report - Winston Churchill Memorial Trust

Transcription

The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia
E DAW G i l l e s p i e s Au s t r a l i a
Xerophytic Landscape Principles :
An investigation into world’s best
practice in water efficient design
techniques, drought-tolerant flora,
innovative irrigation/reticulation
strategies, infrastructure and creativity
in grey-water recycling and desalination.
Source: EDAW Australia
Deserts and drylands constitute more than forty per cent of the global land area.
Global environmental changes such as global warming and further desertification
of drylands threaten 1,300 million people in more then 100 countries.
James McNeur | 2005 Churchill Fellow
p
Water is the source of life…
without it, flora and fauna will wither
and die. Fresh water sources are being
consistently depleted and polluted.
To investigate water efficient design techniques, drought-tolerant flora, innovative irrigation/
reticulation strategies, infrastructure and creativity in grey-water recycling and desalination.
A proportion of the images in this report are sourced from EDAW Australia’s Image Library.
General information, statistics and facts were gathered while on tour, during conversations,
in meetings and by observation, while travelling on the Churchill Fellowship.
I understand that the Churchill Trust may publish this report, either in hard
copy or on the internet or both, and consent to such publication.
I indemnify the Churchill Trust against any loss, costs or damages it may suffer arising out of any
claim or proceedings made against the Trust in respect of or arising out of the publication of any
Report submitted to the Trust and which the Trust places on a website for access over the internet.
I also warrant that my Final Report is original and does not infringe the copyright of any
person, or contain anything which is, or the incorporation of which into the Final Report is,
actionable for defamation, a breach of any privacy law or obligation, breach of confidence,
contempt of court, passing-off or contravention of any other private right or of any law.
Signed
p
Date 17/11/2006
James McNeur | Xerophytic Landscape Principles
INTRODUCTION
Report on the findings from a 2005 Churchill Fellowship investigation into the
world’s best practice in water efficient design techniques, drought tolerant
flora, innovative irrigation, reticulation strategies, infrastructure and creativity
in grey-water recycling and desalination. The countries visited included the
United Arab Emirates, Israel, Spain and the United States of America.
The project would not have been possible without the generous
support of the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PERSONAL DETAILS
Name:
James Angus McNeur
Position:Landscape Architect / Project Manager
Address:
25 Embling Road, Malvern, Vic, 3144, Australia
Phone:
Home: +61 3 9822 7559 or Mobile: +61 401 497 081
Email: jamesmcneur@hotmail.com
OVERVIEW
This report contains, but is not limited to the following issues:- desalination, benefits of
Australian dams, re-use of treated sewage water, grey-water recycling, roof-top rainfall
catchments, storm-water recycling, strategies and policies to ‘green’ Australia and
xeriscape principles. Xeriscape principles include:- subterranean drip irrigation systems,
porous paving, drought tolerant lawn varieties, lawn substitutes, drought tolerant flora,
use of organic and inorganic mulching, use of shade, low water use water features, low
growing groundcovers and shrubs, gravitational irrigation strategies, sunken tree planters
and garden beds, a balance between hard and softscape elements and green walls.
p
PROJECT FINDINGS
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is at the forefront of desalination technology and
innovation. If Australia is to implement desalination plants, then we need to employ
the latest technologies, including membrane treatments such as those in the UAE.
Treated sewage water is not only cheap and sustainable, but once the
infrastructure is constructed, there are very few expenses associated with
the delivery. The best application is through subterranean drip irrigation
systems. New residential estates are best suited to this application because
it is more economical to combine black and grey recycled water.
In the United Arab Emirates, Israel and America grey water was treated in conjunction
with black (sewage) water. An ‘on site’ grey-water recycling system for individual
residential houses in Australia, is the most appropriate application for grey-water systems.
Storm-water recycling was a key component of new developments in
Southwest USA. DMB Developers in America were proactive in their approach
to sustainable storm-water design through swales and retention basins.
Development of drought tolerant flora and hardy varieties of turf, such as
seashore paspalum, in the United States of America and in the United Arab
Emirates have been very successful. These varieties are well suited to the
Australian environment and would reduce water consumption for landscapes.
DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION
Implementation of these xeriscape principles in large scale
residential developments and sub-divisions.
Publication of a pictorial and technical book.
Exposure in the media.
Presenting my findings to consultants around Australia.
Speaking at conferences or other forums.
People / Organisations and Places Visited
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
ISRAEL
SPAIN
DUBAI
JERUSALEM
MADRID
Al Khatib Cracknell
The Old / New City
Central Madrid
Hill International
Albert Promenade
Streetscapes
Green Concepts
Ramat Hanadiv Memorial Gardens
Jardin De La Vega
GHD Engineering
Beit Shalom Park
Alberto Campo Baeza Arquitecto
Nakheel Developers
Harry Wilf Independence Park
Emaar Properties
EILAT
Royal Meridian
Orchid Hotel
Jameirah Hotel
Red Sea
The Jumeirah Palm
Sewage Treatment Plant
The Islands of the World
Desalination Plant
NATANYA
ABU DHABI
Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority
Maunsell/ AECOM
EDAW
Abu Dhabi Royal Palace
Sheraton
Beach Front
Promenade
SEVILLA
La Granja De San Ildefonso
Ladoverde
Patio De Los Naranjos
Patio Seville
Casa De Pilatos
Roman Aqua-duct
Modi’m
TEL AVIV
Ramat Aviv Mall
CADIZ
La Villa De Las Sirenas
Soto Grande
Netafim
MALAGA
Hod Nashron – Country Club
La Sardinella
National Parks Authority
Residencia Coca
HAIFA
Casa Anna Maria
AL AIN
Bahai Gardens
Rak Properties
University of Technica
Green Concepts
Rishon Le Zion City
Wadi sites
Holocaust Memorial Park
Streetscapes
BEER SHEVA
SANTIAGO
Future developments
Ben Gurion University
Promenade
Rutenberg Project
Pazo De OCA
GRANADA
Alhambra
The beach Promenade
THE DEAD SEA
Masada
The Dead Sea
Desert & Desert Vegetation
James McNeur | 2005 Churchill Fellow
United States of America
LOS ANGELES
EDAW
DMB Ladera
DMB Developers
Ladera Ranch
JH Snyder Company
The Irvine Company
SAN DIEGO
EDAW
Library Walk, San Diego University
In Australia our problem is not the lack of rainfall, we simply need
to manage what nature provides more efficiently. At present we
use drinkable water for our laundry, showers, toilets and gardens
when we only need high quality water for drinking and cooking.
Rainfall captured on site is more than adequate for washing clothes
and flushing the toilet. An average roof area of 150m2 with rainfall
of 652mm per annum will collect about 100,000 litres a year, which
is more than a third of the average total household consumption
of 270,000 litres. Future houses will be designed to harvest more
and more of this incoming water. In the meantime even a modest
tank collecting the rain falling on the roof can make a significant
difference and can be linked to the laundry, toilet, and garden.
Water can also be harvested by designing paths to direct run-off
to garden beds. The use of rainwater captured on site, can then
be re-collected from showers, baths and clothes washing, and
used again for flushing the toilet and/or watering the garden.
Shea Homes
MacArthur Court
LA JOLLA
The Neurosciences Institute
PHOENIX
EDAW
DC Ranch
Scottsdale
City Centre
Verrado
The term ‘arid’ has a range of connotations that vary
according to culture and historical period. For some, it implies
barren wastelands, while for others it evokes landscapes of
biological, cultural, and aesthetic richness. From a scientific
standpoint, aridity refers to a scarcity of moisture, in which
precipitation is exceeded by potential evaporation. Aridity
and drought indexes have been developed to analyse
water scarcity. These varied climatic patterns of water
deficiency interact with physiographic conditions to
produce a variety of arid and semi-arid environments.
Fresh water is one of the world’s scarcest commodities. Recently, in
most States of Australia, water restrictions have been introduced.
Most of our potable water is consumed in domestic gardens!
Australia’s Uluru - Ayers Rock Typifies Our Landscape, Arid and Rugged
p
a
ISRAEL
Israel is located at the eastern end of the
Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on the north
by Lebanon, on the northeast by Syria, on the
east and southeast by Jordan, on the southwest
by Egypt, and on the west by the Mediterranean
Sea. Before June 1967, the area composing
Israel (resulting from the armistice lines of
1949 and 1950) was about 20,700 km² which
included 445 km² (172 mi²) of inland waters.
Israel stretches 424 km from north to south. In
1949 its width ranged from 114 km to 10 km
in Eilat (Red Sea). Several wars since this time
have changed these dimensions, however
the country is still very small with few water
resources and natural resources in general.
Israel’s landscape is characterized by arid desert,
where the average rainfall is less than 200mm
per annum. In southern regions rainfall maybe as
low as 25mm pa. Extended drought periods are
common making water a precious commodity.
The Israelis have sought to overcome this
problem by implementing innovative and
efficient water management strategies for
landscape and agricultural irrigation applications.
These advancements were developed through
national necessity to conserve and recycle
water. In just 25 years the nation has been able
to create sustainable agriculture and green
landscapes. The Romans, two millennia earlier,
faced the same challenges as the modern day
Israelis. In order to sustain their cities and
agriculture, complex aqueduct systems were
developed to store and distribute water. 2000
years later a 60km long aqueduct at Netanya is
still standing. Initiatives of this calibre should be
implemented across all regional cities through
out Australia. Bendigo in north-western Victoria
is a perfect example of where such a process
should be implemented. Bendigo, at the time
of writing, was at Stage Four water restrictions.
Source: Times Atlas
2000 Year OLd Roman Aqueduct
p
Old Town Jerusalem (Churches, Synagogues & Mosques)
Landscape Character of Jerusalem
Jerusalem’s history is one of religion, of bloodshed
and of survival of man over nature, from King
David’s reign 1010 – 970 BC in the Hyksos
Period through all the different religions, rulers
and peoples to the current Israeli Period.
Innovations in water applications have allowed greater
greening of the city, but the principles remain the same.
Wailing Wall (Last remant of the Temple of Solomon)
Self-sustaining natural grasses & cypress in background
The Wailing Wall is the symbol of Jewish faith
and the object of Jewish pilgrimage from all over
the world. The Wailing Wall was liberated after
the 1967 War for the first time in 2000 years.
The same sandstone which built & rebuilt castles following
conquers is now used to build New Jerusalem.
Temple of David with Traditional Landscape Principles
Hardscape design directs stormwater to landscaped areas
OLD TOWN JERUSALEM
NEW TOWN JERUSALEM
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Landscape Surrounding Old City
Green walls or vegetated walls have the ability
to soften visual appearance and provide a cooler
environment. A kind of outdoor air-conditioning
system or in this case an anctient one.
Nooks and Mortar Gaps allow for a Natural Green Wall.
Old City Walls are surrounded by xerophytic vegetation.
This flora only requires what Mother nature can provide.
Old Fashioned ‘Green Wall’
Old City Walls with surrounding Xeriscape Landscaping
Juniper species require very little water. Their
prostrate qualities allow them to occupy several
square meters, while employing half the water
requirements of their upright relations.
The surrounding landscape improves the transition
between old and new Jerusalem with the use of
traditional plant types and hardscape elements.
Juiper species surround the base of the Old City Walls
Old City with sympathetic New Architecture
p
Gabriel Sherover Promenade Front Aspect
Gabriel Sherover Promenade: Olive Grove
The Gabriel Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem was designed by Shlomo Aronson and overlooks the Holy City
of Jerusalem. The design relates to the Kidron Valley below and the Judean Hills in the distance. The challenge
was to create an urban environment and promenade within a desert environment. 800 mature olive trees
were planted and obviously required irrigation. Netafim’s Bio line (drip irrigation system) was instrumental
in assisting these Olives establish. The system employs treated sewage water and is subterranean, which
means there is less evaporation and less water wastage (no overspray). The system also reduces maintenance
requirements, which can be very costly for municipal governments (replacing spray heads, pipe blockages etc).
Olive grove and surrounding landscape: Gabriel Sherover Promenade
p
Traditional Jerusalem Sandstone Paving
Transition between Old Jerusalem and New Jerusalem
Old municipalities are committed to water recycling and the
provision of infrastructure to process and distribute recycled
water. In addition all recently planned cites and suburbs have
been able to incorporate greater open space and landscape
provisions thanks to the introduction of recycled water.
New development in Jerusalem
Non-Porous New Style Sandstone
Planned open space has increased from 3 per cent to up
to 10 per cent in ten years. There is greater landscape
provision for streetscapes and city entry points.
Traditional Porous paving (grass’n stone)
New Porous Paving (Erigeron’n stone)
Modern Architectural Styles
p
Dry Water Feature: Harry Wilf Independence Park
The majority of water features in Jerusalem are
turned off for the hottest months of the year.
Schinus molle, Cupressus species and low
growing shrubs / groundcovers are incorporated
with hardscape areas to maximise the
natural water resources of the region.
Effective cooling green wall with Boston Ivy,
which has minimal water requirements
Cupressus Grove: Harry Wilf Independence Park
Only very important landscapes have the honor of
large expanses of lawn irrigated with subterranean
systems and usually with recycled sewage water.
Xerophytic Plant Selection in the
Ramat Hanadiv Memorial Gardens
p
Roof-top Garden, which employs colour,
texture, attributes and size to create an eyecatching self-sufficient landscape. Climbing
or cascading plants have the ability to soften
buildings and architectural elements.
Rectilinear Water Feature with Treated Sewage Water
Water Feature when Wet : Art Work when Dry
Overflowing Geraniums. Rewarding xeriscape plant
Simple, but effective, Water Feature
Close-up of Modernist Water Feature
Dry Water Feature at Ramat Hanadiv Memorial Gardens
p
There are 7 tourist hotels
and associated facilities
concentrated into a
“Green Oasis”. The 7
hotels all use xerophytic
landscape principles as
the rainfall is around
50mm per annum.
The aqua waters of the Dead Sea provide a dramatic contrast to the arid surrounds. The sea is the lowest point on
the earth -398m below sea level. The Sea has a mystical quality with its unique chemical composition: 65% salt,
25% magnesium and balance of water & trace elements. This gives the Sea its buoyant and therapeutic qualities.
The Dead Sea region receives fifty millimeters per annum. Recycling of water is therefore critical to
creating a green oasis for the five star hotels and baths for tourists and Israelis alike. All grey water from
the hotels is recycled at a central processing plant and redistributed within 24 hours for irrigation of the
landscape. All landscape irrigation is drip with fertigation units used to control nutrient levels, soil pH
and salinity. Perlite or volcanic rock (scoria) media is used to create landscape areas on both podium
slabs and in natural ground. Because of the inert nature of the growing media and minimal absorption
capacity, 6-8 irrigation cycles per/day are used and the fertigation unit is essential in delivering nutrients.
These techniques have been developed as organic soils and surface mulches are not available.
p10
HWY 90 DEAD SEA ROADWAY
Arid / Salt
Tolerant
Vegetation
The small leaves of the prostrate vegetation use less photosynthesis, so therefore
require less water. The leaves also have another use in an area. The plants need
to cope with the high salt content of the earth. The leaves soak up the salt.
These prostrate plants including many saltbush varieties are well-adapted to growing in salty dry sites where the
soils are silty and gravelly and thus retain little water. In Israel’s Dead Sea area, they are typically the only plants
that can tolerate these conditions. All these plants have greyish-green leaves with hairs that secrete excess salt
onto the leaf surface, to maintain the plant’s internal salt balance. The common desert species include shadscale,
four-wing saltbush, desert holly and desert saltbush. They often exhibit a special type of photosynthesis called
C4 photosynthesis, which enables them to synthesise sugars. In the hottest part of the year these plants are able
to shut down their photosynthesis, thereby using less water and ensuring their survival until the cooler months.
Roadside vegetation is generally prostrate, and so better adapted to water conservation
The Dead Sea covers 1020 square kilometers.
Vegetation is mainly in prostrate form, except
where water periodically flows. Prostrate flora
is able to retain greater quanties of water
because of its lack of size and surface area.
The limited desert vegetation is restricted to roadsides and Wadi (periodic river beds)
p11
Dead Sea is Divided for Production
Salt factory in Operation
Salt Mounding
MASADA
Wadi - Dry river bed which is occassionally inundated
Barren Landscapes of Masada
Sitting on an isolated cliff in the Judean Desert, Masada’s steep slopes and precipices rise more than
400 meters above the Dead Sea. The combination of cliffs and escarpments in the desert area provided
Masada with the perfect natural defense system. Had the Romans not blazed routes to the top, there
would have been no way for them to reach the summit. It was a successful feat of engineering.
On the western part of the hilltop are twelve enormous cisterns, which collected the floodwater that flowed in the
Masada wadi. Together the cisterns could hold 40, 000 cubic meters of water, enough not only for drinking but also
for the swimming pools, bathhouses, and agriculture. The cisterns were dug in two rows. The cisterns on the upper
row are 80 meters below the summit and those on the lower row 130 meters below it. Beasts of burden transported
the water from the cisterns to the top of the mountain on specially blazed trails. The abilty to harness the wadi was
the key to the sucess of Masada. Without this precious water supply the area would not have been habitable.
p12
Eilat is a vibrant coastal city with strict xeriscape
principles. The Israeli Government recently
reduced water quotas by 35 percent for potable
water consumption because of prolonged
drought conditions. The reduction forced Israel’s
municipalities to adopt water recycling as a priority
and to implement capital works infrastructure
programs. Eilat is commited to water sensitive
practices. Desalination plants and treated sewage
water recycling systems are being implemented.
Agave species are part of the succulent
family. They have excellent drought
tolerant properties. These plants can
survive with no irrigation although drip
irrigation will enable the plants to flourish.
Allocasuarina verticilata species have an advantage
in arid environments. Their cylindrical leaves
enable the tree to retain greater levels of water.
The reduced leaf surface area restricts the amount
of photosynthesis and moisture loss through
evaporation. These characteristics make the sheoak family ideal for semi-arid to arid environments.
Eilat, the southernmost city of Israel, is a
unique oasis on the coast of the Red Sea.
Moses led the children of Israel through the
Red Sea away from the Egyption army.
Round-abouts and streetscapes in Eilat are
irrigated with treated sewage water through
Netafim Bio-line. The plants must be drought
tolerant to survive even with watering. Foliage
generally has a small surface area, is grey-green
in colour, has waxy, hairy leaves or is bipinnate.
These features all minimise water loss.
Dum Palms - Protected
natural resource. These
palms are drought
tolerant and used
extensively through
out the Middle East.
p13
The recycling of grey and sewage water became a national objective in the mid 1970s, to provide for
agriculture. In later years the infrastructure was established for landscapes. The administration and
distribution of water is owned and run by the State. The current distribution of recycled water is 80 per cent for
agriculture and industry, and twenty percent for landscape purposes. All potable water is reserved for drinking.
Recycled water consists of two levels depending on the irrigation application. Secondary treatment
is appropriate for sub terrain drip systems, which are used in agriculture and landscaped areas.
Tertiary treatment, which is more expensive is suitable for spray irrigation in public areas and in water
elements. The drip system can affect water savings of up to 35 per cent over spray systems and up
to 40 per cent in irrigation maintenance costs through reduced vandalism and general blockages.
Water efficiency could be improved by a further 25 per cent by incorporating a 75 millimeter mulch
depth to planter beds. Organic mulches are not used because there is no natural source; however
inorganic mulches, such as volcanic gravels, are occasionally employed to retain moisture. Plant
foliage may be scorched by the heat retention in some inorganic mulches. It is therefore important
to use lighter coloured gravels. Generally, better efficiency can be gained through organic mulches,
but inorganic mulches can provide a more maintenance-free environment for public or civic areas.
p14
HOD NASHRON COUNTRY CLUB
This Country Club recycles grey water from their showers
for irrigation of the turf and garden beds. The showers
generated 200 litres per hour and water was processed and
stored onsite. The irrigation was activated between 6.00am5.30pm daily which avoided fungal problem resulting
from the use of grey water. Sub-surface drip was installed
to turf and planter areas. Town water provided a backup
supply, but was not used on the grounds of expense.
A fertigation unit provided a chemical balance system
to landscape areas and was computer-controlled to
maximise operational efficiency. The system paid
for itself in two years and was saving the swimming
complex US$25,000 a year in water costs.
RISHON LE ZION CITY New Residential Community
The community was planned for 100,000 residents
and includes 9 clusters are of nine storeys unit blocks,
with support facilities and open space strategically
located within the cluster. The increased building
heights provide a greater open space ratio, which is
fundamental to the planning of a workable community.
The open space represents twenty per cent of the
development. Increased open space requires increase
water consumption, so all grey water is recycled. After
treatment, the water is naturally filtered through 150mm
of sand substrate to an underground aquifer where
it is then pumped to irrigate landscape areas and for
water feature elements. The irrigation is controlled
by a central computer system for the total site.
BEER SHEVA - Rutenberg Project
The average rainfall is less than 100mm per annum and the
region is characterized by a desert landscape with pockets
of drip-irrigated citrus and olive groves. Landscaping is
generally concentrated to city entry nodes and major roads.
Xeriscape principles, such as water retention elements and
use of arid plant species including Australian and succulent
species have been adopted in the landscape design. All
city water is recycled and used for agriculture and the
landscape. Grey and sewage water are treated together
and reused to create green environments. Without the
black water recycling neither agriculture nor landscaping
would be sustainable in such an unforgiving environment.
p15
Modi’m New City is the largest of the new planned
cities in Israel. It is located between Tel Aviv &
Jerusalem and is designed to accommodate
250,000 people. The city is 175m above sea
level and is sited to take advantage of micro
climates created by its elevation and valleys.
The soft landscape is dominated by Australian
species, employing approximately 90 per
cent Australian natives suited to the poor soil
structures and the arid environment. Annual
plantings highlight nodal points and roadways.
The region receives a rainfall of 400mm per
annum. The landscape areas are currently
irrigated using potable water, however in
future stages recycled water will be used. A
centralised computer-controlled system is
used with separate stationing of turf, annuals
and planter areas. Solar power is used for the
controller and Sub-terrain Techline drip irrigation
is used with 0.75 dripper spacing. The dripper
spacing is dependant on the species selection.
Sub terrain drip-irrigation waters annuals, planted areas, and turf zones. The drip system is considerably
better than the spray irrigation system, which wastes water through evaporation and over-spray.
The drip system also reduces vandalism and maintenance costs by up to forty percent. The drip
system is controlled through a computerized central control; maximum water efficiency is gained by
employing flow meters, moisture sensors, multi-cycle programming and the integration of fertigation
systems. Fertigation is the application of fertilizers which are dissolved in irrigation water.
p16
Traditional watering methods use overhead sprinklers, which distribute a fine sheet of water over the
selected garden area. To date, problems with this method of irrigation are, misting, over-spray, wind-drift,
water-run-off onto paths and roadways, water collection on garden mulch, easily vandalised and broken
materials, spray easily impeded by growing plants, promotion of plant disease and discolouration; as well
as restricted by Government Water Restrictions. There is, however, a solution to this irrigation dilemma.
Drip irrigation is now extensively used throughout the world as an efficient and effective irrigation method.
Netafim have been involved in providing many drip irrigation solutions for some of the world’s biggest
irrigation projects. Netafim now manufacture a drip irrigation alternative that reduces water consumption,
reduces evaporation, reduces plant disease, reduces weed growth, eliminates wind-drift, eliminates
over-spray, avoids water-run-off, blends in with the aesthetics of the garden, delivers water directly to
the root zone, is not affected by the government water restrictions, and saves water and money.
Netafim, the world leader in drip irrigation, have a range of drip products which will allow irrigation of all
lawn and garden areas in the most efficient way, from below the surface, so that vandalism, injury and water
wastage are no longer a concern. To make drip irrigation easier, Netafim have an extensive range of integrated
drip tubes, which have drippers moulded directly into the drip tube at preset intervals. All that is needed is to
select the right Netafim drip tube and roll it out across the landscape, or under the lawn. Netafim have a drip
tube to make the installation of irrigation projects undertaken fast, simple and, especially, water efficient.
There are several options to be noted:
Miniscape, as its name suggests is for smaller projects, much like a typical Australian back
yard. Minimal pressure is required with 6mm piping. Miniscape’s small size and flexibility
makes it ideal for home gardens and pot plants. The drip sections are at 300mm centres.
Tube Size: O.D. 8.0mm, I.D. 6.0mm. Operating Pressure: 50-300kpa (5-30m)
Scapeline is generally better for larger gardens and parks. The larger 13mm drip line uses ‘turbonet’
dripper. Because of its larger diameter Scapeline can be run over longer distances than Miniscape.
Tube Size: O.D. 16.0mm, I.D. 13.0mm. Operating Pressure 50-400kpa (5-4Om)
Techline performs best in large gardens and parks and a steep slopes or changing topography. The Techline is a
13mm I.D. drip line which uses a “RAM” pressure compensating and self-cleaning dripper, which is extruded into
the internal wall of the drip tube. Available with two different flow rates and an assortment of drip spacings,
this tube is ideal for all landscape and turf irrigation situations. Techline with its pressure compensating
dripper will deliver a uniform discharge rate over both long distances and undulating landscapes.
Tube Size: O.D. 16.0mm, I.D. 13.0mm. Operating Pressure Range: 50-400kpa (5-4Om)
UniRam is the world’s most advanced dripper. The UniRam is a 14.4mm I.D. drip line which incorporates all of
the benefits of Techline. It also has extra features which make UniRam unique. It has both an anti-suckback
and a non-leakage device. UniRam also has a mechanical root intrusion barrier. The anti-suckback mechanism
prevents soil being sucked back into the drip opening. In addition UniRam also features the non leakage device,
improved internal filter and other benefits which make UniRam the prefered choice for sub-surface applications.
Tube Size: O.D. 16.4mm, I.D. 14.4mm. Operating Pressure: 100-35Okpa (1O-35m)
Bioline (lavender uniram) — Waste Water Dispersal
Bioline incorporates UniRam drip technology in a lavender coloured tube to conform to
international standards for wastewater dispersal. Bioline features the non-leakage device,
which prevents possible ponding of waste water when the system is shut off.
p17
Albert Promenade - Mitzpeh Ramon, Israel. The promenade extends for 2.5 kilometers along the
top of Machtesh Ramon in the heart of the Negev Desert where temperatures frequently exceed 40
degrees centigrade and annual precipitation is less than 100mm. The promenade was designed to be
in keeping with the natural desert surrounds. Minimal vegetation was included. Instead hardscape
elements were constructed to frame views and create a feeling of man living in unison with nature.
A desolate, unforgiving landscape, yet still
vegetation survives with no assistance from man.
An example at Albert Promenade where the landscape
involves no vegetation, but is still softened and has soothing
feel despite the harsh surrounding environment.
p18
This illustrates Netafim’s recycled black water
drip-irrigation system. Netafim worked with
other companies and the government to
produce the technology and systems required
for the use of recycled black water. The recycling
process meant that Israel was now an exporter
of agricultural crops, including dates, olives,
grapes, cotton and citrus products as well
as a host of other local market products.
The Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert
Research, researches water sciences and
technology with applications in water
resource management, wastewater treatment
and bioremediation. Not only does the
Institute research these issues, but it has
developed a University Campus, which
incorporates it all. Everything from drought
tolerant flora, irrigation with treated sewage
water, lawn alternatives, hard and softscape
balances and stormwater collection units.
Recycled water and drip-irrigation are
paramount to the survival of open space/
green areas. Plant selection is also
critical because Israel is characterized
by arid conditions and poor sandy
soils. Plant selection will ideally provide
these open spaces with flora that will
survive under such conditions, whilst still
providing an aesthetic appearance.
p19
Israel’s sand soils are low in nutrients and have average water retention capacity. Fertigation
is therefore an important addition to the irrigation system. It allows for nutrient injection
and pH control/ management. It is essential to select plant species that will tolerate
very poor soils and that is why many native Australian species are used is Israel.
Perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass, which occurs naturally and has a relatively high water content.
It can be used on podium landscape treatments and in situations of high salinity. Alternatively
Hydrocells, which are provided locally by Fytogreen can also be incorporated in to these landscapes.
p20
TEL AVIV
Tel Aviv, the capital city of Israel was established
in 1925. The landscape today occupies 10 per
cent of the city area, with five per cent of the
city’s potable water dedicated to landscape and
open space. The landscape is characterized by
the use of block sandstone, planter and turf
areas and colourful annual plantings, which are
irrigated via a computerised control centre.
The average rainfall is 200mm per annum. The
soil has a poor, sandy structure with a 6.5 - 7.5
pH range. There are no organic soils used and
the irrigation system with a fertigation unit is
essential in managing the landscape. Three per
cent of the city budget is used for landscape
maintenance. The city is converting spray irrigation
to drip systems with 30 per cent water saving
and 40 per cent reduction in maintenance costs
and in loss by vandalism. From 2003 Tel Aviv has
used 40 per cent recycled water for irrigation.
p21
HAIFA - BAHAI GARDENS
Haifa is a port city to the north of Tel Aviv. The formal streetscapes and colourful annual
plantings are an extension of the Bahai Gardens and provide a formal link to the port.
The Bahai Gardens are an expression of grandeur both in scale and in the ornate
landscape finishes. Superb craftsmanship rivals the great renaissance gardens.
There are 18 formal terraces, nine above the central focus of the tomb of the
Prophet and nine below. The Gardens are 20Ha in area and are a series of terraces
with grades of 1:2 either planted or turfed: they are meticulously maintained.
p22
Bahai Gardens incorporate intricate
detail with a broad array of materials and
plant matter creating a colourful and
exotic landscape. However, in contrast,
the gardens can be very simple to
highlight views, buildings or elements.
There is a strong contrast in pavement
material including cut stone, unit pavers
and the use of crushed terracota.
All water flows from the top of the
gardens and therefore simplifies
the hydraulics, as well as irrigation
and reticulation strategies.
The gardens are beautifully detailed with sandstone stairs and wall facings, furnishings,
sculptures and urns which create formality. Annuals and the strong, tiered, hedging of planting
areas reinforce the formal structure while water elements create ambience and activity.
p23
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Desert and oasis - the two terms belong together. The one cannot be imagined without the other.
‘Arab’, a Semitic word, describes the barren desert. An Arab is therefore a person who does not live in
a city, but roams the desert. But the desert is a habitat for humans only where there are oases within
attainable distances. Both a balanced water management and the application of design criteria are
needed; the plants selected should be drawn from the natural plant community as far as possible.
p24
APPROPRIATE PLANTS FOR THE UAE
SCREEN TREES / LARGE SHRUBS (screening)
HWD – High, MWD – Medium & LWD – Low Water Demand Conocarpus erectus (LWD)
Conocarpus lancifolius (LWD)
LARGE SHADE TREES / PALMS
CATEGORY 1 – Extensive use all areas
Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm – HWD)
Prosopis cinerea (Ghaf – LWD)
Azaderachta indica (Neem -Not natural areas MWD)
CATEGORY 2- Secondary use, all but natural areas
Ficus religiosa (Peepul Tree – MWD)
Azaderachta indica (Sidr – LWD)
Albizzia lebbek (MWD)
CATEGORY 3 - Minor use, all but natural areas
Acacia Arabica (LWD)
Coccoloba uvifera (MWD)
Ficus infectoria (MWD)
Ficus salicifolia (MWD)
Hibiscus tiliaceous (MWD)
Mangifera indica (Mango – HWD)
Pithecelobium dulce (Manila Tamarind – MWD)
Pongamia pinnata (MWD)
Peltophorum inerme (Rusty Shield Bearer – MWD)
Thespesia populnea (MWD)
Terminalia arjuna (MWD)
Tamarind -Tamarindus indica (MWD)
CATEGORY 4 - Limited use, mainly parks
Ficus macrocarpa ‘Benjamina’ (MWD)
Delonix regia (Bird of Paradise Tree - MWD)
Ficus bengalensis (Bangalay – MWD)
Cassia fistula (MWD)
Chorisia speciosa (MWD)
Citrus limon (MWD)
Terminalia catappa (Indian Almond – HWD)
Millingtonia hortensis (Jasmine Tree – MWD)
Tabebuia rosea (MWD)
Tabebuia spectabilis (MWD)
Washingtonia robusta (Cotton Palm – MWD)
Lawsonia inermis (Henna – LWD)
Nerium mascatense (Oleander – MWD)
Thevetia peruviana (MWD)
Zizyphus Spina Christi (MWD)
SMALL TREES/LARGE SHRUBS (not natural areas)
CATEGORY 1 – General use
Tecoma stans (MWD)
Tecomella undulate (LWD)
Parkinsonia aculeate (LWD)
Punica granatum (MWD)
Vitex agnus castis (LWD)
CATEGORY 2 Limited use (special locations)
Plumeria obtuse (MWD)
Plumeria rubra (MWD)
Cordia sebestena (MWD)
Calliandra haematocephala (MWD)
Ficus carica (MWD)
FEATURE PLANTS
Cycas revolute (Cycad – MWD)
Nanorrhops ritcheana (Dwarf Palm – MWD)
Ravenala madagascariensis (Travelers Palm – HWD)
Washingtonia robusta (Cotton Palm, Hardy – MWD)
Musa accuminata (Banana – HWD)
Arundo donax (Giant Reed, Hardy – MWD)
CLIMBING PLANTS FOR TRELLIS AND PERGOLAS
Antigonon leptopus (MWD)
Clitoria ternata (MWD)
Clytostoma callistegioides (MWD)
Cryptostegia madagascarensis (MWD)
Jasminum azoricum (MWD)
Jasminum officinale (MWD)
Bougainvillea spectabilis (MWD)
Petrea volubilis (MWD)
Pentas lanceolata (MWD)
p25
WADIS, DUNE EDGES (indigenous species only)
Acacia Arabica (LWD)
Acacia tortilis (LWD)
Aerva javanica (Dunes - LWD)
Calligonum comosum (Dunes - LWD)
Caparis spinosa (LWD)
Cassia italica (LWD)
Cordia myxa (LWD)
Dodonaea viscose (LWD)
Haloxylon salicornicum (Dunes - LWD)
Heliotropium calcarium (LWD)
Indegofera intricate (LWD)
CATEGORY 2 – Limited use
Acalypha wilkesiana (MWD)
Jasminum sambac (MWD)
Hibiscus rosa sinensis (MWD)
Ixora coccinea (MWD)
Dombeya walichii (MWD)
Euphorbia fulgens (MWD)
Plumbago auriculata (MWD)
Tabernaemontana divaricata (MWD)
Nanorrhops ritcheana (LWD)
Ochradenis arabicus (Dunes - LWD)
Prosopis cinerea (Dunes - LWD)
Zizyphus Spina Christi (LWD)
Tecomella undulatum (LWD)
Moringa perigrina (LWD)
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Dunes -LWD)
Salvadora persica (LWD)
Boerhavia elegans (LWD)
HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS, SUCCULENTS AND GRASSES
CATEGORY 1 – General Use
Agave attenuate (LWD)
Agave species (LWD)
Aloe striata (LWD)
Aloe species (LWD)
Pennesetum setaceum (LWD)
Pennesetum villosum (LWD)
Pennesetum species (LWD)
SHRUBS
CATEGORY 1- General use
Adenium obesum (LWD)
Atriplex cinerea (LWD)
Bougainvillea glabra (LWD)
Bougainvillea spectabilis (LWD)
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (LWD)
Cassia italica (LWD)
Dodonaea viscose (LWD)
Leucophylum frutescens (LWD)
Vinca- Catharanthus rosea (LWD)
Clerodendrum inerme (LWD)
p26
CATEGORY 2- Limited use
Canna indica (HWD)
Cyperus involucratis (HWD)
Crinum pedunculatum (MWD)
Ruellia species (MWD)
Hymenocallis festalis (MWD)
Iresene herbstii (MWD)
Senecio cinerea (MWD)
GROUND COVER PLANTS AND TURF GRASS
CATEGORY 1: General use
Sesuvium portulacastrum (LWD)
Sesuvium verrucosum (LWD)
Antigonon leptopus (LWD)
Gazania species (LWD)
Lippia nodiflora (LWD)
Clitoria ternate (LWD)
CATEGORY 2- Limited use
The list above identifies Low Water Demand (LWD)
species, Medium Water Demand (MWD) and High
Water Demand (HWD). All MWD and HWD species
have a low water requirement during the winter
months. The Date Palm requires high water supply
in early and late summer. Seasonal flowers are not
included on the list because most seasonal flowers
are of HWD category. The list is an example of what
is being used in the region at present. Additional
indigenous species exist, but are not being cultivated
at present. Furthermore additional species from
similar climatic zones could also be employed.
Paspalum vaginatum (HWD)
Alternanthera species (MWD)
Arctotis species (MWD)
Carissa macrocarpa (MWD)
Dimorphetheca hybrids (MWD)
Rhoeo discolour (MWD)
Tradescantia pallida (MWD)
Verbena tenuisecta (MWD)
Wedelia trilobata (MWD)
Lantana camara (MWD)
Succulents, such as certain species of Agave,
tolerate dry harsh conditions and should
be exploited for their hardy attributes as
well as their sculptural form. Shrubs are
generally used as background to contain
space, exploit seasonal colour at flowering
time, give fragrance or contribute to a
special effect. However, shrubs require
significant amounts of maintenance and
without the right management plan the
design intent will never be realised.
Turf grass should be replaced with LWD ground
covers, such as Dymondia margaretae and
Lampranthus filicaulis. Tree species should all
possess LWD attributes. Some tree species such
as the icon species the Date Palm, and the best
shade providers, Neem, Ghaf and Ficus religiosa
should be widely planted in new areas and places
which are in need of shade trees. They should
be subjected to better irrigation control.
Accent plants are important because they provide
a sense of significance to a place. Accent plants
are widely used: they are generally perennial
plants such as Pennesetum grass, Agave species
and Canna. The grasses are sometimes used
as monocultures, sweeping over dune shaped
forms and the Canna and Agave species are
silhouetted against the thick grass backdrop
to give contrasting, or harmonizing, colour.
p27
DUBAI
Dubai has the largest populous of the United Arab Emirates and is the second largest emirate after Abu
Dhabi. Dubai is distinct from other members of the UAE in that revenues from oil account for only 6% of
its GDP. The emirate’s revenues are from the Jebel Ali Free Zone (JAFZ)[2] and, increasingly, from tourism.
With enormous construction and development in various industries, Dubai has attracted world
attention through innovative real estate projects, sports events, conferences and Guinness records.
However, this increased attention, coinciding with its emergence as a world business hub have
also highlighted potential human rights concerns by usage of its largely immigrant workforce.
Dubai has developed a landscape, which is wholly water dependent. It is almost as if
designers on the instruction of the sheiks have ignored Mother Nature. These unsustainable
landscapes have forced the sheiks to generate huge quantities of desalinated sea
water and the incorporation of treated sewage water for exterior landscapes.
p28
Jameirah hotel - Designed as a little Venice
Dubai has an arid subtropical climate, with blue skies and sunshine all year round. The hottest months
are between June and September, when temperatures can reach 45°C and more during the day, and
humidity levels are very high. Even the sea temperature touches 40°C during the summer months, and,
during summer swimming pools at hotels are usually cooled to be refreshing. Temperatures are only
slightly more moderate the rest of the year, the coolest time being between December and March.
There is very little rainfall in Dubai, but when showers do fall it is mainly in the cooler months.
p29
The luxury hotels generally employ modernist
design principles. The landscape therefore
requires minimal maintenance and irrigation
with the perfect balance of hard and
softscape elements. Shaded places where
children can be involved, uder supervision,
with water for play are provided.
Availability of hard landscape materials is a factor of
economic reality. Because contrete-based products
are readily available and inexpensive, they form
the predominant landscape material. Gravels and
stabilized sand are increasingly being used as a
surface in place of groundcover, an example in the
case of limestone coloured gravel and red sand in
combination to create an interesting groundcover.
Water falling, water
jumping, water
bubbling and water
sliding thinly over
polished stone all
work if they are of
intimate scale and
combine with patterns
of light and shade.
p30
Both lawn areas and seasonal flowers need
to be used less extensively. They should
be related to special places and grown
where high quality intensive maintenance
is assured. As a general rule, annual flowers
require considerably more irrigation than
perennials or especially, grasses and low
growing ground covers and shrubs.
The substantial number of pools and water
features which exist throughout Dubai are filled
with desalinated water. There is obviously a huge
amount of evaporation, but a necessary luxury for a
7-star or even 5-star hotel. The pools are heated in
winter and cooled in summer. As well as providing
potable water the desalination plants also make
a significant contribution to Dubai’s electricity.
p31
Royal Meridian
At present desalinated water is employed for
interior uses; the grey and black water is then
treated together and reused for exterior purposes.
The Royal Meridian Hotel is 10 years old, but is
consistently updating its irrigation system. It
has recently converted to a drip irrigation
system which uses treated sewage water.
The lawn is Seashore paspalum, which will tolerate small
quantities of saline water. That is fortunate because the
lawn is located on reclaimed land from drifting sands.
p32
Reducing the overall density of planting and
choosing appropriate drought tolerant plants,
together with good irrigation practice and
management, will be the key to more sustainable
outcomes. Moreover, the management of
water resources requires a balance between
soft and hard landscape spaces, creating
interesting places by clever use of pavements
and other hard surfaces well-coordinated
with limited planting and well-designed
and appropriate furnishings / structures.
Green and lush hotel landscapes in contrast to
the surrounding desert - Royal Meridian Hotel
Most landscapes in Dubai, especially the newer
developments are irrigated with treated sewage
water. That benefits the landscape in two ways: the
first is the obvious necessity of photosynthesis through
water consumption; the second is fertilization. The
treated sewage water is a natural fertilizer, which
provides considerable assistance to the plants.
The Royal Meridian is a well designed hotel. All
water inside the hotel and all swimming pools
are filled with desalinated water. All wastewater
from the hotel’s interior is recycled on site and
reused on all landscaped areas and in some water
features (see bellow). The hardstand areas direct
all storm water into water features or pools thereby
maximising the use of the water available.
Royal Meridian chilled kids pool
Desalination provides Dubai with potable water
and, as a secondary benefit electricity. Desalination
requires the removal of the majority of dissolved and
suspended particles. This involves removing the salt
and other ions from the water. The potable water
is used in hotels, restaurants and housing and is
then recycled as black water. There is no distinction
between black and grey water. It is recycled as one.
The Class A treated sewage water is used outdoors.
Environmental damage occurs from sewage
entering marine environments, so the more treated
sewage water is used on landscapes the better.
Royal Meridian
Royal Meridian’s treated sewage water feature
(above). It is located away from cafes, bars and
sun bathers. It is purely for visual stimulation,
a perfect application for a recycled water
feature. Being located beneath shade offers
further benefits as there is less evaporation.
Safa Park
Safa Park
These older style water features in Safa
Park (above and right) were constructed
early in Dubai’s development. Dubai has
advanced considerably since the design and
construction of Safa Park. These water feature
are crude, but they use recycled water.
p33
Hedging shrubs generally use more water, but there
are several exotic types, including Buxus, Cupressus
and Oleander species, which are xerophytic: as
well Australian Grevillea and Callistemon species,
are great hedging plants for arid environments.
Urban pathways are independent of the road and,
wherever possible, shade and shelter trees are used.
Allocasuarina (She-oak) grove with granitic sands
beneath (above). There is a lack of organic mulch
types in the Middle East, so where organic mulch types
would usually be used to keep the moisture in the
soil, gravel or inorganic mulches are incorporated.
Safa Park’s large expanse of lawn (above) looks
extravagant, however, the lawn is Seashore
paspalum, which is drought resistant and
is tolerant to salt. It is a great lawn for arid
and salty environments. The turf does not
have much need of nutrients from the soil,
which is ideal for Dubai’s desert location.
Plant selection is generally from two sourcesfirst, indigenous trees, shrubs, groundcovers and
flowering perennials; secondly additional plants
of similar cultivation and drought tolerance.
Royal Meridien Landscape
p34
The Nad Al Sheba Racetrack
Artificial Paradise - Dubai
p35
Aerial View of Al Mamzar Park - Dubai
Aerial View of Freeway Intersections and Complementary Landscapes - Dubai
p36
AL AIN
Al Ain, is named the Oasis City, a term which is entirely appropriate. Al Ain’s cultural heritage as an
Arab City is linked to its oases which provide food and sanctuary for its population. The oases sit within
the beauty and harshness of the desert. The desert gives the oases meaning. ‘Garden’ in modern use,
implies a decorative origin and ignores Al Ain’s cultural heritage. Many cities claim the title “Garden
City”, some with justification. Al Ain can justifiably and honestly claim to be an Oasis City, a term
which perpetuates the deep traditions of this region and paints a picture in the mind of visitors.
Aerial of Al Ain ‘The Oasis City’
Al Ain is typified by wadis (periodically inundated river beds), dune fields, jebel and ridges,
woodlands of indigenous flora and the gravel plains where the aquifers are recharged. This
is quite a natural setting. The challenge for the people of Al Ain is to see if they can design
and live in a harmonious and sustainable way with the natural attractions it possesses
at present. The city should be sustainable, and well planned emphasizing its natural
context, not concealing it behind modern marvels. A point of difference is required.
p37
Where increased urban development has
encroached on their periodic flow paths,
the wadis are contained by stone walls. The
Wadis may erode, and sweep away, all in
their path. Increased civilization has led to
the Wadis containment; however the annual
native vegetation and periodic plants (which
spring up after a flow) may still been seen.
Wadi in an Urban Environment
The Wadis have a fascinating
duality, which is more obvious
higher into the mountains,
but still relevant lower on the
alluvial fan. The upper reaches
of a wadi are dangerous;
boulders crash against each
other, eventually being
ground into sand; water
undermines even the most
solid edges (water that can
drown a person in seconds).
Yet it is also the water that
brings life, recharges the
aquifer, and carries down a
new layer of fines to augment
the soil of the oasis. Absent
for most of the year, a latent
negative, they are suddenly
and momentarily the focus
of the village or town.
Wadi occasionally flows in time of flood – Al Ain
Al Ain Desert landscape
Al Ain at present is more sensitive to the
natural and man-made environments
than are the other Emirates. Al Ain has
further opportunity to develop sustainably
by limiting the irrigated landscapes to
those which can be sustained by treated
sewage effluent. As more sewage effluent
is treated and used on landscapes, less
is deposited in the surrounding seas.
p38
Al Ain is at this stage several steps behind the other Emirates. There is, therefore, greater opportunity
to provide sustainable development as well as landscaping and water saving improvements. At
present the landscape is uninteresting, especially along Abu Dhabi Road. This could be improved
by incorporating attractive xerophytic trees and low maintenance groundcovers and grasses. At
present there are unattractive trees and maintenance-intensive hedges. The plantings should
be well-defined and of distinctive character, with drought tolerant attributes. Generally, major
arterial roads require grandeur, with emphasis on date palms and other drought tolerant accent
plants to highlight the importance of the area. In contrast smaller residential roads require shade
rather than grandeur. Heat is obviously a major issue, so ideally all residential roadside landscapes
should provide shaded walkways and places to sit and meet. That will create a landscape character
which should be appealing all year round, simple to maintain and xerophytic. There are many
and varied examples of xeriscape shade plants, Allocasuarina species being one example.
The statuesque dunes beside several of Al Ain’s approaches with their uncompromising aridity make
a strong contrast to the shaded, green, highly productive environment of oases of Al Ain. The fact
that Al Ain possesses natural oases is more reason not to make it an artificial oasis like Dubai. The
traditional oases will loose the power to excite and attract if too much artificial development occurs.
In keeping with its title of Oasis City, the foremost icon of the Al Ain’s landscape is
the series of oases, which is dominated by the Date Palm. The Date Palm is the most
obvious part of that heritage having been cultivated since the Bronze Age.
p39
ABU DHABI
Abu Dhabi is the largest of the seven emirates that comprise the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and was also
the largest of the former Trucial States: it is in the north central region of the UAE. Abu Dhabi is also the
name of the capital of the Emirate. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the
central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 people lived there in 2000, of whom about 80 per cent were
expatriates. Abu Dhabi has approximately 70% of the country’s entire wealth. Al Ain is Abu Dhabi’s second
largest urban area with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland.
The emirate of Abu Dhabi lies to the south of the emirate of Dubai. Abu Dhabi
city is on an island lying 200 - 300 metres from the mainland.
Abu Dhabi city is modern, with broad boulevards, tall office and apartment buildings, and busy shops.
Principal thoroughfares are The Corniche, Airport Road, Sheikh Zayed Street, Hamdan Street and Khalifa Street.
Many streets are known for specialized businesses that tend to cluster on them. Hamdan Street is the main
shopping street, Khalifa Street is lined with banks, Al Najdha Street is known for hardware stores, Defense St is
filled with mobile telephone shops and Sheikh Zayed St (Also known as Electra Street) is the computer street.
Abu Dhabi city is renowned in the region for its greenery; the former desert strip today includes numerous
parks and gardens. Key buildings include the Qasr al-Hosn (a.k.a. Old Fort or White Fort), Clock Tower
(now demolished due to construction of the new Corniche), headquarters of the Abu Dhabi National
Oil Company (ADNOC) and its many operating-company subsiduaries, and the Cultural Foundation.
The Corniche, which was re-developed in 2005, is now one of the best sea front parks in the Gulf.
p40
Phoenix dactylifera used to good effect to frame
and direct visitors to the Abu Dhabi Royal Palace.
Sunken planters and significant hardscape elements
are employed to reduce water requirements
and utilise the infrequent rain events.
Extravagant Water Feature
Xeriscape landscape matches architectural
grandeur which is the Royal Palace
Symmetry of the landscape is in keeping
with the Palace. The water features
on the northern side of the building
are more subtle and less wasteful.
A water wise balance of hard and soft landscape
elements is incorporated to great effect through
order, high quality furnishing, and hard/ soft
landscape treatments. Hard landscape materials
introduced at key locations can dramatically
reduce the water demand of an area.
View Northeast through to the Palace. Extravagant
use of desalinated water in an extensive water feature.
p41
Royal Palace Car Park incorporates Bougainvillea,
xeriscape groundcovers, many varieties of drought
tolerant palms and other hardy perennials.
Expansive lawn area of Seashore paspalum
with a grove of traditional Date Palms
Emphasis should be placed on reducing the quantities of grassed areas. Turf areas should only be for
the highest category of road, centre or playing field. Turf grass on roundabouts, centre reservations
and other public areas that are not of highest status should be replaced with other groundcover
plants requiring low water and low maintenance; examples include Dymondia margaretae and
Lampranthus filicaulis. Parks and tourist areas would retain turf where necessary. This way, grass
will come to be seen as ‘special’, a luxury item for special areas and people. Where lawn is essential,
Paspalum vaginatum and suitable hybrids of this species would be the best suited varieties to be
grown. If lawn is not well maintained or irrigated then it is not a worthy part of the landscape.
Royal Palace Entrance Road. A substantial number
of annuals or season flowers have been used; they
are not ideal, because they have a considerable
water requirement. Ideally prostrate groundcovers
and low growing shrubs should have been used.
p42
A Desalinated Water Park where no expense
was spared. The plantings are designed for
minimal water requirements and consist of
Gazanias, Bougainvillea and Oleanders.
Sunken tree planters (above): the non-porous
paving alllows storm water to irrigate the trees.
Use of intertwined low growing groundcovers and
small Oleander shrubs creates a great effect especially
when viewed from above. Appropriate choices
can make a huge difference to water consumption
and maintenance aspects of the landscape.
The Falaj, an ancient irrigation system, (right)
is known to have been first developed by the
Magam civilization. It has also been part of the
heritage of the Al Ain region for over 3000 years.
The Falaj carries water to flood irrigate
agricultural crops and Date Palms plantations.
A significant aspect of the Falaj is that it
was constructed in a shaded, or partlyshaded, context to reduce evaporation
Agriculture surrounded by desert – Abu Ahabi (below)
Falaj - Agricultural Irrigation Channel, Abu Dhabi
As well as being renowned for its oil reservoirs
Abu Dhabi also has a long history of
agriculture. Crops in some case still are irrigated
through Falaj systems, as detailed above.
p43
SPAIN
Spain’s history with xeriscape landscapes commenced with the conquering Moors in 719 AD. The
Moors remained supreme from the southern coast to the Pyrenees for many centuries until the Spanish
Reconquista that culminated in the Sultan of Granada walking away from his beloved Alhambra
Palace because he did not want it to be destroyed. Fortunately, this legacy lives on and many people
from all round the globe make the pilgrimage to one of the best xeriscape examples in the world.
p44
ALHAMBRA, GRANADA
p45
The Alhambra’s La Alcazaba is an impressive military fortification c. 9th century,
and was modified by Muhammad III, in 13th century, to be his private residence.
Comming from arid North Africa, the Moors were
obsessed with the idea of water and vegetation.
Water installations were constructed and a system of
bringing water from the nearby Darro River, which
flows from the Sierra Nevada mountain ranges.
That enabled fountains and reflecting pools to be
installed and an air of freshness created by the
surrounding grounds with all kinds of greenery.
Patio of the Myrtles with its mirror effect pool was
carefully designed so that the entrance of the water
flows placidly and does not to break the reflection.
Patio of the Mytles
The Moors were the world innovators of
irrigation, reticulation and water feature
design at the height of their dominance
around the start of the thirteenth century.
Through exquisite grading, paving and
the development of a water transportation
and open drainage system through
the use of rills the Moors were able to
provide an outdoor airconditioning
system through the celebration of water
the appropriate use of greenery.
p46
Patio of the Mytles
Court of the Lions (Patio de los Arrayanes)
The Alhambra and the Generalife, or summer home of the Sultan, both reflect Arab beliefs which associate
Paradise with the purifying and life-giving elements of water and with related refreshing vegetation and shade.
The Moors were the masters of water design for their time. The only period which can match the Moors
water design and celebration is the Italian Renaissance two centuries later. The Villa d’Este in Tivoli, Rome,
is an example which is of similar merit. However the Italians did not have the same restrictions as the
Moors; the environment and conditions in Granada are a lot harsher and more arid than those of Tivoli.
From the tower, Torre de la Vela, you have a great view over the town.
p47
The water features dotted all around the
Alhambra have a remarkable cooling effect
in an otherwise hot dusty environment.
Green walls also improve the micro climate. The green
walls consist of cupressus hedges, climbing bouganvillea
and roses as well as wisteria arbors and oleander walkways.
Bi-pinnate shade trees are employed to great
effect, and provide respite from the hot sun.
All of the plants are of low to medium water requirement,
such as Buxus sempervirens, Nerium oleander, cupressus
species, rose species, wisteria species and citrus species.
p48
Handrail with refreshing cold water straight from the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. Attention to detail is second to none.
The Moors used gravity to transport their water, so whilst in
transit, they harnessed the precious resource for their benefit.
Irrigation of garden beds was done through
gravity and grading. The garden beds are
always sunken and higher at one end, so
the water is able to flow to all of the plants.
There is extensive array of colour, texture
and shape in the xerophytic plants.
Example of the Moors’ use of gravity to create beautiful
water freatures and water their plants. The centre
narrow channel in the illustration below is a rill and was
a means of water transportation for the Moors. These
irrigation / reticulation methods predate the Italian and
French Renaissance period of villa construction.
p49
APPROPRIATE PLANT SELECTION FOR SPAIN
Xeriscape Plants for Different Uses
Lantana montevidensis selections
GROUND COVERS
Myrtus communis ‘Compacta’
Acacia redolens
Pittosporum tobira ‘Wheeler’s Dwarf’
Aptenia cordifolia
Punica granatum dwarf selections
Some Baccharis spp.
Rhaphiolepis indica dwarf selections
Carpobrotus chilensis
Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Prostratus’
Carpobrotus edulis
Ruellia californica
Convolvulus mauritanicus
Some Salvia spp.
Dalea capitata
Santolina chamaecyparissus
Dalea greggii
Gazania rigens
Hedera canariensis
Some Juniperus spp.
Lantana montevidensis & prostrate hybrids
Myoporum parvfolium
Ophiopogon japonicus
Osteospermum fruticosum
Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Prostratus’
Trachelospermum asiaticum
Trachelospermum jasminoides
Verbena hybrids
Vinca spp.
SMALL SHRUBS or Shrub-Size Plants (0.8 to 1.2m high)
Asciepias linaria
Buxus microphylla japonica
Calliandra eriophylla
Carissa macrocarpa selections
Convolvulus cneorum
Some Cotoneaster spp.
Euryops pectinatus
Ilex vomitoria ‘Stokes’
Some Justicia spp.
Lagerstroetnia indica dwarf selections
Lantana camara selections
p50
MEDIUM SHRUBS (to 1.8m high)
Abelia grandflora
Some Atriplex spp.
Baccharis sarothroides
Some Caesalpinia spp.
Calliandra californica
Callistemon citrinus
Carissa macrocarpa
Dodonaea viscosa
Elaeagnus angustfolia
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Euonymus japonica
Feijoa sellowiana
Some Juniperus spp.
Some Leucophyllum spp.
Ligustrum japonicum
Ligustrum lucidum
Myrtus communis
Nandina domestica selections
Nerium oleander selections
Osmanthus fragrans
Photinia fraseri
Photinia serrulata
Pittosporum tobira
Some Pyracantha spp.
SMALL TREES (to 6m high)
Some Ficus spp.
Rhaphiolepis indica selections
Some Acacia spp.
Fraxinus velutina
Some Senna spp.
Albizia julibrissin
Geijera parviflora
Simmondsia chinensis
Some Bauhinia spp.
Gleditsia triacanthos inermis
Viburnum suspensum
Caesalpinia mexicana
Parkinsonia aculeata
Viburnum tinus
Cercidium spp.
Pinus thunbergiana
Xylosma congestum
Chilopsis linearis
Citrus selections (dwarf root stock)
LARGE SHRUBS (to 3m high)
Cocculus laurfolius
Some Cotoneaster spp
Dodonaea viscosa selections
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Euonymus fortunei
Euonymus japonica
Feijoa sellowiana
Some Juniperus spp.
Laurus nobilis
Ligustrum japonicum
Ligustrum lucidum
Nerium oleander selections
Photinia fraseri
Cordia boissieri
Elaeagnus angustfolia
Eriobotrya japonica
Geijera parviflora
Ligustrum lucidum
Melia azedarach
Nerium oleander
Olea europaea ‘Swan Hill’
Photinia fraseri
Pithecellobium flexicaule
Pithecellobium mexicanum
Pittosporum phillyraeoides
Rhaphiolepis indica ‘Majestic Beauty’
Vitex angus-castus
Xylosma congestum
Photinia serrulata
LARGE TREES (over 12.2m high)
Araucaria bidwillii
Carya illinoensis
Some Casuarina spp.
Some Cedrus spp. and selections
Cupressus arizonica
Cupressus sempervirens
Dalbergia sissoo
Some Eucalyptus spp.
Gleditsia triacanthos inermis
Grevillea robusta
Phoenix canariensis
Phoenix dactylfera
Some Pinus spp.
Pistacia chinensis
Platanus acerfolia
Platanus racemosa
Platycladus orientalis
MEDIUM TREES (to 12.2m high)
Some Populus spp.
Punica granatum
Acacia visco
Some Quercus spp.
Ailanthus altissima
Washingtonia filifera
Rhus ovata
Casuarina stricta
Washingtonia robusta
Sophora secundiflora
Cercidium floridum
Tecoma alata hybrid
Cercis canadensis
Tecoma stans
Chitalpa tashkentensis
Vauquelinia calfornica
Chorisia speciosa
Viburnum suspensum
Cupressus arizonica
Viburnum tinus
Xylosma congestum
VINES & WALL PLANTS
Antigonon leptopus
Bougainvillea spp.
Campsis radicans
Clytostoma callistegioides
Euonymus fortunei
Euonymus japonica
p51
Fatshedera lizei
Cocculus laurfolius
Celtis pallida
Feijoa sellowiana
Cycas revoluta
Celtis reticulata
Ficuspumila
Dodonaea viscosa
Dyssodia pentachaeta
Gelsemium sempervirens
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Eupatorium greggii
Hardenbergia violacea
Hesperaloe funifera
Hedera canariensis
Some Justicia spp.
Hesperaloe parvflora
Some Jasminum spp.
Laurus nobilis
Some Justicia spp.
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Myrtus communis
Lantana camara
Podranea ricasoliana
Nandina domestica
Lantana montevidensis
Nerium oleander
Penstemon spp.
Photinia fraseri
Vigna caracalla
Photinia serrulata
Some Salvia spp.
Wisteria floribunda
Plumbago auriculata
Tecoma alata hybrid.
Rhaphiolepis indica
Tecoma stans
Verbena hybrids
Tecomaria capensis
Vitex angus-castus
Zauschneria calfornica latfolia
REALLY TOUGH PLANTS
Acacia constricta
Acacia greggii
Atriplex spp.
Baccharis sarothroides
Brahea armata
Dodonaea viscosa
Vaquelinia calfornica
FRAGRANT PLANTS (Sweet)
Vinca spp.
Acacia farnesiana
Xylosma congestum
Buddleia davidii
Ferocactus spp.
Opuntia spp.
PLANTS THAT ATTRACT BIRDS
Parkinsonia aculeata
Some Acacia spp.
Phoenix dactylifera
Ageratum corymbosum
Prosopis spp.
Some Aloe spp
Tamarix aphylla
Asciepias linaria
Vinca major
Asciepias subulata
Buddleia davidii
Buddleia marrubfolia
CLEAN POOLSIDE PLANTS
Asparagus densflorus selections
Carissa macro carpa
Chamaerops humilis
Some Citrus spp.
p52
Calliandra calfornica
Callistemon viminalis
Carnegiea gigantea
Carissa macrocarpa
Citrus spp.
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Gardenia jasminoides
Jasminum grandflorum
Jasminum sambac
Lonicera japonica ‘Hallmark’
Osmanthus fragrans
Pittosporum phillyraeoides
Pittosporum tobira
AROMATIC PLANTS (Strong)
TRANSITIONAL PLANTS
Cupressus arizonica
Nerium oleander
(Plants used b/w different zones)
Plumbago auriculata
Some Acacia spp.
Eucalyptus cinerea
Some Agave spp.
Eucalyptus citriodora
Some Salvia spp.
Some Aloe spp.
Some Juniperus spp.
Some Senna spp.
Some Atriplex spp.
Lantana camara
Tecoma alata hybrid
Tecoma stans
Celtis pallida
Larrea tridentata
Tecomaria capensis
Celtis reticulata
Laurus nobilis
Vitex angus-castus
Some Cercidium spp
Lavandula spp.
Zauschneria cahifornica latfolia
Some Dalea spp.
Dasylirion wheeleri
Myrtus communis
Some Pinus spp.
Platanus acerfolia
Platanus racemosa
Rosmarinus officinalis
Salvia clevelandii
Some Tagetes spp.
PLANTS FOR SHADY AREAS
(*Require shade to survive)
Agave americana ‘Media Picta’
Agave attenuata
*Aspidistra elatior
*Aucuba japonica
Most Begonia spp.
Cycas revoluta
Dodonaea viscosa
Encehiafarinosa 184
Eremophila ‘Valentine’
Justicia calfornica
Justicia candicans
Lantana camara
COLOR PLANTS
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Antigonon leptopus
Fatshedera lizei
Bougainvillea hybrids
*Fatsia japonica
Ficus pumila
Cercidium spp.
Hedera canariensis
Chilopsis linearis selections
Kalanchoe blossfeldiana
Chitalpa tashkentensis
Laurus nobihis
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Liriope muscari
Euphorbia rigida
MEDITERRANEAN
Gazania rigens
Oxahis crassipes
Acanthus mollis
Hesperaloe parviflora
Philodendron selloum
Some Agave spp.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Some Aloe spp.
Some Justicia spp.
Bougainvillea spp.
Lagerstroemia indica
Vinca spp. especially Vinca minor
Chamaerops humilis
Nolina microcarpa
Some Prosopis spp.
Rhus lancea
Rosmarinus officinalis & cultivars
Some Salvia spp.
Simmondsia chinensis
Tagetes palmeri
Lantana camara
Citrus spp.
p53
Laurus nobilis
Feijoa sellowiana
Larrea tridentata
Lavandula spp.
Hedera canariensis
Myrtus communis
Ilex cornuta
Mehianthus major
Olea europaea
Some Juniperus spp.
Muhienbergia spp.
Phoenix spp.
Laurus nobilis
Nolina microcarpa
Pinus halepensis
Ligustrum japonicum
Platanus acerifolia
Pinus pinea
Ligustrum lucidum
Platanus racemosa
Punica granatum
Myrtus communis
Plumbago auriculata
Quercus ilex
Nandina domestica
Populus fremontii
Quercus suber
Nerium oleander
Rosa banksiae
Rosmarinus officinahis and cultivars
Osmanthus fragrans
Some Salvia spp.
Oriental
Photinia fraseri
Tagetes palmeri
Bambusa spp.
Photinia serrulata
Vitis vinfera
Prunus caroliniana
Zauschneria calfornica latifolia
Cocculus laurifolius
Rhaphiolepis indica
Dietes spp.
Viburnum suspensum
Some Juniperus spp.
Viburnum tinus
Ligustrum japonicum
Xylosma congestum
Liriope muscari
Yucca recurvifolia
Myrtus communis
Acanthus mollis
Some Agave spp.
Antigonon leptopus
Asparagus spp.
Aspidistra elatior
INFORMAL (natural landscapes)
Aucuba japonica
Arundo donax
Bambusa spp.
Some Atriplex spp.
Bauhinia spp.
Some Baccharis spp.
Bougainvillea spp.
Caesalpinia spp.
Calliandra calfornica
Carissa macrocarpa
Chorisia insignis
Campsis radicans
Chorisia speciosa
Carnegiea gigantea
Cocculus laurifolius
Cycas revoluta
FORMAL / HEDGIN / TOPIARY
Encelia farinosa
Ensete ventricosum
Fatshedera lizei
Euphorbia rigida
Fatsia japonica
Cycas revoluta
Hardenbergia violacea
Gardenia jasminoides
Euonymus japonica
Justicia calfornica
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Nandina domestica
Osmanthus fragrans
Phyllostachys aurea
Pinus thunbergiana
Prunus cerasfera
Pyrus kawakamii
Vinca minor
Wisteria floribunda
p54
TROPICAL
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Tecomaria capensis
Musa paradisiaca
Viburnum suspensum
Passflora alatocaerulea
Viburnum tinus
Paulownia tomentosa
Philodendron selloum
Plumeria obtusa
Plumeria rubra
WOODSY
Carya illinoensis
Strelitzia reginae
Cercis spp.
Syagrus romanzoffianum
Cotoneaster spp.
Tecoma alata hybrid
Cupressus arizonica
Tecoma stans
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Tecomaria capensis
Euonymus fortunei
Yucca gloriosa
Hedera canariensis
Juniperus spp.
SUBTROPICAL
Acacia farnesiana
Acacia smallii
Aloe spp.
Bougainvillea spp.
Caesalpinia spp.
Liriope muscari
Pinus spp.
Quercus spp.
Rhaphiolepis indica
Syringa persica
Wisteria floribunda
Calliandra californica
Cercidium spp.
Chilopsis linearis
Citrus spp.
Dalea spp.
Lantana camara
Lycianthes rantonnei
Phoenix spp.
Plumbago auriculata
Salvia spp.
Setcreasea palhida
Tecoma alata hybrid
Tecoma stans
p55
View of Malaga Harbour and landscaped promenade
Views from Malaga’s La Alcazaba. It is an
impressive military fortification, which, like
the Alhambra, was a private residence of the
Sultan. La Alcazaba is on a rocky hill side
where limited vegetation will grow. The
lower section of the hill was characterised
by second stage xeriscape plants, however,
as the hill ascended, the plants changed
and Eucalyptus species became dominant.
Malaga’s Bull Fighting Ring and Down Town Area
Terraced section of the main street and promenade
p56
Malaga, like Granada, was filled with water features despite the arid environment. This is typical
of Moorish Architecture, where the outdoor area is considered another room and therefore
needs to be cooled. Green walls, hedges and water features were used for this effect.
The use of Rills for the transportation of water and irrigation of plants.
Balance between hard
and softscape elements
improves the xeriscape
qualities of the landscape.
Note, the connection
between interior
and exterior.
Shallow water features were
incorporated because of
the lack of available water,
especially on a rocky hill top.
p57
This is an example
of new paving
infrastructure. It is a
ramp with outlets which
allow storm water to run
off the ramp and into the
surrounding landscape.
Malaga possesses some
very interesting paving
types both old and new.
Traditional Moorish water feature with
a distinctive geometric shape.
Traditional marble
pavers which have
warn the test of time.
Citrus orchard with granitic sand is a typical
southern Spain landscape, which is self sufficient.
Combination of the
two paving traditions
of Andalucia the red
stone, which was used
to build the Moors’
Alcazabas and the
course charcoal marble.
Grooves cut into the
stone to allow better
grip on the marble.
Landscape either side
for storm water run off.
p58
Mosaic paving and
representation of
Islam were important
landscape features,
because human and
animal representations
or statues are forbidden
under Islam.
New water feature design in Malaga
does not leave much to the imagination,
but still has a good effect.
Traditional drainage style where grading
is used to harness the storm water
into a rill system which irrigates the
landscape and feeds the water features.
Mixed sized stone and pebble paving slows
down the storm-water drainage, so that the
sunken tree planters can absorb the water.
Drainage holes on top of the Alcazaba
walling. Traditionally there would be
a moat to catch all of the storm water,
but today there is an extensive garden.
Traditional tiled roof designed to direct flow
into a garden bed or surrounding moat.
Moorish grading systems were second
to none in the 13th Century. All surfaces
were constructed to maximize the storm
water run off, then several measures,
including rills and ponds, were used to
store and maximize the water’s potential.
Weep holes, which allow moisture from
the earth behind the retaining wall to
escape without ruining the wall.
p59
The Moors were
the masters of
irrigation design,
from sunken
tree planters
to gravitational
irrigation
systems. These
are examples of
Moorish irrigation Urban Gravitational Irrigation
practices which
are still being
implemented with
success today.
Restored Gravitational Irrigation System
Xeriscape Design - Hard/softscape Infrastructure
Sunken Citrus Tree Planter
Hardscape Elements to Assist in Water Delivery
Flood Irrigation,
a traditional
agricultural
practice, which
is now made
obsolete by
subterranean drip
irrigation systems.
p60
Urban Streetscape in Seville
Circular Water Feature
Octagon Water Feature
Expanded Rill for Landscape Aesthetics
Hexagon Water Feature
Geometric Moorish Water Feature
p61
Hedging plants such
as buxus species,
ligustrum species
and cupressus
species are well
utilized and provide
a formal element
to the landscape.
Traditional Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
Cascading
creepers soften
hard elements
and generally
require minimal
water. A
preferred
xeriscape
creeper is
Myoporum
parviflora.
Green Walling provides soothing characteristics and
improves the micro climate. In this case the drought
tolerant and hardy Ivy is the best result.
p62
SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
In the years following the first of the great water diversion projects, just after the end of
the Nineteenth Century, water became available for both agriculture and urban growth in
places where it had not been before, and the West began turning from browns and greys to
bright green, as settlers tried to create lush water-rich landscapes like those of their former
homelands in the eastern states and Europe. Cities became green with exotic plants brought
from humid zones and supported by irrigation. Such artificial landscapes require enormous
quantities of water usually brought hundreds of miles through pipes and channels.
In recent years, recognition of the problems associated with the sustainable use of water and
the need for its conservation has grown. The Xeriscape movement was developed by landscape
professionals and water managers in Denver, Colorado, during a drought in the 1980s to solve what
is a common problem, the problem of water wasted in the landscape. The movement has promoted
use of drought-tolerant plants, and interest in native plants has become widespread. In a number of
projects, landscape architects have planted communities of natives with beautiful and sustainable
results. However, the use of local natives has its limitations. They provide a limited selection and
cannot provide for all the functions and amenities that humans require in arid lands - for example,
shade. Many dry land natives are hard to propagate, grow slowly, and often they are expensive to
install. The American solution to this problem was to look to countries of a similar climate, such as
Australia. The Americans thus started cultivating eucalyptus species and other Australian natives.
p63
Source: Times Atlas
The Gardens and Shops at the Arizona Center, Phoenix Arizona
Although a higher than average rainfall was recorded in Phoenix during the summer of 2006, the
monsoons followed the second driest winter on record on the watersheds that feed Phoenix’s reservoirs.
All indications are that the more than a decade-long pattern of below-normal precipitation, both
locally and in the watersheds serving Phoenix, will continue. Although aware of its arid location, the
City of Phoenix has relied on the Colorado reservoirs for too long. It is only now that the municipality
is implementing grey water recycling and maximizing their storm water catchments in the urban
environment. Overall Phoenix is designed with xeriscape principles for hard and soft landscapes and
Phoenix also has the infrastructure and the resources to implement the appropriate grey water and
storm-water solutions in addition to the treated sewage water system in operation at present.
p64
VERRADO Buckeye, Arizona
Most plants in dry landscapes share certain characteristics
of form, which are specifically related to the lack of
water, to high levels of solar radiation, and to strong
winds. The plants grow low and spread wide, and their
leaves are small, often spiky, hairy, waxy or grey.
Often, especially in the succulent family, the plants tend
to point upward, more or less towards the sun and thus
minimise surfaces exposed to desiccating solar rays.
Waxy coated leaves enable the plant to reflect ultraviolet
radiation, thereby reducing water loss. Succulent
leaves are able to retain water inside the leaves.
Desert Bio-retention Swale, designed
for the occasional flash flood. The swale
deals with excessive water very quickly,
but also possesses enough aesthetic
qualities to be an integral part of the
permanent landscape, either wet or dry.
Hairy leaves are related to xerophytic
plants, because this allows the plant to
keep moisture close to the plant surface.
By presenting a lower profile to the wind
and a smaller surface area for emitting
water through evapotranspiration
the plant is more likely to survive.
p65
APPROPRIATE PLANT SELECTION FOR ARIZONA
Matthiola longipetala cv. ‘Bicomis’ (Evening Scented Stock)
ANNUAL WILDFLOWERS
Mentzelia spp. (Blazing Star)
Abronia villosa (Sand-verbena)
Mimulus bigelovii (Bigelow’s Monkeyflower)
Amsinckia intermedia (Fiddleneck)
Mohavea confertiflora (Ghost Flower)
Argemone pleiacantha (Prickly-poppy)
Monarda austromontana (Bee Balm)
Camissonia brevipes (Yellow Cups)
Monoptilon bellioides (Belly Flower)
Camissonia cardiophylla (Heart-leaved Primrose)
Nama demissum (Purple Mat)
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Periwinkle)
Nama hispidum (Purple Mat)
Centaurea rothrockii (Basket Flower)
Nemophila maculate (Five Spot)
Cirsium neornexicanum (Thistle)
Nemophila menziesii (Baby Blue Eyes)
Clarkia amoena (Farewell-to-Spring)
Oenothera deltoids (Birdcage Evening Primrose)
Collinsia heterophylla (Chinese-houses)
Oenothera primiveris (Evening Primrose)
Coreopsis bigelovii (Desert Coreopsis)
Orthocarpus purpurascens (Owl’s Clover)
Cosmos spp. (Cosmos)
Papaver rhocas (Shirley Poppy)
Dimorphotheca spp. (African Daisy)
Pectis papposa (Chinch Weed)
Eriastrum diffusum (Prickly Stars)
Perityle emoryi (Rock Daisy)
Eriophyllum lanosum (Woolly Daisy)
Phacelia spp. (Scorpion Weed)
Eriophyllum wallacei (Woolly Daisy)
Plantago spp. (Indian-wheat)
Eschscholtzia califomica (California, Mexican Poppy)
Platystemon californicus
Euphorbia heterophylla (Painted Spurge)
Proboscidea parviflora (Devil’s Claw)
Gaillardia puichella (Fire Wheel, Blanket Flower)
Rafinesquia neomexicana (Desert-chicory)
Geraca canescens (Desert Sunflower)
Salvia columbariae (Chia)
Gilia leptantha (Showy Blue Gilia)
Sisymbrium ambiguum (Purple Rocket)
Gomphrena globosa (Globe Amaranth)
Solanum xanti (Solanum)
Helianthus annuus (Wild Sunflower)
Tithonia rotundifolia (Mexican Sunflower)
Helichrysum bracteatum (Everlasting Daisy)
Ursinia spp. (Ursinia)
Helipterum spp. (Helipterum)
Verbesina encelioides (Golden Crown Beard)
Ipomoea cristulata (Morning Glory)
Viguiera annua (Golden Eye)
Ipornoea leptotoma (Morning Glory)
Zinnia angustifolia x elegans (Zinnia ‘Profusion’)
(Cream Cups)
Kalistroemia grandiflora (Arizona poppy)
Lasthenia chrysostoma - Baeria chrysostoma (Goldfield)
Layia platyglossa (Tidy Tips)
Lesquerella gordonii (Yellow Blanket)
Linaria spp. (Toadflax)
Linum grandiflorum cv. ‘Rubrum’ (Red Flax)
Lupinus arizonicus (Arizona Lupine)
Lupinus densiflorus (Lupine)
Lupinus sparsiflorus (Desert Lupine)
Lupinus succulentus (Arroyo Lupine)
Machaeranthera asteroids - Psilactis leptos (Purple Aster)
Machacranthera canescens - Aster bigelovii (Blue Aster)
Machaeranthcra tanacetifolia – Aster (Tahoka Daisy)
Matricaria grandiflora (Pineapple Weed)
p66
GRASSES
Aristida purpurea (Purple Three-awn)
Bothriochloa barbinodis (Cane Bluestem)
Bothriochloa gerardii (Big Bluestem)
Bouteloua aristidoides (Six-weeks Grama)
Bouteloua curtipendula (Side Oats Grama)
Bouteloua gracilis (Blue Grama)
Erioneuron puichellum (Fluff grass)
Hilaria rigida (Big Galleta)
Muhienbergia capillaries
(Gulf Muhly)
Muhienbergia Dumosa (Giant Muhly)
Muhienbergia emersleyi (Bull Grass)
Muhienbergia lindheimeri (Lindheimer Muhly)
Muhienbergia porteri (Bush Muhly)
Muhienbergia rigens (Deer Grass)
PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS
Muhienbergia rigida (Purple Muhly)
Allionia incarnate (Trailing Windmills)
Nasella tenuissima - Stipa tdnuissima (Mexican Feather Grass)
Ainsonia palmeri (Amsonia)
Pennisetum setaceum cv. ‘Cupreum’ (Purple Fountain Grass)
Anigozanthos spp. (Kangaroo-paw)
Schismus barbatus (Mediterranean Grass)
Anisodontea hypomandrum (African Mallow)
Setaria macrostachya (Plains Bristlegrass)
Arctotis spp. (African Daisy)
Sporobolus airoides (Alkali Sacaton)
Argemone munita (Prickly Poppy)
Sporobolus cryptandrus (Sand Dropseed)
Argemone platyceras (Prickly Poppy)
Sporobolus wrightii (Big Sacaton)
Bahia absinthifolia (Bahia)
Trichachne californica (Cotton top)
Bailcya multiradiata (Desert Marigold)
Berlandiera lyrata (Chocolate Flower)
GROUNDCOVERS
Castilleja chrornosa (Indian Paintbrush)
Acacia spp. (Acacia)
Castilleja lanata (Indian Paintbrush)
Acalypha monostachya (Rasberry Fuzzies)
Conoclinium greggii - Eupatorium greggii (Eupatorium)
Asparagus densiflorus cv. ‘Sprengeri’ (Sprenger Asparagus)
Datura mctaloidcs - wrightii, inoxia (Sacred Datura, Jimsonweed)
Atriplex spp. (Saitbush)
Delphinium arnabile (Larkspur)
Baccharis pilularis (Coyote Brush)
Delphinium scaposum (Barestem Larkspur)
Calylophus hartwegii v. fendleri (Sundrops)
Dichelostemma puichellum (Bluedicks)
Clianthus formosus (Sturt’s Desert Pea)
Erigeron divergens (Spreading Fleabane)
Convolvulus mauritanicus (Ground Morning Glory)
Erigeron karvinskianus (Santa Barbara Daisy)
Dalea spp. (Indigo Bush)
Evolvulus arizonicus (Arizona Blue Eyes)
Eschscholzia Mexicana (Mexican Gold Poppy)
Gaura lindheimeri (Desert Orchid)
Gazania spp. (Gazania)
Glandulaiia gooddingii - Verbena gooddingii (Goodding Verbena)
Glandularia bipinnatifida - Verbena bipinnatifida (Verbena)
Helianthus maximiliana (Maximilian’s Sunflower)
Glandularia peruviana - Verbena peruviana (Peruvian Verbena)
Hesperocallis undulate (Ajo Lily)
Glandularia rigida - Verbena rigida (Sandpaper Verbena)
Hibiscus coulteri (Desert Rose Mallow)
Glandularia tenera - Verbena tenera (Moss Verbena)
Ipomopsis longiflora (Pale Blue Trumpets)
Lantana spp. (Trailing Lantana)
Justicia sonorac (Sonoran Justicia)
Myoporum parvifolium (Myoporum)
Linum lewisii (Blue Flax)
Oenothera berlandieri - O.speciosa (Mexican Evening Primrose)
Lotus rigidus (Desert Rock Pea)
Oenothera stubbei (Saltillo Primrose)
Machacranthera gracilis (Yellow Aster)
Pentzia incana (Karoo Bush)
Machaeranthera tortifolia (Mohave Aster)
Rosmarinus officinalis cv.’Prostratus’ (Prostrate Rosemary)
Melampodium leucanthum (Blackfoot Daisy)
Salvia chamaedryoides (Blue Sage)
Mirabilis multiflora (Desert Four O’Clock)
Salvia farinacea (Mealy Cup Sage)
Oenothera caespitose (Tufted Evening Primrose)
Santolina chamaccyparissus (Lavender Cotton)
Penstemon spp. (Penstemon)
Santolina virens (Green Santolina)
Proboscidea altheaefolia (Devil’s Claw)
Sesuvium verrucosum (Sea Pursiane)
Psilostrophe cooperi (Paperfiower)
Teucrium chamaedrys cv. ‘Prostrata’ (Germander)
Psilostrophe tagetina (Paperfiower)
Wedclia trilobata (Yellow Dot)
Ratibida columnaris (Mexican Hat, Coneflower)
Zauschneria spp. (Hummingbird Flower)
Romneya coulteri (Matilija Poppy)
Senna covesii - Cassia covesii (Desert Senna)
Sphaeralcea spp. (Globe-mallow)
p67
Stachys coccinea (Red Mint, Betony)
Cordia parvifolia (Little Leaf Cordia)
Tagetes spp. (Marigold)
Coursetia glandulosa (Baby Bonnets)
Tetraneuris acaulis - Hymenoxys acaulis (Angelita Daisy)
Cycas revolute (Sago Palm)
Thymophylla acerosa - Dyssodia acerosa (Dyssodia)
Dalea spp. (Smoketree, Indigo Bush)
Thyrnophylla pcntachaeta - Dyssodia.pentachaeta (Dyssodia)
Dicliptera resupinata (Native Dicliptera)
Zephryanthes spp. (Rain Lily)
Dodonaca viscose (Hopbush)
Zinnia acerosa (Desert Zinnia)
Encelia spp. (Brittlebush)
Zinnia grandiflora (Rocky Mountain Zinnia)
Ephedra spp. (Mormon-tea)
Eremophila spp. (Emu Bush)
SHRUBS
Abutilon palmeri (Superstition Mallow)
Acacia spp. (Acacia)
Aloysia spp. (Beebrush)
Ambrosia ambrosioides (Canyon Ragweed)
Ambrosia deltoidea (Triangleleaf Bur-sage)
Ambrosia Dumosa (White Bur-sage)
Anisacanthus spp. (Desert Honeysuckle)
Artemisia spp. (Sagebrush)
Asclepias linaria (Pine-leaf Milkweed)
Asciepias subulata (Desert Milkweed)
Atriplex spp. (Saltbush)
Baccharis spp. (Desert Broom, Coyote Brush)
Bauhinia lunarioides – congesta (Anacacho)
Bauhinia macaranthera (Orchid Tree)
Bauhinia ramosissirna (Orchid Tree)
Bebbia juncea (Sweet Bush)
Berberis haematocarpa (Red Barberry)
Berberis trifoliolata (Agarita)
Buddleia marrubifolia (Woolly Butterfly Bush)
Caesalpinia spp. (Bird-of-Paradise)
Calliandra californica (Baja Red Fairy Duster)
Calliandra eriophylla (Pink Fairy Duster)
Calliandra peninsularis (Fairy Duster)
Callistemon citrinus (Lemon Bottlebrush)
Callistemon phoeniceus (Salt Resistant Bottlebrush)
Callistemon viminalis (Bottlebrush)
Calothamnus spp. (Net Bush)
Ccltis pallida (Desert Hackberry)
Chrysactinia Mexicana (Damianita)
Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Rabbit Brush)
Cistus spp. (Rockrose)
Condalia globosa (Bitter Condalia)
Convolvulus cneorum (Bush Morning Glory, Silverbush)
Cordia boissicri (Anacahuita)
p68
Ericameria laricifolia (Turpentine Bush)
Ericameria linearifolia (Turpentine Bush)
Eriogonum spp. (Buckwheat)
Erythrina flabelliformis (Southwest Coralbean)
Euphorbia antisyphilitica (Wax Plant, Candelilla)
Euphorbia biglandulosa – rigida (Euphorbia)
Feijoa sellowiana (Pineapple Guava)
Forcsticra ncomcxicana (Desert Olive)
Fraxinus greggii (Littleleaf Ash)
Genista hispanica (Spanish Broom)
Gossypium harknessii (San Marcos Hibiscus)
Guiacum coulteri (Guayacan)
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Snakeweed)
Hamelia patcns (Fire Bush)
Hymenoclea monogyra (Burrobrush)
Hyptis emoryi (Desert-lavender)
Jasminum mesnyi (Primrose Jasmine)
Jatropha spp. (Limberbush)
Juniperus chinensis (Juniper)
Justicia spp. (Mexican Honeysuckle, Chuparosa)
Krameria parvifolia (Ratany)
Lantana spp. (Lantana)
Larrea tridentate (Creosote Bush)
Leucophyllum spp. (Texas Sage, Texas Ranger)
Lippia graveolens – berlandieri (Mexican Oregano)
Lycium spp. (Wolfberry)
Maireana sedifolia (Bluebush)
Malpighia emarginata (Barbados Cherry)
Maytenus phyllanthoides (Mangle Dulce)
Melaleuca spp. (Australian Myrtle)
Mimosa biuncifera (Wait-a-Minute Bush)
Mimosa dysocarpa (Velvet Pod Mimosa)
Myrtus communis (Myrtle)
Nandina domestica (Heavenly-bamboo)
Nerium oleander varieties (Oleander)
Perovskia atriplicifolia cv. ‘Heavenly Blue’ (Russian Sage)
Hesperaloe spp. (Hesperaloe)
Phlomis fruticosa (Jerusalem Sage)
Manfreda maculosa (Manfreda)
Plumbago capensis (Cape Plumbago)
Nolina spp. (Bear-grass)
Plumbago scandens (Plumbago)
Pedilanthus macrocarpus (Lady Slipper)
Poliomintha maderensis (Lavender Spice)
Portulaca grandiflora (Moss Rose)
Punica granatuin varieties (Pomegranate)
Portulacaria afra (Elephant Food)
Pyracantha spp. (Pyracantha, Fire-thorn)
Yucca spp. (Yucca)
Rhus choriophylla (Mearns Sumac)
Rhus microphylla (Desert Sumac)
Rhus ovata (Sugarbush)
Rhus trilobata (Skunkbush)
Rhus virens (Evergreen Sumac)
Rosmarjnus officinalis (Bush Rosemary)
Ruellia ssp. (Ruellia)
Salvia spp. (Sage)
Senna spp. (Senna)
Cassia spp. (Cassia)
Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba)
Solanum xanti (Solanum)
Sophora arizonica (Arizona Sophora)
Sophora Formosa (Sophora)
Tecoma spp. (Tacoma)
Tecomaria capensis (Cape Honeysuckle)
Teucrium fruticans (Bush Germander)
Thamnosma Montana (Turpentine Broom)
Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)
Trixis californica (Trixis)
Vauquelinia spp. (Rosewood)
Vigueria stenoloba (Skeleton-leaf Goldeneye)
Viguiera parishii V. deltoidea (Golden Eye)
Viguiera tomentose (Golden Eye)
Zexmenia hispida (Rough Zexmenia)
Westringia rosmariniformis (Westringia)
Ziziphus obtusifolia (Greythorn)
SUCCULENTS / ACCENTS
Agave spp. (Century Plant, Agave)
Aizoaceae spp. (Ice Plant Family)
Aloe spp. (Aloe)
Bulbine frutescens (Bulbine)
Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Dasylirion spp. (Desert Spoon)
Fouquieria spp. (Ocotillo)
Hechtia Montana (Hechtia)
TREES
Acacia spp. (Acacia, Wattle)
Bauhinia lunariodes - B.cwongesta (Anacacho Orchid Tree)
Bauhinia Mexicana (Orchid Tree)
Brachychiton populneus (Bottle Tree)
Brahea spp. (Fan Palm)
Bursera spp. (Elephant Tree)
Butia capitata (Jelly Palm)
Caesalpinia spp. (Bird-of-Paradise)
Callistemon ssp. (Bottlebrush)
Canotia holacantha (Crucifixion Thorn)
Casuarina spp. (Beefwood)
Ccltis reticulate (Western Hackberry)
Ceratonia siliqua (St. John’s Bread Tree, Carob Tree)
Cercis canadensis var. Mexicana (Mexican Redbud)
Cercis canadensis var. texensis (Texas Redbud)
Chamaerops humilis (Mediterranean Fan Palm)
Chilopsis linearis (Desert-willow)
Chitalpa tashkcntensis (Chitalpa)
Chorisia speciosa (Silk Floss Tree)
Cupressus arizonica (Arizona Cypress)
Cupressus sempervirens (Italian Cypress)
Dalbergia sissoo (Sissoo Tree)
Ebenopsis spp. - Pithecellobium spp. (Ebony)
Eucalyptus spp. (Eucalyptus)
Eysenhardtia orthocarpa (Kidneywood)
Geijera parviflora (Australian-willow)
Gleditsia triacanthos (Honey Locust)
Holacantha emoryi - Castela emoryi (Crucifixion Thorn)
Leucaena retusa (Golden Ball Lead Tree)
Lysiloma spp. (Desert-fern)
Olea europaea (Olive)
Olneya tesota (Ironwood)
Parkinsonia aculeate (Mexican Palo Verde, Jerusalem)
Parkinsonia spp. - Cercidiurn spp. (Palo Verde)
Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island Date Palm)
p69
Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm)
Pinus canariensis (Canary Island Pine)
Pinus eldarica (Afghan Pine)
Pinus halepensis (Aleppo Pine)
Pinus pinea (Italian Stone Pine)
Pinus roxburghii (Chir Pine)
Pistacia spp. (Pistachio)
Pittosporum phillyraeoides (Willow Pittosporum)
Prosopis spp. (Mesquite)
Quercus spp. (Oak)
Rhus lancea (African Sumac)
Rhus lanceolata (Prairie Flameleaf Sumac)
Schinus molle (California Pepper Tree)
Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian Pepper Tree)
Sophora secundiflora (Texas Mountain Laurel, Mescal)
Tamarix aphylla (Athel Tree)
Tipuana tipu (Tipu Tree)
Ulmus parvifolia cv.’Sempervirens’ (Chinese Evergreen Elm)
Ungnadia speciosa (Mexican-buckeye)
Vitex agnus-castus (Chaste Tree)
Washingtonia spp. (Desert Fan Palm)
Xylosma congestum (Xylosma)
Ziziphus jujube (Chinese Jujube)
VINES
Antigonon leptopus (Coral Vine, Queen’s Wreath)
Bougainvillea spp. ( Bougainvillea)
Callaeum macropterum - Mascagnia macroptera (Yellow Orchid Vine)
Campsis radicans (Common Trumpet Creeper)
Cissus trifoliata (Grape Ivy)
Clernatis drummondii (Virgin’s Bower)
Curcurbita digitata (Coyote Gourd, Finger Leaf Gourd)
Hardenbergia comptoniana (Lilac Vine)
Hardenbergia violacea (Purple Coral Pea)
Janusia gracilis (Slender Janusia)
Kennedia nigricans (Black Yellow Vine)
Macfadyena unguis (Cat’s Claw)
Mascagnia lilacina (Purple Mascagnia)
Maurandya antirrhiniflora (Snapdragon Vine)
Maurandya wislizeni (Snapdragon Vine)
Merrernia aurea (Yellow Morning Glory Vine)
Passiflora foetida (Passion Vine)
Podranea ricasoliana (Pink Trumpet Vine)
Rhynchosia texana (Rosary Bead Vine)
Rosa banksiae (Lady Bank’s Rose)
Solanum jasminoides (Potato Vine)
p70
Drought tolerant palms species with
inorganic mulch. It is an effective xeriscape
design, especially for an accent area.
Impressive Median Strips with plants which minimize
their exposure to the sun by pointing towards it.
Yukka plants used as accent plants, surrounded
by low growing xerophytic shrub species.
Xerophytic water feature. Minimal amount of
water is used to reduce the amount of water lost
through evaporation, whilst still providing a cooling
effect. The water features in Arizona were included
in the landscape more for their artistic or aesthetic
qualities rather than as a water celebration.
Agave species with inorganic mulch. A design
element typical to Arizona. The use of gravel is to
reduce the amount of planting required without
compromising on the landscape aesthetics.
COR-10 Steel Shade structure employed as a shade
structure, but would be further improved with the use
of a drought tolerant climber such as Ficus primula.
p71
CALIFORNIA
CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES BY DAY
CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES BY NIGHT
p72
RANCHO SANTA MARGARITA
Rancho Santa Margarita is the highest-density
master-planned suburban community in
the United States of America. It pioneered
concepts of jobs-housing balance, town
centre design, governance, and soft
infrastructure. Rancho Santa Margarita
was the first development to incorporate
the concept of soft infrastructure, which
has since become almost mandatory.
The new city of 40,000 residents was designed with
sustainability in mind, especially with regard to the
landscape. The design incorporated a water saving
balance between hard and softscape elements as well as
replacing lawn areas by low growing, low maintenance
and low water requiring groundcovers and small
shrubs. The beauty of these prostrate plants is that
they occupy a large amount of surface area, up to three
metres squared in some cases, yet they need very little
water to survive especially in relation to their erect
relations. The stormwater from the site was recycled
into the lake system, where oils and other toxins were
eradicated through siltation and the zapping of ultraviolet
radiation. Once this process was complete and the
stormwater had moved to a secondary lake, it was ready
for reuse on the streetscapes, parks and civic centres.
p73
The Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, California
Neurosciences Institute
The Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, California has a water sensitive approach to the site with
native or naturalised species providing a nice backdrop and a balance between hard and softscape,
which is appropriate for the region. The paving is graded so the sunken garden beds are able to
utilize the stormwater runoff. The reflective rectilinear pool is only a couple of inches deep. The
effect is achieved by using black marble, which makes the pool look deeper and improves the
reflective qualities. Melaleuca nesophylla, a favourite in Australia, is used well, and its use is further
evidence of the climatic relationship between Australia and Southwest United States of America.
p74
MacArthur Court, New Port Beach
MacArthur Court, Newport Beach,
California features a central fountain
ringed by Canary Island Date Palms. The
water from the fountain is flush with the
top of the of the turf boarder. The water
is potable. This is a typical old school
American attitude, which is beginning to
be phased out through the use of grey
water recycling. If grey water recycling is
not appropriate for the site, then at the
very least, the roof catchment from the
surrounding buildings should be utilised.
The date palms provide order and
emphasise avenues and functions.
Rows of fan palms, silhouetted against
the skyline highlight the entry drive.
Further Date Palms are used in a grid
fashion to tie together the four buildings,
while providing shade for workers and
visitors alike. The palms are use to good
effect as they require minimal water,
provide ample shade and are interesting
accent trees and provide character and
direction to a landscape. The lawn is not
a drought tolerant species and should
be replaced with a paspalum variety,
which will maintain the aesthetics and
design intent, without wasting water.
The use of Washingtonia robusta
or Washingtonia filifera is an
appropriate choice for semi-arid
to arid zones because they require
minimal water, provide architectural
integration and require minimal
maintenance. They are heavily used
throughout the United States and
are increasingly being incorporated
in countries of a similar climate.
p75
IRVINE RANCH, Irvine
The Irvine Ranch in Irvine, California is one of the largest and most successful master planned developments
in the United States. A series of design elements helped to establish the overall characteristics for the
community. The Architectural guidelines specified Mediterranean architecture for all aspects of the development
including the landscape. The Mediterranean landscape used an evergreen palette so the new development
would blend with the adjacent coastal sage scrub, similar to that of Sea Ranch in Sonoma, California.
As illustrated below, fifty five per cent of the site is allocated as open
space, with parks, greenbelts, vistas and vast nature zones.
p76
Landscaped entrance zones incorporating xeriscape plant
types, such as Strelitzia reginae, Phoenix dactylifera, Agave
attenuate and Eucalyptus species frame, direct, excite and
provide community character to each neighbourhood.
Irvine Ranch incorporated many small parks rather
than fewer large parks because they provide
easier access and a closer community feel. The
parks are linked through pedestrian greenways.
The Rose species and Trachelospermum species are drought resistant and the Schinus molle
trees in the foreground are drought tolerant and hardy. The streetscapes, whilst providing
essential amenities, such as vehicle parking and underground utilities, like gas, electricity, water
and sewage have also managed to integrate xeriscape plantings with Lagerstroemia indica
specimens above hardy native grasses, which will be able to cope with vehicle wheels.
p77
APPROPRIATE PLANT SELECTION FOR CALIFORNIA
TREES
Lysiloma candida (Palo Blanco)
Acacia aneura (Mulga)
Lysiloma microphylla (Fern of the Desert)
Acacia berlandier (Berlandier Acacia)
Olea europaea ‘Swan Hill’ (Olive)
Acacia constricta (Whitethorn Acacia)
Olneya tesota (Desert Ironwood)
Acacia farnesiana/smallii (Sweet Acacia)
Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island Date Palm)
Acacia greggii (Catclaw Acacia)
Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm)
Acacia salicina (Willow Acacia)
Pinus eldarica (Afgan Pine)
Acacia saligna (Weeping Wattle)
Pinus halepensis (Aleppo Pine)
Acacia schaffneri (Twisted Acacia)
Pinus pinea (Italian Stone Pine)
Acacia stenophylla (Shoestring Acacia)
Pinus roxburghii (Chir Pine)
Acacia willardiana (Palo Blanco)
Pistacia atlantica (Red Push Pistache)
Albizia julibrissin (Silk Tree)
Pithecellobium flexicaule (Texas Ebony)
Bauhinia congesta (Anacacho Orchid Tree)
PitheceNobium mexicanum (Mexican Ebony)
Bauhinia variegata Candida (White Orchid Tree)
Pittosporum phillyraeoides (Willow Pittosporum)
Brahea armata (Mexican Blue Palm)
Platanus wrightil (Arizona Sycamore)
Brahea edulis (Guadalupe Palm)
Populus fremontii ‘Nevada’ (Fremont Cottonwood)
Caesalpinia cacalaco (Cascalote)
Prosopis alba (Argentine Mesquite)
Canotia holacantha (Crucifixion Thorn)
Prosopis glandulosa (Texas Honey Mesquite)
Carya illinoensis (Pecan)
Prosopis glandulosa (Western Honey Mesquite)
Catalpax tashkentensis (Chilitapa)
Prosopis hybrid ‘Phoenix’ (Phoenix Mesquite)
Cercidium floridum (Blue Palo Verde)
Prosopis juliflora - P. velutfna (Arizona Native Mesquite)
Cercidium praecox (Palo Brea)
Quercus virginiana ‘Heritage’ (Heritage Live Oak)
Cerds canadensis v. ‘Mexicana’ (Mexican Redbud)
Rhus lancea (African Sumac)
Cercis occidentalis (Western Redbud)
Robinia neomexicana (New Mexico Locust)
Cercidium ‘Desert Museum’ (Hybrid Palo Verde)
Robinia ambigua ‘Idahoensis’ (Idaho Locust)
Cercidium microphyllum (Foothills Palo Verde)
Salix gooddingii (Goodding Willow)
Chilopsis linearis (Desert Willow)
Schinus molle (California Pepper Tree)
Chitalpa tashkinensis (Chitalpa)
Schinus terebinthefohus (Brazilian Pepper Tree)
Chorisia speciosa (Floss Silk Tree)
Tipuana tipu (Tipu Tree)
Citrus aurantium (Seville Orange)
Ulmus parvifolia (Evergreen Elm)
Cupressus sempervirens (Italian Cypress)
Vitex agnus-castus (Chaste Tree)
Dalbergia sissoo (Sissoo)
Washingtonia filifera (California Fan Palm)
Eucalyptus papuana (Ghost Gum)
Washingtonia robusta (Mexican Fan Palm)
Eucalyptus populnea (Poplar Leaf Gum)
Ficus benjamina (Weeping Chinese Banyan)
Ficus microcarpa nitida (Compact Indian Laurel Fig)
Fortunella margarita (Kumquat)
Fraxinus greggii (Little Leaf Ash)
Fraxinus velutina ‘Fantex’ (Fantex Ash)
Gleditsia triacanthos (Honey Locust)
Jacaranda mimosifolia (Jacaranda)
Leucaena retusa (Golden Ball Lead Tree)
p78
SHRUBS
Abutilon palmeri (Superstition Mallow)
Acada craspedocarpa (Leather-leaf Acacia)
Acanthus mollis (Acanthus)
Alyogyne huegelii (Blue Hibiscus)
Alyosia lycioides (White Bush)
Alyosia wrightii (Wright’s Bee Bush)
Ambrosia ambrosioides (Canyon Ragweed)
Anigozanthos flavidus (Kangaroo Paw)
Anisacanthus andersonii (Anderson’s Honeysuckle)
Hymenodea satsola (Burrobush)
Anisacanthus guadrifidus (Mountain Flame)
Hyptis emoryi (Desert Lavender)
Anisacanthus thurberi (Desert Honeysuckle)
Jasminum mesnyl (Primrose Jasmine)
Atriplex canescens (Four Wing Salt Bush)
Justicia californica (Chuparosa)
Bebbia juncea (Chuckwalla’s Delight)
Justicia candicans ovata (Red Honeysuckle)
Berberis haematocarpa (Red Barberry)
Justicia spicigera (Mexican Honeysuckle)
Buddleia marrubilfolia (Woolly Butterfly Bush)
Larrea tridentate (Creosote Bush)
Bulbine frutescens (Bulbine)
Leucophyllum species (Sage Varieties)
Buxus m. japonica (Japanese Boxwood)
Ligustrum lucidium (Columnar Glossy Privet)
Caesalpinia gilliesii (Yellow Bird of Paradise)
Lycium andersonli (Desert Wolfberry)
Caesalpinia Mexicana (Mexican Bird of Paradise)
Lycium fremontii (Fremont Lycium)
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Red Bird of Paradise)
Mimosa dysocarpa (Velvet Pot Mimosa)
Calliandra californica (Baja Fairy Duster)
Myrtus communis (True Myrtle)
Calliandra eriophylla (Pink Fairy Duster)
Myrtus communis ‘Boetica’ (Twisted Myrtle)
Cassia artemisiodes (Feathery Cassia)
Myrtus communis v. ‘Compacta’ (Dwarf Mytle)
Cassia nemophila (Desert Cassia)
Nandina dometica (Heavenly Bamboo)
Cassia obligate (Outback Cassia)
Nerium oleander varieties (Oleander)
Cassia phyllodinea (Silver-leaf Cassia)
Pittosporum tobira (Japanese Mock Orange)
Celtis pallida (Desert Hackberry)
Plumbago auriculata (Cape Plumbago)
Chrysactinia Mexicana (Damianita)
Podocarpus macrophyllus (Yew Pine)
Chrysothanmus nauseosus (Rabbit Bush)
Pyicjranatum ‘Nana’ (Dwarf Pomegranate)
Cordia boissieri (Texas Olive)
Punica granatum varieties (Pomegranate)
Cordia parvifolia (Little Leaf Cordia)
Pyracantha varieties (Pyracantha)
Dalea bicolor V. argyraea (Silver Dalea)
Rhus ovata (Sugarbush)
Dalea frutescens (Black Dalea)
Rhus trilobata (Squaw Bush)
Dalea frutescens ‘Sierra Negra’ (Sierra Negra Dalea)
Rhus virens (Evergreen sumac)
Dalea pulchra (Indigo Bush)
Salvia species (Sage Varieties)
Dicliptera suberecta (Velvet Honeysuckle)
Senna wislizenii (ShrubbySenn)
Dodonaea viscose (Hopbush)
Simmondsia chinensis (Vista’ Vistajoba)
Dodonea viscosa ‘Purpurea’ (Purple Hopbush)
Simmondsia chinesis (Jojoba)
Elastica decora (Rubber Plant)
Sophora secundiflora (Texas Mountain Laurel)
Ephedra fasciculate (Joint Fir)
Strelitzia reginae (Tropical Bird of Paradise)
Ephedra trifurca (Mormon Tea)
Tagetes lemmonii T. palmeri (Mt. Lemmon Marigold)
Equisetum laevigatum (Horsetail)
Tecoma stans (Yellow Bells)
Eremophila racemosa (Easter Egg Bush)
Tecomaria capensis (Cape Honeysuckle)
Eremophila ‘Valentine’ (Valentine Bush)
Teucrium ftuticans ‘Azurea’ (Shrubby Germander)
Euryops pectinatus (Golden Euryops)
Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)
Fatsia japonica (Japanese Aralia)
Vauquelinia californica (Arizona Rosewood)
Feijoa sellowiana (Pineapple Guava)
Vauquelinia corymbosa spp (Chisos Rosewood)
Genista hispanica (Spanish Broom)
Zexmenia hispida ‘Devil’s River’ (Zexem)
Haplopappus gooddingii (Goldenweed)
Ziziphus obtusifolia (Greythorn)
Herissantia crispa (Indian Mallow)
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Chinese Hibiscus)
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GROUNDCOVER
p80
Acacia redolens ‘Desert Carpet’ (Desert Carpet)
Gaillardia puchella (Indian Blanket)
Ambrosia deltoidea (Bursage)
Gazania rigens ‘Sun GoId’ (Gazania)
Ambrosia Dumosa (White Bursage)
Gazania rgens leucolaena (Trailing Gazania)
Aptenia cordifolia (Hearts and Flowers)
Gelsemium sempervirens (Carolina Jessamine)
Aquilegia chrysantha (Golden-spurred Columbine)
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Snakeweed)
Asparagus desiflorus’meyers’ (Meyer’s Asparagus)
Helianthus annuus (Wild Sunflower)
Asparagus desiflorus ‘sprengeri’ (Sprenger Asparagus)
Juniperus chinesis varieties (Juniper)
Aspidistra elatior (Cast Iron Plant)
Krameria parvifolia (Ratany)
Aucuba japonica (Japanese Aucuba)
Lantana species (Trailing Lantana)
Baccharis pilularis ‘Starn’ (Thompson Dwarf Coyote Bush)
Lantana species (Bush Lantana)
Bahia absinthifolia (Bahia)
Mesembryanthemum spp. ( Ice Plant)
Baileya multiradiata (Desert Marigold)
Mimulus bgelovii (Bebw’s Monkeyflower0
Berlandiera lyrata (Chocolate Flower)
Mimulus cardinalis (Monkey Flower)
Buchloe dactyloides (Buffalo Grass)
Myoporum parvifolium (Myoporum)
Callaeum macroptera (Yellow Orchid Vine)
Oenothera berlandieri (Mexican Evening Primrose)
Calylophus hartwegii (Calylophus)
Qenothera caespitose (Evening Primrose)
Carissa grandiflora ‘Boxwood Beauty’ (Natal Plum ‘Boxwood Beauty’)
Oenothera stubbei (Saltillo Primrose)
Carissa grandiflora ‘Tuttlei’ (Natal Plum ‘Tuttlei’)
Osteospermum fruticosum (Trailing African Daisy)
Carpobrotus chilensis (Ice Plant)
Penstemon species (Penstemon)
Carpobrotus edule (Hottentot Fig)
Plumbago auriculata (Cape Plumbago)
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Periwinkle)
Cephalophyllum ‘Red Spike’ (Red Spike Ice Plant)
Portulacaria afra (Elephant Food)
Ceratoides lanata (Winterfat)
Rosa banksiae (Lady Bank’s Rose)
Clematis drummondii (Virgin’s Bower)
Rosmarinus officinalis Prostratus’ (Dwarf Rosemary)
Convolvulus cneorum (Bush Morning Glory)
Ruellia brittoniana ‘Katie’ (Katie Ruellia)
Convolvulus mauritanicus (Ground Morning Glory)
Ruellia spaces (Rueflia)
Coreopsis bigelovii (Desert Coreopsis)
Santolina chamaecyparissus (Lavender Cotton)
Cuphea Ilavea (Fat Faced Cuphea)
Santolina virens (Green Santolina)
Dalea capitata ‘Sierra Gold’ (TM Sierra Gold Dalea)
Haeralcea ambigua (Desert Globemallow)
Dalea greqgii (Trang Inchgo Bush)
Tagetes lucida (Mexican Tarrgon)
Dalea versicolor var. sessilis (Wislizenus Dalea)
Teucrium chamaedrys ‘Prostratum’ (Prostrate Germander)
Datura inoxia (Sacred Datura/Jimsonweed)
Trachelospermum asiaticum (Asiatic Jasmine)
Drosanthemum speciosum ‘Rosa’ (Ice Plant)
Trixis californica (Trixis)
Dyssodia pentachaeta (Golden Dyssodia)
Tulbaghia violacea (Society Garlic)
Encelia farinose (Brittlebush)
Verbena species (Verbena)
Ericameria laricifolia (Turpentine Bush)
Vinca major (Periwinkle)
Eriogonum fasculatum v. poliofolium (Wild Buckwheat)
Wedelia trilobata (Wedelia)
Eriogonum wrightii (Wright Buckwheat)
Zephranthes candida (Zephyr Flower/Rain Lily)
Eschscholzia californica (California Poppy)
Zephranthes citrina (Fairy Lily)
Eschscholzia Mexicana (Mexican Gold Poppy)
Zephranthes grandiflora (NCN)
Eupatorium gggii ‘Boothill’ (Eupatoria)
Zephyranthes candida (Rain Lily)
Fatshedera lizei (Aralia Ivy)
Zinnia acerosa (Desert Zinnia)
Gaillardia arizonica (Arizona Blanketfiower)
Zinnia grandiflora (Little Golden Zinnia)
ACCENTS
Agave Americana (Centry Plant)
Fouquieria splendens (Ocotillo)
Agave attenuate (Ghost Agave)
Hesperaloe species (Hesperaloe Varieties)
Agave bovicornuta (Cowshorn Agave)
Liriope gigantean (Giant Lilyturf)
Agave colorata (Mescal Ceniza)
Lophocereus schottii (Senita Cactus)
Agave deserti (Desert Agave)
Lophocereus schottiifa monstrosus (Totem Pole Cactus)
Agave desmettiana (Agave)
Mammillaria species (Mammillaria Varieties)
Agave geminiflora (Twin Flowered Agave)
Nolina bigelovii (Beargrass)
Agave macroacantha (NCN)
Nohna matapensis (Tree Bear grass)
Agave murpheyi (Murphy’s Agave)
Nolina macrocarpa (Beargrass)
Agave ocahul (Agave)
Nolina texana (Beargrass)
Agave palmeri (Palmers Agave)
Opuntia acanthocarpa (Buckhorn Cholla)
Agave parryi v. truncate (Parrys Agave)
Opuntia basilaris (Beaver-tail Prickly Pear)
Agave salmiana (Puique Agave)
Opuntia bigelovii (Teddybear Cholla)
Agave scabra (NCN)
Opuntia chiorotica (Pancake Prickly Pear)
Agave tequiliana (Tequila Agave)
Opuntia engelmannii (Engelmann’s Prickly Pear)
Agave toumeyana (Toumey’s Agave)
Opuntia ficus-indica (Indian Fig Prickly Pear)
Agave victoriae-reginae (Royal Agave)
Opuntia fulgida (Chainfruit Cholla)
Agave weberi (Smooth-leaf Agave)
Opuntia leptocaulis (Christmas Cactus)
Aloe species (Aloe Varieties)
Opuntia microdasys (Bunny Ears)
Asclepias subulata (Desert Milkweed)
Opuntia robusta (Silver Dollar Prickly Pear)
Asciepias subulata (Desert Milkweed)
Opuntia santa-rita (Purple Prickly-Pear)
Aspidistra elatior (Cast-iron Plant)
Opuntia spinosior (Cane Cholla)
Carnegieagigantea (Saguaro)
Opuntia violacea (Purple Pricklypear)
Cereus species (Cereus Varieties)
Opuntia violacea (Santa Rita Prickly Pear)
Chamaerops humilis (Mecterraean Fan Palm)
Pachycereus marginatus (Mexican Organ Pipe)
Pedilanthus macrocarpus (Lady Slipper)
Cyperus alternifolius (Umbrella Plant)
Philodendron selloum (Selloum Philodendron)
Dasylirion acrotriche (Green Desert Spoon)
Sanseveria spp. ( Mexican Fence Post)
Dasylirion leiophyllum (Desert Spoon)
Stenocereus thurberi (Organ Pipe Cactus)
Dasylirion longissimum (Mexican Tree Grass)
Trichocereuscaridicans (Argentine Trichocereus)
Dasylirion wheeleri (Desert Spoon)
GRASSES
Dietes bicolour (Fortnight Lily)
Aristida californica (Threeawn Grass)
Dietes vegeta (Evergreen Iris)
Aristida purpurea (Purple Threeawn)
Echinocactus grusonii (Golden Barrel Cactus)
Arstida wrightii (Wright Threeawn)
Echinocereus engelmannii (Engelmann’s Hedgehog)
Bouteloua aristioides (Six Weeks Grama)
Echinocereus pectinatus (Rainbow Cactus)
Bouteloua breviseta (Chino Grama)
Euphorbia antisyphilitica (Candelilla)
Bouteloua curtipendula (Sideoats Grama)
Euphorbia myrsinites (Euphorbia)
Bouteloua gracilis (Blue Grama)
Euphorbia rigkla (Gopher Plant)
Muhlenbergia capillaries (Gulf Muhley)
Euphorbia tirucalli (Pencil Bush)
Muhlenbergia emersleyi (Bull Grass)
Ferocactus acanthodes (Compass Barrel Cactus)
Muhlenbergia lindheimeri (Lindheimer Muhly)
Ferocactus wislizenii (Fishhook Barrel)
Muhlenbergia porteri (Bush Muhly)
Fouquiena macdougalii (Mexican Tree Ocotillo)
Muhlenbergia rigens (Deer Grass)
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Muhlenbergia rigida (Purple Muhly)
Platystemon californicus (Cream Cups)
Muhlenbergia rigida ‘Nashville’ (Nashville Grass)
Ophiopogon japonicus (Mondo Grass)
Psilostrophe cooperi (Paperfiower)
Orthocarpus purpurascens (Owl-Clover)
Psilostrophe tagetina (Paperfiower)
Rosa banksiae ‘Alba Plena’ (White Lady Bank’s Rose)
VINES & WILDFLOWERS
Antigonon leptopus (Queen’s Wreath)
Bougainvillea species (Bougainvillea)
Campsis radicans (Common Trumpet Creeper)
Cassia covesii (Desert Cassia)
Cissus trifoliata (Native Grape Ivy)
Cosmos species (Cosmos Varieties)
Dimorphotheca sinuate (African Daisy)
Erigeron divergens (Spreading Fleabane)
Evolvulus arizonicus (Arizona Blue Eves)
Ficus pumila (Creeping Fig)
Gaura lindheimeri (Desert Orchid)
Hardenbergia comptoniana (Lilac Vine)
Hedera canariensis (Algerian Ivy)
Hedera helix (English Ivy)
Helipterum roseum (Pink Everlasting)
Hesperocallis undulate (Ajo Lily)
Hibiscus coulteri (Desert Rose mallow)
Hymenoxys acaulis (Angelita Daisy)
Ipomopsis lonqiflora (Pale Blue Trumpets)
Linum lewisli (Blue flax)
Lonicera japonica ‘Halliana’ (Hall’s Honeysuckle)
Lonicera sempervirens (Trumpet Honeysuckle)
Macfadyena unguis-cati (Cat’s Claw Vine)
Mascagnia lilacina (Lavender Orchid vine)
Mascagnia macroptera (Yellow Orchid Vine)
Maurandya antirrhiniflora (Snap Dragon Vine)
Melampodium leucanthum (Blackfoot Daisy)
Mentzelia involucrate (Morning Stars)
Merremia aurea (Yellow Morning Glory Vine)
Mirabilis multiflora (Desert Four-O Clock)
Nemophila maculate (Five Spot)
Oenothera deltoid (Birdcaqe Evening Primrose)
Oenothera primiveris (Evening Primrose)
Papaver rhoeas (Shirley Poppy)
Perityle emoryi (Rock Daisy)
Phacelia campanularia (California Bluebell)
Plantaqo insularis (Indian Wheat)
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Salvia columbariae (Chia)
Senna covesii (Desert Senna)
Solanum jasminoides (White Potato Vine)
Solanum xantii (Solanum)
Stachys coccinea (Texas Betony)
Trithoria rotundifolia (Mexican Sunflower)
Verbena qooddingli (Goodding Verbena)
Verbesina encelioides (Gloden Crown Beard)
Viqna Caracalla (Snail Vine)
Viguiera deltoidea (Goldeneye)
Vitis arizonica (Arizona Grape Vine)
GREY WATER RECYCLING
The lack of water,
which is the
limiting factor of
all vegetation in
the desert, made
the treatment
of wastewater
for irrigation
purposes a
necessity. One
human being
produces enough
wastewater to
irrigate six trees.
This Grey Water System produces water of a quality in excess
of Class ‘A’, which means the water is drinkable.
Grey Water Treatment Systems are fully
automated, compact and an effective solution
for reclaiming grey water waste streams
and processing to a reusable standard for
utility uses. These include toilet flushing,
clothes washing, vehicle washing, irrigation
and yard maintenance. The system is
capable of treating the entire grey water
waste stream, with minimal restrictions
on the user, as it is a mechanical filtration
system that does not rely on an unstable
biological process. This makes it resilient
to everyday exposure to a wide range of
commonly used consumable products.
The current EPA criteria is B.O.D=<20-T.S.S=<30
-Total Fecal Coliform Count=<1O. The system
pictured treats water to B.O.D<5 -T.S.S<2-Fecal
Coliforms<1 or non detectable, this is of a quality
acceptable under drinking water guidelines. The
pictured unit will treat up to 5000 litres in 24 hours.
The system has been engineered under a modular
framework allowing it to be altered to treat more or
less than 5000 litres as the individual site requires.
The system is suitable for either single dwelling,
multiple unit or hotel and apartment applications.
Maintenance and service is minimal, only
being required on an annual basis, depending
on local water conditions. The average cost
of recycled water is 1.6 cents per 1000 litres.
Power consumption is minimal, as the system
requires no power when not filtering.
p83
Other Examples of Southwest American Land Developments
Date Palms line the avenue towards the mission
style central park. A balance between hard and soft
landscapes is lacking, because there is too much
lawn area. Section pavers or granitic sands could
have been used to reduce water requirements
and also to provide variation in the landscape.
Neighbourhood park has a good balance of
hard / softscape elements and has effectively
used xerophytic groundcovers to maximise the
surface area. Groundcovers use significantly
less water per square metre than lawns.
The small parks dotted throughout the estate are
connected by these Greenways. The Greenways
are effective in creating aesthetic xeriscape
access routes for pedestrian circulation as well
as providing a closer sense of community.
Vista through one of the estate’s Greenways
towards the Mission Park. All of the pedestrian
connections are generously landscaped.
p84
The main arterial roads require emphasis. On
this occasion Phoenix dactylifera have been
used to great affect. Palms which receive
the greatest exposure in Californian are the
Washingtonia species and phoenix varieties.
Nerium oleander plants are drought tolerant
and hardy, which is perfect for Southwestern
America and also for Australia. Commercial
landscapes or the Supermarket car parks,
are great locations for such a hardy plant.
Shade street trees are generally deciduous
and their foliage consists of either small leaves,
such as an Ulmus parvifolium or bi-pinnate,
like a Gleditsia tricuspidata. These features
mean that the trees’ leaves have less surface
area. This enables better water retention, as
less water is lost through evaporation from
ultraviolet radiation and photosynthesis.
Median strips are not appropriate for lawn.
The medians should employ either bioretention swales, which recycle the water
through a natural filtration system, or colourful
xerophytic groundcover, which can spread
several metres squared with very little water.
Lawn is used in nature because people need
to travel from their cars to the footpath.
However, to save additional water and create
a subtle difference, a combination of inorganic
mulches and lawn would be a good idea.
p85
LAWN INNOVATIONS
There are over 100 Kentucky bluegrass cultivars, over 100 perennial ryegrasses, more than 20 creeping
bentgrasses, 30 plus bermudagrasses and well over 20 zoysias being marketed today. All are good. They all
have their place, but not all are created equal. Each cultivar has unique turf quality traits and management
requirements. No single cultivar, regardless of species, is totally adapted to all environments, but selecting
the right cultivar can help to devise the right management strategies – especially in salt-affected sites.
Knowledge is the key to selecting the right cultivar and is critical to long-term success or failure.
Sealsle 1/Sealsie 2000 Seashore Paspalum
Sealsie I and Sealsie 2000 were both developed by Dr R. R. Duncan at the University of Georgia’s
Griffin Experiment station, and are currently the only two ‘certified’ seashore paspalums in the
world. They have over 7 years of comprehensive replicated data on salt and drought tolerance,
water use, shoot and root performance, wear and traffic response, acid soil tolerance, herbicide
tolerance, insect screening, sod and sprig production, low-light intensity tolerance, disease resistance,
mowing height, turf quality assessment, winter hardiness responses and turf performance. In
addition, evaluations for the two cultivars have been conducted on 35 golf course test plots.
Durban CC Seashore Paspalum
This cultivar originated from the greens at the Durban Community Club in South Africa and is sold
exclusively by Superlawn CC in Cramon, South Africa. In addition to several courses in South Africa
and the Middle East, Durban CC is at Emerald Bay, a Greg Norman course in Emma, Bahamas.
Salam Seashore Paspalum
This proprietary cultivar of Southern Turf Nurseries, Inc. can be traced to Sea Island GA and was introduced
into Hawaii during the 1980’s. It has been in the Georgia evaluation program since 1993 and has been
planted on a number of courses in Hawaii and the Pacific Rim. In the US, the grass is on fairways at
Sportsman Perdidi in Pensacola, FL and the Old Collier Golf Club in Naples FL. It has also been planted
at Paradise Island in the Bahamas. Southern Turf farms in Elberta AL, Punta Gorda FL and Kahaka HI.
Seaway/Seagreen/SeawarfPaspalum
These cultivars originated at Alden Pines Golf Course in Pin Island, north of Ft. Myers FL. The parent material
planted on this course in 1981 was a medium-textured Adalayd ecotype from Australia. These new reselected seashore paspalum cultivars have varying leaf textures, colour and growth rates. These grasses and
possibly four new cultivars are available from Emerald Island Turf Inc. in Punta Gorda FL and their growers.
ATTRIBUTES OF SEASHORE PASPALUM
Most salt tolerant turf grass species
Seashore paspalum, sometimes referred to as saltwater couch, is a perennial warm season
rhizomatous/stoloniferous grass. It has the highest level of salinity (halophytic) tolerance among
all of the turf grass cultivars and requires about half the fertiliser of Bermuda grass. When
managed properly, it has low water use requirements and needs minimal pesticides.
Good under low light conditions
Seashore paspalum has very good tolerance to low or reduced light caused by cloudy, foggy
smoggy conditions although, like Bermuda grass it has a very low tree shade tolerance. Thus it
shows good promise in the low-light conditions found in domed stadiums, while St. Augustine
and zoysia grass grow much better than paspalum in dense tree shade environments.
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Excellent cold and chill tolerance
Paspalum generally grows quite well between the 30°-35° North-South latitudes, exhibiting
winter hardiness similar to Bermuda grass. Additionally, it is normally the last warm
season grass to go off-colour and into winter dormancy. The new fine-textured paspalum
cultivars usually require temperatures of 28° F (-2.2C) to go into dormancy.
Thrives in boggy, water-logged or dry conditions
Paspalum can be inundated with water for long periods of time, yet will survive; it
also thrives in low, boggy high water table ecozones and, if irrigated properly, has a
drought resistance at least equal to that of Bermuda grass. With paspalum, watering less
frequently, but for a longer duration, helps promote a deep, healthy root system.
Perfect for dune stabilization and land reclamation
These environment friendly grass cultivars are also quite good for land reclamation projects, dune stabilisation
and biomediation. Many of the new paspalums are being used to help clean up contaminated environments
where it is important, or has been mandated, that affected soils and water be cleaned up naturally.
LAWN SUBSTITUTES
LOW GROWING - GROUND COVERS
Low, matting ground covers add a finishing touch to the edges in and around stepping-stones or sunny
bare pathways. Water-thrifty plants that cover ground, supress weeds and do not require mowing are
ideal in this role. Growing lower than grass and often used as a lawn substitute, Dymondia margaretae is
known for its ability to take light foot traffic with little to no damage. Endemic to the Bredasdorp district
of the Western Cape of South Africa, Dymondia margaretae is the sole species in this genus. Once difficult
to locate, Dymondia is now becoming more available because its versatility has been recognised.
During the warmest months, it produces an insignificant yellow dandelionlike flower, closely
set into the foliage. But its main appeal is not its flowers but its foliage. The silver undersides
of the slender, 2-inch-long green leaves curl around the top edges. Dymondia margaretae is
considered one of the most drought tolerant evergreen creeping perennial ground covers today,
mainly because of its deep fleshy root system. If water is abundant, it will spread quickly; less
water will help keep it in check. Dymondia’s tight growth habit makes it ideal for use between
flagstones on pathways. It grows so tightly it hardly allows a weed seeding to occur.
Another low-growing groundcover is Lampranthus filicaulis, commonly known as redondo creeper. It is
a finely textured evergreen creeper and is covered from spring to summer with small bright pink flowers.
It grows best in a frost-free climate in full sun to part shade and can also handle light foot traffic.
LOW GROWING THYMES
Ground-hugging aromatic culinary herbs, such as Thymus x citriodorus, are appropriate substitutes,
and add colour with their unusual foliage. Thymus x citriodorus flowers with tiny purplishpink blooms in spring and summer; when stepped on a lemony aroma issues forth.
The four most appropriate thyme substitutes, chosen for their easy care and performance,
are Thymus x citriodorus for its aroma and flowers; Thymus serpyllum for its small
tight growing leaves; Thymus transparent, a very low spreading plant with yellowishgreen foliage, and Thymus pseudolanuginosus for its soft gray foliage.
p87
Xeriscape nature strips with Eucalyptus
species and Myoporum species as a
grouncover. No irrigation is required.
A xeriscape bio-retention swale,
which incorporates inorganic mulch,
grasses, succulents and drought
tolerant flowering perennials.
This traditional swale possesses native
grasses, inorganic mulch, drought tolerant
trees and stone boulders for effect. The
storm water flows into the swale over
the granitic sand pedestrian path, which
has a slope greater than two per cent.
This traditional swale possesses native grasses,
inorganic mulch, drought tolerant trees and stone
boulders for effect. The storm water flows into the
swale over the granitic sand pedestrian path, which
has a slope greater than two percent. The swale
traps the macro pollutants in the vegetation and
inorganic mulch within the swale. A perforated pipe
within the swale allows the excess water which is not
required by the plants to flow into retention basins.
The micro pollutants are dealt with in the retention
basins through ultraviolet radiation and siltation.
p88
Symmetry and contrast - a balance of pavers
with lawn. Ease of maintenance and natural
benefits of a porous pavement structure.
A water conserving design detail, which
incorporates slate pavers and low
growing vegetation to create an equal
balance between hard / softscapes.
Porous paving structure, which incorporates
crazy paving combined with rectilinear pavers.
Not only is this an attractive design style, it also
has porous qualities, which are very important
for the environment and water saving.
Porous paving has many storm water management benefits. These surfaces allow water to percolate to a subbase course, from where it infiltrates to the soil. In this way all toxins are removed from the water, much like
the tea particles in a percolator (this is the main purpose of a bio-retention swale). Porous paving generally
consists of paving intertwined with vegetation, which allows water to seep through a filtration system to the
soil beneath. This filtration allows the surrounding flora to have filtered or clean water, which they need.
p89
LESSONS FOR AUSTRALIA
FUNDAMENTALS OF XERISCAPE
Xeriscape is water conservation through creative, appropriate landscaping
and water management: in other words, having a beautiful oasis, significantly
increasing the value of your home, and still saving water.
Planning is the most important step towards a successful xeriscape. A project
may need to be implemented in stages, zones or bands of planting.
A combination of a sound irrigation design and installation with careful water
management will conserve water. Irrigation technology has boomed in the last few
years, with improved product quality and increased water-saving efficiency.
Soil improvement allows for better water penetration, and improved water holding capacity
of the soil. Organic matter and other amendments also provide beneficial nutrients to plants.
It is best to test soil to determine the correct amendments and amounts needed. Other soil
additives are increasingly becoming available. Hydrocells from the company Fytogreen are
currently available and work as a water storage device. Hydrocells are especially valuable to
a landscape when it is located on a rooftop or podium, because the hydrocell flakes hold the
water in the soils thereby reducing the need to irrigate them, and lessening the weight.
Mulches cover and cool the soil, reduce weed growth, slow erosion and most
importantly, minimize evaporation. The textures and materials also provide
landscape interest. Organic mulches include shredded bark or chips, wood grindings,
or compost. Inorganic mulches are usually rock or gravel products.
Nearly every landscape function can be served with a low water use plant. Year round
greenery, bright flowers, borders or accents all can be achieved efficiently and attractively.
Because of their design, xeriscapes need less maintenance and save on both cost and
time. However, regular maintenance saves water. Pruning, weeding, proper fertilization,
pest control and water schedule adjustments all contribute to water saving.
While lawns are great for play areas, picnics, and pets, often turf can be replaced with other
less thirsty materials such as groundcovers, low water use plants, mulches, or hardscape.
p90
OVERSEAS PLANTS NATIVE TO THE REGIONS VISITED,
WHICH ARE IN USE IN AUSTRALIA
Palo Blanco Acacia (Acacia willardiana)
Asplenium australasicum (Bird’s Nest Fern)
Stenocereus alamosensis (Octopus Cactus)
Molineria capitulata (Palm Grass)
Beavertail Prickly Pear (Opuntia basilaris)
Phormium tenax ‘Goliath’
Englemann’s Prickly Pear (Opuntia engelmannii)
Phormium tenax ‘Purpureum’
Englemann’s Hedgehog Cactus (Echinocereus engelmannii)
Phormium tenax ‘Variegatum’
Bursage (Ambrosia dumosa)
Dianella revolute (Black-anther Flax-lily)
Golden Barrel Cactus (Echinocactus grusonii)
Lavandula angustifolia ‘Egerton Blue’
Senita cactus (Cereus schottii)
Lepidosperma concavum (Sandhill Sword-sedge)
Organ Pipe Cactus (Stenocereus thurberi)
Baloskion tetraphyllum (Tassel Cord-rush)
Compass Barrel Cactus (Ferocactus cylindraceus)
Ruscus hypoglossum
Agave macroacantha
Pelargonium echinatum (Cactus Geranium)
Euphorbia officinarum
TREES/ SHRUBS
Mescalito (Hechtia montana)
Corymbia ficifolia ‘Summertime’
Euphorbia resinifera
Eucalyptus pauciflora (Snow Gum)
Mescal Pelon (Agave pelona)
Hibiscus splendens
Whortleberry Cactus (Myrtillocactus geometrisans)
Polyscias elegans (Celery Wood)
Mammillaria Species
Cussonia spicata (Cabbage Tree)
Coralberry Cactus (Symphoricarpos orbiculata)
Meryta sinclairii (Puka)
Dogweed (Dyssodia pentachaeta)
Ensete ventricosum (Abyssinian Banana)
Netleaf Hackberry (Celtis reticulata)
Chamaecyparis funebris (Funeral Cypress)
Desert-Fern Tree (Lysiloma watsonii)
Prostanthera lasianthos (Victorian Christmas Bush)
Texas persimman (Diospora texana)
Pinus densiflora ‘Pygmy’
Cows Horn Agave (Agave bovicornuta)
Pinus mugo (Dwarf Mountain Pine)
Calibanus hookeri
Brachychiton rupestris (Queensland Bottle Tree)
Portulacaria afra
Kalanchoe beharensis x tomentose
Abrameitiella brevifolia
Puya violacea
Euphorbia antisyphilitica (Candelilla)
Penstemon baccharifolius (Rock Penstemon)
Fouquieria splendens
Muehlenbeckia complexa (Maidenhair Vine)
Asparagus densiflorus ‘Myersii’
Poa labillardierei (Common Tussock-grass)
Panicum virgatum ‘Rotstrahlbusch’
Microlaena stipoides (Weeping Grass)
Calamagrostis x acutiflora ‘Karl Foerster’
Austrostipa verticillata (Slender Bamboo Grass)
Doryanthes palmeri (Spear Lily)
Todea barbara (Austral King-fern)
Asplenium australasicum (Bird’s Nest Fern)
CALIFORNIAN PLANTS
Artemisia ludoviciana (Cudweed)
Ceanothus pinetorum (Kern Ceanothus)
Iris purdyi
Mahonia repens
Salvia mellifera (Black Sage)
Myrica californica (Californian Wax Myrtle)
Aesculus californica (Buckeye)
Iris munzii
Romneya trichocalyx (Hairy Matilija Poppy)
Salvia mellifera (Black Sage)
Salvia apiana (White Sage)
Eriogonum giganteum
Gambelia speciosa (Showy Island Snapdragon)
Camassia sp. aff. quamash
Sphaeralcea ambigua
p91
Dudleya brittonii (Green Form)
Artemisia pontica
Arctostaphylos pungens (Mexican Manzanita)
Santolina chamaecyparissus (Lavender Cotton)
Mahonia aquifolium (Oregon Grape)
Kniphofia ‘Percy’s Pride’
Quercus agrifolia (Californian Live Oak)
Iris ‘Eye Magic’
Salvia leucophylla (Purple Sage)
Salvia apiana (White Sage)
Thalictrum fendleri
Teucrium polium subsp. Pii-fontii
Ceanothus spinosus (Redheart)
Alyogyne huegelii (Satin Hibiscus)
Dudleya anthonyi
Helictotrichon sempervirens
Leucophyta brownii (Cushion Bush)
Astragalus trichopodus var. lonchus
Achillea tomentose (Woolly Yarrow)
Yucca whipplei (Our Lord’s Candle)
Euphorbia rigida
Ephedra viridis
Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Common Everlasting)
Garrya elliptica (Silk Tassel)
Agave geminiflora
Arctostaphylos glandulosa subsp. Zacaensis (Bigberry Manzanita)
Iris douglasiana
Phormium ‘Maori Maiden’
Romneya coulteri
Macrozamia communis (Burrawang)
Encelia farinosa (Brittlebush)
Xerochrysum bracteatum (Golden Everlasting)
Vaccinium ovatum (Californian Huckleberry)
Macrozamia lucida
Agave parryi (Mescal)
Dracaena draco (Dragon Tree)
Washingtonia filifera (Petticoat Palm)
Lepidozamia peroffskyana
Fouquieria diquetii
Eucalyptus pulverulenta (Silver-leafed Mountain Gum)
Philadelphus lewisii
Protea ‘Pink Ice’
Carpenteria californica (Tree Anemone)
Aloe bainesii
Calocedrus decurrens (Incense Cedar)
Brachychiton rupestris (Queensland Bottle Tree)
GENERAL WATER SAVERS
Drosanthemum speciosum (Dewflower)
p92
Eucalyptus caesia
Lepidozamia peroffskyana
Kleinia mandraliscae
GREY GARDEN
Agave attenuata
Asteriscus sericeus
Cotyledon orbiculate var. oblonga (Silver Crown)
Crithmum maritimum (Samphire)
Agave multifilifera
Olearia astroloba
Festuca glauca (Blue Fescue)
Lomandra confertifolia (Slender Mat-rush)
Aeonium arboreum
Helichrysum retortum
Dampiera rosmarinifolia (Rosemary Dampiera)
Senecio bicolour subsp. cineraria (Dusty Miller)
Hibbertia truncata
Gazania rigens
Dymondia margaretae
Eremophila bowmanii
Orthrosanthus multiflorus (Morning Flag)
Acaria aphylla
Arctotis x hybrida ‘Flame’
Asteriscus sericeus
Armeria pungens
Conostylis candicans
Sedum ‘Autumn Joy’
Euryops pectinatus
Agave multifilifera
Homoranthus flavescens
Iris ‘Dingley Diadem’
Acacia baileyana
Agapanthus ‘Blue Baby’
Senecio bicolour
Teucrium marum
Crithmum maritimum
Australian plants noted overseas and within Australia for their hardiness and appropriateness for the
average home garden. The following plants should all be available from Australian plant nurseries.
Scieranthus biflorus (Twin-flower Knawel)
Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass)
Hymenosporum flavum (Native Frangipani tree)
Darwinia citriodora (Lemon Scented Myrtle)
PLANTS WITH LOW WATER REQUIREMENTS:
Hypocalyma angustifolium (White Myrtle)
Banksia ‘Giant Candles’
Crowea exalata (Small Crowea)
Hypocalymma angustifolium
Anigozanthos ‘Bush Ranger’ (Bush Ranger)
Olearia ramulosa
Cordyline stricta (Slender Palm Lily)
Melaleuca megacephala
Allocasuarina torulosa (Forest Oak)
Scaevola albida ‘Karwarra Pink’
Lomandra hystrix (Mat Rush)
Correa alba var. pannosa
Viola hederacea (Ivy-leaved Violet)
Kunzea parvifolia
Prostanthera ovalifolia (Oval-leaf Mint-bush)
Darwinia citriodora
Goodenia ovata (Prostrate Form)
Banksia spinulosa ‘Birthday Candles’
Grevillea obtusifolia ‘Gingin Gem’ (Gingin Gem)
Banksia spinulosa ‘Honey Pots’
Thryptomene saxicola ‘Supernova’ (Supernova)
Homoranthus darwinioides (Homoranthus)
PLANTS WITH NO IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS:
Brachysema ‘Bronze Butterfly’ (Bronze Butterfly)
Eremophila nivea
Alyogyne huegelii ‘West Coast Gem’ (West Coast Gem)
Isopogon ceratophyllus
Banksia spinulosa ‘Birthday Candles’ (Birthday Candles)
Disphyma crassifolium
Derwentia perfoliate (Digger’s Speedwell)
Leucophyta brownil
Eremophila nivea (Silky Eremophila)
Banksia serrata ‘Pygmy Possum’
Scaevola albida ‘White’ (White Scaevola)
Lechenaultia biloba
Westringia dampieri (Stiff Westringia)
Banksia blechnifolia
Leucophyta brownii ‘Silver Nugget’ (Silver Nugget)
Dryandra nivea
Senna artemisioldes (Silver Cassia)
Persoonia pinifolia
Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Common Everlasting)
Derwentia perfoliate
Dampiera linearis (Common Dampiera)
Scaevola aemula ‘Purple Fanfare’ (Purple Scaevola)
Banksia blechnifolia (Rock Banksia)
Calothamnus species (Claw Flowers)
PLANTS WITH MODERATE WATER REQUIREMENTS:
Patersonia occidentalis
Ficinia nodosa
Bauera rubioldes
Epacrisgunnil
Boronia heterophylia
Thelionema grande
Lomandra longifolia
Hibbertia obtusifolia
Dianella longifolia
Grevillea ‘Old Gold’
p93
CONCLUSIONS
As stated in the opening paragraph, ‘our problem in Australia is not the lack of rainfall, we simply
need to manage what nature provides more efficiently’. Residential, commercial and civic
landscapes are the highest consumers of potable water per square metre. Urban sprawl and the
ever increasing demands on Australia’s limited water resources mean that the time has come to
implement strategies for designed landscapes and the wider urban and regional environment.
At present there is inadequate knowledge of water sensitive urban design and technological
innovation both in the industry and more so within the general public. Not only is there
inadequate knowledge but there is also sub-standard infrastructure in place to deal with
our water deficiencies. Proposed desalination plants are a welcome addition in Australia,
however we should also be retaining it, reusing it and collecting it wherever possible.
Desalinated potable water should be used in living environments where humans are in direct contact
with the water. That is, bathrooms, kitchens and, swimming pools. The waste water from these
applications should then be recycled to a ‘Class C’ rating for agriculture and a ‘Class A’ rating for irrigating
landscapes, golf courses and water features. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is at the forefront of
desalination technology and innovation. If Australia is to implement desalination plants then we
need to employ the latest technologies, including membrane treatments such as those in the UAE.
An additional dam would be of benefit to our water supply. However the benefit is restricted
by Australia’s geographically flat landscape. The higher the mountains: the deeper the reservoir.
Meteorologically, it rains more at sea than land, along coastlines than interiors and, in the mountains
than on the flats. The fact is we do not have the mountains to create a Hetch Hetchy dam.
Treated sewage water is not only cheap and sustainable, but once the infrastructure
is constructed, there are very few expenses associated with the delivery. The best
application is through subterranean drip irrigation systems. The more treated sewage
water is employed for irrigation, the less sewage will flow into the sea.
Grey water recycling is in its infancy and in the United Arab Emirates, Israel and America
grey water was treated in conjunction with black (sewage) water. An ‘on site’ grey-water
recycling system for independent residential houses is the most appropriate application for
grey-water systems. However, on a larger scale, such as a newly designed development,
then treated sewage water is the best option, because it is more cost effective.
Storm-water recycling was a key component of new developments in Southwest USA. DMB
Developers in America were proactive in their approach to sustainable storm-water design
through swales and retention basins. Following the siltation and ultra violate zapping of oils
and other pollution, the water was then employed to irrigate landscapes on the estates.
p94
The main xeriscape principles, which were observed and discussed while on the Churchill Fellowship
were: subterranean drip irrigation systems; porous paving types; drought tolerant lawn varieties; lawn
substitutes; drought tolerant flora; use of organic and inorganic mulching; use of shade; low water
use water features; low growing groundcovers and shrubs; gravitational irrigation strategies; sunken
tree planters and garden beds; a balance between hard and softscape elements; and green walls.
Traditional Australian lawns require large quantities of water. There have been significant
innovations in the United States of America and the United Arab Emirates with drought
tolerant and hardy varieties of seashore paspalum. These varieties are more suited to the
Australian environment and would reduce water consumption for turf areas. In addition, where
appropriate, turf should be substituted for groundcover or prostrate shrubs that require minimal
water and low maintenance; such as dymondia margaretae and lampranthus filicaulis.
A general idea to reduce the amount of water consumption per residence is to design or plant the
garden out into zones. The water saving garden could comprise three areas. The first zone generally
would be located closest to the living area and would incorporate plants and grasses which require
moderate water consumption. The second zone would involve plants with low water needs and the third
would include plants with no irrigation requirements, just those which rely solely on Mother Nature.
RECOMENDATIONS
The Federal and State Governments should tackle Australia’s water problem in a
comprehensive way and not provide quick-fix, single solutions, such as the proposed
$400 million desalination plant. The drought and our water shortages will only be solved
through a water master plan, which will incorporate the following strategies.
Develop desalination plants to produce potable water, which may also contribute to the electricity supply.
An additional dam would be of benefit to our water supply. However the benefit would
be restricted by Australia’s geographically flat landscape. The higher the mountains, the
deeper the reservoir. Meteorologically, it rains more at sea than on land, along coastlines
than in the interior and in the mountains more than on the flats. The fact is we do not
have the mountains for a dam such as Hetch Hetchy in the United States.
It is essential to re-use treated sewage water. This should be a priority for all Australian
States, before desalination. It is significantly cheaper and is sustainable. Depending on the
application, recycled water can be treated to either Class A or Class C category. The technology
is best implemented with Netafim’s Bio-line subterranean drip irrigation system.
Grey water recycling is something which every household can adopt. Doit-Yourself systems are available from most hardware stores.
Roof-top rainfall catchments can be achieved at a micro or macro scale in residential or commercial sites and
on new or old buildings. It is an effective and sustainable way to collect and use this precious commodity.
p95
Storm-water recycling can be achieved on a larger scale. Older inner city areas are wasteful of
storm-water run-off, as they were constructed with drains rather than swales. New developments,
which are occurring in the growth corridors of all Australian States reflect a more proactive attitude.
Council requirements for storm-water recycling should be encouraged and maintained. An
additional benefit is the fact that retention ponds improve the aesthetics of new developments.
Design guidelines for appropriate xeriscape principles, should be promoted at a national
level through educational programs and broadcasts funded by the Federal Government. The
guidelines should promote the economic, environmental and, social benefits of:
Subterranean drip irrigation systems
Porous paving
Drought tolerant lawn varieties
Lawn substitutes
Drought tolerant flora
Use of organic and inorganic mulching
Use of shade
Low water use water features
Low growing groundcovers and shrubs
Gravitational irrigation strategies
Sunken tree planters and garden beds
A balance between hard and softscape elements
Green walls
As an overall benefit to the Australian climate, inland Australia needs to be ‘greened’.
Strategies and policies to ‘green Australia’ should be implemented. The more vegetation: the
more precipitation. Only hardy plants, which are drought, salt and, frost tolerant and indigenous
to the area should be considered. Atriplex (saltbush) is an example of a successfully integrated
prostrate species which is being employed by Southern New South Wales farmers as a substitute
for hay and lucerne. Not only has this venture been economically successful with saltbush lamb
readily available, but it has improved the micro-climate. Moisture from the night-frost collects
on the saltbush foliage, supplying the plant with all of its water requirements. Once established,
the survival of trees is more likely because of the increased moisture content in the soil.
The actual implementation process could be a part of Land Care with financial benefits to farmers for
environmentally sustainable outcomes. The supply of the appropriate flora should be produced and
contracted out to private enterprise. The Federal Government, however, should subsidise a significant
proportion of the expense, otherwise the farmers will never agree to the terms of the ‘greening’ process.
p96

report - Winston Churchill Memorial Trust

Transcription

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