the personifications of celestial water: the many guises of the storm

Transcription

the personifications of celestial water: the many guises of the storm
Contributions in New World
Archaeology
THE PERSONIFICATIONS OF CELESTIAL WATER:
THE MANY GUISES OF THE STORM GOD
IN THE PANTHEON AND COSMOLOGY OF TEOTIHUACAN
.$63(5:5(0$1'(5621 $1'&+5,6723+(+(/0.(
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract
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8QD FODVL¿FDFLyQWHQWDWLYDGH ORV PRQXPHQWRVDUTXHROyJLFRVGH7HRWLKXDFiQTeotihuacán: Onceava
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