Journal of Leadership Education

Transcription

Journal
of
Leadership Education
...is an international, refereed journal that serves scholars and professional
practitioners engaged in leadership education.
...provides a forum for the development of the knowledge base and professional
practice of leadership education world wide.
...is made available through the continued support and efforts of the
membership of the Association of Leadership Educators.
Copyright 2011 by the Association of Leadership Educators.
All rights reserved.
ISSN 1552-9045
i
Volume 10, Issue 2 – Summer 2011
Volume 10, Number 2 – Summer 2011
The Journal of Leadership Education (JOLE) is the official publication of the
Association of Leadership Educators. The purpose of JOLE is to provide a forum
for development of the knowledge base and practice of leadership education. The
journal is intended to promote a dialogue that engages both academics and
practitioners. Thus, JOLE has a particular interest in applied research and it is the
premise of JOLE that feedback between theory and practice tests both and makes
each better. The journal provides several categories for submittals to promote
diversity of discussion from a variety of authors.
The members and board of the Association of Leadership Educators became
aware of the need for a journal about leadership education in the early 1990s. The
challenge of educating people about leadership is particularly provocative,
complex, and subtle. Other journals with leadership in the title focus primarily on
defining and describing leadership, and journals concerning education seldom
address the subject of leadership. Indeed, one common argument in society is that
leadership is innate (you have it or you don’t) and teaching leadership is difficult
and often ineffective. This attitude is expressed, perhaps, in the dearth of
leadership courses on our university campuses.
In this context, JOLE provides a means to test the hypothesis that leadership
education is possible. Our journal sits at the nexus of education theory and
practice and leadership theory and practice, and from this divide, this mountain
pass there is a need to look “both ways.” Whether leadership education is a
discipline of its own is unclear, at least at present. If nothing else, by looking both
ways this journal hopes to provide a passageway between two disciplines,
enriching both in the process.
JOLE is an electronic journal open to all, both as writers and readers. The journal
has been conceived as an “on-line” journal that is available on the world-wide
web and is to be self-supporting. To this end, at some time in the future a fee may
be charged for publication. At present, all editorial, Board, and reviewer services
are provided without cost to JOLE or its members by volunteer scholars and
practitioners.
ii
Editorial Staff
Editor
•
Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University
Associate Editor
• Brent J. Goertzen, Fort Hays State University
Editorial Reviewers
• Scott Allen, John Carroll University
• Tony Andenoro, Gonzaga University
• Jill Arensdorf, Fort Hays State University
• Paul Arsenault, West Chester University
• Elizabeth Bolton, University of Florida
• Amy Boren, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
• Chester Bowling, Ohio State University
• Christie Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Curt Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Jackie Bruce, University of Pennsylvania
• Robert Colvin, Christopher Newport University
• Marilyn Corbin, Pennsylvania State University
• Chris Crawford, Fort Hays State University
• Ken Culp III, University of Kentucky
• Renee Daugherty, Oklahoma State University
• Dennis Duncan, University of Georgia
• Don DiPaolo, University of Detroit
• Garee Earnest, Ohio State University
• Chanda Elbert, Texas A&M University
• Janet Fox, Louisiana State University
• Nancy Franz, University of Illinois
• Susan Fritz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
• Greg Gifford, University of Florida
• Mark Grandstaff, Brigham Young University
• Kathy Guthrie, Florida State University
• Paige Haber, University of San Diego
• David Jones, North Carolina State University
• Eric Kaufman, Virginia Tech University
• Douglas Lindsay, United States Air Force Academy
• Billy McKim, Texas A&M University
• Tony Middlebrooks, University of Delaware
• Jeffery P. Miller, Innovative Leadership Solutions
• Lori Moore, Texas A&M University
• Chris Morgan, University of Georgia
iii
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Martha Nall, University of Kentucky
Penny Pennington-Weeks, Oklahoma State University
Adrian Popa, Gonzaga University
Carolyn Roper, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
John Ricketts, Tennessee State University
Kris Ricketts, University of Kentucky
David Rosch, University of Illinois
Manda Rosser, Texas A&M University
Mark Russell, Purdue University
Nicole Stedman, University of Florida
Carrie Stephens, University of Tennessee
Kelleen Stine-Cheyne, Texas A&M University
Wanda Sykes, North Carolina State University
Kurt Takamine, Brandman University
Laurie Thorp, Michigan State University
Jim Ulrich, Antioch University
Willis M. Watt, Methodist University
Bill Weeks, Oklahoma State University
Carol Wheeler, Our Lady of the Lake University
Andrew White, Boise State University
Jennifer Williams, Texas A&M University
iv
Table of Contents
From the Editors’ Clipboard
Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University
viii
Leading Critically: A Grounded Theory of Applied Critical Thinking
in Leadership Studies
Daniel M. Jenkins, Ph.D., University of South Florida
Amanda B. Cutchens, M.Ed., University of South Florida
1
Testing Relationships Between Servant Leadership Dimensions and
Leader Member Exchange (LMX)
John E. Barbuto, California State University-Fullerton
Robert W. Hayden, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
22
The Social Change Model as Pedagogy: Examining Undergraduate
Leadership Growth
Eric Buschlen, Ed.D., Central Michigan University
Robert Dvorak, Ph.D., Central Michigan University
38
An Exploratory Study of the Role of Task Dependence on Team
Captains’ Leadership Development
Christian J. Grandzol, Ph.D., Bloomsburg University of
Pennsylvania
57
Using Cluster Analysis to Segment Students Based on Self-Reported
Emotionally Intelligent Leadership Behaviors
Tina M. Facca, Ph.D., John Carroll University
Scott J. Allen, Ph.D., John Carroll University
72
The Unique Leadership Needs of Minority Student Populations:
Crafting a Leadership Identity
Kristen N. Baughman, North Carolina State University
Jacklyn Bruce, North Carolina State University
97
v
The Relationship of Hope and Strength’s Self-Efficacy to the Social
Change Model of Leadership
Forrest C. Lane, University of North Texas
Natasha H. Chapman, Ph.D., Texas Christian University
116
Shaping Influences on the Leadership of Genghis Khan, George
Washington, and Nelson Mandela: Applications for Educators
Dr. Jean-Pierre Bongila, College of Applied Professional Studies
138
Servant-Leadership as Gender-Integrative Leadership: Paving a Path
for More Gender-Integrative Organizations through Leadership
Education
Kae Reynolds, Gonzaga University
155
A (Super) Heroic Vision of Leader Self
Genie Bingham Linn, University of Texas at Tyler
172
Submission Guidelines
180
Le Culminant
182
vi
From the Editor’s Clipboard
Volume 10, Number 2 – Summer 2011
I like most kinds of music, but I love country music for the positive values that
many country artists espouse. I know that there are cheatin’ songs and drinkin’
songs, but there are also songs about the value of family, hard work, honesty, and
sacrifice. I use some of these songs in a class that I teach called Personal
Leadership Education. I use them to set up the lesson of the day or bring home
that message.
Country singer Aaron Tippin had a hit song a few years ago called “You’ve Got
to Stand for Something.” The first line in the chorus is, “You’ve got to stand for
something or you’ll fall for anything.” It seems like the only thing that many of
today’s leaders stand for is their own self-interest, even though many of them are
in positions where they are supposed to serve the public’s interest. U.S.
Representative Anthony Weiner and former Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich
come to mind. Weiner resigned as the U.S. Representative for New York over
explicit photos he sent to a female Twitter follower and Blagojevich was
convicted on 17 counts of conspiracy related to his attempts to “sell” the vacant
Senate seat of Barak Obama. This follows dozens of scandals that have rocked
Wall Street over the past 5 years.
And it continues to amaze me that these leaders don’t seem to learn from the
mistakes of their predecessors. Wall Street leaders in the years leading to the
collapse in 2008 could have looked at Ken Lay and Enron or Scott Sullivan at
WorldCom to see that putting profits above all else doesn’t work out so well.
Weiner could have looked back to Bill Clinton or John Edwards to see that such
behavior has consequences and lying about it only makes the situation worse.
Albert Bandura might question the validity of social learning theory today.
The lack of moral and ethical leadership leads me to ask this question: How can
we as leadership educators provide the world with ethical and moral leaders? Is it
merely our role to teach about moral and ethical theories and let students develop
their own ethical framework or should we direct students to adopt those moral and
ethical theories that produce virtuous leaders who work for the common good?
Sometimes I believe that we take Luby’s approach - “put it on the buffet and let
them choose” -- towards leadership education instead of the Genghis Grill
approach of “here is what we serve and it is all healthy.”
Is this a possible idea for a Commentary manuscript? I welcome your comments
(and manuscripts) as I leave you with the second verse of Tippin’s song:
vii
Now we might have been better off or owned a bigger house
If Daddy had done more givin' in or a little more backing down
But we always had plenty just living his advice
Whatever you do today you'll have to sleep with tonight
Tomorrow’s leaders (as well as today’s) could take a few lessons from Mr.
Tippin’s song.
Respectfully Submitted,
Barry L. Boyd, Editor
Research and Theory Features
Leading Critically: A Grounded Theory of Applied Critical Thinking in
Leadership Studies
Jenkins and Cutchens present research on the development of a theory of applied
critical thinking in leadership studies. A qualitative analysis of students’ written
assignments was conducted and 12 actions that leaders must take to lead critically
emerged.
Testing Relationships Between Servant Leadership Dimensions and Leader
Member Exchange (LMX)
Barbuto and Hayden present research that tested the relationship between servant
leadership dimensions and leader member exchange (LMX) quality. Followers
rated leaders on the servant leadership questionnaire and the LMX-7 and strong
correlations were found.
The Social Change Model as Pedagogy: Examining Undergraduate
Leadership Growth
The effect of a leadership course on students’ score on the Socially Responsible
Leadership Scale (SRLS) was tested by Buschlen and Dvorak in a quasiexperimental design. Students enrolled in an introductory leadership course
increased their SRLS score a significant amount when compared to those in a
control group.
An Exploratory Study of the Role of Task Dependence on Team Captains’
Leadership Development
Grandzol presents an investigation of the role of task dependence on the
leadership development of collegiate sports team captains using the Student
viii
Leadership Practices Inventory (SLPI). Captains of both independent team sports
and interdependent team sports developed leadership skills at a similar rate, thus
development was not found to be task dependent.
Using Cluster Analysis to Segment Students Based on Self-Reported
Emotionally Intelligent Leadership Behaviors
Facca and Allen present research analyzing student results from the Emotionally
Intelligent Leadership for Sudents - Inventory via cluster analysis. Three clusters
for segmenting students were found: those that are ‘Less-involved, Less Othersoriented,’ ‘Self Improvers,’ and ‘Involved Leaders for Others.’
The Unique Leadership Needs of Minority Student Populations: Crafting a
Leadership Identity
Through semi-structured interviews, Baughman and Bruce investigated how
minority student leaders make meaning of their leadership experiences. Multiple
themes were found, including students’ strong personal motivation to participate
in student leadership positions.
The Relationship of Hope and Strength’s Self-Efficacy to the Social Change
Model of Leadership
Lane and Chapman present research into the relationship between hope and
strengths self-efficacy and the values of the Social Change Model of Leadership
(SCM). Significant correlation was found between both hope and strengths selfefficacy to the individual values of the SCM.
Shaping Influences on the Leadership of Genghis Khan, George Washington
and Nelson Mandela: Applications for Educators
A model for the stages of leadership development is proposed by Bongila. Of
particular focus is the influence of seven factors on the development of Genghis
Khan, George Washington and Nelson Mandela, three leaders who brought about
the unification of people into a nation/territory.
Servant-Leadership as Gender-Integrative Leadership: Paving a Path for
More Gender-Integrative Organizations Through Leadership Education
Reynolds proposes a theoretical framework that examines servant-leadership
through the lens of gender. Servant-leadership is suggested as a framework for
studying leadership with a gender-integrative approach.
ix
Idea and Application Briefs
Linn offers a creative way for students to help identify their vision of self through
the selection of a hero from pop culture with whom they identify. Hero selection
helped students examine and revise their personal model of leadership.
x
Leading Critically: A Grounded Theory of Applied
Critical Thinking in Leadership Studies
Daniel M. Jenkins, Ph.D.
Adjunct Professor of Leadership Studies
College of Undergraduate Studies
Center for Leadership and Civic Engagement
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL
DJenkin2@usf.edu
Amanda B. Cutchens, M.Ed.
Academic Advisor
Honors College
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL
ACutchens@usf.edu
Abstract
This study describes the development of a grounded theory of applied critical
thinking in leadership studies and examines how student-centered experiential
learning in leadership education bridged critical thinking with action. Over three
semester undergraduate students in an upper level leadership studies course at a
large four-year public institution in the southeastern United States completed a
written assignment in which they were asked to define the concept of “leading
critically.” A grounded theory of critical leadership – utilizing critical thinking
skills to make decisions about leadership actions in different situations – emerged
after completing a qualitative document analysis of these papers and incorporating
the researchers’ existing knowledge of leadership and student development
theory. The hope is that this research will create dialogue concerning new
approaches to leadership education and encourage practices that apply critical
thinking skills to leadership.
Introduction
A current problem in colleges and universities nationwide sits at a critical
impasse. While higher education emphasizes critical thinking across disciplines,
many undergraduates cannot effectively utilize this skill (Burbach, Matkin, &
1
Fritz, 2004). It is clear that critical thinking exists in institutional curriculum, but
there is disconnect between what is taught and what is practiced (Loh, 2009). Yet,
unlike many traditional academic disciplines, leadership education offers students
an environment in which critical thinking skills and practices can be applied every
day. The underlying philosophy of leadership education is to enhance students’
interpersonal skills for leadership in an environment that fosters increased selfawareness, increased understanding of others, and learning from life experiences
(Burbach et al., 2004). And while there may be disconnect between critical
thinking and classroom and real life application in other disciplines, leadership
studies emphasize building skills such as critical thinking through studentcentered experiential learning (Eich, 2008; Allen & Hartman, 2009; Moore, Boyd,
& Dooley, 2010). This type of learning is central to helping students develop as
leaders and bridges thinking with action.
Leadership education offers a unique platform inherently designed to improve
critical thinking by cultivating self-regulatory judgment through the
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference of a leader’s own decisions and
actions (Facione, 1990). Yet, the incorporation of critical thinking pedagogy in
the leadership education curriculum has only recently emerged (i.e., Burbach et
al., 2004; Gifford, 2010; Sinclair, 2007; Stedman, 2009). As a result, more
research is needed to examine specific pedagogies for applied critical thinking in
the collegiate leadership classroom.
Literature Review
A Look at Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has many definitions (i.e., Ennis, 1962; 1987; 1991). Ennis
(1993) suggests the following definition is more in accord with contemporary
usage: “Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding
what to believe or do” (p. l80). Inasmuch as Ennis proposed this definition, he did
it with some trepidation stating this definition is “as vague as Bloom’s taxonomy
(1956) … [and] that too needs elaboration” (p. 180). Thus, Ennis offers 10 actions
a person characteristically needs to do (at least most of them and each one
interdependently) in order to practice critical thinking:
2
Table 1
10 Actions a Learner Must Take to Think Critically
Number Action
1
Judge the credibility of sources.
2
Identify conclusions, reasons, and assumptions.
3
Judge the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its
reasons, assumptions, and evidence.
4
Develop and defend a position on an issue.
5
Ask appropriate clarifying questions.
6
Plan experiments and judge experimental designs.
7
Define terms in a way appropriate for the context.
8
Be open-minded.
9
Try to be well informed.
10
Draw conclusions when warranted, but with caution.
Source: Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory into Practice.
32(3), 180.
Critical Thinking Pedagogy in Leadership Studies
The development of critical thinking capacity allows for a more purposeful and
effective reflection process in leadership development (Stedman, 2009).
According to Guthrie and King (2004), reflection is a key component in the
development of leadership capacity. The use of critical thinking skills provides an
in-depth and forward thinking reflection process (Rudd, Baker, & Hoover, 2000).
Stedman (2009) argued that leadership classrooms should seek to develop the
cognitive capabilities of students by enhancing critical thinking skills. In the same
way, other scholars have alluded to practicing critical reflection, a behavior that
integrates personal experiences with new learning and understanding to engage
and mobilize students to act on new ideas and to challenge conventional thinking
in both theory and practice (Jones, Simonetti, & Vielhaber-Hermon, 2000;
Reynolds, 1999). In leadership education, deep reflective learning requires
students to consider the underlying dynamics of power and to question basic
assumptions and practices. For example, students could be required to reassess the
power they use in leadership situations to achieve their desired results (Jenkins &
Cutchens, 2010).
Engaging in critical reflection can create student discomfort and dissonance
(Brookfield, 1994; Dewey, 1933; Reynolds, 1999). Nonetheless, as Fink (2003)
and others assert, discomfort often means students are really thinking and
consequently really learning. Moreover, where reflection is absent, there is the
constant risk of making poor decisions and bad judgments (Brookfield, 1995). For
example, without reflection, leaders may be convinced by past successes of their
3
invincibility and fail to consider other viewpoints, with possibly disastrous
consequences (Densten & Gray, 2001). Similarly, leaders may avoid reflecting on
a course of action because such reflection might challenge their favorable
perceptions of themselves (Conger, 1992).
Research Design
Within this multi-case research design, grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss
& Corbin, 2008) was used to construct a theory or model of applied critical
thinking in leadership studies. This method was chosen because it was a
qualitative way of coupling inductive data analysis and interpretive inquiry to
identify themes from the data and offer interpretations leading to theory
generation. In inductive data analysis researchers build patterns, categories, and
themes from the bottom up by organizing data into increasingly more abstract
units of information and working back and forth between themes and the database
until researchers have established a comprehensive set of themes. Interpretive
inquiry describes a process in which the researchers used what they see, hear, and
understand. These interpretations cannot be separated from our backgrounds,
history, contexts, and prior understandings (Creswell, 2009). For example, in this
research, the researchers’ experiences teaching undergraduate leadership studies
courses and command of the relevant literature had direct influence on
conclusions included in our interpretations.
Holistically, the grounded theory method is constant and comparative –
comparing incidents applicable to each category, integrating categories and their
properties, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory – a four-stage process
used to make meaning of the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This method
combines data collection, coding, and analysis with theoretical sampling to
generate a theory that is integrated, close to the data, and expressed in a form
clear enough for further testing (Conrad, 1982). Furthermore, each facet of the
theory or model generated from the concepts derived from analysis can be crossrelated with the data or any new case to the point where the constructed theory or
model is grounded in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Sample
Participants were 80 undergraduate students in an upper-level leadership studies
course at a large four-year public institution in the southeast United States. Over
three semesters in 2010 these students completed a written assignment in which
they were asked to define the concepts of “leading critically.” The assignment
appeared in the course syllabus as follows:
4
Read, Think, & Lead Critically: While learning about the many different
theories of leadership this semester, our theme will be to challenge you to read
critically, think critically, and lead critically. This assignment will be a 3 - 5
page paper where you will explain what you think it means (thus defining) to
read, think, and lead critically. Then, elaborate how you feel you currently
utilize these skills, how you will demonstrate these skills during the semester,
and how you plan on applying these skills to your learning and leadership in
your organizations and career in the future. Article #’s 49, 53, and 54 in the
Wren text will provide a great resource for this assignment—I strongly
suggest you read them before you begin writing.
The readings included What It Means to Think Critically, by Stephen D.
Brookfield, The Decision-Making Process, by E. Frank Harrison, and Decision
Making and the Leadership Process, by Victor H. Vroom from J. Thomas Wren’s
(1995) The Leader’s Companion: Insight on Leadership through the Ages.
Students reported utilizing web resources to further expand their thinking and
interpretation of critical thinking.
Data Collection and Selection
The researchers purposefully selected individuals for the study. According to
Creswell (2009), the idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select
participants (and corresponding documents) that will best help the research
understand the research question. Eighty students’ written responses to the
assignment described above (qualitative documents) were collected in the process
of research. It is important to note that all (N=80) participant students volunteered
their written assignments (through informed consent) for inclusion in the research.
These documents allowed the researchers to obtain rich and thoughtful data from
a graded written assignment. As well, this data collection type offers the
following advantages: (a) enables the researcher to obtain the language and words
of the participants, (b) can be accessed at a time convenient to the researcher – an
unobtrusive source of information, (c) represents data that participants have given
attention to compiling them, and (d) as written evidence, it saves a researcher the
time and expense of transcribing. Limitations still exist including the possibility
that students were not equally articulate and perceptive (Creswell, 2009).
Data Analysis
The principal researcher followed a prescribed data analysis procedure suggested
by Creswell (2009) and Tesch (1990) that began by reading through all the data to
get a general sense of the information and reflect on its overall meaning. The
5
researcher then began a detailed analysis with a coding process to systematically
organize the material into chunks of text before bringing meaning to the
information. The researchers maintained the logic of grounded theory coding that
applies preconceived categories and codes for the data based on our experiences
(Charmaz, 2006). In order to improve confirmability and dependability the
primary researcher corroborated with the secondary researcher to ensure that the
research findings accurately reflected students’ perceptions (Denzin, 1978;
Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Stainback & Stainback, 1988). The concurrent
procedure included jotting down ideas that came to mind, making a list of key
topics and passages, coding, turning topics into categories, and assembling the
material belonging to each category in one place to perform the preliminary
analysis. This grounded theory coding process allowed the researchers to both
construct codes and generate a description of the themes for analysis. These
themes, coupled with meaning derived from information gleaned from the
literature, will be described in detail in the following section.
Findings
For the purposes of this study, leading critically is defined as applying critical
thinking skills to decisions about leadership actions in different situations. It is
constructivist in nature because it means taking into account prior experiences and
knowledge before making decisions. It is important to note that application of
critical thinking appeared throughout the student papers (i.e., “thinking critically
is the first step to leading critically”) and that the aforementioned 10 Actions a
Learner Must Take to Think Critically (Ennis, 1993) from Table 1 were implicit
in the preceding analysis and proceeding construction of the model. Moreover, the
researchers’ knowledge of leadership and student development theory further
guided the analyses.
A grounded theory evolved after the researchers examined patterns in students’
written statements. From the patterns, themes were identified, coded, and
clustered to strengthen the study. The resulting grounded theory of critical
leadership included a defined concept of leading critically. The researchers
defined leading critically as applying critical thinking skills to making decisions
about leadership actions in different situations. The main tenet being that like
critical thinking, leading critically must involve action, not just thought. Students
can apply this concept to variety of situations by utilizing the 12 Actions a Leader
Must Take to Lead Critically in Table 2. These actions were developed as an
extension of the theory of critical leadership. The actions should be used
encourage higher order leadership development, in which critical leadership takes
place. The Table 2 lists the 12 actions developed from the study.
6
Table 2
12 Actions a Leader can take to Lead Critically
Number Action
1
Be aware of the context of your situation and evaluate the implications
of your decisions.
2
Ask questions and listen appropriately.
3
Take the time to understand the diversity of others’ decisions, values,
and opinions.
4
Be flexible and open-minded in your decision-making.
5
Accept, internalize, and apply constructive criticism.
6
Evaluate assumptions before you try to challenge them.
7
Understand processes before you try to change them.
8
Know the strengths and weaknesses of your followers and direct or
empower accordingly.
9
Be purposeful and take into account your organization’s mission and
values when making decisions.
10
Engage others where they are, not where you want them to be.
11
Encourage critical followership.
12
Take informed action.
The primary purpose in presenting this grounded theory model is to provide a
useful model for applied critical thinking and critical thinking pedagogy in
collegiate leadership studies. These data hope to provide a platform for enriching
dialogue, idea generation, and action planning for leadership educators and
student affairs practitioners developing leadership studies curriculum, as well as
other academic disciplines. New knowledge and understanding was gained about
applying critical thinking to leadership actions by linking existing research on
critical thinking, leadership, and student development theory. The researchers
investigated the perceptions of undergraduate students in an upper-level
leadership theories course and found evidence of critical thought as it applied to
leadership. These views were expressed in an assignment intended to probe
students’ critical thinking skills as they related to leadership. The knowledge and
understanding gained through the qualitative document analysis of these student
assignments is expressed through their written statements and the inferences of
the researchers.
7
Grounded Theory of Applied Critical Thinking in Leadership Studies
This study identified 12 actions that leaders must take to lead critically through
drawing on the perspectives of upper-level undergraduate leadership studies
students and the encompassing literature of critical thinking, leadership, and
student development theory. While identifying each key attribute, the grounded
theory model explicates the connections to action for implementation. These 12
actions are arranged into four respective clusters: (a) actions and decision making,
(b) situational leadership and context, (c) flexibility and open-mindedness, and (d)
critical leadership (see Figure 1). Each cluster will be introduced along with the
individual attributes within the cluster that entail specific action for applied
critical thinking in leadership decision making processes.
Figure 1. 12 Actions a Leader can take to Lead Critically
8
Cluster I: Situational Leadership and Context
Be aware of the context of your situation and evaluate the implications of your
decisions.
“Evaluate the consequences of your actions or decisions,” wrote one student.
Similar student perspectives and researcher knowledge of cognitive student
development theory shaped the description of this action, which lends heavily to
situational leadership due to an emphasis on contextual influences. Emphasis is
also on thought before action to determine how action will affect the situation,
which indicates a quasi-reflective thinking process. King and Kitchener (as cited
in Evans, Forney, & Guido-Di-Brito, 1998) suggest that this type of reasoning
involves interpretations of evidence in context (Stage 5). Student papers mirrored
this line of thinking, asserting that decisions must be “based on thoughtful and
critical evaluation of the situation and issues” and that leaders must “identify and
challenge assumptions and make decisions contextually appropriate to ourselves
or those we serve.” One student summed this theme up succinctly. “You need to
critically think about every situation you end up in. You need to evaluate your
actions before you act on them, you need to make ethical decisions about what is
best for the group, you need to know what you’re doing is the right thing because
you are a role model as a leader and your every move is being watched [sic].”
Know the strengths and weaknesses of your followers and direct or empower
accordingly.
This action suggests that a critical leader must understand the limits to power and
styles of leadership. More specifically, he or she should be aware that different
situations require different leadership styles. For example, one student expounded
that “a person who leads critically has to be able to notice and evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses his/her followers’ have and be able to distribute tasks
accordingly.” Likewise, DuBrin (2010) suggests there are limits to empowerment,
in such that a group may lack a clear understanding of the boundaries of
empowerment. Therefore, some group members may need stronger guidance or
direct leadership. Student papers echoed that leaders must know “when to lead
and when to follow” and be able to understand the “different behavioral styles of
[their] subordinates.”
Cluster II: Actions and Decision Making
As one student stalwartly noted, “Leading critically requires action, not just
thought.”
9
Understand processes before you try to change them.
This action deals with deeds or decision making involving change. In other words,
this action-step can be applied when a leader intends to change a standing process
or policy. Lewin (1951) wrote that if a person wants to understand something,
then the individual should try to change it. Likewise, critical leaders must
understand processes, policies, and organizational structures before they take
action or make decisions to change them. In the same way, wrote one student,
“Leading critically involves understanding the change you wish to motivate,
exploring the many possible ways to achieve this change, and suggesting a plan of
action.” They added, “However, critical thinking should not only exist in the
planning stage.”
Be purposeful and take into account your organization’s mission and values when
making decisions.
This action emphasizes intentional recognition, communication, evaluation, and
action related to an organization’s mission and values. Emphasis is on purposeful
or intentional action. Being purposeful means having a commitment to a goal or
activity. It is also the ability to collaborate and to find common ground with
others to facilitate positive change (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007). One
student commented that “the goal and benefit of this process is that it is ethical,
moral, and beneficial for all involved.” Another student supported this idea
stating: “Leading critically is about making sound and beneficial decisions not
only for yourself, but for your organization, and your peers as well. A good
critical leader will consider the needs of the organization and its members, the
different plan of actions to take at different times, the effects of different
strategies involved with approaching issues, and why these effects actually effect
the organization.”
Cluster III: Flexibility and Open-mindedness
Take the time to understand the diversity of others’ decisions, values, and
opinions.
This action lends more to understanding others and encouraging action, rather
than empowering others. Here, while members’ views are accepted and
recognized, actual action is not necessarily supported. It is important to note here
that in order to be inclusive, one must have increased knowledge of oneself and
others and engage in learning new views, approaches, styles, and aspects of
individuality (Komives et al., 2007). Students echoed critical leaders stating that:
10
•
•
•
•
“Work twice as hard for the common goal but allow for input and voices
from other members,”
“Recognize the reasons people believe what they believe and have the way
they do.”
“Take into account people’s diversity and listen.”
“Realize the hidden agendas followers can have, but also to recognize and
appreciate the efforts of those helping to achieve the shared vision.”
Be flexible and open-minded in your decision-making.
“Leading critically involves being open-minded,” penned one student. “An
effective leader is someone who is open-minded to understand there are many
different paths to the ultimate goal and therefore, he listens to other opinions on
how to do so,” commented another. In the same way, this action of being flexible
and open-minded in decision-making differs from the previous one in that it
denotes a characteristic of adaptability within a leader or a willingness to accept
change. “In order to be an effective leader, you must think about the actions and
conflicts that occur in your organization, have an open mind, and be able to learn
how to think outside of the box in order to solve these conflicts,” stated yet
another student. Implementing this action-step requires planning followed by
successful execution of the plan while planning for setbacks or other opinions
when something goes differently then was expected. Leadership is inherently
about people working together toward change (Komives, et al., 2007). Therefore,
a leader must be adaptable to the group dynamics.
Engage others where they are, not where you want them to be.
Whereas the second action in Cluster I, “Know the strengths and weaknesses of
your followers and direct or empower accordingly,” refers specifically to
understanding limits of power and style of leadership in context, this action-step
implies a stronger understanding of the development of others, flexibility to
individual needs, and open-mindedness in making decisions about leading and
working with others. Sanford (as cited in Evans et al., 1998) suggests that student
development is a function of person-environment interaction, in which three
conditions must be present: readiness, challenge, and support. Similarly, leading
critically, as a higher order of leadership development, must include the ability to
recognize and accept the developmental stages of others. This skill is described in
great detail in Stages 4 through 6 of the Leadership Identity Development (LID)
Model – Leadership Differentiated, Generativity, and Integration/Synthesis. These
stages emphasize the developmental levels of interdependence (Komives, Owen,
Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005; Komives et al., 2006).
11
Furthermore, leaders are change agents. Yet, successful leaders cannot be agents
of change if they do not engage followers in a manner that is relational and
ethical. Instead of trying to force followers to take action when they are not ready
to act, critical leaders must find balance in challenging follower thinking and
supporting follower actions. In other words, as one student wrote: “Leading
critically means encouraging the skills associated with critical thinking in others.
A good critical leader recognizes which stage of the critical thinking cycle each
follower is engaged in and should be able to help provide encouragement of
questioning the accepted norms.”
Cluster IV: Critical Leadership
Ask questions and listen appropriately
This action is a more inherently understood concept. It relies more on the idea of
good communication skills as a character trait of a critical leader. Similar to King
and Kitchener’s (as cited in Evans, et al., 1998) highest stage of the Reflective
Judgment Model, a leader’s knowledge should result from reflective thinking,
where a process of reasonable inquiry involves constructing solutions to problems
and finding or accepting fault in logic. Similarly, as it relates to the Relational
Leadership Model (RLM), inclusiveness requires the actual practice of listening
skills, coalition building interpersonal skills, and effective civil disclosure
(Komives et al., 2007).
Accept, internalize, and apply constructive criticism.
This action involves the application of criticism and some indication of the selfawareness process. Statements from student papers included descriptors such as
evaluate, understand, consider, or handle. For example, students wrote that critical
leaders must, “be more group-goal oriented,” “evaluate whether or not a decision
made is beneficial to the common group goal, or the leader’s personal goal,”
“understand/consider constructive criticism-be on the same level,” and “be able to
handle constructive criticism.”
Likewise, as another student stated, “Part of leading critically involves
considering other critical thinkers’ objections to your plan, and possibly amending
it accordingly.” The RLM stresses the importance of self-awareness as a
foundational component of developing a personal leadership philosophy.
According to Komives et al. (2007), this is an ethical process that reflects the
interests of the common good, which inherently involves the leader’s acceptance
12
of others’ ideas and opinions about him or her. Critical leaders embody applied
constructive criticism.
Evaluate assumptions before you try to challenge them.
King and Kitchener (as cited in Evans et al., 1998) advocate that reflective
thinking involves comparing evidence and others’ opinion before constructing
solutions, which are based on the weight of the evidence gathered or the need for
action. In a similar sense, this action is a reflective process, wherein the leader
must compare evidence and opinions based on context or situation and determine
if action should and could be taken. It is similar to the last action-step in this
cluster, “Take informed action,” but differs in that no action is actually taken. As
one student wrote, critical leaders must “analyze multiple arguments and
determine which argument is the most useful for that scenario.” Likewise, one
student explained that “to successfully lead critically the leader looks at every
angle of the plan of implementation to ensure every aspect has been thought of …
this also ensures the leader will understand every aspect of the situation and
obstacles that may arise.”
Encourage critical followership.
This action specifically refers to empowering followers. Empowerment is a twodimensional concept that includes the creation of an environment that encourages
and fosters ownership in an idea or process and removes barriers, which prevent
meaningful involvement for others (Komives et al., 2007). In this action-step, a
critical leader must understand and accept leadership qualities and actions from
others, and promote the sustainability of the group or organization. It embraces
explicitly the idea of generativity, which is an integral step in the LID Model
(Komives et al., 2005; 2006).
In addition, the leader must understand that different types of followers exist. As
DuBrin (2010) suggests, there are different levels of engagement by which a
follower can be classified. Some may be completely detached and passively
support the status quo, whereas others may be engaged to the point where they are
willing overthrow the leader if they feel he or she is obstructing the path to
successfully promoting the cause. The researchers found that student statements
implied an understanding of the types of followers, as well as essential qualities of
effective followers. One student wrote “When one leads critically they share the
problem with their constituents and together both parties help to generate and
evaluate alternatives to eventually reach a solution.” Also, student papers
suggested critical leaders and followers demonstrated qualities that Kelley (as
cited in DuBrin, 2010) noted an effective follower exhibited. In the following
13
statements, themes of self-management, commitment, competence, and courage
emerged:
• “For true breakthroughs to occur, we must put critical thinking in action
by applying it to situations. The next step is leading critically, where we
both apply these skills toward our leadership actions as well as developing
and encouraging critical thinking skills in our followers.”
• “A good critical leader must know when the group has reached a time for
action rather than discussion.”
• “Being able to see the situation and know whether or not you need to take
charge of the situation or if you should sit back and let others have the
reigns.”
• “Convert followers to critical followers.”
• ”A critical leader must create an environment where critical thinking is
celebrated rather than discouraged (this may be the hardest step).”
• “Leading critically means not only carefully analyzing your own decision,
but encouraging your followers to also question the leader’s decisions.”
• All affected, engaged, and informed of the [vision] must have access to
similar methods of critical thinking and objectiveness.”
• “Leading critically means to give your followers the ability and tools to
read, think, and sometimes also lead critically.”
Take informed action.
This final action involves the application of critical thinking skills to leadership
actions. Statements from students included specific references to critical thinking
or implied components of critical thinking, such as “thinking outside the box.” For
example:
• “Leading critically must also involve action, not just thought.”
• “As a leader your main influence is rooted in making decisions and when
one leads critically it is reflected most in those decisions.”
• “Informed choice vs. right choice.”\
• “Leading critically involves understanding the change you wish to
motivate, exploring the many possible ways to achieve this change, and
suggesting a plan of action; however, critical thinking should not only
exist in the planning stage.”
• “The more time you get to think critically about a problem or
improvement, the better of decision you can make as a leader.”
• “Leading critically is the ability to evaluate situations just like reading and
thinking critically to apply it to one’s actions and decision-making.”
• “A critical leader is a leader who would understand all sides of situations
and be able to make the best possible decision for the group.”
14
•
•
“Leading is taking what you have already learned and applying it to real
life situations.
“Using the knowledge gathered from reading, interpreting, judging, and
thinking to situations of leadership… it is the smart and innovative way to
lead.”
In student development theory, King and Kitchener (as cited in Evans, et al.,
1998) wrote that in Stage 7 reflecting thinking, solutions are evaluated for
adequacy based on what is reasonable, considering current evidence. Likewise,
critical leaders take action based on a thorough critical thought process.
Discussion
The researchers sought to understand how practices in leadership education bridge
the gap between what students learn about critical thinking in the classroom
environment and how they apply those skills in the real world. Students
demonstrated various levels of critical thought through their comments in the
written essay assignment. For the researchers, this prompted a new question:
What experiential learning techniques in leadership education are most useful in
garnering critical thought? Leadership educators may want to consider pedagogies
that explore the use of critical reflection through assignments like journaling and
role play. Many scholars have suggested that these activities engage and mobilize
students to act on new ideas and challenge their conventional thinking in both
theory and practice (Jones, Simonetti, & Vielhaber-Hermon, 2000; Reynolds,
1999). In addition, further analysis of experiential learning technique s, and how
they are applied in leadership education, as well as other academic disciplines,
may be important to determining how the “Actions a Leader Must Take to Lead
Critically” can be used as an interdisciplinary tool for improving students’ critical
thinking skills in theory and practice.
Finally, the researchers hope that further studies will be conducted to strengthen
the proposed theory of critical leadership. Therefore, some limitations in this
study should be addressed. To begin, the researchers recognize the sample for this
study included students who were purposefully selected. Further studies intended
to more closely examine this theory should include a larger, random sample of
students. In addition, this study was conducted with students enrolled in a
leadership studies course. Yet, the purpose of the research is to stress leadership
education as an inter-disciplinary subject. Future research should apply the
concept of leading critically to other academic fields.
Implications
15
Results from this study are intended to enrich existing literature on leadership
education and demonstrate how instructors can facilitate “leading critically” in
their classrooms. The 12 Actions a Leader Must Take to Lead Critically were
created with the idea that leadership education is an inter-disciplinary subject.
Instructors across all academic disciplines may be able to promote critical
leadership by incorporating specific learning techniques, critical reflection, and
teaching methods that facilitate student participation.
For example, instructors should emphasize experiential learning techniques that
influence critical thinking. Leadership can only be learned through practice, and
these techniques stress learning by doing. In addition, focusing on activities, such
as the Value Line Experience (Crawford, Saul, Matthews, & Makinster, 2005)
and in-class debates, allow students to exercise critical thinking and analyze
arguments. In the same way, reflective learning should be used to probe student
thinking about applying leadership theories learned in class to real situations.
Critical reflection permits students to examine their own ideas and beliefs. Using
journals can give the added value of providing a safe medium for students to
express their thoughts.
In the classroom and through varying forms of feedback, instructors could point
out how students’ life experiences can be either beneficial or detrimental to
influencing their critical thinking. Utilizing some unstructured classroom
discussion may allow students to create their own discourse on critical leadership
and provide feedback on leadership actions. Constructive feedback can enhance
leadership development, as explained in the action five of the 12 Actions a Leader
Must Take to Lead Critically. As well, instructors can promote critical leadership
by inviting speakers to class, encouraging mentorship, or requiring students to
interview others leaders can precipitate dialogue and, in some cases, create
dissonance that can challenge students’ current perceptions. This also can give
students an opportunity to ask question and listen appropriately, understand
others, and evaluate assumptions. The key is to bridge students’ critical thinking
with leadership actions based on informed decision-making.
16
References
Allen, S. J., & Hartman, N. S. (2009). Sources of learning in student leadership
development programming. Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(3), 6-16.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The
cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company.
Brookfield, S. D. (1994). Understanding and facilitating adult learning: A
comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practices. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass and England: Open University Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). What it means to think critically. In J. T. Wren, The
leader’s companion (379-388). New York: The Free Press.
Burbach, M. E., Matkin, G. S., & Fritz, S. M. (2004). Teaching critical thinking
in an introductory leadership course utilizing active learning strategies: A
confirmatory study. College Student Journal, 38(3), 482-493.
Conger, J. (1992). Learning to lead: The art of transforming managers into
leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Crawford, A., Saul, E. W., Matthews, S., & Makinster, J. (2005). Teaching and
learning strategies for the thinking classroom. New York: The
International Debate Education Association.
Densten, I. L., & Gray, J. H. (2001). Leadership development & reflection: What
is the connection? The International Journal of Education Management.
15(3), 119-124.
Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to
sociological methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). The landscape of qualitative
research: Theories and issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Dewey, J. (1993). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective
thinking to the educative process. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Eich, D. (2008). A grounded theory of high-quality leadership programs:
17
Perspectives from student leadership programs in higher education.
Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(2), 176-187.
Ennis, R. H. (1962). A concept of critical thinking. Harvard Educational Review,
29, 128-136.
Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory into Practice, 32(3),
179-186.
Ennis, R. H. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dis-positions and abilities. In
J. Baron & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and
practice (pp. 9-26). New York: W. H. Freeman.
Ennis, R. H. (1991). Critical thinking: A streamlined conception. Teaching
Philosophy, 14(1), 5-25.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student development in
college: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Facione, P. A. (1990). The Delphi report. Millbrae, CA: The California
Academic Press.
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: an integrated
approach to designing college courses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gifford, T. G. (2010). A modern technology in the leadership classroom: Using
Blogs for critical thinking development. Journal of Leadership Education,
9(1), 165-172.
Guthrie, V. A., & King, S. N. (2004). Feedback-intensive programs [C D].
Harrison, E. F. (1995). The decision-making process. In J. T. Wren, The leader’s
companion (408-417). New York: The Free Press.
McCauley, & Van Velsor, E. (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership
Handbook of Leadership Development, 2, 25-57. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Jenkins, D. M., & Cutchens, A. B. (2010, July). Think, act, and lead critically: An
informal look at applied critical thinking in an undergraduate studies
course. SLPKC: Official Newsletter of the Student Leadership Programs
18
Knowledge Community of NASPA. Retrieved from
http://www.naspa.org/kc/slp/SLPKC%20July%202010%20Newsletter.pdf
Jones, M. E., Simonetti, J. L., & Vielhaber-Hermon, M. (2000). Building a
stronger organization through leadership development at Parke-Davis
research. Industrial and Commercial Training, 32(2), 44-48.
Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L.
(2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of
College Student Development, 46(6), 593-611.
Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L.
(2006). A leadership identity development model: applications from a
grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(4), 401418.
Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D.
Cartwright. New York: Harper & Row.
Loh, L. (2009). Reality and surreality in management education: Linking praxis to
practice through pragmatic pedagogy. International Review of Business
Research Papers, 5(4), 157-166.
Moore, C., Boyd, B. L., & Dooley, K. E. (2010). The effects of experiential
learning with an emphasis on reflective writing on deep-level processing
of leadership students. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 36-52.
Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Reynolds, M. (1999). Critical reflection and management education:
Rehabilitating less hierarchical approaches. Journal of Management
Education, 23(5), 537-53.
Stainback, S. B., & Stainback, W. C. (1988). Understanding & conducting
qualitative research. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Stedman, N. L. P. (2009). Casting the net of critical thinking: A look into the
collegiate leadership classroom. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(3),
201-218.
Vroom, V. H. (1995). Decision making and the leadership process. In J. T.
19
Wren, The leader’s companion (418-427). New York: The Free Press.
Wren, J. T. (1995). The Leader’s Companion: Insight on Leadership through the
Ages. New York: The Free Press.
20
Author Biographies
Daniel Jenkins, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Professor of Leadership Studies
with the Center for Leadership and Civic Engagement and College of
Undergraduate Studies as well as an academic advisor for Hospitality
Management and BS in Applied Science majors at the University of South
Florida. He received his doctorate in Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis
in Higher Education Administration from the University of South Florida in 2011.
He teaches undergraduate courses in Leadership Theories, Organizational
Leadership, and Leadership Fundamentals. His primary research interests include
leadership education, pedagogy, diversity and development, college teaching, and
higher education policy.
Amanda Cutchens, M.Ed., is an academic advisor for the Honors College at the
University of South Florida. She earned her Masters of Education in Curriculum
and Instruction with a specialization in College Student Affairs from the
University of South Florida in 2010. Her primary research interests include
student development theory, leadership, first-time college students, and firstgeneration college students. As a graduate student she worked with Daniel
Jenkins as a teaching assistant for two undergraduate leadership courses.
21
Testing Relationships Between Servant Leadership
Dimensions and Leader Member Exchange (LMX)
John E. Barbuto
Center for Leadership Studies
Department of Management
Mihaylo College of Business and Economics
SGMH 5357C
PO BOX 6848
California State University-Fullerton
Fullerton, CA 92834-6848
(657) 278-8675
jbarbuto@fullerton.edu
Robert W. Hayden
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, NE 68583-0709
(402) 472-2807
rhayden2@unlnotes.unl.edu
Abstract
Leader member exchange has previously been found to be a solid predictor of
positive organizational outcomes. Much research has tested a variety of possible
antecedents to Leader Member Exchange (LMX), but only a limited number
involving leadership styles. In this study servant leadership dimensions were
tested for relationship to LMX quality. Strong correlations were found, tested for
collinearity, and the best predictive model identified via regression analysis. The
value to leadership educators was highlighted, limitations were recognized, and
suggested areas for future research discussed.
Introduction
Leadership education is a unique field. It is one that is responsible not only to
keep abreast of new leadership research, but also to ground the results of such
initiatives in their relationship to extant theory. This paper proposes to test one
relatively new leadership style – servant leadership – for relationships to one
known predictor of positive organizational outcomes – Leader Member Exchange
22
(LMX). If significant positive relationships are found, then new knowledge will
become available to leadership educators. This knowledge adds to an
understanding of the complex dynamics operating between leaders and their
followers, and informs educators of what impact the leaders’ style may have upon
the critical establishment of an effective relationship.
LMX describes the strength of relationships between leaders and members in
organizational settings. Research testing the antecedents of LMX has been
extensive (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) with variables including gender (Tsui &
O’Reilly, 1989; Wayne, Liden, & Sparrowe, 1994), similarities of attitude and
personality (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Liden, Wayne, & Stilwell, 1993; Phillips &
Bedeian, 1994; Wayne & Ferris 1990), work values (Steiner & Dobbins, 1989),
liking (Dockery & Steiner, 1990; Liden et al, 1993), personality (Burns, 1995),
locus of control (Kinicki & Vecchio, 1994; Martin, Thomas, Charles, Epitropaki ,
& McNamara, 2005), and emotional intelligence (Barbuto & Bugenhagen, 2009).
These studies have contributed to broader understanding of the antecedents of
LMX quality.
As evidenced from these studies, LMX may result from a variety of factors.
However, the role that leadership style plays in predicting the quality of LMX has
been under studied. Testing the relationships between leadership style and the
resulting LMX is an important piece for identifying the style best suited for
improved relationships. If certain leadership styles are found to be solid predictors
of LMX, then leadership educators will be better informed. Therefore, studying
leadership style as a possible antecedent of LMX is both a timely and necessary
effort.
Recently the field has seen a resurgence of servant leadership research, prompted
primarily from a clarified construct and measure (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). This
was followed by other efforts to study the construct and its organizational impacts
(Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008; Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, &
Roberts, 2008). Now that the construct is measurable and testable the impact of
servant leadership can be more fully realized. This study tests the relationship
between servant leadership and LMX.
Leader Member Exchange (LMX)
Leader member exchange (LMX) refers to a unique relationship quality that
leaders develop with each subordinate. LMX was originally termed Vertical Dyad
Linkage (Dansereau, Cashman, & Graen, 1973), but was later renamed leader
member exchange (Graen, Novak, & Somerkamp, 1982). Strong LMX measures
the extent to which leaders and followers have developed a trusting, autonomous,
23
and mutually beneficial relationship (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). As shown by the
variety of studies above, many different factors may affect the development and
quality of LMX. It is important to research the unique qualities each member of
the dyad may bring to the relationship, for these qualities of the individuals in the
dyad may be antecedents of the relationship. In this study the followers’ view of
the leaders’ servant leadership is tested as a predictor of the resulting LMX.
Further analyses via stepwise regression determine which dimension(s) of servant
leadership best predict LMX.
Servant Leadership
Servant leadership, first theorized four decades ago (Greenleaf, 1970), was
originally described as a leadership philosophy that values service to others over
self-interests. This work carried with it intuitive appeal, and subsequent popular
press publications glorified the construct (e.g., Spears, 1995). Spears’ identified
ten dimensions of servant leadership, but no empirical tests of these dimensions
were conducted. Consequently, servant leadership was viewed primarily as a
conceptual albeit rather elusive construct, lacking any consensus framework or
empirical rigor (Bass, 2000). The construct was rejuvenated by a clarification and
scale development procedure that operationalized a testable theory of servant
leadership (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). This clarification and measure stimulated
subsequent empirical works on servant leadership (Liden et al., 2008; Neubert et
al., 2008; Searle & Barbuto, 2010; Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora, 2008). When
testing for possible gender bias characterized as agentic (masculine) and
communal (feminine) Barbuto and Gifford (2010) found no significant
differences among servant leaders. The Servant Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ),
developed by Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), identified and confirmed five
dimensions of servant leadership, which are used in this study – altruistic calling,
emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship.
Altruistic Calling
Altruistic calling is defined as the fundamental conscious choice to serve others
(Greenleaf, 1977). This desire to positively influence others through service is
deemed central to servant leadership ideology (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006).
Servant leaders embrace service to followers and sacrifice self-interest for their
followers’ development (Bass, 2000; Graham, 1991). Servant leaders desire
positive development in individuals, organizations, communities, and societies
(Liden et al., 2008). The necessity for altruism in leadership has been recognized
by many scholars (Avolio & Locke, 2002; Block, 1996) as has the altruistic
nature of servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Leaders
demonstrating a willingness to put followers’ interests ahead of their own will
24
likely garner great trust and dedication from followers, leading to higher quality
of exchanges.
•
H1: Leaders’ Altruistic Calling will be positively related to LMX
Emotional Healing
Emotional healing describes an ability to recognize when and how to facilitate the
healing process. This includes a leader’s ability to foster spiritual recovery from
hardship and trauma (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Servant leaders are viewed as
highly empathetic and are able to show sensitivity to others (Liden et al., 2008).
They create an environment with their followers enabling them to voice personal
and professional concerns (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Scholars have recognized
the need for leaders able to help followers recover hope, overcome broken
dreams, and repair severed relationships (Dacher, 1999; Sturnick, 1998). Leaders
capable of producing emotional healing in followers will be more likely to have
strong relationships with them.
•
H2: Leaders’ Emotional Healing will be positively related to LMX
Wisdom
Wisdom describes an ability to pick up cues from the environment and to
recognize possible consequences and implications of their observations (Barbuto
& Wheeler, 2006). Servant leaders are observant and anticipatory across multiple
contexts, enabling them to translate their knowledge into forward action (Bierly et
al., 2000). Scholars have recognized the need for leaders with a strong sense of
awareness ( Sosik & Megerian, 1999) coupled with an ability to apply the
knowledge gained through observation (Kant, 1978; Plato, 1945). Leaders that are
keenly aware and insightful will garner followers’ respect and trust, which is
necessary to develop strong dyadic relationships.
•
H3: Leaders’ Wisdom will be positively related to LMX
Persuasive Mapping
Persuasive mapping describes an ability to use mental models and sound
reasoning to encourage lateral thinking in others (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006).
Servant leaders high in persuasive mapping are skilled at articulating issues and
conceptualizing possibilities by sharing their train of thought. They possess the
necessary knowledge to assist and support their followers effectively (Liden et al.,
25
2008). Researchers have reported persuasiveness-based models to be more
productive than authority-based models on positive outcomes (Druskat &
Pescosolido, 2002). Leaders capable of consistently using persuasive mapping
rather than legitimization will develop stronger relationships with followers.
•
H4: Leaders’ Persuasive Mapping will be positively related to LMX
Organizational Stewardship
Organizational stewardship describes the extent to which leaders prepare their
organization to make a positive contribution to the community and society
(Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). A servant leader demonstrates a strong sense of
social responsibility and encourages organizations to implement moral and ethical
actions that benefit all stakeholders (Liden et al., 2008; Sendjaya et al., 2008).
This emphasis is accomplished by reaching out to the community through
community development programs, outreach activities, and facilitating company
policies that benefit the surrounding community, society, and environment.
Servant leaders’ ideology advocates that their organizations create value for the
community (Liden et al., 2008). Those leaders capable of uniting an organization
for greater purpose and community citizenship will garner the trust and respect
that fosters strong dyadic relations.
•
H5: Leaders’ Organizational Stewardship will be positively related to
LMX
Methods
The researchers’ goal was to assess whether a measure of servant leadership can
predict a strong (positive) LMX, and if so, determine which of the servant
leadership measure’s subscales is the best predictor of LMX. Data were collected
from elected public officials in several counties in a Midwestern state, and their
raters.
Subjects
The participants were 80 community leaders (county treasurers) and 368 raters.
All were from the Midwestern United States. The leaders attended a leadership
development workshop for elected officials and were members of a statewide
professional organization which sponsored the event. Their average age was 51.
Fifty percent had earned a bachelor’s degree, 20% had earned a master’s degree
or higher. Sixty-five percent of the leaders were women. Raters were colleagues
26
or employees of the leaders and reported an average age of 46. Forty-two percent
of the raters had earned a bachelor’s degree; less than 10% had earned a master’s
degree or higher. Fifty-three percent of raters were women.
In this study the follower (rater) servant leadership data were used with the
follower (rater) LMX data. The rationale was that raters may be more objective in
the assessment of true servant leadership qualities of their leader than the leader
(participant) might be in assessing him/herself. It may be that a leader views being
a servant leader as socially desirable, thus potentially injecting bias. In addition,
there was a much larger n for raters than participants (388 versus 80), thereby
enhancing the reliability of any findings.
Tests
Data included rater versions of the servant leadership questionnaire (SLQ) and the
LMX-7. The SLQ consisted of 23 items on a Likert-type 1-4 scale (1=strongly
disagree, 2=somewhat disagree, 3=somewhat agree, 4=strongly agree) measuring
five dimensions – altruistic calling (“This person puts my best interests ahead of
his/her own.”); emotional healing (“This person is one I would turn to if I had a
personal trauma.”); wisdom (“This person is good at anticipating the
consequences of decisions.”); persuasive mapping (“This person offers
compelling reasons to get me to do things.”); and, organizational stewardship
(“This person believes that the organization needs to play a moral role in
society.”). Reliability (Cronbach alphas) of the subscales ranged from .82 to .92.
The LMX-7 was used to assess the strength of LMX. This measure is a 7-item
Likert-type scale with anchors at 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). The
LMX-7 has been used extensively in research and seems to be regarded as the
gold standard measure for LMX (Gerstner & Day, 1997).
Procedures
Data were collected on-site from the intact group of elected officials as part of a
full-day leadership training seminar. Each participant was asked to distribute the
raters’ version of the measures to all of their colleagues after the seminar. Rater
instrument forms were coded in advance to protect the confidentiality of raters.
Procedures were conducted in accordance with University Compliance oversight.
Rater instruments were returned via the United States Postal Service. Both
participants and their raters were provided letters detailing their participation and
rights, which included the right to withdraw at any time during the research. None
of the participants withdrew from the study. Response rate was 87%, with 80 of
the eligible 92 elected officials participating.
27
Results
Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations were calculated for all
variables examined in this study (see Table 1). Significant correlations were found
between all five dimensions of servant leadership and LMX (see Table 1).
Table 1. Correlation Matrix Simple Statistics and Inter-correlations
(N=368)
M
SD
1
1. Altruistic Calling
2.76
0.79
.82
2. Emotional Healing
2.71
0.97
.71
3. Wisdom
3.24
0.71
.51
4. Persuasive Mapping
2.58
0.80
.62
5. Organizational Healing 3.12
0.73
.68
6. LMX
3.15
0.69
.70
Scale reliability estimates (ÿ) along the diagonal.
All correlations significant at p<.01
2
.91
.49
.69
.62
.73
3
.92
.49
.58
.55
4
.87
.47
.61
5
.89
.67
6
.89
Because all five dimensions of servant leadership showed such strong
correlations, the researchers opted to test for collinearity among the independent
variables. Table 2 shows the results.
28
Table 2. Collinearity Diagnostics
Variables
Model 1
Constant
Emotional Healing
Model 2
Constant
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
Model 3
Constant
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
Altruistic Calling
Model 4
Constant
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
Altruistic Calling
Wisdom
Eigenvalue CI
Tolerance
VIF
Significance
1.94
0.06
1
5.70
1
--
.000
2.92
0.06
0.02
1
6.96
11.76
.60
.60
1.68
1.68
.000
.000
3.90
0.06
0.03
7.95
12.48
.45
.48
2.23
2.09
.000
.000
0.02
14.65
.39
2.56
.000
4.90
.07
.03
1
8.53
13.87
.44
.41
2.27
2.46
.000
.000
.02
.02
14.68
17.41
.39
.59
2.57
1.68
.000
.005
These results do not indicate a collinearity problem. Overall, the Variable
Inflation Factors (VIF) is low and Condition Indexes are below 15, except for the
last variable.
To determine the best predictive model using these significant findings, the five
SLQ variables were entered into a step-wise hierarchical regression model. The
test included followers’ assessment of the leaders’ servant leadership dimensions
as independent variables and LMX as the dependent variable (see Table 3). The
best predictive model included all dimensions of servant leadership except
Persuasive Mapping. The dimension Wisdom added less than 1% to the predictive
model, and another variable (altruistic calling) less than 3%. However, the model
containing four of the five dimensions of servant leadership explained more than
2
2
62% of the common variance in the data (r = .79; r = .63; Adj. r = .63; SE= 2.97;
F
= .005).
sig change
29
Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Servant Leadership
Dimensions Predicting Leader Member Exchange (N=368)
Servant Leadership
R Adjusted R2 R2 Change
SE
Sig. F
Dimensions
Change
Step 1
Emotional Healing
.73
.53
.53
3.34
.000
Step 2
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
.77
.60
.07
3.09
.000
Step 3
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
Altruistic Calling
.79
.62
.03
2.99
.000
Step 4
Emotional Healing
Organizational
Stewardship
Altruistic Calling
Wisdom
.80
.63
.01
2.97
.005
Model explains approximately 63% of the variance in Leader Member Exchange.
Excluded dimension: Persuasive Mapping
Discussion
Summary of Findings
All five dimensions of servant leadership had significant relationships to LMX.
The strongest predictor of LMX was the emotional healing component of servant
leadership. This means those leaders who are perceived as able, and willing, to
connect with colleagues on an emotional level (specifically in a healing context)
build strong, positive relationships with these colleagues.
Limitations
The interpretations of the results of this study are limited by the sampling
procedures used in the study – which could have created a snowball sampling
effect. However, all followers were asked to participate in the study – as opposed
to a sampling procedure that gave leaders the latitude to select four to six raters to
participate. Inviting participation from all dyadic relationships, versus selected
30
dyads, reduced some of the sampling bias that would otherwise have resulted.
Future studies should sample from as wide a target population as possible and
continue to eliminate leaders’ discretion in the process of rater selection.
The results of this study explained approximately 63% of the total variance in the
data. Single method variance seems likely to have inflated these relations.
However, a test of collinearity confirmed a multi-dimensional model with unique
individually contributing subscales of servant leadership. This was also evident in
the stepwise regression which identified incremental increases in variance
accounted for cumulatively, with four servant leadership subscales contributing
significantly to the predictive model. The results of this study provide powerful
and useful information about one of the possible antecedents of LMX.
Future Research
Future research should study other impacts of servant leadership to better quantify
its value to leadership education and practice. Testing such outcomes as
followers’ autonomy, wisdom development, emotional health, and propensity to
exhibit servant leadership attributes will all be salient research objectives.
Future research should continue to evaluate antecedents of LMX – especially in
longitudinal research designs – to evaluate the timing, intensity, and endurance of
LMX. These may include person-centered variables as well as contextual
influences. Researchers may also consider other dispositional variables of both
leaders and followers when testing the predictors of LMX.
Implications for Leadership Education
Leadership is not constrained by context. Leadership happens in every area of
human interaction, including industry, education, government, politics, and
routine social interactions. Therefore, a better understanding of antecedents of a
measure (LMX) known to enhance positive outcomes in one domain
(organizational dynamics) should be carefully examined for application to other
domains, but most certainly by those engaged in the task of leadership education
itself.
Leadership educators should consider these results when teaching the impact of
servant leadership. Servant leadership has previously been treated as folklore in
the leadership classroom, since little empirical research had been completed on
the construct. Now that measures have been validated and empirical research is
feasible, the true impact of servant leadership can be tested. This study found that
31
the measure of servant leadership style is strongly related to improved quality of
leader-member exchanges.
The results of this study could be considered for incorporation in curriculums
teaching leader-member exchange theory. Servant leadership was found to be a
strong predictor of leader-member exchange quality. If leadership educators can
successfully develop future leaders to increase their use of servant leadership
qualities, then improvements in the quality of exchanges with their subordinates
and colleagues can be expected. When teaching servant leadership dimensions it
will be helpful to examine each of the five sub-scales – altruistic calling,
emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship
– when planning lessons and designing leadership curriculum.
Instructors may also apply the lessons from this study to directly improve the
quality of relationships with their students as well by intentionally including
servant leadership characteristics. This should transcend formal classroom and
professional settings to include less formal settings like academic advising,
graduate student advising, mentoring graduate students, and collaborative
research.
Summary
This work tested relationships between servant leadership and LMX, resulting in
strong relationships across the dimensions of servant leadership. The variance
accounted for was significant, even with single method sampling procedures. It is
our hope that others will continue to study servant leadership and LMX,
collectively, and in separate research designs, to test the dynamics of each
construct.
32
References
Avolio, B. J., & Locke, E. E. (2002). Philosophies of leader motivation: Altruism
versus egoism. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 169-191.
Barbuto, J. E., & Bugenhagen, M. J. (2009). The emotional intelligence of leaders
as antecedent to leader-member exchanges: A field study. Journal of
leadership Education, 8(2), 135-146.
Barbuto, J. E., & Gifford, G. T. (2010). Examining gender differences of servant
leadership: An analysis of the agentic and communal properties of the
Servant Leadership Questionnaire. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(2),
4-21.
Barbuto, J. E., & Wheeler, D. W. (2006). Scale development and construct
clarification of servant leadership. Group & Organization Management,
31(3), 300-326.
Bass, B. M. (2000). The future of leadership in learning organizations. The
Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(3), 18-40).
Bierly, P. E., Kessler, E. H., & Christensen, E. W. (2000). Organizational
learning, knowledge and wisdom. Journal of Organizational Change
Management, 13, 595-618.
Block, P. (1996). Stewardship: Choosing service over self-interest. San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler.
Burns, J. Z. (1995). Prediction of leader member exchange quality by Jungian
personality type. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 1729.
Dacher, E. S. (1999). Loving openness and the healing relationship. Advances in
Mind-Body Medicine, 15(1), 32-43.
Dansereau, F., Cashman, J., & Graen, G. (1973). Instrumentality theory and
equity theory as complementary approaches in predicting the relations of
leadership and turnover among managers. Organizational Behavior &
Human Performance, 10, 184-200.
33
Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader member exchange model of
leadership: A critique and further development. Academy of Management
Review, 11, 618-634.
Dockery, T. M., & Steiner, D. D. (1990). The role of the initial interaction in
leader-member exchange. Group & Organization Studies, 15, 395-413.
Druskat, V. U., & Pescosolido, A. T. (2002). The content of effective teamwork
mental models in self-managing teams: Ownership, learning, and heedful
interrelating. Human Relations, 55, 283-314.
Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader member
exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 82, 827-844.
Graen, G. B., Novak, M. A., & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of leader
member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: testing
an attachment model. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance,
30, 109-131.
Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership:
Development of leader member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership
over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective.
Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
Graham, J. W. (1991). Servant-leadership in organizations: Inspirational and
moral. Leadership Quarterly, 2(2), 105-119.
Greenleaf, R. K. (1970). The servant as leader. Indianapolis, IN: Greenleaf
Center.
Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of
legitimate power and greatness. New York: Paulist Press.
Kant, E. (1978). Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view (V. L. Dowdell,
Trans.). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. (Original work
published 1978)
Kinicki, A. J., & Vecchio, R. P. (1994). Influences on the quality of supervisor
subordinate relations: The role of time-pressure, organizational
commitment, and locus of control. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
15, 75-82.
34
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Stilwell, D. (1993). A longintudinal study on the
early development of leader member exchanges. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78, 662-674.
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Zhao, H., & Henderson, D. (2008). Servant leadership:
Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment.
Martin, R., Thomas, G., Charles, K., Epitropaki, O., & McNamara, R. (2005). The
role of leader member exchanges in mediating the relationship between
locus of control and work reactions. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 78, 141-147.
Mayer, D. M., Bardes, M., & Piccolo, R. (2008). Do servant-leaders help satisfy
follower needs? An organizational justice perspective. European Journal
of Work and Organizational Psychology, 17(2), 180-197.
Neubert, M. J., Kacmar, K. M., Carlson, D. S., Chonko, L. B., & Roberts, J. A.
(2008). Regulatory focus as a mediator of the influence of initiating
structure and servant leadership on employee behavior. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 93(6), pp. 1220-1233.
Phillips, A. S., & Bedeian, A. G. (1994). Leader-follower exchange quality: the
role of personal and interpersonal attributes. Academy of Management
Journal, 37, 990-1001.
Plato (1945). The republic of Plato (F. M. Cornford, Trans.). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Pollard, C. W. (1996). The leader who serves. In F. Hesselbein, M. Goldsmith, &
R. Beckhard (Eds.), The Leader of the future: New visions, strategies, and
practices for the next era (pp. 241-248). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Searle, T., & Barbuto, J. E. (2010). Servant leadership, hope, and organizational
virtuousness: A framework exploring positive micro and macro behaviors
and performance impact. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies,
On-line November 9, 2010.
Sendjaya, S., Sarros, J. C., & Santora, J. C. (2008). Defining and measuring
servant leadership behavior in organizations. Journal of Management
Studies, 45(2), 401-424.
35
Smith, B. N., Montagno, R. V., & Kuzmenko, T. N. (2004). Transformational
and servant leadership: Content and contextual comparisons. Journal of
Leadership and Organizational Studies, 10(4), 80-91.
Sosik, J. J., & Megerian, L. E. (1999). Understanding leader emotional
intelligence and performance: The role of self-other agreement on
transformational leadership perceptions. Group & Organization
Management, 24, 367-390.
Spears, L. C. (1995). Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf’s
theory of servant leadership influenced today’s top management thinkers.
New York: John Wiley.
Steiner, D. D., & Dobbins, G. H. (1989). The role of work values in leaders’
attributions and the development of leader member exchanges.
International Journal of Management, 6, 81-90.
Sturnick, J. A. (1998). Healing leadership. In L. C. Spears (Ed.), Insights on
Leadership (pp. 185-193). New York: John Wiley.
Tsui, A. S., & O’Reily, C. A. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: the
importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads.
Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402-423.
Wayne, S. J., & Ferris, G. R. (1990). Influence tactics, affect, and exchange
quality in supervisor subordinate interactions: A laboratory experiment
and field study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 487-499.
Wayne, S. J., Liden, R. C., & Sparrowe, R. T. (1994). Developing leader member
exchanges: The influence of gender and ingratiation. American Behavioral
Scientist, 37, 697-714.
36
Author Biographies
John E. Barbuto, Jr., Ph.D, is the Director of the Center for Leadership Studies
at California State University at Fullerton. Jay earned his doctorate from the
University of Rhode Island in 1997. Dr. Barbuto’s research interests include all
aspects of leadership – its antecedents and outcomes.
Robert W. Hayden is a doctoral candidate at the University of NebraskaLincoln. He earned a B.S. in Bible/Pastoral Ministries from Grace University in
1980 and an M.A. in Management from Bellevue University in 1993. His areas of
interest include autonomy, servant leadership, and cognitive decision-making
models.
37
The Social Change Model as Pedagogy: Examining
Undergraduate Leadership Growth
Eric Buschlen, Ed.D.
Assistant Professor of Leadership Studies
Central Michigan University
Finch Hall 101A
Mount Pleasant, MI 48642
busch1el@cmich.edu
989-774-2390
Robert Dvorak, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Recreation, Parks, and Leisure Studies
Central Michigan University
Finch Hall 106A
Mount Pleasant, MI 48642
dvorak1rg@cmich.edu
989-774-7269
Abstract
Understanding whether leadership can be learned is important as many colleges
and universities attempt to develop future leaders through a variety of
programmatic efforts. Historic leadership research argues leadership is an innate
skill. While contemporary leadership research tends to argue that leadership can
be learned. The purpose of this paper is to examine student leadership skill
development during a leadership course at a regional, mid-western university.
This project explored the effects on undergraduate students after a 16-week, forcredit academic course based on the Social Change Model of Leadership (SCM).
This project was completed using a quasi-experimental design between two nonequivalent groups. Participants completed the Socially Responsible Leadership
Scale as a pre/post-test. The findings suggested that student SCM skill-based
knowledge did improve compared to students who did not receive the intervention
and subsequently that post-industrial leadership skills associated with the SCM
can be learned in a structured, academic course.
38
Introduction
Most student leadership research from the last few decades has focused on
individual students and how those students mature into their own leadership world
view. A smaller branch has focused on whether or not a particular academic
program is meeting the learning objectives of being a top-notch leadership
program or intervention (Dugan, in press). Even with numerous leadership studies
completed, little is known about how leadership develops or how a student’s
leadership voice evolves over time (Dugan & Komives, 2007). Therefore, the
process of studying leadership as a teachable skill is a much more modern
paradigm. Leadership articles, books, and studies abound, but few research
projects test models to examine leadership development which would eventually
inform practitioners (Dugan, 2006b). This project aims to address these
inadequacies and to further test an academic model of leadership development in
a classroom setting.
Past research endeavors have looked at knowledge retention and skill
development over the span of a semester, with regards to collegiate student
leadership development. Williams, Townsend, & Linder (2005) suggested that
leadership knowledge learned in an academic classroom can be retained by
students at a similar rate up to three years after course completion. Blackwell,
Cummins, Townsend, and Cummings (2007) found that student perceptions of
their own leadership skills did improve over the span of a semester with both
practical and theoretical skills enhanced in a formal setting. While these studies
targeted measures applicable to their specific settings, this current project
attempted to use a widely recognized curriculum known as the Social Change
Model and measured students with the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale
(SRLS). Previous research projects have tested models during a classroom
experience and showed a change but this project incorporated a control group.
Therefore, this project attempted to show that any change in pre/post test scores
occurred as a result of the intervention. Also, the SRLS survey has been in use for
over a decade with strong internal validity and reliability. While specific
knowledge retention is not the key focus of this project, student knowledge does
lend itself to the personal growth tenets of the SCM as a student works to develop
leadership skills.
Can the tenets of the Social Change Model of Leadership (SCM) be learned?
More specifically, can the SCM be taught and learned in an undergraduate
classroom? Some universities have launched full scale academic majors and
minors in leadership development while maintaining co-curricular trainings in
Student Life and Residential Life (Brungardt, Greenleaf, Brungardt, & Arensdorf,
39
2006). Research indicates that college students can and do increase their
leadership skills while attending college (Dugan, 2006b). It is during this time in
which a student’s personal identity is being formed and reformed through the
process of attending a college (Chickering & Reiser, 1993). Therefore the
development of future leaders continues to be a main goal for colleges and
universities in both curricular and co-curricular venues (Astin & Astin, 2000).
This paper outlines the following structure: theoretical framework, purpose,
population, methodology, results, summary, and end with a discussion. The first
section will examine the framework which led to this project.
Theoretical Framework
For those who choose to lead in a collegiate setting many leadership training
opportunities exist such as weekend retreats, co-curricular learning opportunities,
and formal academic leadership courses. The latter is the focus of this project. It is
clear that a struggle still exists with defining leadership and with the aspect of
determining who will serve as our next leaders (Billsberry, 2009). Also, the
broader question regarding whether or not leadership can be learned at all, has
received a lot of attention in both the academic world and the practitioner world
alike (Extejt & Smith, 2009). As a result, the proper examination of leadership is
ongoing and definitions of leadership are vast and ever changing (Watt, 2009). To
help college students become productive parts of society, colleges and universities
work to train students in both curricular and co-curricular aspects of development.
This has led to the advent of leadership education, both in and out of class, as a
means to offer a significant and structured program in colleges and universities in
the United States of America (Billsberry, 2009). With that advent there are many
leadership development models for educators to choose from regarding teaching
leadership.
A primary objective of an institution of higher education is to prepare students to
become effective leaders within their communities for the betterment of society
(Astin, 1993). The most obvious way to push for productive change is for higher
educational systems to use a direct student leadership skill building program
which will produce effective leaders (Astin, 1993).
Therefore, it is arguably time for colleges and universities to move beyond the tag
lines in their mission statements about developing tomorrow’s leaders and beyond
teaching singular skills during a retreat to focusing on the broader, more complex
vision of effective leadership (Komives et al., 1998). Students must be trained in
the art of using multiple perspectives to solve real-world, complex issues
(Hughes, Ginnet, & Curphy, 2006). Students must learn that leadership is a means
40
to deal with the complexities and change found within their surroundings.
Knowing this will help them learn coping skills to deal with their organization’s
needs (Watt, 2009). Consequently, student leadership development must include a
dynamic environment of strategic events with a heavy reliance on theoretical
application, mixed with hands on learning of leadership knowledge with built-in
reflection (Hughes et al., 2006; Komives et al., 1998).
The Social Change Model
One of the possible models to teach leadership is the Social Change Model (SCM)
(HERI, 1996). The SCM was developed to act as curriculum to aid in the
development of Individual values, Group values, and Community values
(citizenship) (Astin, 1993). The SCM provides a framework which is consistent
with contemporary, post-industrial leadership paradigms where leadership is
viewed much more democratically (Dugan & Komives, 2007). There are two
basic premises of the Social Change Model of Leadership. First, the model is
designed to be inclusive of all levels of leaders: those with designated roles and
those without set roles. The second premise is that leadership is viewed as a
process and not a title or position (HERI, 1996).
Figure 1. Social Change Model of Leadership
The SCM model promotes the values of social justice, equality, self-knowledge,
empowerment, collaboration, citizenship, and service to the community by
covering three distinct aspects of leadership development: Individual, Group, and
41
Community values (HERI, 1996). This curriculum, when fused with intentional
theoretical and application-based activities, seemingly creates a well-rounded
classroom experience. In this study, an experimental group was exposed to an
intervention based on the SCM and utilized the most recent version of the text
Leadership: Theory and Practice by Peter Northouse. Participants were examined
over a 16-week semester-long experience. Since the SCM is based on Individual,
Group, and Community values, all three aspects were covered in the intervention.
Individual Values
During the intervention, students were continually asked to examine Individual
values by completing several personal reflection papers within the course to help
strengthen their personal leadership vision. Students were also asked to complete
well known, self-assessment tools found at the end of the text’s chapter such as:
The Style Questionnaire, Skills Inventory, the LMX7, the Least Preferred Coworker Measure (LPC), to name a few. Students shared their scores with their
peers in small and large groups and discussions ensued. Students were faced with
perceptions of self which may have differed from their own thoughts, but also
interacted with other students with similar and students with dramatically
different scores. This helped students begin to understand that leaders must be
able to know one’s self and be able to function in groups with dramatically
different people.
Group Values
Students were faced with learning about Group values by means of graded group
projects (by faculty and by peers) and several group based hands-on activities.
The largest assignment in the course focused on solving a peer authored case
study. The students negotiated the case, the protocol for solutions, and then
applied a theory from the text to solve the case. The group presented their
findings and the teams authored a paper which outlined their decision making
process. These activities, which may seem similar to other group projects, begin
to become “leadership practice.” Even the process of selecting a case study from a
book builds on practical skills such as collaboration, civility, and common
purpose. These are the three elements from the Group value section of the SCM.
Community Values
To examine Community values, students were required to complete five service
hours at a non-profit agency and also work together as a class to fundraise for a
local non-profit agency. This aspect fits well with the millennial generation as
they are often defined by dedicating large amount of service to their communities
42
(Howe & Strauss, 2000). Students were evaluated by the site and received
immediate feedback based on their service. This helps to satisfy the Community
value aspect of the SCM as students receive immediate feedback to help guide
personal reflection. Being exposed to non-profit fundraising allowed the students
to grasp the concept of group impact and Community values while fundraising
thousands of dollars – a feat no single student could have done alone. For each
endeavor listed above, students wrote reflection papers to examine their
Individual, Group, and Community value development.
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was two-fold: to assess the learning outcomes of
the introduction to leadership course and to compare two non-equivalent groups
test scores for the Social Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS) (University of
Maryland, 2010) over the period of a 16-week semester. The SRLS is a set of
statistically reliable and valid scales designed to measure the critical values of the
(SCM). It was hypothesized that the assessment of the course would show
positive growth for the leadership students and that cumulative SRLS scores from
the experimental group, as a result of a Leadership course intervention, would
show a greater increase compared to the control group not receiving the
intervention.
Population
Participants were undergraduate students from a regional, mid-western university.
The total population consisted of 260 students with an experimental group (Group
A, n=108) and a control group (Group B, n=152). This project used a quasiexperimental design. As a result, Group A consisted of students enrolled in one of
six sections of the introduction to leadership course taught by four unique faculty
members and Group B was made up of a variety of psychology students from
multiple sections with multiple instructors from that discipline. Students from
Group B could not have taken the Leadership course in the past or be enrolled in
that course during the semester when the data were collected. Participants from
each section were given a unique code at the pre-test and were then matched with
that code in order to take the post-test. The majority of respondents (69%) were
female and the average age of the population was approximately 20 years old
(µ=19.9). Seniors represented the largest class standing size (32%) with
sophomores and juniors combining for over half (51%) of the sample. The
remaining 17% were first semester freshman.
43
Each group was tested at the same university in the same time frame and Group A
and B were relatively similar in demographics details (e.g., age, class standing
breakdown, gender, ethnicity). Out of class or co-curricular activity information
was not collected. It was believed that with the Introduction to Leadership course
being offered in the fall semester, that there would be many freshmen. Asking
them to report on “co-curricular activities in college” would be challenging as the
pre-test was given on the first day of the semester. Interestingly, freshmen
represented the smallest class standing with only 17%. Knowing that there is a
developmental difference between a new college student and a senior, the authors
decided to make an assumption regarding the entire population. With this in mind,
the authors hypothesized that both groups were exposed to the same amount of
out-of-class opportunities, life experiences, and were certainly more similar than
different. To determine if the groups were statistically different at the time of the
pre-test, group demographics were compared. The results of an independent group
sample t-test t(108, 152)=.719, p =.473 indicated that Group A and Group B were
not significantly different at the time of the pre-test.
Methodology
To measure the impact of the intervention, participants took the 68 item Social
Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS). Participants completed a hard copy of the
pre/post-test of the SRLS during the fall semester of 2008. The pre-test was given
on the first day of class and the post-test was given at the end of the semester. To
the best of both authors’ knowledge, the SRLS has not been used to examine
student leadership development during a 16-week intervention. As stated earlier,
past authors have used other models during a classroom experience and shown a
change (Williams, Townsend, & Linder, 2005; Blackwell et al., 2007) but this
project incorporated a quasi-experimental design with a control group. Therefore
this project attempted to show that the change in student scores was due to the
parameters of the intervention.
The SRLS scale is routinely used to measure events such as: weekend retreats,
seminars, or other programs. The SRLS examines the 7 Cs of leadership
development – consciousness of self, congruence, commitment, common purpose,
collaboration, controversy with civility, and citizenship. These constructs are
based on three levels: self, peers, and community. Questions are formatted in a
Likert Scale, ranging from 1 to5, with 1 as Strongly Disagree and 5 as Strongly
Agree. Validity and reliability of the scale were evaluated during its original
testing (Tyree, 1998; University of Maryland, 2010) with Cronbach alpha scores
ranging from .69-.92. Similarly, the SRLS exhibited strong reliability in this study
as well, with Cronbach Alpha scores ranging from .70 - .85.
44
Data from the SRLS were recorded in SPSS 17 with means scores calculated for
individuals on each of the seven constructs (7 Cs). A difference score between
pre- and post-test means on each construct was also calculated for each
individual. Lastly, an overall mean score for all items on the SRLS was also
calculated for individuals in both groups. The difference and mean scores were
then examined across groups to determined if mean differences existed between
the experimental and control group. Pre-test, post-test, and difference scores for
the experimental and control groups are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Findings
To determine if differences existed between the experimental group’s overall
mean score (µ=4.027) and the control group (µ=3.991) at the time of the pre-test,
cumulative SRLS scores were examined for mean differences. Results of an
independent sample t-test indicated (t=.719, p= .473) that groups were not
significantly different at the time of the pretest. This data helps support the
assumption that experimental and control group participants were from the same
population (e.g., “undergraduate students from a regional mid-western
university”) prior to administration of the intervention. Following the
intervention, mean cumulative SRLS-RS scores rose in both the experimental
group (µ=4.202) and control group (µ=3.998). Post-test mean scores were
examined for mean difference and results indicated (t=4.647, p<.001) that the
experimental and control groups were significantly different at the time of the
post-test.
45
Table 1
Pre-test, Post-test, and Difference Mean Scores for Experimental Group
SCM Construct
Pre-test
Post-test
Difference
3.937
4.101
0.164
Congruence
Commitment
Group Values
Collaboration
Common Purpose
4.102
4.387
4.307
4.520
0.205
0.133
4.094
4.115
4.250
4.295
0.156
0.18
Controversy with
Civility
Community Values
3.953
4.087
0.134
Citizenship
Change
4.028
3.809
4.288
3.979
0.26
0.17
OVERALL
4.027
4.202
0.175*
Individual Values
Consciousness of Self
*t(108)=4.402, p<.001
To further understand the differences between the pre/post-test scores of the
experimental and control groups, difference scores for each of the SCM
dimensions were compared between the groups using an ANOVA. An ANOVA
was chosen for several reasons. First, it is assumed that relationships existed
between the 7 Cs in the SCM model and therefore should be examined
simultaneously instead of independently. Second, an ANOVA is a preferred test
to avoid the potential risk of inflating the Type I error rate by running multiple ttests.
46
Table 2
Pre-test, Post-test, and Difference Mean Scores for Control Group
SCM Construct
Pre-test
Post-test
Difference
Individual Values
Congruence
Commitment
Group Values
Collaboration
Common Purpose
Controversy with
Civility
Community Values
Citizenship
Change
OVERALL
3.975
3.988
0.013
4.184
4.394
4.157
4.379
-0.027
-0.015
4.077
4.027
3.901
4.039
4.082
3.895
-0.038
0.055
-0.006
3.890
3.734
3.929
3.749
0.039
0.015
3.991
3.998
0.007*
*t(152)=.330, p<.742
Results of the ANOVA indicated that scores for the experimental group after the
intervention were significantly different from the control group on five of the
eight constructs (Table 3). These included the Groups Values of Collaboration,
Common Purpose, and Controversy with Civility. It also included the Community
Values of Citizenship and Change. All three Individual Values, Consciousness of
Self, Congruence, and Collaboration, were not significantly different between
groups.
47
Table 3
Comparison of Difference Scores Between Groups
SCM Construct
Individual Values
Congruence
Commitment
Group Values
Collaboration
Common Purpose
Controversy with
Civility
Community Values
Citizenship
Change
SCM Construct
MS
F
p
.179
.408
.524
.146
.570
.377
1.785
.540
.183
1.638
5.894
.016*
2.871
1.881
11.557
6.764
.001*
.010*
7.795
2.871
14.908
11.557
.001*
.001*
MS
F
p
*p<.05
For those constructs exhibiting significant mean differences between the
experimental and control group, further analysis was conducted to explore the
mean differences between pre- and post-test scores within the groups. Paired
sample t-tests were conducted on the constructs of Collaboration, Common
Purpose, Controversy with Civility, Citizenship, and Change for both the
experimental and control groups. Results of these tests are presented in Table 4.
Similar to the findings of the ANOVA, these results indicate that significance
differences exist between the pre and post-test mean scores of experimental group
respondents across these fives constructs. Likewise, all mean differences across
the control group were insignificant, with the exception of the Common Purpose
construct.
48
Table 4
Examination of Difference Scores Within Groups For Significant Factors
Experimental1
t-score
p-value
Control2
t-score
p-value
3.318
.001*
4.223
.001*
3.248
.002*
1.408
.161
1.991
.048*
210
.834
Citizenship
5.477
.001*
1.041
.299
Change
3.529
.001*
.427
.670
SCM Construct
Group Values
Collaboration
Common Purpose
Controversy with Civility
Community Values
1
sample size t(108)
sample size t(152)
*p<.05
2
Discussion
This research supports that the experimental group’s scores increased over the
span of the semester. Also, the intervention of a 16-week for-credit academic
leadership course created a strong environment for learning the aspects of the
Social Change Model of Leadership (SCM). Both Group A and Group B started at
relatively the same level on the SRLS with the Experimental Group’s (Group A)
overall mean of 4.027 and the Control Group’s (Group B) overall mean of 3.991.
After the intervention, Group A’s overall mean increased to 4.202 and Group B’s
increased by a very small level to 3.998. Group A’s leadership skill development
was also marked by significant mean differences from Group B in five of the
eight SCM constructs.
Individual Values
Three of the eight constructs did not show mean differences. All three fell within
the Individual values: Consciousness of Self, Congruence, and Commitment.
Interestingly, Group B started with higher mean scores at the pre-test, but Group
49
A ended with higher mean scores in all three cases. So it could be argued that
Group A improved during the intervention more than Group B although the
change was not large enough to be significant. This may be due a high level of
self awareness from the control group. A majority of that group represented
advanced psychology students with a strong academic link to understanding and
studying the “self.” There may also have been a level of response shift bias (Rohs,
2002) as students in both groups may have over reported at the pre-test
minimizing the final comparison of mean scores.
Komives et al. (2005) suggested that understanding the latter two SCM levels of
Group and Community required a much deeper and more critical understanding of
leadership found in a more developed student. This is similar to Chickering and
Reisser’s (1993) work which outlined the logical progression through vectors, the
next level building on the last. Therefore since the Group and Community values
were found to show significant mean differences between groups, the students
fulfilling those aspects must have had “Individual” knowledge as well.
Group Values
Significant mean differences were found in all three Group values categories. In
all three cases, Group A started and ended with higher mean scores than Group B.
This may imply that the students in Group A already have developed some of the
SCM group skills prior to the intervention when compared to Group B. More
importantly, Group A appeared to improve and sharpen their skills as a result of
the intervention while Group B witnessed a decrease in the mean scores of two of
the three group categories (Collaboration and Controversy with Civility found in
Table 2). The Common Purpose category did meet significance for Group B. This
may be due to the fact that most of the psychology students were upperclassmen
with psychology majors. Therefore, their cohort experience may have allowed
them to develop shared aims and shared values during their time together.
Community Values
The final element of the SCM is the Community values. Both components were
found to have significant mean differences when comparing the pre and post-test
scores of Group A to Group B. Students in Group B were not exposed to service
opportunities while in class. Dugan (2006b) indicated that connecting community
service to a collegiate experience enhanced the leadership achievement level for
those students. Service projects created an opportunity for students to experience
positive social change. He suggested that service should be built into an
experience as a way to enhance a student’s knowledge of the SCM (Dugan,
2006b). The findings in this project strongly support that claim. The personal
50
reflections after a service project may have transformed and enhanced student
development. Due to the cyclical nature of the SCM, this reflection may also have
impacted the student’s perception of self.
The findings support the idea that the principles of the Social Change Model can
be learned. Also supported was Howe and Strauss’s claim (2000) that students of
the current generation understand that service was part of their existence and it
was no longer viewed as negative consequence or something that was required.
They now view service and giving to those in need as a way to positively impact a
community which should lead to positive social change (HERI, 1996). Each
group was tested at the same university in the same time frame and they were
relatively similar in demographics details and assumed similar in the amount of
out-of-class opportunities and life experiences. Therefore the results indicate that
the intervention impacted Group A’s SCM skill set. It allowed Group A to nurture
their SCM leadership skills, work on peer leadership projects, and participate in
non-profit agency service projects. The intervention also provided an appropriate
model for teaching and learning leadership to college-aged students.
Conclusions
For the past few decades, colleges and universities have developed leaders inside
and outside of the classroom. It is time for leadership educators both co-curricular
and academic based to embrace newly emerging paradigms. These newer ideas
see leadership as a skill to be nurtured and fostered both inside and outside of the
classroom as outlined in the post-industrial view of leadership. If the development
of future leaders is an ongoing goal for institutions of higher learning, then it is
time to embrace that important challenge by viewing leadership development as a
holistic process which includes all levels of leadership training, both formal and
informal. Since the intervention was effective with this population, more
intentional, structured leadership opportunities based in both theory and practice
should be made available for college-aged students. This model could be easily
adopted and used at other universities.
Implications for Student Affair Professionals
The staffs who facilitate student life programs and residential life programs
understand that leadership emerges outside of the classroom and that it transcends
a college degree. As a result, leaders have been developed outside of the
classroom by means of student organizations, leadership roles, weekend training
programs, and lecture events. The goal may be to develop leaders, but that scope
may be too broad. Therefore, the Social Change model should be used as a
51
thematic backdrop to co-curricular leadership education programs. Each of the
three aspects: Individual, Group, and Community can be focused on to enhance
proper training programs for students (Astin, 1993). Consequently a program
which focuses solely on service or on team building or on self-discovery will not
be as successful as the one which can focus on all three.
Implication for Academic Leadership Professionals
Leadership educators should note that the millennial generation seems to
approach leadership development much differently than Generation X. As a
result, leadership educators should scrutinize their own teaching styles. The
Millennia’s emerge from high school with many hours of service and have been
working on group projects for years (Howe & Strauss, 2000). Service learning
and group projects seemed like ground breaking ideas just a few years ago, but
now it is common place for this newer generation of students. Therefore, it is
important for faculty to develop lessons that will impact a student’s common
sense as well the ability to develop and articulate a leadership vision through the
means of personal reflection. Faculty should consider more project-based peer
evaluations as this adds a level of sophistication to grading and forces students to
confront each other during group projects while maintaining accountability. This
measure should enhance a student’s leadership and interpersonal skills.
Finally, leadership educators must begin to collaborate and create a “leadership
educators” best practices philosophy as leadership grows as an academic
curriculum (Brungardt et al., 2006). All of these elements will enhance collegiate
student leadership development. The process of developing students into
productive citizens that will produce positive societal change can be enhanced by
intentional, strategic, and well planned leadership trainings.
Recommendations for Future Research
The completion of this project creates opportunities for other researchers:
• It would be interesting to see this project replicated with other similar
academic leadership programs and then compare the results which may
lead to new pedagogy.
• Many researchers promote mixed methods or qualitative longitudinal
studies following a project like this. This approach should follow a
freshmen population. Following that group in a longitudinal fashion, with
regards to student organizations and campus leadership roles would be an
interesting study. In other words, do the freshmen, as a result of
completing a leadership course during their first semester truly take on
52
more quality leadership roles when compared to students that do not minor
in leadership? Does it actually increase student persistence and retention?
To then match that data with narrative might allow researchers to better
understand the development of a student leadership vision.
Some postulate that people choose to lead in the way that they like to be led and
that perspective is too narrow. It implies that effective leadership is simple – just
do what someone else did. To the contrary, leadership is highly complex as
people are highly complex. Formal, academic leadership training prepares
students to understand the countless ways to lead and the countless models to
follow. This realization will open the future leader’s eyes to the possibility that his
or her mentor’s style will not work in all situations. This leadership lesson can be
learned in an academic setting.
53
References
Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college: Four critical years revisited. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership reconsidered: Engaging higher
education in social change. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
Billsberry, J. (2009). The social construction of leadership education. Journal of
Leadership Education, 8(2), 1-7.
Blackwell, C., Cummins, R., Townsend, C., & Cummings, S. (2007). Assessing
perceived student leadership skill development in an academic leadership
development program. Journal of Leadership Education, 6(1), 39-59.
Brungardt, C., Greenleaf, J., Brungardt, C., & Arensdorf, J. (2006). Majoring in
leadership: A review of undergraduate leadership degree programs [Electronic
version]. Journal of Leadership Education, 5(1), 4-25.
Chickering, A. W., & Reisser, L. (1993). Education and identity (2nd ed.). San
Dugan, J. P. (2006a). Explorations using the social change model: Leadership
development among college men and women. Journal of college student
development, 47(2), 217-225.
Dugan, J. P. (2006b). Involvement and leadership: A descriptive analysis of
socially responsible leadership. Journal of College Student Development,
47, 335-343.
Dugan, J. P. (in press). Research on college student leadership. In S. R. Komives,
J. P. Dugan, J. E. Owen, W. Wagner, C. Slack, & Associates, Handbook
for student leadership development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dugan, J. P., & Komives, S. R. (2007). Developing leadership capacity in college
students: Findings from a national study. A report from the multiinstitutional study of leadership. College Park, MD: National
Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.
Extejt, M. M., & Smith, J. E. (2009). Leadership development through sports
team participation. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(2), 224-237.
54
HERI. (1996). A social change model of leadership development, guidebook III.
Los Angeles, CA: Higher Education Research Institute.
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2000). Millennials rising: The next great generation.
New York: Vintage Books.
Hughes, R. L., Ginnett, R.C., & Curphy, G. J. (2006). Leadership enhancing the
lessons of experience. (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (1998). Exploring leadership: For
college students who want to make a difference. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishers.
Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F., C., & Osteeen, L.
(2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of
College Student Development, 46, 593-611.
Rohs, F. R. (2002). Improving the evaluation of leadership programs: Control
response shift. Journal of Leadership Education, 1(2), 50-61.
Tyree, T. M. (1998). Designing an instrument to measure socially responsible
leadership using the social change model of leadership development.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59, (06), 1945. (AAT 9836493).
University of Maryland. (2010). Socially responsible leadership scale revised
version 2: Using the SRLS for research and assessment. University of
Maryland, National Clearinghouse of Leadership Programs, 1-18.
Watt, W. M. (2009). Facilitative social change leadership theory: 10
recommendations toward effective leadership [Electronic version].
Journal of Leadership Education, 8(2), 50-70.
Williams, J. R., Townsend, C. D., & Linder, J. R. (2005). Teaching leadership:
Do students remember and utilize the concepts we teach? Journal of
Leadership Education, 4(1), 61-73.
55
Author Biographies
Eric Buschlen, Ed.D., is an assistant professor of Leadership Studies and
coordinator of the same program at Central Michigan University. His primary
teaching foci are in leadership theory, leadership practice, and servant leadership.
He earned his doctorate in Educational Leadership from Central Michigan
University. His research interests include undergraduate student development,
student leadership development, thematic leadership programming, and
interpersonal communication.
Robert Dvorak, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of Recreation, Parks and Leisure
Services Administration at Central Michigan University. His primary teaching
foci are parks and natural resource management, wilderness issues, and evaluation
and research methods. He earned his doctorate in Forestry from the University of
Montana. His research interests include visitor use management, recreation
impacts, and relationships with wilderness.
56
An Exploratory Study of the Role of Task Dependence on
Team Captains’ Leadership Development
Christian J. Grandzol, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Management
235 Sutliff Hall
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
Bloomsburg, PA
cgrandzo@bloomu.edu
Abstract
While there is evidence that team captainship in intercollegiate sports can lead to
leadership development, there is little evidence about the role that task
dependence may play on that effect. The individual or team nature of sports may
offer different leadership experiences for team captains, leading to differential
outcomes. In this exploratory study, 31 NCAA Division III team captains reported
their leadership practice using Kouzes and Posner’s Student Leadership Practices
Inventory (2nd ed., 2005) at the beginning and end of one playing season. Results
indicate that team captains developed their use of their leadership practices during
the playing season regardless of whether they led an interdependent or
independent team. The implications for leadership educators interested in the
potentially unique contributions of various leadership experiences are discussed.
Introduction
Examining how to help students develop their leadership potential is a chief
concern of leadership educators. Realizing that developing leaders is the result of
determined doing, not just learning about leadership theories and concepts
(Posner, 2009), educators must consider the impact of an array of sources outside
the classroom where students may learn to be better leaders. For college students
these include various groups such as student organizations, teams, work
experiences, and the subject of this study, team captainship in varsity athletics.
These experiences may offer differing potential for students to learn and practice
leadership skills.
Investigations of intercollegiate athletics and campus recreational sports found
peer leaders in these activities develop leadership skills (Grandzol, Perlis, &
Draina, 2010; Hall, Forrester, & Borsz, 2008; Dupuis, Martin, & Loughead,
57
2006). These leaders, often referred to as team captains, benefited from the
opportunities provided by leading athletic teams. Yet, due to differences between
organizations and their contexts (Logue, Hutchens, & Hector, 2005), there is need
for research on specific involvement areas (Gellin, 2003). This exploratory study
examines the leadership development of students who take on leadership positions
in intercollegiate varsity sports and whether there were differences based on the
type of teams the students led.
Captainship as a Developmental Experience
Dupuis, Martin, and Loughead (2006) reported that team captains engage in
various behaviors designed to improve team climate, norms, and functioning. In
their qualitative study of collegiate ice hockey captains, they found captains
mentored younger team members, structured team activities, served as a
communication bridge between coaches and their players, modeled standards, and
engaged in other critical leadership behaviors. Further, Loughead and Hardy
(2005) found that peer leaders exhibited leadership behaviors that were distinct
from their coaches. For example, peer leaders exhibited more democratic
behaviors, positive feedback, and social support than their coaches did. As
indicated in these studies, team captainship offers opportunities where studentathletes can practice leadership skills.
Two studies assessed whether students holding leadership roles in collegiate
sports developed leadership skills. Administering Kouzes and Posner’s Student
nd
Leadership Practices Inventory (Student LPI, 2005, 2 ed.), Grandzol and
colleagues (2010) compared the leadership gains of team captains to team
members in National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division III
varsity sports during the course of one playing season. They found that team
captains utilized the five leadership practices of (a) model the way, (b) inspire a
shared vision, (c) challenge the process, (d) enable others to act, and (e)
encourage the heart more frequently than team members. The team captains also
increased their usage of all five practices. Team members only developed skills
on one leadership practice – inspire a shared vision.
Hall, Forrester, and Borsz (2008) qualitatively studied students serving in
volunteer leadership capacities in campus recreational sports. These students
developed in areas such as organizing and delegating, giving effective feedback,
motivating others, role modeling behaviors, decision making, and reflective
thinking. Combined, the findings of these previous studies indicate that positional
leadership opportunities in sports can enhance students’ leadership skills.
58
Influence of Task Dependence
None of the previous studies reported if task dependence was a factor in their
findings, but it is a clear contextual difference. Chelladurai (1979) described task
dependence as the degree of interaction a student-athlete has with others during
execution of the task. Independent sports do not require teammates to interact for
successful task completion; student-athletes compete directly against other
student-athletes, and the outcomes of those matches contribute to a team score
(Beam, Serwatka, & Wilson, 2004). Tennis and cross country are examples of
independent sports. In interdependent sports, teammates interact for successful
task completion. Football and basketball are examples of interdependent sports.
Task dependence is an important distinction with potential implications on
communication, practice environment, coaching relationships, and teamwork. It is
reasonable to expect it may impact the experience of a team captain. Considering
the wealth of research on leadership differences based on situation (e.g., House,
1996; Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Zigarmi, 1985), task dependence in sports may
influence leadership development.
The researchers cited below addressed the issue of task dependence, but did not
examine its impact on leadership development. Using a sample of NCAA
Divisions I and II student-athletes, Beam, Serwatka, and Wilson (2004) found that
independent sports student-athletes preferred coaches who utilized democratic
behaviors, situational consideration, and social support to a greater extent than
their interdependent sports counterparts did. These findings were similar to
Terry’s (1984) and Terry and Howe’s (1984) findings at the elite, club, and
university levels.
It appears team sports athletes believe a rigid training environment is necessary
for team success while independent athletes seem to prefer greater control over
their training environment (Terry, 1984). These preferences have implications on
the extent that athletes cede decision making to their coach or peer leader and the
acceptance of task-oriented behaviors and positive feedback by those leaders
(Beam et al., 2004). They point out that interdependent sports athletes are
generally more comfortable yielding decision making to their leaders and prefer
task-oriented leadership behaviors than their independent counterparts. The
findings are conflicted over which athletes perceive the need for more positive
feedback (Terry & Howe, 1984; Beam et al., 2004).
The previous studies examined the preferences of team members for leadership
behaviors exhibited by their coaches, but did not address the potential differences
among team captains. The studies were also dated or examined non-United States
59
based programs. The findings do explain leadership differences in team captains
that may arise from task dependence. Due to interdependent sports athletes ceding
more decision making and responsibilities and the requirement for successful
interaction in these sports, it was believed interdependent sports captains would
have more opportunities to interact, direct, organize, role-model, motivate, and
improve their organization than independent sports captains. These might
influence the extent of leadership skills the students would gain from their
experience.
This study’s purpose was to explore differences on use and development of
leadership practices between interdependent and independent sports team captains
in NCAA Division III athletics. It was hypothesized that interdependent sports
team captains would report higher use of the leadership practices than
independent sports team captains. It was also hypothesized that interdependent
sports team captains would develop leadership skills at a greater rate than their
independent sports peers.
Methods
Participants
Sixty-four team captains were invited to participate from six NCAA Division III
universities in one Commonwealth of Pennsylvania athletic conference. These
captains represented the interdependent varsity sports of soccer and field hockey,
and the independent varsity sports of cross country and tennis. Thirty-one captains
completed both the pretest and posttest for a completion rate of 48.5%. Of these,
16 were captains of independent teams (12 cross country; 4 tennis), and 15 were
captains of interdependent teams (12 soccer; 3 field hockey). The response rate
was affected by the number of teams (e.g., men’s and women’s soccer compared
to women’s field hockey) and the number of captains on each team. The sample
was small, but allowed for correct identification of medium to large effect sizes.
The participating institutions unanimously reported they did not offer formal
leadership training for their team captains. Demographic characteristics are
provided in Table 1.
60
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics
Team Captains
Count
Percent
Gender
Male
Female
Age
18-24
Year in College
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Ethnicity
Caucasian American
Hispanic American
12
19
38.7%
61.3%
31
100%
2
7
22
6.5%
22.6%
71.0%
29
2
93.5%
6.5%
Instrument
Permission was granted to use the self-version of Kouzes and Posner’s Student
LPI (2005, 2nd ed.) to measure team captains’ frequency of leadership practices.
The Student LPI was designed specifically for college students and measures
broad leadership practices that are transferable to any context, not just sports. The
model asserts that leadership consists of an observable set of skills that can be
developed given motivation, desire, the opportunity to practice, and coaching
(Kouzes & Posner, 2007).
The Student LPI consists of 30 behavior-based items, with six items loading on
each practice: (a) model the way, (b) inspire a shared vision, (c) challenge the
process, (d) enable others to act, and (e) encourage the heart. Respondents
indicate their frequency of a specific behavior on a 5-point scale ranging from
“rarely” to “frequently.” The inventory’s directions are self-explanatory.
Internal reliability scores for the five practices are generally between .70 and .85
(Posner, 2004). Multivariate analyses indicate items within each practice are more
highly correlated with one another than they are with other leadership practices
(Kouzes & Posner, 2006a). Scores show significant test-retest reliability at levels
greater than .91 over varying periods (Kouzes & Posner, 2006b). Factor analyses
revealed the instrument contains five factors (Kouzes & Posner, 2006b). Scores
on the Student LPI were positively correlated with variables such as team
cohesion, member commitment, member loyalty, satisfaction, and credibility
61
(Kouzes & Posner, 2006b). The leadership practices were not significantly related
to GPA, gender, ethnicity, age, academic background, full or part time status, or
year in school across a variety of collegiate student populations (Posner, 2004).
Design and Procedures
Team captains voluntarily participated by completing the Student LPI. Team
coaches collected the data by distributing the instruments, confidentiality
statements, and demographic questionnaires. Coaches may have influenced the
captain responses to the survey, but the effect would have been minimal. Coaches
only handed out the surveys. Participating captains completed the surveys on their
own time and returned their instruments to a repository outside of their coach’s
purview.
Data were collected over an 11-week period. Team captains completed a pretest
during their preseason week and a posttest during the last week of their season.
Random assignment of participants to groups was not possible because team
captains were already members of their specific teams. No attempt was made to
re-administer the pretest or posttest to captains who failed to complete either
instrument. Missing data were treated as missing completely at random.
Scores were derived for the leadership practices by summing the scores for the six
items within the particular dimension, yielding a score from 6 to 30. Higher
scores represent more frequent use of the specific leadership practice. To
determine whether there were mean differences among groups, repeated measures
were computed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the five leadership
practices. Post-hoc analyses for gender was executed because of the larger
numbers of females in the study (see Table 1).
Results
Descriptive statistics were calculated for independent and interdependent team
captains for the five leadership practices measured by the Student LPI. Table 2
presents the group means and standard deviations (on a 30-point scale) for each
leadership practice across the pre- and posttests. Table 3 summarizes the results of
the statistical analyses using the ANOVA.
62
Table 2
Group Means and Standard Deviations
Leadership Practice
Model the Way
Inspire a Shared
Vision
Challenge the Process
Enable Others to Act
Encourage the Heart
a
n = 16; bn = 15
Pretest
Independenta
Interdependentb
Posttest
Independenta
Interdependentb
M
22.88
22.56
SD
2.42
3.37
M
24.53
24.27
SD
2.39
2.79
M
24.50
24.06
SD
2.85
2.56
M
26.13
26.53
SD
2.50
1.99
21.75
24.06
24.75
3.55
2.65
2.91
24.20
24.73
25.87
2.70
2.69
2.70
23.56
25.19
26.25
2.55
1.76
2.49
25.73
27.13
27.40
1.98
2.13
2.16
63
Table 3
Summary of Repeated Measures ANOVA for the Leadership Practices
Source
Model the Way
Between-Subjects
Task Dependence
Error
Within-Subjects
Captain Experience
Captain Experience x Task Dependence
Error
Inspire a Shared Vision
Between-Subjects
Task Dependence
Error
Within-Subjects
Captain Experience
Error
Challenge the Process
Between-Subjects
Task Dependence
Error
Within-Subjects
Captain Experience
Error
Enable Others to Act
Between-Subjects
Task Dependence
Error
Within-Subjects
Captain Experience
Error
Encourage the Heart
Between-Subjects
Task Dependence
Error
Within-Subjects
Captain Experience
Error
*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001
SS
df
MS
41.94
312.54
1
29
41.94
10.78
3.89
40.26
.00
64.680
1
1
29
40.26
.00
2.23
18.05***
.00
67.47
351.08
1
29
67.47
12.11
5.57*
54.92
2.28
84.47
1
1
29
54.92
2.28
2.91
18.86***
.78
82.65
351.19
1
29
82.65
12.11
6.83*
43.33
.30
93.09
1
1
29
43.33
.30
3.21
13.50**
.09
26.50
262.37
1
29
26.50
9.05
2.93
48.09
6.29
53.68
1
1
29
48.09
6.29
1.85
25.99***
3.40
19.89
312.47
1
29
19.89
10.78
1.85
35.62
.00
74.87
1
1
29
35.62
.00
2.58
13.79**
.00
64
F
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 posed that interdependent sports team captains would report higher
use of the leadership practices. The ANOVA demonstrated interdependent team
captains reported significantly higher use of two of the five leadership practices:
inspire a shared vision F(1, 29) = 5.57, p < .05 and challenge the process F(1, 29)
= 6.83, p < .05.
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 posed that interdependent sports team captains would develop
leadership skills at a greater rate than independent sport team captains. The
ANOVA demonstrated captains in both contexts reported higher usage of all five
leadership practices at the end of their season than at the beginning: model the
way F(1, 29) = 18.05, p < .001, inspire a shared vision F(1, 29) = 18.86, p < .001,
challenge the process F(1, 29) = 13.50, p < .01, enable others to act F(1, 29) =
25.99, p < .001, and encourage the heart F(1, 29) = 13.79, p < .01. No significant
interactions with task dependence were found; team captains in both contexts
developed leadership skills at a similar rate.
Gender
Independent t-tests revealed no significant differences between male and female
team captains on any leadership practice.
Discussion
Interdependent team captains reported significantly higher use of the practices of
inspires a shared vision and challenge the process. These results are consistent
with past investigations that found interdependent teams pose a different context
than independent teams, and interdependent team members cede more decision
making and responsibilities to their leaders (Terry, 1984; Terry & Howe, 1984;
Beam et al., 2004). Inspire a shared vision requires leaders to create a vision for
their organization and enlist the help of others. This practice may be more
applicable to a team sport environment where team success is dependent upon
effective interaction among members. Challenge the process encourages leaders
to take risks and challenge the status quo. Again, due to the necessity of
interaction, perhaps interdependent team leaders seek innovative ways to improve
the team more often to enable the team’s success.
65
Independent teams feature individuals involved in their own training,
development, and competition. It seems leaders of these teams do not challenge
their teammates as much and goal setting is more personally oriented. The nature
of independent sports is the likely reason for the difference.
No differences were found among team captains on model the way, enable others
to act, or encourage the heart. Regardless of task dependence, captains reported
similar frequency of actions such as role-modeling desired behaviors, building
trust, empowering followers, and celebrating contributions (Kouzes & Posner,
2007). It seems these leadership behaviors are employed equally on both types of
teams. These findings are partially in contrast to previous studies such as Beam et
al. (2004) which found higher preferences for behaviors such as positive feedback
by independent sport student-athletes. However, their study utilized a different
instrument and measured preferences for coaching behaviors. This study
measured team captain leadership behaviors; it did not gauge whether team
members equally desired the behaviors.
The key findings of this study are that both independent and interdependent team
captains developed usage of all five leadership practices during the playing
season. These support past investigations that found peer leaders in sports develop
leadership skills (Grandzol, Perlis, & Draina, 2010; Hall, Forrester, & Borsz,
2008; Dupuis, Martin, & Loughead, 2006). This study reaffirms the potential for
the captain position to enhance student-athletes’ leadership skills.
Contrary to expectations, the team captain experience, whether on an
interdependent or an independent team, fostered equivalent and positive
leadership practice development. This indicates that the experience, regardless of
task dependence, provides a fertile learning opportunity for students. These
findings have no direct comparison, but are different than expectations because of
the research reported by Terry (1984), Terry and Howe (1984), and Beam et al.
(2004). Their studies indicated different preferences for leadership behaviors by
team members and different leadership challenges between the two contexts. In
this study it was speculated that interdependent team captains would have a
greater leadership challenge, and while that may be the case, there was no impact
on leadership skill development of the team captains.
As expected, no statistical differences between male and female team captains
was found. The results are consistent with others (e.g., Posner, 2004) that found
that demographic variables such as gender were not a source of difference. This
finding increases the chances that task dependence and captain experience were
the sources of observed differences in this study.
66
This study has implications for leadership educators. It demonstrated that students
can learn to become better leaders through “doing” leadership (Posner, 2009).
Students involved in sports peer leadership increased the use of the various
leadership practices and did so regardless of the type of team, despite the fact that
these students were not enrolled in a formal leadership course and did not partake
in a formal reflection process. Perhaps augmenting the leadership experience of
being a team captain, with a formal course or reflection process would lead to
even greater gains in leadership skills. It is also valuable for leadership educators
to consider if the practical leadership experiences students engage in vary by
context, require different emphases, or are actually beneficial to students.
This study also has implications for other constituencies. Coaches may consider
why independent team captains reported lower use of inspire a shared vision and
challenge the process. To the extent these practices are desired and necessary on
an independent sports team the coaches may want to mentor their team captains
and help them navigate these challenges in a largely individual team structure.
The results may also interest the NCAA given its mission of “integrating
intercollegiate athletics into higher education so that the educational experience of
the student-athlete is paramount” (2004, ¶ 2). The NCAA can use the results to
document opportunities for student leadership development in athletics. Student
affairs professionals interested in preparing students with leadership skills should
realize that different student experiences may offer unique contributions.
The results of this study must be viewed in light of its limitations. The study was
exploratory; based on a small sample, and only one conference at the Division III
level. Future researchers should consider larger sample sizes and include other
competition levels to see if the results can be generalized. This study offered an
examination of the development of student leaders during one playing season and
is based on only two measurements. Two measurements taken only a few months
apart complicate the study of how leadership processes unfold because many
leadership phenomena are likely to follow nonlinear growth trajectories (Ployhart,
Holtz, & Bliese, 2002). Finally, as in any study where time is a factor, some other
life circumstance may have confounded the effect on the leadership practices.
Sports leadership and the potential benefits of “doing” leadership are important
considerations for leadership educators, but little research has addressed the
leadership of team captains. Studies that did so neglected the issue of task
dependence. Findings from this study indicate that student-athletes serving as
team captains develop leadership skills regardless of whether they lead an
independent or interdependent team. Interdependent sports team captains reported
higher use of two leadership practices (see above), which may indicate a greater
leadership challenge in team sports. Further investigations are needed for fuller
67
understanding of team captain leadership and the unique contributions that
practical leadership experiences offer students.
68
References
Beam, J. W., Serwatka, T. S., & Wilson, W. J. (2004). Preferred leadership of
NCAA Division I and II intercollegiate student-athletes. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 27(1), 3-17.
Blanchard, K., Zigarmi, P., & Zigarmi, D. (1985). Leadership and the one-minute
manager: Increasing effectiveness through situational leadership. New
York: William Morrow.
Chelladurai, P. (1979). A contingency model of leadership in athletics.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 40, 1418B.
Dupuis, M., Bloom, G. A., & Loughead, T. M. (2006). Team captains’
perceptions of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(1), 60-78.
Gellin, A. (2003). The effect of undergraduate student involvement on critical
thinking: A meta-analysis of the literature 1991-2000. Journal of College
Student Development, 44(6), 746-762.
Grandzol, C., Perlis, S., & Draina, L. (2010). Leadership development of team
captains. Journal of College Student Development, 51(4), 401-418.
Hall, S. L., Forrester, S., & Borsz, M. (2008). A constructive case study
examining the leadership development of undergraduate students in
campus recreational sports. Journal of College Student Development,
49(2), 125-140.
House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a
reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 323-352.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2005). Student leadership practices inventory:
nd
Self Instrument (2 ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2006a). Student leadership practices inventory,
nd
student workbook (2 ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2006b). Student leadership practices inventory,
nd
facilitator workbook (2 ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
th
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4 ed.). San
69
Logue, C. T., Hutchens, T. A., & Hector, M. A. (2005). Student leadership: A
phenomenological exploration of postsecondary experiences. Journal of
College Student Development, 46(4), 393-408.
Loughead, T. M., & Hardy, J. (2005). An examination of coach and peer leader
behaviors in sport. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 6(3), 303-312.
National Collegiate Athletics Association (2004). Our mission. Retrieved June 30,
2008, from http://www.ncaa.org.
Ployhart, R. E., Holtz, B. C., & Bliese, P. D. (2002). Longitudinal data analysis:
Applications of random coefficients modeling to leadership research.
Posner, B. Z. (2009). From inside out: Beyond teaching about leadership. Journal
of Leadership Education, 8, 1-9.
Posner, B. Z. (2004). A leadership development instrument for students: Updated.
Journal of College Student Development, 45(4), 443-456.
Terry, P. C. (1984). The coaching preferences of elite athletes competing at
Universiade. ’ Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, 201-208.
Terry, P. C., & Howe, B. L. (1984). Coaching preferences of athletes. Canadian
Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, 188-193.
70
Author Biography
Christian Grandzol, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Management at
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania. His primary teaching foci are supply
chain, operations, decision making, and research methods. Grandzol earned a
doctorate in Higher Education Administration and the APICS Certification in
Production and Inventory Management. His research interests include lean
manufacturing, pedagogy, student involvement, and leadership.
71
Using Cluster Analysis to Segment Students Based on
Self-Reported Emotionally Intelligent Leadership
Behaviors
Tina M. Facca, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Marketing
Department of Management, Marketing and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
tfacca@jcu.edu
Scott J. Allen, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Management
Department of Management, Marketing and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
sallen@jcu.edu
Abstract
Using emotionally intelligent leadership (EIL) as the model, the authors identify
behaviors that three levels of leaders engage in based on a self-report inventory
(Emotionally Intelligent Leadership for Students-Inventory). Three clusters of
students are identified: those that are “Less-involved, Less Others-oriented,”
“Self-Improvers,” and “Involved Leaders for Others.” EIL behaviors that most
differentiate the highest self-ranking group of involved leaders are the extent to
which cluster members work to resolve conflicts in a group situation, work to
build a sense of team, and consider the needs of others. The underlying constructs
of consciousness of context, self, and others are investigated and discussed.
Discriminant analysis is used to validate the cluster solution. Cluster analysis is
found to be useful tool for helping leadership educators categorize students and by
doing so, program architects have an opportunity to design and develop
interventions tailored to better meet the needs of individual students.
Introduction
Numerous student leadership development programs exist on college campuses
and multiple books have been published that focus on this population (e.g.,
72
Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007; Kouzes & Posner, 2008; Northouse, 2009;
Shankman & Allen, 2008). One basic tenet for program architects is that for a
leadership development process to have benefit it should be viewed as a long-term
endeavor and the time required to develop leadership skills is a topic consistently
addressed in the literature (e.g., Avolio, 1999; Avolio 2005; Avolio & Gibbons,
1989; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Fulmer, 1997). Conger (1992) suggests, “Most
would agree that to seriously train individuals in the art of leadership takes
enormous time and resources” (pp. 38-39).
Avolio (2005) proposes the concept of the life stream which is defined as “events
you accumulate from birth to the present that shape how you choose to influence
others and yourself” (p. 12). According to Avolio (2005), the “natural tendencies”
which are at times attributed to a leader may not be “nature,” but are learned
along the way. Avolio and Gibbons (1989) emphasize that development is the
result of many smaller life experiences that accumulate over time and suggest that
“the most successful development programs are those that reflect the individual
and his or her unique needs and strengths” (p. 291).
The assertions proposed by Conger (1992) and Avolio and Gibbons (1989) have
implications for leadership development. First, they emphasize the importance of
the experiences an individual brings to developmental process and the need to
examine those experiences (Posner, 2009). Second, they emphasize the long-term
nature of leadership development. Third, and the focus of this study, their
assertions highlight the importance of creating development experiences that meet
the needs of individual students. This necessity is clearly a “next level”
opportunity for leadership educators who often design “one size fits all”
interventions. By using the process we explore in this paper, leadership educators
have an opportunity to identify where students are in their leadership development
and better design interventions to meet an individual’s specific needs.
The present study uses cluster analysis to segment students based on a self-report
tool, the Emotionally Intelligent Leadership for Students – Inventory (EILS-I).
The authors briefly describe the model of emotionally intelligent leadership, then
discuss and apply the two-step method of cluster analysis, (SPSS 16.0). The
article continues with a description of the research question, methods, and results,
and concludes with a discussion regarding application.
Literature Review
Emotionally Intelligent Leadership (EIL)
73
Research suggests that effective leadership (e.g., Bass, 1990) and emotional
intelligence (e.g., Barbuto & Story, 2010; Bar-On, 2006; Goleman, Boyatzis, &
McKee, 2002) are valuable to both organizational and personal success. The
integration of these concepts with a specific focus on college students allows
leadership educators to better understand postindustrial perspectives of student
leadership development (Rosch, Joseph, & Newman, 2011).
The EIL conceptual model encompasses three facets of emotionally intelligent
leadership – consciousness of context, consciousness of self, and consciousness of
others. It is based on 21 specific capacities across these three facets (Shankman &
Allen, 2008). Emotionally intelligent leadership assumes that effective leadership
(and followership) is a relational process (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007)
and thus, core awareness and regulation of the emotions in self/others is a
foundational tenet of emotional intelligence and effective leadership (Goleman,
2000).
Consciousness of context houses two capacities (e.g., environmental awareness
and group savvy) and involves awareness of the larger environment in which
leadership occurs and is a combination of the setting and situation. This facet of
EIL draws heavily from the work of Fiedler (1972) who suggested that leadership
is more than simply a great man or woman. Sometimes overlooked in models of
leadership, the context has received increased levels of importance in the
literature (Liden & Antonakis, 2009) and in contemporary models such as
authentic leadership development (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).
The consciousness of self facet houses nine EIL capacities (e.g., honest selfunderstanding, emotional self-control) that represent inner or self oriented
capacities. These capacities focus upon the inner work of leadership (Posner,
2009). Consciousness of self represents and involves awareness of one’s abilities,
limitations, and emotions. This facet integrates several capacities that closely
align with various models of emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 2006; Goleman,
Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000; Petrides &
Furnham, 2000) and effective leadership (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Goleman,
Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Kouzes & Posner, 2007; McCauley & Van Velsor,
2004).
Consciousness of others house ten capacities (e.g., capitalizing on differences,
empathy, teamwork) and emphasizes the important role that group
members/followers have in the leadership process (Burns, 1978; Bennis, 2000).
Likewise, the model assumes that followers (others) are an active part of the
process (Chaleff, 2003) and that due to the fluid nature of leadership, individuals
may switch between leadership and followership in a moment’s notice. As Kelley
74
(1998) suggests “the reality is that most of us are more often followers than
leaders” (p. 143). Thus, leaders and followers can display emotionally intelligent
leadership.
Cluster Analysis to Segment Students on Leadership Behaviors
Cluster analysis allows the researcher to take a different perspective on the data,
with no preconceived notions regarding profiles, similarities, or performance
measures. This analysis simply aims to segment the college student leadership
data into meaningful clusters. Then these clusters are reviewed, evaluated and
discussed to better understand the behaviors that link those within a cluster, and
differentiate them from those in other clusters.
The clustering method used is a two-step cluster program in SPSS 16.0 which
gives the user the ability to determine the appropriate number of clusters, and then
classify them using a nonhierarchical routine. The procedure is relatively new,
and as recommended by Hair et al. (2010), it is useful in this particular study due
to the sample size (more than 500 cases) and the number of variables being
analyzed. Garson (2009) also encourages the use of the two-step method for large
datasets using both continuous data and categorical variables with three or more
levels. The two-step clustering method offers a particular advantage to leadership
educators because of its ability to handle categorical variables such as gender,
class rank and level of involvement, as well as continuous variables such as selfreported leadership behaviors.
The two steps are a pre-clustering step where cases are divided into small subclusters, followed by a second clustering of the sub-clusters into the desired or
pre-defined number of clusters. An automatic selection of clusters is optional, but
results in only two clusters given the leadership dataset. This does not yield the
interpretability being sought. Thus, the appropriate number of clusters must be
determined.
The two-step procedure in SPSS is based on Banfield and Rafferty’s (1993) work
with clustering methods for continuous variables based on the reduction in loglikelihood when two clusters are merged. Further, the two-step procedure extends
the work of Melia and Heckerman (1998) who took a similar probabilistic
approach to clustering categorical variables. Zhang et al. (1996) developed
BIRCH clustering for larger datasets, reducing them to sub-clusters which are
analyzed in a second step much like traditional clustering methods. The two-step
procedure in SPSS innovatively combines these works, resulting in an effective
clustering solution for the leadership dataset due to its size and the number and
types of variables being investigated.
75
Research Question
How can cluster analysis help leadership educators segment students based on
self-reported emotionally intelligent leadership behaviors?
Data Collection
A total of 566 students from 139 colleges and universities in the United States
completed an online assessment of their leadership skills in the spring of 2009.
The authors sought the assistance of leadership educators who then mentioned the
opportunity in their courses, training programs, and organizations. The authors
emailed a description of the research with a link to the online survey to
leadership-oriented educators on membership lists including the International
Leadership Association and the Association of Leadership Educators. Assessment
authors Shankman, Allen, and Facca (2010) composed the research tool as a
supplement to their book, Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: A Guide for
College Students (2008). Students were asked to use a five-point scale to indicate
the extent to which they intentionally participated in or focused on a total of 24
behaviors (items representing EIL capacities). The prompt was stated as “When
serving in a formal or informal leadership role, I….” The scale was assigned as
1=never, 2=infrequently, 3=sometimes, 4=frequently, and 5=always.
Table 1
Sample Questions from EIL Students Inventory
When serving in a formal or informal leadership role, I…
Take time to understand the informal traditions of the group
Learn the expressed and implicit values of the group
Monitor how my emotions affect my interactions with others
Work on my limitations
Tailor my leadership style to the situation
Twenty-four questions captured three constructs: consciousness of context,
consciousness of self, and consciousness of others. Students simply added their
scores for the variables that fell into each construct category, arriving at a selfscore between eight and 40 on each of the three constructs, assuming they
responded at least to each of the questions (see Table 2).
76
Table 2
Construct Mean Scores
Consciousness of Context
30.85
32.86
Consciousness of Others
32.26
In part one
of the Emotionally
Intelligent Leadership for Students-Inventory (EILS-I) (Shankman, Allen &
Facca, 2010) Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency
reliability of the three constructs. Reliability of the assessment tool ensures that
the facets of emotionally intelligent leadership are statistically reliable constructs,
measured appropriately with the items on each scale. Final items for each scale in
the EILS-I were selected based on results from a pre-test, where the combination
of items yielding the highest alpha coefficient without redundancy were kept and
represent the final 24 items on the EILS-I. Each scale (eight questions) achieves a
strong level of internal consistency reliability (Consciousness of Context, ÿ=.81;
Consciousness of Self, ÿ=.73; Consciousness of Others, ÿ=.82).
Participant Sample
Thirty-one percent of the sample of college students was male, and 69% female.
A substantial proportion (87%) reported that they were White (Caucasian). A
reasonable distribution of class ranks participated. Given the varied ages that
potentially comprise each class rank, student respondents also provided their age
category, with 92% aged 23 years old and under. Students were asked to provide
the number of campus student organizations in which they were currently
involved. Only 5% were not involved in any on-campus student organizations,
with 54% involved in at least three organizations. Further, 86% reported that they
were currently in some type of leadership role within an organization (see Table
3).
77
Table 3
Demographics
Demographic
Gender
31% Male 69% Female
Ethnicity
Caucasian
Hispanic
Asian
Multiracial
African-American
Middle Eastern
87%
4%
3%
3%
2%
1%
Class rank
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Grad
10%
28%
32%
22%
7%
Age
18-19
20-21
22-23
24-26
26+
21%
55%
16%
2%
6%
Involvement
0 orgs.
1
2
3
4+
5%
10%
31%
25%
29%
Leadership Role
86% Yes
14% No
Data Analysis Procedure
Determining the Number of Clusters
The two-step clustering method was used on the college student leadership data
because of its ability to handle both continuous and categorical data, as well as its
flexibility with larger sample sizes. By default, to determine the optimal number
of clusters, SPSS uses an algorithm which is based in part on Bayesian (BIC) or
Akaike (AIC) information criteria loss. This automatic determination results in
only two clusters which is not preferred given the leadership application.
78
Ultimately, to determine the appropriate number of clusters, the option was
overridden and a random sample of 100 cases tested through several variations of
hierarchical clustering procedures (Garson, 2009).
To validate the appropriate number of clusters, the agglomeration schedule was
reviewed, looking for substantial changes in heterogeneity (i.e., how different
observations in one cluster are from those in another) (Hair et al., 2010). The
agglomeration coefficient measures the increase in heterogeneity occurring from
the combination of two clusters. Hair et al. suggest a reasonable approach to
determining the number of clusters is to measure the percentage change in
heterogeneity. A 27% change in the agglomeration coefficient is evident between
three and four clusters. Thus, the three cluster solution was selected.
Variable Importance
The relative contribution of each variable to the cluster can be computed for both
categorical and continuous variables. For categorical variables, the importance
measure is chi-square distributed and for continuous variable the measure is based
on Student’s (1908) t-test. Variablewise importance plots from SPSS 16.0 are
used to graphically display the variables’ impact in differentiating the cluster
discussed. On the X axis is chi-square for categorical variables, and Student’s ttest for continuous variables. On the Y axis is the variable list. Bars longer than
the critical value line indicate variables important in differentiating the cluster.
Results
Cluster Profiles
The cluster analysis yields three uniquely profiled groups, with membership
distributed in a reasonable manner with 22% in cluster 1, 54.3% in cluster 2, and
23.7% in cluster 3.
Based on the profiles to be discussed, the clusters are nicknamed as follows:
Cluster 1 (22%) – less involved, less others-oriented, cluster 2 (54%) – selfimprovers, and cluster 3 – (24%) involved leaders for others. In the following
section, the top five most important variables contributing to cluster membership
will be discussed. While others do contribute significantly, five is a manageable
number to recall for reference and discussion. Construct mean scores by cluster
are reported in Table 4. Demographics, involvement, and holding a leadership
role are reported by cluster in Table 5.
79
Table 4
Construct Mean Scores by Cluster
Construct
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
Cluster 3
Self
28.70
32.65
37.08
Others
26.91
32.24
37.35
Context
25.63
30.67
35.87
Table 5
Demographics, Involvement and Leadership Role by Cluster
Demographic
Gender
Class rank
Involvement
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
Cluster 3
43% Male,
57% Female
Freshman 10%
Sophomore 27%
Junior
18%
Senior
28%
Grad
18%
27% Male,
73% Female
Freshman 11%
Sophomore 25%
Junior
38%
Senior
21%
Grad
4%
26% Male,
74% Female
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Grad
14%
31%
30%
20%
5%
0 orgs.
1
2
3
4+
0 orgs.
1
2
3
4+
0 orgs.
1
2
3
4+
0%
12%
26%
22%
39%
Leadership Role 79% Yes
20%
9%
34%
25%
12%
21% No 87% Yes
1%
10%
33%
26%
30%
13% No 89% Yes
11% No
Cluster 1 – Less Involved, Less Others-Oriented
The first cluster is profiled as “less involved, less others oriented.” Figure 1
identifies significant chi-square values for the categorical variables in the
analysis, level of involvement, year in school and gender. The most differentiating
impact from categorical variables is from involvement level. This group holds
nearly 85% of the students who were not involved in any student organization.
Members tend to be seniors and graduate students which may explain a lower
level of involvement in on-campus student organizations.
80
Figure 1. Cluster 1 – Categorical discriminators for less involved, less othersoriented group
Considering this same group, or cluster, the most discriminating continuous
variables (see Table 6) are those on which this cluster rated significantly lower
than the other groups, and the top two are both variables related to consciousness
of OTHERS. This group is most differentiated by their low scores for thinking
about how their decisions are received by others in the group, as well as being
concerned about resolving conflicts within the group. Next in discriminatory
impact are two CONTEXT variables on which cluster 1 members rate
significantly lower than members of the other clusters. These are thinking about
how the environment influences leadership style, and tailoring leadership style to
the situation. The next four discriminating variables are all OTHERS oriented
variables on which this group rated significantly lower than their student
counterparts (see Figure 2). Thus, this group is deemed “less involved, less
others-oriented.”
81
Figure 2. Continuous variables differentiating cluster 1 – “Less involved, Less
others-oriented”
Table 6
Variables Most Significantly Contributing to Membership in Cluster 1
Less Involved, Less Others-Oriented
Cluster
Construct
t-statistic
p-value
Think about Decisions Received
Others
-9.6
.000
Resolve Conflicts
Others
-9.2
.000
Environment Influences Style
Context
-9.1
.000
Tailor Style to Situation
Context
-9.0
.000
Help Others Enhance Skills
Others
-8.9
.000
82
Cluster 2 – Self Improvers
This group is more self-oriented, working on limitations, improving abilities,
capitalizing on strengths, and following through, all variables of the SELF
construct. None of the categorical or continuous variables (see Figure 3 and
Figure 4) serve as significant discriminators of group membership, but the
variablewise importance plots offer a view into the respective importance of each
variable within the cluster. The second most important variable is thinking about
how one’s leadership style aligns with group culture, a consciousness of
CONTEXT variable. This second cluster of self-improvers rates significantly
lower on their mean scores for all these variables compared to their cluster 3
counterparts.
Figure 3. Categorical variables differentiating “Self Improvers” – Cluster 2
83
Figure 4. Continuous variables differentiating “Self Improvers” – Cluster 2
Cluster 3 – Involved Leaders for Others
Members of the third cluster, “Involved Leaders for Others” are significantly
differentiated by their high level of involvement in student organizations on
campus (see Figure 5).
84
Figure 5. Categorical variables differentiating cluster 3 – “Involved leaders for
Others”
The group is distinguished by their others-centeredness including working to
resolve conflicts within the group, team-building, and considering the needs of
others in the group, all variables from the OTHERS consciousness construct.
They think about how they might improve their abilities and establish a shared
goal (SELF) (see Table 7).
85
Table 7
Variables Most Significantly Contributing to Membership in Cluster 3
Construct
t-statistic
p-value
Resolve Conflicts
Others
16.9
.000
Work to Build Team
Others
16.3
.000
Consider Needs of Others
Others
15.8
.000
Improve my Abilities
Self
15.6
.000
Work Toward a Shared Goal
Self
14.8
.000
Involved Leaders for Others Cluster
The variablewise importance plot (see Figure 6) suggests the others-oriented
leader also looks outward at helping others enhance their skills, understanding
the priorities of others in the group, thinking about how one’s decisions are
received. These variables fall on the OTHERS construct. Members of this cluster
consider several CONTEXT variables, specifically recognizing patterns of
behavior in the group, considering how one’s leadership style aligns with the
group culture, understanding how the group’s environment influences one’s
leadership style, and tailoring leadership style to the situation.
86
Figure 6. Continuous variables differentiating cluster 3 “Involved Leaders for
Others”
Validating the Cluster Solution with Discriminant Analysis
Cluster membership can be used as the grouping variable in discriminant analysis
as a means for validating the final cluster solution (Garson, 2009; Punj, 1983).
Punj (1983) suggests that after developing the cluster solution on one sample,
discriminant functions are derived and applied to a second (hold out) sample.
Figure 7 shows the distribution of the discriminant scores for the first discriminant
function applied to each of the three clusters derived in the two-step cluster
analysis. The distribution of discriminant scores for each cluster is substantially
separate.
Figure 7. Discriminant scores for each cluster from first discriminant function
87
To assess model fit, consider Wilks’ ÿ=.186 for the first discriminant function,
which suggests that the model separates cases into groups effectively with the
proportion of total variance in the discriminant scores not explained by
differences among the groups at only 18.6%. Smaller values of lambda suggest
greater discriminatory power of the function.
The stepwise procedure was used, where at each step, the variable that maximizes
the Mahalanobis distance between the two closest groups is entered into the
solution. Interestingly, work to build a sense of team is the first variable entering
the procedure, followed by considering the needs of others in the group. These
two variables, elements of the consciousness of OTHERS construct, serve to
differentiate clusters 1 and 2. This supports the profiling of cluster 1 members
who tended to be significantly less conscious of others given the attribute
importance ratings supplied by the two-step cluster procedure.
Substantially separating cluster 2 (Self-Improvers) and cluster 3 (Involved
Leaders for Others) are propensity to improve one’s abilities and monitoring how
emotions affect interactions with others, both SELF construct variables. A simple
tally of the variables and the clusters they differentiate reveals that the Less
Involved, Less Others-Oriented members of cluster 1 were differentiated from
cluster 2, Self-Improvers, primarily on OTHERS and CONTEXT variables. It is
primarily CONTEXT and SELF variables that distinguish Self-Improvers (cluster
2) from the Involved Leaders for Others (cluster 3). Extent of organizational
88
involvement on campus further discriminates between Self-Improvers and
Involved Leaders for Others.
In classification tests using the discriminant function to predict cluster
membership, 92% of the cases from which the function was built are classified
correctly, and 87% of the holdout sample is correctly classified. Overall, the
discriminant analysis approach to validating the clusters proves worthwhile, and
suggests the clusters are stable.
Discussion
A clear contribution of this work to leadership education is its ability to link
statistical methods and useful technology to leadership development. The
approach presented here can help leadership educators better identify where
students are in their development, and tailor individually-suited interventions.
Rather than “one size fits all” results, a program can be developed to provide
students with results that focus on their immediate needs for development and
growth. For example, in a classroom setting, the EILS-I could be administered to
students, and using cluster analysis, one can determine which students belong to
each of the three clusters – Less Involved, Less Others Oriented; Self-Improvers;
Involved Leader for Others. Based on this information, group activities can be
designed by cluster membership. This allows an instructor the opportunity to
tailor the experience based on learning objectives for individual clusters, and track
student progress more effectively.
A second contribution is that this work provides a method for helping students
progress in their understanding of leadership. For instance, an emerging leaders
program on campus (designed for freshmen/sophomores) may focus on a different
set of ideas and activities (required membership in an on-campus organization for
instance) than a retreat or course designed for positional or seasoned leaders on
campus. The former is expected to have greater impact if it focuses on the
individual and self while the latter will help positional/seasoned leader focus on
their specific needs. Here we underscore the suggestion that “the most successful
development programs are those that reflect the individual and his or her unique
needs and strengths” (Avolio & Gibbons, 1989, p. 291).
As a case in point, cluster analysis enables the division of respondents into
meaningful clusters based on specific, self-reported behaviors. In leadership
settings, those who are more involved are also more others-oriented (cluster 3).
They prioritize resolving conflicts within the group, and work on team-building.
Considering the needs of others plays a key role as does improving one’s abilities.
89
Working toward a shared goal further contributes to students being categorized as
Involved Leaders for Others. Members of cluster 1 on the other hand, tend to be
less involved and less others-oriented. Thinking about how one’s decisions are
received and working to resolve conflicts should be the primary focus of
development for members of this cluster. Considering the context is critical to
development or intervention plans, particularly understanding how the group
environment influences one’s style, then tailoring the leadership style to the
situation. Once these skills have been addressed and improved, helping others
enhance their skills should be the focus for members of cluster 1.
Finally, it is important to note that the process of cluster analysis itself is
applicable to any number of assessments that focus on leadership development.
For instance, the same process could be used with the Emotional-Social
Competence Inventory-University (ESCI-U), the Socially Responsible Leadership
Scale (SRLS), or the Student Leadership Practices Inventory (SLPI). By doing so,
leadership educators can design and implement programs for individuals at
different places in development and growth.
Limitations and Future Research
This study uses non-probability sampling (purposive) which has similar
limitations to a convenience sample (e.g., self selection error). Therefore, it may
not be appropriate to generalize the current findings to a larger, uninvolved
student population. A second limitation of the present study is the self-report
nature of the inventory used to gather data. Again, well documented challenges
exist regarding self-report instruments (Donaldson & Grant-Vallone, 2002).
One might interpret the findings from this specific dataset as a bit curious, given
that the clusters are basically low, middle and high rankings on the self-reported
leadership behaviors. The low group, with a higher representation of seniors and
graduate students, may be more self-critical and honest. This demographic may be
less “others-oriented” at this juncture in their lives due to academic and career
obligations. Future research might also investigate the larger proportion of males
in the first cluster.
Validating a student’s potential for moving from one cluster to another requires a
longitudinal approach in future research. A second study with the same
participants would likely yield information on common transitions from one
cluster to another and the EIL behaviors surrounding the transition.
90
Conclusion
Cluster analysis was implemented to segment college students based on selfreported EIL behaviors. Three underlying constructs including consciousness of
context, self and others were examined. The data was used to suggest areas for
improvement in the consciousness constructs, reflective of the behaviors of more
involved, and others-oriented leaders. Cluster analysis was presented as a useful
tool for leadership educators and is conveniently available in common statistical
analysis packages. Understanding the EIL behaviors within a given cluster helps
leadership educators plan and tailor developmental opportunities.
91
References
Avolio, B. (1999). Full leadership development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Avolio, B. (2005). Leadership development in balance. Mahwah, NJ;
Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development:
Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. Leadership Quarterly,
16, 315-338.
Avolio, B., & Gibbons, T. (1989). Developing transformational leaders: A life
span approach. In Conger, J. & Kanungo, R. (Eds.), Charismatic
Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness (pp. 276308). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2006). The high impact leader. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Banfield, J. D., & Rafferty, A. E., (1993). Model based Gaussian and nonGaussian clustering. Biometrics 49, 803-821.
Bass, B. (1990). Bass & Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory, research and
managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.
Barbuto, J. E., & Story, J. S. (2010). Antecedents of Emotional Intelligence: An
Empirical Study. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 144-153.
Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI).
Psichothema, 18(Suppl), 13-25.
Bennis, W. (2000). Managing the dream. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Chaleff, I. (2003). The courageous follower: Standing up to and for our leaders
(2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Conger, J. (1992). Learning to lead: The art of transforming managers into
leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
92
Conger, J., & Benjamin, B. (1999). Building leaders: How successful companies
develop the next generation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Donaldson, S. I., & Grant-Vallone, E. J. (2002). Understanding self-report bias
in organizational behavior research. Journal of Business and Psychology,
17(2), 245-260.
Fiedler, F. (1972). The effects of leadership training and experience: A
contingency model interpretation. Administrative Science Quarterly,
17(4), 453-470.
Fulmer, R. M. (1997). The evolving paradigm of leadership development.
Organizational Dynamics, 25(4), 59-72.
Garson, G. D. (2009). Regression. Retrieved from
http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/cluster.htm on 22 May 2009.
Goleman, D. (2000). Emotional intelligence: Issues in paradigm building. In D.
Goleman, & C. Cherniss (Eds.), The emotionally intelligent workplace:
How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in
individuals, groups, and organizations (pp. 13-26). San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the
power of emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate
Data Analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.
Kelley, R. E. (1988). In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review, Nov.-Dec.,
142-148.
Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (2007). Exploring leadership: For
college students who want to make a difference (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey- Bass.
Kouzes J., & Posner, B. (2007). The leadership challenge: How to keep getting
extraordinary things done in organizations (4th ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
93
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2008). The student leadership challenge: Five
practices for exemplary leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Liden, R. C., & Antonakis, J. (2009). Considering context in psychological
leadership research. Human Relations, 62(11), 1587-1605.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2000). Models of emotional
intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The handbook of intelligence (pp.
396-420). New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCauley, C. D., & Van Velsor, E. (Eds.) (2005). The center for creative
leadership handbook of leadership development. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Melia, M., & Heckerman, D. (1998). An experimental comparison of several
clustering and initialization methods. Microsoft Research Technical
Report, MSR-TR-98-06.
Northouse, P. G. (2009). Introduction to leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional
intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(2), 313-320.
Posner, B. Z. (2009). From inside out: Beyond teaching about leadership.
Journal of Leadership Education, 8(1), 1-10.
Punj, G., & Stewart, D. (1983). Cluster analysis in marketing research: Review
and suggestions for application. Journal of Marketing Research, 20, 134148.
Rosch, D. M., Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2011). The overlap between
emotional intelligence and post-industrial leadership capacity: A
construct validity analysis. Journal of Leadership Education, 20(1), 83102.
Shankman M., & Allen, S. J. (2008). Emotionally intelligent leadership: A guide
for college students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shankman, M. L., Allen, S. J., & Facca, T. M. (2010). Emotionally intelligent
leadership for students: Inventory. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shankman, M. L., Haber, P., Facca, T., & Allen, S. J. (2010). Gender and
94
leadership through the lens of emotionally intelligent leadership.
Leadership Review, 10, 88-103.
Student (1908). The probable error of a mean. Biometrika, 6, 1-25.
Zhang, T., Ramakrishnon, R., & Livny, M. (1996). BIRCH: Method for very
large databases. Proceedings of the ACM Management of Data, 103-114.
Montreal, Canada.
95
Author Biographies
Tina M. Facca, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Marketing in the Boler School
of Business at John Carroll University. In addition to teaching market analysis
and marketing management, she focuses on statistical analysis to evaluate
leadership theories. She is a member of the Association of Leadership Educators.
Scott J. Allen, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of management at John Carroll
University, where he teaches courses in leadership and management skills. Scott
is also the coauthor of The Little Book of Leadership Development: 50 Ways to
Bring out the Leader in Every Employee and Emotionally Intelligent Leadership:
A Guide for College Students. Along with writing and speaking, Scott blogs
(www.weeklyleader.net), consults, facilitates workshops, and leads retreats across
industries.
96
The Unique Leadership Needs of Minority Student
Populations: Crafting a Leadership Identity
Kristen N. Baughman
Graduate Student
Box 7607 NCSU Campus
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695
knbaughm@ncsu.edu
704-651-9019
Dr. Jacklyn Bruce
Assistant Professor
Box 7607 NCSU Campus
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695
jackie_bruce@ncsu.edu
814-404-4913
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine how college-level minority
student leaders make meaning of those leadership experiences. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 12 students. Major findings noted a strong
personal motivation to participate in student leadership positions. Further research
on the impact of familial relationships on leadership development is
recommended.
Introduction
After examining the high-profile leadership positions at North Carolina State
University (NCSU), most student leaders are predominately heterosexual,
Caucasian males. High-profile leadership positions at NCSU are defined as
leadership roles in community service organizations, student government, Greek
organizations, and college councils. Most minority student populations do not
participate in high-profile leadership positions at the university; instead the
students choose to participate in organizations specifically for their particular
religious or ethnic group. Minority student populations include ethnic minority,
97
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) students, and non-Christian religious
affiliated students.
Literature Review & Theoretical Frame
Literature reveals that low numbers of minority student populations, including
ethnic minorities and LGBT students, participate in high-profile leadership roles
at universities (Arminio, Carter, Jones, Kruger, Lucas, Washington, Young, &
Scott, 2000). Most of the minority student populations participate in organizations
that encase a concept of familiarity: those targeted toward their own race, sexual
orientation, or religion. This study includes research about minority student
leaders’ perceptions about their role within the university and their peers’
perceptions.
College environments provide a diversity of experiences for students that both
trigger consideration of identity issues and suggest alternative resolutions for
identity concerns (Waterman, 1983). Seniors in college have a stronger sense of
personal identity compared to freshmen in college because they have successfully
resolved their identity crises. Thus, it is during a student’s college years that the
greatest gains in identity formation occur due to their involvement in
organizations and the relationships they form with others.
Students have a need to build and maintain relationships during college, as well as
to belong and be satisfied at their university. According to Astin’s (1984) student
involvement theory, student involvement refers to the quantity and quality of the
physical and psychological energy that students invest in college. Involvement
can exist in many forms such as, participation in extracurricular activities and
interactions with faculty and other institutional personnel. Extracurricular
activities, like student government, allow students to be satisfied and to belong.
Students are able to build friendships with other students and the organization
encourages frequent interactions with peers. Regular connection with faculty and
staff is also strongly related to student satisfaction with college. Students who
interact frequently with the faculty or staff at their university are more likely to be
satisfied with all aspects of their university experience. To increase student
satisfaction, finding ways to encourage student involvement with the faculty and
staff should be a priority at universities. Thus, the greater a student’s involvement
in college correlates to the greater the amount of student learning and personal
development.
In Dugan and Komives’ (2007) study about college students, research discovered
that students who served in positional leadership roles at the university such as, an
98
officer for a club or organization or the captain of an athletic team, developed
their leadership skills. Students who were involved in campus clubs and
organizations demonstrated significantly higher scores across all of the Social
Change Model (SCM) values, which include consciousness of self, congruence,
commitment, common purpose, collaboration, controversy with civility,
citizenship and change. In their study they conclude that college students should
serve in leadership positions and attend leadership programs to aid in the
development process and to promote identity development.
Using phenomenological interviewing, a study was conducted by Arminio et al.
(2000) to examine the experiences of ethnic minority student leaders at public
universities. The study found that ethnic minority students view leadership at
universities as a negative “label” which alienates them from their peers of the
same ethnic minority group. The students felt that being considered a “leader” on
a university campus meant being part of the “enemy,” no longer separated from
the “oppressive system” and a part of the racial group. The ethnic minority
students also felt serving in a leadership role included personal costs. The ethnic
minority student leaders experienced losses in their privacy and interdependence
as well as associations and collateral relationships. The study also reflected the
difficulty many student leaders of color had in finding a role model on campus.
Most of the ethnic minority students could not identify with faculty or on-campus
staff as a role model; instead they alluded to a family member or friend of the
same ethnic or racial group.
A study by Sutton and Kimbrough (2001) measured African American student
involvement in organizations by using the Student Involvement and Leadership
Scale. The surveys indicated that African American students perceived
themselves as leaders, even if they had not held an elected position on campus.
Thus, the majority of these African American students believed that leadership is
demonstrated by providing service to others, not necessarily by holding an elected
position at the university. The survey results also indicated that minority student
organizations are the primary organizations for African American student
involvement.
Researchers Jones, Castellanos, and Cole (2002) conducted four focus groups to
study the student experience of ethnic minorities in a predominately Caucasian
four-year research institution. Thirty-five African American, Asian Pacific
American, Chicano/Latino, and Native American students were interviewed
through the focus groups. The study found that students of ethnic minorities felt
that segregation existed between their ethnic organization with both Caucasian
students and other ethnic minority groups. Similar to the results of the Sutton and
Kimbrough (2001) study, most of the students only participated in their ethnic
99
group’s student organization. For instance, only a few African American students
reported being involved in non-ethnic-specific organizations, such as student
government. Conversely, Chicano/Latino students emphasized the importance of
participating as student leaders in the greater university and felt it was important
to be active on campus (Jones et al., 2002). The highly involved student leaders,
however, felt they were expected to represent and voice the opinions of their
ethnic minority to other students involved at the university.
Using grounded theory methodology, a study was conducted by Renn (2007)
about LGBT student leaders. LGBT-identified student leaders were interviewed
from three institutions in the Midwest about their leadership roles and their LGBT
identity. The study found that LGBT students who joined or founded LGBT
student organizations were likely to become leaders in the organization, which
also increased the degree to which they were “out” or known to be LGB or T on
campus (Renn, 2007). Serving in leadership roles in the LGBT organizations also
led a few of the participants to serve in other leadership capacities at the
university. The LGBT student leaders were encouraged through their peer
network of other LGBT students and staff advisers to become leaders on campus.
Researchers Renn and Bilodeau (2005) used qualitative case study methods to
research LGBT student leaders at a Midwestern research university. After
interviewing seven LGBT student leaders, the researchers discovered that those
students of ethnic minorities or international backgrounds had powerful
experiences within their cultural communities of discovering what it meant to
have a non-heterosexual identity. These powerful experiences also occurred
through interactions with predominantly White and domestic student groups, like
student government. The researchers also noted that LGBT students felt peer
culture was important and they felt comfortable in established LGBT student
organizations on campus. Participation as a student leader in an identity-based
organization on campus connected the student to critical social supports and
enabled the student to persist in their campus endeavors, including academics,
work, and athletics. Thus, identity-based organizations are proposed to be critical
in the identity formation and sources of resiliency for LGBT students.
Along with identity formation, people with strong perceived self-efficacy will set
more challenging goals and stay committed to achieving those goals (Bandura &
Jourden, 1991). In Bandura and Jourden’s study of graduate students in business
programs, the researchers discovered that the perceived self-efficacy, quality of
analytic thinking, personal goal setting, and affective self-reactions were
significant factors in determining student performance attainments. Thus, if
student leaders at the university level have strong levels of self-efficacy it can be
100
assumed that they will set goals and stay committed to achieve these goals,
similar to the business students with a high degree of perceived self-efficacy.
Using grounded theory methodology, a study was conducted by Komives, Owen,
Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen (2005) about how leadership identity is
developed in college students. As a result the Leadership Identity Model was
created. Leadership identity is developed through six stages: awareness,
exploration/engagement, leader identified, leadership differentiated, generativity,
and integration/synthesis. The process within each stage engaged developing self
with group influences, which changed the college students’ view of self with
others from dependence to interdependence. The groups also shaped the college
students’ view of leadership, broadening it from an external view of leadership to
leadership as a process. The researchers were able to develop the Leadership
Identity Model to demonstrate that developmental influences facilitate college
student leaders’ identity development.
There is strong evidence that students develop their leadership skills and identity
by participating in leadership roles at the college level. There is also strong
evidence that college-level minority students identify strongly with their
respective student organization. No studies, however, have particularly examined
the differences and similarities in the perceptions, relationships, and leadership
skills of minority student leaders versus the predominately Caucasian student
leaders.
Purpose and Guiding Questions
The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine how college-level minority
student leaders make meaning of leadership experiences at NC State University.
The researchers wanted to determine the significance of role models to minority
student leaders, as well as the significance of peers and administrations’
perceptions of the minority student leaders. Researchers also sought to explore the
motivation of minority students to become leaders at NCSU and changes in their
leadership skills during college.
Methods
Merriam (2009) tells us that probability sampling allows researchers to generalize
results, which is not the goal of qualitative research. Non-probabilistic or
purposive sampling is based on the assumption that the researcher wants to
discover, understand, and gain insight about a particular sample. Purposeful
sampling was used in this study because the investigator had to select a sample
101
from which the most could be learned. In this case, the context being studied is
current minority student leaders. The intention was to seek out individuals
because of certain qualities including (a) representing a wide variety of minority
student leaders, consisting of an ethnic minority background, lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender (LGBT), or non-Christian religious affiliation, (b) were
currently enrolled at NCSU, (c) were higher profile student leaders within their
respective organizations or on campus, and (d) were willing to share their
experiences as a student leader.
Qualitative research does not have a recommended, concrete sample size; thus,
this study focused on 12 individuals currently serving as leaders at NCSU. Two of
the minority student leaders were female identified and eight were male
identified. Two of the 12 participants served as the triangulation group, consisting
of one male and one female Caucasian student leaders. Their student leadership
experiences ranged from two years to four years while attending NCSU. The
student leaders served in a variety of leadership roles in organizations such as,
Student Government, political organizations, religious organizations, Greek
organizations, ethnic minority organizations, and media organizations like radio
and newspapers. The age range of participants was from 19 to 22 years old. Ten
of the student leaders were from minority populations, while two students served
the purpose of triangulation. Out of the 10 student leaders from the minority
populations the following populations were represented: four African American,
one Asian, four LGBT, two Hispanic, one Jewish, and one Muslim.
The semi-structured interview method was employed to obtain qualitative
information from participants regarding their student leadership experiences at
NCSU. The protocol established for the interviews consisted of eight open-ended
questions about student leadership experiences and five demographic questions
administered consistently across the interviews by the lead author. Each interview
was also coded to retain confidentiality. The codes are included in parentheses in
the results section after a quotation is given by an interviewee. The codes are part
of the audit trail and provide trustworthiness confirmability.
Data for this study was analyzed by using traditional methods of constant
comparative analysis, described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) for use in
naturalistic inquiry. Glaser and Strauss’ methodology begins with the unitization
of data, categorization of units, merging categories, and journaling.
The interviewer and the interviewees both impact the process of data collection
and analysis due to the qualitative nature of the study. Thus, credibility of the
research was established through peer debriefing and member checking. Peer
debriefing occurred three times throughout the data collection and analysis
102
process. As another check of credibility, member checking was done with each
interviewee. Credibility was also established through triangulation as a baseline to
compare the minority student leaders. An audit trail and journaling were used to
establish dependability and confirmability. Transferability was established
through a purposive sample and thick description (Merriam, 2009).
Findings
The researchers found that the leaders in the triangulation group refuted what the
minority student leaders said and there is disconnect in their perceptions. Four
themes emerged from the experiences of the student leaders: a development of
identity, growth, motivation from within, and the importance of relationships.
Results are presented by theme. The codes found in parenthesis correspond to the
interviewee who made the statement, as well as the corresponding page number of
the transcription.
Identity
Student leaders were able to develop an identity after serving in leadership
positions in their organization.
Segregation
Segregation is part of identity because the minority student leaders recognized
that they only identify with their particular organization and do not frequently
interact with other organizations. The student leaders identified the need for
student organizations to include diverse groups of people, not just one particular
minority group of students. Six of the student leaders identified that there is
disconnect amongst the student groups, and that segregation exists (I1, I4, I5, I6,
I7, I8, I9, I11).
• I have worked with programs that collaborate with other minorities, but it
is not as frequent as it should be (I4.F.H.3).
• College still has a lot of cliques like in high school. However, there are
events on campus that do bring different groups together …There is no
conflict, but you can still see cliques. Minorities definitely are cliques
(I7.M.LGBT.H.3).
• My ideal organization would be one that brings everything together and
makes NCSU a whole (I8.F.C.6).
103
When asked to explain an ideal organization most of the interviewees stated the
organization would be accepting and a diverse group of students would be
involved.
• It would be a volunteer organization comprised of people from the
different colleges, of different ethnicities, sexual orientations, class years,
just a ton of diversity (I4.F.H.6).
• I would make sure that people feel included. If people provide others with
an atmosphere where they feel comfortable and accepted it allows you to
work a lot more with others (I1.M.AA&LGBT.5).
A place of disconnect existed between the minority student leaders and the
triangulation group, the sentiment of a diverse, ideal organization was not shared
by all of the “mainstream” student leaders.
• I would have a group only consisting of white males, like a fraternity
(112.M.C.5).
Role Models
The student leaders with role models felt their role model helped them cope with
an identity crisis or discover their leadership ability. The four LGBT student
leaders identified a role model (I1, I2, I6, I7).
• We have big brothers and big sisters in cheerleading. My big brother was
there and he really helped me out a lot. Not just with cheerleading, but
accepting who I was. The way he looked at life made me feel that it was
ok for me to be who I was (I1.M.AA&LGBT.2).
• I did the whole coming out process last semester with my family and [my
Student Government advisor] has a family member who is gay, so she has
experience with that...She also had plenty of connection on campus that
she was able to get me involved with during my coming out process
(I2.M.LGBT.2).
The two student leaders in the triangulation group also identified a role model (I8,
I12). This was a principle shared by the “mainstream” student leaders.
• One of the past Student Body Presidents encouraged me to run for Student
Body President and to get involved with my fraternity. He definitely
taught me that I should lead by example (I12.M.C.4).
Giving Back
Students were thankful for NC State University because they were able to grow
personally and professionally from their leadership role(s). The students identify
104
with NC State and desire to give back to NCSU and their organizations currently
and after graduation. Most of the student leaders identified the importance of
giving back to the university and to their organizations after graduation (I1, I2, I3,
I4, I7, I8, I9, I10, I11, I12).
• I definitely want to give back to NCSU since I have gotten so much out of
my time here (I4.F.H .5).
• I had an interview with the Hispanic Symposium and I got a position
helping incoming freshman...I want to give back to the organization by
giving freshman advice because I can relate to the Hispanic freshman
(I7.M.LGBT.H.1).
Relationships
Student leaders discussed the significance of their peers’ and administrations’
perceptions, as well as their family’s impact in their leadership roles.
Peers
Students identified with the peers in their respective organizations, which allowed
for the development of relationships. All of the student leaders identified that their
respective peer organizations become their “family” during their college
experience.
• When I came to campus I thought I was going to be one of the only Latino
students on campus, I wasn’t expecting there to be an organization already
set up. It was a great feeling; a sense of community, that you belong and
found people that were like you…It is like a family (14.F.H.1).
• It gave me a home base, a family, a group that I could feel a part of, go to
and hang out with (I9.M.AA.2).
• [GROUP] gives you a sense of family because you have people that you
have something in common with. You might not be best friends with them
but you have something that bonds you together…You can talk to all of
these people about [RELIGION] (I5.M.J.1).
The student leaders recognized that they have both personal and professional
relationships with their peers involved in their respective organization (I1, I2, I4,
I6, I7, I8, I9, I11, I12).
• My personal leadership style is having a relationship with people. You
need to be friends with people and have more than just a working
relationship. You should get your business accomplished and then be
friends and ask those personal questions (I6.M.LGBT.4).
105
•
I am always joking around with people, but when it gets down to business
we do know when to be personal versus professional…We get to work
when we need to and are friendly outside of [GROUP] (I7.M.LGBT.H. 4).
Administration
Student leaders either did or did not identify with the administration at NCSU.
The interviewees elaborated on the significance of their relationships with the
administration with regard to their leadership abilities. Some student leaders feel
they interact well with the administration (I1, I2, I7, I8, I9, I11).
• The current chancellor, I really love him! I feel like we are friends and he
really does want to come out and support students. He goes to a lot of
student organizations and makes himself known. He really connects to
student and isn’t just sitting behind a desk (I8.F.C.4).
Some student leaders feel they do not interact with the administration well or at
all (I3, I4, I5, I10, I12).
• I don’t think there is as much interaction as there needs to be. The
administration is high up and normal students can’t always talk to them.
It’s hard to change this (I6.M.LGBT).
Some of the minority student leaders (I2 , I7, I9) and the triangulation group (I8,
I12) feel the administration views them differently, either positively or negatively,
due to their background.
• So far I have had nothing but acceptance and reassurance from faculty
who were well informed of the coming out process that I was going
through. They continued to guide me and support me, and were always
there for anything I would need. I think I have been very lucky, where in
some settings these perceptions could have been much worse, and could
have ended up with me dropping out or failing out (I2.M.LGBT.6).
• When dealing with the administration, being Caucasian definitely gives
you more legitimacy, because that’s historically how it goes. Being of a
minority population causes the administration to give those people
whatever the hell they want and allows them to get by with a lot more
(I12.M.C.2).
Family
Student leaders elaborated on their relationship with their families and how they
played a role in their college career. Many of the student leaders felt their family
106
members were encouraging throughout their college experience (I3, I4, I5, I6, I8,
I9, I11, I12).
• My mom, dad, sister, and family in general are happy about me pursuing
what I want to do, regardless of what it is. I could choose to be anything,
they don’t care. As long as I love it that’s what matters to my family
(I3.M.AA.4).
• [My family] always has given me encouragement to be a student leader,
especially my freshman year (I5.M.J.2).
Growth
Student leaders discussed the significance of leadership roles in their personal and
professional development.
Communication
Student leaders identified that their communication skills allowed them to grow
personally and professionally. All of the student leaders noted growth in their
communication skills since their freshman year of college. Most of the leaders
emphasized that their communication skills became more direct.
• I am direct with people about what needs to get done in an organizational
setting… [Effective communication is] being direct with people (I4.F.H.4).
• I am able to be more direct and get to the point with people instead of
beating around the bush (I2.M.LGBT.4).
Time Management
Student leaders identified professional growth because their leadership roles
allowed them to gain time management skills. All student leaders noted that their
leadership roles are time consuming which has, in turn, taught them time
management skills.
• I really enjoy being president because it has taught me a lot. Especially
about time management….I have learned to stay organized and to make
sure stuff gets done on time (I5.M.J.1).
• My advice for a future student leader is to really think about the time
commitment and if you are mentally prepared. I have learned to manage
my time and put in the time to organizations. Don’t do it if you don’t have
the time (I11.F.AA.6).
107
Confidence
Student leaders identified personal growth because their leadership roles allowed
them to gain confidence in themselves. All student leaders noted a positive
change in their confidence level compared to their freshman year.
• I became more confident in who I am and what I believe (14.F.H.5).
• I think my [leadership] roles have made me more confident. I am able to
talk and meet new people. I now introduce myself instead of waiting for
someone to introduce me (I5.M.J.4).
Career Path
Student leaders identified that their leadership roles allowed them to grow
professionally by changing their career path. The majority of the minority student
leaders attributed their leadership roles to changing their career path (I1, I2, I3, I4,
I6, I7, I8, I10).
• In the past six months I have reaffirmed that I love working with student
organizations and seeing the passion that student have for their university.
I would love to continue it on by getting a degree in higher education with
a concentration in student affairs (I2.M.LGBT.5).
• My leadership roles are great because it will be a big part of my resume
and will show employers that I can plan large events….My leadership
positions definitely have led me to wanting a job in marketing
(I3.M.AA.3).
Managing People
Student leaders identified professional growth because their leadership roles
allowed them to gain skills about how to manage people. All of the student
leaders attributed their leadership roles to impacting how they manage people.
• I’ve never been a part of an organization on campus that I haven’t been
President of. In that sense I am in charge of people (I12.M.C.3).
• You need to be firm when you ask people to do something, especially with
those in leadership roles…Sometimes you have to remind them and give
them a little nudge (I5.M.J.3).
Motivation From Within
Student leaders discussed that they are motivated personally and professionally to
be involved in leadership roles and organizations.
108
Initiative
Student leaders are motivated from within both personally and professionally by
taking the initiative to become involved at the university level. The majority of
the student leaders identified their peers are apathetic and that a core group of
students are involved at NC State (I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, I7, I8, I9, I10, I11, I12). The
interviewees take initiative to be involved in organizations during their college
experience and believe they are the “core group” of students that are involved at
NCSU.
• I really just take initiative to be involved on campus…I think there is only
a small percentage of students who are really involved, and the other
students have an attitude of “whatever.” Some students don’t care and just
want to have fun. Then there are some students that are always involved
and engrossed in this campus and really care about NC State (I3.M.AA.12).
• [I was] never really pushed to be a student leader, I just have had the
initiative (I5.M.J.2).
Passionate
Student leaders discussed that they are motivated from within to be a leader
because they have passion for their organization and desire to serve in a
leadership role. All of the student leaders identified that they are passionate about
their leadership role.
• You have to find what you’re passionate about and then get involved
(I5.M.J.2).
• You have to be passionate about something to put yourself out there and
be a leader (I4.F.H.3).
Happiness
Student leaders claim they have an internal motivation to be happy, which
contributes to their leadership in organizations. Many minority student leaders
identified that they desire to be happy (I1, I2, I4, I6, I9, I11).
• Aside from academics, recently one of my goals is to be happy…I have
been trying to do things that make me happy. I just finished a musical
theater production at Meredith College, which was a lot of fun
(I6.M.LGBT.4).
109
Self-efficacy
Student leaders are motivated from within to serve in leadership positions because
they believe they are able to make changes to NCSU, thus, they have high levels
of self-efficacy. All of the student leaders portray high levels of self-efficacy due
to their leadership positions.
• It feels great because I know that I made a positive change for the
university (I6.M.LGBT.2).
• Through my leadership positions I believe I have become a better leader, a
better organizer and a better communicator. I can get the job done
(I12.M.C.4).
Conclusions and Discussions
The study discussed here examined the experiences of NCSU minority student
leaders. College environments provide a wide range of experiences for students
that allow for identity development (Waterman, 1983). Jones et al. (2002) found
that students of ethnic minorities felt that segregation existed between their ethnic
organization with both Caucasian students and other ethnic minority groups. The
student leaders interviewed in this study also identified that segregation exists
amongst student groups at the university. Minority organizations stick together
and do not have many interactions with other organizations. The religious
minority student leaders recognized that religious organizations also stick
together. However, the religious organizations were more likely to host inter-faith
events, allowing the religious organizations to interact and hold discussions. Thus,
it may be concluded from the findings that minority student leaders solidify a
sense of identity via participation in and with organizations unique to their own
populations. Although minority students have engaged as leaders in their
respective organizations, segregation is present at the university level. Thus, the
student leaders have developed an identity with their organizations and want to
continue to show their appreciation after they graduate from the university. Most
of the minority student leaders desire to give back to NC State University and to
their organizations in which they held leadership positions because they greatly
appreciate the opportunities that both have given them.
Every interviewee mentioned the concept of passion in their interview. The
student leaders feel that the majority of students at NCSU are apathetic. The
participants believe there is a core group of students on campus that “run” the
university and are the leaders. They identified themselves as part of the core
group of students. It can be concluded that minority student leaders have a high
degree of internal motivation. Each student leader is motivated from within
110
because they have passion for the university and for their organization. They are
also motivated from within to be happy. The majority of the student leaders stated
that one of their biggest goals during college is to be happy. Students with strong
perceived self-efficacy will set more challenging goals and stay committed to
achieving those goals (Bandura & Jourden, 1991). Thus, the student leaders have
a high degree of self-efficacy because they are motivated from within by setting
goals and are committed to improving their university.
Minority student leaders develop through participation in leadership experiences.
Student leaders experienced growth due to their leadership roles at the university.
Compared to their first semester of college, each student leader feels that they are
more confident. They are now able to communicate directly with people involved
in their organizations, with their peers, and with the administration. Each student
leader also noted an improvement in their communication skills compared to their
freshman year of college.
Lastly, minority student leaders are influenced by relationships with peers, family,
and the university community. According to Renn (2007), LGBT student leaders
are encouraged through their peer network of other LGBT students and staff
advisers to become leaders on campus. In this research study, the LGBT student
leaders were able to identify a particular role model at NCSU. The LGBT student
leaders identify with someone who is either gay or understands the gay
community. However, the other minority student leaders did not identify a role
model.
Recommendations
Frequent interaction with faculty is strongly related to student satisfaction with
college (Astin, 1984). Role models were found to be particularly significant for
the LGBT student leaders who were able to find a role model at North Carolina
State University to confide in for guidance and encouragement. Perhaps the
LGBT students found role models on campus because they were unable or
unwilling to go to their family for encouragement. More research should be
conducted about family relationships and their impact on leadership development
in minority student populations, especially LGBT students. Research should also
be conducted about the role models that are identified by the LGBT student to
discover why these role models are significant to the student leader and what sets
these role models apart from other faculty at NCSU.
A majority of minority student leaders also have a desire to give back to their
corresponding organization and to NCSU in general. More research should be
111
conducted to assess the impact of leadership experiences on minority student
populations and their desire to continue their involvement after graduation.
From the results of this study, other universities should be encouraged to examine
their minority student leaders to discover if they are as passionate as students at
NCSU to give back to the university after graduation. The minority student
leaders desire to keep serving in any capacity upon graduation, they just need the
appropriate opportunities. For instance, past minority student leaders can conduct
campus visits or speak at organizational meetings to discuss the importance of
college involvement.
Recommendations for practice include focusing more efforts on minority student
populations during new student orientation and the elimination of symposiums.
By targeting minority students during new student orientation, these students will
become aware of campus organizations with which they can become involved.
The more students that get involved results in an increase in the number of
students giving back to their organizations through leadership roles and to the
university after graduation. Also, symposiums targeting the attendance of a single
ethnic group should be discouraged. Ethnic minorities should work with other
ethnic minority groups to host a large symposium to eliminate segregation at NC
State University.
The need for minority organizations working together also exists. Currently,
organizations at NCSU have infrequent interactions, although the minority student
leaders desire an increase in these interactions, as well as in the diversity of
people involved in their organizations. All universities should encourage
organizations to host events and workshops to eliminate segregation and allow all
students to work together. For instance, religious organizations could work
together to host an event promoting an opportunity for all students on campus to
learn about different religions.
112
References
Arminio, J. L., Carter S., Jones, S. E., Kruger, K., Lucas, N., Washington, J.,
Young, N., & Scott, A. (2000). Leadership experiences of students of
color. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 37(3), 496-510.
Astin, A. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher
education. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529.
Bandura, A., & Jourden, F. J. (1991). Self-regulatory mechanisms governing the
impact of social comparison on complex decision making. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6), 941-951.
Dugan, J., & Komives, S. (2007). Developing leadership capacity in college
students: Findings from a national study. A report from the MultiInstitutional Study of Leadership. College Park, MD: National
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory.
Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.
Jones, L., Castellanos, J., & Cole, D. (2002). Examining the ethnic minority
student experience at predominantly white institutions: A case study.
Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 1(1), 19-39.
Komives, S., Owen, J., Longerbeam, S., Mainella, F., & Osteen, L. (2005).
Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of College
Student Development, 46(6), 593-611.
Merriam, B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Renn, K. A. (2007). LGBT student leaders and queer activists: Identities of
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer identified college student
leaders and activists. Journal of College Student Development, 48(3), 311330.
Renn, K. A., & Bilodeau, B. (2005). Queer student leaders: An exploratory case
study of identity development and LGBT student involvement at a
Midwestern research university. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in
Education, 2(4), 49-71.
113
Sutton, E., & Kimbrough, W. (2001). Trends in black student involvement.
Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 39(1), 30-40.
Waterman, A. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An
extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology,
18(3), 341-358.
114
Author Biographies
Kristen Baughman is a recent graduate from North Carolina State University
and is from Charlotte, North Carolina. She started graduate school at the
university in January 2011 to complete an M.S. in Extension Education. She is
interested in the field of family and consumer sciences and student leadership.
Dr. Jackie Bruce is a faculty member at North Carolina State University in the
Department of Agricultural & Extension Education. She teaches undergraduate
and graduate courses in extension education and leadership development. Her
research interests include leadership skill acquisition and efficacy of training
environments.
115
The Relationship of Hope and Strength’s Self-Efficacy to
the Social Change Model of Leadership
Forrest C. Lane
Department of Educational Psychology
University of North Texas
Denton, TX
forrest.lane@unt.edu
Natasha H. Chapman, Ph.D.
Director of the TCU Leadership Center
Texas Christian University
Fort Worth, TX
n.chapman@tcu.edu
Abstract
The social change model of leadership (SCM) is a widely used leadership model
in higher education. StrengthsQuest is conceptually similar to the individual
values of the SCM in its aim to identify and grow individual talents. This model is
based on the idea that individuals perform at higher levels when they build upon
their identified talents (Clifton & Harter, 2003). Prior studies have not examined
the relationship of hope or one’s belief in their identified StrengthsQuest talents to
the individual values of the SCM. This study examines that relationship using the
adult-trait hope and strengths self-efficacy scales. The relationship between these
constructs along and other predictors of social change capacity were explored
using canonical correlation analysis. Strengths self-efficacy, hope, and student
engagement were statistically significant (73% of the variability among the
individual values of the SCM). Gender, race, and community service were not
statistically significant in this study.
Introduction
Leadership development is a central goal for colleges and universities given the
importance of co-curricular participation to college student outcomes (Astin &
Astin, 2000; Morse, 1989). Recently involvement has been shown to be positively
related to student leadership capacity (Astin & Astin, 2000; Dugan & Komives,
2007). Dugan and Komives (2007) suggest that “increases in leadership
development in turn enhance the self-efficacy, civic engagement, character
116
development, academic performance, and personal development of students” (p.
8).
Dugan and Komives (2007) noted several trends in higher education that support
a renewed focus on developing critical leadership skills among students and call
“for institutions of higher education to purposefully develop socially responsible
leaders” (p. 5). The social change model of leadership (SCM) which involves the
growth of critical values in three domains ( individual, group, and societal),
emphasizes social responsibility and approaches leadership as a values-based,
purposeful process resulting in positive social change (Komives, Dugan, Owen,
Slack, Wagner, & Associates, 2011). Individual values of the SCM include
consciousness of self, congruence, and commitment (see Table 1), and require
students to increase their level of self-knowledge, act in ways that are consistent
with their personal values, and significantly invest in serving the group and its
goals (Komives et al., 2011). Likewise, strengths-based development, which is
grounded in positive psychology, involves three stages at the individual level: the
identification of talent, integration into how one views himself or herself, and
behavioral change (Clifton & Harter, 2003). Due to these conceptual similarities,
leadership educators should consider the use of a strengths-development model
(e.g., StrengthsQuest) in the development of the individual values of the SCM.
Furthermore, there is evidence that strengths-based developmental interventions
can increase levels of hope (Hodges & Clifton, 2004). Therefore, hope should
also be examined to individual values of consciousness of self, congruence, and
commitment.
The problem is that to date no studies have examined the relationship of hope and
strengths-based development models to individual values of the SCM. Thus, the
purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between one’s beliefs in their
individual talents (i.e., strengths self-efficacy) as identified by a strengths-based
development model (Zhao, Tsai, Chaichanasakul, Flores, & Lopez, 2010) and
hope (Snyder, 1995) to the individual values of the SCM on the SLRS revised
scale (Tyree, 1998). These constructs along with student engagement (Harter,
Schmidt, Killham, & Agawam, 2009), gender and race (Dugan et al., 2008;
Dugan & Komives, 2007), and community service (Dugan, 2006b; Dugan, Bohle,
Gebhardt, Hofert, Wilk, & Cooney, 2011; Dugan & Komives, 2007; Dugan &
Komives, 2010; Haber & Komives, 2009) will be examined. The results and their
implications for theory and practice will be discussed.
Table 1
SCM Individual Values and Definitions
117
Value
Definition
Consciousness of Self Awareness of the beliefs, values, attitudes, and emotions
that motivate one to take action.
Congruence
Thinking, feeling, and behaving with consistency,
genuineness, authenticity, and honesty towards others;
actions are consistent with most deeply-held beliefs and
convictions.
Commitment
The psychic energy that motivates the individual to serve
and that drives the collective effort; implies passion,
intensity, and duration, and is directed toward both the
group activity as well as its intended outcomes.
Source: HERI, 1996
Literature Review
The Social Change Model of Leadership
The social change model of leadership (Higher Education Research Institute
[HERI ], 1996) was created “to enhance the development of leadership qualities
in all participants – those who hold formal leadership positions as well as those
who do not – and to promote a process that is inclusive and actively engages all
who wish to contribute” (p. 18). Today the SCM is the most widely used
leadership model within student development programs across colleges and
universities (Kezar et al., 2006; Komives et al., 2011; Komives & Wagner, 2009).
118
Figure 1. The Social Change Model of Leadership
Group Values
Collaboration
Common
Purpose
Controversy
Consciousness of
Self
Congruence
Commitment
Citizenship
Individual Values
Society/ Community Values
Source: Adapted from A social change model of leadership development (3rd ed.,
p. 20) by Higher Education Research Institute [HERI]. Copyright © 1996,
National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. Reprinted with permission of
the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.
The SCM includes several core values considered to be “critical elements” of the
model (Figure 1) (HERI, 1996, p. 20). Change is the value “hub” in which the
model is framed and is “the ultimate goal of the creative process of leadership”
(HERI, 1996, p. 21). Change gives purpose to the other values described as the 7
Cs (HERI, 1996; Komives & Wagner, 2009). These values function at the
individual, group, and societal levels and are used as a tool to enhance students’
level of self-awareness and ability to work with others (Dugan, 2006a). The
individual values include consciousness of self, congruence, and commitment
which examine personal qualities that are most supportive of group functioning
and positive social change (HERI, 1996). Group values consist of common
purpose, controversy with civility, and collaboration which examine ways in
which the collaborative process facilitates the development of individual qualities
that effect positive social change (HERI, 1996). Lastly, the society/community
value is citizenship which explores the social ends of leadership development and
119
service activities that promote group collaboration and develop individual
character (HERI, 1996).
In 2006, the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) was created in part to
inform our understanding of the SCM and has collected data from participants
across the country (Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership, 2011). Published
findings from MSL data suggest students involved in community service and
leadership programs are more likely to score higher on one or more dimensions of
the SCM as measured by the socially responsible leadership scale (Dugan et al.,
2011; Dugan & Komives, 2007; Dugan & Komives, 2010; Haber & Komives,
2009). In addition to engagement, certain demographic factors were also found to
be significant. A study by Dugan, Komives, and Segar (2008) found that African
American/Black students reported significantly higher mean scores than White
students on consciousness of self. Asian Americans scored significantly lower
than peers from all racial categories across consciousness of self and significantly
lower than peers in all categories except Native Americans on congruence and
commitment. Literature also reveals that women score statistically higher than
men on all SCM scales except for change (Dugan et al., 2008; Dugan & Komives,
2007). However, there is still a lack of understanding of these outcomes in
relation to commonly used concepts in positive psychology. Therefore, additional
research is needed to improve our understanding of the relationship between the
SCM and other constructs within the literature.
StrengthsQuest & Strengths Self-Efficacy
One construct that may help to inform our understanding of the individual values
of the SCM is one’s beliefs in one’s individual talents (strengths self-efficacy)
identified through the use of strength-based educational models. “Strengths-based
approaches related to seeking new experiences and applying effort is most
apparent when considered within the context of research which suggests that
students’ implicit self-theories, or beliefs about the degree to which their personal
abilities are malleable, exert profound effects on behavior within educational
environments” (Lopez & Louis, 2009, p. 6). Development within this model
requires that individuals identify things done at excellence, claim them as
strengths, and share them with others. Individuals must consciously think about
ways in which performance can be maximized when behaviors and talents are
aligned, apply necessary knowledge and skills, and actively use their talents
(Hodges & Clifton, 2004).
StrengthsQuest is an educational model designed to provide students with the
knowledge and awareness of their individual talents, promote individual growth,
120
and has been used by more than 600 campuses and 850,000 students in North
America (The Gallup Corporation, 2011). Clifton, Anderson, and Schreiner
(2006a) suggest several things happen when individuals become more aware of
their talents through the use of this inventory. First, there is an increased
understanding of others through the use of a common language. Second, this
common language leads to increased interpersonal closeness, cooperation, and a
greater sensitivity to social barriers. From an individual perspective, an awareness
of individual talents brings about greater self-confidence and a sense of identity
and direction (Clifton, Anderson, & Schreiner, 2006b).
However, StrengthsQuest is an educational tool that provides only one’s
identified talents and does not directly measure the belief in those talents. As
such, Zhao, Tsai, Chaichanasakul, Flores and Lopez (2010) developed a strengths
self-efficacy scale to assess individuals’ perceived self-efficacy in the utilization
of their personal strengths. A person’s “strength” is the ability to provide
consistent, near-perfect performance in a specific task using a set of individual
talents (Hodges & Clifton, 2004). As such, strengths self-efficacy is defined as an
awareness and belief in one’s individual talents and is grounded in positive
psychology (Zhao et al., 2010). Literature on the broader construct of self-efficacy
suggests this improves in task performance and persistence and has the potential
to assist people in addressing psychological, physical, and social challenges more
effectively and with more confidence (Bandura, 1997; Hagedoorn & Molleman,
2006). Therefore, Zhao et al., (2010) suggest devising plan to gain control of and
implement one’s strengths across different roles and situations.
Hope Theory
Recent literature offers evidence that strengths-based developmental
interventions, such as the use of StrengthsQuest, can increase levels of hope
(Hodges & Clifton, 2004). Helland and Winston (2005) define hope as “an
activating force that enables people, even when faced with the most
overwhelming obstacles, to envision a promising future and to set and pursue
goals” (p.43). In higher education, hope predicts resilience (Worrell & Hale,
2001), academic success (Snyder, 2002), and persistence (Snyder, 2002). Within
positive psychology, hope is positively correlated with self-esteem, optimism, and
positive affect (Snyder, 2002) which are related to citizenship behavior,
performance, and authentic leadership (Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, & Oke,
2011). As such, this may suggest individual values of the SCM are also related to
hope.
While the concept of hope would seem to have a critical place in the study of
leadership, little attention has been paid to hope within leadership studies
121
(Helland & Winston, 2005). However, those who have explored hope within
leadership value its inclusion as an integral part of leadership development (Cerff,
2006; Goethals, Sorenson, & Burns, 2004; Shorey & Snyder, 2004). Bennis
(1999) and Rath and Conchie (2009) define hope as one of four provisions by
exemplary leaders that will satisfy followers’ needs and contribute to achieving
positive outcomes. Literature also identifies hope as a core construct in authentic
leadership (Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, &
May, 2004) which encourages leaders to be more positive, build on strengths,
expand their horizon of thinking, and act ethically and morally. According to
Helland and Winston (2005), hope, like leadership, arises in a relationship with
others and that those with high hope are more likely to discuss the outcomes and
action needed to attain those goals with others. While research is limited, the
development of hopeful thinking in leaders and designing leadership programs
that enhance hopeful thinking in students is suggested (Helland & Winston,
2005).
Research Questions
Given the literature on strengths-based educational models and hope in
leadership, this study seeks to test the relationship of strengths self-efficacy and
hope to the individual values of the social change model of leadership
(consciousness of self, congruence, commitment). Furthermore, the relationship
of previously identified variables from the SCM literature will be examined. The
following research questions guided this study:
• Q1: What is the relationship of strengths self-efficacy and hope to the
individual values of the SCM?
• Q2: Are previously identified predictor of student engagement, gender,
race, and community service related to the individual values of the SCM
in this independent sample?
Methodology
Sample
Data (n=157) was collected from undergraduate students attending a private midsize urban institution in the southwest. Students at this university are primarily
traditional age (M=19.52, SD=1.27) and 46% live on-campus. Approximately
69% (n=96) were women, which was slightly above the university demographic
where women constitute 59% of the undergraduate student population.
Approximately, 75% of the sample were White/Caucasian, 8.6% Asian American,
9.4% Latino/a, 3% African American, and 4% other. Students in this study were
122
also generally high achieving in terms of GPA (M=3.48, SD= 402), engaged in
campus as indicated by Gallup’s college student engagement questionnaire
defined below (M=7.35, SD=5.841), and participated in an average of 8 hours of
community service per month (SD=5.42).
Procedure
Students enrolled in 10-week co-curricular leadership seminars, having previously
taken the Clifton StrengthsFinder inventory, were invited to respond to a
questionnaire during the spring 2010 and 2011 semesters. Students were informed
that participation was voluntary and that their responses would be kept
confidential. No compensation or incentives were provided for participation in the
study.
Instruments
The questionnaire contained four instruments with relevant demographic
questions based on the literature including gender, community service, and race.
The entire questionnaire, excluding the Clifton StrengthsFinder inventory,
contained 130 items.
Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS-R2). The individual values of the
SCM were measured using the consciousness of self (nine items), congruence
(seven items), and commitment (six items) scales from the Socially Responsible
Leadership Scale-Revised Version 2 (Tyree, 1998). This entire instrument
contains 68-item s rated on a 5-point scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly
agree) and measures the eight critical values of the social change model of
leadership development (Dugan, 2006a). The SLRS-R2 serves as the primary
framework for the multi-institutional study of leadership (MSL) and has been
distributed to over 60,000 participants across 52 institutions. Questions for the
SRLS-R2 include items such as “I could describe my personality.” Internal
consistency estimates (ÿ) for these scales are reported on this scale range between
.78 and .83 (Dugan, 2006a).
Strength’s Self-Efficacy Scale (SSES). Strengths self-efficacy was measured using
the Strengths Self-Efficacy Scale containing 16 item s rated on a 10-point scale
(1=not confident to 10=very confident). Strengths self-efficacy is defined as
individual’s beliefs in their capability to apply personal strengths in their daily
lives in order to maximize one’s potential (Zhao et al., 2010). Questions of the
SSE scale include statements such as “I am confident in my ability to identify a
strength needed to accomplish a task.” Internal consistency estimates (ÿ) have
been reported to be .97 in the literature.
123
Adult Trait Hope Scale (ATH). Hope was measured using the Adult Trait Hope
Scale (Snyder et. al., 1991) and contains 12 items on an 8 point scale
(1=definitely false to 8=definitely true). Hope in this scale is defined as “a
positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of
successful (a) agency (goal-directed energy), and (b) pathways (planning to meet
goals)” (Snyder et. al., 1991, p. 287). Questions of the ATH scale include items
such as “I energetically pursue my goals.” Internal consistency estimates (ÿ) are
reported in the literature to range between .74 - .84 (Rand & Cheavens, 2009).
College Student Engagement Scale (CSES). Student engagement was measured
using the College Student Engagement Scale (Harter, Schmidt, Killham, &
Agawam, 2009) and is conceptually similar to an abbreviated version of the
National Survey of Student Engagement. This instrument contains 12 items on a
5-point scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) and measures attitudinal
outcomes and engagement among college students (Harter, Schmidt, Killham, &
Agawam, 2009). Engagement is this scale is defined as “the involvement in and
enthusiasm for school” (Lopez, 2009, p. 1). Questions on the CSES include items
such as, “at this school, I have the opportunity to do what I do best everyday.”
Internal consistency estimates (ÿ) for the CSES has been reported to be .87 in the
literature (Cantwell, 2005).
Data Analysis
Data in the study were analyzed using SPSS v.18.0. Internal consistency
coefficients were calculated for each instrument using Cronbach’s Alpha prior to
any statistical analyses. A canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was then
performed to explore the relationship between independent and dependent
variables. CCA was chosen because it can be superior to univariate methods (e.g.,
ANOVA, multiple regression) when dependent variables are theoretically related
and reduces the likelihood of experiment wise error (Henson, 2000; Kimble,
2001; Sherry & Henson, 2005). Independent variables were specified as CSES,
ATH, SSE, Gender, Race, and the average number of community service hours
per week. Dependent variables were specified as consciousness of self,
congruence, and commitment.
Assumptions of linearity and normality were examined using methods described
by Henson (1999) and were within acceptable ranges. Missing data were replaced
through an expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm which estimates missing
values based on observed scores for participants in the sample. The full CCA
model and individual functions were then evaluated using methods described by
Sherry and Henson (2005). Both p values and effect sizes were considered in the
124
interpretation of the model (Vacha-Haase & Thompson, 2004; Wilkinson & APA
Task Force on Statistical Inference, 1999). Specifically, 1-Wilks’s ÿ was used as
an effect size because it “can be interpreted just like the multiple R2 in regression
as the proportion of variance shared between the variable sets across all
functions” (Sherry & Henson, 2005, p. 42). Finally, the relative importance of
variables within each function were assessed using both standardized canonical
coefficients (weights) and structure coefficients (Pearson r between an observed
variable and the canonical function scores) given their purported value in the
literature (Courville & Thompson, 2001; Henson, 2002).
Results
A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed and 171 were returned for a
response rate of 68.4%. Fourteen of these cases were removed due to substantial
missing data. Two cases were found to impact univariate and multivariate
skewness and were also removed. The final data set resulted in a sample of N=155
and descriptive statistics for continuous variables reported below (see Table 2).
Canonical variate score plots indicated no evidence of heteroscadiscity. Sample
size was also considered using guidelines by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) which
suggests a participant to variable ratio of 10:1 for multivariate analyses when
instrument reliability is around .80. The sample in this study employed a ratio
approximately 17:1 with internal consistency estimates within the data between
.78 - .96 (see Table 2).
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Continuously Scaled Variables (N=155)
Variable
Independent
ComServ
CSES
ATH
SSES
Dependent
CoS
Congruence
Commitment
Descriptions
M
SD
Skew
Kurt
ÿ
Community Service
8.00 5.42
Hrs/Week
Student Engagement Scale 42.86 4.72
Adult Trait Hope
26.02 3.24
Strengths Self-Efficacy
117.45 20.65
Scale
1.49
3.01
--
-.26
-1.43
-.29
-.27
4.37
-.34
.80
.85
.96
-.48
-.93
-.95
.24
1.52
.59
.78
.84
.79
Congruence
Commitment
125
4.07
4.41
4.56
.53
.49
.41
A test of the statistical significance for the collective CCA model across all
functions was examined first and found to be statistically significant
F(18,373)=12.227, p>.001 (see Table 3). Within this collective model,
approximately 73% of the variance was shared (=1 - .269 [Wilks’ ÿ]) across all
variable sets (synthetic independent and dependent variables). This finding was
larger than a previous study which reported shared variance estimates (R2)
between 25-35% when univariately examining values of the SCM (Humphreys,
2007). This suggested that the proposed model as a whole was supported by the
results and warranted further interpretation.
Table 3
Statistical Significance Tests for the Full CCA Model
Test
Pillais’
Hotelling’s
Wilks’
Roy’s
Value Approximate F Hypothesis
DF
.849
8.829
18
2.276
16.565
18
.269
12.226
18
.675
---
Error DF
p
402
392
373
--
< .001
< .001
< .001
< .001
Individual functions were then interpreted through a dimension reduction analysis
which allows the researcher to hierarchically test functions for statistical
significance. In this model, three functions were extracted with squared canonical
correlations (of .6 75, .115, and .059) for each successive function (see Table 4).
The first two canonical functions (functions 1 to 3 [full model]; functions 2 to 3)
were found to be statistically significant, F (18,373) = 10.038, p < .001 and F
(10,266) = 7.64, p=.006. However, only the first function (functions 1 to 3) was
interpreted given it explained approximately 68% of variance in that function with
the second explaining only 11% of the residual variance in the model.
Standardized canonical coefficients (coef) and structure coefficients (rs) for all
hierarchical functions are reported below (see Table 5).
126
Table 4
Canonical Correlations Dimension Reduction Analysis for All Functions
Canonical Correlations
Roots
Eigenvalues
%
1
2.083
91.526
2
.129
5.689
3
.063
2.785
Dimension Reduction Analysis
Roots
F
Wilks’ ÿ
1 to 3
.269
12.227
.833
2.553
11
81
2
to
3
3 to 3
.940
2.124
Cumulative % Canonical
Correlation
91.52
.822
97.21
.336
100.00
.244
Hypothesis df
18
10
Error df
373
266
4
134
Squared
Correlation
.675
.115
.059
p
< .001
.006
.081
Our next aim was to identify which independent variables best explained
variability in the linear combination of the dependent variables (Consciousness of
Self, Congruence, and Commitment) in function 1 to 3. Results suggest strengths
self-efficacy (coef=-.552), adult trait hope (coef=-.400), and student engagement
(coef=-.356), were most salient in their contribution to the effect, with each of
these three explaining approximately 47% - 71% of variance in the synthetic
dependent variable (i.e., squared structure coefficients). This was considerably
larger than race, gender and community service which each explain less than 5%
of the synthetic dependent variable. Strengths self-efficacy, adult trait hope, and
student engagement were positively correlated to one another as indicated by the
signs of variable structure coefficients. Each was also positively correlated to all
dependent variables suggesting increased hope, self-efficacy, and student
engagement correspond to higher scores of the individual values of the SCM.
Near zero standardized weights (coefs<ÿ.086ÿ) and structure coefficients (r s <
ÿ.209ÿ) for gender, race, and community service hours suggested these variables
were not correlated to the individual values of the SCM within the data.
127
Table 5
Canonical Solution for Independent and Dependent Variables
Function1 to 3
Variables
Dependent
CoS
Congruence
Commitment
Independent
CECS
ATH
SSES
Gender
Race
ComServ
Coef
rs
Function 2 to 3
2
-.727 -.956
-.022 -.759
-.354 -.812
.914
.576
.659
-.356
-.400
-.522
.086
.018
.012
.471
.641
.716
.004
.043
.013
-.686
-.801
-.846
-.065
.209
-.113
Coef
rs
.332
-.603
.563
-.080
.759
-.497
2
rs
.536 .224
1.036 .128
-1.600 -.467
.136
-.310
.145
-.072
.656
-.368
Function 3
rs
.050
.016
.218
.018
.096
.021
.005
.430
.135
Coef
.972 .190
-1.332 -.639
.101 -.350
-.166
-.698
.662
.477
-.576
-.336
2
rs
rs
.036
.408
.123
.015 <.001
-.303 .091
.271 .073
.463 .214
-.547 .229
-.226 .051
Note. Structure coefficients (rs) greater than |.45| are bolded. Coef = standardized
canonical function coefficient; rs = structure coefficient; r s2 = squared structure
coefficient or % shared variance between an observed variable and the canonical
function score.
Lastly, the model was examined to identify which of the individual values of the
SCM were explained by the independent variables. Standardized canonical
coefficients indicated a large weight for consciousness of self (coef=-.727) and a
near zero weight for congruence (coef = -.022). However, variable structure
coefficients suggested at least half of the variability in consciousness of self (r s2
=.914), congruence (r s2=.576), and commitment (r s2 = .659) could be explained
by the independent variables. Consciousness of self was best explained relative to
the other two (i.e., 25% or more variability) but all three were considered relevant
given their structure coefficients. All of the individual values were positively
correlated with one another, strengths self-efficacy, hope, and student
engagement.
Discussion and Implications
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship of strengths self-efficacy
(Zhao et al., 2010) and hope (Snyder et. al., 1991) to the individual values of the
SCM (consciousness of self, congruence, and commitment) given their
128
relationship to leadership in the literature (Bennis & Goldsmith, 1994; Clifton &
Harter, 2003; Clifton et al., 2006). Our results suggest that strengths self-efficacy
is correlated with the individual values of the SCM and that strengths-based tools
such as the Clifton StrengthsFinder inventory may be useful in helping students
gain a strong sense of self-efficacy regarding their talents.
The Clifton StrengthsFinder, assists students in identifying and giving language to
their talents and strengths. Programs such as StrengthsQuest, provide students
with resources and activities to better understand, affirm, develop and apply their
talents. Therefore, leadership educators are encouraged to consider the role of
strengths-based development models in building leadership capacity across
individual SCM values. Dugan and Komives’ (2010) findings on leadership selfefficacy, support the idea that the “appraisal of one’s self-efficacy in a particular
domain plays a contributory role in functioning within that domain” (p. 540). As
such, educators could integrate the use of instruments such as the Strengths SelfEfficacy Scale in the appraisal of student’s strengths self-efficacy to address one’s
belief in applying their talents in a leadership capacity.
Our findings on hope reveal a potential need to integrate exercises that focus on
hope development to support growth in consciousness of self, congruence, and
commitment. This raises many interesting questions for leadership development
researchers given its virtual omission in the context of college student
development literature. Should our findings be replicated across subsequent
studies, student programs and services may need to examine the role of hope
within leadership and student development models. Further exploration of the
cultivation of hope may help leadership educators facilitate its development
across the individual values of the SCM. Suggestions for developing hope include
the clarification of individual and group goals, identifying steps to reaching goals,
developing alternative plans, finding satisfaction in the process, and creating
strategies for overcoming obstacles (Hodges & Clifton, 2004).
Lastly, the results support the positive relationship between student engagement
and the individual values of the SCM (Dugan & Komives, 2007). However,
results did not indicate community involvement, gender or race to be correlated
with individual predictors of the SCM as identified in previous research (Dugan &
Komives, 2007). That being said, community involvement (Dugan, 2006b; Dugan
et al., 2011; Dugan & Komives, 2007; Dugan & Komives, 2010; Haber &
Komives, 2009), race and gender (Dugan et al., 2008; Dugan & Komives, 2007)
have support within leadership literature. As such, these results should be
interpreted with caution given these findings may be result of unique differences
associated with sample used in this study.
129
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
Interpretation of results should be done in the context of limitations when
generalizing results to the broader college population. These limitations point to
future research that may be helpful in exploring predictors of the individual values
of the SCM further. First, this study was limited to participants enrolled in cocurricular leadership seminars. This sample was appropriate given the purpose of
the study. However, students at this institution self-select into leadership seminars
which can introduce bias into the interpretation of results. The SCM is designed
as an inclusive model, applicable to all students without regard for leadership
position (HERI, 1996). Students outside this historically over-studied population
should be included in greater numbers and with more intention in future research.
Other instruments examining student engagement and community involvement
exist with greater generalizability given the existing literature, and should be
considered. For example, the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) has
been taken by over one million students (Pascarella & Colleagues, 2007) and is
reported to demonstrate good reliability and validity (Kuh, 2001; Whitefield,
2001). Using the College Student Engagement Survey (CSES) in this study
supported past findings regarding the relationship of engagement to elevated
capacities within the SCM. However, the measurement of community
involvement may be more sensitive the specific measures used with respect to the
SCM.
In summary, this study found that strengths self-efficacy and hope are related to
the individual values of the SCM. Furthermore, results build upon previous
literature confirming the relationship between student engagement and SCM
values. These results can be useful to leadership development educators in
enhancing the effectiveness of leadership programs that incorporate the SCM.
Given the growing use of the SCM, StrengthsQuest and the popularity of positive
student development, these findings may be helpful to educators who are working
to develop leadership capacity in various campus settings.
130
References
Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college?: Four critical years revisited. San
Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (Eds.) (2000). Leadership reconsidered: Engaging
higher education in social change. Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg
Foundation.
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R.
(2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic
leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. Leadership Quarterly 15,
801-823.
Bennis, W. (1999). The leadership advantage. Leader to Leader, 12, 1-7.
Bennis, W., & Goldsmith, J. (1994). Learning to lead: A course on becoming a
leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cantwell, L. (2005). A comparative analysis of strengths-based versus traditional
teaching methods in a freshman public speaking course: Impacts on
student learning and engagement. Dissertation Abstracts International,
67(02A), 478-700. (UMI No. AAT3207574)
Cerff, K. (2006). The role of hope, self-efficacy and motivation to lead in the
development of leaders in the South African college student context.
Doctoral Dissertation, Regent University, VA.
Cerff, K., & Winston, B. E. (2006). The inclusion of hope in the servant
leadership model: An extension of Patterson and Winston’s models [pdf
document]. Retrieved from
http://www.regent.edu/acad/sls/publications/conference_proceedings/serva
nt_leadership_roundtable/2006/pdf/cerff_winston.pdf.
Clifton, D. O., Anderson, E., & Schreiner, L. A. (2006a). StrengthsQuest:
Discover and develop your strengths in academics, career, and beyond.
New York: Gallup.
Clifton, D. O., Anderson, E., & Schreiner, L. A. (2006b). Investing in strengths.
In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive
organizational scholarship (pp. 111-121). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Clifton, D. O., & Harter, J. K. (2003). Investing in strengths. In K. S. Cameron, J.
E. Dutton & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship:
131
Foundations of a new discipline, pp. 111-121. San Francisco: BerrettKohler.
Courville, T., & Thompson, B. (2001). Use of structure coefficients in published
multiple regression articles: ÿ is not enough. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 61, 229-248.
Dugan, J. P. (2006a). Explorations using the social change model: Leadership
development among college men and women. Journal of College Student
Development, 47, 217-225.
Dugan, J. P. (2006b). Involvement and leadership: A descriptive analysis of
socially responsible leadership. Journal of College Student Development,
47, 335-343.
Dugan, J. P., Bohle, C. W., Gebhardt, M., Hofert, M., Wilk, E., & Cooney, M. A.
(2011). Influences of leadership program participation on students’
capacities for socially responsible leadership. Journal of Student Affairs
Research and Practice, 48, 65.
Dugan, J. P., & Komives, S. R. (2010). Influences on college students’ capacity
for socially responsible leadership. Journal of College Student
Development, 51, 525- 549.
Dugan, J. P., & Komives, S. R. (2007). Developing leadership capacity in college
students: Findings from a national study. A Report from the MultiInstitutional Study of Leadership. College Park, MD: National
Dugan, J. P., Komives, S. R., & Segar, T. C. (2008). College student capacity for
socially responsible leadership: Understanding norms and influences of
race gender, and sexual orientation. NASPA Journal, 45, 475-500.
Goethals, G. R., Sorenson, G. J., & Burns, J. M. (Eds.). (2004). Encyclopedia of
leadership (Vol. 2). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Haber, P., & Komives, S. R. (2009). Predicting the individual values of the social
change model of leadership development: The role of college students’
leadership and involvement experiences. Journal of Leadership
Education, 9, 146-178.
132
Hagedoorn, M., & Molleman, E. (2006). Facial disfigurement in patients with
head and neck cancer: The role of social self-efficacy. Health Psychology,
25, 643-647.
12
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., Killham, E. A., & Agrawal, S. (2009). Q Meta
Analysis: The Relationship between engagement at work and
organizational outcomes. Washington, DC: Gallup University Press.
Helland, M. R., & Winston, B. E. (2005). Towards a deeper understanding of
hope and leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 12,
42-55.
Henson, R. K. (1999). Multivariate normality. What is it and how is it assessed?
In B. Thompson (Ed.), Advances in social science methodology (pp.193211). Stamford, Connecticut: JAI Press.
Henson, R. K. (2000). Demystifying parametric analyses: Illustrating canonical
correlation as the multivariate general linear model. Multiple Linear
Regression Viewpoints, 26, 11.
Henson, R. K. (2002, April). The logic and interpretation of structure coefficients
in multivariate general linear model analyses. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New
Orleans.
Hodges, T. D., & Clifton, D. O. (2004). Strengths-based development in practice.
In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), International handbook of positive
psychology in practice: From research to application (pp. 256-268). New
York: Wiley.
Higher Education Research Institute (1996). A social change model of leadership
development: Guidebook version III. College Park, MD: National
Humphreys, M. J. (2007). Predictors of socially responsible leadership:
Application of the social change model to an Eastern European
undergraduate population (doctoral dissertation). Azusa Pacific
University, Azusa, CA.
Kezar, A. J., Carducci, R., & Contreras-McGavin, M. (2006). Rethinking the “L”
word in higher education: The revolution in research on leadership.
ASHE Higher Education Report, 31. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
133
Kezar, A., & Morairty, D. (2001). Expanding our understanding of student
leadership: A study exploring gender and ethnic identity. Journal of
College Student Development, 41, 55-69.
Kimble, A. (2001). The basic concepts of the general linear model (GLM):
Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) as a GLM. Paper presented at the
24th Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association,
New Orleans, LA
Komives, S. R., Wagner, W., & Associates (2009). Leadership for a better world:
Understanding the social change model of leadership development. San
Komives, S. R., Dugan, J. P., Owen, J. E., Slack, C., Wagner, W., & Associates
nd
(2011). The handbook for student leadership development. (2 ed.). San
Kuh, G. D. (2001). The National Survey of Student Engagement: Conceptual
framework and overview of psychometric properties. Bloomington, IN:
Indiana University, Center for Post-Secondary Research.
Lopez S. J., & Louis, M. O. (2009). The principles of strengths-based education.
Journal of College & Character, 5, 1-8.
Lopez, S. J. (2009). Gallup student poll national report. Omaha, NE: Gallup.
Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive development
approach. Positive Organizational Scholarship. Retrieved from
http://www.cba.unl.edu/people/article.asp?ID=1 2
Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (2011). History. Retrieved from
http://www.leadershipstudy.net/ir-history.html.
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of Self-efficacy
beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38.
Pascarella, E. T., & Colleagues (2007). Methodological report for the Wabash
National Study of Liberal Arts Education. Retrieved from
http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/storage/ValidationofNSSEBenchmarch
s_PascarellaErAl_ASHE08linked.pdf.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third
decade of research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
134
Pedhazur, E. J. (1997). Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation
rd
and prediction (3 ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
Quaye, S. (2007). Hope and learning: The outcomes of contemporary student
activism. About Campus, 12, 2-9.
Rand, K. L., & Cheavens, J. S. (2009). Hope theory. In S. J. Lopez & C. R.
nd
Synder (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (2 ed.) (pp.
323-333). New York: Oxford University Press.
Rath, T., & Conchie, B. (2009). Strengths-based leadership: Great leaders,
teams, and why people follow. New York: Gallup.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An
introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
Sherry, A., & Henson, R. K. (2005). Conducting and interpreting canonical
correlation analysis in personality research: A user-friendly primer. The
Journal of Personality Assessment, 84, 37-48.
Shorey, H. S., & Snyder, C. R. (2004). Development and validation of the domain
hope scale revised. Unpublished manuscript, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, KS.
Snyder, C. R. (1995). Conceptualizing, measuring, and nurturing hope. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 73, 355-360.
Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry,
13, 249-275.
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon,
S. T., et al.(1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of
an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 60, 570-585.
th
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5 ed.).
New York: Pearson Education.
The Gallup Corporation (2011). Who uses StrengthsQuest? Retrieved from
http://www.strengthsquest.com/content/141728/index.aspx.
135
Tyree, T. M. (1998). Designing an instrument to measure socially responsible
leadership using the social change model of leadership development.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59, (06), 1945. (AAT9836493).
Vacha-Haase, T., & Thompson, B. (2004). How to estimate and interpret various
effect sizes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 473-481.
Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Oke, A. (2011). Authentically
leading groups: The mediating role of collective psychological capital and
trust. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 4-24.
Whitfield, C. E. (2001). A report on the National Survey of Student Engagement.
Research brief. Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Council on Postsecondary
Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED469485).
Wilkinson, L., & APA Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999). Statistical
methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American
Psychologist, 54, 594-604.
Worrell, F. C., & Hale, R. L. (2001). The relationship of hope in the future and
perceived school climate to school completion. School Psychology
Quarterly, 16, 370-388.
Zhao, R. Tsai, C., Chaichanasakul, A., Flores, L.Y., & Lopez, S. (2010). A
Validity and Reliability Study of the Strength Self-Efficacy Poster
presented at the 118th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological
Association, San Diego.
Zimmerman-Oster, K., & Burkhardt, J. C. (1999). Leadership in the making:
Impact and insights from leadership development programs in U.S.
colleges and universities. Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg Foundation.
136
Author Biographies
Forrest Lane is a Ph.D. candidate in the educational research program at the
University of North Texas and will serve as an assistant professor of educational
studies and research at the University of Southern Mississippi upon graduation.
His research interests include the social change model of leadership, attachment
theory, and propensity score matching.
Natasha Chapman is the Director of the TCU Leadership Center at Texas
Christian University. In her role at TCU she serves as a liaison to community
constituencies, coordinates and instructs leadership seminars, and develops
individualized training opportunities. Her research interests include leadership
education and development, social change leadership, strengths-based leadership,
multiracial identity development, and dialogues on race, power, and privilege.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Region III Grant of the National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA). The authors would
also like to acknowledge Dr. Shane Lopez and The Gallup Organization for their
assistance regarding Strengths Self-Efficacy Scale.
137
Shaping Influences on the Leadership of Genghis Khan,
George Washington, and Nelson Mandela: Applications
for Educators
Dr. Jean-Pierre Bongila
Assistant Professor and Director International Leadership Program
Department of Leadership, Policy, and Administration
College of Applied Professional Studies
MOH 217, 1000 LaSalle Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55403-2009
(651) 962-4799
jpbongila@stthomas.edu
Abstract
Using a prosopographical methodology this study examines common leadership
influences that might have existed among Genghis Khan, George Washington,
and Nelson Mandela. Shoup (2005) suggests that the following seven influences
have contributed to nurturing the leadership of 12 renowned individuals: involved
parents, happy childhood, formal, informal education, prodigious patrons, critics
and adversaries, apprenticeship/sequences of success, and favorable fate. This
analysis suggests that the seven influences in his model had an affect the lives of
the three individuals in this study, making them competent or exemplary leaders.
The study additionally proposes three application stages that educators can utilize
to instill leadership values and abilities in young minds.
Comparing Three World Leaders
Comparing biographies of three leaders as different in lifetime era and cultural
milieu as Genghis Khan (1162-1227) (Ratchnevsky, 2006), George Washington
(1732-1799) (Abbot, 2005), and Nelson Mandela (1918- ) (Lodge, 2006) might
seem postmodern at best because Genghis Khan lived a nomadic life in Mongolia
in the 12th century while George Washington spent most of his life fighting for
what became the United States of America, and Nelson Mandela was the antiapartheid leader in South Africa following 27 years in prison for his freedom
struggle. The three leaders varied greatly in how they governed their land and
country, and in how they are viewed in the popular imageries of world citizens.
Temujin (later to be known as Genghis Khan) ruled autocratically over the
Mongol tribes and territories he conquered and unified. Many in the West
138
perceive him as a cruel tyrant (Ratchnevsky, 2006). George Washington on the
other hand led the North American colonies as a “res-publica” in their struggle for
independence. He believed in power sharing and resisted calls for a monarchy,
even if he were to be named king. Generations of people around the world
remember him as the father of the United States of America (Ellis, 2005). Nelson
Mandela, a political prisoner for 27 years, led South Africa toward multiracial
democracy via a successful Truth and Reconciliation process. The world
remembers regards him as a selfless national reconciler who willingly stepped
down as the first president of the new democratic South Africa after serving only
one term (Carlin, 2008).
Finding commonalities among these diametrically distant and diverse leaders
might seem a stretch. However, in his book A collective biography of twelve
world class leaders, Shoup (2005) examines the lives of 12 diverse world
renowned leaders and provides a framework from which to examine leadership
characteristics by revealing seven common attributes that might have influenced
the leadership of the randomly selected individuals he studied. The seven
common influences identified by Shoup include: involved parents, a happy
childhood, formal and informal education, prodigious patrons, critics and
adversaries, apprenticeships/sequences of success, and favorable fate.
Involved Parents
Each of the three leaders examined in this study lost their fathers at an early age.
The presence of strong mothers played a significant role in their leadership
development. Genghis Khan was eight when he lost his father (Ratchnevsky,
2006). Nelson Mandela was 10 (Lodge, 2006). George Washington was barely 11
(Abbott, 2005). In each case, their fathers appeared to be leaders in their society
and they instilled in their children an extraordinary sense of the common good as
well as a profound love for their cultural heritage. Genghis Khan’s father,
Yisugei, led the Kiyat-Borjigid tribe, a member of the Mongol confederation.
Augustine Washington, George Washington’s father, was part of an aristocratic
family in the Virginia colony. Nelson Mandela’s father, Gadla Henry
Mphakanyiswa, was related to chiefs in the Thembu ethnic group.
Genghis Khan’s mother, Hö’elun, worked at consolidating her tribe upon the
death of her husband (Ratchnevsky, 2006). Hö’elun fueled Temuchin’s
determination to avenge the humiliation the Tayichi’ut tribe inflicted upon her
family when the tribal members deserted them after the death of her husband. So
great was her influence in the life of Temuchin that the Mongol leader feared her
even at the peak of his military conquests. Only Hö’elun would have been able to
139
storm into Genghis Khan’s tent and stop the trial that would likely have led to the
execution of Genghis Khan’s younger brother, Kasar (Ratchnevsky, 2006).
According to Abbott (2005), Washington’s mother exerted great influence on her
growing son. She conveyed domestic and Christian virtues, instilling in young
George principles of probity and piety.
In his autobiography Long Walk to Freedom, Mandela acknowledges enjoying the
love, protection, and support of his mother, Noqaphi Nosekeni (Mandela, 1994).
Happy Childhood
According to biographers, Temuchin’s childhood was traumatic, particularly after
the murder of his father. In his early childhood he did enjoy, however, a relatively
happy childhood surrounded by siblings, and a blood-brother, Jamuka
(Ratchnevsky, 2006). At the age of eight, Temujin and his brothers became family
providers through hunting and fishing. Over time Temujin was to murder his own
half-brother for stealing the family spoils and helping himself. Ratchnevsky
(2006) sees this criminal action as an early sign of a very ambitious person
destined for greatness.
In contrast, Abbott (2005) painted a virtuous portrait of George Washington’s
childhood, focusing on traits that made the future leader appear to be a more
honorable man. He avoided falsehoods, kept balance in his life, and remained
constant in his religious practices. With strong support from his mother and
siblings, even the death of his father did not disturb his childhood.
Mandela’s short-lived enjoyment of his father did not take a dramatic turn upon
his father’s death. Although Lodge (2006) does not describe joy in his childhood,
Mandela (2005) acknowledges in his autobiography the end of that era of his life
as the sort of childhood he would have loved to keep on living. The time spent
with his father provided an invaluable education in tribal administration and
culture. Lodge adds, “Mandela himself maintains that much of his childhood was
a form of apprenticeship shaped by knowledge of his ‘destiny,’ in which he would
ascend the office as the key counselor to the Thembu chiefdom” (p. 2).
Formal and Informal Education
The formal education of the three leaders diverges considerably. Because of the
time and place in which he lived, Genghis Khan’s education was exclusively
informal. He had to master indispensable survival skills, including horsemanship
and archery (Waly, 2008). He also learned the customs and fables at the heart of
140
the history of his people from his mother. Cultural learning contributed to both his
mental strength and his sense of justice. Like other Mongol boys, he was also
exposed to the harsh physical training required for survival in steppe life.
George Washington, in contrast, was well educated. Although his formal
education ended at the age of 16, he remained interested in mathematics and
sciences throughout his lifetime. According to Abbott (2006), George’s love for
learning was a prelude to his character, diligence, brilliance, and “careful business
habits” (pp. 16-17).
Of all three leaders, Mandela had the most formal schooling. He received a law
degree from the University of South Africa (Lodge, 2006). Like Khan, he was
also introduced to the culture and tradition of both his tribe and his country from
an early age when he sat by campfires and listened to tribal stories told by elders.
He developed a profound love for South African history that was enhanced by
time spent in the court of his patron Jogintaba, then Regent of the Thembu tribe.
Like Khan and Washington, he embodied physical agility, excelling in such sports
as soccer, marathon running, and boxing (Mandela, 1994).
Prodigious Patrons
All three leaders had prodigious influences. Genghis Khan’s were less stable
because of the nomadic steppe life Mongolian led. The first of his patrons, WangKhan (also known as Toghrul), a close ally of his father, encouraged his rise to
power. Toghrul was a ruler of Keraits, one of the sub-groups of the Mongol
confederation (Ratchnevsky, 2006). Wang-Khan helped him gather his first
supporters and fight minor and major wars. So influential was Toghrul in his life
that Genghis Khan frequently reunited with him even when he (Toghrul ) failed to
share the booty he gained after attacking the tribe of Merkits or when he
(Toghrul) deserted Khan during critical battles (Waly, 2008). When Toghrul
would not allow his daughter to marry Genghis Khan’s first son, Jochi, this
constituted a grave offense in Mongolian tradition. Then Toghrul sided with his
son Senggum who had threatened to assassinate Genghis Khan. Finally, Toghrul,
fearful of the growing power of Genghis Khan, plotted with Jamuka (Khan’s
blood brother) to assassinate him. Toghrul was defeated by Genghis Khan. As he
was fleeing he was ambushed and eventually executed by the Naiman soldiers in
1203 (De Rachewiltz, 1971).
George Washington also knew a number of prodigious patrons, including Lord
Fairfax who met him at his brother’s house when Washington was just out of
school (Abbott, 2005). “Charmed with the manliness, intelligence and
gentlemanly bearing of the young man …. Fairfax engaged him to survey” (p. 20)
141
the vast lands he had just purchased. Believing in young George’s abilities, Lord
Fairfax offered him not only his first employment, but also support and
consideration. Another important prodigious patron of George Washington was
the French nobleman, Marquis de Lafayette. Abbott (2005) states that “the
commanding air yet modest bearing (of Marquis de Lafayette) immediately
attracted the attention of Washington, and a life-long friendship was commenced”
(p. 314). This French aristocrat and military officer served in the Continental
Army under Washington. Because of his foreign origin, Lafayette could not work
as a division commander, but Washington held him in confidence.
In the case of Nelson Mandela, Jongintaba Dalindyebo, the Regent of the
Thembu, had great influence on the growing leader. It was a wish of Nelson’s
father that his son be accepted by the Regent as “his ward and companion to his
own son, Justice” (Lodge, 2006, p. 3). Jongintaba took the patronage role very
seriously and provided Nelson the best possible education and upbringing. He
“arranged for his passage into manhood through the customary procedures of
circumcision and initiation” (p. 7). He generously sponsored Mandela’s boarding
school and early college experience. Walter Sisulu had business connections with
Johannesburg where Nelson hoped to begin his professional career (Lodge, 2005).
He appears to be the most influential patron in Nelson Mandela’s life. Through
Walter Sisulu, Nelson met his first wife, Evelyn Mase who became the “mother of
four of his children” (p. 24). Both participated in the Treason Trial hearings in
Pretoria in 1955-1956 (Lodge, 2006) and spent years in prison on Robben Island.
Critics and Adversaries
Genghis Khan was moved by loyalty to himself and he dealt summarily with his
adversaries. Any opposition to his power and conquest was met with an extreme
blow to the adversary. For example, as noted earlier, when his blood-brother
Jamuka turned out to be one of his notorious critics and adversaries, Genghis
Khan offered reconciliation to his former friend in exchange for his loyalty.
Because Jamuka refused to promise allegiance, he was summarily executed at his
own request. Genghis Khan dealt in the same brutal fashion with the leaders of
tribes and nations that chose to fight him rather than peacefully capitulate. Close
advisors such as his own shamans perished for attempting to usurp his power, for
being disloyal or for lying (Ratchnevsky, 2006).
One of George Washington’s greatest adversaries was General Thomas Gage,
commander of the British military forces in Massachusetts (Abbott, 2005). Gage
was a ruthless general who allowed plunder and maltreatment of people in the
North American colonies, as well as vicious treatment of prisoners – “treating
them with utmost barbarity” (p. 228). In his correspondence with Washington,
142
Gates displayed insolence and defiance, refusing to honor Washington’s rank.
Ironically, Gage would experience a number of defeats at the hands of illequipped and less numerous revolutionary troops. Washington inflicted a serious
defeat on him at Concord in April 1775 which caused the British government to
recall Gage (Abbott, 2005). Dealing appropriately with critics and defeating such
adversaries as General Gage only increased Washington’s confidence and
resiliency in the effort to free the colonies.
A long time member and President of the African National Congress (ANC),
Chief Albert Luthuli disagreed with Mandela on the strategy needed to bring
about their common objective – freedom for Black South African people. While
Lithuli advocated for “gentler kinds of conciliatory politics” (Lodge, p. 71)
toward the apartheid, Mandela and Sisulu eventually lost hope in that failed
strategy. Because Mandela, Sisulu, and their supporters blamed Luthuli for his
lack of assertiveness in planning or leading ANC campaigns (Lodge, p. 55) they
went on to found and sanction “the establishment of a new military organization,
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)” (p. 90). It was a military guerilla force against
apartheid government installations.
Apprenticeship: Sequences of Success
Enemies, friends, and prodigious patrons contribute to sharpen leadership
competence as they offer leaders opportunities for apprenticeships and successes.
Hildinger (2001) holds that Temujin began his apprenticeship as a leader by
offering himself as a vassal to his father’s blood-brother Toghrul. Under his
protection, Temujin secured a safe recapture of his wife Börte from the Merkits.
Following this successful campaign, Genghis Khan foresaw trouble between him
and his blood-brother Jamuka, thereby learning a lesson based on experience.
Genghis Khan acquired additional professional experience through his
relationship with Subutai, one of the generals in his armies. He also shared with
his master the value of engineers in siege warfare (Books, 2008).
Abbott (2005) writes that, like Genghis Khan, George Washington’s path was
crisscrossed by military apprenticeships and victories. Prior to military services,
however, Washington followed his family’s tradition as a planter. Historians
Abbott (2005), Palmer (2006), and Long (2006) claim that in 1874 Lord Fairfax
invited Washington to help him survey his land west of the Blue Ridge. The
following year, he was appointed the first public surveyor (Adams, 2004). Abbott
(2005) adds that his half-brother, Lawrence, influenced George’s interest in the
Ohio Company aiming to explore western land. When Lawrence died, George
was asked to take over some of his duties as adjutant of the colony. His zeal as an
apprentice paid off when Virginia governor Robert Dinwiddie appointed him the
143
district adjutant general in the Virginia Militia in 1752. Historians and
biographers also maintain that Washington learned a significant amount of
military administration and diplomacy, particularly when he set out on Governor
Dinwiddie’s mission to investigate the position of French Canadians on the Ohio
frontiers (Abbott, 2005; Adams, 2004; Long, 2006).
Mandela’s apprenticeship in South African politics began as he joined the African
National Congress (ANC), particularly when participating in the founding of the
ANC resistance Youth Movement in 1944. He learned to fashion action programs
using boycotts and strikes in order to obtain full citizenship and equal
parliamentary representations for Black South Africans. In 1941 Walter Sisulu
recommended Mandela for his first job as a clerk for Lazar Sidelsky who had a
distinguished law firm in South Africa (Lodge, 2006). During his imprisonment
on Robben Island from 1962 on, Mandela learned among other things how to
remain true to his admonishment to community activists “to make every home,
every shack or rickety structure a centre of learning” (Clark & Worger, 2004, p.
132). Eventually, Mandela would turn the prison into an educational sanctuary.
Favorable Fate
After his victory over the Tartars, Genghis Khan wanted to strengthen his claim to
the Kerait throne by a marriage alliance (Ratchnevsky, 2006) between his son and
Wang-khan’s daughter. Wang-Khan’s son Senggum strongly opposed the union.
A stratagem was devised that ended in a fierce battle. “Temuchin’s complete
defeat could not have been prevented had not Senggum been struck in the head by
an arrow” (p. 70). When exposed to arrows on the battlefield, Khan waited for his
son Ögödei, his adopted son Boroghul, and their companion Bo’orchu to come to
his rescue. Fate favored him as he safely retreated and pursued sequences of
military successes that allowed him to dominate a significant part of Asia.
George Washington faced numerous close calls on battlefields. For example, in
March 1776 at Dorchester Point, Washington prepared to face an overwhelming
number of British battalions ready to pound his redoubts with heavy
bombardments (Abbott, 2005). However, “[a] violent easterly storm arose, rolling
such surges upon the shore that the boats could not land …. It was the best ally
the Americans could have” (p. 259). Fate, including aid from France contributed
to Washington’s ultimate victory over the British. Being the right person at the
right time also propelled Washington into becoming the first president of the
united colonies of North America. Thomas Jefferson wrote the following about
Washington, stating “and it may truly be said, that never did nature and fortune
combine more perfectly to make a man great” (Cantor, 2003, p. 50).
144
Likewise, Nelson Mandela benefited from some exceptional twists of fate. The
white South African minority sentenced to death many leaders of the antiapartheid movements, particularly the ANC. It spared Mandela’s life, but
sentenced him to a life in prison as a consequence of the Rivonia Trial of 1963-64
(Mandela, 1993). The rough, inhumane, and depressing conditions of the Robben
Island Prison, where he spent 18 of his 27 years in prison, were meant to crush
inmates. Only a few, such as Mandela, came out of those insane conditions
undeterred, and even transformed, by the devastating experience.
Competent versus Exemplary Leaders
Shoup (2005) sees in competent leaders “those with requisite skills and
knowledge base” (p. 9), adding that followers do not always admire such
individuals. Nor do they willingly follow them. He defines exemplary leaders as
those capable of displaying some sort of functionally virtuous spirituality. In
addition to being competent, exemplary leaders practice ethical means, and are
geared toward ethical ends. The prime characteristic of exemplary leadership that
sets it completely apart lies in the prevalence of moral voices or consciences,
referred to as “prodigious patrons” that influence the thinking and actions of the
leader. The three leaders examined in this study reached their full potential by the
multiple influences covered above. According to Shoup’s definition they
epitomize the characteristics of competent leaders.
It would be safer, however, to characterize both George Washington and Nelson
Mandela as exemplary leaders. Although Genghis Khan believed in the power of
shamans and of spirits, his behavior as a leader was not completely exemplary.
This is noticeable in the cruel, though necessary in his time and culture, way he
treated those who opposed his power or betrayed their loyalty to him or other clan
leaders. As depicted by Abbott (2005), George Washington definitely stands the
test of exemplary leader. Several examples attest to his prayerful activities, and, in
particular, to the compassion with which he treated not only his own soldiers, but
also his enemies. Nelson Mandela epitomizes such compassion. From being the
victim of the apartheid system that kept him in prison for 27 years, he has become
the icon of nation building and reconciliation (Lodge, 2006). Most contemporaries
would concede that Mandela typifies exemplary leadership.
Shoup (2005) believes that educators including parents and teachers might
enhance the leadership abilities of youth by systematically imparting common
values of exemplary leaders. He identifies three stages of leadership development:
• Stage 1 - instilling a sense of purpose
• Stage 2 - providing plethora of apprenticeships
145
•
Stage 3 - recruiting the right people
Implications for Educators
That educators (teachers, parents, ministers, and others) positively influence
young minds remains a timeless truth. Socrates, for example, had to be silenced
by death for his tremendous impact on the young Athenians of his time (Plato,
1992). It was through the inspiration of his teacher, the Reverend James Mayre,
that young George Washington wrote the first manuscript version of his George
Washington’s Rules of Civility in 1745 (Phillips II, 2003).
The teaching of a Black history instructor was an impetus for Nelson Mandela to
engage in the South African liberation movements. Lodge (2006) specifies “In
fact,.…schools employed black as well as white teachers and amongst the former,
Weaver Newana enlivened history classes with his own versions of the oral
narratives Mandela had heard at his father’s fireside and Jongintaba’s Great
Place” (p. 2).
Recently, several movies, such as Dangerous Minds (Smith, 1995) and Mr.
Holland’s Opus (Herek, 1996) have recounted how educators can elevate even
distraught minds. Oliver and Reynolds (2010) demonstrated that educators can
use television characters to instill servant-leadership principles in public school
students as young as 14-years of age. Similarly Gray and Callahan (2008) used
the movie 300 (2007), which tells the story of the Spartan King Leonidas, to equip
educators with tools for leadership teaching. In the following three-stage model of
leadership development, Shoup (2005) only attempts to systematize the
empowerment process of young students, which educators have pursued in every
corner of the world. Figure 1 represents the roles of educators as prodigious
patrons at each stage of leadership development. The ascending arrow indicates
the growth from the bottom (young age) to the top (late college level).
146
Figure 1
Roles of Educators in Leadership Development
Adapted from Shoup, J. (2005).
In stage one educators would instill in youth a sense of purpose. To do this,
educators must bear the role of prodigious patrons who hold youth to high
expectations, get parents and extended family (church, school) involved, help
youngsters specify their mission, instill in them spiritual (religious) belief, call
them to greatness, repeat calling messages, and insist on loyalty toward their
fellows.
George Washington might have acquired some sense of purpose (stage one)
through expectations set for him as the oldest child at home after the death of his
father (Abbott, 2005). The involvement of Mary Ball, his mother, and that of his
half-brother, Augustine, as well as an enfolding mission enlightened by Christian
virtues, imply that sense of purpose. Washington’s imposing social stature might
be read as a calling to greatness (Abbott, 2005). While he received repeating
messages to serve in the British and later in the Continental armies, he remained
loyal to his fellow colonists both as a surveyor and an army officer.
147
People placed high expectations on Nelson Mandela because of his chieftaincy
lineage and being the first son of a preferred wife who was actively involved in
the destiny of her child (Mandela, 1994). In the aftermath of his father’s death,
Mandela enjoyed the extended family of the Regent Jongithaba who adopted him.
He benefited from some Christian church influence. Because of his schooling it is
clear desegregation and liberation of the Black South African people became his
driven mission. His socially imposing stature, including his traditional
circumcision, constituted a sort of calling to greatness. Receiving repeating
messages of his people’s struggles for liberation, he remained loyal to the antiapartheid movement.
At stage two, to foster leadership development, educators as prodigious patrons
must help to enhance students’ competency through a series of challenging
curricular and extra-curricular activities. They would insure series of successes,
suggest ways of coping with failures, and introduce new levels of experiences
through formal and informal education. Prodigious patrons must help students
discover their niches as they learn to guide other fellows.
Washington developed tremendous competency through land surveillance
(Abbott, 2005) and as troop commander, taking advantage of a series of failures
and successes, such as those at Fort Duquesne and Valley Forge. Through formal
and informal education, he progressively sharpened his skills from those of a
simple surveyor to military and government leader via tremendous experiences at
the head of the Continental Army.
The same can be said of Nelson Mandela. He increased his competency through
leading as a member of the Africa National Congress, and as a lawyer by training.
Throughout his struggles against the apartheid regime, he experienced failures
(death of colleagues and imprisonment) as well successes in civil disobedience
and boycotts, leading eventually, to the complete annihilation of apartheid. The
creation of Umkhonto we Sizwe and the experience of 27 years in prison only
allowed him to see a nonracial South Africa (Temkin, 2003).
At stage three, leadership development requires educators as prodigious patrons to
engage students in selecting teammates to foster collaborative works and to
recruit peers and collaborators in class and extracurricular activities. They provide
students with strategies to nurture collaboration and fill strategic roles with
competent and exemplary colleagues. As indicated in Figure 1, educators should
encourage students to excel for the sake of excellence as opposed to simply
holding a position, and to dwell on positive sides of failures. The leadership styles
of Genghis Khan, George Washington, and Nelson Mandela testify to these
attributes. At the utmost, prodigious patrons will become ethical voices and
148
consciences whose advice and counsel will be rooted in ethical means that the
future leaders should utilize to reach ethical ends.
In his wife, Martha Custis, and in such collaborators as Thomas Jefferson, John
Adam, Alexander Hamilton and others, George Washington found exemplary and
competent collaborators whose contributions as first lady and founding fathers
played an instrumental role in the beginning of democracy established in the
United States of America (Abbott, 2005). All believed passionately that liberty as
an end was larger than any individual.
Such collaborators as Walter Sisulu, Mbeki, and leading members of the ANC
played a critical role in the beginnings of a democratic South Africa. By means of
the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Temkin, 2003), which Mandela’s
collaborators embraced, South Africa was reaching the unprecedented goal of the
abolition of apartheid and the inauguration of a nonracial era.
Conclusion
This prosopography, a collective study of biographies, shows that a plethora of
human and natural influences nurtured the leadership of Genghis Khan, George
Washington, and Nelson Mandela. Those influences fueled them with a sense of
purpose that was rooted in passion for nation and territory building, hands-on
education, and response to critics, fate, or providence. Emboldened by their
mothers and a myriad of followers (army generals, shamans, collaborators, and
advisors), in addition to destiny, the three leaders reached a similar goal – the
unification into one nation/territory of a loose confederation of people, although
in different times and contexts. Genghis Khan succeeded in creating the largest
empire ever through military and diplomatic conquests (De Rachewiltz, 1971;
Ratchnevsky, 2006). George Washington liberated the North American colonies
from British bondage and helped make them the United States of America
(Abbott, 2005; Johnson, 2005). Nelson Mandela broke the oppressive apartheid
system of South Africa and reconciled a nation torn by racial discrimination and
segregation (Temkin, 2003; Lodge, 2006).
These three individuals are deemed competent leaders given their great
organizational capabilities sharpened particularly by advisors and collaborators
with whom they surrounded themselves. Additionally, according to Shoup’s
(2005) definition, Washington and Mandela may be categorized as exemplary
leaders because parents and friends helped them to internalize ethical/spiritual
values including compassion and forgiveness.
149
The roles of educators are critical both as major influences on the lives of youth
and as agents of their leadership development. It is incumbent on them to take
future leaders through this process of exemplary leadership maturation because
their social position and charisma naturally appeal to young people. In proposing
an adapted model of Shoup’s (2005) stages of leadership development (see Figure
1), an attempt marred with some incompleteness as far as the sequences of those
stages are concerned has been laid out. While educators might adapt this sketchy
model to their needs, they should also consider analyzing and fostering whichever
influences are likely to nurture future exemplary leaders. Because of their status
and function, educators (e.g., teachers, parents, ministers) remain the most
influential prodigious patrons of young minds.
150
References
Abbott, J. S. C. (2005). George Washington or life in America one hundred years
ago. New York: Elibron Classics.
Adams, H. (2004). The College of William and Mary: A Contribution to the
history of higher education. New York: Kessinger.
Books, A., & Alii (2008). Fighting techniques of the oriental world: Equipment,
combat skills, and tactics. New York: Saint Martin’s.
Cantor, L. (2003). What makes America great? Land of freedom, honor, justice,
and opportunity. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.
Carlin, J. (2008). Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the game that made a
nation. New York: Penguin.
Clark, N., & Worger, W. (2004). South Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid,
New York: Longman.
De Rachewiltz, I. (1971). Papal envoys to the great Khans. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
Ellis, J. (2005). His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Vintage Books.
Freeman, D. S. (1948). George Washington, a biography; vol. 1. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Gray, T., & Callahan, J. (2008). Skills of the Spartans: Exploring leadership in
300. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(2). Special Issues, 79-98.
Herek, S. (1996). Mr. Holland’s Opus. Buena Vista Home Entertainment Hollywood Pictures.
Hildinger, E. (2001). Warriors of the steppe: A military history of Central Asia,
500 B.C. to A.D. 1700. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.
Holt-Biddle, D. (2008). South Africa - culture smart!: The essential guide to
customs & culture. New York: Random House.
151
Johnson, P. (2005). George Washington: The founding father. New York:
HarperCollins.
Lodge, T. (2006). Codes of Conduct: Mandela’s Politics. Talk at SAVUSA,
University of Groningen, Netherlands.
Lodge, T. (2006). Mandela. A critical life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Long, R. (2006). Mountain memories: A story of a Blue Ridge mountain and the
people who live there. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.
Mandela, N. (1994). Long walk to freedom. The autobiography of Nelson
Mandela. New York, Boston: Little Brown and Company.
Oliver, L., & Reynolds, K. (2010). Serving the once and future king: Using the
TV
series Merlin to teach servant-leadership and leadership ethics in
schools. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(2), 121-134.
Palmer, D. (2006). George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A tale of two
patriots. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing.
Plato (1992). The trial and death of Socrates: Four dialogues. Translation
Benajamin Jowett. Dover Publications. NY: Tudor.
Phillips II, T.T. (Ed.) (2003). George Washington’s rules of civility: Complete
with the original French text and new French-to-English translations.
Leesburg, VA: Goose Creek Productions.
Ratchnevsky, P. (2006). Genghis Khan: His life and legacy. Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Sampson, A. (2000). Mandela: The authorized biography. New York: Vintage.
Snyder, D., Miler, F., Flores, C. J, Tull, T., Fay, W., & Waisbren, B. (Producer),
& Snyder, Z. (Director) (2007). 300 [Motion picture]. United States:
Warner Brothers Pictures. Cited by Gray, T. & Callahan, J. (2008). Skills
of the Spartans: Exploring Leadership in 300. Journal of Leadership
Education, 7(2). Special Issues, 79-98.
Shoup, J. (2005). A Collective biography of twelve world-class leaders. Study on
developing exemplary leaders. Lanham, NY: University Press of America.
152
Smith, J. (Director) (1995). Dangerous minds [DVD]. United States: Walt Disney
Video.
Temkin, B. (2003). Buthelezi: A biography. London, UK: Frank Cass & Co.
Waly, A. (2008). Secret history of the Mongols. Cornwall, UK: House of Stratus.
Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing.
Weatherford, J. (2004). Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world. New
York: Three Rivers Press.
153
Author Biography
Dr. Jean-Pierre Bongila is Assistant Professor of Leadership, Policy and
Administration in the School of Education, College of Applied Professional
Studies at the University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, Minnesota. He is currently
the Director of the Certificate and masters in International Leadership. His area of
research is in cross-cultural leadership as well as in global positioning leadership
– how global leaders should position themselves in the ever broken and ever
changing world.
154
Servant-Leadership as Gender-Integrative Leadership:
Paving a Path for More Gender-Integrative
Organizations through Leadership Education
Kae Reynolds
Ph.D. Candidate (ABD) in Leadership Studies
School of Professional Studies
Gonzaga University
Spokane, Washington
kreynolds@zagmail.gonzaga.edu
Abstract
Although numerous women have contributed essays and research on servantleadership there is still a considerable gap in literature addressing feminist
perspectives and issues of gender in servant-leadership. This theoretical paper
attempts to fill that gap by presenting a discussion of servant-leadership that is
informed through feminist scholarship. The intent is to build a theoretical
foundation for conceiving servant-leadership as a gender-integrative approach to
leadership. A further purpose is to propose gender-integrative discernment in
leadership education programs and suggest using servant-leadership as a
framework for discussing gender in leadership and organizations. Examples of
implications for leadership education programs are discussed in terms of
outcomes and assessment. Suggestions for course content are made.
Introduction
As feminist inquiry further informs leadership studies and women continue to rise
in status, a shift of mind is on the horizon. To strive towards a world of inclusion
and awareness leadership educators must address issues of gendered perception
explicitly. Greenleaf’s (1970; 2003) vision of servant-leadership offers a
compelling subject for discussing a leadership metanoia of gender-integration.
Although numerous women have contributed essays on and research in servantleadership there is still a considerable gap in mainstream servant-leadership
literature that explicitly addresses gender issues (Barbuto & Gifford, 2010) and
feminist perspectives. Applying a gender lens to servant-leadership and
demonstrating its parallels to gender-holistic thinking, however, can facilitate
improved framing of the paradoxical dualism of servant and leader.
155
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to (a) build a theoretical foundation informed through
feminist scholarship for conceiving servant-leadership as a gender-integrative
partnership-oriented approach to leadership and (b) present ideas that apply the
concept of gender-integrative leadership principles in leadership education. In the
following, two perspectives of feminism identified by Dietz (2003) are discussed
in relation to servant-leadership: deconstruction feminism and difference
feminism. According to Dietz, deconstruction feminism advocates for
“dismantling gender’s inhibiting polarities of male and female altogether” (p.
403). Methods such as discourse analysis and deconstruction of theories, texts,
and phenomena are applied to this end. Eicher-Catt’s (2005) critical feminist
deconstruction of servant-leadership is exemplary of this kind of scholarly
analysis. Difference feminism in contrast has the aim to “thematize a feminism
rooted in the realities of women’s lives and in ways of knowing or being that flow
from women’s experiences” (Dietz, 2003, p. 404).
Method
To develop the theoretical basis of servant-leadership as gender-integrative
leadership, the feminist ethic of care will be used (Gilligan, 1982; Noddings,
2003) and Eisler’s (1994) partnership model to represent the perspective of
difference feminism. Implications for leadership education using the Ritch and
Mengel’s (2009) Guiding Questions: Guidelines for Leadership Education
Programs will be discussed and suggestions for course content will be offered.
Gender and Leadership
Leadership can generally be understood as a process and relationship that
facilitates human organization by exercising various forms of influence towards
the achievement of common goals (Northouse, 2007). Gender is also generally
understood as a socially constructed system of organizing meaning (Dietz, 2003).
In this sense, these two systems for organizing activity and organizing meaning
(leadership and gender) are intertwined as are their outcomes. Based on this
understanding, leadership phenomena especially merit interpretation from a
feminist perspective. Johanson (2008) noted, however, that mainstream leadership
theory has largely ignored gender-related aspects of power. Eisler (1994) also
pointed out the failure of management literature to relate new management tenets
advocating participation and nurturing leadership styles to changes in genderlinked values. For example, human organizational constructs that appear to be
156
gender-neutral are by default attributed with masculinity (Calás & Smircich,
1991). Johanson (2008) illustrated the degree to which the term leader itself is by
default strongly associated with maleness. Although predominantly feminineattributed other-centered behaviors can be integrated into the construct of leader,
femininity as an attribute can hardly be associated with the role of leader. Indeed
numerous studies in the field of leadership discuss gender differences in
leadership (see Eagly & Johnson’s(1990) meta-analysis). Findings, however, are
inconsistent and inconclusive (Barbuto & Gifford, 2010). Using gender as an
analytical category rather than a variable for analysis changes the perspective.
This approach enables leadership educators to better understand the origins of
gender differences and the assumptions that perpetuate systems of dominance
both in thinking and in acting.
The Duality of Servant-Leadership Characteristics
In coining the term servant-leader Greenleaf created a paradox. Scholars of
communication and leadership, such as Smircich and Morgan (1982), have
identified the management of meaning as one of the most significant acts of
leadership. Paradoxical meaning creates ambiguity that must be managed by
leaders. In her deconstruction of servant-leadership Eicher-Catt (2005) asserted
that the concept of servant is typically associated with subjugation whereas the
concept of leader is often associated with domination. The act of serving is
sometimes bound by a needs-focused attitude, whereas the act of leading,
especially in traditional notions of leadership, is often driven by a results-focused
attitude. Furthermore, Eicher-Catt argued that subjugation is typically gendered as
feminine and domination as masculine. From a feminist perspective, it is not
sufficient for leadership educators and servant-leaders to simply accept the
paradox of this gendering in the servant-leader duality. Rather, such paradoxical
ambiguity calls for reflection and skillful framing. Proponents of servantleadership are therefore also challenged with managing the gendered meaning of
these paradoxical ideas.
Servant-Leadership and Transformational Leadership Characteristics
The following presents a comparison of servant-leadership and transformational
leadership based on a subset of Spears’ (2002) ten servant-leader characteristics.
Four characteristics of servant-leadership – foresight, conceptualization,
awareness, and persuasion (Spears, 2002) – can be considered leader dimensions.
Leadership trait theory defined forward-looking as one leadership trait
(Northouse, 2007) and is often referred to as vision (Kouzes & Posner, 2003;
Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003). Foresight in servant-leadership corresponds to this
157
construct. Sashkin and Sashkin (2003) described cognitive capacity as an element
of transformational leadership. Cognitive ability is associated with intelligence,
competence, and knowledge of the business, several traits also associated with
leadership (Kouzes & Posner, 2003; Northouse, 2007). The corresponding
servant-leadership characteristic is conceptualization. Awareness as described by
Greenleaf (1970; 2003) and Spears (2002) is also an aspect of transformational
leadership and is referred to in the literature by Kouzes and Posner (2003) as
assessing environmental influences. The activities of alignment (Bass, 1999) and
idealized influence (Bass, 1999; Kouzes & Posner, 2003) can be associated with
the servant-leadership behavior of persuasion.
Characteristics that distinguish the servant-leadership model from
transformational leadership are those associated with serving. Servant-leadership
brings other-centered or person-centered aspects of leadership to the foreground
(Coleman, 2003; Whetstone, 2002) and makes the growth of those served its
objective (Greenleaf, 1970; 2003). Six of the servant-leader characteristics
described by Spears (2002) are predominantly needs-focused and other-oriented:
listening, empathizing, healing, practicing stewardship (serving the needs of
others), exercising commitment to the growth of people, and building community.
Bass (1999) described the transformational leadership dimensions of intellectual
stimulation and individual consideration. These dimensions have relational
properties which can be loosely associated with the servant-leadership
characteristic of commitment to the growth of followers. Transformational
leadership however, tends to value organizational results over human results.
Organizational goals are achieved through alignment of followers’ needs with the
organizational vision. Individual growth as intended in servant-leadership is
achieved through the alignment of the organizational vision with the followers’
needs. It is not the intention to imply here that transformational leaders do not
engage in behaviors such as listening or building community. Rather it is to
illustrate that the traditional transformational and visionary leadership models
diverge from servant-leadership in focus and placement of value.
Servant-Leadership Characteristics from a Gendered Perspective
In the gender duality of feminine and masculine, relationship-oriented behaviors
are traditionally associated with the communion dimension of gender (Barbuto &
Gifford, 2010). In comparison, agentic behaviors are typically associated with the
masculine dimension of gender and, by default, with traditional views of
leadership (Coleman, 2003). Activities associated with leading as described above
– foresight, conceptualization, awareness, and persuasion – and others such as
inspiring, risk-taking, initiating, assertiveness, critical thought (rationality) are
associated foremost with male socialization (Coleman, 2003). Needs-focused and
158
other-centered characteristics are more strongly associated with the relationship
aspects of leadership as opposed to the task aspects. Thus, from a gendered
perspective, serving is predominantly associated with femininity and leading with
masculinity. Indeed, caring behaviors traditionally belong to the realm of
feminine socialization (Gilligan, 1982; Noddings, 2003). In servant-leadership
they are listening, empathizing, healing, and fostering others’ individual growth.
Integrative behaviors such as dialogue and non-violent conflict resolution also
traditionally belong to the realm of feminine socialization (Eisler, 1994) while in
servant-leadership they also include practicing stewardship and building
community (Greenleaf, 1970; 2003; Greenleaf, 1977; 2002; Spears, 2002). It
follows that the distinguishing elements of servant-leadership add more femininegendered behaviors to the leadership construct. As such, the servant-leadership
model can serve as a driving force for generating discourse on gender integration
in organizational leadership.
Feminist Perspectives and Servant-Leadership
Deconstruction of Servant-Leadership
Eicher-Catt (2005) presented a poststructural feminist deconstruction of servantleadership. She argued that the term servant-leader in and of itself implies male
dominance. In her analysis, the oversimplification of the relationship between the
individual components of servant and leader intensifies the gendered nature of
their connotations (subjugation and domination). Eicher-Catt argued further that
the conflict in terms created by pairing servant with leader inhibits any negative
connotations leader may evoke, thus creating ambiguity left to be interpreted
through existing gendered language categories. Instead of neutralizing leadership,
as it may intend or appear to do, Eicher-Catt claimed that the term forces a
perceived gender choice: At any given time, a leader must privilege one role over
the other. As such, a feminist deconstruction of the term servant-leader/servantleadership implies a manipulative use of language to perpetuate gender
dominance.
Servant-leadership discourse often portrays the model as a leadership ethic
(Hamilton & Bean, 2005). The conceptualization of this leadership ethic is widely
attributed to Robert Greenleaf who is known to have been a devout Christian,
White male, and corporate business executive. Biblical references in Greenleaf’s
writings leave servant-leadership vulnerable to critique such as Eicher-Catt’s
(2005) of being founded in patriarchal religious doctrine that upholds norms of
male domination. Servant-leadership discourse is also characterized by EicherCatt as “deceptively ambiguous especially when it comes to the nature of
leadership responsibility, authority, and accountability” (p. 18; emphasis added).
159
This ambiguity, from a poststructural feminist perspective, is intended for the
advancement of agendas of male-domination. The inherent danger lies in the
potential for management to abuse the discourse of servant-leadership and
encourage submissive behaviors in subordinates. Eicher-Catt argued that such
abuse could be construed as politically motivated by executive management
(predominantly males) and as an extension of the male-dominant organizational
order.
For Greenleaf (1977; 2002), in the context of authentic humanity, serving and
leading form an elegant and paradoxical dualism. Indeed, there are leaders who do
not serve; they are leaders first. There are also those who serve and choose not to
lead. In Greenleaf’s (1970; 2003) interpretation, the servant-leader is by impulse a
servant-first (as a person) who makes a conscious decision to lead (take on the
role of leader). Servant-leadership as an ethic of leadership certainly is vulnerable
to abuse, as is any ethical doctrine or power relationship. Feminist theory offers a
lens to question and revise cultural assumptions while revealing the unethical
nature of the gendering of power (Kark, 2004). Poststructural interpretations of
leadership and servant-leadership warn of the mixed messages the language of
servant-leadership discourse may be sending. The purpose of discourse analysis
and deconstruction is primarily to reveal otherwise obscure meaning in language
and behavior as driven by implicit, unobtrusive power dynamics (Billing &
Alvesson, 2000). Critique should awaken educators of the servant-leadership
perspective to develop greater clarity of meaning in relation to gender and
diversity, and thus create a heightened sense of awareness of what servantleadership can be.
Difference Feminism: Feminist Ethic of Care and Servant-Leadership
Caring as genuine concern for people is at the core of servant-leadership
(Greenleaf, 1970; 2003; Spears, 2002). Based on the emphasis servant-leadership
places on ethics and on caring, a discussion of servant-leadership in the context
gender merits a comparison with the feminist ethic of care. The notion that
another framework for ethical reasoning based on a relational focus – an ethic of
care – emerged from Gilligan’s (1982) feminist critique of the Kohlbergian
universal and abstract justice model as the preferred ethical standard. Noddings’
(2003) conceptualization of the feminist ethic of care emerged from her work in
moral education and shares a number of characteristics with servant-leadership.
One of the central ideas of the ethic of care is personal investment and the
responsibility of the individual to take initiative in active caring. Servantleadership arises through the conscious decision to serve (Greenleaf, 1970; 2003).
160
Ethical caring is other-centered and places contextual awareness, community
building, and commitment to the growth of others at the core of human activity
(Noddings, 2003). The concept of care according to Noddings has self-care as a
precondition for the ability to provide care to others. This is especially significant
to a discussion of servant-leadership in relation to negative connotations of
serving. Servant-leaders have the ability to postpone their own need fulfillment
temporarily because they have a heightened awareness of self and a heightened
awareness of context (Greenleaf, 1996). The processes of servant-leading and
caring, however, do not by default imply self-sacrifice or self-denial. The
sacrifices a servant-leader makes in the process of leading can only be made on
the basis self-stability.
The ethic of care views individuals as fundamentally embedded in relationships
(Noddings, 2003). Similarly, servant-leadership focuses on the relationship
between the servant-leader and those served (Greenleaf, 1970; 2003). Ethical
caring is based on interconnectedness (Gilligan, 1982), mutual obligation
(Liedtka, 1996), and a commitment to mutually influencing dialogue (Noddings,
2003). One of the main characteristics of servant-leadership is the practice of
participative leadership and decision making (Greenleaf, 1970; 2003). The ethic
of care also favors contextualized decision making as opposed to the application
of abstract universal rules and the interaction of concrete participants (Liedtka,
1996; Noddings, 2003). The importance of context and personal experience in
understanding the needs of others and being able to care for them on their own
terms is central to ethical caring (Noddings, 2003).
Care entails respecting the other’s autonomy and enhancing the one cared-for’s
own decision making. “The essence of caring becomes a focus on acceptance of
the other, both in his or her current state, and as one capable of growth” (Liedtka,
1996, p. 184). Spears (2002) interpreted the servant-leader characteristic of
empathy in a similar manner. “People need to be accepted and recognized for
their special and unique spirits. One assumes the good intentions of coworkers
and does not reject them as people, even while refusing to accept their [poor]
behavior or performance” (Spears, 2002, p. 7). In such considerations, awareness
of contextual variables plays a central role in responding to others’ needs.
Without the element of personal investment, proximity, and context, concerted
human effort transforms into dehumanized problem-solving in an abstract
dimension (Liedtka, 1996).
161
Toward a Gender-Holistic Leadership Model
The Partnership Model
Despite the feminist critique purporting leadership theory as an instrument of
male dominance, Billing and Alvesson (2000) contended that advocating the
construction of a feminine leadership theory is not a desirable objective.
Romanticizing and up valuing female differences and women’s ways of leading
hold the danger of reinforcing gendered assumptions and cultural structures of
dominance and submission (see also Kark, 2004). A paradigm shift from an over
masculinized organizational model to a femininity dominated model is also not
the desired objective (Brady & Hammett, 2001). Rather the construction of a
gender-integrative model of leadership such as Eisler’s (1994) partnership model,
with leadership as partnership and partnership as gender equality, would be
desirable. The partnership model provides an example for placing leadership and
organizations within a gender-holistic framework. Eisler discussed how women –
owing to traditional socialization of feminine values such as relatedness, nonviolent conflict resolution, and empathy – have much to contribute to the process
of transforming organizational reality. The object is not to reject traditionally
typical masculine qualities of leadership (such as decisiveness, assertiveness, and
risk-taking). Instead the objective is to integrate rational, care-oriented, and
person-centered thinking (Whetstone, 2002). Coleman (2003) and Eisler (1994)
asserted that typically masculine gendered activities remain essential elements of
the leadership equation and are fundamental to a gender-holistic approach. As
such, in a partnership model of organization and leadership both men and women
as well as masculine and feminine traits and behaviors play an equally free,
liberated, and powerful role. The challenge is to manage the tension within a
context of conscious discernment and relationality.
Integration in Leadership Models and in Servant-Leadership
Selected models of leadership, conflict resolution, and people skills provide
tangible examples for understanding the paradoxical and integrative character of
servant-leadership. The duality of leader and servant is recognizable in the
relationship and task dimensions of behavioral leadership theories (Northouse,
2007) and in the axes of concern for one’s own interests and concern for others’
interests in Thomas’ (1992) model of conflict resolution. Comparatively, the
relationship-oriented, other-centered, and supportive aspects of servant-leadership
– empathizing, healing, listening, commitment to others’ growth – fall into the
gender categories considered to be predominantly feminine. The integration of
high concern for relationships and for tasks is portrayed as desirable in behavioral
162
models of leadership and can be associated with the servant-leader characteristic
of building community. The more agentic components of servant leadership –
foresight, awareness, and conceptualization, and persuasion – fall into the area
Thomas (1992) labeled integrative in conflict resolution approaches. Notably,
these typically masculine dimensions of servant-leadership are not consistent with
leadership behaviors associated with low relationship/low concern for others.
Generally, behaviors on the opposing end of the gender spectrum in relation to
feminine behaviors would be associated with masculine gender. According to
Northouse (2007), authoritarian leadership, laissez-faire, and impoverished
management styles are more characteristic of low relationship orientation/high
task orientation. Thomas (1992) described conflict resolution approaches with low
concern for others as competitive and avoiding. These comparisons indicate that
the fundamental behaviors of servant-leadership are not strongly associated with
competitive, authoritarian, dominating, that is highly masculine leadership styles.
Instead the leader behaviors of servant-leaders fall primarily into the more
integrative quadrants of these taxonomies. The findings of Barbuto and Gifford
(2010) also support the claim that servant-leadership allows leaders of either
gender to engage in both typically masculine and feminine leadership behaviors.
As such, in terms of the typical gendering of leadership dimensions, servantleadership characteristics and behaviors appear to be gender-integrative.
From Hierarchies of Domination to Partnership
Eisler (1994) noted that social movements throughout history have challenged
structures of domination in pursuit of social justice. Gender-egalitarian societies
conceptualize power as “focused primarily on the capacity to give, sustain,
nurture, and illuminate life” (p. 35). These premises are also echoed in servantleadership and its commitment to social justice (Greenleaf, 1977; 2002). Current
trends in organizational theory also challenge the nature of leadership and power
as manifested in structures of domination. One of the most distinguishing tenets
of servant-leadership is the challenge it poses to positional power. Greenleaf
pointed out that the weaknesses of leadership and organization are the result of
power and responsibility being concentrated at the top of hierarchies and
ultimately in one person. Hierarchies and power-dominance dynamics create the
illusion of independence (individualism) while coercing dependence (nondifferentiation) through the transfer of responsibility to great men. Instead,
Greenleaf (1970; 2003) proposed a deromanticizing of leadership and a leveling
of hierarchies. In this way, servant-leadership serves the purpose of feminist and
postmodern movements in organizational theory by virtue of the challenge the
model poses to traditional hierarchical models of leadership.
163
Disparities in power are an inevitable condition of social interaction. Power itself
is a neutral construct until applied with some intent. Within the context of care,
power carries with it connotations such as strength, virtue, energy, potency, and
ability, and thus constitutes empowerment and shared power (Brady & Hammett,
1999; Liedtka, 1996). In other words, a differentiation is made “between power as
controlling others and empowerment as controlling oneself” (Liedtka, 1996, p.
195). Indeed, servant-leadership advocates models of power-sharing and
empowerment in its central tenets of commitment to the growth of people and the
primus inter pares leadership ideal (Greenleaf, 1977; 2002).
The fact that male-dominated spheres of management are adopting leadership
styles of caring, compassion, and community according to Eisler (1994) can be
attributed to the rising status of women and, as a consequence, traditionally
feminine values. The leader facets of the servant-leader – awareness,
conceptualization, persuasion, and foresight – are congruent with other models of
leadership and, as Greenleaf (1970; 2003) conceptualized them, diverge from
typically negative masculine associations with hierarchy, competition, or coercive
power. The servant facet is defined not through placating or self-degrading forms
of self-sacrifice or self-denial, but, as Spears (2002) noted, through listening,
healing, stewardship, fostering personal growth, and building community.
Leading in servant-leadership has less to do with domination and more to do with
role-modeling, conscious initiative, and creating an environment of opportunity
for followers to grow and thrive (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). Serving has less to do
with coerced subservience and more to do with humble, empowered, ethical
activism. As such, servant and leader are compatible. The challenge lies in
managing the meaning of the terms servant and leader.
Implications for Leadership Education
Leadership students and educators can benefit from the integration of feminist and
gender-conscious perspectives in teaching about servant-leadership and leadership
in general. The preceding discussion outlined some ways in which servantleadership challenges gender role stereotypes in leadership. Barbuto and Gifford’s
(2010) study of gender dimensions of servant-leadership shows how servantleadership contradicts typically gendered perspectives of leadership and provides
an empirical foundation for a discussion. Eicher-Catt’s (2005) feminist
deconstruction provides a starting point for examining servant-leadership
discourse from a critical standpoint of gender. From the deconstruction feminist
perspective servant-leadership augments gender polarization and male dominance
in organizations. Noddings’ (2003) care perspective of morality provides an
ethical and education-based framework for discussing servant-leadership. Eisler’s
164
(1994) partnership model presents a compelling argument for servant-leadership
at the level of organization and community grounded in a paradigm shift from a
culture that predominantly values masculinity to a culture of acceptance and
integration of feminine and masculine. From this perspective of difference
feminist, servant-leadership integrates gender-polarized leadership characteristics
of agency and communion and neutralizes discourses of dominance and
hierarchy. Further investigation of servant-leadership with gender as a category of
analysis is needed to provide a stronger research base for servant-leadership as
gender-integrative. One approach might be to explore correlations of servantleadership constructs and gender identity that transcend biological gender.
Another might be a case study of gender attitudes in a servant-led organization.
In the following offers an outline of more specific implications for leadership
programs and course content.
Ritch and Mengel (2009) described guidelines for the design and review
processes of leadership programs which resulted from a collaborative project
sponsored by the International Leadership Association. The component of
outcomes and assessment is applied here as a framework for illustrating the
adoption of servant-leadership in the context of gender. The overarching guiding
question is, “What are the intended outcomes of the leadership education program
and how are they assessed and used to ensure continuous quality improvement”
(Ritch & Mengel, 2009, p. 220)? The desired outcome of the preceding discussion
concerning the gendered nature of leadership as exemplified through servantleadership is to strive for a more gender-integrative and partnership-oriented
approach to leadership and organizational processes. The explicit valuing and
encouragement of both culturally feminine and masculine behaviors grounded in
the principles of servant-leadership can be integrated into the conceptual
framework of leadership education programs. Implications at an institutional level
might include the conscious examination of leadership competencies and
proficiencies identified in the conceptual framework as desired outcomes and an
assessment of whether and how both feminine and masculine values are applied in
decision-making processes. On a program level, the process might include an
examination of gender context in the faculty and student body and a strategy to
assess its impact on program content, learning processes in the classroom, as well
as organizational learning.
On the student level the desired outcomes identified in the conceptual framework
can be applied to address how to assess students’ grasp of gender-integrative
values and servant-leadership principles through coursework, class participation,
and class projects. This level is closer to the course content and the application of
gender-integrative servant-leadership can be informed through research. For
165
example, conclusions from a study by Fischer, Overland, and Adams (2010)
indicated that there are gender differences in the leadership attitudes of incoming
first-year college students about hierarchical thinking as compared to systemic
thinking. Fischer et al. concluded that effective leadership manages the tension
between hierarchical (typically masculine) and systemic (typically feminine)
approaches to leadership. Servant-leadership can serve as an example of a genderintegrative approach that explicitly seeks to manage this tension. In this example,
the impact of course content can be assessed using the same instrument used by
Fischer et al. – Leadership Attitudes and Beliefs Scale. The goal would be to
affect some change in beliefs about hierarchical thinking and systemic thinking
that indicate an (overall increased) integration of the two in both female and male
students.
Some further suggestions for course content are to use trait and behavior theories,
for example in Northouse (2007), together with Spears’ (2002) characteristics of
servant-leadership to generate discourse on the gendering of leadership. Gendered
cultural perceptions of leadership and can be further illuminated by analyzing
scenarios using gender as a variable. For example, Nahavandi (2006) presented a
case study of Bill Gates and Mary Kay Ash as two very different and highly
effective business leaders. The class can consider the implications for Microsoft
and Mary Kay Cosmetics if these two leaders were switched or if they led one or
the other company in partnership. When presented with these various
perspectives, students have the opportunity to think critically about servantleadership, gender issues, and context in leadership and organizations.
Conclusion
This paper advocates the development of leadership education that strives for an
integrative humanistic approach to organizational life. Gender-integrative models
of leadership and organization such as servant-leadership (as proposed here) and
the partnership model call for the equal valuation of complementary dualities and
qualities, activities, and behaviors typically associated with femininity or
masculinity. As women's experience continues to gain legitimacy in the realm of
organizational leadership this dynamic can evoke in the larger human context a
growing population of men who are able to respect, embrace, and adopt
traditionally feminine leader behaviors. The first step towards transformation is
awareness: a call to action for explicit discussion of gendered reality within and
through leadership education. Greenleaf (1970; 2003) offered a luminous caveat
when he wrote “Awareness is not a giver of solace – it is just the opposite. It is a
disturber and an awakener” (p. 56). The issue of gender in relationships,
education, and work should awaken and disturb leadership educators and servant-
166
leaders of today and tomorrow. It remains the task of leadership educators to
provide foresight and practice intentionally gender-integrative dialogue in
institutional decision-making processes, program design, and the classroom. By
informing servant-leadership through feminist perspectives leadership educators
can access a useful resource for developing critical thought as well as genderintegrative leaders and organizations for the future.
167
References
Bass, B. M. (1999). Two decades of research and development in
transformational leadership. European Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 8(1), 9-32.
Barbuto, J. E., & Gifford, G. T. (2010). Examining sex differences of the servant
leadership dimensions: An analysis of the agentic and communal
properties of the Servant Leadership Questionnaire. Journal of Leadership
Education, 9(2), 4-20.
Billing, Y. D., & Alvesson, M. (2000). Questioning the notion of feminine
leadership: A critical perspective on the gender labeling of leadership.
Gender, Work and Organization, 7(3), 144-157.
Brady, J. F., & Hammett, R. F. (1999). Reconceptualizing leadership from a
feminist postmodern perspective. The Review of
Education/Pedagogy/Cultural Studies, 21(1), 41-61.
Calás, M. B., & Smircich, L. (1991). Voicing seduction to silence leadership.
Organization Studies, 12(4), 567-602.
Coleman, M. (2003). Gender and the orthodoxies of leadership. School
Leadership & Management, 23(3), 325-339.
Dietz, M. G. (2003). Current controversies in feminist theory. Annual Review of
Political Science, 6, 399-431. doi:
10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085635.
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233-256.
Eicher-Catt, D. (2005). The myth of servant-leadership: A feminist perspective.
Women and Language, 28(1), 17-25.
Eisler, R. (1994). From domination to partnership: The hidden subtext for
sustainable change. Journal of Organizational Change, 7(4), 32-46.
Fischer, D. V., Overland, M., & Adams, L. (2010). Leadership attitudes and
beliefs of incoming first-year college students. Journal of Leadership
Education, 9(1), 1-16.
168
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's
development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Greenleaf, R. K. (1970; 2003). The servant as leader. In H. Beazley, J. Beggs, &
L. C. Spears (Eds.), The servant-leader within: A transformative path. (pp.
31-74). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
Greenleaf, R. K. (1977; 2002). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of
legitimate power and greatness. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
Greenleaf, R. K. (1996). An ethic of strength. In D. M. Frick, & L. C. Spears
(Eds.), On becoming a servant-leader: The private writings of Robert K.
Greenleaf (pp. 7-99). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hamilton, F., & Bean, C. J. (2005). The importance of context, beliefs, and
values in leadership development. Business Ethics: A European Review,
14(4), 336-347.
Johanson, J. C. (2008). Perceptions of femininity in leadership: Modern trend or
classic component? Sex Roles, 58, 784-789.
Kark, R. (2004). The transformational leader: Who is (s)he? A feminist
perspective. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(2), 160176.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2003). The leadership challenge: How to get
extraordinary things done in organizations (3rd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Liedtka, J. M. (1996). Feminist morality and competitive reality: A role for an
ethic of care? Business Ethics Quarterly, 6(2), 179-200.
Nahavandi, A. (2006). The art and science of leadership. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson-Prentice Hall.
Noddings, N. (2003). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education
(2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
169
Ritch, S. W., & Mengel, T. (2009). Guiding questions: Guidelines for leadership
education programs. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(1), 216-229.
Sashkin. M., & Sashkin, M. G. (2003). Leadership that matters: the critical
factors for making a difference in people’s lives and organizations’
success. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Smircich, L., & Morgan, G. (1982). Leadership: The management of meaning.
The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18(3), 257-273.
Spears, L. C. (2002). Introduction: Tracing the past, present, and future of
servant-leadership. In L. C. Spears & M. Lawrence (Eds.), Focus on
leadership: Servant-leadership for the twenty-first century (pp. 1-16). New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations. In M.
D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and
organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp 651-717). Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologist Press.
Whetstone, J. T. (2002). Personalism and moral leadership: The servant-leader
with a transforming vision. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(4),
385-392.
170
Author Biography
Kae Reynolds is a Ph.D. candidate (ABD) in Leadership Studies and a graduate
assistant in the School of Professional Studies at Gonzaga University. She earned
her Master of Organizational Leadership at Saint Ambrose University and a B.A.
with secondary teacher certification from the University of Iowa. Kae’s research
interests center around feminist perspectives of leadership and servant-leadership.
In 2010 Kae received the honor of being named a Greenleaf Scholar for her
dissertation research proposal which is a quantitative study of servant-leadership
in the context of the feminist ethic of care.
171
Genie Bingham Linn
University of Texas at Tyler
glinn@uttyler.edu
Abstract
This study leads the reader on a learning journey with the heroic metaphors
derived from heroic myths of today’s pop culture to the views shared by aspiring
administrators. Viewing the students’ leadership vision of self as hero provided
insight to guiding students in their personal leadership journey. By naming and
describing self as hero, future administrators examined and then revised their own
mental models for leadership by translating pop culture characters from
Spiderman to McGyver to their own heroic metaphor and vision of school leaders.
Introduction
Our desire for heroes in life is evident in the entertainment industry. From Star
Wars to Harry Potter, we crave the adventures of the hero. Children pretend with
plastic light sabers and magic wands to right wrongs and save the world. Even the
military marketing strategists have depicted the modern soldier in a heroic picture
of a sword-wielding, dragon-slaying warrior. From the popular video game Guitar
Hero to the NBC series Heroes, we seem to hunger for heroes with extraordinary
qualities or most importantly, those who exemplify moral leadership (Linn, 2006;
2007).
Where are the heroes for educators? What heroic visions have we created for
ourselves? We must look within and beyond ourselves in hope of what we could
become.
Bruner (2002) asserts that we are constantly in the process of creating the
narrative of self, becoming the “hero” to address the situations before us. School
leaders have been given professional metaphors to frame their stories by
researchers and scholars, but it is equally important for each leader to identify a
personal story, a personal vision of self as hero.
According to Cherry and Speigel (2006), storytelling and use of metaphor provide
a way to deep understanding of moral leadership. Metaphors have the power “to
172
shape the pattern of our ideas and the character of our lives” (Ivie, 2005, p. 1). By
accessing this creative power, professors and scholars of educational
administration can guide future leaders to navigate the moral and ethical
challenges in schools by helping them to frame a picture of self within the role of
administrator. This work explores the heroic visions shared by aspiring
educational leaders. Viewing the students’ leadership vision of self as hero
provides insight to instructors who are guiding them in their personal leadership
journey.
In the effort to prepare principals and school administrators, exemplary university
programs influence administrative initiates in three ways: what they learn, what
they believe, and what their commitments are (Darling-Hammond, Meyerson,
LaPointe, & Orr, 2010). They suggest that “without these initial influences,
programs are unlikely to affect subsequent leadership practices” (p. 105).
Educational administration programs can deliver information and increase
knowledge, but it is only by influencing belief and commitment that actions are
shaped. For it is not what I know that affects my behavior, it is what I believe.
Senge’s (1990) significant twentieth century study of the learning organization
placed strong emphasis on the individual examination and recognition of one’s
own mental models that ultimately shape belief and consequent behaviors as a
critical component for learning and change.
The heroic metaphor activity tapped into the context of pop culture that provides a
strong learning connection for today’s students as described by Williams and
McClure (2010). This teaching strategy is only one way professors can guide
future administrators in reflective practice to unveil the often unrecognized mental
models that affect how they will one day lead. The heroic metaphor based on pop
culture heroes of today becomes a tangible element of belief and commitment that
the individual can examine from all sides to come to an understanding of self and
others through the lens of “Who am I as leader.”
Reflection and the Heroic Metaphor
What is a hero? The dictionary defines hero as someone admired for qualities of
great courage and quite literally, a defender and protector. The hero in a story can
simply be the protagonist or central character. Heroes from classical Greek
mythology to the pop culture heroes of today have served as an ideal or role
model. A provocative essay by Chatterji (1985) asserted that heroes serve as a
symbol of self. In English’s (2008) discourse on leadership as an art, the assertion
is made that leaders construct a public self to portray a character of leadership. It
is a conscious and deliberate creation to be who is needed for the organization and
its stakeholders. The public self establishes “who I am” for others to see.
173
Who am I? Who am I as leader? As a leader the complexity of these questions
calls for the use of a heroic metaphor in order to “deepen our understanding and
knowledge” (Brown & Moffett, 1999, p. 32). The metaphor serves as a link to
help us cross the chasm from known to unknown. The use of a heroic metaphor
makes tangible the intangible to illustrate a model or ideal. They note it is a quick
and powerful shortcut to communicate a complex idea, and in fact, can shape our
mental models. Indeed, it becomes imperative for the leader or aspiring leader to
engage in the act of examining one’s own mental model of self as leader.
Who am I as leader? Wisdom dictates that leaders examine thoughts, actions, and
beliefs. According to English (2008), “Human growth, especially in leadership, is
about the discovery of self” (p. 25). Therefore, wise leaders will engage in
reflection and seek self-knowledge to lead in today’s world.
Using Complex Heroic Metaphors
Reflection and critical thinking are required to learn through complex heroic
metaphors. Heroes are an extension of myth that serves as a base for human
thinking (Campbell, 1968). Mythology, and consequently heroes, has always been
a guide for understanding the mysteries of the world as they present the universal
themes of human experiences (Ivie, 2003). This study leads the reader on a
learning journey with the heroic metaphors derived from pop culture heroic myths
to the views shared by aspiring administrators.
Educators have been given stories to frame the work; but, it is equally important
for each leader to examine a personal story, a personal vision of self, or hero to
emulate. As an introductory activity, students in an educational leadership course
shared a fictional hero with whom they identified. The light-hearted ice breaker
activity quickly became an occasion for students to reveal their passionate and
insightful perspective of the heroic nature of school leadership. These future
administrators easily translated characters from Spiderman to McGyver to their
personal heroic metaphor and vision of school leaders.
This study is born from the responses of these aspiring administrators as they
explored a personal vision of self as hero. Using the process of content analysis,
the responses have been analyzed and catalogued into three themes: traditional
comic superheroes, uncommon heroes of ordinary people, and nontraditional
comic heroes. Traditional comic superheroes include Superman, Batman, and
Spiderman. It is not surprising that these god-like heroes with super strength and
powers were chosen by 25% of the participants. Interestingly, the reasons given
by the future administrators had much to say about the individual character of the
174
participants. Superman was selected by one male participant because of
Superman’s strong moral compass and his ability to transform himself to meet the
challenges before him. A female student chose Superman because of the
extraordinary strength that allowed him to rescue those in need since “he always
rescues the innocent bystander.” Batman was chosen by another male student
because he is highly respected and a relentless problem solver who works with
others and is an innovator with technology who “always used the best gadgets
around.” The following is an excerpt from a student response that exemplifies this
category:
• The fictional hero that I best relate to is Superman. Superman is a
character that is human, yet has the ability to transform into a superhero
and then is able to change the culture around him. Superman saves the
world, positively impacts others, and destroys evil while ultimately
fighting for “truth, justice and the American way.” There are three main
reasons that I chose Superman: 1) he was imbued with a strong moral
compass, 2) he served as a role model, and 3) he was able to
transform…Superman is an average individual who can transform into a
“super hero” when the need arises. He is always there to save the day
when trouble lurks. I know there will be many instances where I have to
transform myself from an everyday individual into someone with super
powers. An effective leader is able to transform when the need arises to
handle complex situations.
Uncommon heroes of ordinary people included fictional characters like, Clint
Eastman’s Dirty Harry, Patricia Cornwall’s Kay Scarpetta, Jessica Fletcher from
Murder She Wrote, Maximus from The Gladiator, Angus McGyver from
McGyver, and finally, Maria from the Sound of Music. Fifty percent of the
students chose these uncommon heroes in spite of their human weaknesses
because they were practical, hardworking problem solvers who never gave up.
Although their human frailties often caused problems, their courage and strong
belief in justice for others meant they never quit fighting for what is right. The
following segment is from a student who identified with Dirty Harry:
• Dirty Harry causes me to stand and yell, “Way to go, Harry! You get
‘em!’…Dirty Harry exudes confidence, possesses a strong sense of right
and wrong, takes a no-nonsense approach despite the odds against him,
and most of all Dirty Harry get the job done…Dirty Harry is not perfect
and has some serious personality traits that he would need to work on, but
he still has characteristics that an educational leader should strive to
emulate.
Nontraditional comic heroes included Jerry Spinelli’s Maniac McGee, Bob the
Tomato from Veggie Tales, Professor McGonagall and Hermione from Harry
175
Potter, Princess Fiona from Shrek, and Sesame Street’s Super Grover. These
characters exhibited loyalty and courage. In addition, students pointed to the
heroes’ willingness to take risks while working for a cause greater than self.
Professor McGonagall was noted for her commitment to students’ welfare and
safety, as well as academic growth. Bob the Tomato was a very interesting choice
for one student as seen in the following excerpt:
• I honestly was trying to choose a character that no one else would choose
as their favorite hero. I think this enlightens others about my leadership
style. I am considered a unique leader, one who is not afraid to go out on
a limb and be different. I am not afraid to be innovative and look to “push
the envelope.” I think things can be done better than they have in the past
and know that I will have to be open to new ideas and willing to take a
chance on my future campus.
Who am I now? Who do I want to become? This student is developing a public
self-image for his future role as a principal. According to English (2008), within
the art of leadership there is a “purposive construction of self” (p. 5). While
comparing himself to Bob the Tomato, this student is mentally preparing his hero
self for an important position.
Leading the students through this activity “intentionalized” what we often do
unintentionally. Refection and writing are powerful tools for personal change and
professional growth (Bolton, 2005). By naming and describing self as hero in a
class activity, students examined and then revised their own mental models for
leadership.
Conclusion
The school leader must know self in order to lead others wisely. Since knowing
self is a key to deep understanding of others (Brunner, 1994), an educational
leader should seek to know self in order to understand the school stakeholders.
Imagining and reflecting upon self as leader through heroic metaphor provides a
creative framework for envisioning successful school leadership. Professors of
educational administration aim at “getting to the heart of moral purposes and
innate dispositions” (Cherry & Spiegal, 2006, p. 70) where belief and
commitment emanate, and to do so “requires an opening of new passages to
insight and new modes of expression” (p. 70). Envisioning the heroic metaphors
of self can be one passageway to school leadership development.
176
References
Bolton, G. (2005). Reflective practice: Writing & professional development (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Brown, J. L., & Moffett, C. A. (1999). The hero’s journey: How educators can
transform schools and improve learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Brunner, D. D. (1994). Inquiry and reflection: Framing narrative practice in
education. Albany, NY: State University Press.
Bruner, J. (2002). Making stories: Law, literature, life. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Chatterji, P. (1985). The voyage of the hero: The self and the other in one
narrative tradition. Contributions to Indian Sociology, (19), 95-114.
Cherry, D., & Speigel, J. (2006). Leadership, myth, & metaphor: Finding
common ground to guide effective school change. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
Darling-Hammond, L., Meyerson, D., LaPointe, M., & Orr, M. T. (2010).
Preparing principals for a changing world: Lessons from effective school
leadership programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
English, F. W. (2008). The art of educational leadership: Balancing performance
and accountability. Los Angeles: Sage.
Ivie, S. (2003). On the wings of a metaphor. San Francisco: Caddo Gap Press.
Linn, G. B. (2006). Reflections on being a leader: Looking through the lens of
legend and myth. Sandra Harris, Betty Alford & Julia Ballenger (Eds.),
Women as school executives. Leadership: A bridge to ourselves. Texas
Council of School Women Executives.
Linn, G. B., Sherman, R., Sherman, & Gill, P. B. (2007). Making meaning of
educational leadership: The principalship in metaphor. NASSP Bulletin
21(2), 161-171.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning
organization. New York: Doubleday.
177
William, J., & McClure, M. (2010). The effects of teaching methods in leadership
knowledge retention: An experimental design of lecture, experiential, and
public pedagogy. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(2), 86-100.
Retrieved from:
http://bigcat.fhsu.edu/jole/issues/JOLE_9_2/JOLE_9_2.pdf
178
Author Biography
Genie Bingham Linn is an associate professor in the Department of Educational
Leadership and Policy Studies at the University of Texas at Tyler. Genie teaches
graduate students in the master’s program who are aspiring principals.
179
JOLE Submission Guidelines
Appropriateness of Topic for JOLE
Articles should relate to both leadership and education, but need not be balanced
in their focus and may emphasize either leadership or education. If you are
uncertain about the appropriateness of your topic please review previous papers
and, if needed, contact the editor. JOLE does not accept submittals published
previously or under review by another journal.
Submitting an Article to JOLE
Papers are received by email only, sent to: jole@aged.tamu.edu. All submittals
must be sent as a Word file with a cover memo indicating authors, affiliation,
contact, and proposed category. The journal solicits articles in four categories:
•
•
•
•
Research Feature
Theoretical Feature
Application Brief
Idea Brief or Commentary
Please focus your article on a specific category and indicate with your cover
email. Complete information about the categories is provided at Categories of
Articles.
Review Process
Upon receipt of your paper the editor will send notice of receipt to the contact
author. The editor will review the submittal for suitability for the journal and
specific category. If not suitable the editor will provide guidance for the author. If
suitable, members of the editorial board, or selected guest referees, will review
the submittal.
How to Prepare to Write an Article for JOLE
A proven strategy is to review past issues of JOLE and read articles in the same
category. As JOLE is a new journal and the number of past issues is developing,
authors are encouraged to look at the Journal of Extension www.joe.org which
has similar categories. First time authors are encouraged to closely review, even
180
outline, other papers to understand the logic and flow of an acceptable paper in
each category.
Write for a Professional and Academic Audience
JOLE articles are intended to demonstrate scholarship but are also expected to be
readable and useful to a wide audience, including people who speak English as a
second language. Hence, they must be written clearly without losing their
scholarly value.
For more information visit the JOLE website at: www.fhsu.edu/jole
181
Le Culminant
The Editor wants to remind any interested authors to submit articles to
jole@aged.tamu.edu as soon as possible for review in the Winter 2012 issue.
Note that the style guidelines for JOLE have undergone revision recently. As
always…suggestions to the Editor are welcomed and they are often
implemented!
"Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge;
it is thinking makes what we read ours ."
- John Locke
182

Journal of Leadership Education

Transcription

Similar documents

Egils.Milbergs Testimony 12-6-2010

Svensk-Norska Handelskammaren

Mukesh Gulati Foundation for MSME Clusters New Delhi

Term 1 Week 4 2010 - St Andrews Primary, Marayong

yobel scm

part 1 - Adirondack NCRS

TO BEDAZZLER - Jewelry by Fran Green

Non-Luster Mid-Year Cluster Part II

12/06/15 Sunday Bulletin