Elements of Expository Composition

Transcription

LANGUAGE
ARTS
STUDENT BOOK
10th Grade | Unit 5
Unit 5| Elements of Expository Composition
LANGUAGE ARTS 1005
Elements of Expository Compostion
INTRODUCTION |3
1. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS 5
ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE |6
ELEMENTS OF A PARAGRAPH |9
CONNECTIVES AND TRANSITIONS |14
DEVELOPMENT OF PARAGRAPHS |21
SELF TEST 1 |29
2. ELEMENTS OF EXPOSITION 32
FACTS |33
EVENTS |40
IDEAS |43
SELF TEST 2 |50
GLOSSARY |54
LIFEPAC Test is located in the
center of the booklet. Please
remove before starting the unit.
|1
Elements of Expository Composition | Unit 5
Author:
Patricia Daugherty
Editor-in-Chief:
Richard W. Wheeler, M.A.Ed.
Editor:
Noreen Reed, M.A.
Consulting Editor:
Larry Howard, Ed.D.
Revision Editor:
Alan Christopherson, M.S.
MEDIA CREDITS:
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Elements of Expository Composition
Introduction
Experts on human nature have pointed out that many of today’s greatest problems are caused by a lack of
communication or by confusion created by poor communication. Communication-caused problems exist on
all levels: personal, national, and international. As a child of God, you have the duty to gain knowledge that
will make you an effective and accurate communicator.
In this LIFEPAC® you will review the elements of sentences and paragraphs and learn to develop paragraphs
effectively. Then you will study the elements of expository composition, the form of writing you must use to
explain facts and truths. The careful study of this LIFEPAC® should help you to become an effective communicator who can accurately pass on information through the written word.
Objectives
Read these objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have successfully
completed this LIFEPAC . When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:
1.
Identify and show the difference between complete sentences and fragments.
2.
Recognize and use topic sentences as a basis of paragraph development.
3.
Determine the conditions under which one paragraph ends and another begins.
4.
Identify, use, and punctuate correctly connectives and other transitional devices in sentences and
paragraphs.
5.
Name and use methods by which a paragraph is developed.
6.
Write unified, coherent paragraphs.
7.
Name the four main types of prose composition.
8.
Recognize the many forms of expository composition and the three broad categories with which it
deals: facts, events, and ideas.
9.
Apply the guidelines for writing various forms of expository composition to original writing.
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Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions here.
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1. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES AND
PARAGRAPHS
In Language Arts LIFEPAC 1003, you learned
to recognize and to write effective sentences.
Effective sentences, necessary as they are, are
only the first step toward mature composition.
Effective sentences have little value unless they
are grouped into organized units of thought;
that is, unless they form paragraphs.
In this unit you will briefly review the definition of a complete sentence and the difference
between it and a fragment. Then you will learn
to organize sentences into a paragraph that
develops one main idea. In organizing you will
learn to use and to correctly punctuate the connectives and transitions that are necessary
to link sentences and paragraphs. Finally, you
will learn various methods that writers use to
develop the main idea of a paragraph.
Section Objectives
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
1. Identify and show the difference between complete sentences and fragments.
2. Recognize and use topic sentences as a basic of paragraph development.
3. Determine the conditions under which one paragraph ends and another begins.
4. Identify, use, and punctuate connectives and other transitional devices in sentences and
paragraphs.
5. Name and use the methods by which a paragraph is developed.
6. Write unified, coherent paragraphs.
Vocabulary
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
abstract
aerial
ambiguous
cohesioncomplex connectives
concrete continuitydialogue
distractionfawn
logical
perspectivesucculent transition
unity
Note: All vocabulary words in this LIFEPAC appear in boldface print the first time they are used. If you are unsure of the
meaning when you are reading, study the definitions given in the glossary.
Section 1 |5
ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE
As a student you probably began studying the
structure of sentences in English class earlier
in your school life. In fact you may feel that
reviewing the elements of sentences, once
again, is not necessary. Yet a close analysis of
your own writing may show that occasionally
you do not write complete sentences. You
may find that sometimes you write exactly
as you speak. To say, “Behind the door,” is
an understandable response to the verbal
question, “Where is my umbrella?” In a written
composition, however, “Behind the door”, is not
acceptable because it is not a sentence.
Complete sentences. A complete sentence
has a subject and a predicate and expresses a
complete thought. The shortest sentence can
be just one word and still be complete, if the
subject is understood.
“Stop!” is a sentence. The subject, you, is understood. If you were asked to mark the parts of
this sentence, it would look like this one:
(You) / stop !
In recipes and instruction sheets, the subject,
you, is understood and usually not included.
Example: Fit Tab A into Slot B.
(You) / fit Tab A into Slot B.
Generally speaking, however, most sentences
have more than one word. The length of the
sentence, though, does not determine a complete sentence. A two word, complete sentence
consisting of just the subject word and the
predicate word, makes up the shortest verse in
the Holy Bible. Do you know what it is? If you
do not know, look at John 11:35, “Jesus wept.”
Although this verse is short, it is a complete
sentence conveying a complete and stirring
thought.
Show that these sentences are complete by dividing the subject from the predicate
with a slash and by drawing one line under the one-word (simple) subject and two lines
under the one-word (simple) predicate.
Example: Jesus / wept
1.1_ The whole class laughed loudly at the story.
1.2_ Twelve hours passed without a word from any of the group.
1.3_ The workmen repaired the damaged building.
1.4_ The meeting began promptly at 7 o’clock.
1.5_ He had no help with the project.
1.6_ The longest, most boring day of his life ended with a dull thud.
1.7_ Everyone in the church rushed out into the freezing night air.
1.8_ Some of the dishes broke during the long move to the new house.
1.9_ The ambassador from Cuba pounded his fist on the table.
1.10_ A blood-curdling shriek pierced the black stillness of the night.
6| Section 1
Fragments. Often people write and speak in
incomplete sentences. This practice may be
acceptable in casual communication or specialized forms of writing. Fragments are definitely
not acceptable in the formal writing you, as a
student, are required to do.
A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence, not
the complete sentence. As a fragment of cloth
is only a scrap of cloth and not a complete item
of clothing; so a sentence fragment is only a
scrap of a sentence, not the whole thing
“No reason.” This response is a common
answer to the question, “Why are you doing
that?” What the speaker means is easily understood, but “No reason” is not a complete sentence. Try to divide the subject (doer) from the
predicate (action) in this expression. This division is not possible because neither a subject
nor a predicate exists in this nonsentence.
“The officers of the club.” This phrase is a
subject. It tells who, but not what they did. No
predicate is present; no action is stated; therefore, this expression is not a sentence.
“Enjoyed the banquet.” This phrase has a predicate, an action word, enjoyed. This bit of a sentence tells what is done; however, it does not
tell who, it does not have a subject. The subject is not you understood. You is understood
only when the verb is in the present tense and
expresses a command or direction.
“Enjoy the banquet” is a complete sentence.
“Under the tree.” Because this expression has
neither a subject (doer) nor a predicate (action),
it is not a sentence.
| Is This a complete unit — or just pieces?
Business letters are a specialized form of
writing that frequently omit subjects: “Received
your letter of March 1.” As a complete sentence
this would read: “I received your letter dated
March 1.”
Sometimes a business letter will omit both
subject and predicate: “With kind personal
regards.” Actually this pleasantry means: “I am
sending this letter with kind personal regards.”
For the sake of brevity and convenience these
omissions are acceptable in specialized types of
writing. Most forms of formal writing, however,
require complete sentences.
Section 1 |7
Analyze each sentence to determine if it is complete or a fragment. Divide the subject
from the predicate with a slash. Then draw one line under the one-word subject and two lines
under the one-word predicate. If you are not able to find both of these parts, indicate that the
group of words is a fragment by putting a capital F on the line.
Example:
F
Ate the cake last night.
1.11 _______________ Received your letter this morning.
1.12 _______________ A dog howled loudly all night.
1.13 _______________ Several cases of canned goods.
1.14 _______________ Rushed to the ticket window.
1.15 _______________ The old, dilapidated mansion.
1.16 _______________ We mailed the letters yesterday.
1.17 _______________ Happened at the same bridge.
1.18 _______________ Dad sent me a book for my birthday.
1.19 _______________ Crowds of spectators pressed against the gates.
1.20 _______________ Went to France last year.
Read each fragment and tell what is missing (subject, predicate, or both); then fill in the fragment with necessary words and write a complete sentence.
1.21_ The largest dog in the neighborhood.
_
a. Missing element(s)___________________________________________________________________________
_
b. Completed sentence ________________________________________________________________________
1.22_ Hurried down the street by himself.
_
_
1.23_ Struck out at anyone in the way.
_
_
1.24_ A wise and sensitive teacher.
_
_
8| Section 1
1.25_ Without hope of succeeding.
_
_
ELEMENTS OF THE PARAGRAPH
If you learn how to develop a paragraph correctly, you should have little difficulty in writing
longer papers.
A paragraph is one or more sentences that
develop one main idea. Its length may vary
from one to ten or more sentences. No strict
rule determines the number of sentences in
a paragraph. A paragraph, however, may deal
with only one topic.
Topic sentence. Each paragraph is limited to
one topic or main idea. The reader learns what
that idea is from the topic sentence, which is
usually, but not always, the first sentence of the
paragraph.
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions.
Keeping my mind on my writing is not easy when I stay at my grandmother’s oceanside
cottage. Just about the time that I am going along pretty well, I glance out the window and
see two huge bald eagles swooping and tumbling in a spectacular aerial display. Naturally, I
have to leave my desk and rush to the doorway to watch the performance as long as it lasts.
Then, as if a conspiracy were trying to keep me from working, two otters poke their shiny
heads out of the water and hang there motionless. They watch to see what I am doing. As soon as
I return to my desk, seagulls wheel into my window view and screech as they search for scraps of
food. Within minutes this confusion of sounds stirs my aging St. Bernard out of a deep sleep and
he hauls his massive, lumbering body over to be petted. Mickey, my cat, can’t stand to see any
partiality so he is soon pacing back and forth across my ankles. As I wiggle my bare toes to tease
Mickey, I realize that my legs have become stiff. I remember that I have not had my daily ride. So,
I slip on my sandals, step out the door, spring onto my bike and pedal off down the beach. Meanwhile the composition on my computer sits and grows colder.
1.26_ What is the topic sentence of this paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.27_ Does the paragraph support the topic sentence? That is, do all of the following sentences
help develop the idea of the topic sentence? _______________
1.28_ Does the last sentence refer to and support the topic sentence? _______________
Section 1 |9
Complete the following activity.
1.29_ Select one of the following topic sentences and write a paragraph in the following space that _
develops this topic. End the paragraph with a clinching sentence that refers to and repeats
(but not in the same words) the topic sentence.
My favorite food is ______________________________________ .
I cannot concentrate when ______________________________ .
_
Sports are overemphasized in school and should be eliminated.
_
Sports are necessary for a good school program.
_
The problem I would try to solve first if I were president is ____________________________________ .
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_
Before you hand in your paragraph you should look for and evaluate these points:
(1) complete sentences (no fragments);
(2) topic sentence;
(3) support of topic sentence (every sentence should help develop main idea); and
(4) clinching sentence
TEACHER CHECK
10| Section 1
initials
date
Change of focus. In a composition of more
than one paragraph, a writer begins a new paragraph when he changes his focus. The topic
or subject remains the same; but the writer, in
changing his focus, approaches it from a different slant or perspective. The focus is altered
by a change in one of eight elements: time,
place, action, mood, point of view, speaker,
idea, and step.
Examples of changes in time are changes from
minute to minute, from day to day, or from
week to week. Examples of place changes
would be changes from house to house, from
city to city, or from chair to couch. Changes in
action could include changes such as a change
from singing to talking, from swimming to
sleeping, or from crying to laughing. A change
in mood means not only a change in the mood
of the characters in the composition, but, more
basically, a change in the actual feeling of writing itself. If reading something makes you feel
happy, then the mood of the piece is happy.
If the writing makes you feel angry, then the
mood of the piece is angry.
A change in point of view occurs when writing,
which has previously been presented from
one person’s perspective, switches to the
perspective of another person. A change in
speaker occurs in dialogue when one person
stops talking and another starts. A change in
idea usually occurs in a discussion of different but somehow related theories, beliefs, or
opinions. A change in step is frequently used in
the form of writing that illustrates a method or
procedure.
Many young writers make mistakes in paragraphing simply because they do not use these
eight “changes” as guides to indicate when
they should begin a new paragraph. A frequent
mistake of many writers is the failure to begin a
new paragraph each time speakers of dialogue
change. Even one word of dialogue must be a
paragraph in itself.
Example: “ Did you buy the milk,” Jim’s mother
asked him when he came home.
“No.”
“Well, then I can’t make pudding for
dinner,” his mother said.
When writing, you need to be
aware of focus and the ways in
which the focus can change. When
focus changes, you need a new
paragraph.
Section 1 |11
Complete these activities On the line after each of the following pairs of paragraphs,
write the word (time, place, action, mood, point of view, speaker, idea, step) that indicates the
main change that occurred between the two paragraphs. Then briefly state the change. (You do
not have to use sentences.)
Examples:
mood: happy mood to angry mood
place: kitchen to the backyard
1.30_ Carol Harris had been sitting by the telephone all day. Her hopes grew dimmer and dimmer.
She had refused to eat, could not concentrate on the book she was pretending to read,
and would not speak to anyone in the family. Her mother and father tried to be patient
and understanding because they knew how much Carol wanted to be asked to go to the
conference to represent her class. They also knew that the faculty members were, at this
very moment, discussing whether to choose Carol, who was class vice-president, or Sharon,
who was class secretary. Both girls were well qualified and deserved the award. The Harrises
hoped that their daughter who had worked so hard for this honor would be chosen. No
smiles were seen in the Harris household. All their nerves were stretched as taut as the tight
wires in the circus tent.
_
Everyone jumped when the telephone rang, and no one could move to answer it for a
moment. Then Carol, her heart racing, picked up the receiver and whispered, “Hello. This
is Carol speaking.” Her parents strained toward her, their eyes as anxious as Carol’s. “Oh,
thank you. Thank you.” she cried. She whirled from the phone, her eyes danced, a brilliant
smile brightened her face. “They chose me, Mom, Dad. They chose me.” The oppressive, gray
gloom lifted and the room was bathed in sunlight as the three Harrises hugged each other
and cried, “Praise the Lord.”
_
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1.31_ The hike had been long and they were all glad to be setting up camp at last. In an hour they
had the tent secure and were ready to put in the sleeping bags. Soon the campfire blazed.
Mike and Doug started supper from the supplies they had carried in their back packs. Jeff
and Ron brought in a supply of firewood and water. They were so tired that they thought
they might fall asleep over their plates of stew. They managed to clean up the mess,
however, before they tumbled into their welcome sleeping bags.
_
The sun slanted through the tent flap and touched the boys’ faces. The brightness awakened
them one by one. The chores of the night before were repeated and soon they were enjoying
bacon and flap jacks cooked over the open fire. Mike suggested that they spend the day
there so that they could catch some fish for dinner. His idea was greeted with three loud
cheers of agreement.
_
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12| Section 1
1.32_ Hank was half asleep as he lay on his back in the grass. A history book rested near by. His
eyelids flickered and his hand lay limp on the forgotten book. Reading his homework always
had a numbing effect on Hank and sleep usually overtook him.
_
Suddenly a piercing scream cut through the still air of the warm summer afternoon. Hank
jerked awake, jack-knifed to his feet, and raced frantically into his house from which the
terrifying shriek had come. He flew up the steps and yanked open the door just in time to
see a tiny, frightened, grey mouse disappear under the bookcase. His mother, her hand over
her mouth, looked embarrassed.
_
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1.33_ Preparing the soil is perhaps the hardest and most boring part of planting a garden, but it is
the first and possibly the most important. Before anything else can be done, the area to be
planted must be dug up, spaded at least a foot deep, and made ready to receive the seeds.
Using a pointed shovel and a spading fork, dig down a minimum of twelve inches. Turn the
soil and, with your hands, pick out rocks, pieces of glass, sticks, and all other foreign matter.
Work the whole area up to the proper depth, breaking down the large clods and pulling
out roots and other plant parts. This is a good time to work in well rotted manure or other
fertilizer, sand, and peat moss. Dig and mix all these elements in well with the soil, then rake
the area smooth and level.
_
Now that the garden area is well worked, enriched, and level, you may plan where you will
plant the various vegetables. Plan to put the tall plants, such as corn, in a position where
they will not shade the rest of the garden too much. Squash and tomato vines should be
kept well away from leafy vegetables so they do not choke each other out. You can plant
root vegetables fairly close. If you crowd them, however, they will become deformed. Plan
the layout of your garden on a paper, or refer to plans that appear every spring in home
magazines. Planting is an art; planning is the start.
_
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1.34_ I was determined that I would not let anyone else’s problems interfere with my vacation.
Seemingly every time I was ready to go on a trip, something came up and I had to stay at
home to take care of some friend or member of my family. Well, not this time, I told myself.
I did not care what happened. This was my time to pamper myself. I already had my airline
ticket and Hawaii was ready for me. My ticket was a fortunate gift from my friend Janet. She
had won two tickets to Hawaii. Now, she and I had only three days to wait before our flight to
the islands.
_
Janet was leafing through the brochures on Hawaii when she heard the brakes squeal. Then
a terrible cry cut through the air. She threw open the door and her heart leaped when she
saw her devoted dog lying in the street. She ran to his side and his huge brown eyes begged
her for help. By the time the veterinarian had come and Sandy was splinted, bandaged, and
lying on an old wool blanket in the corner of the living room, Janet knew that she would not
be seeing Hawaii this month. Maybe she never would, but she was sure that she could not
leave her loyal friend who depended upon her to keep him comfortable and to help him get
well.
_
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Section 1 |13
1.35_ Suzanne summoned up all her courage and approached the yellow house. She rang the
doorbell and smiled as she waited for someone to open the door. In her right hand she had
the samples of greeting cards she was trying to sell. In her left hand she carried an order
pad and a pen. She was ready to make her first sale. Then she realized that she had been
standing there for several minutes and she had heard no noise from within. She rang the
doorbell again. She waited again. She took a deep breath. “I guess no one is at home,” she
said and turned.
_
Maybe someone is in here, she thought as she walked hesitantly up the steps to the green
house next door. Her courage was quickly dwindling. Her resolve to be a good salesperson
was getting shaky. She pressed the doorbell and put a smile on her face. Her heart
quickened when she heard footsteps.
_
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CONNECTIVES AND TRANSITIONS
For sentences and paragraphs to run smoothly
from one to the next, they must be joined by
connectives or transitions. Joining or linking
one thought to the next shows continuity
within the paragraph. Bridging thoughts
between paragraphs creates cohesion in the
composition. Connectives and transitions give
unity to writing.
Connectives. Connectives are words that link sentences together. They are the hooks and eyes of
the sentences. Words, such as this, that, these, and such, join one thought with the next.
Example: Rich stock, meat, potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, onions, celery, beans, and
cabbage are all ingredients in a good vegetable soup. These elements will be
enhanced by the addition of a pasta, such as macaroni or noodles, to give
taste and eye appeal to this succulent dish.
The lists and examples that follow will give an idea of the various words and phrases used as
connective.
Conjunctions: but, and, however, or.
Example:
But other soups may be made from only a few items. An example is oyster
soup, which contains only oysters’ nectar, milk, salt, pepper, and butter. One
must have really good, fresh oysters, however, to use them as the main
ingredient in the soup.
Connective phrases: as a result, on the contrary, in a like manner, on the other hand, in addition.
Example: In addition to these two varieties of soup, hundreds, perhaps thousands of
soups are made around the world. As a result, the cry “Soup’s on!” has come
to mean, “It’s time to eat.”
Personal pronouns: my, our, his, their, hers, mine.
Example:
14| Section 1
Some chefs consider their own recipes to be sacred and would not dream of sharing them with the world. A famous cook can be known for his favorite
soup recipe and will guard it jealously.
Repeated nouns.
Example: A steaming bowl of mutton broth started the day for Queen Elizabeth I and
Queen Victoria. A cup of broth called “Calso de Alba” also got the cowboy up
and going after a cold night on the hard ground. While queens had theirs
prepared for them, the cowboy cooked his own broth by putting bits and
pieces of whatever meats and vegetables he had into a pot and setting it in
the hot coals when he went to sleep. In the morning the steaming broth
started his blood flowing so that he could get about his work on the range.
Adverbs: finally, usually, fortunately, naturally.
Example:
The average person possibly has never given a thought to the importance
of soup in the world’s diet. Fortunately, millions the world over have survived
because of the nourishment received from a broth laced with bits of meat,
pasta, and vegetables. Naturally, this concoction has been developed into an
elegant fare, but it still remains a staple item for the poor as well as the rich.
Although all connectives connect, they do not all have the same meaning. Some add ideas; others
subtract. Some show time relationships; others show space relationships. The following guide will
help you learn to choose the correct connectives.
To add ideas, use: and, moreover, further, furthermore, also, likewise, similarly, too, in like manner,
besides, in the same way.
Example:
He ate his own lunch of a sandwich, potato chips, and chocolate milk;
furthermore, he finished the potato salad and fried chicken that his friend had
given him.
To take away or to show statements limiting or opposing the preceding one, use these minus connectives: but, still, though, although, otherwise, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, conversely, yet.
Example:
Gloria made a fine impression on the judges; on the other hand, Tasha
seemed to have an edge because her speech was unique.
To show time relation, use: while, then, meanwhile, later, soon, now, presently, thereafter, eventually,
at the same time.
Example:
She worked steadily, getting most of the assignment done; at the same time,
she didn’t miss a word of the conversation going on at the next table.
To indicate order, use: first, second, next, finally, in conclusion, initially, in the final analysis, then.
Example: Initially she said that she would take charge. Then Fred said that he wanted
to take charge. Finally, neither one did the job.
To show space relationship, use: in the distance, straight ahead, north, adjacent to, beneath, to the
right, on the left, in the middle.
Example:
The yellow house stood by itself on the knoll while, in the distance, the tiny
town where John went to school could be seen.
To introduce an illustration or example, use: to illustrate, to clarify, for example, for instance.
Example:
Every day I have many responsibilities that I find irksome; for example, I have
never been particularly happy about rising before the sun.
Section 1 |15
To show a consequence or conclusion, use: hence, therefore, accordingly, as a result, consequently, for
this reason.
Example:
My sister loves to get up as soon as the light breaks; consequently, we have a
bit of trouble traveling together
To indicate a repetition of the idea, use: briefly, in fact, indeed, in other words, that is to say, in short,
in summary.
Example:
Music hath charms to soothe the savage beast. In other words, the melodies
that we hear can help to relax the tensions of daily living.
To compare, use: likewise, similarly, in the same way, by the same token.
Example:
Hard work brings a sense of satisfaction to a man. By the same token, it can
help to pay the bills.
Take note that in most cases, when a connective joins two complete thoughts, it must be preceded
by a semicolon. When the connective is part of one complete sentence that is linked by idea to
another complete sentence, it is set off by commas.
Example:
Incorrect:
I like carrots, however, my brother will not eat them.
Correct:
I like carrots; however, my brother will not eat them.
Correct:
I like carrots. My brother, however, will not eat them.
An exception to the preceding rule occurs in the use of the coordinating connectives (and, but,
for, or, nor, so, and yet). They are typically preceded by a comma when they join two complete
thoughts and are not followed by a comma.
Example:
He heard me, but he did not answer me.
Three variations to this exception, however, exist.
(1) And, but, and or are often used without a preceding comma when the complete thoughts
they join are short:
The baby cried and the dog barked.
(2) Yet and so are often used with a preceding semicolon and followed by a comma:
She likes pie; yet, she eats no cake.
(3) Any coordinating connective may be used with a preceding semicolon, especially if the
connective joins complete thoughts that already contain commas or that are unusually
long:Chatting and laughing, the children stood in line to wait for their turn to pin the tail
on the donkey; but the sudden, crashing thunder and sharp lightning quickly brought the
game and the birthday party to an end.
16| Section 1
Write two sentences to show the proper uses of one word or phrase from each of the
following categories of connective. Remember to use the correct punctuation.
1.36_ Connective phrases: ___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.37_ To add ideas: __________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.38_ To take away or limit the idea preceding: ______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.39_ To show time relationship: _____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.40_ To indicate order: ______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.41_ To show space relationship: ___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.42_ To show a consequence or conclusion: ________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.43_ To indicate a repetition of the idea: ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.44_ To compare: ___________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
TEACHER CHECK
initials
date
Write an X before each line that is correctly punctuated.
1.45 _______________ I came home late; therefore, I did not see Aunt Matilda.
1.46 _______________ Harry saw me in the crowd, but he did not wave.
1.47 _______________ The child enjoyed singing; however she did not like to play the piano.
1.48 _______________ The zoo has been closed all week. However it will reopen next Monday.
1.49 _______________ She eats very little; nevertheless, she does not lose weight.
Section 1 |17
Transitions. You have learned that you must
start a new paragraph when you change focus.
The new paragraph, however, must be linked to
the one before it. Your writing will be jerky and
choppy if you do not use transitions.
Without a transition. Grouping paragraphs
together without transitions is like leaping
from stone to stone across a river. Transitions
are bridges that make the going easier and
smoother. Visualize the difference between
jumping from rock to rock or strolling easily
across a bridge. Trying to understand an article
made up of disconnected paragraphs might be
adventurous, just as trying to cross a river by
jumping from rock to rock; but in either case
a fall can prevent reaching the destination. A
bridge is needed.
With a transition. Paragraphs may be connected by using the connectives studied in
relation to sentences. Other methods of linking
paragraphs include the use of echo, quotation,
double transition, question and answer, and question without answer.
Echo: In this method a word, phrase, pace, or
pattern of the preceding paragraph is repeated.
Example:
…After hours of strenuous climbing she finally reached the top.
Having reached the top, she threw back her head and yelled to the world,
“I am here! I am finally here!”
Quotation: This method refers to a quotation from the preceding paragraph.
Example: …She stormed into the room and slammed some papers on his desk. “Don’t
expect me to be able to figure out what he meant when he wrote this.” She
whirled and strode out of the office.
…Well, I do expect you to figure out what he meant, Miss Jones. That is what you
were hired for. His own anger matched hers and he punched the intercom
buzzer furiously.
Double transitions: This method makes use of the echo and of a connective. Any pair of transitional words or phrases, however, may be used.
Example:
…It was the biggest fish that he had ever caught.
Not only was it the biggest fish, but by any standards, it was the ugliest fish
that he had ever caught.
18| Section 1
Question and answer: In this method, the paragraphs are joined naturally by the question in one
paragraph and the answer in the next. This device is used especially in interviews but can be effective in other forms of writing.
Example:
…I have been told many times that religion and politics should not be mixed.
Can they be separated? Can one put religion into one neat little box and politics
into another and keep them apart?
… In today’s world, where the very existence of Christianity is threatened by
the politics of the world, keeping them separate is not possible; nor is it
advisable.
Question without answer: Sometimes a question is asked and no answer is expected. A simple
repetition of the question links the paragraphs.
Example: …You tell me exactly how you plan to introduce that bill without stirring up a
hornet’s nest when the public hears about your actions.
How can you avoid a public outcry? The voters will let you know how they feel when they get to the polls.
In a complete sentence, explain how each of the following five methods is used to
bridge the gaps between paragraphs.
1.50_Echo: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.51_ Double transition: ______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.52_ Question and answer: _________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.53_Quotation: _____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.54_ Question without answer: _____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Complete the following sentences by putting the correct word or words in the blank spaces.
1.55_ Paragraphs must be linked together to give ______________________________ to the composition.
1.56 Joining one thought to the next, whether by sentence or by paragraph, shows
_____________________________ in writing.
1.57_ Linking paragraphs with transitions is like crossing the river on a _____________________________ .
Section 1 |19
DEVELOPMENT OF PARAGRAPHS
You have learned that a paragraph contains
just one idea and that this idea is introduced
by a topic sentence. All other sentences in the
paragraph must be related to the topic sentence. That is, all other sentences must help
develop the main idea. They do not simply
repeat the main idea.
details or examples. The paragraph in Activity
1.26 of this LIFEPAC is an example of developing the main idea with specific details. The
main idea is that the writer cannot concentrate
while she is at the ocean-side cottage. She then
“proves” this statement by showing the distractions that interrupt her concentration.
The main idea of a paragraph can be developed
through the use of any one of a number of
methods. Four of the most common methods
of constructing a paragraph are by means of
(1) details and examples, (2) comparison and
contrast, (3) definition, and (4) reasons.
The goal is to show the reader why or how a
statement is true. Assume that the topic sentence of a paragraph is, “Jesus taught us not
to judge rashly other people.” Examples from
Scripture must now be provided to illustrate
that Jesus, in word and action, actually did so.
Such examples could be found easily in Matthew 7:1; 12:7; John 7:24; and 9:16.
Details and examples. This method consists of
a general statement illustrated or explained by
Reread the paragraph in Activity 1.26 of this LIFEPAC and answer this question.
1.58_ In complete sentences name four details which develop the topic sentence.
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_d. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Comparison and contrast. A second kind of
paragraph organization is the examination
of similarities and differences. Comparison
stresses likenesses; contrast stresses differences. In paragraph development the two ways
often are used together. In the following paragraph the writer points out both similarities
and differences.
The young fawn, so like a timid child, stood
close by its mother, wanting to dart out and
explore the new surroundings, but fearful of
leaving the only safety he knew. As the doe
20| Section 1
moved out of the trees to look for food, the
fawn, like a small child clinging tightly to his
mother’s hand, stayed close to her. Then suddenly, the fawn saw the fresh green grass,
and a whole new world of strange and colorful things. The fawn darted forward like a
child who has just entered a wonderland of
toys and sweets and fairy tales, no longer
afraid, no longer clinging to his mother. For
a moment the fawn hesitated as a strange
sound rang through the woods. Unlike the child
who becomes engulfed in wonder, the fawn’s
instincts make him cautious.
Complete the following activities.
1.59_ In the preceding paragraph a fawn is compared to a small child. In complete sentences list
three ways in which the fawn is similar to a young child.
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.60_ Write two ways in which the fawn is not like the child.
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Definition. A writer uses this method when
he wants to explain a word or term whose
meaning is too complex, abstract, or ambiguous to be defined by one phrase or sentence.
For example, you could begin a definition of
photosynthesis by stating that it is “the formation of carbohydrates in living plants.” You
would need a paragraph, however, to explain
the essential roles that water, carbon dioxide,
sunlight, and chlorophyll play in that formation.
To define an abstract word like integrity you
would need to do more than simply tell that
it means “wholeness” or “honesty.” You could
develop a paragraph, and therefore a more
concrete definition, by illustrating different
circumstances under which people do or do not
maintain integrity.
Some words can mean different things to different people. Terms like equality, justice, and
freedom can be ambiguous. Justice to you may
mean that you should receive more allowance
than your little brother because you do more
work around the home. On the other hand,
your brother may believe that justice demands
that he get at least as much as you do because
he is younger and does not have the opportunities to earn money. An ambiguous term is
a starting point for a paragraph that explains
all its possible meanings or that admittedly
focuses on only one or two meanings.
Complete the following activity.
1.61_ List four definitions of the word nice that you would use in a paragraph to develop this topic
sentence: “The word nice is surprisingly ambiguous.”
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_d. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Section 1 |21
Reasons. To support and to develop a topic
sentence that states an opinion, a writer must
offer his reasons for believing this opinion.
For example, if the topic sentence is “Not all
high school graduates should go to college,” at
least three or four separate reasons must be
offered explaining why this sentence is true. In
developing paragraphs by reasons, students
sometimes discover that they actually have no
reasons or only one reason for an opinion. The
result is a paragraph that consists of a repetition of the opinion and reason in the same or
different words. A topic must have an opinion
for which sufficient reasons exist to develop a
paragraph.
The methods just discussed are only four of
many good methods of developing a paragraph. In applying these four, or other methods, however, do not worry about mixing them
a little. No clear-cut, impassable boundaries
exist among the methods. Indeed, to define
integrity, examples of circumstances in which
integrity is tested should be given.
Whether one of the four methods is used or
one that combines these methods, the effective
development of a paragraph depends on the
organizing done before the paragraph is written. This prewriting organization consists of the
following three steps:
22| Section 1
1. Decide on a topic or main idea. Be sure
that the topic is narrow enough for one
paragraph. “Fires” is not a good topic
for a paragraph. It is a suitable topic for
a book. “Starting a fire by rubbing two
sticks together” is a more suitable topic
for a paragraph.
2. List the ideas that will be used to
support and to develop the main idea.
These ideas take the form of details,
examples, comparisons, contrasts, definitions, reasons, or elements of other
methods. Eliminate any idea that does
not support or develop the main idea.
3. Review the list and arrange the ideas in
the most logical order. That is, arrange
the ideas in the order that makes the
most sense and that contributes to
smooth reading.
After this prewriting organization is completed,
the first draft can be written. A paragraph, of
course, is not a list of ideas. It is a group of sentences linked together to develop the main idea
expressed in the topic sentence. Therefore,
sentences need to be created that communicate the main and supporting ideas. Then the
appropriate connectives to link the sentences
must be chosen. Next a clinching sentence
that refers to the topic sentence or that summarizes what had been said in the paragraph
must be written. Finally the paragraph must be
reviewed, corrected, and rewritten as necessary
1.62_ Name the four methods of paragraph development discussed in this section.
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_d. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.63_ Name, in the correct order, the three steps you should follow before you begin to write a
paragraph.
_a. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_b. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. ______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.64_ You are going to write a paragraph, step by step. First, choose the topic that you wish to
develop and write it on the lines. Select a topic that is suitable and narrow enough for a oneparagraph development.
_
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.65_ Second, list and number the ideas you will use to support and develop the main idea.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Section 1 |23
1.66_ Third, arrange and re-number the supporting and developing ideas in the most logical order.
State the method which you are using to develop the main idea.
_
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.67_ Fourth, state the topic sentence, and write a good clinching sentence.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.68_ Finally, write a coherent, unified paragraph. Write your final draft in the space provided.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
TEACHER CHECK
24| Section 1
initials
date
1.69_ Turn back to the Activity 1.29 of this LIFEPAC and number the sentences you wrote in that
paragraph. Put each number in front of and a little above each sentence.
_
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.70_ Ask another student who has studied connectives to review that paragraph and to indicate
on the lines below the numbers of the sentences that need to be linked—or better linked—
through the accurate use of connectives.
_
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.71 _Rewrite in the following space the paragraph of Activity 1.29. In rewriting you should apply
not only what you have learned about connectives but also your knowledge of paragraph
development.
_
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Section 1 |25
_
Review the Change of Focus section of this LIFEPAC and the Activities 1.30-1.35 that follow
it. Then prepare yourself, by answering the following questions, to write two paragraphs in
which you illustrate a change of focus in the second paragraph. Ask your teacher to check
Activities 1.69-1.72 before you begin Activity 1.73.
1.72_ What is the main idea of your first paragraph? _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.73_ What is the main idea of your second paragraph? _____________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.74_ How will you alter your focus? In which of the possible eight elements will you provide for a
change?________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.75_ Write the first sentence of the second paragraph. This sentence should contain the word or
words you will use to link the two paragraphs. _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.76_ On a separate piece of paper, write the final draft of the two paragraphs and turn it in to
your teacher.
TEACHER CHECK
initials
date
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test will
check your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test will indicate specific areas where restudy is needed for mastery.
26| Section 1
SELF TEST 1
Mark these groups of words by dividing the subject from the predicate with a slash (/) and
by drawing one line under the simple subject and two lines under the simple predicate. If
the words do not form a complete sentence, write a capital F before the word group and write
“subject” or “predicate” after the word group to show what is missing (each completely correct sentence, 1 point).
1.01
_________ The killer whale does not kill people.
1.02
_________ Slalom skiers race against the clock.
1.03
_________ Studied the lesson carefully.
1.04
_________ A scientist has developed a cactus without thorns.
1.05
_________ The modern luxury cruiser serves forty thousand meals on a voyage.
1.06
_________ On December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, the Wright Brothers.
1.07
_________ Baby crabs scuttled for shelter under the rocks and shells.
1.08
_________ The beginning of a new era of literature in the United States.
1.09
_________ Hundreds of bays and inlets dot the shores of Canada.
1.010 _________ The brilliant sunset over the desert.
Answer true or false (each answer, 1 point).
1.011 _____________ A paragraph must have no more than ten sentences.
1.012 _____________ A sentence must have more than one word.
1.013 _____________ A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of the paragraph.
1.014 _____________ A new paragraph is needed for a change of time.
1.015 _____________ A change of place can be introduced in the same paragraph.
1.016 _____________ Two different view points may be included in one paragraph.
1.017 _____________ A connective is always the first word of the sentence that is linked to a previous sentence.
1.018 _____________ Only four methods of developing the main idea of a paragraph exist.
1.019 _____________ The very first step in writing a paragraph is to determine which method of
development you will use.
1.020 _____________ When a connective joins two complete thoughts, it must be preceded by a
semicolon or be set off by commas.
Section 1 |27
Match the letter of the phrase that best shows what each connective does (each answer, 2
points).
1.021 _________ but a. add ideasg
1.022 _________ furthermore b. take away, limit, or oppose
1.023 _________ nevertheless c. show time relation
1.024 _________ meanwhile d. indicate order
1.025 _________ in the distance e. show space relation
1.026 _________ first f. introduce an illustration
1.027 _________ therefore g. show a consequence
1.028 _________ finally h. repetition of an idea
1.029 _________ in other words
1.030 _________ for instance
Match the correct words or phrase with the proper definition (each answer, 2 points).
1.031 _________ referring to words of a
previous speaker
1.032 _________ repeating a word, phrase,
pace, or pattern of a prior
paragraph
1.033 _________ asking an opinion then giving
the response
a.echo
b. double transition
c. question and answer
d. question and no answer
e. quotation
1.034 _________ using more than one connective
Define these terms (each answer, 4 points).
1.035_cohesion _____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.036_abstract ______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.037_ambiguous __________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
1.038_continuity ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
28| Section 1
Complete these lists (each answer, 3 points).
1.039_ Name the four methods of developing a paragraph that were discussed in this section.
_a. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
d. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
1.040_ Name, in correct order, the three steps of organization that you should follow before you
begin writing a paragraph.
_a. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Write a C on the line if the sentence is correctly punctuated; write I if it is incorrectly punctuated (each answer, 1 point).
1.041 _________ I like apples, however, I do not like bananas.
1.042 _________ I like apples; however I do not like bananas.
1.043 _________ I like apples; however, I do not like bananas.
1.044 _________ I like apples. However I do not like bananas.
1.045 _________ I like apples however, I do not like bananas.
1.046 _________ I like apples. However, I do not like bananas.
1.047 _________ He likes autumn, but he does not enjoy winter.
1.048 _________ My father loves to cook; consequently we have a huge breakfast every Saturday
morning.
1.049 _________ The dog barked and the bird sang.
1.050 _________ Hard work gives a person a sense of satisfaction, likewise, it helps to pay the bills.
76
95
SCORE
TEACHER
initials
date
Section 1 |29
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Elements of Expository Composition

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