Otto Fischer

Transcription

Otto Fischer

“TO SAY GREAT THINGS GREATLY”.
THOMAS THORILD ON RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE
Otto Fischer
In the history of Swedish literature the poet, philosopher, and publicist
Thomas Thorild (1759-1808) is generally considered a central figure in the
movement against classicism. Thorild was a pioneer of the pre-Romantic
aesthetics of expression that paved the way for the High Romanticism of the
early nineteenth century. Modern scholarship has devoted much attention to
Thorild’s claim that an original writer must reject the formal demands of classical doctrine and forge his own path.1 Considerable attention has also been
given to the innovative character of Thorild’s own literary writings. However,
Thorild’s break with classical doctrine not only involved his diverging from
This article forms part of the research project ‘Rhetoric and Anti-Rhetoric. The
Transformations of Rhetoric in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Sweden’, funded
by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond and conducted in collaboration with Ann Öhrberg
(Uppsala University). I am grateful to Pernille Harsting and Jon Viklund for their
comments on earlier drafts of this article.
1
For the most thorough discussion to date of Thorild’s aesthetic ideas, see Arvidson
1931, pp. 295-343.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
This article is published as pp. 1-33 in
Pernille Harsting & Jon Viklund (eds.):
Rhetoric and Literature in Finland and Sweden, 1600-1900
[= Nordic Studies in the History of Rhetoric 2]
Copenhagen: NNRH, 2008
http://www.nnrh.dk/NSHR/nshr2/index.html
ISBN: 978-87-988829-1-6
© 2008 by Nordisk Netværk for Retorikkens Historie
E-mail: nnrh@nnrh.dk – Homepage: http://www.nnrh.dk
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existing literary patterns or norms;2 in essence, Thorild discarded rhetoric as
a theoretical foundation for literary communication. What I would describe as
Thorild’s ‘radicalism’, then, lies not so much in the innovative stylistic
devices that are found in his work – for example, the characteristic asyndetic and elliptic constructions – as in his understanding of what writing and
reading poetry really means. For Thorild, the main objective of literary communication was to establish a direct emotional contact between the author
and his readers.3 In this endeavor he largely abandoned neoclassical literary
theory, with its strong connection to the rhetorical model of communication.
But if Thorild can be seen as a precursor of a different and a-rhetorical
mode of communication, what of his own views on rhetoric and eloquence?
Does his work include any statements on the issue of communication that can
be read as a theoretical foundation for an a-rhetorical – or even anti-rhetorical
– literary practice?4
As is very often the case when Thorild addresses theoretical issues, the
answers to these questions are complex. When dealing with Thorild’s views
on philosophy, politics, and aesthetics one soon notices that he often applies
his concepts in a confusing and contradictory way; his position changes constantly and his mode of expression is often elliptical. The Swedish literary
scholar Horace Engdahl encapsulates this difficulty when writing that Thorild
‘does not give his argumentation the technically elaborated form demanded
2
See my discussion of Thorild’s poem Passionerna (‘The Passions’, published 1785),
in Fischer 2002.
3
On the notion of literary communication in the late eighteenth century, see Fischer
2004 and 2005.
4
There are no comprehensive studies of Thorild’s view on classical rhetoric; however,
Fridholm 1940, pp. 68-77, discusses Thorild’s work in relation to Longinus. Thorild’s
relation to Cicero and Quintilian is commented upon by Arvidson in his edition of
3
by science or philosophy taken more strictly. Thorild exhorts, exemplifies,
and affirms. He stretches the language to the breaking point and delightedly
raises his voice, as if his meaning was obvious’.5 Something similar might be
said about Thorild’s attitude towards classical rhetorical theory. In his work
we find programmatic rejections of the doctrine of classical rhetoric alongside expressions of more or less unreserved adherence to its basic assumptions. This ambiguity cannot be satisfactorily accounted for simply by referring to Thorild’s notorious conceptual inconsistency; it also needs to be seen
in a historical perspective. For in many respects, Thorild’s stance represents
the general late eighteenth-century view of the status of rhetorical doctrine.
In fact, it has become something of a commonplace to talk about the
‘demise’ of rhetoric in late eighteenth-century European culture. It is no
doubt true that the traditionally strong position of classical rhetoric in the
educational system was questioned and that rhetoric’s position as the dominant literary theory was challenged by new ideas on literary communication.
Rhetoric was dismissed as an art of dissimulation and conceit, and was contrasted to ways of expression that were considered spontaneous, sincere, and
truly original.6 At the same time, rhetorical theory itself had gone through a
transformation, as exemplified by the tendency, from the sixteenth century
Thorild’s collected works; see Thorild 1982, pp.148-149; and Thorild 1990, pp. 1920.
5
“inte ger sin argumentation den tekniskt utarbetade form som vetenskap eller filosofi
i strängare mening förutsätter. Thorild besvärjer, exemplifierar och slår fast. Han belastar språket till bristningsgränsen och stegrar förtjust rösten, som om meningen vore
uppenbar”; Thorild 2000, p. viii. All translations from Swedish are mine, unless
otherwise indicated. I would like to thank Russell L. Friedman and Pernille Harsting
for helping me with the English translation of Thorild’s complex Swedish texts.
6
See the discussions in Cahn 1986; Bender & Wellbery 1990; Campe 1990; and
Fafner 2003.
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onwards, to emphasize the issue of style at the expense of argumentation.7 In
Sweden, this is reflected in the fact that, from 1667 onwards, elocutio became
increasingly important, as inventio became increasingly marginalized in
successive editions of the German polymath Gerhardus Johannes Vossius’s
Elementa rhetorica, the most commonly used rhetorical primer in the
Swedish grammar schools.8 Furthermore, as a speech by the eighteenthcentury Swedish scholar (and later bishop) Olof Celsius shows, in the 1760s
the term ‘rhetoric’ could be used more or less synonymously with ‘style’
(elocutio).9
The particular events leading to this ‘demise’ and the details of the debate
concerning the status of rhetoric in late eighteenth-century Sweden have yet
to be explored.10 However, it is clear that in this debate rhetoric was considered neither as a coherent set of oratorical and pedagogical practices, nor
as a set of theoretical concepts regarding these practices. Accordingly, attacks
on the efficiency of traditional rhetorical pedagogy are found side by side
with appraisals of the great importance of eloquence for public life.11 In the
same vein, accusations against professional rhetoric of being nothing more
than an immoral art of conceit and dissimulation are juxtaposed with de-
7
Cf. also Genette 1972, esp. pp. 22-25.
On the Swedish editions of Vossius’s Elementa rhetorica, which was originally published in Leiden in 1626, see Stina Hansson’s “Efterskrift” (‘Postscript’) in Vossius
1990, pp. 38-46. On the change of focus from inventio to elocutio, see op.cit., pp. 4344.
9
‘[Orators and poets] are not satisfied until they have crammed the complete art of
rhetoric, with all its tropes and schemes, into every single line they write’ (“gifva sig
icke tilfreds, förän de tvingat hela Rhetorican med alla dess troper och schemata inom
hvarje stroph af det de skrifva”); Celsius 1768, p. 33.
10
Öhrberg 2001, pp. 24-25, lists the recent studies on rhetorical practice in eighteenthcentury Sweden.
11
Skuncke 1993, pp. 15-16, comments on the difficulty of determining the status of
rhetoric in eighteenth-century Sweden.
8
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mands that the classical models be meticulously studied and imitated. ‘Artful’
eloquence was dismissed as cold and sterile, and at the same time the ability
to give apt expression to one’s innermost emotions was put forth as an ideal
by such an influential thinker as, for example, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Moreover, criticism of rhetoric was often combined with criticism of the widespread teaching of Latin – which was dismissed as time-consuming and
largely unprofitable – and it is not always possible to make out whether the
target of the criticism is Latin or rhetoric, or both.12 Clearly, the classical
rhetorical tradition, in which theory was integrated with elocutionary and
pedagogical practice, had become increasingly ‘fragmented’ during the
eighteenth century. For this reason, the Swedish debate seldom touched upon
rhetoric as a unified field but instead focused on various aspects of rhetoric’s
theory and practice.13
In his recent book on Transformationen der Rhetorik, Dietmar Till has
drawn attention to the fact that we cannot point to a sudden rupture in the development of rhetorical doctrine in the seventeenth and eighteenth century,
but rather to an asymmetrical erosion of the traditional elements of rhetoric.14
Indeed, as Brian Vickers has famously argued, the history of rhetoric may
best be described as a series of ‘fragmentations’ (in the medieval period and
in the late eighteenth/early nineteenth centuries) and ‘reintegrations’ (in the
Renaissance and, perhaps, in our own age) of the classical view of rhetoric as
a unified system of thought, language, communication, and pedagogical
12
On the status of Latin in the higher education of eighteenth-century Sweden, see
Tengström 1973, pp. 73-79; and Lindberg 1984.
13
To this extent the Swedish debate was part of the general European debate on the
issue, on which see Cahn 1986, p. 150.
14
See Till 2004, p. 105.
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method.15 The examples given above of the discussions of rhetorical topics in
eighteenth-century Sweden indicate that here we have yet another instance of
‘rhetorical fragmentation’.
In this paper I focus on the theoretical discussions of rhetoric in the work
of Thomas Thorild. I hope to show that, in these discussions, Thorild often
took his point of departure in the conceptual framework of classical rhetoric,
but clearly distanced himself from the understanding of rhetoric as a theory of
persuasive communication.
Thorild on Style
In his earliest surviving prose piece, an oration given at the Gothenburg
student club in the Swedish university town of Lund in the spring of 1778,
Thorild, in a thoroughly conventional and apparently unreserved manner,
opens his speech by adopting the rhetorical idea of the inseparable union between wisdom and eloquence:
The ability to express one’s thoughts in an orderly and clear fashion has
always been held in high esteem. Among the Greeks and the Romans, the
wisest were always the most eloquent. […] Today everything should be gracious and beautiful. The greatest geniuses have introduced this custom and
16
common acclaim has affirmed it.
Such unreserved praise of eloquence stands isolated in Thorild’s work,
where classical rhetoric as such is nowhere discussed at length. Nevertheless
Thorild addresses the issue of rhetoric – or rather issues that may be seen as
rhetorical – in various contexts, first and foremost in connection with his first
15
See Vickers 1988, pp. 214-215.
“Den egenskapen at uttrycka sina Tankar med ordning och ljus har i alla Tider varit
högt acktad. Hos Grekerne och Romarne voro de visaste altid de vältaligaste. […] Alt
16
7
appearance on the Swedish cultural scene, in 1784, as the author of the poem
“Passionerna” (‘The Passions’) and as the editor of the short-lived journal
Den nye granskaren (‘The New Observer’).17 Having to comment upon and
even defend his unorthodox style of writing, Thorild formulated what might
be called his own theory of communication. Furthermore, in 1789, in the
pamphlet The Sermon of Sermons. On the Impiety of Priests and the Fall of
Religion, written during a prolonged stay in England, Thorild criticized the
bad oratorical habits of the clergy and contrasted these with his own view of
‘true eloquence’.
Thorild’s thoughts on rhetoric are mainly concerned with style (elocutio)
and declamation. Style is, in fact, a recurrent theme in Thorild’s works: it is
central to his poetics and may be seen as a key concept in his views on
language, communication, and literature. The topic of declamation holds a
central position in Thorild’s thought on rhetorical issues and is dealt with in
the context of his discussions of delivery (actio) and oratorical practice in
general.
The question of style is a main issue in Thorild’s quarrels with the
Swedish poets, literary critics, and advocates of the classical style, Johan
Henric Kellgren (1751-1795) and Carl Gustaf Leopold (1756-1829). Likewise, it was his ideas of style that lead Thorild to dismiss as superficial such
poetical conventions as rhyme and meter. However, it is not entirely clear
what precisely ‘style’ meant to Thorild. At times his understanding of the
term appears to owe a great deal to classical rhetorical theory, where stylistic
considerations serve the pragmatic goal of persuading the audience. Thus, in
bör i våra dagar vara leende och Skönt. De största Snillen hafva infört denne seden;
och et allmänt bifall har stadgat den”; Thorild 1932, p. 298.
17
The journal was published for a five-month period only.
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the manuscript text “Filosofiska betraktelser” (‘Philosophical Meditations’),
written between 1781 and 1782, Thorild wrote:
When I use so many hard words such as ‘fool’, ‘crazy’, and so on, this is not
part of my philosophy; it is in order to be comprehensible and powerful in the
language used in this country. In the same way I remember that in my early
youth I used to curse in order to be eloquent (for already then I loved all that
was strong and energetic). In order to dominate the imagination, imagination
must gain all of its fire and all of its weapons by way of greater force: the
expression of the beautiful and the ugly, of the serene and the despicable, are
natural to the senses: it is these one must attack, the sense with the weapons of
the sense. Dressing the truth in sensual beauty and the lie in sensual ugliness,
18
that’s what nature does. It does not speak, it is – and it carries you away.
The quotation contains, in Thorild’s rather succinct formulations, little
more than a fairly conventional rhetorical consideration of the issue of
decorum. Thus, also according to Thorild, when choosing the right expression a speaker or a writer must consider what is proper in relation both to the
subject matter and to the effect he wishes to have upon a particular audience.
It is interesting to see that Thorild further elaborates on this idea by referring
to nature and its modus operandi as a basic model. The term ‘nature’ is used
frequently in Thorild’s writings, and this has lead modern scholars to regard
him as a deterministic materialist and even a pantheist.19 However, on account of his unsystematic use of terminology, it is not easy to determine the
18
“När jag nyttjar så många hårda namn af dåre, af vansinnig etc. så är det ej min
filosofi: det är för at i Landets Språk vara begripelig och kraftig. Så som jag mins at
jag en tid i min första ungdom svor af vältalighet (ty jag älskade redan då det energiska och starka). Inbillningen för at herrska öfver inbillningen, måste hafva all dess
eld, alla dess vapen, i mera styrka: uttrycken af skönt och styggeligt, af högt och
förakteligt, äro Sinnenas naturliga: dem måste man bestorma, Sinnet med Sinnets vapen: kläda Sanningen i sinlig skönhet, och Lögnen i sinlig styggelse: Så gör Naturen –
Säjer ej: det är: utan bortförer”; Thorild 1932, pp. 441-442.
19
See e.g. Arvidson 1931, pp. 39-160.
9
precise character of Thorild’s ‘naturalism’.20 What is clear is that, in the passage above, Thorild transforms a line of argumentation, which at the outset
concerned style, into a deterministic credo.21 By referring to the authority of
nature Thorild legitimizes his own use of a powerful, hyper-persuasive
language.
Yet, this idea of style and linguistic expression implies a contradiction: on
the one hand, Thorild sees style as a forceful means of persuading the audience; on the other hand, he requires that style be a ‘natural’ and necessary
expression of the content itself. In many of his texts Thorild clearly felt compelled to respond to allegations of incomprehensibility, and from a rhetoricalpragmatic perspective incomprehensibility must be regarded as a failure. But
it is precisely in this context that Thorild displayed how far he actually was
from having a rhetorical view of linguistic communication.
In an article that appeared in his 1784 journal Den nye granskaren,
Thorild defended his choice of a complex style that went far beyond the expectations and intellectual capacity of his audience:
People are apparently bewildered (I have already heard so much of this!) at
this unusual tone. But to me it is natural. And I believe it shall be so for all
those who are better informed about the powers of the soul. In my understanding, the dignity and calling of an author is also something infinitely more elevated. He is a priest of the holy truth of nature. Should he not then be allowed
to freely deliver himself to the whole force of his soul and feeling? Would
anyone – for there are individuals who are deceived by their own aloofness
and pettiness – would anyone hear his cries of truth and felicity, without being
moved in the slightest?
“Incomprehensibility”? How long can one comfort oneself with this selfdenigrating word? The ignorant, petty, hasty, and powerless minds looked for
strength in their own shamelessness and despair; and they found this.Wretched
prank! Good for a couple of days. But this word is unworthy of a people!
20
Cf. Bredsdorff 2003, pp. 280-281.
On the naturalistic and deterministic foundations of Thorild’s philosophy, see also
Thorild 1932, pp. 443-444.
21
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Should I be somewhat hard to understand, so be it, for understanding is not
something you breathe in with the air! I see no reason to consider it as something natural in itself! And what is more: is not the audience that I am looking
for, the noblest in the country? It is with them that feeling and greater understanding should commence. We have enough authors who do not trouble the
soul: petty, buffoons, despicable. But every author should by nature be above
his readers. What is there then to say? Let us not desecrate and demean nature
and genius by such base utterances. Is it not a pure, sweet, and elevated bliss
to rise in light and feeling? Lightness is no elevated taste. […] It is the bread
22
and butter of the soul.
Here Thorild sees style as primarily an intuitive consequence of the
author’s feeling, to the benefit of which every pragmatic consideration must
be cast aside. Instead of adjusting to the stylistic norms and expectations of
the audience, the author should lift their minds to his own level.23 In order to
dissolve the contradictory definitions of style being, on the one hand, the
‘natural’ and necessary expression of an author’s feeling, and, on the other, a
pragmatic vehicle for communication, Thorild here employs the theoretical
notion of an elite audience (‘the noblest in the country’). This made it pos-
22
“Man skall förundra sig (jag har redan hört så mycket sådant!) öfver denna
Ovanliga tonen. Men för mig är den Naturlig. Och jag tror at den skall vara det för alla
dem, som känna något mera af Själens Krafter. I mit begrep är en Authors Värdighet
och Kallelse också något oändeligen högre. Han är en Präst i Naturens heliga Sanning.
Skulle han då ej fritt få läma sig åt hela sin Själs och Känslas styrka? Skulle någon –
därföre at här gifvas väsender, inbilska af sjelfva sin köld och litenhet – Skulle någon
aldeles utan en rörelse höra hans rop til Sanning och Lyksalighet?// ‘Obegriplighet?’
Huru länge skall man trösta sig med detta sjelf-förnedrande Ordet? De okunniga, små,
qvicka och magtlösa hufvuden, sökte i sin skamlöhet eller förtviflan en styrka; och
funno denna. Eländiga uptåg! godt för några dagar. Men et Folk anstår ej detta ordet!
Om jag ock skulle vara något svår at förstå; så är ju detta förstå, ej en egenskap som
man andas in med luften! Jag ser ej något skäl at anse den för så naturlig för sig! Och
annars: är ej det Publicum jag söker, det Ädlaste i Landet? Där skall känsla och högre
förstånd börja. Man har nog Authorer som göra Själen ingen möda: små, gycklare,
föraktliga. Men hvar Author bör naturligen vara öfver sina Läsare. Hvad har man då at
säja? – Låtom Oss ej Ohelga och förnedra Naturen och Snillet med så låga inkast! Är
det ej en ren, ljuf och hög sällhet at stiga i ljus och känsla? Lättheten är ingen Hög
Smak. […] Det är Själens alldags föda”; Thorild 1934, pp. 17-18.
11
sible for him to defend what were in his day considered to be major deviations from the audience’s stylistic norms and values.
At the same time it is clear that, on several occasions, Thorild and his
audience, or at least his critics, failed to understand each other as regards the
issue of style. In the brief article “Inkast” (‘Opinion’), which was also published in Den nye granskaren in 1784, Thorild rejected the accusation that he
was ‘declaiming too much’.24 In his view, this accusation merely reflected the
audience’s inability to recognize the strong emotions that dictated his expression at the moment of writing:
Do they even know what it means to declaim? When the weak soul cannot
feel, it wonders why others shout “oh!”. God in Heaven cannot prevent the
weak soul from finding incomprehensibility in the elevated, and declamation
in the strong emotion! To declaim is, in fact, to deliver strong words rather
than noble nature, and big sounds rather than elevated emotion. Judge me
accordingly! Above everything I hate lies. But where does the spiritless and
cold man see anything but body? Is not the world merely mechanical and dead
to him? Are all immortal songs no more than sounds? – Read the world’s
supreme examples of genius, works in which feeling and the tone of the soul
are at their highest. Understand them. And then be attentive to that upon
25
which you pass judgment.
Here again it is obvious that, to Thorild, style cannot be defined pragmatically and that traditional rhetorical considerations must be rejected in favor
23
I have dealt with this in greater detail in Fischer 2002, p. 79.
“Declamerar för mycket”; Thorild 1934, p. 35.
25
“Vet man hvad Declamera är? När den svaga Själen ej kan känna, så Undrar hon
hvarföre den andra ropar ach! Gud i Himmelen kan ej hindra Svagheten at finna i det
Höga obegriplighet, och i den starka Känslan declamation! Det är Declamera, at
gifva mera starka ord än ädelt väsende, mera stora ljud än hög känsla. Döme man mig
därefter! Jag hatar Lögn öfver alt. Men hvar ser den själ-toma och kalla människan
annat än Kropp? Verlden för hänne är ju mechanisk och död? Hela odödeliga Sånger
ej annat än ljud? – Läs Verldens yppersta Prof af Snille, Arbeten där Själens ton och
Känslan äro högst. Förstå dem. Värdigas sedan gifva akt på det ni dömer”; Thorild
1934, p. 35.
24
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of ‘authentic expression’. Thus, Thorild’s position is far removed from the
theory of style of classical rhetoric, as becomes even more apparent in another statement from the same text: ‘Big words do not make up a sublime
style; rather feeling, elevation, and power do.’26 If this is the nature of the
sublime style, it is difficult to grasp what Thorild wanted the term ‘style’ to
refer to. The classical rhetorical theory of style comprises both the choice of
the right wording in accordance with ‘good usage’, clarity, and linguistic
elaboration (latinitas, claritas, ornatus), and a consideration of the appropriateness of the wording in a specific literary and social context (decorum).
However, to Thorild the particular choice of wording was clearly irrelevant.
Whatever words such as ‘feeling’, ‘elevation’, and ‘power’ might mean in the
context of Thorild’s text, it is obvious, from a rhetorical point of view, that
they can only be discussed in terms of wording and formulation, and this is a
discussion that Thorild seems eager to avoid.
This somewhat paradoxical view on the issue of style is also found in the
1784 essay “Skrifsätt” (‘Way of Writing’). Here Thorild emphatically claims
that an author’s ‘way of writing’ should always be a reflection of the thoughts
he wishes to express. According to Thorild, then, readers tend to perceive as
clear and comprehensible the kind of language that merely conveys ordinary
and trivial thoughts, whereas those same readers react negatively to an author
such as himself. However, he adds, the opposition to his way of writing is
based on a misunderstanding: the audience’s difficulty with his work has
nothing to do with his way of expression but rather with the very thoughts
that he expresses:
26
“Stora Ord gör ingen sublim Stil, utan Känslan, Högheten, Kraften”; Thorild 1934,
p. 36.
13
He who thinks in an ordinary manner is prone to write in a transparent
manner. But higher ideas often involve the difficulty that although you understand the language very well, you do not grasp the meaning all that easily.
One is not used to thinking in such an elevated manner. But the effort is
27
uplifting.
To Thorild, there cannot be such a thing as an inadequate style, as long as
the style employed in a given text is a ‘natural’ expression of its contents:
From the person who writes customs declarations to the person who writes
oracular works of wisdom and genius, all levels are too high, or too low, or
natural, according to different minds. The petty is natural, the mediocre is
28
natural, and the exceptional is as well.
What matters is whether style and contents – or in other words: thoughts –
actually fit together:
But behold the impertinence of the small minds! It is affected!, they shout. For
the affected and the grand have this in common that they both appear to be a
lot. But is it big and empty, or big and strong? – that is what should be
29
examined.
Here Thorild labors with two distinct criteria of stylistic adequacy. On the
one hand, expression should follow ‘naturally’ from the content, since
elevated and unusual contents calls for an elevated and unusual means of
27
“Den som tänker ordinärt, skrifver gärna tydligt. Men högre ideer hafva ofta den
svårigheten, at fastän man aldeles väl förstår språket, fattar man dock ej så lätt
meningen. Man är ej van at tänka så högt up. Men bemödandet uplyfter”; Thorild
1934, p. 73.
28
“Från den som skrifver tull-sedlar, til den som skrifver Orakler af Vishet och
Genie, äro alla grader för höga, eller för låga, eller naturliga, för olika hufvuden. Det
lilla är naturligt, det medelmåttiga är naturligt, det förträffeliga likaså”; Thorild 1934,
p. 74.
29
“Men betrakta impertinencen hos de små! Det är affecteradt, ropa de. [T]y det
Affecterade och Stora hafva det gemensamt at de bägge synas Mycket. Men är det
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expression. But on the other hand, the understanding of what is ‘natural’
varies to a large extent according to the specific capacity and expectations of
the audience. Both these criteria are found in the rhetorical theory of style and
are contained in the elocutional virtue of decorum. But whereas the classical
theory underlines that both criteria should always be considered when discussing stylistic adequacy, Thorild opposes them to each other. This entangles
him in a theoretically rather troublesome position. For how is it possible, all
pragmatic considerations set aside, to determine what is ‘big and empty’, as
opposed to what is ‘big and strong’? Tested rhetorical wisdom would claim
that the decision lies with the audience, but Thorild appears to regard the
audience’s view as irrelevant and instead insists on an intrinsic connection
between content and expression. Accordingly he discards the question of
comprehensibility as a stylistic or even linguistic matter: ‘It is not the style,
Sir, that is difficult, but the ideas, the concepts!’30
Thorild refuses to submit to stylistic conventions, and in a polemical
article in the last issue of Den nye granskaren (1784) he maintains: ‘My way
of writing is as natural to me as my own soul. Whoever does not understand
me should just read something more transparent.’31 In this way Thorild can
discount all criticism: in fact he only writes for a chosen audience that is able
and inclined to understand him. The question of the aptness of the verbal
expression is therefore perfectly irrelevant: either the reader belongs to the
Stort och tomt, eller Stort och starkt – det är hvad som bör undersökas”; Thorild 1934,
p. 74.
30
“Det är ej Stilen, Min Herre, som är det svåra; utan Ideerna, Begreppen!”; Thorild
1934, p. 73.
31
“Mit Skrifsätt är mig så naturligt som min själ. Den som ej förstår mig, kan läsa
något Tydeligare”; Thorild 1934, p. 120.
15
chosen audience, or he does not. This position is in many ways typical of
Thorild’s idea of the function of (what he terms) an ‘author’.32
Thorild develops this in the article “Uplysningen” (‘The Enlightenment’)
from 1784:
When did I say that I write for the general public? I am proud and humble. I
demand nothing more than the modest number of better readers: the purer and
stronger souls, whose enlightenment exceeds the small portion of Swedish
wits and who have a part of the world’s wits.
But let us be friends, gentlemen! Everything is fitting in its proper place.
A sun in a hut is not as becoming as the small candle. Let everyone read what
he understands; a page in Tacitus, an oration by Cicero, a novel by Voltaire,
or a thought by Montesquieu. In this way there is peace and light throughout
33
the world.
But even with the reservation that he does not write for each and everyone, Thorild still has not neutralized the problem of linguistic expression
altogether. His definition of the task of the ‘author’ or genius was to a large
extent based upon traditional rhetorical ideas, as he clearly states in what
follows immediately after the passage quoted above. Here Thorild once again
calls upon pragmatic considerations: ‘But he nonetheless is the best writer
32
The fact that Thorild prefers the English word ‘author’ to the Swedish ‘författare’
may be a way for him to indicate that he is about to launch a new definition of authorship. It was not least thanks to his strong orientation towards British culture that
Thorild stood out from the French-dominated contemporary Swedish culture.
Arvidson 1989, p. 209, suggests that this might partly be explained by the fact that
Thorild grew up in Gothenburg, Sweden’s largest port, connected to Britain via the
North Sea.
33
“När sade jag at jag skrifver för den stora Allmänheten? Jag är Högmodig och
Ödmjuk. Jag begär endast det måttliga antalet af Bättre Läsare: de mera rena och
starke Själar, som uplyste öfver den lilla portionen af Svenskt vett, ock hafva en del af
Verldens.// Men låtom Oss vara Vänner, Mine Herrar! Alt är godt på sit ställe. Solen i
kojan, är ej så väl, som det lilla ljuset. Hvar och en läser det Han föstår: en Tacitii sida
eller en Ciceros oration, en Voltaires roman eller en Montesquious [sic] tanke. På
detta sättet är Frid och Ljus i hela verlden”; Thorild 1934, p. 81.
16
OTTO FISCHER
who obtains the greatest effects; who moves and awakens the principal
powers of humanity; who elevates the noblest and greatest matters.’34
Thorild’s notion of style is, of course, not completely original. It has some
very obvious affinities with ideas found in the eighteenth-century British and
continental debates that challenged the classical rhetorical theory of stylistic
adequacy, traditionally codified in the three genera dicendi.35 Authors such as
Hugh Blair in England and Bernard Lamy, Du Marsais, and d’Alembert in
France saw style as a reflection of the unique emotions of the individual
writer or orator, rather than as a pragmatically determined means of persuasion.36 But Thorild took quite an extreme position, even in the context of the
contemporary debate, by radically refusing to discuss style in terms of words
and figures.
Thorild on Delivery
One of the most ardent rhetorical debates in late eighteenth-century Sweden
dealt with homiletics and religious rhetoric in a broader sense. The discussion
attracted the attention of poets such as Kellgren and Leopold, and it was of
great importance to Thorild as well, not least since it touched upon the issue
of declamation.37 This appears from an essay, published in 1784 in Den nye
granskaren and entitled “Höra Prästerne under allmänna granskningen?”
(‘Should the clergy be subject to public scrutiny?’). Here Thorild strongly
criticized the oratorical practice of Swedish clergymen:
34
“Men den skrifver dock bäst som gör de största Verkningar; som rörer och upväcker Mänsklighetens Första krafter; som uplyfter de mest Ädla och Stora föremål”;
Thorild 1934, p. 81.
35
On the three genera dicendi, often termed genus subtile, medium, and grande, see
e.g. Cicero, Orator 5.20-22; and Quintilian, Institutio oratoria 12.10.58-62.
36
For Blair’s view on style, see Müller 1981, pp. 88-90. For Lamy, Du Marsais, and
d’Alembert, see Till 2004, pp. 334-340.
17
But this makes me wonder. In the songs of the poets I hear a beauty that captivates me; the voice of sensuality penetrates from the charming sceneries of
the theater. – But in the books of the theologians… Dare I say it? There, on
each page I find poor taste and ignorance; and in the temples are heard the
miserable cries of the repulsive, presented to me as the voice of the God of
sweetness and delight.
I profess, artlessly, that of all things that have displeased me in this society, I have found nothing more amazingly foolish than this way of declaiming
religion! To cry out, with ferocity, screams, discordance, and often with the
garishness and gesture of the furies, something one professes to be truth,
peace, and divinely moving! – My God! How did anyone come up with this? If
this is supposed to be the voice of Heaven and wisdom, then I would be really
38
interested in hearing just once how madness speaks!
Although Thorild addresses various aspects of the period’s homiletic
practice in this essay, his predominant concern is the delivery (actio) of the
preachers. Thorild takes his point of departure in a traditional rhetorical argument: the preachers ignore the principle of decorum, in so far as they are not
concerned with the agreement between content, expression, and delivery. For
once, Thorild’s criticism is concrete and particular, and he presents several
examples of what he regards as the preachers’ unsatisfactory delivery:
It is obviously the preachers’ lack of feeling, moving truth, grace, and strength
that makes their audience small and lukewarm. The human soul is constantly
drawn to the place where truth and bliss talk.
37
See Möller 2003, pp. 129-131, for a survey of the debate.
“Men detta är min förundran. I Skaldernas Sånger hör jag en Skönhet som bortför
mig; från Theaterns tjusande scener genomtränger Sinlighetens röst – Men i Himlalärarnes böcker. . . Skall jag säja det? där möter mig på hvart blad den låga smaken,
och okunnigheten; och i Templen där ljuda Misshaglighetens olyckliga skrän, som
man likväl säger mig skall vara rösten af behaglighetens och ljufhetens Gud!// Jag
betygar, utan konst, at af alt hvad som stött mig i detta Samhället, har jag funnit ingen
ting mera förunderligen dåraktigt, än detta sättet at Declamera religionen! at med
vildhet, skri, miss-ton, ofta furiernas färg och åtbörder, utropa något, som man säjer
skall vara Sanning, Frid, och Gudomligt rörande! – Gud! Huru har man fallit på något
sådant? Om detta skall vara Himmelens och Vishetens röst: så hade jag väl lust at en
gång huru vansinnigheten talar!”; Thorild 1934, p. 67.
38
18
OTTO FISCHER
Why not raise oneself up to the feeling and the expression that are worthy
of the divine? Why not adopt the voice and the gesture that befit the magnificence of its preacher? Everything public should necessarily have an air of
nobility and dignity. – But I have as yet scarcely heard anyone delivering a
sermon even with discrimination, not to mention with real truth, grace, and
force. There is no wretchedness and baseness of thought and expression,
nothing objectionable in the tone and comportment that these orators do not
exemplify. Some of them move their bodies, heads, and arms like bad actors
and half-frenzied revelers. Others keep to a distasteful, stiff, and immobile
posture. An “and” or a “to” is shouted out with frightening violence, whereas
the most noble and important part of the sentence is lost in a mumble. They
affect a tearful tone. They affect a gentle smile. I know a certain, tender, sensitive, and enlightened man who – having seen a preacher inflate his face with
savage colors, throw himself back in a frenzy, and with mob-like crudity shout
out the sweet and redeeming names – after a few minutes had to walk away
with a convulsion of disgust. The temple and the souls are filled with savage
noise and sound, and if it is endured at all, then it is due to faithful, good, and
sweet barbarism; and if anyone is edified, then it is through his own excellent
soul’s elevation. – Preachers! Preachers! Is this how you present divinity
teaching truth and sweetness to mankind? Is this how you give the soul the
peaceful and holy feelings that are to accompany the soul in its solitude and
lead it to bless the Gospel and yourselves?
It is incomprehensible to me that people do not consult a mirror or a
friend, or set aside a moment in which to practice; that people do not establish
societies for declamation. But it is even more incomprehensible that, lacking
all of this, anyone dares expose to the public all the unpleasantness of his
39
soul!
39
“Det är tydeligen brist på egen Känsla, rörande Sanning, behaglighet och styrka,
hos Prästerna, som gör Åhörarna få och ljuma. Mänskliga Själen söker ouphörligen
dit där Sanningen och Sällheten tala.// Hvarföre uplyfter man sig då ej til den känsla
och det uttryck som äro värdige det Gudomeliga? Hvarföre lärer man sig ej den röst
och den åtbörd som passa med Högheten at vara des förkunnare? Alt Offenteligt bör
nödvändigt hafva en air af ädelt och Värdigt. – Men jag har ännu knapt hördt någon
som framtalat sin predikan, ens med urskillning; än mindre med verkelig sanning,
behag och styrka. Där är ingen eländighet och låghet i tankar och uttryck, ingen
tonenes och beteendets misshaglighet, som ej desse Talare gifva exempel af. En del
häfva sin kropp, hufvud och armar, som verkelige histrioner och half-rusige Bacchanter. Andre förbehålla sig en osmaklig, upstäld och orörlig Skepnad. Man skriker
til et Och, ett At, med den grufligaste häftighet, och förlorar i et mummel det ädlaste
och vigtigaste af meningen. Man affecterar en gråt-ton. Man affecterar et smekande
löje. Jag känner en viss öm, känslofull och uplyst människa, som sedan han sett en
Präst upblåsa sit ansigte med vildhetens färgor, kasta sig dåraktigt bakut och ropa med
Pöbelns råhet de ljufva och frälsande Namnen, måste med en liten convulsion af
19
Thorild’s analysis is, in fact, in perfect accord with the period’s homiletic
theory.40 Further on in the same essay, however, it becomes apparent that his
criticism goes beyond traditional rhetorical concerns, and that his – to a
modern mind – sound recommendations as regards rhetorical practice and
self-knowledge are only of secondary importance as far as the issue of actio
is concerned:
The art of delivery is nothing other than the art of understanding and feeling.
This proves how many preachers are but noisemakers, with no feeling and
knowledge of the soul! Punishing words should be pronounced with severity,
emphasis, and dignity; tender and persuasive words with openness, sweetness, and an unaffected tone; teaching words with evenness; one puts little
stress on the light words; one emphasizes the strong ones. Once again: all of
this is nothing but the art of understanding. Beauty is not asked for, only dis41
crimination.
afsky efter några minuter gå bort. Man upfyller Templet och Själarna med et vildt
Larm och ljud; och om det så väl tåles, så är det af det trogna, goda och ljuva Barbariet; och om någon upbygges, så är det genom hans egen förträffeliga Själs uplyftning. – Präster! Präster! Är det så man föreställer Gudomligheten talande Sanning
och Ljufhet til Människor? Är det så man ingifver Själen de fridsamma och heliga
rörelser som skola följa hänne i ensligheten och komma hänne at Välsigna Läran och
Er?// Det är mig obegripeligt, at man ej har en Spegel at rådfråga, en Vän, en ledig
stund til Öfning; at man ej inrättar Sällskaper för Declamationen: Men ännu mer at
man, utan alt detta, vågar upställa sig för det Allmänna i hela sin Själs Obehaglighet!”; Thorild 1934, pp. 68-69.
40
See, for example, Benzelius 1771, pp. 31-34. First published in 1694 and reprinted
in 1747 and in 1771, this remained the standard treatise on homiletics in Sweden until
the publication, in 1779, of Johan Möller’s Afhandling om et rätt prediko-sätt.
41
“Konsten at Uttala rätt, är endast Konsten at Begripa och Känna. Detta bevisar huru
månge Präster som äro blott Larmare, utan Själens vetande och känsla! Man säjer det
Straffande med alfvar, eftertryck och värdighet; det Öma och öfvertalande, med openhet, ljuf och okonstlad ton; det Lärande med jämnhet; man öfverfar de lätta orden;
man ger de starkare vigt. Ännu en gång: alt detta är ej annat än Konsten at Förstå.
Man begär ingen Skönhet, utan blott Urskillning”; Thorild 1934, p. 69. On the concept
of ‘understanding’ in Thorild, and on its intellectual and emotional implications, see
Karitz 1913, pp. 4-5; Cassirer 1941, pp. 100-108; and Fischer 2002, pp. 78-79.
20
OTTO FISCHER
To Thorild the appropriate delivery is the result of the orator’s thorough
intellectual and emotional understanding of the content of his own message:
There is one thing, however, that has not yet been considered, and that to my
mind is always wanting. People look for genius, taste, and decency. But I have
as yet not heard the voice of the soul! The one moving and strong voice that
tells me that the preacher has himself felt the bliss and the delights he
42
preaches!
At first glance Thorild’s demand for agreement between the message and
the emotional state of the speaker appears to accord with the rhetoricalpoetical topos that received its classical wording in Horace’s dictum: “si vis
me flere, dolendum est/ primum ipsi tibi” (“If you would have me weep, you
must first feel grief yourself”).43 Similar statements are found in Cicero and,
especially, in Quintilian, and are frequently repeated in eighteenth-century
Swedish homiletic theory.44 Within the framework of the classical rhetorical
tradition, then, the question of emotional authenticity of expression remained
a technical concern, belonging to the realm of decorum.
Thorild, however, pushed this even further. To him, the right delivery of a
speech depended on sincerity, defined as the speaker’s heartfelt and genuine
conviction of the truth of his message. In fact, Thorild’s view on delivery
closely resembles that of Johan Möller (1738-1805), who, in his homiletic
42
“Men man har ännu ej tänkt på et; som jag altid saknar. Man söker Snille, smak och
det Städade. Men ännu har jag ej hördt Själens röst! den enda rörande och starka
rösten som säjer mig at man sjelf känt den Lycksalighet och de Ljufheter man
Predikar!”; Thorild 1934, p. 70.
43
Ars poetica, vv.102-103. I quote the English translation by Rushton Fairclough
from Horace 1991, p. 459.
44
See Cicero, De oratore 2.189-190; and Quintilian, Institutio oratoria 6.2.26; as well
as Benzelius 1771, pp. 32-33; and Möller 1779, pp. 133-137.
21
work, claimed that classical rhetoric’s preoccupation with the impression the
orator makes on the audience, is not sufficient, at least as far as religious
rhetoric is concerned. Instead Möller maintained that, in order to be truly persuasive, the preacher himself has to be genuinely convinced. Affectation will
always reveal itself, no matter how skilful the preacher’s attempt to conceal
it.45 These ideas clearly reflect Quintilian’s vision of the ethically defined
‘ideal orator’, most notably presented in Institutio oratoria 12.1.29-31. However, Thorild’s views should also be seen in light of the larger contemporary
discussion: as Michael Cahn has shown, it was commonplace in eighteenthcentury British rhetorical theory to state that the efficiency of a speech
depends on the orator’s own belief in his message.46
Thorild on ‘the Stile of Truth’
The issues of style and delivery are brought together in Thorild’s main discussion of rhetoric and eloquence in the English-language pamphlet The
Sermon of Sermons. On the Impiety of Priests and the Fall of Religion,
published in London in 1789.47 Here again religious rhetoric is Thorild’s
main target, and here the reader finds what may be characterized as an explicit anti-rhetorical attitude. In fact, Thorild devotes the greater part of his
preface in The Sermon of Sermons to a discussion of rhetoric:
45
Cf. Möller 1779, pp. 137-138. On Möller’s work, see also Brillioth 1945, pp. 216218.
46
See Cahn 1986, p. 158.
47
In 1788, in the hope of finding a more receptive audience for his writings, Thorild
moved to England – which he considered the most enlightened and modern of the
European nations. In 1789 and 1790 he published a number of English-language texts
on various political, philosophical, and theological issues, sometimes using the pseudonym “A Philosopher of the North”. However, Thorild’s English work was largely
ignored, and in 1790 he returned, disappointed, to Sweden. The most thorough account of his stay in England is found in Arvidson 1993, pp. 403-471.
22
OTTO FISCHER
It may easily be observed that most Writers are grave, or elegant, triflers: busy
eternally in forming and transforming, finely or pompously, in this more florid
or that more lofty manner, petty and trivial things.
Stile and Eloquence are become the grand art of Words, of pretty punctilios, of high fancies, of loose and strange ornaments: and that is to say, the
grand art of Vanity in Writing. […]
The grave authors, grave mostly without energy, have given an olympic
display of their skill and eminent sagacity; the more learned, of their vast
riches: all have looked upon Truth, sublime and dear for ever to man, as the
grand object of their Vanity; few or none simply as the warm and high interest
of their Heart.
Hence the surprising effect that there is an art of moving the heart, an art
of reasoning, that is, an art of playing with the human mind, of playing ostentatiously with Truth, in order to raise admiration: exactly as in the operas and
tragedies of the Theatre, where all that is divine in heaven and grand upon
earth is made the marvellous, vainly affecting and transient object of a spectacle.
So the serene or terrible, always irresistible Majesty of Truth, transformed
in all these petty ornaments and weakened into this vain sweetness, has at last
no force but this playing one – to move and please.
That majesty, which should strike and vanquish the human mind!
Vast as his fancy is the Vanity of man. A vanity, however, that indeed
could not rise higher, than to force down the Truth of heaven only to give
majestic airs to a structure of vain eloquence; than to rob the divine feelings of
the heart and the celestial florid forms of genius, only to animate and em48
bellish this structure.
From this description of the degeneration of religious eloquence into a
mere “art of words” in which the tasks of moving and pleasing are allowed to
dominate at the expense of teaching the truth, Thorild turns towards the
theme of “vain pomp”, a recurrent topic in eighteenth-century criticism of
rhetoric:
The true reason of this grand show, this proud and magnificent abuse of all
that is divine and most sacred, is – that weak and worthless men, through the
dark succession of lie and injustice, in the profaned name of God, having
imperceptibly filled all high places of Church and State, Priests of this set,
void of every sense of a great mind, have been unable to feel the heroic flame
48
Thorild 1934, pp. 319-320.
23
or to conceive the majestic stile of Truth, and such kings and grandees too
false and wicked to bear it. All men, then, imitating, both in unworthiness and
pride, these kings, priests, and grandees – the civil truth has been transformed
into an elegant lie, called Politeness; the religious truth into a mere august
show; and all that is most serious and sacred, finally, into the vain pomp of
49
heathens.
Thorild’s assault on religious eloquence in The Sermon of Sermons clearly
differs from the treatment of this issue in his earlier texts. Whereas, in the
earlier texts, the priests were criticized for neglecting basic rhetorical rules,
the accusation here is rather that they focus too much on the issue of eloquence.50 The two points of view are, of course, potentially reconcilable, but
Thorild’s change of focus deserves to be pointed out. It should also be noted
how Thorild generalizes his criticism: a similar deterioration was to be found
in public, political life where “civil truth” had degenerated into “an elegant
lie, called Politeness”.51
Yet, Thorild does not direct his assault towards eloquence or persuasion
as such. Indeed, he insists: “True and natural Eloquence, that is, Persuasion,
is but the force of a great mind expressed, even if it should be in a single
word, in a simple look or motion. Pectus est quod disertos facit: it is the heart
that makes eloquent.”52
This may appear to be traditional rhetorical wisdom; indeed, the Latin
phrase that Thorild quotes is taken from Quintilian and figured often in
eighteenth-century discussions of whether eloquence depends on art or on
49
Thorild 1934, p. 320.
Similar criticism is found in Möller 1779, pp. 138-140 and 176-215.
51
Starting with Rousseau, the theme of dissimulation had become a commonplace in
eighteenth-century critique of the social life of the upper classes; cf. also Geitner
1992. For Rousseau’s views, see Starobinski 1971.
52
Thorild 1934, pp. 320-321.
50
24
OTTO FISCHER
nature.53 However, in the original context, that is, Institutio oratoria 10.7.15,
the phrase, “pectus est quod disertos facit”, expresses Quintilian’s idea that,
in order for the speaker to be persuasive, he must himself first experience and
then display the emotions he wishes to stir up in the audience. If this is not
possible, Quintilian says, the speaker must develop a technique of ‘selfsuggestion’ in order to put himself in the emotional state that is required for
the particular rhetorical task.54
Thorild’s use of the quotation, however, appears to reflect the period’s
general understanding of Quintilian’s phrase: what was a pragmatic concern
in Quintilian’s first-century treatise, was reinterpreted in the eighteenth century as a demand for emotional authenticity.55 Furthermore, it is no coincidence that Thorild only quotes part of the sentence that reads as follows in
Quintilian: “pectus est enim quod disertos facit et vis mentis” (“[i]t is the
heart and the power of the mind that make us eloquent”).56
In accordance with his focus on the heart (rather than the mind) of the
orator, Thorild goes on to claim that only those who lack true inspiration need
to resort to conceit and rhetorical ornament:
How then must these low and lukewarm souls do? they must need waste
ornaments, assume a grandeur, act feelings, play heroes; they must violate all
the beauties of genius to serve their pride. The world then applauds the
57
sublime actor, the moving and pleasant show […].
53
The phrase was often used as an argument in support of natural affective rhetoric as
opposed to doctrinal rhetoric in the pedagogical tradition; see Till 2004, pp. 384-385.
54
Quintilian explains the technique of self-suggestion in greater detail in Institutio
oratoria 6.2.26-36.
55
Cf. Till 2004, pp. 384-385.
56
I quote the English translation by Donald A. Russell in Quintilian 2001, vol. 4, p.
381.
57
Thorild 1934, p. 321.
25
True eloquence is, according to Thorild, always ‘natural’, spontaneous,
and without art; it follows naturally from a strong urge to express oneself. It
is therefore not surprising that Thorild condemns all oratorical affectation:
Such is the eloquence of Art! a mere blaze of vanity, even as empty as
pompous: and hence all the finest morals, hymns, sermons without number,
devotions, magnificent services on one side; and all abandoned levity of
58
heathens on the other – flourish together.
Nor is it surprising that Thorild’s discussion of eloquence in the preface to
The Sermon of Sermons closes with a reflection on style, the topic most frequently addressed in Thorild’s various discussions of rhetorical issues. Here,
however, Thorild appears to subscribe to the classical theory of style as presented in the works of Cicero, Horace, and Quintilian:59
In the vast variety of STILES, there is none, which is not natural in its place,
and unnatural out of it. Yet, among these three degrees, the easy, the grave,
the sublime – they have decided the first to be, eminently, the natural. Yes,
for little and lukewarm minds, or for petty playing matters: generally for all
that is not susceptible of energy, flame, and grand beauty. But nothing is more
unnatural than to treat grave and high subjects in an easy manner, in a florid,
mild, graceful stile. It is as unnatural as little sporting melodies in grave and
sacred Music. The serene or terrible majesty of Truth disdains these fine arts:
disdains the mimic sweetness that makes her power languid, familiar[, and]
easily contemned; disdains the vanity that colors her light and spoils its
splendor; disdains the petty fretful mind that tempers her fire into a pleasant
60
tepidity.
When style was discussed in the context of eighteenth-century Swedish
homiletics, it was usually considered from a pragmatic and pedagogical point
of view. According to the homiletic treatises by Benzelius and Möller, some
58
Thorild 1934, p. 321.
See e.g. Cicero, Orator 5.20-22 and 23.75-28.99; Horace, Ars poetica vv. 86-92;
and Quintilian Institutio oratoria 12.10.58-62.
59
26
OTTO FISCHER
situations might indeed call for oratorical elegance and stylistic gravity, but
the preacher was always to adjust his manner of expression to the linguistic
and intellectual capacity of the audience.61 Focusing on the task of instructing
(docere), the preacher should be concerned about the accessibility of his text
and therefore focus on the classical elocutional virtue of claritas.62
Thorild is in complete accord with the period’s homiletic theory when approaching with suspicion the orator’s duty to please (delectare).63 According
to Thorild, to please is to flatter; and when reduced to mere flattery, the truth
to be communicated is reduced to a ‘harlot’:
If this Truth now must move sweetly and please – is it not clear that the queen
of heaven is become a harlot? For to please is it not, in every age, gently to
glance over, to sooth, to flatter the vices of the age? O, it is. Hence you will
never see the true human spirit, that is, the divine spirit of what is just and
great, sinking in a people, but that it instantly will be a rule as of manners so
of Oratory to sink together – in order to be polite and elegant, that is, to be
bastardly sweet, dastardly gentle, all easy and tepid. And thus, to prove how
sentiment and eloquence sink unitedly, as to sentiment there are no more
among us any high duties in life; great things are not more serious and arduous; the pettiest and dullest king, the most false and wicked minister, every
naughty trifler of a great place, may be praised and adored – and as to
eloquence, they have established formally a taste, of this day, of their fancy, a
Correctness through which a good word is not more that which is mighty to
express truly, but that which is most polite; they have established the Law of
elegant triviality.
And so there is at last – neither a voice for Truth, nor a field for genius,
64
nor any worthy space allowed to human majesty.
As soon as flattery gains a footing in society, eloquence declines along
with manners. As an antidote Thorild in the same text formulates this basic
60
Thorild 1934, p. 321. See also note 35 above.
See Benzelius 1771, p. 15; and Möller 1779, pp. 105-109.
62
See Möller 1779, pp. 105-109.
63
See Möller 1779, pp. 191-197.
64
Thorild 1934, pp. 322-323.
61
27
rule: “Let us freely decide then, that in nature there is no other Eloquence, it
may be to move or instruct, than – to say great things greatly.”65 Once again
Thorild’s reflections on style and rhetoric end in his insistence on agreement
between matter and expression, and a consequence of this is that ‘natural’
eloquence must deal with “great things” exclusively. As always, Thorild casts
aside all pragmatic considerations.
It is not easy for the reader to determine with precision what it might
mean “to say great things greatly”, and Thorild is, as ever, reluctant to treat
the question of style as a question of (the choice of) words. In the context of
The Sermon of Sermons, however, it appears that, to Thorild, a ‘great’ style is
akin to what in classical rhetorical terminology is usually called the ‘sublime’
or ‘grand’ style:
And, from the same principle of Nature, that there is no other stile, than the
stile of Truth: which is sweet, easy, grand, terrible – that is, all in a just
moment.
But now, if it be considered, that – natural is, not what is easy, but what is
true, for the roarings of the sea and thunder of heaven are indeed natural; and
correct, not what is polite, but what is just; and eloquent, that is, persuasive
and moving, not what has a shining elegance of ornament, but what is really
great – you have found this new and strange truth, that an author may write
66
truly, justly, greatly, and not be easy, polite and elegant.
This passage is difficult to interpret. First, Thorild appears to adopt the
notion of decorum as the chief principle of writing, but immediately thereafter he challenges this very principle. Whereas Cicero defines eloquence as
the ability to excel in all of the three stylistic modes, by employing each of
them in its proper place,67 Thorild, in keeping with his general idea of the
65
Thorild 1934, p. 323.
Thorild 1934, p. 323.
67
See Orator, 21.69-72 and 36.123.
66
28
OTTO FISCHER
‘natural’ agreement between expression and content, insists that true eloquence is to be found only in the act of speaking about “great things”.
In the immediate continuation of the text, Thorild for once furnishes the
reader with a concrete example of ‘true eloquence’ based on stylistic excellence, namely the prophesies of Isaiah, which, according to Thorild, display
“a prophetical horror of stile”, by way of which the “words not merely express” but also “brighten” and “inflame the sense”.68 In Isaiah’s eloquence
Thorild finds truly sublime qualities: “For it is evident – that Sublimity is but
to see what is truly grand or dreadful in any subject, and to express it with
even that dreadfulness or grandeur.”69
*
*
*
In his reflections on the nature of language and rhetoric, Thorild often took
his point of departure in selected issues from classical rhetorical theory, but
he modified these in accordance with his own views on communication.
Thus, at first glance many of the questions he dealt with appear to be located
within the conceptual framework of rhetoric. However, in so far as rhetoric is
understood as the theory of persuasive communication, Thorild’s writings
suggest a transformation of the very foundation of rhetoric.
Thorild’s idea of verbal – poetic as well as rhetorical – communication
was not based on the pragmatic concern of persuasion but on the idea of a
68
“There is a prophetical horror of stile. As in ISAIAH. It gives a just awe to certain
subjects. In that stile the plain and true idea is heightened by the glowing majesty of
Fancy. The words not merely express, they brighten, they inflame the sense. A reader
must then see the character of what he reads; must distinguish force, grandeur, pathos;
and not sillily cry woe! at every lightning of poetry”; Thorild 1934, p. 324.
29
‘natural’ and necessary expression that reveals the true meaning to the right
audience of the words communicated by the author or orator. In order for this
communication to succeed, the author or orator must be guided by ‘nature’
and emotion. This in turn means that the linguistic form is not a relevant
matter of discussion in Thorild’s work; the wording is no more than a necessary and natural consequence of the thought. Thorild therefore had little need
for a genuine theory of rhetoric; as long as the author or orator is guided by
his innate sensibility, wording and delivery will follow by themselves.
Frequently arguing from a rhetorical point of view while at the same time
dismissing the theoretical foundation of rhetoric, Thorild’s stance was clearly
ambiguous and in many respects characteristic of the theoretical discussion of
rhetoric in late eighteenth-century Sweden.
69
Thorild 1934, p. 324.
30
OTTO FISCHER
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Otto Fischer

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