Aren (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) Traditional

Transcription

INAFOR 11H-062
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF INDONESIAN FORESTRY
RESEARCHERS (INAFOR)
Section H
Community and Social Forestry
Aren (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) Traditional Management System
in Batang Toru, North Sumatra and Tomohon, North Sulawesi,
Indonesia
Endri Martini and James M. Roshetko
World Agroforestry Centre and Winrock International
Jl. CIFOR Situgede, Sindang barang, Bogor 16880, INDONESIA
Paper prepared for
The First International Conference of Indonesian Forestry Researchers (INAFOR)
Bogor, 5 – 7 December 2011
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Sub Division of Dissemination, Publication and Library
FORESTRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Jl. Gunung Batu 5, Bogor 16610
Aren (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) traditional management system in
Batang Toru, North Sumatra and Tomohon, North Sulawesi, Indonesia
Endri Martini and James M. Roshetko
World Agroforestry Centre and Winrock International
ABSTRACT
Aren or sugarpalm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) is a multipurpose palm species found
across tropical Asia which is traditionally utilized as source of livelihoods in Indonesia such as in
Batang Toru landscape, North Sumatra and Tomohon district, North Sulawesi. Interestingly,
despites of aren sustainable contribution to local livelihoods, indigenous domestication efforts
have been limited. Thus, traditional aren management systems were studied to understand the
regeneration and management practices of aren trees in the landscape. Data on aren tree
management across the landscape, aren‘s role to local livelihood, and local ecological knowledge
of aren management were collected through interviews with key farmers, focus group discussion,
and direct observations (transect walk). Results show no significant different in aren traditional
tree management between sites, however farmers in Batang Toru harvest more diverse aren
products than in Tomohon because of the better market opportunities. In the study sites, two
types of aren tree regeneration were identified, i.e. a) natural regeneration, b) transplanted
regeneration. Under current conditions, natural regeneration is most practiced by farmers.
Farmers perceive aren as an abundant natural asset that is best regenerated by wildlife. Potential
improvements in smallholder aren productivity are best by managing aren trees density and
selecting superior germplasm. This paper provides best options for domesticating the non
timber forest product (NTFP) species for community-based reforestation and livelihood
enhancement in Indonesia.
Keywords: natural regeneration, transplanted regeneration, livelihood, tree management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aren or sugarpalm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) is a multipurpose palm species belongs
to Arecaceae family. The trunk is single and covered with a black fibrous hessian like material.
Aren often found in tropical Asian landscape with ample sun, lots of water (usually occur near the
river), and in a well drained position. The species grows best at high altitude area (500-800 m asl)
with precipitation above 1200 mm/year, 7-10 rainy months and average temperature around
25ºC (Soeseno, 2000). Animals such as palm civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Pallas) play an
important role in aren natural regeneration. In many areas, farmers believe that the best aren
planters are the palm civets (Mogea et al., 1991).
Traditionally, aren multiple non timber products (such as flower sap, thatch and fruits) has
been harvested for home consumption and to supply the local market demand. Thus, aren has
become a major contributor to the livelihoods in Indonesia (Mogea et al., 1991, Smits and
Widawati, 1999). Extractive harvesting with limited indigenous domestication efforts has become
the traditional management of aren in many parts in Indonesia. The perception that aren trees are
still abundant in the landscape may be a reason of farmer‘s reluctance in cultivating and
proactively managing aren. In the future, intense utilization of aren without improvement of its
domestication efforts would have negative impact on aren resource and natural ecosystem.
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In Indonesia, Batang Toru in North Sumatra and Tomohon in North Sulawesi are the
two site that received attention from scientists for aren study. Mogea et al. (1991) study has
summarized the aren utilization in those two sites, thus it would be useful to reconfirm the
information that was collected 20 years ago. Batang Toru and Tomohon have similar aren‘s
management practices, but only in Batang Toru is the fruit harvested and utilized. Fruit
harvesting is suspected to decrease the production of aren flower sap and potentially have a
negative effect on genetic variation, as fruit is harvested from superior trees and thus do not
regenerate. Raebild et al. (2001) study in Southern Burkina Faso showed that intensive seed
harvest of Parkia biglobosa has limited the natural regeneration of the species.
Utilization of non timber forest product (NTFP) is an alternative to optimize forest value
with limited impact on forest degradation when compared with timber extraction (Belcher et al.,
2005). NTFPs are generally used to supplement diets and household income, notably during
particular seasons in the year, and as economic buffer in hard times. However, NTFP harvesting
can affect the genetic diversity of the population being exploited, especially when harvesting
flowers or fruits (Peters, 1994). As NTFPs utilization is intensified (commercialization), NTFP
harvesting can altered and degraded the forest resource (Arnold and Perez, 2001). Traditional low
intensity harvesting of NTFP is expected can contribute to the sustainable forest management.
The traditional production systems are in harmony with the environment prior to exposure to
various forces of pressure (Kang and Akinnifesi, 2000). Knowledge on traditional species
management can be used as starting point to identify the actions necessary to sustain the
productivity of NTFPs species. Thus, in regards to maintain the sustainability of aren‘s
contribution to local livelihood and environment, traditional aren management systems are
studied to understand the regeneration and management practices of aren trees in the landscape.
As aren has been using as species for land rehabilitation, information from this study can be used
to foster community-based reforestation and livelihood enhancement in Indonesia.
2. METHODS
2.1 Location of Study
The Batang Toru landscape is located in North Sumatra, Indonesia and is a habitat of
Sumatran orangutan (Wich et al., 2003). It covers approximately 105,000 ha in 3 districts - North
Tapanuli, South Tapanuli and Central Tapanuli. Elevation in Batang Toru ranges from 200-1500
masl and annual precipitation of 1500-3000 mm, with dominant land cover types are primary
rainforest, rubber agroforests, agroforests/homegarden and paddy ricefield (Figure 1). Aren can
be encountered everywhere in the Batang Toru landscape particularly in riparian zone, from
forest to the agricultural areas near settlements. The cultivation of aren in Batang Toru is primarily
based on natural regeneration and extractive management, and efforts to domesticate aren remain
rare (Martini et al., 2011). Based on statistic data in 2008, there were 1,431 ha of aren-based
agricultural system in Batang Toru, and only 30-40% of the area was productive (BPS Sumatra
Utara, 2008). Aren's contribution to local livelihood in Batang Toru is from its four main
products, i.e. sugar, thatch, alcoholic beverage and aren fruits (Martini et al., 2011).
Tomohon district is located in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and consists of around 14,000
ha of land (Figure 2.). Elevation ranges of 500-1500 masl and annual precipitation of 1500-2000
mm, with the dominant land cover types are agroforests (with coconut, clove, vanilla, coffee and
cacao as its main products) and horticultural garden (with vegetables and flowers as its main
products). Forest occurs in the landscape with an area of 1,615 ha (ca. 10% of the total area of
Tomohon). Same as in Batang Toru, in Tomohon, aren can be encountered in many places in the
landscape from forest to agricultural areas near settlements. Based on statistic data in 2009, there
was a 980 ha of aren-based agricultural system in Tomohon, and only 30% of the area was
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productive (BPS Tomohon, 2009). Aren contribution to local livelihood in Tomohon is from its 3
main products, i.e. sugar, alcoholic beverage and thatch (Mogea et al., 1991).
Aek Nabara
Banuaji IV
Hutaraja
Pagaran Tulason
Sigiring-giring
Lumban Lobu
Paran Julu
Hutagurgu
r
Sipirok
Source: ICRAF Spatial Analysis Unit, 2010
Figure 1: Batang Toru land cover map from image analysis of LANDSAT satellite image in 2006
Source: BPS Tomohon, 2009
Figure 2: Administrative boundary of Tomohon district, North Sulawesi, Indonesia
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2.2 Data Collection
Primary data was collected in June to July 2010. General information on aren tree
management across the landscape, aren‘s contribution to local livelihood, and local ecological
knowledge on aren management were collected through interviews with key farmers, focus group
discussion, and direct observations (transect walk). The semi-structured interviews collected
quantitative data on empirical yield and qualitative data on tree regeneration strategy and
harvesting techniques. Interviews were conducted in 4 villages in Batang Toru (i.e. Aek Nabara,
Sigiring-giring, Hutaraja and Banuaji IV) and 5 villages in Tomohon (i.e. Tara-tara, Pinaras,
Kayawu, Rokrok and Rurukan). In total, 45 farmers were selected randomly for interview, with at
least 5 farmers per village. Markets issues were identified through discussion with farmers and
local traders. Secondary information from previous studies (Martini et al., 2011 and Mogea et al.,
1991) was used as supplement of the primary data.
2.3 Data Analysis
Rapid Assessment of Agroforestry Practices and Technology (RAFT) analytical
framework (Joshi and van Noordwijk, 2009) was modified to analyze information collected on
aren tree management systems in both sites. Quantitative data on aren productivity were compared
by t-test and descriptive statistics.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Aren’s Tree Regeneration, Management and Productivity
Aren trees occur scattered across both Batang Toru and Tomohon landscapes. In Batang
Toru, farmers harvested productive aren trees in their rubber agroforest garden (at elevation of 0800 m asl) and abandoned agroforest garden (above 800 m asl). Aren trees are also occurred in
the Batang Toru forest, however farmers are reluctant to harvest product from those trees due to
the long distances between forests and road or settlements. In Tomohon, farmers harvested
productive aren trees that occur in their agroforest garden (where clove and coconut as the
dominant species). Based on direct observation (transect walk), at the landscape scale aren tree
density in Tomohon is higher than in Batang Toru (Figure 3). Aren tree maintenance is rarely
practiced by farmers at either study sites, however thatch removal is belief to enhance tree
diameter growth.
Batang Toru
Tomohon
Figure 3: Aren occurrence in Batang Toru (left) and Tomohon (right)
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In the landscapes studied, two types of aren tree regeneration were identified, i.e. a)
natural regeneration, b) transplanted regeneration (Figure 4). Natural regeneration is depending
on the role of civets and other biota that disperse aren seed, there is no farmer intervention to
enhance seed germination seedling establishment or early growth (0-5 years). Transplanted
regeneration is practiced by trans-locating aren seedlings that regenerate naturally to farmer‘s tree
garden, there is no farmer intervention to enhance seed germination but farmers stimulate initial
growth of the seedlings by clearing areas in radius of 0.5 meter from the seedlings. Under current
conditions, at both sites, natural regeneration practice is preferred by farmers. Transplanted
regeneration is still rare. It is only practiced by ca. 10% of farmers in Batang Toru and not at all
in Tomohon.
Natural regeneration
Transplanted regeneration
Figure 4: Type of aren tree regeneration in Batang Toru and Tomohon
(left: natural regeneration; right: transplanted between rows of rubber trees)
Although aren tree density is higher in Tomohon than Batang Toru, on average, number
of aren trees that are tapped by farmers in both sites is relatively similar, mainly due to the
capability of a person in tapping and processing the sap. One farmer usually taps 5-6 aren
trees/day, with a maximum 12 aren trees/day.
Statistical analysis indicates there is no significant difference of aren sap productivity in
Batang Toru and Tomohon. However, Tomohon tends to have higher aren productivity than
Batang Toru (Figure 5.). Also in Tomohon the aren trees have better performance, i.e. bigger size
(height and diameter) and lengthy leaves with horizontal orientation, which are the characteristics
of superior trees based on farmers knowledge at both study sites.
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80
76
70
60
50
sap production
(liters/ha/farmer)
50
40
sap production
(liters/tree)
30
20
10
number of productive
trees (trees/ha)
14
11
6
5
0
Batang Toru
Tomohon
Figure 5: Average value of sap production and number of productive trees in Batang Toru and
Tomohon
Sugar content of the flower sap is not different at the two sites. Based on the standard
farmers practice, of dividing number of liters sap per kilogram of sugar that is produced, the
sugar content of the flower sap both in Batang Toru and Tomohon is 15-18%.
Variation in are tree productivity is high at both sites, this due to the high dependency to natural
regeneration and no selection for superior aren trees considered by farmers. Most farmers know
the characteristic of superior aren trees, however they are not yet use the knowledge in practice.
Up until now, there is no scientific knowledge that can describe the characteristic of superior aren
trees. Based on farmers knowledge, the characteristic of superior aren trees are:
4. Trees with longer and wider leaves yield more sap and sugar;
5. Trees with green leaves is better for sap production, and trees with grayish leaves is better
for starch production;
6. Trees with horizontal leaf orientation are better for sap production;
7. Trees with greater diameter and height yield more sap and sugar;
8. Trees with thick leaves yield more sap and sugar;
9. Trees with more female flower/inflorescences yield more sap and sugar (a minimum of 7
bunches of female inflorescence).
A paucity of aren trees in the accesible landscape deny farmers the confidence to effectively utilize
that knowledge.
3.2 Aren’s Traditional Product Harvesting Management
At both sites, flower sap is the most valuable products for aren farmers. Aren male flower
can be tapped after trees are 10 to 15 years old and can be tapped for another 10 to 15 years,
depending on the continued presence of productive flowers. However, in Tomohon farmers said
10 years is the effective productive period of an aren tree. After 10 years, Tomohon farmers shift
tapping to other new productive trees. While in Batang Toru, farmers stated that 15 years is the
general productive period of an aren tree. The differences may because by the fact that more aren
trees in Tomohon than Batang Toru, thus farmers will have more trees to be selected for tapping.
In general, both in Tomohon and Batang Toru farmers tap aren flower sap daily
throughout the year, with individula flower can be tapped consecutively for 6 months.
Depending on the purpose (e.g. sugar or alcoholic beverage), in one day farmers tap aren flower
twice for sugar production and once for alcoholic beverage (tuak with 5% alcohol content).
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Tapping techniques are similar in both sites. However, post-harvest processing techniques are a
different.
Besides aren flower sap, Batang Toru farmers also harvested the fruits for sweetmeat
(kolang-kaling). Because the fruit bunches are considered as source for sugar, thus out of 3-12
fruit bunches only 1-2 fruit bunches per tree that are harvested per year. Total weight of one
fruit bunch is around 60 kg which can be processed into 180 kg kolang kaling. The kolang-kaling is
sold to Medan, Jakarta, Riau with the price at farmer level Rp 2500/kg. The demand for kolangkaling is greatest during the Ramadhan (Moslem fasting month). Farmers in Tomohon didn‘t
produce kolang-kaling due to lack of market channel and local demand for kolang-kaling in
Tomohon.
Aren thatch is more intensively harvested in Batang Toru than in Tomohon, again this is
due to the presence of stronger market demand. In Batang Toru, thatch is sold for road
foundation material. While in Tomohon thatch is harvested for broom production. Poor families,
who do not have aren trees, harvested thatch of other farmer‘s aren tree and made it into brooms.
From 5 aren trees, usually at least 4 sheets of thatch can be harvested per year, with at least 2
kg/sheet and the price Rp 3,000/kg of thatch. Thatch production per trees are variative, depend
on the growth of the trees. Annually, thatch usually harvested twice every 6 months.
3.3. Aren’s Contribution in Local Livelihood
Aren's contribution to local livelihood both in Batang Toru and Tomohon can be
classified into its four main products, i.e. sugar, alcoholic beverage (5% and 30-40% alcohol
content), fruits (kolang-kaling) and thatch (ijuk) (Table 1.). However, farmers at the two sites have
different income strategy from aren products which are affected by the availability of productive
aren trees and market access.
Table 1. Aren‘s contribution to local livelihood in Batang Toru and Tomohon
Batang Toru
Products
Income strategy
Tomohon
Gross revenues
(per farmer)
Income strategy
Gross revenues
(per farmer)
Sugar
Weekly
12-20 USD/week
Daily
13 USD/day
Alcoholic
Weekly
2-10 USD/week
Daily
18 USD/day
None
None
Daily
14 USD/day
Kolang-kaling
Annually
450 USD/year
None
None
Ijuk
Annually
2 USD/year
Weekly
7 USD/week
beverage
(Tuak
5% alcohol content)
Alcoholic
beverage
(Tuak
30-40%
alcohol
content)
3.4 Discussion
Despite aren‘s importance to local livelihoods, in the past two decades there has been little
effort by farmers to cultivate aren in either Batang Toru or Tomohon. This trend is valid for most
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palms in the tropics (Byg and Balslev, 2006). Based on discussion with farmers, main reason for
limited aren domestication is because aren trees are still abundant in the natural landscape, and
that wildlife is percieved to be the appropriate and efficient mode for aren regeneration.
Based on analysis of Net Present Value and Return to Labour in Batang Toru Martini et
al. (2011) determined that aren management systems that depend on natural regeneration were
more profitable where aren trees are still abundant and the wildlife are still active in pollination
and seed dispersal. However, in areas where natural vegetation has been converted to other land
uses, cultivating aren by transplanted regeneration was a better option for supporting the
sustainability of aren utilization as a source of local livelihood systems. Byg and Balslev (2006) also
showed that perceptions of declining palm availability in combination with heavy reliance on
palm products were positively related to palm cultivation (domestication).
Currently, farmers in Batang Toru have begun to cultivate aren at regular spacing, while in
Tomohon farmers do not yet have strong motivation to do so. This is because natural
regeneration in Tomohon maintains aren tree density that is sufficient for farmer needs and
greater than in Batang Toru. The lack of fruit harvesting in Tomohon is suspected to facilitate
higher aren tree density as more fruit/seed are present to produce natural regeneartion.
Aren fruit harvesting is also thought to have an indirect negative effect on sap
productivity. In Tomohon where fruit is not harvesting, the trees are larger and the flower sap
production is greater. Mogea et al. (1991) reported that the sizes of aren trees in Tomohon are
larger than those described in other places. They suspected that the positive selection by
Tomohon farmers has resulted in aren populations with high sap production, as well as the fertile
dark andosols soil occurring in the area. For NTFP species which depend on natural regeneration
not only may deplete the species stocking in the area, but also deplete the genetic diversity which
is essential for selecting superior variants. This phenomenon was also observed with Parkia
biglobosa in Southern Burkina Faso (Raebild et al., 2001). Further genetic study need to be
conducted to collect more evidence of negative linkage between reduced natural regeneration and
fruit harvesting of aren.
Aren‘s value to local livelihood can also be enhanced by improving market access and
share of end-user value received by farmers. Sugar and tuak are primarily sold in local markets,
which is an advantage as price are relative stable compare to international market. On the other
hand, aren‘s thatch and fruits are exported mainly to Singapore. With the current global economic
crisis, international market prices of export product may reduce the economic benefit of the
exported products, in that context local market may be more secure.
In Indonesia, aren has been used to support ecological restoration and land rehabilitation,
because aren root systems contribute to the soil and water conservation, its contribution to local
livelihood and its compatibility with other plant species. Recent study by Martini et al. (2011)
concluded that to optimize the role of aren for local livelihoods and conservation, the number of
aren trees per hectare needs to be considered. A density of 12 aren trees/ha seems to be the
minimum for an aren agroforest to significantly contribute to a family livelihood. Thus, aren has
the potential to be used as species in community based forest restoration in Indonesia.
Furthermore, supported activities in enhancing aren‘s productivity under community based
reforestation scheme, needs to be identified.
4. CONCLUSION
In Batang Toru and Tomohon, aren is a source of livelihood for local communities. In
both landscape, aren trees are primarily encountered in degraded forests and farmers‘ tree
gardens. In this study, two types of aren tree regeneration were identified, i.e. a) natural
regeneration, b) transplanted regeneration. Currently, natural regeneration is preferred by
farmers. Farmers perceived wildlife as an appropriate and efficient mode of aren regeneration.
Under natural regeneration management, aren fruit harvesting may deplete the species stocking in
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the area and the aren genetic diversity which is essential for selecting superior variants. However,
further genetic studies are required to collect evidence of negative linkage between reduced
natural regeneration and fruit harvesting of aren. Furthermore, supported activities in enhancing
aren‘s productivity under community based forest restoration scheme, also need to be identified.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Activities in this study was funded by Agentschap NL Ministerie van Economische
Zaken Landbouw en Innovatie under Project number PEGENL085046 that was implemented by
Ecofys Netherlands Bv and Winrock International in 2011. Authors would like to thanks Dr.
Meine van Noordwijk, Dr. Willie Smits, Harry Kaunang and the Yayasan Masarang team, Jasper
van de Staaij, David Walden and all the farmers, traders and government officers in Batang Toru
and Tomohon for the support during the study.
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INAFOR 11H-063
Section H
Evaluation of Sustainable Forest Management: Review on Teak Forests
Management (Case Study at KPH Mantingan, Central Java)
Baharinawati W. Hastanti1 and Hasanu Simon2
1Forestry
Research Institute of Manokwari
Jl. Inamberi Susweni, Manokwari 98313, INDONESIA
2Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University
Jl. Agro-Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, INDONESIA
Paper prepared for
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Evaluation of Sustainable Forest Management: Review on Teak Forests
Management (Case Study at KPH Mantingan, Central Java)
Baharinawati W. Hastanti1 and Hasanu Simon2
1Forestry Research Institute of Manokwari
2Faculty
of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University
Jl. Agro-Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, INDONESIA
ABSTRACT
This study aim is to evaluate the sustainability management teak forest at KPH
Mantingan, which reviewed with benchmarks: 1) The dynamics calculation the etat between
period, 2) quality of stands to predict the change on productive area and provision of standing
stock from period to period and be successful plants and , 3) The intensity of theft that have
happened from year to year and the frequency of illegal logging throughout the year. This
research method in accordance with the descriptive method of research purposes. Research
conducted in the area KPH Mantingan. KPH Mantingan which is administratively located in
Rembang Regency and Blora Regency, Central Java Province. The results showed that forest
sustainability in KPH Mantingan is within normal limits, judging from the decline in productive
forest area and standing stock. Age class composition was dominated by young stands.
Socioeconomic conditions in the study area are characterized by the society condition around the
teak forests in Java, which has a variety of social problems.
Keywords: Management, forests, sustainable, etat, quality, standing, stakeholders
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Ministry of Forestry (2007), forest degradation rate in Indonesia have reached
approximately 59.2 million hectares with a rate deforestation approximately 2.83 million hectares
per year. Deforestation in Indonesia is caused by incorrect forest management over the years.
Nowadays, the purpose of forest management in general approaches the concept of the
sustainable forest development. A forest can improve people welfare, or in accordance with
sustainable forest slogan, the prosperous society.
Java has the highest population density in Indonesia because of its soil fertility.
Developments on this island already result on severe forest deforestations, and effects on floods
and landslides which have taken place each year. Decreasing on forest areas in Java occurs due to
the pressure of increasing population. The result is an increase in total labor force that is not
accommodated on employment area. High unemployment rate become a burden to forest
managers and it raises many sorts of problems as threats to forest sustainability.
Perum Perhutani is a state owned company that has authorized to conduct the
management of teak forests in Java since 1963. Forest areas that managed by Perum Perhutani is
covering about 2,904,547 ha, and around 55% (1,060,858 ha) has classified on teakwood
enterprise-class. After management by Perhutani, the condition of productive forest area is
about 625,641 ha, which around 60% are dominated by younger-age class or below 40 years old.
This condition occurs because of high level of security disturbances on trees over 40 years old,
the suitable age for harvesting. The security disturbance is due to the dense population in the
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surrounding forests and low level of education which contribute to the local people with lack
skills, thus causing a high dependence on nature resource in vicinity.
Perhutani has instructive (top-down) planning system that affects forest management
does not correspond with the socio-economic and biophysics condition which exist in a forest
area. The result is an increasingly widespread non-productive forest area, because of the failure
of forest management.
One of the necessities on forest sustainability is the calculation of the guaranteed cuttingetat is not over-cutting level. Etat calculations are affected by conditions related to the stands
quality, which can be seen in broad classes of productive forest and stock condition (growing
stock). Declining on class area of productive forest and the potential provision will result in
declining on specified etat.
The stands quality is associated with productive forest area and the potential class of
stock that grows stands, both is influenced by the quality of crops and intensity of timber theft.
Then, the failure of crops and occurrence of timber theft are influenced by socio-economic and
cultural conditions of communities around the forest.
According to the previous problem formulation, the purpose of this study is directed to
evaluate the sustainability of teak forests management in KPH Mantingan, which reviews the
benchmarks: 1) dynamic calculations of short period to long etat, 2) quality stands based on
changes of productive areas and standing stock in the long term and also successful crops rate
and 3) timber theft intensity that occurred from year to year and frequency of timber theft
throughout the year.
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Basic method used in this study is a descriptive method which related to research purpose
that evaluated the sustainability of teaks forest management at the KPH Mantingan. The changes
in the productive forest area and standing (growing stock) were used as forest sustainability
indicators. Parameters to control whether a forest manager has implemented the concept of
sustainability forest management are still difficult to be formulated objectively. But theoretically,
there are three conditions that must be met to establish a sustainable basis (Simon, 2007). This
study taken two measurements, which are : 1) it refers to formulated etat that have guaranteed no
over-cutting, then it is prepared to be annual harvest plans that was consistent with the spirit and
purpose of sustainable principle, 2) it has been formulated to ensure the successful regeneration
system on logged over areas.
The research was conducted in KPH Mantingan that administratively located in Rembang
Regency and Blora Regency, Central Java Province. The study was carried out on January to April
2009.
Types of data in this research consisted of primary data and secondary data. The primary
data were: 1) the results of calculations on extensive and volume etat from term to term, 2) the
conditions and stands structure, as result of comparing the composition of age classes from term
to term, 3) preparation and evaluation of crop plants for 5 years, 4) the composition of forest age
classes for each forest section on the long-period, 5) the intensity of timber theft obtained from
the letter A and the stump.
Secondary data which also collected were: 1) the general conditions of research areas,
2) climate information, 3) population demography of Rembang Regency and Blora Regency, and
4) Monograph of Mantingan Village.
Data analysis is a very important part in the scientific method, because the analysis give a
meaning and significance information to the data that are useful in solving research problems
(Nazir, 2005). Raw data have been collected need to be solved in groups, organized
categorization, manipulation or squeezed in such a way that the data has meaning to answer the
problem. Once the data is arranged in groups, and the relationships which occur has analyzed,
564
they should be interpreted related to the phenomena and compare with other phenomena
beyond the research.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Dynamics of Area Etat and Volume Etat
Development area and volume etat at KPH Mantingan from term to term are presented
in Table 1.
Tabel 1. Dynamics of area etat and volume etat at KPH Mantingan, 1961-2010
Company Period
10 years
1961-1970
1971-1980
1981-1990
1991-2000
2001-2010
Etat
Area (ha)
Volume (m3)
200,20
18,000
130,54
17,594
169,80
27,308
152,49
22,460
127,19
15,355
Productive Forest
Area (ha)
13,812.1
13,408.7
13,617.4
12,323.9
10,107.2
Source: RKPH Book (Second Sheet) KPH Mantingan Period 2001/2010
The table show fluctuation on volume etat and area etat. These happened because
productive area and standing stock changes. The composition of age classes on the productive
forest during the third period showed a decline and was dominated by young age classes (KU),
while the non-productive forest showed a rapid increase. This condition influenced on the etat,
so it was not surprising that the 3 last periods the etat continues to decline (Table 2).
Table 2. Productive Forest Area 1981 to 2010
Forest
Classes
10 years
A. Productive
Age Class I
Age Class II
Age Class III
Age Class IV
Age Class V
Age Class VI
Age Class VII
Age Class VIII
Age Class IX
Age Class X
Age Class XI
Sub Total
B. Non Productive
TOTAL
1981 to 1990
Area (ha)
%
Company Period
1991 until 2000
Area (ha)
%
2,242.40
1,384.70
2,165.30
875.60
1,687.60
1,017.10
1,632.30
805,00
48.80
158.70
51.40
12,067.90
1,952.90
14,020.80
3,085.50
2,028.60
1,013.70
918.20
513.60
1,338.50
830.50
1,413.30
532.20
11.674.10
2,794.10
14,468.20
15.99
9.88
15.44
6.25
12.04
7.25
11.64
5.74
0.35
1.13
0.37
86.07
13.93
100.00
Source: RPKH 2001 until 2010 period
565
21.33
14.02
7.01
6.35
3.55
9.25
5.74
9.77
3.68
80.69
19.31
100.00
2001 until 2010
Area
%
3,472.80
2,155.30
855.20
581.20
268.80
289.70
5.74
441.50
457.60
24.50
9,189.60
4,994.20
14,183.80
24.48
15.20
6.03
581.20
1.90
2.04
4.53
3.11
3.23
0.17
64.79
35.21
100.00
Productive forest class changed due to crop failure that to achieve certain KU to: 1)
failure of the planting and maintenance, 2) high security disturbance due to theft on trees, leaves
and other plant parts, and also grazing threats, 3) forest looting on reformation era at 1998.
Table 3. Standing stock changes
Forest
Classes
10 years
A. Produktive
Age Class I
Age Class II
Age Class III
Age Class IV
Age Class V
Age Class VI
Age Class VII
Age Class VIII
Age Class IX
Age Class X
Age Class XI
Sub Total
b. Non Productive
Total
1981-1990
Volume (m3)
4,303.95
89,717.60
212,296.54
110,035.17
9,653.59
201,067.24
141,234.08
239,467.53
117,494.68
24,944.50
9,230.95
1,159,445.83
9,938.80
1,169,384.63
Company Period
1991-2000
Volume (m3)
%
%
0.37
7.67
18.15
9.41
0.83
17.19
12.08
20.48
10.05
2.13
0.79
99.15
0.85
100.00
2001-2010
Volume (m3)
%
57,534.36
144,707.60
85,432.37
93,595.30
78,316.69
72,634.51
193,566.76
137,802.80
249,120.45
5.04
12.68
7.49
8.20
6.86
6.37
16.96
12.08
21.83
51,275.63
129,784.94
67,418.39
44,169.69
89,611.49
34,841.30
40,122.90
108,167.51
80,199.55
3,869.39
7.57
19.16
9.96
6.52
13.23
5.14
5.92
15.97
11.84
0.57
1,112,710.84
28,383.08
1,141,093.92
97.51
2.49
100.00
649,460.79
27,765.68
677,226.47
95.90
4.10
100.00
Source: RPKH 1981 to 2010
Table 3 shows that the standing stock on the 1981-2010 period indicated that there was a
relationship between volume etat and standing volume in last-three terms. Diminishing of
standing volume influenced a drop in volume etat. Decrease in standing stock of productive
forest classes was due to crops failure to achieve certain KU :1) failure of the planting and
maintenance system, 2) high security disturbance due to theft on trees, leaves and other plant
parts, and also grazing threats, 3) the forest looting on reformation era at 1998.
3.2 Quality of Stands on Each Forest Section
3.2.1. Kalinanas Forest Section
Stands quality on Kalinanas Forest Section can be described in Figure 4. The trend shows
the decreasing age classes in the old stands (on age class IV or age class V).
Table 4. Productive forest area in forest section of Kalinanas 1981-2004
Forest
Classes
Age Class I
Age Class II
Age Class III
Age Class IV
Age Class V
Age Class VI
Age Class VII
1981 (ha)
705.70
336.00
729.40
145.70
534.70
399.70
549.30
Year
1991 (ha)
613.60
247.40
460.90
48.20
408.30
215.80
566
2001 (ha)
2004 (ha)
120.30
162.50
120.10
15.70
190.40
24.90
46.20
14.10
27.00
Forest
Classes
Age Class VIII
Age Class IX
Age Class X
Age Class XI
Total
1981 (ha)
257.70
11.80
3,670.00
Year
1991 (ha)
362.70
203.50
2,560.40
2001 (ha)
143.90
110.60
863.50
2004 (ha)
57.50
169.70
Age Classes reduction to long period reflected in table above. In the 1981 until 1990 saw
the even distribution of age classes composition, although there was a decrease when old stand
area. The reduction age classes occurred in 1991 until 2000 period, but not too significant as
which occurred in 2001.
In the 1991 until 2000 period, Kalinanas Forest Section also suffered of pillage, but
apparently with no very serious consequences, because there was not a sharp reduction in the
other Forest Section. Thus in the year 2001 until 2004 there was a sharp reduction in the stands
due to looting and security disturbances on growing area of this forest Section.
Forest looting in the year 1998 in the reformation era gived great influenced the reduction
of productive forest area and age classes distribution of productive standing arrangement. This
would threaten the sustainability of the results, because occured over cutting from ilegal cutting.
3.2.2 West Sulang Forest Section
Stands condition at Sulang Barat Forest Section can be illustrated on Table 5. The trend
showed the reduction in the productive age class West Sulang Forest Section in the long period,
especially in old KU. Stands reduction from 1981- 1990 was still occurred within reasonable
limits. The reduction on young KU was likely due to crop failure or security breach. While in the
old KU reduction occurred because of legal harvest and disturbances.
Table 5. Productive forest area in West Sulang forest section 1981 to 2004
Forest
Classes
Age Class I
Age Class II
Age Class III
Age Class IV
Age Class V
Age Class VI
Age Class VII
Age Class VIII
Age Class IX
Age Class X
Age Class XI
Total
1981 (ha)
781.30
552.40
742.40
254.50
473.40
241.10
558.20
184.00
3.00
3,790.30
Year
1991 (ha)
709.00
344.20
318.50
155.00
317.90
246.60
527.20
174.50
2,792.90
2001 (ha)
2004 (ha)
226.40
140.20
93.60
63.10
48.20
6.00
97.80
675.30
68.10
25.20
59.30
3.00
155.60
There was a sharp reduction from 1991 to 2000. The reduction occurred almost evenly
across both young age classes and old age classes, as a result of forest plunder in 1998. In 2004 a
rapid study was carried out, and it still showed a reduction, mainly due to security problems. It
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seems that in the years 2000 until 2004 there was not yet secure, because forest looting still
occurred in many places.
3.2.2 East Sulang Forest Section
Stand condition at East Sulang Forest Section can be illustrated on Table 6. The table
shows a decrease on the productive age classes reduction in East Sulang Forest Section from the
long period, specifically on old age classes. Stands reduction from 1981 to 1990 was within
reasonable limits. The reduction of young age classes was likely due to crop failure or security
breach. While in the old age classes reduction occurred because of the legal harvest and
disturbances.
Table 6. Productive forest area in East Sulang forest section
Forest
Classes
Age Class I
Age Class II
Age Class III
Age Class IV
Age Class V
Age Class VI
Age Class VII
Age Class VIII
Age Class IX
Age Class X
Age Class XI
Total
1981 (ha)
754.40
496.30
693.50
484.40
679.50
376.30
524.80
363.30
34.00
158.70
51.40
4,616.60
Year
1991 (ha)
706.00
422.10
138.80
310.40
612.30
368.10
523.10
154.20
3,235.00
2001 (ha)
508.50
278.50
55.10
210.90
404.40
291.60
249.20
24.50
2,022.70
2004 (ha)
123.20
73.30
77.20
139.50
145.80
169.30
3.20
731.50
The table shows a sharp reduction from 1991 to 2000. The reduction occurred almost
evenly across both young age classes and old age classes, as a result of forest plunder in 1998. In
2004 a rapid study was carried out, and it showed a reduction, mainly due to security problems.
It seems that in the years 2000 until 2004 the condition was not yet secure, because forest looting
is still occurred in many places.
3.3 Realization and Evaluation of Plant Cultivation
Tree planting by KPH Mantingan in the period 2004 to 2007 on table 7 above:
Table 7. Realization and evaluation
Planting
Region
Year
2004
Total of
Planting
Plot
Assesment
Area (ha)
Year
Kalinanas
19
149.80
2005
Ngiri
20
Sudo
Percentage of Planting Growth (%)
Primary
Fence
Hedge
Edge
Rated
Criteria
of Plot
93.98
100.00
88.33
88.65
92.50
Good
117.50
93.34
100.00
89.13
91.50
90.40
Good
15
89.40
92.49
100.00
88.33
90.10
87.30
Good
Medang
27
188.70
95.50
100.00
90.58
92.59
91.61
Good
Demaan
15
111.30
93.12
100.00
83.01
89.37
80.44
Good
Kebon
19
171.30
92.50
100.00
88.50
85.38
89.84
Good
115
828.00
93.65
100.00
88.28
89.50
90.65
Good
Total
Mean
568
2005
Kalinanas
12
115.30
Ngiri
18
Sudo
16
Medang
Demaan
Kebon
94.10
100.00
86.30
90.30
92.72
Good
159.50
91.20
100.00
75.50
82.30
89.16
Good
104.50
92.80
100.00
72.30
88.70
90.24
Good
24
229.20
94.00
100.00
83.60
82.70
92.57
Good
16
170.20
93.30
100.00
65.90
83.90
88.05
Good
17
159.20
94.40
100.00
88.00
92.50
92.17
Good
103
937.90
Mean
93.40
100.00
78.90
86.20
90.88
Good
Kalinanas
21
245.80
2007
94.22
100.00
85.10
85.70
92.89
Good
Ngiri
22
69.20
95.95
100.00
89.30
90,50
94.35
Good
Sudo
23
97.20
95.99
100.00
81.20
80.20
92.26
Good
Medang
24
277.20
96.55
100.00
73.50
63.80
94.65
Good
Demaan
8
68.90
95.86
100.00
77.20
81.80
94.40
Good
15
71.40
95.47
100.00
84.00
69.80
94.64
Good
Total
2006
2006
Kebon
Total
113
829.70
Mean
95.60
100.00
80.40
76.40
93.62
Good
Kalinanas
55
322.80
2008
96.40
100.00
80.60
88.60
90.27
Good
Ngiri
33
263.40
95.70
100.00
60.80
61.90
87.78
Good
Sudo
69
420.00
90.90
100.00
64.40
53.30
86.93
Good
Medang
153
1,171.40
94.70
100.00
78.00
65.40
88.57
Good
Demaan
58
328.00
87.50
100.00
69.60
70.60
85.62
Good
Kebon
78
564.80
88.00
100.00
75.30
85.20
82.99
Quite
Total
446
3,070.40
Mean
92.50
100.00
Source: Result of Planting Assesment KPH Mantingan 2004 to 2007
73.60
70.10
87.12
Good
2007
The assessment use assumption of absence on forest disturbances, either because of
theft, natural disasters and fires. If the plants quality at KPH Mantingan can be maintained until
old age of stands, it might be able to improve the condition of productive forest stands. In the
future, the etat will increase in 3 to 4 periods. So, that will enhance the legal harvest production
and achieving the sustainable yield further.
3.4 Timber Theft Intensity
Table 8 : Timber Thefts Intesity at KPH Mantingan
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Letter A
(moment)
1,699
2,632
689
712
632
847
938
1,459
995
1,347
2,891
612
583
Percentage
(%)
9.81
15.19
3.98
4.11
3.65
4.89
5.42
8.42
5.74
7.78
16.69
3.53
3.37
569
Stump
(tree)
8,478
6,894
6,466
7,366
6,234
5,135
5,327
69,427
91,635
94,329
189,019
23,809
11,282
Percentage
(%)
1.56
1.27
1.19
1.36
1.15
0.95
0.98
12.79
16.88
17.38
34.83
4.39
2.08
Year
Letter A
(moment)
2004
2005
Total
685
601
17,322
Percentage
(%)
3.95
3.47
100.00
Stump
(tree)
9,458
1
54,762
Percentage
(%)
1.74
1.46
100.00
Source: RPKH Period 2001 to 2010
Low level of social welfare and a lack of community involvement in forest management,
leading to increased intensity of the timber theft. The highest intensity occurred in 2001 was the
peak year of forest plunder, given the unstable security conditions, as a result of domestic
political upheaval.
3.5 Profil of Mantingan Village
The profile of Mantingan Village indicates a sosio-economic condition of communities
around RPH Mantingan (Forest Autonomy Resort). The description of socio-economic
conditions used to determine the social problems which threaten the sustainability forest. Socioeconomic conditions in the Mantingan Village describes the characteristics of socio-economic
conditions of communities around the teak forests in Java.
3.5.1 Land Use and Land Ownership
Most of the land in the Mantingan Village is state forest area, which cover area around
903.42 hectares or 88.59% of the total land area in the Mantingan Village. This forest area
included in the territory of RPH Mantingan, consists of Mantingan Tourism Forest and Teak
Production Forest. From that area, farm area reached 51.962 ha or 5.1%. Area of rice-field with
irrigated or rain-fed area was 45.064 ha, or 4.42% of the land area of the village. The smallest
area of land was used as public forests, only about 0.2 ha.
3.5.2 Population
Distribution of population according to age in Mantingan Village tend to be evenly from
age 14 to age 44 years. Total population aged 0 to 14 years is 402 people or 25.69% of the total
population of the village. Population aged 15 to 29 years is 401 people or 25.63% of total
population and the population aged 30 to 44 years is 398 people or approximately 25.43% from
total population. All three groups are distributed on each of the range of 25%. People aged 14 to
59 years belong to the population productive age.
In general, rural children aged 15 years have been able to help their parents to work as
handymen in their village or as domestic servants in the city. Although the actual age of the child
is school-age. The smaller age distribution is at age above 44 years. Age group of 45 to 59 years
is about 209 people or 13.35% of the population. The elderly population is only about 9.90% or
as many as 155 people.
The count ratio of the load-dependent (dependency ratio) of the population reached point of
55. This means that 100 people in productive age population will bear the economic burden of
55 people on unproductive aged population. In other words, a person from productive age bear
the burden of 2 people from unproductive aged. This condition showed how heavy the load of a
resident in the village of Mantingan.
3.5.3 Labor Absorbed by Several Sectors
Most of the labors in the village of Mantingan were absorbed in the agricultural sector.
Around 424 people or approximately 61.01% of the total labor works in farming. Services sector
absorbed around 93 people or 13.38%. Others are absorbed in the formal sector are PNS/TNI/
POLRI which recorded 40 people or 5.76%. In the trading sector, as many as 30 people or
570
4.32% were absorbed. While the industrial sector only absorbed 4 people or 0.48%. The
existence of the labor absorbed in other sectors that are not clearly explained, causing the
perception of unemployment that are not obvious as well. Moreover, this uncertain sector
absorbed of 104 people or 14.96%. It is feared that the unemployed might have subtle effect on
the high intensity of timber theft around RPH Mantingan, because it can be used as labor in the
activities of timber theft.
3.6 Result Analysis and Solution Suggested
According to changes in area of productive forest and potential forest stands, KPH
Mantingan categorized as normal sustainability forest. Etat which is defined as a condition of
preservation of the forest is in long period but remains the limits of reasonableness.
The dynamics of etat which occurred in KPH Mantingan is due to policy changes in the
calculation etat which carried out by managers and changes in productive forest area and
potential of the standing stocks. Policy changes made in the calculation etat was based on
Instruksi of 1974. If the previous policy of Instruction 1938, etat calculations performed using
the method gecombinerd vark week or annual methods, while according to Directive 1974, etat is
calculated based on the method of Burns. In this method, etat determined using the average age
of cutting, so theoretically, logging for all ages is allowed. The decrease in KPH Mantingan etat
was caused by a reduction in productive forest class area and potential standing stock. Thus,
there was a decline in the calculation of both area and volume etat.
The composition of uneven age class and domination of young age classes, has caused crop
failures and forest disturbances. At young age classes, stand reduction occurred because of
security problems, such as grazing, leaves theft and fodder collection. Reduction of standing
increased along with increasing stand age, because the tree was worth selling to particular
interests, such as wood purpose.
The results of the assessment on aged plants of less than 2 years old showed a high rate of
successful plants. This condition happened because the ―pesanggem‖ (worker farmer) was
allowed to do intercropping on 2-year-old plant. Therefore, plant safety properly maintained and
free from disturbances because the plant was in intensive supervision by pesanggem who
permitted to plant crops as a filler plant.
Timber theft and other security threats are reduction reason on teak stands beside the
planning procedure. These problems were influenced by the socio-economic conditions of
communities around the forest. Based on the results of research in the Mantingan Village, Bulu
District, Rembang Regency which is located in the RPH Mantingan, BKPH Kebon and Section
Forest East Sulang, it shows that the condition of forest communities can be a threat to forest
sustainability.
If the timber theft is continuously present, then it will affect the stands quality. Further,
stands reduction will result on decrease the specified etat. Therefore etat calculations must be
done carefully, taking into account the stands reduction by the theft of timber.
Meanwhile, in the period 2001 to 2010 there was a reduction of stands on a large scale and
almost evenly occurred on all KU in KPH Mantingan. The reduction was caused by the public
looting at the beginning of reformation in 1998. The tree looting in 1998 lasted until 2004,
showed the conflict between Perhutani as a forest manager with the community. The conflicts
occurred because of public dissatisfaction with the forest management conducted by Perhutani,
especially with the limits of forest management policies that do not involve the surrounding
community. Mainly the community was against the use of repressive security approach in
securing the forest and an excessive limitation of public access in forest resources utilization.
At that time, damage and reduction of stands occurred almost uniformly in all KU. This
has led to loss which suffered Perhutani as state forest Management Company and at the same
571
time threatens forest sustainability. Specified etat in any subsequent period was decrease greatly,
owing to a decrease in standing stock and broad classes of productive forest.
The steady depletion of the specified etat caused the collapse of forest management
conducted by Perhutani. The decline in forest area and standing stock was influenced by socioeconomic conditions communities of surounding forest. Moreover, the lack of community
involvement happened in forest management.
According to the cases that occurred around the Mantingan Village in RPH Mantingan, it is
necessary to involve the community programs, also the various interests of the parties (multistakeholder). In line with the population development, followed by the emergence of socioeconomic problems, the concept of monoculture forests had to be abandoned. Hence the
concept of forest management timber management paradigm should be increased to the concept
of forest management paradigm with Forest Resource Management (FRM). One forest
management paradigms with FRM is the Pengelolaan Hutan Jati Optimal (PHJO, Optimal
Management of Teak Forest) which has tested in KPH Madiun (Simon, 2008).
PHJO is suitable to be applied in forest management at KPH Mantingan as forest in Java,
because the decrease in area productive forest and standing stock affect social problems, which
characterized by:
• The land ownership is only about 0.2 ha / household, so the need for land beyond the
maximum.
• The need for food and forest products increases along with the population.
• The high number of unemployment
Planning system in PHJO is incentive planning that aims to maximize the productivity of
the region in order to improve the community welfare. This planning model should be more
emphasized on efforts to understand the public perception in the use and manage forest
resources, so that the system of forest management on PHJO is more comprehensive (holistic).
The division results in a system PHJO are weighing more on the principle of symbiosis
mutualism, so there would be an equally profitable relation between forest managers and
community. Therefore, PHJO is designed to form a relationship with a balanced position and
the comparable status between the actors (stakeholders) in determining the policies and
operational programs.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 CONCLUSION
1.
2.
3.
Sustainability forest in KPH Mantingan is in normal range. Although there is a tendency of
decrease in long period etat. However it is within reason. The etat decline occurred in
forest productive area and standing stock which caused by stands quality decrease.
Quality stands decline in KPH Mantingan caused by stands age classes is not evenly
distributed. Distribution of age classes in the long term show that the old stands (age class
V above) tend to decrease than the young stands (age class I to age class IV). The crops
quality in the first years showed a good percentage of the ―to be‖ criteria 90% above for
planting trees. The old stands that reduced caused by security disturbance like timber
thefts, cause this age stands already can be sold.
Timber thefts intensity in KPH Mantingan was so high, but in recent years tends to
decline. The high intensity of timber thefts caused by socio-economic conditions in the
less-welfare community. Therefore, the community can be utilized by the certain parties to
commit the theft. While the theft timber intensity falling over due to decreasing tree
numbers in stands, so the security staff has to be more intensive in controlling.
572
4.
Forest looting that occurred on reformation era 1998, influenced on productive forest area.
The even reduction of productive age class stands affected etat decline. Forest looting were
caused by social conflict between forest manager (Perhutani) and the communities. This is
due to dissatisfaction with the lack of forest management opportunities at the community
stage in the forest resources utilization.
4.2 Recommendation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Etat calculation should be determined carefully to avoid over-cutting that threatens the
sustainability of the forest. Number of illegal cutting due to pilferage should be taken into
account by the legal cutting.
There is a need to increase people participation in forest planning and management, in the
period of the community attainment. Role of the community of forest management lead to
a sense of ownership of forests, which will reduce the disturbance of forest security and
social conflict.
Based on the problems at the research sites, due to the increase in population among
others, lack of arable land, high number of unemployment and the increasing need for food
and wood, the program of Optimal Management of Teak Forests (PHJO) should be
applied to accommodate the interests of managers and the public interest.
PHJO is one of community empowerment programs. The program provides an
opportunity for community forest management plan together with forest managers.
Community acted as subject and have a parallel role as a partner of Perhutani.
REFERENCES
Nazir, M (2005): Metode Penelitian. Bogor. Ghalia Indonesia
Perum Perhutani (1993): Prosiding Lokakarya Pemantapan Klas Perusahaan Jati. Jakarta. Direksi
Perum Perhutani.
Perum Perhutani (1960): Rencana Perusahaan KPH Mantingan Jangka 1961-1970. Seksi
Perencanaan Hutan Rembang.
Perum Perhutani (1970): Rencana Perusahaan KPH Mantingan Jangka 1971-1980. Seksi
Perencanaan Hutan Rembang.
Perum Perhutani (1980): Rencana Pengaturan Kelestarian Hutan KPH Mantingan Jangka 19811990. Seksi Perencanaan Hutan Wilayah Rembang.
Perum Perhutani (2008): Laporan Definitif Pembuatan Tanaman KPH Mantingan 2008. KPH
Mantingan.
Perum Perhutani (2006): Statistik Hutan KPH Mantingan. Rembang. KPH Mantingan.
Perum Perhutani (1986): Petunjuk Penyusunan RPKH SK Dirjen Kehutanan No
143/Kpts/Dj/I/1974. Semarang. Perum Perhutani Unit I Jawa Tengah.
Simon, H (2004): Aspek Sosio Teknis Pengelolaan Hutan Jati di Jawa. Yogyakarta. Pustaka
Pelajar.
Simon, H (2004): Membangun Desa Hutan. Kasus Dusun Sambiroto. Yogyakarta. Gadjah Mada
University Press.
573
Simon, H (2006): Hutan Jati dan Kemakmuran. Yogyakarta. Pustaka Pelajar.
Simon, H (2007): Diktat Perencanaan Pembangunan Sumber Daya Hutan. Yogyakarta.
Unpublished.
Simon, H (2008): Pengelolaan Hutan Bersama Rakyat. Yogyakarta. Pustaka Pelajar
574
INAFOR 11H-064
Section H
Vulnerability of Mountains People of Papua to the Climate Change
Susan T. Salosa
Forestry Research Institute of Manokwari
Paper prepared for
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Vulnerability of Mountains People of Papua to the Climate Change
Susan T. Salosa
Forestry Research Institute of Manokwari
ABSTRACT
Global climate change effects have different intensities on people‘s life related to the
degree of vulnerability to the change. The avaibility of natural resources like forest, water and
other resources have taken role to the people‘s vulnerability. Mountain people is a community
that might vulnerable to the climate change because of depending on natural resouces for their
life socially, economically and culturally. The research was conducted in two villages on Arfak
Mountains and two villages of Jayawijaya district at more than 1,500 m asl. The research method
was descriptive with semi-structural interviewed technique in order to predict the vulnerability of
local people to the climate change. Data were analized by tabulation and scorings. The result of
the research showed that local people of Arfak Mountains and Wamena are relatively vulnerable
when extremely climate change occur like raising on temperature and rainfall. The scores identify
people of Arfak Mountains and Wamena sensitivity as quite sensitive to sensitive related to social,
economics and biofisic of the location. Their main source of income, agriculture, and place where
they live will be affected because their position on slope which is at big risks of erosion and
flood. Where as, people in Wamena, the district of Jayawijaya, experience adversity sometimes
and lost their source of income, sweet potato, because of unpredictable flood.
Keywords: climate change, vulnerability, Arfak Mountains people, Wamena
1. INTRODUCTION
In Papua, there are certain places in the high mountains consideraly colder than low land
areas. The temperatures of the places are below 300C and once upon the time, those were lower
than 100C. Today, the temperatures are going warmer than before. Many changes occure at the
areas because of temperature transformation, such as presents of new plants, decreasing of
firewood utilization, change on a house construction and other new changes.
The change of the temperature as the effect of the Global climate influences either
biophisics or ecology aspects. Those aspects can not be seperated from people‘s life, particularly
to forest people, and those who live along river bank and coastal area, so their lifes are counted as
vulnerable on the situation and at the point of adaptation, they will need government awarness to
cope the situation.
Arfak mountain and Jayawijaya lie on areas of Papua and West Papua provinces. There
are several sub districts in Arfak Mountain, such as Minyambouw, Anggi, Sururey, Taige, Anggi
Gida and Hingk with around 104 villages. Minyambouw sub district itself is consisted of 56
villages. The local people also devided to three main tribes; Hatam/Moule, Soughb dan Meyakh.
Where as Jayawijaya district consists of 11 sub districts with some tribes like Welesy and other
tribes. Those people have similarlity on way of life eventhough they live on different part of
Papua island.
People from other places had roles in the transportation and introduction of new species
in the areas. People were coming from USA and Europe brought some kinds of plants which
were suitable for low temperature at 1960‘s such as markisa (passion fruit), tomat belanda, daun
bawang (onion leaf), kentang (potatos) and lately strawberry.
576
The terminology of climate is still uncommon for the local people of Arfak and Wamena.
They are more familiar with the changes of micro climate and local season which cause
unpredictable of wet and dry season because both of them can occur at the same time one after
the other without consider on season calender used to use since long time ago.
If the climate change can not be interupted and emission continue goes up, so the very
dangerous disaster will be happen for all people. People in the remote area and women will put
on very risk groups to climate change because they are subject of agriculture. When the season
and climate change, it is possible, the plants in the garden will be affected either on their quality
or quantity. People need transformation in plant use, so they have to have sufficient knowledge
to try something new, nothing in regular. This research is going to find out how vulnerable of
local community to the climate change or extrimely change of season especially community who
live in forest or around the forest. How people adapt to the change based on their local wisdom
or their economic ability. The research goal is to predict how vulnerable of forest local
community to the extrimely climate and season change.
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
The research was conducted from May 2010 to November 2011 in the two villages of
Minyambaw sub district and district of Jayawijaya at mountain ecosysitems. Minyambouw sub
dustrict consists of 56 villages as a result of area enlargement under special autonomy laws. The
locations of the research are shown in the Figure 1 and 2 below.
Figure 1: Location of Minyambow sub district
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Figure 2: Location of Jaya Wijaya
2.1 Research Procedure
Data devided to primary and secondary data which are collected by field and literature
studies. Survey was applied by open ended interview to the key informant and semi structural
interview to householders including conducted of group discussion.
The key informants such as custom leaders, community leaders, village leaders and other
elders in the group of tribes were asked the topic questions and let them explained all things in
detail. Samples of interview were taken 10% because it is relatively similar. For example in
Minyambouw, the interview was conducted to 19 persons because number population is 190
persons. Nevertheles, mostly interviews were group discussion because people prefers come and
join their guests (researcher) in the guest house and have chat and meal together at every meal
time.
Data were collected consisted of socioeconomy and biophysic aspects. For example
house income, social networking and informasi access, topography, environment condition and
land cover. The aspects were continually arranged as exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity.
2.2 Data Analysis
Vulnerability (V)= f(E,S,AC);
where V= Vulnerability; E= Exposure; S= Sensitivity; AC=Adaptive Capacity
Exposure is data of rainfall from Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika for 10 (ten) years. Sensitivity is the
social and economy aspects such as number of population and householders source of income,
source of water and food as well as history of disaster like erotion and flood.
Adaptive Capacity is a local wisdom of community to preserve the biodiversity and to manage
their life in the different situation. Data were then processed as tabulation.
578
Located in the different mountains areas which are Arfak mountains at vogelcop area at
the birdhead of Papua island where as Jayawijaya mountain is at the series of central mountains
of Papua island, the lifestyle in the local communities shows similarities in the practice of
gardening, hunting and collecting in the forest. People mostly live their lives through garden. One
garden belongs to the members of the family, because they share same location eventhough they
are married.
Kinship relations are very close and young couples who get married at a very young age
are generally still living together with parents including widows or widowers. Thus in one house
may consist of two or more families. In Wamena, one house consists of a husband with many
wives in the place named honay.
3.1 Living on Arfak Mountain
Arfak mountain society is a society that spread across multiple Hatam led by a chieftain
of the Hatam. But in each and every area of the village there is a leader of indigenous affairs or
the elder people to make decisions concerning indigenous peoples. The structure of Hatam
government can be seen in the Figure 3 below.
Andigpoy/Adhesut
Custom Leader
Pinjoiding/Sutkoiji
Nekei
Pinjoindig/Lusutmos
Advisor
Judge
Public relation
Figure 3: Hatam government
Hatam tribe is known as mountain people who live by the farming, gathering and
hunting. They also live in a house with a stage model, also called ― rumah kaki seribu‖ millipedes
house (iymama). This house consists of seven grounds or floors from bottom to top: ninghimma,
ngimabaha, siraga, bitaua, buhmnewa, tindangan and ijcowa. The seven-story symbolizes the legend of
the origin of Arfak. There are two main rooms in the house of a thousand feet , the women's
room (ngimsi) and male space(ngimdi).
In society, there is no difference welfare based on ownership between farmer, except
ownership of house and electronic goods. Generally, community inhabites ―rumah kaki seribu‖,
but some families have permanent housing (concrete) and the home boards and electronic
appliances, such as televisions, gangset, radio and other electronic devices.
Hatam indigenous peoples have a their own traditional concept in order to utilize and
manage land and forest named Igya ser hanjob. Igya ser hanjob comes from the Hatam, igya means
standing, ser means maintaining and hanjob meaningful limits, so igya ser hanjob means standing to
guard the borders. Limit here is not just mean the area boundary, but the limits in all aspects of
Arfak community life. In the Moule language, igya ser hanjop is as same as mastogow hanjob.
3.2 Living on Jayawijaya Mountain
The communities in the Jayawijaya mountain are lead by a general custom leader. The
general custom leader is a leader of the big tribe. The leader has indeed many leader assistants in
579
the group or villages who have responsibilities to handle all the custom bussiness in the
community, such as conflicts between tribe members, married and other occasions in the tribe.
Where as, the custom institution is also supported by LMA (Lembaga masyarakat adat) and the
elders in the communities.
In order to fulfill their needs of food, People in Wamena are mostly doing gardening.
Garden is also source of income beside rising pigs and chickens. The food also can be gathered
from forest and people in Wamena have local knowledge about source of food based on the type
and function of the forest:
1. Tomoba, area consits of hills and mounts.
2. Wiramokama; a source of small size forest coconuts (wiramo).
3. Sakalimo; no wood but small grass.
4. Dimekama; from word dim means big size forest coconut.
5. Pilikhila; The cornerest area is a place for pig hunting.
6. Hawisekama; a big size trees for timber and construction.
7. Ikewa/bidiba (Trikora peak); Alpine vegetation.
8. Hasuba; no human and pig.
3.3 Climate Change in Papua
In the research areas, communities has felt that the air temperature has turned into a
warmer. In Arfak mountain, people point to the construction of roads into remote district as the
cause of air temperature changes. But when well observed, the extrimely change is not exis which
can be pointed out as the cause of climate or local climate change. There is indeed some area
opening for settlements and road, but no immigration even in some villages it appears that the
name of head of household listed as village residents were live in the city. More over, the susti
region is relatively adequate for agriculture, so ecology is intact. Then it can be ascertained that
the changes that occur at this time really is the effects of global climate change (global climate
change).
In Jayawijaya mountain, the area was opening for governmental area enlargement like
new villages, new sub districts and new districts like Yalimo district, Puncak Jaya district and
other new districts. Moreover, a high demand of firewood in the area for daily basis and area
development were making rapid timber extraction in the remains forest. Those conditions migh
be affected change of micro climate in Wamena and it‘s around.
3.4 Interpretation of Vulnerability to Climate Change
Local community generally live in the Arfak mountain and Jayawijaya mountains by
planting appropriate plant at low temperatures, between 14-220C, such as plant leeks, cabbage,
mustard greens, strawberries, pumpkins, passion fruit, tomatoes and potatoes. That is the source
of their life. The existence of cash can only be obtained if people can sell their agricultural yield
to the market. However, the results obtained almost at the cost of transport that is used to
market. The goods are generally sold with a kilogram in a sack because the public wants
immediate cash to pay for transportation.
Household income can only be used for the low purchase of nine staples (food) in a
minimal amount. There is no other income for a full time farmer, but civil servants and teachers
of the church (church ministers) who still have extra income. A strong dependence on
agriculture, of course, would be vulnerable in the event of extreme climate changes affect the life
of existing plants. Until this time, agriculture was still adequate and sufficient consumed and sold.
But if there is extreme heat and affect the crops planted in the garden then of course this will
affect its revenue and community life. Need to think about alternative crops that are resistant to
higher temperatures which are species in accordance with local biophysical. People have tried to
cultivate tubers, such as cassava, sweet potato, and another plant like banana, but these plants
take a long time to bear fruit over 5 months and 12 months.
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The warmer temperature cause the presence of other plant species in gardens and
agricultural areas that were previously not, like grass of the city, a kind of betel plant forests
(amuan) (paper sp), purple flowers (lepsau mbre). These plants can grow fast and strong roots so that
complicate the cleanup and become weeds for agricultural land.
In the sub district of Minyambow, communities are many who migrated to the city to
attend school, especially the younger generation. BPS, 2008, mentions that the population
appears to have declined Minyambouw namely 2003 (10 815 inhabitants), 2004 (11 417
inhabitants), 2005 (5566 inhabitants), 2006 (6021 inhabitants), and 2007 (6367 inhabitants)
allegedly because of urbanization and the formation of a new district. Many people also moved
into the area Warmare, Prafi Umbui village. When staying long in the city, there is a return to the
village but some are not or rarely returned for reasons not stand the cold air. They feel more at
home in the city because it is more crowded, close to markets to sell crops and not cold.
Meanwhile, people in Minyambouw say that today the temperature is warmer than the air
temperature before. It is estimated that in the 1990s, the air temperature is about 100C.
With good road access to the areas that previously could only be reached by walking for
± 6 (six) hours of Warmare, can now be reached in less than 2 hours. Vulnerability to external
migration and the need for development will encourage the expansion of areas for development
by cutting down bahamti to be susti. Villages are located in areas of steep slopes would be difficult
in regional development.
From the study, obtained information that the conditions in the mountains began to
appear a change because of development. The road network into remote areas are began to be
built which is marked by the opening of roads and street violence. The opening of roads and
settlements is directly resulted in the felling of trees and land clearing. Roads are made for
connecting the Manokwari district with districts in the mountainous district Arfak, like
Minyambouw and Anggi district. At this present time the people who occupied the village and
building a house is not solid but if the number of people and settlements grew so will result in a
reduction of bahamti, damage to the ecology and erotion.
Communities in Minyambouw stated that the current situation Minyambouw region has
begun to change more advanced. The existing road has come to the region to deliver vehicles
that had been accessible only on foot. Communities can see vehicles passing right in front of
their house. The development of the region participated Minyambouw perceived impact to the
natural changes and the temperature in the area. Temperatures now range between 14-230C felt
warmer than previously estimated ± 100C. Previous society requires a lot of firewood for burning
stove fireplace that serves as the heating in the house when the bed but now is not the case
anymore. Firewood is taken only once every three days for heating. Society are began to establish
permanent and semi permanent houses and millipedes homes turned into kitchens.
Construction millipede house with stove fire in the house useful as a heater / warmer in
the house. But now the furnace fire can take place outside the home or in the kitchen, not in the
main house. In addition, people expressed about the presence of mosquitoes. Society says that
"the mosquitoes come with car." Mosquitoes are mentioned as animals from the city, which
previously did not exist in Minyambouw. Mosquito Suitable live in hot areas because mosquitoes
have a very good heat receptors. In addition, the mosquitoes that come from forests become
strong wings when the forest is opened and they are exposed to direct heat (Media Indonesia,
2010). In Manokwari, clinical malaria, the highest ranked 34,628 or approximately 25% of the
types of illnesses reported affects more people (CBS, 2008). For access to information, radio
waves (RRI) was relatively well received in the district Minyambouw. Other telecommunication
networks like Telkomsel signal, only acceptable in certain places in the district Minyambouw.
In the district of Minyambow, there is no recording of climate data or rainfall data. The
closed data could be found in Manokwari regency data which is difficult to depict the condition
581
on Arfak Mountain. The days of rainfall and monthly rainfall (mm) in Manokwari can be seen in
Figure 4 below.
300
250
200
150
curah hujan (mm)
100
Hari Hujan (hari)
50
0
Source: Bureau of Meteorology and Geophysics of Manokwari district
Figure 4: The days of rainfall and monthly rainfall (mm) in Manokwari regency
In the district of Jayawijaya, Wamena, there is unpredictable flood that causes gardens in
the valley fail to harvest. People have to find another source of income for a couple months for
their living. Their is no possibility to move to other places because of limited ownership. So, to
maintain sustainability of hasvest, cultivation of suitable plants will be very necessary. Nowadays,
plants that consider as hot temperature plants which were not grow and bear a fruit in the cold
temperature, recently become grow and fruitfull as well such as coconut (Cocos nucifera), avocado
and other plants.
The days of rainfall and monthly rainfall (mm) in Manokwari can be seen in Figure 5
below.
Source: Bureau of Meteorology and Geophysics of Jayawijaya district
Figure 5: The days of rainfall and monthly rainfall (mm) in Jayawijaya
582
Thus an existing vulnerability can be detailed at Table 1 as follows:
Table 1. Vurnerability of People and Enviroment to the Climate Change
Aspect
Community
Vulnerability
very vulnerable - Need explanation on climate change
and how to anticipate the change.
- Use efficient materials
- Govermental offices in charge:
Bapedalda, Forest Service, Agriculture,
Health and related offices.
Economy
very vulnerable - Provide other alternative sources of
income, such as develop bussiness on
fruits, flowers, honey, butterflies etc.
- Department of Agriculture, Cooperative
Office
vulnerable
- Need an appropriate regional planning,
- Job creation
- Provide a transit market (market intervillage / district)
vulnerable
- Provide clear spatial planning
Forest Degradation
Deforestation
Vulnerable
- Provide clear spatial planning
A new type
highly
vulnerable
- identify local species and conservation of
local species
Loss of plant species
Wildlife reduced
Hydrology
Action
Social
Urbanization
Ecology
Vulnerability
Level
highly
- identify local species and conservation of
susceptible
local species
very vulnerable - there should be animal hunting ban
water discharge
is reduced
Susceptible
- Protecting water sources
Dry spring
Susceptible
- Maintaining the watershed
The water does
not healthy
Vulnerable
- Reduced land clearing near a spring.
Flooding
(Wamena)
Vurnerable
- Change of cultivated plants.
- Change type of plants bed.
4. CONCLUSION
The result of the research can be concluded that:
1. Arfak mountain and Jayawijaya are districts that fall into vulnerable category in case of
extreme climate changes due to socio-economic conditions which is agriculture as the only
source of income.
2. Biophysical Conditions is very vulnerable due to extreme climate. Settlements and gardens are
located in a skewed and dangerous are which is danger to erosion and flood.
3. Adaptation of the community in line with the changes.
583
Recommendations:
1. Government need to give an explanation or elucidation about global climate change and its
effects.
2. Government and stakeholders work together to explore other potential source of income and
give trainings to improve people‘s skill.
3. Improve spatial planning to make room for the development of residential areas and farming.
REFERENCES
BPS (2008): Kabupaten Manokwari Dalam Angka. Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Manokwari.
Gleick, P H (1989): Climate Change, Hydrology and Water Resources, Rev. Geophys. 27(3):329–
344.
Hamlet, A F and Lettenmaier D P (1999): Effects of climate change on hydrology and water
resources in the Columbia River basin. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35(6):15971623.
Handoko, I, Sugiarto, Y and Syaukat, Y (2008): Keterkaitan perubahan iklim dan produksi
pangan strategis: telaah kebijakan independen dalam bidang perdagangan dan pembangunan.
Seameo Biotrop for Kemitraan (Partnership). Bogor.
Kapissa, N (2008): Balai Pementapan Kawasan Hutan Wilayah X Papua: Integrasi Kesatuan
Pengelolaan Hutan Dalam Kebijakan Pengelolaan Hutan berkelanjutan di Papua. Makalah Dalam
Seminar Forum Komunikasi Multi Pihak di Tanah Papua-Swiss_Belhotel, 28 Juli 2008. Balai Penelitian
Kehutanan Manokwari.
Kayoi, M (2008): Dinas Kehutanan Provinsi Papua Barat: Strategi dan Kebijakan Pembangunan
Kehutanan di Papua Barat. Makalah Dalam Seminar Forum Komunikasi Multi Pihak di Tanah PapuaSwiss_Belhotel, 28 Juli 2008. Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Manokwari.
Media Indonesia (2010): Hutan Terbuka, Nyamuk Malaria Masuk Kota
Partnership (2008): Supporting Indonesia in Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptasi. Bogor.
(http://www.beritadaerah.com/artikel.php?pg=artikel_papua&id=7998&sub=Artikel&page=1).
Februari 2010.
584
INAFOR 11H-065
Section H
Growth and Production of Porang (Amorphopallus oncophillus Prain)
under Damar (Agathis borneensis ) Stand
Murniati and Sumarhani
The Center for Research and Development on Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation
Jl. Gunung Batu 5, Bogor 16610, INDONESIA
Paper prepared for
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Growth and Production of Porang (Amorphopallus oncophillus Prain)
under Damar (Agathis borneensis ) Stand
Murniati and Sumarhani
The Center for Research and Development on Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation
Jl. Gunung Batu 5, Bogor 16610, INDONESIA
ABSTRACT
Porang (Amorphopallus oncophillus Prain) is a perrennial herb and a shade demanding plant,
which produces tubers. The plant grow naturally in tropical forests and recently started to be
cultivated due to its high economic value tubers. The research aimed to analyse the growth and
production of the porang plant under two age classes of damar (Agathis borneensis) stand in forest
area of KPH Banyumas Timur, Perhutani in the period of 2007 until 2009. The research was an
experiment using Split Plot Design with three replications. The main plot was age classes (KU) of
damar stand (KU II and KU V). The sub-plots cover two factors i.e.: A: source of planting
materials (A1: tuber and A2: bulbil or bupil; bupil is a like fruit produce at each of branch); B: lime
(B0: without lime and B1: with lime, 2 ton per ha). Age class of damar stand did not lead to a
significant effect on survival rate of porang at three months old, but after a dormant period the
survival rate of porang under KU V was significantly higher than KU II. Lime treatment gave a
negative impact to the survival rate of porang derived from tuber, in contrary it gave a positive
impact to those derived from bupil. Height of the plant, number of branches and dry weight of
tubers produced under KU V of damar stand, with only 19% of light intensity reached the forest
floor, were significantly higher than those under KU II, with 71% light intensity reached the
forest floor. The height and number of branches of the plants derived from tuber were
significantly higher than those derived from bupil. Interaction between source of planting
materials and lime treatments was lead to a significant effect to the harvested dry weight of the
tubers production, where the treatments of tuber without lime have the highest harvested dry
weight of tuber production. It is recommended to develop porang plantation under five or more
age class of damar stand by using tubers as planting materials without lime or bupil with lime.
Keywords: Shad tolerant, tuber, bupil, lime, age classes, light intensity
1. INTRODUCTION
Porang (Amorphopallus oncophillus Prain) is a perennial herb plant. The plant is shade
demanding and produces tubers. It naturally grows in tropical regions. Recently, the plant has
been started to be cultivated for tuber production which can be used as foods and medicines raw
materials. The tubers can also be used to produce alcohol and acids. The tubers have a high
economic value and have a good prospect to be developed in a large scale. The flour prepared
from the tubers is used industrially in China and Japan because gluco-mannan content in the
flour is useful in preparing stabilizers and emulsifiers for food, drinks, and cosmetics. Therefore,
the tubers have international market opportunities (export) to Japan, China and some of Europe
countries. In some regions, the porang plant was used as traditional medicines against dysentery,
cholera, respiratory problems, to reduce blood pressure and cholesterol levels, to cure rheumatic
pains and digestive problems. In addition, all species of Amorphophallus can be cultivated for
ornaments (Jansen et al., 1996).
Amorphopallus oncophillus Prain belong to family Araceae and synonym to Amorphopallus
muelleri Blume. Genus Amorphophallus has four species, i.e. A. konjac, A.muelleri, A. Paeoniifolius
and A.variabilis (Jansen et al.,1996). There are several local names of porang in Indonesia such as
586
badur (Javanese), acung (Sundanese), and kerubut (Sumatra). Genus Amorphophallus originates
from and is mainly distributed in the Old World, especially in the tropics regions, from Africa to
the Pacific Islands, including Thailand, Philippine and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Flores and
Timor), and also extending to the temperate areas in China, Japan and Burma. From the four
species of Amorphophallus, it was reported that A. muelleri or A. onchophyllus have been wider
cultivated in Java (Backer and van den Brink, 1968).
The four species of Amorphophallus usually grows in secondary vegetation, in forest
margins and thickets, under teak forest, village groves, usually under some shade, up to 50 – 60%.
Porang grow well at low land until 700 to 900 m above sea level, with temperature 25-35°C
(Backer and van den Brink, 1968; Liu, 1995). In Nganjuk District, East Java, the plant has been
developed under teak (Tectona grandis) stands on soils with pH nearly neutral and under scheme of
Collaborative Forest Management (Pengelolaan Hutan Bersama Masyarakat/PHBM) (Murniati,
2006).
Growth and development of the A. muelleri in Java is as follows. In the beginning of rainy
season (usually in November), the subterranean tuber starts developing one leaf which exhausts
the reserves of the tuber completely. During the rainy season a new tuber generally larger than
the old one forms at the base of the leaf. At the beginning of the dry season (May-June) the leaf
dies and the tuber enters a dormant period lasting 5-6 months. In November, the cycle starts
again. When the tuber is large enough (2-3 kg) it develops an inflorescence instead of a leaf
(Jansen et al., 1996).
In order to develop porang plant in a wider and a larger scale, especially in agroforestry
system to optimize land use under forest stands, it is necessary to examine porang growth under
different forest stands and age classes of the stands. Age classes of damar stand are closely related
to the level of sun light intensity that can be achieved to the forest floor and thus can be
captured by the porang to support its growth. The higher age class of the damar stand the higher
of the shade and thus the lower of light intensity acchieve to the forest floor. This research aimed
to analyse the growth and production of porang plants under two age classes of damar (Agathis
borneensis) stands. Source of planting materials and lime treatments were also important to be
examined in relation to the porang growth and tuber production.
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
2.1 Location and Time of the Research
The research site was located in the area of Perhutani State Enterprise, Unit II Central
Java, KPH Banyumas Timur, BKPH Gunung Slamet Barat, RPH Baturraden. The field plots
were established under stand of damar (Agathis borneensis Warb.) of two age classes. The research
was done from July 2007 to June 2009.
2.2 The Experimental Design
The research plots were set up according to a split plot design in a factorial experiment
(Steel and Torrie, 1991; Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The main plots represent age classes of
damar stand:


Age class two (KU II), the stand was 7 years old
Age class five (KU V), the stand was 23 years old
Age class two (KU II) of damar stand with 7 years old has a thin canopy enabling high
light intensity arrive into the forest floor. Whereas, age class five (KU V) of damar stand with 23
years old has a heavy canopy, it allow only limited transmission of light to the forest floor. It was
reported by some authors (Backer & van den Brink, 1968; Liu, 1995) that porang grow wel under
some shade, up to 50 – 60%. It was assumed that the light intensity under age class two of damar
587
stand significantly higher than thus under age class five and thus will significantly influent to the
growth and production of porang. Since the emphasis of this research is to develop the porang
plant under forest stand in Agroforestry Systems, the age classes of damar were used instead of
levels of sun light intensities.
The sub plots cover two factors:
A: Source of planting materials (A1: tuber and A2: bulbils or bupil, is a like fruit produce at each
of the leaf branch);
B: Lime treatments (B0: without lime and B1: with lime, 2 ton per ha).
Every experiment unit was replicated three times. Therefore, for all, there were 2 x 2 x 2 x
3 = 24 experiment units, each with size of 10 m x 10 m. The distance between the two main plots
was about 2 km, and distance between every replication was about 10 m.
2.3 The Research Procedures
One month before planting, the land preparation was done by ploughing of the soil. The
lime were applied by mixed it with the soil with dosage of 2 ton per ha or 20 kg per sub plot.
Planting materials (tubers and bupils) of porang were planted in the trial plots with spacing 1 m x
1 m. Tending was conducted at 4, 8, 12, and 16 months after planting. The tubers were harvested
at 20 months old when the plants were in the second dormant period in sample plots with size 3
m x 3 m of each sub-plot.
2.4 Data Collecting
As parameters of plant growth, the survival rate, stem height and number of branches
were measured. The survival rates were measured 3 months after planting and 3 months
subsequently new shoots were sprout up after a dormant period. Stem height and number of
branches were measured 4 months subsequently new shoots were sprout after a dormant period.
Production of tubers was weighted separately per sub-plot as harvested dry weight. Light
intensity, as supporting data, was measured by using the Lux meter at the time of planting of
porang. The sensor measures photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the 400 to 700 nm
wavebands. This parameter was measured under damar canopy, at 10 damar trees per replication,
each at 0 cm from the damar trunk, 1/4 of distance of the two damar trees and 1/2 of distance
of the two damar trees. Light intensity above canopy of damar or at open areas was also
measured as control.
2.5 Data Analysis
The average value of each variable was calculated separately per sub-plot. Then they were
used as input data in the statistical analysis by means of General Statistic (Genstat) release 9.1
software. Significant F-values established by Anova were further examined by comparisons of
means according to significant difference test as defined by the Duncan Multiple Range Test
(DMRT). Supporting data covering light intensities and soil properties under the two age classes
of damar stand were discussed in relation to their dynamics.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Survival Rate
Survival rate of porang observed at three months after planting (February 2008) and after
a dormant period (December 2008) according to age classes of damar stand, source of planting
materials and lime treatments were presented in Table 1.
588
Table 1. Effect of age classes of damar stand, source of planting materials and lime treatments on
the survival rate of porang three months after planting and after a dormant period
Survival (%)
Three months
after planting
After a dormant
period
71.8ns
81.0
37.5a
79.1b
Source of planting materials:
Tuber
Bupil
69.2a
83.6b
49.4ns
67.2
Lime Treatment:
Without lime
With lime, 2 ton/ha
86.9a
65.8b
63.9ns
52.7
92.2a
46.2b
81.7a
85.5a
64.8a
34.0b
63.0a
71.3a
Treatments
Age classes (KU) of damar stand:
KU II (7 years old)
KU V (23 years od)
Interaction among
Planting materials
treatments:
Tuber without lime
Tuber with lime
Bupil without lime
Bupil with lime
Source of
and lime
Remarks: Numbers followed by different letters. a or b in the same column indicate significant differences
(P<0.05) according to Duncan‘s Multiple Range Test. NS = not significantly different (P > 0.05)
Statistical data analysis of the survival rate (Table 1 and Appendix 1) showed that age
classes (KU) of damar stand did not give a significant effect to the survival of porang within three
months after planting. However, after a dormant period (Tabel 1 and Appendix 2), survival rate
of porang under KU V of damar stand was significantly higher than thus under KU II, This
assumed caused by the high light intensities under KU II (average 71%, see Table 2) inhibit the
broken the dormancy of the tubers. Porang is tipical for shade demanding plant, it need certain
light intensity level (Backer & van den Brink, 1968; Liu, 1995). The survival at the first time (three
months after planting) was not affected by the high light intensities since before planted the
tubers have been treated by watering and put it under cool and fresh air. Jansen et al., (1996)
reported that the dormancy of porang seed can be broken by keeping seed for six days in running
water.
Table 2. Light intensities under two age classes of damar stands at three different times: morning.
noon and afternoon
Age classes (KU)
of damar stand
and Replication
KU II:
I
II
III
Sun Light Intensities (%) at:
Morning
(9 Noon
am)
am)
78
66
73
75
68
73
(12 Afternoon
pm)
68
65
70
589
(3 Average
74
63
72
Average
KU V:
I
II
III
Average
72
72
68
71
5
19
14
13
16
26
9
17
28
36
17
27
16
27
13
19
Source of planting materials and lime treatments individually and interaction between the
two factors gave significant effects to the survival of porang three months after planting.
However, the survival after a dormant period was not affected by the two factors individually.
Interaction between them indicated a significant effect to the survival of the porang. The highest
survival showed by tubers as source of planting materials on the soil without lime. i.e. 92.2% at
three months after planting and 64.8% after a dormant period, and thus significantly higher than
survival of tubers as source of planting materials on the soil with lime treatment (46.2 and
34.0%). This means that lime treatment gave a negative impact to the survival rate of porang
derived from tuber, in contrary it gave a positive impact to those derived from bupil. This may be
due to tubers have a very thin skin and it is easy to be hurt. The lime fluid surrounding the hurt
tuber will be easily come through the tuber. This caused to the osmosis pressure inside the tuber
will be increased and this will inhibit the tuber cell to absorb water. As a consequence, the tuber
became died. Another possibility was the tuber became decay.
3.2 Growth of Porang Plant
Growth variables observed covering plant height and number of branches. Average height of
plant and number of branches after a dormant period of porang plant were presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Effect of age classes of damar stand, source of planting materials and lime treatments
on the plant height and number of branches after a dormant period
Treatments
KU II
KU V
Source of planting material:
Tuber
Bupil
Lime Treatment:
Without lime
With lime, 2 ton/ha
Interaction among Source of
Planting materials and lime
treatments:
Tuber without lime
Tuber with lime
Bupil without lime
Bupil with lime
Plant height (cm)
Number
branches
14.1a
42.9b
9.5a
15.9b
37.9a
19.1b
16.0a
9.4b
28.3ns
28.7
12.4ns
13.0
39.6ns
36.2
17.1
21.2
16.3ns
15.7
8.5
10.3
of
Remarks: Numbers followed by different letters. a or b in the same column indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) according
to Duncan‘s Multiple Range Test. NS = not significantly different (P > 0.05)
590
Statistical data analysis (Appendix 3) indicated that age classes (KU) of damar stand gave
a significant effect to the maximum height of porang plant after a dormant period. The average
plant height under KU V was significantly higher than thus under KU II (Table 3, Figure 1).
Growth of plant height related to the light intensities achieved to the ground or to the porang
plants. Under KU V, only 19% of light intensities achieved the porang plant (Table 2). Under this
lack of light intensities, growth of plant height will be faster compared to thus with higher or
sufficient of light intensities. Average of plant height was also affected by source of planting
materials significantly. However, lime treatments and interaction among thus factors were not
significantly affected the plant height. Height of the porang plant from tubers was significantly
higher than thus from bupil (Table 3).
Figure 1: Height of porang plant under age class five (KU V) (left) and thus under age class two
(KU II) (right) four months after a dormant period
According to statistical data analysis (Appendix 4), number of branches was significantly
affected by age classes of damar stand and source of planting materials. Whereas, lime treatments
and interaction among source of planting materials and lime treatments did not give a significant
effect to the number of branches. Average number of branches under KU V was significantly
higher than thus under KU II. The number of porang branches derived from tubers was also
significantly higher than thus from bupil. There was a positive relationship between plant height
and number of branches. The higher the plant the more branches will be developed.
3.3 Tubers Production
As mentioned in the method, the tubers were harvested at 20 months old when the plants
were in the second dormant period. Normally, harvesting occurs at the end of the growing
season, when leaves starts to wither. In China and Japan, A. konjac cultivated for food is
harvested one year after planting, when the tubers are small but sweet and juice (Kutihara,1979).
For industrial purposes, the tubers are harvested after 3 years. A. muelleri propagated from small
tubers is harvested 2.5 years after planting, whereas plants raised from bulbils are already
harvestable after 1.5 year (Jansen et al., 1996). The harvested dry weight of tubers production
according to the treatments is presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Effect of age classes (KU) of damar stand, source of planting materials and lime
treatments on tuber production of porang at 20 months old
Treatments
Harvested Dry Weigh (kg/sub
plot)
KU II
KU V
2.2a
21.7b
591
Source of planting materials:
Tuber
Bupil
Lime Treatment:
Without lime
With lime, 2 ton/ha
14.6ns
9.3
12.9ns
11.0
Interaction among source of planting materials and lime
treatments:
Tuber without lime
23.5a
Tuber with lime
5.6b
Bupil without lime
2.3b
Bupil with lime
16.4a
Remarks: Numbers followed by different letters, a or b in the same column indicate significant differences (P<0.05)
according to Duncan‘s Multiple Range Test. NS = not significantly different (P>0.05)
Data in Table 4 and Appendix 5 indicated that age classes of damar stand gave a
significant effect on tuber production of porang. Tuber production of porang plant under KU V
was significantly higher than thus under KU II (Figur 2). This may be affected by growth of
porang plant under KU V that also significantly higher than thus under KU II. It is assumed that
the higher vegetative growth of porang, the higher tubers production. In addition, harvesting of
tubers was carried out during a dormant period, where all of food preservations were put in the
tubers. The highest average harvested dry weigh of tubers was founded on the treatment of tuber
as source of planting materials on soil without lime (23.5 kg/sub plot). According to Jansen et al.,
(1996), individual A. muelleri tubers may weigh up to 3 kg. At a planting distance of 70 cm x 70
cm, 3 years after planting, the crop yields was about 50 ton tubers per ha. Compared with the
above tubers production, the tubers production of porang at this research was significantly lower.
This may be caused by several factors. First, the age of the crop at the harvesting time was still 20
months. Second, there was no fertilizer or mulch applied in this research.
Source of planting materials and lime treatments, individually, did not give significant
effect to the tuber production of porang plants. However, interaction between thus two factors
shows a significant difference. The porang plants derived from tubers on soil without lime
treatment lead to a highest tuber production. It was significantly higher than thus from tubers on
soil with lime and from bupil on soil without lime. However, the tubers production of the plants
derived from tubers on soil without lime treatment was not significantly different from thus from
bupil on soil with lime treatment.
Figure 2: Harvesting activity of porang under age class five (KU V) (above left) and age class two
(KU II) (above right) as well as comparison of tuber production from thus two age classes of
damar stand (below)
592
1. After a dormant period the survival rate of porang under age class five (KU V) of damar
stand with light intensity only 19% was 79.1%. It was significantly higher than thus under age
class two (KU II) with light intensity about 71% where the survival rate was only 37.5%.
2. Source of planting material from tubers on soil without lime resulted a highest average
survival rate of porang plants (92.2%) and was significantly different from tubers on soil with
lime treatment (46.2%). Lime treatment gave a negative impact to the survival rate of porang
derived from tuber, in contrary it gave a positive impact to those derived from bupil.
3. Height of the plant, number of branches and harvested dry weight of tubers production
produced under age class five (KU V) of damar stand, were significantly higher than those
under age class two (KU II). The height and number of branches of the plants derived from
tuber were significantly higher than those derived from bupil. Interaction between source of
planting materials and lime treatments was lead to a significant effect to the harvested dry
weight of the tubers production, where the treatments of tuber without lime have the highest
harvested dry weight of tuber production.
4. It is recommended to develop porang plantation under five or more age class of damar stand
by using tubers as planting materials without lime or bupil with lime.
REFERENCES
Backer, C A, R C Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr. (1968): Flora of Java (Angiospermae) Vol. III: 113.
Wolters Noordhoff N.V., Groningen, The Netherlands.
Gomez, K A and A A Gomez (1984): Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. 2nd Edition. A
Wiley-Inter science Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS, New York.
Jansen, P C M, C van den Willd and W L A Hetterscheid (1996): Amorphophallus. In M. Flach &
F. Rumawas (Eds ). Plant Yielding Non seed Carbohydrates. PROSEA 9: 40-50.
Kurihara, H (1979): Trends and problems of konjac (Amorphophallus konjac). Cultivation in Japan.
Japanese Agriculture Research Quarterly 13:174-179.
Liu Pei Ying (1995): Research and Utilization of Amorphophallus in China. In : Li, H (Ed).
Proceedings of the International Aroid Conference, Kunming 26 June - 2 July 1995. Editorial
Department of Acta Botanica Yunnanica, Kunming, China. pp: 20-36
Murniati (2006): Laporan Hasil Penelitian. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hutan dan
Konservasi Alam. Unpublished.
Steel, R G D and J H Torrie (1991): Prinsip dan Prosedur Statistika, suatu pendekatan biometrik
(terjemahan). PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
593
Appendix 1. Analysis of variance of survival rate of porang plant 3 months after planting
Source of variation
Replication
Replication.KU
KU
Residual
Replication.KU.Source of planting materials
Source of planting material
KU.Source of planting material
Residual
Replication.KU.Source
of
planting
materials.Lime treatment
Lime treatment
KU.Lime treatment
Source of planting material.Lime treatment
KU.Source of planting material.Lime treatment
Residual
Total
d.f
3
s.s
1117.0
m.s
558.5
v.r.
1.90
F pr.
1
2
513.4
588.0
513.4
294.0
1.75
3.57
0.317
1
1
4
1247.0
360.4
329.3
1247.0
360.4
82.3
15.15
4.38
0.45
0.018
0.105
1
1
1
2667.0
84.4
3725.0
2667.0
84.4
3725.0
14.70
0.47
20.54
0.005
0.514
0.002
1
8
23
51.0
1451.0
12133.6
51.0
181.4
0.28
0.610
Appendix 2. Analysis of variance of survival rate of porang plant after a dormant period
Source of variation
Replication
Replication.KU
KU
Residual
Residual
of
planting
Lime treatment
KU.Lime treatment
Residual
Total
d.f
2
s.s
283.1
m.s
141.5
v.r.
0.23
F pr.
1
2
10375.0
1215.1
10375.0
607.5
17.08
1.43
0.054
1
1
4
1890.4
2.0
1694.8
1890.4
2.0
423.7
4.46
0.00
0.81
0.102
0.948
1
1
759.4
108.4
759.4
108.4
1.46
0.21
0.262
0.661
1
2301.0
2301.0
4.41
0.069
1
8
23
0.0
4171.7
22801.0
0.0
521.5
0.00
0.993
Appendix 3. Analysis of variance of plant height after a dormant period
Source of variation
Replication
Replication.KU
KU
Residual
d.f
2
s.s
177.59
m.s
88.80
v.r.
0.44
F pr.
1
2
4985.28
399.40
4985.28
199.70
24.96
4.77
0.038
594
Residual
of
planting
Lime treatment
KU.Lime treatment
Residual
Total
1
1
4
2107.50
756.00
167.40
2107.50
756.00
41.85
50.36
18.06
0.46
0.002
0.013
1
1
0.84
25.01
0.84
25.01
0.01
0.28
0.925
0.613
1
83.25
83.25
0.92
0.366
1
8
23
57.97
723.83
9484.08
57.97
90.48
0.64
0.447
Appendix 4. Analysis of variance on number of branches after a dormant period
Source of variation
Replication
Replication.KU
KU
Residual
Residual
of
planting
Lime treatment
KU.Lime treatment
Residual
Total
d.f
2
s.s
15.54
m.s
7.77
v.r.
0.83
F pr.
1
2
248.33
18.66
248.33
9.33
26.61
1.82
0.036
1
1
4
261.36
89.71
20.49
261.36
89.71
5.12
51.01
17.51
0.35
0.002
0.014
1
1
2.41
1.71
2.41
1.71
0.16
0.12
0.698
0.743
1
8.64
8.64
0.58
0.467
1
8
23
1.13
118.59
786.55
1.13
14.82
0.08
0.790
Appendix 5. Analysis of variance on tubers production
Source of variation
Replication
Replication.KU
KU
Residual
Residual
of
planting
Lime treatment
KU.Lime treatment
Residual
Total
d.f
2
s.s
69.7
m.s
34.9
v.r.
0.87
F pr.
1
2
2273.7
79.9
2273.7
40.0
56.91
0.19
0.017
1
1
4
164.1
106.0
825.9
164.1
106.0
206.5
0.79
0.51
1.47
0.423
0.513
1
1
22.3
5.4
22.3
5.4
0.16
0.04
0.701
0.849
1
1540.5
1540.5
10.96
0.011
1
8
23
1021.3
1124.1
7232.9
1021.3
140.5
7.27
0.027
595
INAFOR 11H-066
Section H
Integrating Community Forestry and Forest Products Based-Rural
Industrialization for Enhancing Rural Community Welfare and
Sustaining Forest Resources
Didik Suharjito
Dept. of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University
Jl. Raya Darmaga, Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor 16680, INDONESIA
Corresponding email: dsuharjito@gmail.com
Paper prepared for
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Integrating Community Forestry and Forest Products Based-Rural
Industrialization for Enhancing Rural Community Welfare and
Sustaining Forest Resources
Didik Suharjito
Dept. of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University
Jl. Raya Darmaga, Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor 16680, INDONESIA
Corresponding email: dsuharjito@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Research on community forestry or social forestry (CF/SF) in Indonesia has been done
on various topics, however mostly they did‘nt pay attention to linkage household forest and
forest products industry in rural areas. Whereas forest products industries have very important
role in rural socio-economic development. The objectives of this article are to describe wood
based-industries in rural areas, to describe household owned forest (hutan rakyat) or private forest
and wood based-industry relationship in rural areas, and to explain why integration of community
forest and forest product based-rural industrialization is necessary to be developed. The research
was done in Palabuhan Ratu, Bojong Genteng, Parungkuda and Kalapanunggal of Sukabumi
District using a case study method. The results showed that household-owned forest and small
scale or household forest products based-industry in rural areas (HFPI) have interdependent
relationship. The HFPI could support forest resource management to be sustainable, while
sustainable forest could support sustainability of the HFPI. Both could enhance absorption of
rural labor force, rural labor productivity, and household income; strengthen social relationship,
and supposedly will enhance circulation of money in rural areas and decrease urbanization.
Keywords: Community forestry,
industrialization, rural development.
household
forest
products
based-industry,
rural
1. INTRODUCTION
State forest resources utilization in Indonesia for very long time since collonial era to
present have been dominated by big forestry companies. This forest utilization practices have
not adequately supported forest community well being, although the companies have launched
community development and or partnership model programs. The Indonesian people who live in
or arround forest area are mostly categorized as poor people. Meanwhile, since decades rural
communities have actively carried out tree planting activities on their own agricultural land
(household owned forest or private forest or hutan rakyat). Some wood based-industries have
been depended on timber production of hutan rakyat.
Research on household owned forest in Indonesia has been done on many topics such as
yield arrangement, economic and financial analysis, wood marketing, adaptive strategy, forest
farmer‘s decision making in tree species choice, certification, and carbon sequestration (Suharjito,
2000; Hardjanto, 2003, Maryudi, 2005, Hinrichs et al., 2008; Irawan, 2011). Meanwhile some
research on private forest or non industrial forest in developed countries (mostly in Europe and
United State) recently concern with de-fragmentation of woodland (Quine and Watts, 2009),
landowners' policy preferences for promoting wood-based bioenergy (Shivan and Mehmood,
2010), incentives for landowners to cooperate to be joint forest management (Vokoun et al.,
2010), and typology of small-scale private woodland (Urquhart and Courtney, 2011). Lack of
research concerned with cooperation or relationship among forest household and wood
processing industry. In term of private forest or non industrial forest, there are research on
597
forest–mill integration (Niquidet and O'Kelly, 2010) and shared wood procurement areas and coproduction within a multi-firm environment (Beaudoin et al., 2010).
The Ministry of Forestry GOI has launched community forest (hutan kemasyarakatan,
HKm) program since more than fiveteen years ago, and recently people plantation forest (hutan
tanaman rakyat, HTR) and village forest (hutan desa, HD) programs. These programs are in line
with the government‘s slogan of pro-growth, pro-job, pro-poor, and pro-environment. The
objectives of community forest, village forest, and people plantation forest programs are to
enhance more access and rights over state forestland for forest communities, reduce
unemployment, ameliorate forest communities poverty, support village infrastructure
development, enhance forest resources productivity, ensure forest management sustainably, and
increase forestry sector contribution to national economic development.
HKm has been executed since more than fiveteen years ago, while HD and HTR programs
recently have also been launched. Those programs have enhanced more access and rights over
state forestland for local communities. Nevertheless, those were still limited, during the period of
2007-2011 state forest stipulated by the ministry of forestry for HKm (license or permit,
IUPHHKm) and HD (IUPHHD) are respectively 41.330 hectares and 10.310 hectares, while
state forest alocated for HTR is of 631,628 hectares. HKm, HD, and HTR areas would be
continously enlarged to attain of 5.6 million hectars in 2030 consisting of 2.5 million hectares
HKm, 500 hectares HD, and 2.6 million hectares HTR (National Forestry Plan/ RKTN, 2011).
Those programs will enhance forest products supply of timber, non timber, as well as
environmental services.
Household owned forests in Java have grown and continuously extend. Ministry of
Forestry reported that the area of hutan rakyat in Java reached 3.5 million hectares in 2011. The
expansion and intensification of hutan rakyat is driven by government grants (greening program,
GNRHL, etc.) and wood based industries. Supply of timber from hutan rakyat in Java has helped
the wood based industries who are facing shortages of raw materials in recent years. Natural
forests degradation outside Java has caused logs supply to large-scale forest industry continues to
decline, so the company sought to obtain timber from hutan rakyat. Several large and medium
scale forest industry companies have established partnerships with forest farmers (household).
Increased demand for logs from hutan rakyat by forest industry companies are expected to
provide increased benefits to forest farmers family and without lead to excessive forest
exploitation. This paper does not give attention to the large and medium scale forestry industry,
but on small scale/ households scale industries that have been developed in the villages. This
research elaborate research conducted by Suharjito (2002) that put attention to household wood
based-industry and its role in rural employment and household income. The objectives of this
article are to describe wood based-industries in rural areas, to describe household-owned forest
(hutan rakyat) and wood based-industry relationship in rural areas, and to explain why integration
of community forest and forest product based-rural industrialization is necessary to be
developed.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
The research was done in Palabuhan Ratu, Bojong Genteng, Parungkuda and
Kalapanunggal of Sukabumi District using a case study method. The exsistence of household
wood based industry was taken into consideration when choosing the study site. The industries
were located within and around villages in rural areas. In this study I used different sources of
data i.e. forest farmers (peasants), timber collectors (middleman), owners of wood basedindustries, and industry laborers. I conducted semi-structured interview with informants, field
observation, and secondary data collection. Primary data and information were collected through
focused, probed, in-depth interviews with the informants.
598
In rural areas, livelihoods outside agriculture can be broadly classified into two types of work
i.e. off-farm and non-farm. Palte (1989: 181) defined off-farm activities as: ―off-farm
employment comprises all income-earning activities other than cultivation or rearing of livestock
on the family farm‖. While farm is ―an agricultural holding (i.e. any tract(s) of land and its
buildings, worked as a unit and owned or rented under one management, used for growing crops
and/or raising livestock)‖. Using this definition Palte classified wages work in farming and
agricultural product processing as off-farm. Off-farm activities carried out by the villagers in
Sukabumi include trade of agricultural products (bananas, durian, coconut, beans, rubber, fish,
etc.) and agriculture/forest product industry (sawmills, rubber, rice hulling). While non-farm
activities carried out by the villagers in Sukabumi include trade (grocery shops, itinerant peddlers,
meatballs), building construction, garages, motorcycle for public transport and drivers.
3.1 Wood Based Industry: Raw Material and Its Products
Wood based industries in the Sub-district of Palabuhan Ratu (Buniwangi village), Bojong
Genteng (Bojong Genteng, Berekah, Cibodas villages), Parungkuda (Parungkuda, Sundawenang,
Kompa, Pakuwon villages), and Kalapanunggal (Kalapanunggal village) Sukabumi was built and
in operation since 1960. The number of industries and production volume have been growing.
Type of product consist of board, chest, pallet, rafter, pole, furniture (Table 1).
Table 1. Number of wood based-industry (WBI) by year of establishment, type and volume of
product
Establishment of WBI
The current production
Number of
WBI
Type of product
1960-1970
1
Chest for tomato and bottle
1000 chests/ month
1970-1980
2
Board, chest for tomato
30 m3 boards/ month, 1800 chests/
month
1980-1990
7
Board, rafter, pole, chest (for
soap/detergent, egg, money, bottle,
kopling, hasfel, pallet
729.5 m3 boards/ month; 18760 set
pallet/ month; 5170 chests/ month
1990-2000
18
Board, chest for money, pallet, bistek,
furniture
1700 m3 boards/ month, 1200 chest/
month, 37420 set pallet/ month
2000-2005
9
Board, rafter, pole, window or door
frame, chest (for egg, money, bottle,
sugar), hasfel, pallet
11300 set pallet/ month, 376 m3
boards/ month, 4210 chests/ month
Total
28
Year
Volume
Raw materials used by these industries are log of teak (Tectona grandis), sengon
(Paraserianthes falcataria), afrika (Maesopsis eminii), puspa (Schima wallichii), rasamala (Altingia
excelsa), mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), akasia (Acacia auriculiformis), suren (Toona sureni), jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), and durian (Durio zibethinus). Log were
obtained from forests or mixed garden in the vicinity of the industry (Bojong Genteng, Kelapa
Nunggal, Parungkuda, Kabandungan, Pelabuhan Ratu, Cipetir and Cikidang) as well as from
more distant areas within the district (Surade, Jampang, Jampang Kulon, Jurang Malang, Cisaat,
Situ Gunung, Cikembar, Nagrak, Sukabumi), even from more distant areas outside the district
599
(Bogor, Jakarta, Cianjur, Pangandaran) and outside the province (Wonosobo, Banjaran, Central
Java, Lampung). In addition to forest or mixed garden, wood is also bought from Perum
Perhutani or state forestry enterprise (KPH Bogor, KPH Sukabumi, KPH Banten).
Table 2. Form and size of raw material and products of sawmill in Buniwangi village
Form and size of raw material
Form
Log
Product
Size
Form
Size
L=2m
Board
3 cm x 18 cm x 2 m
 = 15 cm
Pole
10 cm x 10 cm x 2 m
L=2m
Rafter
5 cm x 5 cm x 2 m
6 cm x 6cm x 3 m
 = 20 cm
Lath
3 cm x 2 cm x 3 m
Figure 1: Sawmill at the village of Buniwangi
3.2 Wood Based Industry: Employment Opportunity for Rural People
The amount of labor absorbed in the wood based industries is of 360 people, while in
timber trade is of 95 timber collectors (middleman). Labor come from villages around the wood
based industries location. The development of industrial activities and agricultural products trade
in the villages performed by the villagers themselves can be regarded as phenomenon of the
―genuine‖ rural industrialization. It is better than the industrialization developed by the
government that has had the following characteristics: located in the city, absorbing educated or
skilled workers, and rural residents who work in the industrial sector have generally been as wage
labor in low level.
Labor and wood industry owners relationship can be classified into four types i.e. the
relationship based upon kinship, friendship, neighbour, and whoever. Number of labor who has
kinship is of nine (30% from the sample of labor), frienship is of one (3.3%), neighbour is of 4
(13.3%), and who don‘t have specific ties is of 16 (53.3%) informans. How the labor has acces at
600
the first time to join the industry can be noted that who followed his friend is of seven (23.3%),
who enrolled for himself is of 10 (33.3%), who was invited by the industry owner is of 11
(36.7%), and two (6.7%) labor were recruited by his uncle and parent in law. The fact that the
relation ties among labor and wood industry owner is mosly based on professional contract.
Figure 2: Woman worker in small scale wood based industry
Some labors have worked for the wood based industries since 20 years ago, while the
others worked since last week. Mostly labor has work experiences from other company before
entering the present wood based industry, while the others have not had experiences from other
work places before working in the present work place. Labor learn about their jobs to his boss or
the owner, his parent, brothers, or friends, but mostly they were learning by doing and learn to
his friends. There is no labor who participated in training before or during working in the present
work place. Most of the labor of wood based industry did not have other source of income.
Some of them have income from paddy field, garden, or small shop. They worked for it usually in
weekend.
3.3 Netwoking and Forward Lingkage
The household wood based industries sell their products to local market and outside
areas. Boards (papan) have been bought by local people, local bulding material shops, and some
industries such as PT Trigraha in Bogor, PT Alexindo and PT Poxel in Bekasi, PT Fajar in
Cibitung, PT Bulan Seribu Bintang and PT Usaha Bersama in Jakarta, and PT Indah Kiat in
Serang. Chest (peti) have also been bought by local enterprise, as well as some enterprises in
other districts such as PT Walet in Tangerang, PT Intisari in Citeureup, PT Jokpindo, and Perum
PERURI (state money printing) in Jakarta. Palet have been supplied to PT. Aqua in Cicurug, PT.
Yanmar in Cimanggis-Bogor, PT. Indocement in Cibinong, PT. Vidio Glas and PT. Mulia
Ceramic in Cikarang, PT. Indodeli and PT. Ceramic Euro in Karawang, PT. Eszenza Ceramic in
Tangerang, PT. Indah Kiat in Serang, PT. Polibed in Anyer, PT. Risat Brasali in Merak, PT.
Beranta-export, PT. Subur, and PT. Harga Karya.
The facts show that wood based industries in rural areas have had linkage with various
industry near the wood based industries area as well as far-off. This linkage indicate that
household wood based industries have capacity in developing network. In this case study most
(90%) of the industry owners are Sundanese and local people. They developed the wood based
industry through learning by doing and or learn to their parent. The industry owners in this case
601
have the same characteristic as the industry owners in Tasikmalaya (Ariyadi, 2004) and
Wonosobo (Setiyadi, 2004).
3.4 Wood Based Industry and Forest Farmer Relationship
The owners of wood based Industry build an interdependent relationship with timber
collectors (middleman) and forest farmers. Farmers can not sell directly to the timber industry
because of the amount of timber sold slightly so inefficient. Middleman buy from some farmers
and transport it in sufficient quantities so that more efficient. Unfortunately, the price of wood at
farmer level is quite low, the farmers did not get information of the real market price at industry
place. Other factor causing the low price is the ijon system, farmers sell the trees when it still
small, or farmers borrow money to middleman or industry owner with agreement that the
farmers must sell the trees to the middleman or industry owner.
The wood based-industries has not concerned with forest sustainability. They are
depended on continuity of timber supply as raw material of the industry. However, they give little
attention to support the farmer‘s life who manages the trees.
Rural industrialization that has developed (this case in Sukabumi areas) among other were
sawmills, pallet, chest, and furniture. Wood based industry activities provide employment
opportunities for labor force in the villages. According to Boeke (1966), economic activities of
agriculture, industry, and trade that have developed in the rural Java areas show disappearance of
economic dualism model.1)
Integrating the development of community based forest management (HKm, HD, HTR)
and the development of small scale or household forest products based-industry in rural areas
(HFPI)) is essential for rural economy development. The reasons are to strengthen the existing
social relationship in rural areas through managing their forest resources. Secondly, to enhance
the productivity of rural economic resources (forests and labor). The implications of that
integration are an increase in family incomes, money supply (or circulation), and families and
communities welfare, restraint labor urbanization, as well as sustainability of forest resources.
The role of facilitator is very urgent as proposed by Chambers (1993, 1997) and Korten
(1984, 1987) to increase the community capacity in term of developing an appropriate technology
and strengthening local social institutions. Korten (1987) explained that the development
approach of community-based resource management concern with local variety, local resources
and local accountability. Chambers (1993) mentioned four elements: conditions are diverse and
complex; rates of change are accelerating; poor rural people are knowledgeable, and rural people
are capable of self-reliant organization. The role of outsiders (especially the government and
NGOs) is as a facilitator who can provide basket of choices.
Efforts to integrate the development of community based forest management and forest
products industry in the village will increase the carrying capacity of local natural (forest)
resources, reduce population pressure, and maintain the ecological quality, and will achieve the
ultimate goal of improving the quality of life of the community. Thus, that efforts is the urgency
of forestry development and rural community development.
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Kewirausahaan pada Industri Kecil Berbahan Baku Kayu di Tasikmalaya. Skripsi, Jurusan
Manajemen Hutan IPB, Bogor. Unpublished.
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Beaudoin D, Frayret JM, LeBel L (2010): Negotiation-based Distributed Wood Procurement
Planning within a Multi-firm Environment. Forest Policy and Economics 12:79–93.
Boeke JH (1966): Dualism in colonial societies. In:. Sociology of South East Asia: Readings on Social
Change and Development, ed. HD Evers (1980). Oxford University Press, New York.
Chambers R (1993): Challenging the Professions: Frontiers for Rural Development. Intermediate
Technology Publications, London.
Chambers R (2007): Whose Reality Counts ? Putting the First Last. Intermediate Technology
Publications, London.
Hardjanto (2003): Keragaan dan Pengembangan Usaha Kayu Rakyat di Pulau Jawa. Disertation,
Program Studi Ilmu Pengetahuan Kehutanan Pascasarjana IPB, Bogor.
Hinrichs A, Muhtaman DR and Irianto N (2008): Sertifikasi Hutan Rakyat di Indonesia. GTZ,
Jakarta.
Korten DC (1985): Rural Development Programming: the Learning Process Approach. In People
Centered Development, (Eds.) DC Korten and R Klauss. Kumarian Press, Connecticut.
Korten DC (1987): Introduction: Community Based Resource Management. In Community
management: Asian Experience and Perspectives, (Eds.) DC Korten. Kumarian Press, Connecticut.
Maryudi A (2005): Beberapa Kendala Bagi Sertifikasi Hutan Rakyat. Jurnal Hutan Rakyat, 7(3):2539.
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of Family Farms: A Case Study of an Intensive Mediterranean Agriculture. Agricultural Systems,
104:500–511.
Niquidet K and O'Kelly G (2010): Forest–mill integration: A transaction cost perspective. Forest
Policy and Economics 12:207–212.
Quine CP and Watts K (2009): Successful De-fragmentation of Woodland by Planting in an
Agricultural Landscape? An Assessment Based on Landscape Indicators. Journal of Environmental
Management 90:251-259.
Setiyadi, E (2004): Hubungan Religiusitas dan Kekerabatan dengan Ketahanan Industri Kecil
Berbahan Baku Kayu di Kabupaten Wonosobo. Skripsi, Jurusan Manajemen Hutan IPB, Bogor.
Shivan GC and Mehmood SR (2010): Factors influencing nonindustrial private forest
landowners' policy preference for promoting bioenergy. Forest Policy and Economics 12:581–588.
Suharjito D (2002): Kebun-Talun: Strategi Adaptasi Sosial Kultural dan Ekologi Masyarakat
Pertanian Lahan Kering Di Desa Buniwangi, Sukabumi, Jawa Barat. Disertation Universitas
Indonesia, Depok.
Suharjito D (2000): Hutan Rakyat di Jawa: Perannya dalam Perekonomian Desa. P3KM, Fakultas
Kehutanan IPB, Bogor.
Urquhart J and Courtney P (2011): Seeing the Owner Behind the Trees: A Typology of Smallscale Private Woodland Owners in England. Forest Policy and Economics 13:535–544.
Vokoun M, Amacher GS, Sullivan J and Wear D (2010): Examining Incentives for Adjacent
Non-industrial private forest Landowners to Cooperate. Forest Policy and Economics 12:104–110.
603
INAFOR 11H-067
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF INDONESIA FORESTRY RESEARCHERS
INAFOR
Section H
Carbon and Watershed Function as Conditionality for Community
Forestry (Case study in Sesaot Lombok)
Noviana Khususiyah, Subekti Rahayu, Tonni Asmawan and S.Suyanto
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
Corresponding email: n.khususiyah@cgiar.org
Paper prepared for
INAFOR SECRETARIAT
Carbon and Watershed Function as Conditionality for Community
Forestry (Case study in Sesaot Lombok)
Noviana Khususiyah, Subekti Rahayu, Tonni Asmawan and S.Suyanto
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
Corresponding email: n.khususiyah@cgiar.org
ABSTRACT
Forests provide a number of ecosystems services to human life-support. The most
important are as climate regulation which is close relationship with carbon sequestration and
watershed function. However, forest conversion and degradation occurred in the large area in
Indonesia due to economic reason. Involving community on managing degraded forest through
agro-forestry systems is an alternative option to enhance carbon stock, biodiversity, maintaining
watershed function and generate income for community. Assessment of carbon stock, watershed
and livelihood condition was conducted in buffer area of Sesaot protected forest, West Lombok,
Nusa Tenggara Barat. Rapid carbon stock appraisal (RaCSA) and participatory landscape
appraisal (PaLA) developed by ICRAF was applied to assess carbon stock and watershed
condition. Amount of 30 plots were set up in for land use systems namely secondary forest and
agroforest which differentiate based on land status (private land, management permitted, non
permitted). Household survey was conducted for 120 respondents across three land status.
Carbon stock in agroforestry system is affected by type of planted trees as well as land status.
Higher carbon stock was found in agroforestry of private land (72 ton/ha) compared to forest
land (42 ton/ha). More timber trees were grown in private land rather than in forest land, both in
management permitted or non-permitted. Water quality and quantity in this area is relatively
good. There is no high fluctuation of discharge between wet and dry season. Dependence of local
community to forest land in is quite high, because 33-59% of total income come from
agroforestry systems in the buffer area of protected forest and play an important role in poverty
alleviation through narrowing inequity income.
Keywords: Carbon stock, community forestry, Flow Persistence, income and equity
1. INTRODUCTION
Protected forest of Sesaot in West Lombok District, East Nusa Tenggara Province is an
important area as providing ecosystem regulation. This forest is located in the upper part of
Dodokan and Jangkok watershed which plays an important role in the water supply to Mataram
city, as well as Central and East Lombok District. However, forest degradation and conversion to
other land use systems such as agriculture and agro-forestry occurred in this area. It will impact to
loss of forest function particularly carbon dioxide sequestration and hydrological function, even
though potentially on increasing local income.
Local community in the buffer area of protected forest had practiced agro-forestry
systems mostly coffee and cocoa mixed with other trees such as timber, fruit trees, shading trees
as well as some annual crops for a couple of decades. However, tree composition growth in the
systems is varied depend on the land status. So far, there are three types of land status across the
buffer area are private land, permitted managing forest called community forestry and non
permitted.
Community forestry (Hutan Kemasyarakatan/HKm) is one of mechanism strategy to
improve degraded forest through involving community on managing forest area (Suyanto et al.,
605
2004). Of course, rule of forest management, for example, prescribing of tree and crop
proportion in the certain land use should be implemented to maintain forest function. Practicing
agro-forestry system through integrating tree species, perennial crop and annual crop will provide
both ecological and economical function. Tree species, for example, timber and fruits mainly
provide ecosystem services as a micro climate regulation and hydrological function through
carbon dioxide sequestration and controlling run-off. Perennial and annual crop are mostly as
sources of income for community.
Even though, community forest (HKm) mechanism is being discussed and sometime still
in debate, particularly in the conservation or protected forest area due to some government
regulation. However, some evidence indicates that involving community on managing degraded
forest give better environment condition (Suyanto, et al., 2007). The aim of this study is to know
the impact of community forest program to social economic condition and the conditionality to
environmental condition. We used carbon stock and watershed functions as an environmental
indicator.
2. METHODS
2.1 Study Area
Figure 1: Location of study
This research was conducted in protected forest of Sesaot, West Lombok about 5950.18
ha under two farmer groups namely Wana Lestari and Wana Dharma (Figure 1). Both of those
farmers group currently is in process to promote community forestry permit (HKm pertmit). Part
of Wana Dharma area there is about 21 ha managed by KMPH (Kelompok Masyarakat Pengelola
Hutan Bunut Ngengkang) had been stated as HKm permit area since 2008 from West Lombok
local government.
Carbon stock measurement was conducted through set up 30 plots of 20 m x 100 m
which are distributed in secondary forest (3 plots), tree-based agro-forestry system in community
forestry program (HKm program 6 plots and proposed HKm program, 12 plots), private land (6
606
plots) and mahoni plantation (3 plots) following RaCSA method (Hairiah et al., 2011). Diameter
at breast height (dbh) of all trees more than 5 cm diameter in the plot were measured and
identified base on local species name. Carbon stock in each land use was estimated with
allometric equation developed by Ketterings et al., 2001). Litter, understorey and soil were
collected in 0.5 m x 0.5 m, 3 replications in each plot.
Discharge data time series of Jangkok river from 2000 – 2008 was collected from public
work department as data input for running Flow Persistence model. Data of Jangkok river was
selected in this analysis because the water come from the forest as well as flows through the
forest. The FlowPer.xls model provides a parsimonious null-model, that is based on temporal
autocorrelation or an empirical ‗flow persistence‘ in the river flow data (Van Noordwijk et al.,
2011). Assessment for landscape condition using PaLA (Participatory Landscape Assessment),
the method developed from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) or Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
method.
Household survey was conducted to get socioeconomic data, particularly for quantitative
data. Amount of 120 respondents consist of 40 respondents in HKm permit area, 40 in HKm
non permit area and 40 in Non HKm (private land) was randomly selected from the larger
sample to be interviewed. Both husband and wife were interviewed to collect information on
family characteristics, such as the number of family members; age and education; history of land
use; plot size for all crops; costs and revenue of land-use types, such as mixed gardens (agroforestry), rice field and other. Poverty level of respondents was generated from household
income.
3.1 Plant Species Composition in Agro-forestry System of Sesaot
Community forest management raise based on forestry minister‘s regulation and it is
potential mechanism to improve forest function in degraded area through agro-forestry systems.
Local government sees the potential benefits of handing over forest area to local community
(Murdiyarso and Skutch, 2006). The local communities are allowed to manage degraded forest
with an agreement. Under community forest management scheme, local communities get the
formal and legal rights to use and get profit from forest products (Murdiyarso and Skutch, 2006).
The legal right on managing degraded forest will encourage local communities to grow perennial
tree species such as slow growing timber, fruits trees and perennial crop, instead of annual crop
due to land security reason.
Identification of trees group grown by local community in agro-forestry system of Sesaot
was done during the survey as Multipurpose tree species (MPTs) consist of shading trees for such
as Erythrina sp., Gliricidia sepium as well as fruit trees such as candlenut, durian, avocado, petai etc;
perennial crop (coffee and cocoa), annual crop (banana) and timber species.
The survey result indicates that in the area with HKm permit, more MTPs and timber
trees grown by local community compared to non HKm permit (Figure 2). In opposite, more
perennial crop grow in non HKm permit. Issue of eviction as the main reason why they are not
interesting to grow timber species, instead of there is no regulation and agreement in non HKm
area. However, there is indication that high percentage of perennial crop in non HKm area
occurred due to dependence of land resource for generate income from crop. Extremely,
different with in private land that is dominated by MPTs and timber species (more than 80%),
because of more secure than HKm.
607
Percentage of plant species
100
80
MPTS
60
Annual crop
Perrenial crop
40
Timber
20
0
HKm permit Private land
Non HKm
Figure 2: Percentage of plant species in various land status of agro-forestry system in protected
forest of Sesaot
3.2 Carbon Stock in Agro-forestry of Sesaot
Multipurpose trees species in agro-forestry systems of community forestry area highly
potential as carbon sequester, since the biomass will stay for longer time. Only fruits are extracted
from MPTs. Even, coffee and cocoa just contributed about 20 – 30 ton carbon stock per hectare,
but MPTs which are integrated in this land will increase the total of carbon stock per unit area.
The average of total aboveground carbon stock in agro-forestry system of Sesaot is about
46 ton/ha in HKm non permit and 33 ton/ha in HKm permit (Figure 3). There is different land
history among them. HKm non permit had been developed since about 1970 from logged-over
area and mahoni plantation initiated by government. HKm permit just established since 1999
from Imperata grassland after abandoned from logged-over forest. Compared with secondary
forest (119 ton/ha) and private land (72 ton/ha), total aboveground carbon stock in agro-forestry
system of Sesaot both in HKm non permit and HKm permit is lower. Tree species composition
and age of managed land is the main factor on carbon stock contribution. Zahabu (2006), stated
that in full community forest management, have resulted in significant reductions in degradation
together with significant increases in sequestration of carbon.
Total carbon stock (ton/ha)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Secondary Private land HKm non
forest
permit
HKm
permit
Figure 3: Total aboveground carbon stock in various land status of agro-forestry system in
protected forest of Sesaot
608
3.3 Watershed Condition
The Flow Persistence (FlowPer) model provides a parsimonious null-model, that is based
on temporal autocorrelation or an empirical ‗flow persistence‘ in the river flow data (Van
Noordwijk et al., 2011). The basic form is a recursive relationship between river flows Q at
subsequent days:
Qt+1 = fp Qt + Qadd
where: Qt and Qt+1 represent the river flow on subsequent days, fp is the flow persistence factor ([0< fp <1]) and
Qadd is a random variate that reflects inputs from recent rainfall.
Qadd and fp are related, as  Qadd i = (1 – fp) Q. Thus, if fp = 1, Qadd = 0 and river flow
is constant, regardless of rainfall (the ideally buffered system). If fp = 0 there is no relation
between river flow on subsequent days and the river is extremely ‗flashy‘, alternating between
high and low flows without temporal predictability within the frequency distribution of Qadd.
Water discharge data used for this model comes from the station Jangkok Dam year period from
2000 to 2008. Previously carried out analysis of the quality of the data, after which discharge data
were then tested with the Flow Persistence model. FlowPer average value of 0.86 (Table 1) this
means that discharge still relatively good condition, or discharge during wet months and dry
months is still persistent.
Table 1. Flow Persistance value per year of Jangkok river
Year
FlowPer
value
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Average
0.79
0.69
0.85
0.87
0.90
0.88
0.90
0.86
0.92
0.86
Figure 4 shows that trend of FlowPer value tends to rise. This is in harmony with the
history that forest of Sesaot is getting better due to initiation program of community forest
management. FlowPer smallest value was occurred in 2001 due to land degradation,
encroachment and logging triggered by the publication of West Lombok Regent Decree No.
522.21/457/prov/2000 on utilization of wood waste. Encroachment and logging increased
runoff and reduce water absorption into the soil, because during the rainfall, water flows directly
into the river and only very small part of water go into the soil and resulting large water discharge
in the river. While in the dry season discharge of water per day decreased. Higher fluctuations
pattern of discharge per day resulted smaller value of fp.
Otherwise, land cover condition has improved due to increasing community awareness.
They plant perennial crop such as coffee and cacao with shagging trees than ultimately affects to
the river flow stability.
Figure 4: Trendline of FlowPer of Jangkok river
609
Participatory landscape assessment which was conducted in 2010 indicates that biophysical problems, such as encroachment, logging, landslide and spring exploitation in Sesaot
area haven‘t give impact to water quality, but it will be a potential threat if there is no controlling.
Most of the soils type in the study area is regosol with high content of sand that prone to erosion
and landslide. However, the effort of communities to plant fast growing tree such as ‗sengon‘
(Paraserianthes falcataria) and keeping old stand such as ‗durian pecing‘ and mahogany around
spring seemly can maintain watershed function in the area. In addition, local community also
takes the initiative on protecting forest through doing the patrol and coordination with forestry
officer.
In the other hand, bio-physical problem in this area occurred due to lack of knowledge,
coordination, communication, law enforcement and limited sources of funding for farmer group
on managing forest.
3.4 Livelihood
3.4.1 Land holdings
Compared to non HKm area (0.42 ha) and HKm permit (0.39 ha), land holding per
household in HKm non permit is the largest (0.64 ha) (Figure 5). Different land holding occurred
due to different rule on getting land. In HKm non permit they opened land by themselves from
secondary forest, but in HKm permit they got from local government through farmer group.
Survey results indicate that actually, dependence of local community to land in protected forest is
very high. It reached 95% in HKm permit area and 89% in HKm non permit. In term of
management system, all respondents (100%) in HKm non permit area and 98% in HKm permit
area applied agro-forestry systems. All of local community (100%) applied agro-forest system in
private land.
Figure 5: Average Land Holding per household
3.4.2 Quantitative analysis for Poverty
Household income which is calculated based on the consumed commodities used as a
quantitative indicator for poverty. However, most of income came from cash crops. Daily
income per capita in HKm permit is similar with HKm non permit, IDR 12 654 (USD 1.4)1 and
IDR 11 679 (USD 1.2), but higher income occurred in Non HKm IDR 14 748 (USD 1.6) (Figure
6). It is indicates that farmers in HKm permit as well as HKm non permit are less prosperous
than the farmers non HKm. Even the daily income per capita of HKm non permit is slightly
lower than in HKm permit, but they have perception that HKm permit will improve their
1
Exchange rate in 2009 averaged at USD 1 = IDR Rp 9,300
610
livelihoods and they hope that their incomes will further increase if they continue to manage the
forest.
16.000
14.000
12,654
(1.4 US $)
11,679
(1.2 US $)
HKm Permit
HKM Non Permit
14,748
(1.6 US $)
Rupiah (IDR)
12.000
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
Non HKm
Figure 6: Income per capita per day
Even the average of total income per year per household in Non HKm are slightly higher
than in HKm permit areas and HKm non permit, but the composition of income source are
different. Agriculture (agro-forestry) is the major source of income in the HKm permit, HKm
non permit and Non HKm areas, but the status of land was different.
Income from the agricultural sector of mixed gardens (agro-forestry) on state land area
was contributed to poverty reduction. It is seen from the large proportion of the income of
farmers in HKm permit and HKm non permit from state land area. The proportion of income
in HKm permit from the state land area was reached 33% of total revenue. In HKm non permit,
the proportion of income derived from state land area is about 59%. While the farmers non
HKm, the largest proportion of revenue that comes from a mixed gardens (agro-forestry) in the
private land is 38% (Figure 7). The higher proportion income from the state land proved that
communities who live in the forest land of Sesaot need the land as their main source of
livelihood, in particular for farmers in HKm non permit.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
others
Percentage (%)
remittances
Professional
Business
Wage
Other agriculture
HKm Permit
HKm Non
Permit
Non HKm
Figure 7: Household income by activity type (%)
611
In the HKm permit areas, the main source of income was came from agroforestry in state
land (33%) and business activities (33%), followed by professional (19%), wage (8%%), other
agriculture (3%), agroforestry in private land, remittances and others were very low (2%), (1%)
and (1%).
In the HKm non permit areas, highest source of income came from agroforestry in state
land (59%) followed by wage (10%), agroforestry in private land, professional, other agriculture,
business activities were the same (6%), remittances (5%) and rice field were very low (3%). In the
Non HKm areas, highest source of income came from agroforestry in private land (38%),
following by rice field (18%), others (13%), wage (11%), business activities (9%), professional
(6%), other agriculture (4%) and remittances (2%).
3.4.3 Equity analysis
In order to analyze the equity of income, a decomposition analysis was applied using the
Gini coefficient that ranges from 0 (equal distribution of income) to 1 (total concentration of
income). Gini decomposition is commonly applied in economic analysis (Alderman and Garcia,
1993) using the Gini decomposition formula that was developed by Fei, Ranis, and Kuo (1978)
and Pyatt, Chen, and Fei (1980).
The computation results of the decomposed Gini ratios of income for farmers in HKm
permit and HKm non permit area relatively small (0.26-0.38). This indicated that income at both
sites was equally distributed. The assessment of income inequity is using the concentration
coefficient. A source of income is influential in improving income equity if it has a concentration
coefficient of less than 1. On the contrary, if the concentration coefficient is higher than 1, the
source of income is influential in causing income inequity.
Income from agriculture (agroforestry) on state land reduced the overall inequity of
income distribution at the Sesaot area, because the concentration coefficients were less than unity
(Figure 8). This suggests that the income from agriculture (agroforestry) grown on state land is
relatively equally distributed, making this income important to reducing poverty and increasing
income equity. On the other hand, Income from agriculture (agroforestry) on private land leads
to unequal income distribution in the Sesaot area. Wealthy farmers often extend their private land
through of inheritance or purchasing, which seems to have concentrated income from private
land in the hands of fewer people. In contrast, it state land area income from agriculture
(agroforestry) on state land reduced inequity of income, since state areas (protection areas) were
more available.
The HKm area has made land more accessible, particularly for poor farmers who do not
own land. Through HKm area, poor farmers can have access to land without having to pay. On
the other hand, private land ownership has caused land to be distributed unevenly as only the rice
will have access to land.
612
4,5
4,07
Coefficient concentration value
4
3,5
3
2,53
2,5
2,1
2
1,5
1
0,9
0,84
0,78
0,39
0,5
0,04
0
Agriculture
Other
(state land) agriculture
Wage
Business Remittances Agriculture Professional
(private
land)
Increase the distribution of income
Other
Increasing income inequality
Figure 8: Coefficient concentration in Sesaot Lombok
From three components study (carbon stock, water and livelihood), indicates that three
of them have close relationship. Through community forestry mechanism (HKm), local
community in protected forest of Sesaot willing to growth tree species instead of annual crop
among coffee or cacao tree due to land security. Increasing number of tree species in their agroforestry systems increasing carbon stock in each unit area as well as increasing canopy covers.
Tree root systems, canopy covers and soil covers has an important role in water regulation. In
addition, land security in protected forest of Sesaot triggered of local community on management
improvement and will potentially impact to household income.
4. CONCLUSION






Community forest management stimulate community to manage forest area and will provide
environmental services particularly for carbon sequester. Carbon stock in community forest
management is about 54% of private land.
FlowPer model shows the condition of watersheds which persistence (0.86), it means that
landscape still perform its function in the system of hydrology.
Bio-physical problems as potential trigger to the environmental damage in the future,
particularly for water quality.
Income from agroforestry systems in the buffer area managed by the local community ranged
33-59% of total income and plays an important role in poverty alleviation.
Income from state land (under community forestry program) in the agroforestry narrowing
the income inequity.
Legal permission for managing land is an incentive for the local community and will improve
land management.
613
REFERENCES
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Fei, J C H, G Ranis and S W Y Kuo (1978): Growth and family distribution of income by factor
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Aren (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) Traditional

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