form, for tlre particuler
ono.
As
l[ rhe casc of o*, tlicre is a subset of
orro operators r+h1ch rmpose
git:.gls-r on tlre:lr dlscortrse-operan<l,
ln which case rliat opersnd ts restrLcrecl
to l-rrlrr.g or: ct1 tr.'6 6s rqore discourscs: J_ohnjrjIlge
lerr,-dlu-t]@
lc derrival-'le irt 'rpproprl'rte-zerfiirng frr:n
{glum:iere,1 ,..,lret!lcr ]ir€nl{. a*:t:qj
g-r_ll.1g-j|!Li,qi_grln. A*<l as in rhe case of oo, ue are
J.eft wirh a
resirrctlon, r'rlttch ls rt'latl:;factory Jlcir the resr.rnt
theory, the seco'd
argu-
Fl
b. c!r f'.e. a <i[sJr::'tciLon of dl.scaurs'eg.
r*tli be presenteC tn 5.2.
r-:ent lluist
An
alternatlve
a'ah,.sJ_s
lr:iir*rtarrt or'l.rrstor in ono ls f3_ry-u
]_-r"lgrg. rt ralrr be goen
tlr;tt tlli:t Circrator h;rrr to ho rrRswerl to have cxl.stacl (and
usuarly
'rr vcr1"
IteJ'crw
Ililr/* l'een zur'r:tl) at thc lrc:rrl 0f every crlacourca, a*cl
nt
of n el{8c*urde.
to
nanSr
lnterror polntn
TYN
1N
1.2 o .: e.R. surprtrtr tn .Tc,trnr:r- qr-qlg{]!f:j-1{: j!I:$--l-y!Lf!ryC--T:..
o1'l
vloltl or.,o-l{ltc
PnnE{vc and p;r:;i:tvc-llke trim:}formatlon:r
jl!
{llllld *Lij_*'!:"_ s_ry*j:::
lr!:,:ie-.
.rrllg
{
rr
.
t-u-**lg,q L ,
The hun.rn sel.ecLlon
(tn tire
!-'.g
q'gyL:.9-l__s
sr:cotld srSul;'alrt)
€or:'rs
r*jl{rdg
:
!-gr'.s
_c
r*qlll'rE
ls slndla:: to that
Orro.
A type of C)o' r,'hlch:lr: crrrcl.al for niur'; lcral'iscs ie thaf ln wirlc}r tire
aperator gets che forn rrf a orer;osltton (LV3.1) antl relste:r l.te flrst argtinenl-an operator--to nouns of tine, cr place, or anount, or nannerr or other t'rlCe-
propertJ.es: g1-j!-1:lg., 1s-19-7i,31.3-L]L' At:r nglfl1!, durlng th*r-4.av'
5@noltln!; $ jg!l, n-tlJi Els-ios{;
-rl,rc,tdjr"L rLperfocl., ttl1 3PP*.ili.,
rri: to_an rrcrrql, Jn an naoturt' 5-elgrigg; ,ln a slorr rJan,e.r (+.{9,-4-83""".1
et,c. Tirere are also ooo of thls preposlclonal for:r':r whlch have
yLlg;g-:l*tl;
*prec<!
n&rrolr'er eclectlons, rel.atln.r' partlcu1er operatcrrs
(ln the flr";t ergutrnnt) Eo
partlculer rclevant nouns: e.g. llts renrrsent:lng .Irrl-nqt ls
-nE
thjs
c-glqglqncet
or to t?',ls ectvetrrr'.'ent.
3.
3
orrrro
t
e.
ulgther i'iarv
g.
f :!"9; Jo)r*
wondtl're o.fL-ze
or
r,ra:;
Sotle lrnpone a prepoaltlon on
lqryjrrfr Joill.
tlre ellscourse-arfiunent: John lrr,fornccl lran'i.- of iia.r)rts
Lostnf tc. ':arri:; I
(+.
li. Orret:arc.'r$
rr'i'r- s..q
crll:cot:r::en : nfr'il
Ortel:af c.'r$ on
on t1i'o c!tr:cor:
John hlnr'.erl
[.g,
"nr.l
JS]_'rnts
nsk-ed Frank
ll1 r-rrrlnr,
the Prl:e.
f.o:-
si
o
cl
e.t .!" ve .
t""lgn1,qf*nt-cqrjcd lt:rrr.Lf s rettin; so also ent'q.!!, I-rllol"'e,
l,:.sg1glq, -,q4*gggt*1 etc. Soire of tjre:;e algo occur as Opn, e.g. feser"'ir-ht
occcr;rlso as Ono, c,g. poso.tbfy -g',,t.qc. Sone tlr,o Cases can be
rnal'rzerl nc approprf.ate*zt:roirr1.s fron O"o: e.f,. &lg:g1lgd. Frnnl'-rir 5gcqry
nnd otl.,ers
:rq3:-gl,rtg1 trlg-1"llpf:If,j ll!:-t teer; o:'-iltr|
!.-ejjj1ru,:q_gt.r'he sl-_r,jrn re:.1:qglj-:j_ Iits nnnl)'rls ftts the fact thcE norrnt t'hlch
ilon't nillear an flrst sriiunenls of _r:'-r:r;g nl.:;o dontt enpear ns flrsC argu:rEntg
Jc:lrrrri; actJ ons eSltjjd:_--, T,n
of
rhcr npproprfate-verha
Rct, o-ccrir. fitu* *11"j!S5g-q11u:{]'!rrni:-A-1j:ltt5n.
I1p. ll
(except 1n t5e s1;nse cf tha terolng of eo*s dtscour$e-apirropriate verb:ittclr
a:r lla".rlnt
tn rlo ncnetir,{.-r:'1 .tbcrrf tl11$gg-ggg:i{-If:'td{:-tt'.-rifg)'
Certstn crises of cperirtorn .*{rlclr api}e$r botit &n Ono nnd ag Onn can
analyzed, as
orlglnel 0,r,.:
11rr-.l
givcn fuXgSS,1u. ("rt 1g-tgg--!]ifl,
.3,
Lre an
*d
lits ,rq4,]jlif,S,xggr,t$ ("tt !:*.gt*. tll:I:) iit'rlcLeat!-hf,r !-re c*ll analyze tlta l8tter
as liis rerrriinr'. .tr ln '1r1 rlr'io,rurr ';!!gl1-t,rqr:eil'r (or: ls rnore !Ug) !*Lq*5$ijl-q
of jler roa4tnil lir'.-Je g'll-rrrorj t&l1ll$-. A;rd giv*n -L?l-l-:f-X'"g!gd. (orr wa.s.
.!gggr") 1974 (h*r*
ls
n,.,,r) nncl
csn *nalyee t]rq
her elecElon,
rA'e
ppg.ggs:l (or:
w*11
seen
p-3liq-gjg
lllii-g!95g!-qa-K:.:"::ig (ort wns Pqfgre)
latter as Sl* jrksil.g]-"f':-Sl:-ry9{j*tr."h.
tigSgr=) .q]lgJ,q:1$--9j"i:**q.!tSg-!I}. Tlrese anaLvses sJ"ll be
to regularfze tlrese €iilpcrent, Ooo, espectally ln tlre case of tlre conpsratlve
(rvs. 1) .
i,s wlth
Clno ancl
Oo'
sorxt Ooo npcretors (sor,* *'rert's snd &11 adJectlvea
a preposlc{on cn rhctr eeocnd srgumntt e.g. <tlffer lrornt
ancl notsls) i-qrose.
*!else..!-q,'
In all 0oo tlre
Ee-nslng
of the ftrnt
nr!:ur1€nt (iV
2)
changes Ehe grarn-
matigal forn of the Ono fro:n a l.,l-r+ententl.*1 vcrb to s hi-sentcnllal prepoaliiljli*'i**r::-qJH:; i.:-'-*l- q l,:gls:!"lgj.1q--!:"..
rton : @t*i
electlon.
1t $o:r*, felyi!nfi the 6ec*l'l* {r;rurcnt loarlg to cltlrpen.qtnf, wlth t}te
;,: oi:arand-lncJlcator (qtif r-) ; thi: c ifect of hc'th tenrlnin ln
X a s r:b or cllnn t e con
1
un c t
1
on
:
li:- :'-:o
1;o tl:'qke
tlre Ooo lnto
:,il:*fil lU --l;)-l-qjiiM'
lliury ffoor l.lo1iarref, rotn!.n tlrc $tltr:r:irl"tfglti:irnt {*,'i l.cntt:r (,:v,.in lf only l"n eero
fc,r-nr) ant! clo
not lleesne co:?1.:i.(t i:nil'!!s.!1cglt''l;t?: ji:',.:'*:gtlJ.r*ti-juq-lgile:-
glgs$gf ; ljil'Lljgr,Jrtgt'jL
sl re
prrl'r-i r:trrl
4
L
3:::*-3f--.t':ll-1
(*r rrtir
r*roe:r! $.r':L: I. lri 11' l:'5
;'';t'^ ''t.) .
It le frr t!,e.ea Ooo tlrili. tlrr! fi"rrr.neiol offrct ni rlrir opcrand lndtcntors Ls
!n t*"*rii.rtl', a:l f)E-r1. olt atr^}i!oo r.'ou1d leild
Bo€Il . S.lncr: tlrey ;lre 11cit-r!"riit{}cl111!-'ra
to :raJor
aitrt1,,rrit.
l*s if ti:*Ftl Lofs !'0 rrt*f
*xrr'; ';nt!!r:&tofrf
i lf tlr': f lr$t
r.I ir . J2
,rrflit:"rl:i]t
of
rur Oo*
lrl lfrlelf au Onor ue wouLcl lrnvft Slfloo5r .ts flrsf
nrp.r;;Tlrlnt
f. l-lo'uad by tire neir oooraircl lti; ii€coll(l arg,wicnr- s:}--in n1l sloooszooss3. rf
rire eccond argtrr*rrf. r,rf err ffrro ls J.tself nn O.ro,,.,(i L,9i.llcl lrlrre tlrs ftrgt &rllutiienC,
:i1r folloq'rtr'"1 lry tlre new ooo *lcl tl:r
rlev*oPeraltl Ooo)-*
lrl
al
second artrirrncni Li2ooos3 (produced b;* tire
l 110oo'iroooi3. In
rilatlrcrnt.
lcnl notarion
thp-se rv,o
g.tturrtlon!l are rllntl-np.irislr.rrl by l)arenf:iesies, r,,lilcir lnrltcate ,^,llat oi,erotcfl
virat:
(S1oooS2) oo,rS3 a:rtl
on
slooo 6sroo*SU). in Language, t'lrc ef fccr Ls obtallred
by the e.l,or/e*ixrrlt.loned furcllcat,ors, t.e.
;rltonernf
c
clrn:r,ges
(cirtcfly ndCltlons)
clt i}re operator lrr1;'ses on ;!"ts oparanc!. ?irus, for s1 Jglll_J"1cglgd,
SZ - -Ir*lkig}irne{, s3 * .g.-}Frrong-jfljlq:T, ue trava: (ti1oooS2) oooS3 *
r+ii{
*:l*_t.lEjronlng
1r:.ir<l!IL.Er
j::*:r.ljs
_rgqrrrn_carrs-qA giu_q1.n"g-t_!::.151
jnflty;
slooo (ii20oos3) * -"ldr'tj'r-t"!gl'",ql1't"g--r",r ..qg-rri:'tl'i:-lo!ui{:--qggu1lg1lruL{s-
l"t"f
""g2.
the
Tlre f"Itllort&nce
of these oireranC*lndJ.caEors fcrr
dlsrti.ngul-shing
ferent as$octrrtlons (parenCiresen-placi-ngs) {s ser:n in the fact thaC
Ooo rvhlcir nre .l-argely ass;ocLative. in nr+aning (rrir,rarl 1y anj, or) rlo nol:
c{{f
Ehor;e
1ntposetliege1nd1catorgantlteiroperan<ls:Jg].:ugL@iret!]rned
ggg-.:glg.,:*'t ne" "n"l5y has no fliidl-cat!:n of r'rhich arrrl operatecl on wlLch, nor
cioes
tirle Ltt r'ro$c cas€s malce any tllfference
Ln
neanlng.
So
also for
rvh.
(nee
l).
i'irere i:i also an apparent sr*t Onoo as 1r. :lglg=lt-!:!!g@
g1.flf_!1j!:_l-r;rvJ,nq
uor't,..ed
!lat!.
Ilo",,,r:r,r.:r
lt
may tre
thnt all of these can be
dertveil by tlre dlstrlirrrc.lon-bn.lc:rl vocahrrlary farctc,rlzetton (end of 1.3) to .'''
0,ro
(*.g"
co:rsirlj:_l:) r.rhoce seconr! argunent
is
en Coo
(e.g. sllse,
cltrq
to):
'I9!rr-co'lo!ler,*!-rlrilr tll.rtjlr ""i:ttJyl*q:]:3:J.r:!li_Lqjgg_!ry!lrjg:k-J_:ll:g.
5:
-l:g=!$!s-:*3_ttg!li:Jr.tt_-*:" .-rl!lg ",r'. l,.i: :g:L*gi.
5'1 Ar r.lr:tccl ln 4, tlra ooo witose repetlt:lon ls p,enerallv asrnoclsclvtr ln rne;lnLng
Co noE :Li':po.si: lnriLcar.or.B orr L!iclr operarrrls:
:Hfl_Ilq:ji{.1r{ tr3l]i_rjlgryg!
ln conrrast, r.rlrh &:li:::..1Jr*tflj1_g.**'(]-:Lj:f:U_l_f:LL!.n:. Itnrce rhel, nre
.
(co.rrrl {-nnf
e)
con ltr,ret.torrn
bett"ecn
F#'o 3e nten{:e:J
r;rLlrer tlrrrn (ns tn /r) r,c!:lrs
I).p.
,'!.3
l,*t'r;rq:ilf! f'.'c nonlnel l:.e11
rielltericcli; thfl (sribc.rr!lnate) con.Jtnrc:{onal fot,n:.s ln
r:r{l ilt:ccfir'inq,'belng dcrivud fron the verb:] by tensl:rg tlre two opcrrurcls.
5cr.:* ecltii'tlon.rl ccorc.!rtate sqr:tJunctl,ong c;rn
psrilcular
o
r tlrc
operatorit c]f
l;e ccrlrtrd fron
n reriucthle rype. i'hus l)ur
."n,1
4
trrrci benrlnEl
g(ltlll'gly._*o_org:=g.!t!Lon
J-ii.:e .
AlJ' tg:es of oeeurrerrce of 1gl c"q-l be derlvecl , to all*arou:-rcl n6vantage,
fron +{ on $entencct; (t.e. orr CLscorrrsee). it'}rls wtll be .seen rs.tder the
reel-procal anrl collecrr'e v'.'-rbn ancl elser,rrrere (rv 6.6,7).
5,2
The operators whl_ch In;rose g!r*.gr!i5.
rt
r+as .seen
operands
(c'*t'
in 2 trrat, the oo opcrritors
whrcrr inpose
on thelr
"rig.glq.:
r-i--.e^gil91-tlqit present a problcu, because therr operauct ls
restricted to beinfi
on
sentercesr A slnllar prolrlen a::Lses for tha
aPparent Ono operators asl'", xslf{gq, ecc. The fact of the regtriction
cennog
-q::
tr.'to
be elhrinateC, lrut lt Ls possil-rle to glve such a clerivatLon of these
opers.tors
as nnlies the restrlc[ion p-rJ.:lc orrt1, +-p t],eLr i-arluutr.:
" Lrc st.rrt w.ltli triirestrlc_
tcrl or on t'.'ro sentence$ (the o-r belng of course repeatable). on tirl.s r.re
take oo an'{ (as nt che end of /*) ono of',rrtor:s wl.lch are free to
acc on any
operatclr' fnel-udlng a rJ:int:le scntence or rury ooo. Among these are
so'6
oDeratorti'"rhl'ch are especiel.lv freqrrent (relnti'.,e11,) on or (rrlth
its operancl
: :hMjCll_l-ur!--*Ltg:s.,
:::_ia-.g_gg:g qlon,,
-. Js tnclr*.ll; !_tt'$t: ,jrcrhel l:a_v,,L1t-*gg__!:lf-e_j.rf_L:rS.lry,, I tqF,! knorr.,.,,
sente:rces)
r
l:no:r'.r..
' I-[*r:L3gS-1-{"-:-:-:. rrJl or a]-nost ell of tlresre furtl.rer operarorg
aLso act on slnJ;I.e sentences anci orr r:irrer 066, ln rdrlch
case they !.npose
:f rU: or -S.i!:*:. on rhelr o'er;urel: ilri-Iglr+:.\,"_t*Illi-r,1, lrJs a q,,ostlpl,
:l:$.-!"*j:!ll_rp-l:_.f::g.to,,l.; !_,:gI*- nl;ou.r Jrjs r,.-orni, L:inl{_r-g},L_bS__reg.
I"l ren tlre;r act on o_r thrlv l-r,inona, inrrtcntl
, --.-!f:i or 5bllrll_:-:-:-: 11Lr; r,,ojln-q oL
jl!'Illnli-L,r..j:*q1ii:::t:t' Iil"- rrorgr .Ir jrutnr: lnJ51lggl;
t::rr,g.j!-gg!_.10
jlarlg--?i
J-tj:1'1ril-. 'r'ircn opcrac0rs i,r"posr !rr,!i:,:-.. on -Qr,
thcrc ls a
zeroecl
IIp.
lrlterventr.ng oper;rtor orl r.,'hich the .tlrnt..,- hsd bean
14
lnposcd: llgglcr.l$"r
h*
::t.,"!_X'_nf_:f*i..,_!jj:g1lg3!_{g,r.tt,,lrr.l- . c
_-g-!9 {icrtrer ho **{J.t lro or
sl1i, nri g611gt'*srcrl uLt.lr l:ilrj-14. r.,:1,:$gl_*[g- I,i1] ;1l_?l:if:,
ilcre are also Or1nn c,n gf-, e.g. "L a,.tlgrl hof rb_qg*.!L-.grr:!3f_glgln.*$1a,
!-ds
c!lffcrent rieen{nl
.
r"'hr:tr
such opcr&tors have an npproprr:rte.ly
they acc on oI thcn
r.,iren tlre;,r
act onnother operagors,
e.g. I--.:qkeA llef. iirat hr: i16' lrr.r:s,,]tatclv ('.,ith lensclesg opc:rand becatrce {E ls
ncceas;1rlly lal.er f;hn* its \..t/g!*L\rrr,
c,perator), ]r a:N;!r rrjil Lr-r1--l-*ltt_gQ.
he go 9f
or taly
stsy liut st6r
",{*.d_-!r1y__t_!rt
Iggl-q-qq{gg ({.c.
jre rocs
...L}rrrt tt bc dec.icled
wlrcthn.r. ire
d w]:qllrrr
t,nn,:
n r stavs).
c}r:,c\
or
j*-9-E--9.ta:/3)
Sone
prol:lerna nevert.l:elesg renaLn r'rrEh che whet!.ler oper&tors.
6..
ltctecllscorrr:.i.q o.peratoas
rn addttl-on to
:
On.
listerl above, tl:ece are certnln 0., anct ooo
oPcratclrs r':hlc!r contaln ehe adclresses of argul."€nts rrnrler then. I,.rorels
referylng
to loeatlons ln Ehe.sar:re clscorrrse occur Ln language, c.p,. che lntter. Iierc
cire operators
we propose e>qpllclt address-lre.arlng
oilerarors. ls an exar.qr-le of cle oo: on
I borrtr'ht a -!ool: anrl ,rlre borl.llq--g!4c tlrere rrny be the operator 1as second
arg$r*nt of_.q:irirt.qlF_rrr,ont ,:ilne
Itg:.-L:-3.-*'g,"
n:s r:ecglrl srflu:-.ant
t" L2>. Ilere 1.2 and 2.2
qL:-g:-{.::gfIFI:q. (r,,rltten
axe the a(ldresses, Locrtlng
srgwrlents uncl"er the and cn wiric.ir the aCrlress*bearing On
parrlcrrlar
{s operatlng.
The
operator nh'r'e ls thc I'anLs for the vnrLanc .I-trord,r glr€grl*{ig__ir,".,grt. qLe.
oirerators r+hich cont,eLn an nridress Ln thetr argrrln€ncs wl11 be ca1lecl rx:Eedtscourse oPeratorr;. Thel' t:rriy see:n to lic pecullarly
conrpJ-ex and
nerely
a
fl[nenc of thi:on', i;ut' ln fect tircy *re lnescapal>le for a slrrple analysLe of
i-anguage. !"or, n.q '.,'111. l:e scen 1.,elce+, $rrcir op(:rntors ncco!!1t ln a natural
way
for
nPi)sr.:rL
r-eroinS; on irronounlng,
tlfttrout appealinq to irny furthcr granrraElcal
lLt tl'rirrr e:<is t:l oiitenr--Ls* {n
f;f E:rr'r&,r.
ItaVrr Eo tJnnoturc.e cltu fact.s,:rr<l co:rtllctons
neEa-lJnf:ulctt:tc ritatanents*-!ttntcilents
of
r:r.r(ri*
l'l
t"horrfi these ope.rr{tor.e
rerol.n11
ln
,
one rr.,uld
md pr.on'r:ntng ln vartonn
Elre qrarrnar about !lr& acntence'
IIp
of the lnnt:urrge' Ii'r'rcver, tf r;e consJrler nrich
rrR''r-clrr-$cacer.u]ntn,
titey are (.rr can tr*) ;,..111a' or.erf J.y J'n rire $,.lne f 11s11,.g.1;ie r.rlt{ch
l5
scc thnt
rde
C[ey are descrlbtng,
:rnrl
tlti:t
t(] lnclu,le th(: $r.rrt tnfcrnr.,it:{.r)n irs i.,i glvcn ln the operetord
c>:cnp'1 {'l'lcti ilbor.'e. lllriG I*,:hrs po.nsible
a rllfferenc approaelr, r"{rlch redLlccG
t!i': irr':clrlur.lcri trt t!t.r :..::ro.i11i1 and prr-rnorml,ng. Itr t,he
tr.qual gra:rn*t.tcirl
tlrt-'y liave:
epproRclr
sre
hav(:: (e)
t'irr: J.trfolrt:tlon alrouE sar)rness, r,"iilch
llre sencence, ig kncr*n io tlrc speaiter
ln cruclal to
rrrrrier.etrrntil"ng
ancl ircErcrr ()ror.r?) outslcle t,he sentclrce
to tilr'lclt 'Lt r'r fcrr+ ; rrilci (i') s gra:,rratlcal clescri pilon crits:ide
the $errtcnce
cllrecEs us ro tfte glvcn Eentence anc{
iirovlcies lnstructions ahout clangtng
I'torcl-shllpes
to z*ro ancl prolrolur.
the
of tirl*, r{e can say t}rat t}re Lnforr:rat.lon ahotrt nar,:c!l{:..i.* is 5,.irren (t,r tlre hesrar) in the sentence
itself (cogetlrer
r+ltir ali the oLirer infon.latton in the scuterrce). lfnturaLly,
the infornatlon
rnsteaci
alrout sericlless can l-'e given onLy aftr:r (t-n thc:
orcler
tvo
r.'orelg r'rjricl'r ar:e
the
g;irire lrave l"rot.lr enteresl t,fre
btl an operator on wiratrlvr:r lirought tire
AnrI tghen
twcr
the nanen€n$-cli)er$tor speclfJ.es
of operator entry)
the
sontence: hcnce lt rruct
rrorcls togetlrar
r,,lrLelr r.rorcle
tn the sentence,
are trre game, t5e s1npleelt
sg acclregs;ing ther:r 1s by thelr entrv.*-order in the operatnr
hlstory of tle
sentencoi tlre altr:rnative, to oa],, tlrat lt 1i; the nth uord
!ra1r
of the senEence,
reclttrr*g kncrirLrrl; tlre entrir*orclcr 6f tlre operator ar(t
tlren nraklng in aclclltlon
11 calculatLoir of hcn+ Eiris rcrrrltn
In the r,,orcl--or(lcr. rt wi-tl be seen (rrr 1,
2'4) that u''r'tng rhI-ti acl'lrsssed lnfonr*tton for pro*orninfl
nnd zeroLng iB not
dlff*re-nt. frorn thc ot.!ier w;ry:r of esEnl, l.lslrlnil ,l&rl_ants (III).
Tlt* eari;:Iletrs-olcrator ]r.-'ly sa;r noi thnE tlro tvo ilrld::esires
havr: the
rrorrls, l'ul tir;rt t,lre y :"': {cr ttr tlie sa:'ri: lnrltvlilrr:rl (tirr:
srrne
f
J.'qora .Io;rl
tit* cperator
refer:ent).
s&rne
L.lrus
jjnCJ*-*lly,t .*tr} tras ttrc rr;rria,rr !-:Lo-Lg:rnA:l,g:l?{*fg}A only
lf
o:r -::':,{ r,r
::r:-iJ:.t_-?::._!|i::ji-l1ri.!gjjl!lg**":.,1":r_r€,
a:rrt noE
tf
tlre opcraror rrr:rc ]f..::iJ}*J_.r,-_U"rg_1,li::lin{'.,_.i_ui_.1;li..l-, (lur
!'r"$-lg_S, of, *rorc
hrtef.Lv :eJtlf.", is rrtriflr:1nat lcir r:l.,e r,rr:il!!L*q:g lrr clr*
cx*nple above). Iiero
the wortl If$LV;L,{U,J. catr be consl.rler*:d arr opi3s.ttor on ttia
operacor
ar.me.
I; . lfi
.i
Of courrrtt, t.lic pi'rr:LLcr.rl;ir
1.!rrr(11:11:
of tire p::oposed n,rt;1r!lseorrrse ope-rators
!:: *r'llitr"lqf : lse nt'.or! tlt* s.ir:r'piast r"'or(Jlng..;rrfflclcnt to Cr:tenrl.ne the varLous
;eroiriilr-r rltld proncirri:rin1;s'rhlcir occur. Tlin relevarrc(l of th,:nc operators
jn IIL
r.ll-11
, ',r'irere lI r;t11 l:e scen that asr,;rsnllg a fer.r dlfferent n]eta<llscoursa ope):ittorl; strfftc,:s co glve ln a regu.lar and non sd-hoc nanner pr:cclsely
,','*cot:n cJ.ear
-l
lire r:i.:ny rr?ileCitJ oiral zero{ngc anil i;r,r:rorntngs r.r-iricir are F.cEua1ly fotrncl.
It nay al"::o be useftrl to assrrne ccrtal.n olre-addrcsrr nctaelLscourse
actln3 on certai.n q)eraEors r
e.
E. !3_Ig1:g_q-.L@lo.f
n$l$'eJg) oi:erating on ggllglj:3, etc., to
tr III 2.6,2 (see I\r 5.5).
_tlg
determJ.arr the- pc,.rreutlng
In atlqlltton to t.he tr;,:*ad<lress operatorg,
r..'hLch
Oo
of
contf-rrua
give essentLal lnforrnat{ou
about S&lru}nessr tlrere are oilc*aclclress :net;rdlscourse opcrators whlclr glrre
lnfornatlon
gretrnnatical and dLction.ary
aborrL the rrorrls
at particular
aeldr:es:ies
in a sentence. Thts iolrn ate can carri'tha operator 1s a sentc:rce of
EnglJ-slr,
and *l-so ltgl:lt-t -9.rn..,9i:er+tor, atrcl aL:o haq a j-eJg.-Y;':|Jj!:l-*or t!r.a.- a{c][ru!rg-
!."i9-!Irg*9frr}l
q- jS"-t.tl.
oirerat.ors oi1 & sentence
of
En1;llr;ir
"trl,f|.Lt-. 'lire relevance of
tirese granuratlcal
ls scer ltt tlte fact thaE nn othenslse
syllalrles l:ccones o.scircence of
rnknor.'n sequenee
}inp;l.trih {-f we can acl<l
to lt
operatorg
r*hlch e;ry, for etx;inri:1e, tlrat tlie fLrst portLon of tt is a (l_ittle-knorrn)
€lle::i*nti]1Y arglrrttllt
of
in"eltsllr.,rnd
the rer,itLnrler of tt ls an on vcrb of
lln6,,llsh.
tlre dcclsLve 1ra"r::tntlcal qrre;tlon of '"rhetlter a glvcn phonen,r sequence is
a sentr:nce <iepencic on thr rr,{"rl&di-scour{re fl?i:rirt.ort on L}rirt phonena sequencer
Thrrs
l-.- !i*s:!L:-tlrn9-
,'ti
!'co-i..
__:
\/'
ll::
Titere l-s on* ni:tirrllscorlrse operrtor $lrtch ls croo rar'lier tlrarr Oo: tliLs is
rh* wir- r'lilch nal:en tlic re.lrrttw: clqrrsc ;rntl tn<lcrrt! rrll rie:ntr-.rlcc-$ernents r.'hleh
thi! flra:t:ltir.lann i.'nttltl c;r11 roilf. l'J.cr:l - r.."Jictirer or nalun, or ,.rerLr, or $entcilce,
or '*{lti:tnvcr (III J".3,
2..i1
, 2.5).
c?errrtors c}il ;l s.:iltcnce cirrl becoi:re uarts of
.i "rloru!-nllra:ro" or eir), otiler t'wor.l-plrrnr:cl"
vls ulr-,
(:1
.e. r,ord r,,J.tlr J,[.s rroc!il]1crs) only
. ;,.
il1r, 17
,t'.
l'!rr consl(lt:r
J;
{
"'en
ll1
fLrst tl:* nore obrrlous
enses
of I'I*, {n the
:
in tl"s f irst rrlacc, lt ls lnescapabla tlrnt
r.:e
lrave
*r:crn'l $*:tlencc r"lr{ch }rag been coilrracErlri to tlre iir.
ro
nourr-phrasc on a
to
T'!re
rlo here r*f th
slternativ(:
a
r.rould be
the te[:nlent lrcaceci by {l- lr: so*rctirlng, rier.;, to be cnlreci a modifler,
r"li!clt 1s ;.rdclcd cilrccEly to tl:e il: as tiroulllr :'1rc,- r,riul t.r'llo k,rs llcrc
lefti is
fon:c<l fror'r lj:ft operating cre 'Ii;c .nTr. r..'ir*o_.vlr irc:r.c. ilil6 ll'hc n;rn rrho:l
I sau
3:l'r- L!:nt
Jl:i! lo r-orrad fron left op(:racing on T'hj., nrn ilrorr r sa'i (tlrJ.s noun-phr:ise
l-.eLng'. for:rerl ln turn f ron r:ltorl I serl bclnq adclec!
tc tr.re3a1). T6ere are
v;rriorril dlsadvantcnes r,rieh suclr en anal"r,sis, one of thcn bc]-ng
trrat if
cons3.di:r all posslbfe 5[". nocl.Lfiers on ifr,,:e fLnd th&g
tit{r}, rrre all
tre
,.ientences
il, r,'tt!: }.11 or-:lttc(!t e.g. r,-i: h.:rq, J
rq,a,,;.,. Tfiere Ls no lndepenrlent
Etrrrcturcl charecterlzatlon of ttressepxlents wirLeh ci:n be nddecl to iI1
; u,e have
fo $a1' thet tlreee se&nc-nts are senccnces whleh contnlneri il, an<J ln r,r!rl.cl,.
t.he
cenrte.{-ning
l'1, !rrs: r*cc!r'erI zero shape.
Iiecorrcil-v, onc(: thc.repJrent brorlght
in by the f5 Ls seen to be a sentence,
t'hcre is LtctJ-e to be ga{-nec fron snyJ-rrg thai Lt operates on }i1
rather t6an ou
che: sentcrt'ee contaLnlng ur. The chlef arlvarrrage
ths.t woul<! have been galned
fron hevinR the segnent oDeratc cijrcctly c,n il, rroul{ havc becn Lf rre
corrLd, ha.r,e
el{n{irrterl tile zerotng, lf we coultl
ir:tve. salcl tlrs-t
in
ih,cr l:iu-r r;}ro
:3:j!:a_kg!.
ltot t: D genccnces but t'".'o oF{:rators on a slnqle argtnncnt. Iiut chl.s
hss bccn seen to be u'rr"orkablc hecsrJsa cha c,..ro seqrlents on )i,
ere not rrcrely
oner;]tors br:r rr4 r,'h.'rterrot: eRn be & f;entence cnntn{ri|ng li1--*{th
the iI1 r*sslng;
v;e h':ve
and tl:'::'te tt,'o sentcnceri are Gtructrrrsl1;,'lr:rlr:ptndc:rt
r:.lr:tl;rrlt'y' .!;r.rlnr that each contdns ll1.
rn
xll'l.i
t!rl,s;l,'€ly Le see
t ba a r'ultac!{scor.rrsc
r;{:ntcr)cc
of cach otlrcr, ttrelr only
that r*:..:rust !:e nn ooor corinr:ctlni tr;o sentencc$. rt
oPcracor, stnce 1t rerJr.r:l.rcs tir.irt r}ol:!e arrt-ur}ent 1n c,rie
b,l t}ra si.rrc ai} $lc}l'ic nri:rnrnt ln rhe ortrer.
T1rr:
r:c.tadlscorrrse
s
taref,lent
r.t
IIp.
r:rf rcr,cne$d
i1$
{!t ths two acldresged cennot bc
ern
o?(lrdror cn nn tnclependent
lB
Oo6,
$*3 tlie caee ln 6 above, becauss there ls no conJu:ctlorr r+hl.eh hag tire
!'|ro:rertlee of 'rh- -*lthout the sanena*a requltrar€ne. tr{e therefore have to say
thnt the acldressed
d&Ftenea*
ls ltself tlra 0oo operator vhlch brlnge two
Bentences
tor:atlter (ratlrer thsn an Oo r:eneness operator on m Ooo, euch ao gg!); naturally
li $peret'es only c,il trr'o ac-ntcnce$ wlrl.ch ln face have an lrlentical argunerlE.
Th*v''l1-uou1dbe*vnrl.antr:fthl'grrgtadfscourgcoouoPerator.T}rtrsEFc-I.9n
be a varlant of t'ihe nan lgfr.t llag (qrj-.:rnent) rhe
Fane
-l
ru-fufg-'**g{--4.1p:I-jcf:--thq-rrel}t. The fsct rhat rirls eanenegs operacor aere
!!-?Il!--i"Jlq"t
dlreccly
rrouLd.
(c.s O6s) on t'he
ln thls ex;rnple),
L'r^'o
aeritence$,
l.e. on thelr operators (loft-
whereas the other sameness operators
thc ooo (uqgr ete') on trlo.eencencesr rrnf o:platn
of gf appllea onL"/ fo srgul'f,nt,s,
wlrereao
r,rhy
an4 sew
(tn 6 above) acted on
the sar,reness-requLrenent
the cemeneas-operetors on Oeo caa
spply co gfiythlng under the ooo--both the srgunents arrd the operato-is of t6e
csro sentecce'' all of whlch are ln the argun:ents of the oor, (.grrd., etc.),
ThLs restrLcelon
of
srmenesa
to the
argurnents
of the tso
sentences
is a ma.Jor
pecularlt:/ of wh-.
Flnallv,
addross.
we conslder r,that happena
ll"nen the
-wh.. word
to the repanted arfiunent at the
ls that, the repeatetl
zeroeel: The rsn,elra-t.I.,g-arr--r!:ft.. llhen the
argunenc has
v,rh- worrl
is
clearly
second
been
r"di-clr, r,iho, wtrojl, etc.
t{e c&n Btlll Bsy that 1t hae been seroed, ln vrhtch caae ere have to sey that
the wh- recetveg n requlred enrllng whLch accordo w{th the zeroed s,rgurjenE
(nun*hrrnrrrr: -Lclr; htr".an flrst erfiur".x:nt!
:o_; hunnn second argu:,:"ent: :orn).
Alternstfvelyn wo can aay that the repeated argunent, hs$J noc bcen rcroecl but
hss been pronouned lnto che ::js!, :er ;gr EEcr I the pronorm verianes correspcnillng to lltmcn, a'f,t:L:r.lent-order, otc. I clasn!fJeatlons of the argtrrnents;
ln thts
c&*o r'ta ltave
to say tlrat the pronorrns ara pr:rrn*ted frorn the argunent
positlon to the vrir- connetctlva.
{,'
IIp. i9
a
,1.,sre are certn-in
l{ntts
Co
the
Reeond flrg'ursnt
6f rrh nnd eo the
depEh
as second ergun€nt
rrf f\rr nddre** ln that arg*n*nE. T'lrus ''uh- docs not raka
,r
St #fhe book uhlch- ftln-L1t+q snil"|lary btuPJrt -n n-nsazdne ls exe.g.Llent'
j.-'-i*nd
i-):-j:-
fto*
tgjtq@
r*r r...r lrsve Tle. bar'k: \{t}tqi!
(-i,te-bc,riLg-!.Lt$d 3-{tlltf}g"yqht*airoglt); Tae ee
('i]re bq: bcjglt.a boo]<)
seeond nrglriEe$c of th'te gL tu trn turn tl:e resultant of
the seconrj
c-:h fTlrg} $ov farrri,l a cjolJsr). The geccnd aclctrere cfflnot i:e fron
(i19.lqgk-is
e-S:eLLr:nL)
"!
\ -:___-.J-
::j:
&rgl!$entofaconJurrctlonr:nderthe-*,h:ltehavc!I:s-}9.Lgjjr1-ct'"jl}1g}{)l
b'.rt not *Tire--dollar:itrlcttl]11-}l[
hcirrp-J.rr afrer he fotm<l &,clq}.!sljs qllqellS!;
-
*.l#**
*g[t:r!sll:
l,o.L
.*rq-gqrrtlel;lej!)
g]1.
Ttrle t'or'rld be frorn (T?rs doLl.ar
(.49*bov houglllr--bg!5--gltr-r h* fqtn{*n
nor have g/ine aon-ar r,rlrrsh ti.re t,ql:'{,lg
jtlrn.rl*b--o-9-dr-t
tlollel)
And we do
3 !o-qE-3ng qountgrfg!9:
Thts vould be fron (Tjre- dolrlar was c-?tmlj:rje:LL) * -(3glg-*!g-!g'j1{-*glg$sl
dolt.er la ln the eeeond argtrnent of
where as was scen
!-gqff$-g.!-g!),
'rbovs
tiie Secend '*h.
o-perators Lnd rlI qgq:!Agl;-Jlr:*:3g]:'
8. l'fetallnsuls tlc
al;o olerciora'uhl'clr cnnt'EJn ner acklress to the lrrFr'rrlentg of the
s'"tgr*d-'
oper*tor, but wiroee arg!$neut lo a eeg::ent of $or.c dlscourui:r: llqg:g
I grylg
rlsn€. i't:,rr7.-gontriqq-til:glq-t ry::1' I.fg.Jj.-jll3g!':1Sg'
l.lary-f.s
Thcre are
rfi
rn ]lilgrr*.
Tlhese
wtll be cellcd netaltnt:ulstlc opsrntor'!'
lir;t:it operators do
&it 183 the cage
not have to be attached to &n o[henrlse enclttnl4 'Jlncorlr{$rr
rlrleh sre blts of
r-Lth the nstndl-gcourse opcrlrtors. ui.tlr chelr erf,ur'ett5'
Iinglf.shrtht?8€oparatorsforms*psretcdl$ctlurB,,n'ln'!fet!tliayforntha
grar,mar o€
It
tlrc
language.
{"lrrrr{n'; t e f'i'i r'*t or?
nay ba Poesfble to r!ei'tve ls I ril
ones bY raPlactng
of if*r-: ls
the
slrova ex;]r1Plcn i:v
2 !!--::
an occllrlqncq-g! a v.,"rrtl (1o**ll'1v:
f
i":,r.".'fa're(! ( I rr
I
:1
-.-':.. r.'
i: .il-n"tf-
rnn
ncB
ad{.scottrge
s rllncotrrne?)
i-f-)i-r:-ll
n
:grd
.)q
7.t
r4
rrp.
But one could aleo derlve ln the
i.r n.elirrencfl of t{srv eorlti}tna forif lcttefg.
j:.'"*.:-:
++*@
otiror dlrecrlon: An occurrencc of
c-!1e,
gqq4
2A
llnrv...
frora A word
9l!!rs '
l!ary
ls fi lrord (tnder ulrlch).
!ror{, .S}-gt9g, and on aLl other proper Psrtg
of a dlrcour$e, and c;:n be considered a t,ransforui of h-ncJrLJce tn_a dlscoursg.
The verb qgc!r!- operat€:r on
It dlffers fren oecrrr as &n Oon verb on & senterrce, ae tn
trg.E-g:d,&y, whteh has rr
selectlon dLsfavorlng nany adJectlvee and predtcata
(e.g. I_@I93*-Ieg5-,
gg-qqlslrcg:lgggl1 ** nersfncl). Ilcte th,1t M
ense, cnd not thtr r*tellngul.stlc c&$e.
nouns as operantte
Quotatlon-msrka
llt.q. dapsrlune oc_c]rrred
Its
be.lrg e .ryr,mql
ta the Crqn
(for what Ls calle,l nentlon) are wrLtten fntonation-Ilke
variant of {e wgrd, etc., preclsely analogous to the quest$on-lntonet{on
vcrLanE
of
l_esk-
gogl, €tc. I
conLalns
you.
can be
t'Her7" Le a
or theLr zaro equLvalenB {n speecht
"lt!ary". conqalnF four l.ett-gra-l, The word t'YatT" '.-'/
Given quotstton-markg,
aeroed.
j-n:rr_-* l€lEg
as
Ttrus
g!- rryerating
word. (".^liar:r ls
,q
on A l,ror{co3tt-ns_jlqlF. l-ette-qg, md
word)
o
1."