united nations confebence on desertification regional preparatory

Transcription

UNITED NATIONS CONFEBENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING
FOR THE AMERICAS
ANNOTATED DRAFT PROVISIONAL AGENDA
77-i-oi2if
1.
Election of officers
A President, two Vice-Presidents, and a Rapi)orteur will be
elected to officiate at the meeting.
2«
,. Adoption of the agenda ,
,
The provisional ageyida will be .conisidered for adoption.
Agenda
items 4 and 5 are identical to the two., substantive items proposed
for adoption in the provisional agenda for the: United Nations Conference
on Desertification.
5°
•
Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification
. The substantive preparations for the Conferejice will be reviewed,
Pôcssses and causes of desertification
The General Assembly in its resolution 3337 (XXIX), on
international co-operation to combat desertification, in calling for
a United Nations conference on desertification to be held in 1977,
asked for "an assessment of all available data and information on
desertification and its consequences on the development process of the
countries affected, through the enlisting of all the expertise
available from public and private institutions and organizations of
Member States, including on-going and planned research, studies and
activities within the United Nations system".
To respond to this request, four component reviews dealing with
climate and desertification, demographic, social and behavioural
aspects, ecological change and desertification, and technology and
desertification are being prepared.
These will be background documents
for the Conference and will be synthesized in an overview which will
be a principal document for the Conference and will be before the
regional meeting in provisional form.
It is also expected that the
world desertification map requested by the General Assembly will be
discussed under this item.
A number of case studies on desertification
in specific locations in different countries are being prepared for
the Conference, together with a synthesis of them.
77-l-012if
It is expected
/that those
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that those that have been carried out in the region will be before
the meeting.
In addition to provisional or advance copies of the documents for
the United Nations Conference on Desertification, the regional meeting
will have before it, under this agenda item, a selection of countrypapers prepared by Governments in the region whose countries have
experienced desertification.
These papers will enable the meeting to
share experience on the extent and degree of succéss of programmes
to arrest desertification.
Related to these papers;will be a statement
submitted by the Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for
Latin America describing the nature and, extent of desertification in
the region.
In addition, a review of United Nations activities relating
to desertification, prepared by the Environment Co-ordination Board,
will be availaiale as a background documeht.
5.
Draft Plan of action to combat desertification
The General Assembly in calling for the Conference recommended
in its resolution that the international community urgently take
concrete measures to stem the spread of deserts and to assist the
developing countries affected by the phenomenon to ensure the economic
development of the areas affected.
The General Assembly also
recognized the urgent need to prepare a world integrated programme of
development research and application of science and technology to solve
the special problems of desertification in all its ramifications and
reclamation of land lost to desertification.
The resolution further
expressed the conviction of the General Assembly that work in this
field should be carried out at the national, regional and global levels
through studies and meetings at the appropiiate technical levels,
and that an "intergovernmental conference on desertificatioft would
provide thé international community att opportunity to launch a broad
plan of action with a view to resolving the problem of desertification.
A draft of the Plan of Action will be before the meeting for
review.
It is expected to contain a short terra plan of activities
that should be undertaken immediately as part of a longer range plan
/designed to
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designed to arrest the processes of desertification.
It is envisaged
that the Plan will also identify those activities which should be .
undertaken regionally as well as nationally and globally.
The meeting
will also have before it feasibility studies that have been made of
proposed transnational projects to be carried out co-operatively by
groups of concerned countries in the region as part of the global
plan»
60
Adoption of the report of the meeting
A report which, it is expected, would not exceed five pages
will be considered for adoption.
Together with the reports of other
regional meetings, it can be made available to the United Nations
Conference on Desertification as a background document (and also to
the next meeting of the regional commission).
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR
THE AMERICAS
1.
Election
of
officers
A P r e s i d e n t , two V i c e - P r e s i d e n t s , and a R a p p o r t e u r
be e l e c t e d t o o f f i c i a t e a t t h e m e e t i n g .
2.
Adoption
of
the
will
agenda
The p r o v i s i o n a l a g e n d a w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r a d o p t i o n .
Agenda i t e m s 4 and 5 a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e two s u b s t a n t i v e
items proposed f o r adoption in the p r o v i s i o n a l agenda f o r
t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
3.
The s u b s t a n t i v e
reviewed.
4.
preparations
for t h e C o n f e r e n c e will b e
Processes and causes of desertification
The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n 3 3 3 7 ( X X I X ) , o n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
in
c a l l i n g f o r a U n i t e d N a t i o n s c o n f e r e n c e on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
t o b e h e l d i n 1 9 7 7 , a s k e d f o r "an a s s e s s m e n t o f a l l a v a i l a b l e d a t a and i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and i t s
c o n s e q u e n c e s on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s of t h e c o u n t r i e s
a f f e c t e d , through the e n l i s t i n g of a l l the e x p e r t i s e
a v a i l a b l e from p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f Member S t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g o n - g o i n g a n d p l a n n e d
r e s e a r c h , s t u d i e s and a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s
system".
To r e s p o n d t o t h i s r e q u e s t , f o u r c o m p o n e n t r e v i e w s d e a l i n g
w i t h c l i m a t e and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , d e m o g r a p h i c , s o c i a l and
b e h a v i o u r a l a s p e c t s , e c o l o g i c a l change' and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
and t e c h n o l o g y and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e d .
These
w i l l b e b a c k g r o u n d d o c u m e n t s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and w i l l b e
s y n t h e s i z e d i n an o v e r v i e w w h i c h w i l l b e a p r i n c i p a l d o c u m e n t
f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and w i l . l b e b e f o r e t h e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g
in p r o v i s i o n a l f o r m .
I t is a l s o e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e w o r l d
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n map r e q u e s t e d by t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y w i l l
be d i s c u s s e d under t h i s i t e m .
A n u m b e r o f c a s e s t u d i e s on
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s in different c o u n t r i e s
a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e d f o r the C o n f e r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a
s y n t h e s i s of them.
It i s e x p e c t e d that t h o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n
c a r r i e d out i n the r e g i o n will be b e f o r e the m e e t i n g .
Na.76-3382
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2
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In a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i s i o n a l or advance c o p i e s of t h e dociiments
i o r t h e ü r i i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
the
r e g i o n a l meeting w i l l have b e f o r e i t , under t h i s agenda
i t e m , a s e l e c t i o n of c o u n t r y p a p e r s p r e p a r e d by Governments
i n t h e r e g i o n whose c o u n t r i e s have e x p e r i e n c e d d e s e r t i f i c a tion.
These papers w i l l enable the meeting t o share
e x p e r i e n c e on t h e e x t e n t and d e g r e e of s u c c e s s o f programmes
to arrest desertification.
Related t o t h e s e papers w i l l be
a s t a t e m e n t s u b m i t t e d by t h e E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y of t h e
Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America d e s c r i b i n g the nature
and e x t e n t of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n .
In a d d i t i o n , a
review of United Nations a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , p r e p a r e d by t h e E n v i r o n m e n t C o - o r d i n a t i o n B o a r d , w i l l
be a v a i l a b l e as a background document.
5.
Draft
Plan
of
action
to
combat
desertification
The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n c a l l i n g f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e recommended
i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n t h a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community u r g e n t l y
t a k e c o n c r e t e m e a s u r e s t o s t e m t h e s p r e a d o f d e s e r t s and
t o a s s i s t t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by t h e phenomenon
t o ensure the economic development of the areas a f f e c t e d .
The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a l s o r e c o g n i z e d t h e u r g e n t n e e d t o
p r e p a r e a w o r l d i n t e g r a t e d programme o f d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h
and a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y t o s o l v e t h e s p e c i a l
p r o b l e m s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n a l l i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s and
reclamation of land l o s t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
The r e s o l u t i o n
f u r t h e r e x p r e s s e d t h e c o n v i c t i o n of t h e General Assembly
t h a t work i n t h i s f i e l d s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d out at t h e n a t i o n a l ,
r e g i o n a l and g l o b a l l e v e l s t h r o u g h s t u d i e s and m e e t i n g s a t
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n i c a l l e v e l s , a n d t h a t an i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l c o n f e r e n c e on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y an o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a u n c h a b r o a d
plan of a c t i o n w i t h a view t o r e s o l v i n g t h e problem of
desertification.
A d r a f t of the Plan of Action w i l l be b e f o r e the meeting
for review.
I t i s e x p e c t e d t o c o n t a i n a s h o r t term plan
of a c t i v i t i e s that should be undertaken immediately as part
of a longer range plan d e s i g n e d t o a r r e s t the p r o c e s s e s of
desertification.
It i s envisaged that the Plan w i l l a l s o
i d e n t i f y those a c t i v i t i e s which should be undertaken
r e g i o n a l l y a s w e l l a s n a t i o n a l l y and g l o b a l l y .
The m e e t i n g
w i l l a l s o have b e f o r e i t f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s that have
b e e n made o f p r o p o s e d t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s t o b e c a r r i e d
o u t c o - o p e r a t i v e l y by groups of c o n c e r n e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e
r e g i o n as part of the g l o b a l p l a n .
6.
Adoption
of
the
report
of
the
meeting
A report which, i t i s e x p e c t e d , would not exceed f i v e pages
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d f o r a d o p t i o n .
Together with the reports
o f o t h e r r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g s , i t c a n b e made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a s a background
d o c u m e n t Cand a l s o t o t h e n e x t m e e t i n g o f t h e r e g i o n a l
commission).
DESCOHF /AMERICAS/l
imiTED NATIONS CONl'EEENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
DESERTIFICATION?
AN OVERVIEW
FIRST DRAFT
ITEM 4
OF THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY MEETING FOR
THE AMIRICAS
S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , 23-26 F e b r u a r y , 1977
S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United Nations
Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
P.O. Box 30552
N a i r o b i , Kenya,
January, 1977
GE.77-82178
ITííITED NATIONS CONFEEENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
DESERTIFICATION:
aH UVERVIE¥
FIRST DRAFT
SUBMITTED FOR DISCUSSION AND COMMENT TO
THE REGÍC;ÍÍAL PREPARATORY I'ÊETINGS
FOPrTEE CuSFERENCE
ITEM 4
OF TBE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR TBE PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR
THE AMERICAS
S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , 23-26 F e b r u a r y , 1977
AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHAFJi
12-16 A p r i l , 1977
THE MSDITEEFtANEAN AREA
A l g a r v e , P o r t u g a l , 29 March-2 A p r i l , 1977
ASIA AITO THE PACIFIC
New D e l h i , I n d i a , 19-23 A p r i l ,
S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s
Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
P.O. Box 30552
N a i r o b i , Kenya
J a n u a r y , 1977
1977
- 1 -
-
.
KQTE /TO THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETUGS FOR THE
TMITED UATIOUS COMFEÊHCE OH DESERT IF.10 IT ION
The a t t a c h e d Overview i s p r e s e n t e d t o , t h e Regional P r e p a r a t o r y Meetings f o r
the United N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r d i s c u s s i o n and comment in
conformance w i t h Item 4 of t h e D r a f t P r o v i s i o n a l Agenda f o r t h o s e m e e t i n g s .
The Overview has two priniary p-arposes t o which d i s c u s s i o n and c r i t i c i s m
should he d i r e c t e d ;
(1) I t s h o u l d ' p r o v i d e - a r e a d a b l e b u t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a c c u r a t e summary of t h e
causes and p r o c e s s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and of t h e s t e p s t h a t can be t a k e n t o
combat such p r o c e s s e s and, where p o s s i b l e , r e v e r s e them„
(2) I t should p r o v i d e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the recommendations c o n t a i n e d i n
the proposed Plan of A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a d r a f t of which w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d under Item 5 of t h e P r o v i s i o n a l Agenda f o r the Regional P r e p a r a t o r y
Meetings.
Comments made a t the Regional P r e p a r a t o r y Meetings w i l l be taken i n t o accovint
i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l d r a f t of t h e Overview.
- 11 -
The s o i l -which kept b r e a k i n g aviay from the h i g h l a n d s
keeps c o n t i n u a l l y
s l i d i n g aw8.y and d i s a p p e a r i n g i n t o the sea . . . . . . Wiat novj remains, compared with
what e x i s t e d , i s l i k e t h e s k e l e t o n of a s i c k man, a l l the f a t and s o f t e a r t h having
wasted away and o n l y ' t h e h a r e : framework of the l a n d , h e i n g l e f t
. VJhat a r e
now mountains were l o f t y ? s o i i ^ d a d h i l l s ; t h e s t o n y p l a i n s
t h e p r e s e n t day
were f u l l of r i c h s o i l , the mountains were h e a v i l y wooded — a f a c t of which t h e r e
8.re s t i l l v i s i b l e t r a c e s .
There a r e mountains in A t t i c a which can now support
n o t h i n g b u t b e e s , but which were c l o t h e d , n o t so v e r y long,agOy; w i t h ' f i n e t r e e s
s u i t a b l e f o r r o o f i n g ' the l a r g e s t b u i l d i n g s — and r o o f s hewn from-.the timber- are
s t i l l in existence
The country produced b o u n d l e s s p a s t u r a g e f o r c a t t l e .
The annual s u p p l y of r a i n f a l l was not l o s t , as i t i s a t present-, through
being allowed t o flow over the denuded s u r f a c e i n t o t h e s e a , but wás r e c e i v e d
by t h e c o u n t r y , i n a l l i t s , abundance, i n t p h e r bosom, where she s t o r e d i t in h e r
impervious c l a y and so w a s ' a b l e t o discha.rge the d r a i n a g e from t h é h e i g h t s ' i n t o
the hollows in t h e form of s p r i n g s and r i v e r s with an a.bujidant volume and a wide
territorial distribution.
The s h r i n e s tha,t s u r v i v e t o t h e - p r e s e n t day. on the
s i t e s o f - e x t i n c t , w a t e r s u p p l i e s are evidence f o r t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of my p r e s e n t
hypothesis.
.
..
"
"
"
~
Plato
The C r i t i a s
Ill
-
PEEFACE
In December 197'^5 t h e United Nations General Assembly passed
r e s o l u t i o n 5337(XXIX) c a l l i n g f o r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
to be h e l d i n 197?.
The General-Assembly s p e c i f i e d t h a t t o p r e p a r e f o r t h i s
conference a world map should be developed showing a r e a s v u l n e r a b l e t o
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a.nd i t s consequences
f o r development tihould be g a t h e r e d a.nd a s s e s s e d , and a p l a n of a c t i o n t o combat
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be p r e p a r e d with emphasis on t h e development of indigenous
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y .
In a. subsequent r e s o l u t i o n 3511(XXX), the
General Assembly s t r e s s e d the need " f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h to c l a r i f y a number of
fundamental problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n " This a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h - t o o k t h e form of case s t u d i e s d i r e c t e d toward key
a s p e c t s of the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s .
Six su6h case s t u d i e s were f i n a n c e d and
c a r r i e d out by the s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s of t h e . U n i t e d Nations system.
They
analyzed the p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n ( l ) Chile and (2) T u n i s i a , both with
predominately c o l d - s e a s o n r a i n f a l l , in (3) I n d i a a,nd (4) N i g e r , b o t h with
predominately warm-season r a i n f a l l , and in (5) the Indus V a l l e y and (6) the T i g r i s E u p h r a t e s V a l l e y , b o t h i r r i g a t e d a r e a s s u b j e c t t o waterlogging and s a l i n i z a t i o n .
In a d d i t i o n , a number of Governments c o - o p e r a t e d by developing a s s o c i a t e d case
s t u d i e s focused on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems w i t h i n t h e i r b o r d e r s .
These
governments include A u s t r a l i a , China, I r a n , I s r a e l , t h e Soviet Union and t h e
United S t a t e s .
Another s e t of s t u d i e s r e l a t e s t o the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o - o p e r a t i v e ,
t r a n s n a t i o n a l e f f o r t s to combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
These s o - c a l l e d f e a s i b i l i t y
s t u d i e s , p r e p a r e d by s p e c i a l i s t s , concern t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of g r e e n b e l t s on the
n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n rims of the Sahara, t h e management of groundwater a q u i f e r s
i n n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian p e n i n s u l a , the monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
p r o c e s s e s in South America and t h e Middle E a s t , and l i v e s t o c k and r a n g e l a n d
management i n f r a g i l e , dryland e c o s y s t e m s .
The accumulation of t h e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
may be s a i d t o include t h e r e q u e s t e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n maps.
A world map of a r e a s
v u l n e r a b l e t o d e g r a d a t i o n was prepajred by UNESCO and PAO a t a s c a l e of one t o
25 m i l l i o n and maps of t h e d e s e r t area.s of n o r t h A f r i c a and South America ha-ve been
p r e p a r e d a t a. s c a l e of one to f i v e m i l l i o n .
In a d d i t i o n , some of t h e case s t u d i e s
were accompanied by more d e t a i l e d maps of t h e a r e a s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
To p r e s e n t the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i n a coherent way, the b r o a d s u b j e c t of
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n was broken down i n t o f o u r m a j o r e l e m e n t s , and r e c o g n i z e d s p e c i a l i s t s
X'jere commissioned to w r i t e a review of each e l e m e n t .
The a u t h o r s of t h e s e f o u r
component reviews r e c e i v e d the advice and a s s i s t a n c e of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a n e l of
experts.
The revievj are e n t i t l e d Climate and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , E c o l o g i c a l Change
and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , The Demographic, S o c i a l and B e h a v i o u r a l Aspects of
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Technology.
-
IV
-
T h i s Overview s e e k s t o p r o v i d e a " b r i e f - a e e o u n t of t h e main f i n d i n g s of t h e
f o u r component r e v i e w s .
To do so p r o p e r l y , i t h a s sometimes gone "beyond t h e
component r e v i e w s , a s , f o r example, i n making, r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a s e s t u d i e s and
the f e a s i b i l i t y studies,.
L i m i t e d i n l e n g t h , , t h e Overview c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d as'
a summary of a l l a s p e c t s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n » ' . '
I t s v i e w p o i n t i s more s p e c i f i c a l l y
d i r e c t e d t o showing how t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e Pl^ri o f A c t i o n t o Combat '
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a s , s u b m i t t e d to. t h e c o n f e r e n c e , emerge d i r e c t l y from t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t l y ^ . a v a i l a b l e and f r o m p a s t e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , as
c a r r i e d o u t i n many p a r t s of t h e w o r l d .
In t h e same s e n s e , t h e P l a n of A c t i o n
h a s s e r v e d a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t around which a l l p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e
have b e e n o r g a n i z e d .
The f o u r component r e v i e w s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Overview, r e p r e s e n t an a t t e m p t
t o p r o v i d e t h e d e l e g a t e s t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n ' D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a more o r g a n i z e d
kind of documentation.
I t i s t h e hope o f t h e ' C o n f e r e n c e S e c r e t a r i a t t h a t t h e
d e l e g a t e s w i l l , f i n d t h i s system,more u s e f u l and c o n v e n i e n t t h a n t h e more
c u s t o m a r y pro.c&dure o f p r o v i d i n g an e x t e n d e d , c a t a l o g u e of documents e a c h o f which
c o v e r s one m i n i s c u l e a s p e c t , o f t h e s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
-
V
-
T e t l e of C o n t e n t s
Page
Preface
Xll
I.
The Problem of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
1
II.
P r o c e s s e s of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
7
III.
The Causes of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
12
IV.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n Action
18
V.
The Human Consequences of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
39
VI.
i f e a s u r e s t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
43
In Conclusion
62
1
-
The Problem of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
I n t h e Sahelj, a s i n o t h e r d r y l a n d s j r a i n f a l l i s s c a n t y and h i g h l y
The Sahel - v a r i a b l e . F o r a s long a s h i s t o r y remembersj nomads have p a s t u r e d
a region
t h e i r h e r d s i n t h e a r i d g r a s s l a n d s t h a t rim t h e s o u t h e r n edge of t h e
at risk
Sahar-^, d e s e r t | t h e y have seemed s u i t a b l e f o r l i t t l é e l s e , s i n c e only
nomadism can t a k e f u l l a d v a n t a g e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r a i n ^ u n r e l i a b l e
a s i t i s 5 may f a l l i n one p l a c e and n o t i n another» Yet even so,
t h e p a s t o r a l i s t s of t h e S a h e l l i v e u n d e r t h e c o n s t a n t t h r e a t t h a t
t h e r a i n s 5 such a s t h e y a r e 5 w i l l f a i l j and t h a t t h e l a n d w i l l be a f f e c t e d
by d r o u g h t . Major d r o u g h t s t r u c k t h e S a h e l i n 1913 sxid a g a i n i n 1940=
This great
drought,
1968-1973
I n 1968 i t happened a g a i n . At Rosso i n w e s t e r n M a u r i t a n i a , which
r e c e i v e s an a v e r a g e (l935~72) of 284mm of r a i n a y e a r , only 122mm f e l l
i n I 9 6 8 . T h i s seemed a t t h e t i m e t o be a mere q u i r k i n t h e a s y e t
u n p r e d i c t a b l e w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s , s i n c e t h e r a i n f a l l r e t u r n e d t o normal i n
1969 w i t h 2951™. But i n 1970, t h e r a i n s f a i l e d a g a i n w i t h a mere
149mm, t h e n a g a i n i n I 9 7 I {l2km)
and w o r s t of a l l i n 1972 (54mm).
By 1973 t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e S a h e l was c a t a s t r o p h i c .
I t provided a
s p e c t a c l e of d e a t h , d i s e a s e and m i g r a t i o n t h a t served a s t h e immediate
s t i m u l u s f o r t h e 1974 c a l l by t h e United N a t i o n s G e n e r a l Assembly f o r
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a
world conference
on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t o váiich a p l a n of action would
be s u b m i t t e d .
i.'hat had happened t o t h e S a h e l by 19735 t h e f i f t h y e a r of d r o u g h t ?
Lake Chad ha^d shrunlc t o o n e - t h i r d i t s normal s i z e . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g
w i n t e r , t h e g r e a t íFiger and Senegal r i v e r s had f a i l e d t o f l o o d ,
l e a v i n g much of t h e b e s t c r o p l a n d i n f i v e c o u n t r i e s ( N i g e r , M a l i ,
Upper V o l t a , Senegal and M a u r i t a n i a ) cracked and b a r r e n . The w a t e r
t a b l e d r o p p e d , d r y i n g up s h a l l o w e r w e l l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e S a h e l ' s f i v e
m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s and p l a c i n g t h e nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s i n
d e a d l y p e r i l . A f t e r consuming t h e l a s t a c c e s s i b l e s h r e d s of d r i e d - u p
v e g e t a t i o n , famished h e r d s were s o l d , s l a u g h t e r e d o r d r i v e n southv/ard
i n a f r u i t l e s s s e a r c h f o r p a s t u r e . Behind them was a s t r i p p e d l a n d s c a p e ,
baking i n t h e s u n , where p a t c h e s of newly-ci-eated d e s e r t seemed t o
grov/ and l i n k u p , p r o d u c i n g an i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t Sahara d e s e r t
was "marching s o u t h w a r d " .
Also by 1973» t h e l a s t y e a r of t h e d r o u g h t , a l a r g e programme
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e had been mounted f o r t h e d i s t r e s s e d c o u n t r i e s
of t h e Sahelc C o n t r i b u t i o n s , i n c a s h , b u t m a i n l y i n f o o d , by Governments,
t h e United N a t i o n s system and p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s approached a v a l u e
of $200 m i l l i o n by 1974» T h i s was emergency r e l i e f , p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d
t o p r e v e n t s t a r v a t i o n . I t could do l i t t l e about t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e of f i v e c o u n t r i e s ( í í a u r i t a n i a , Upper V o l t a ,
i % l i , Niger and Chad), a l r e a d y among t h e p o o r e s t n a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d ,
and s e v e r e damage t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e of two o t h e r
(Senegal and Gambia)» For t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
2 a g r i c u l t u r e meant a l o s s of t h e i r t a x b a s e and a s i t u a t i o n c l o s e
to banliruptcy.
I n t h e absence of r e l i a ^ b l e s t a t i s t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y
d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n among nomadic p e o p l e s , i t i s not e a s y t o say
how many people- died a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e drought but e s t i m a t e s
have ranged laetween 100,000 and 250,000. That t h e t o l l of d e a t h
W3.S n o t h i g h e r could be a t t r i b ^ i t e d only t o t h e r e l i e f programme.
.;. •
The ,amount of d r o u g h t - i n d u c e d d i s e a s e i s a l s o i m p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e
p r e c i s e l y . M a l n u t r i t i o n was r i f e among c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y among
t h e nomads, and o u t b r e a k s of m e a s l e s took on epidemic p r o p o r t i o n s .
The l o s s 01 l i v e s t o c k vjas a p p a l l i n g , w i t h e s t i m a t e s r e a c h i n g a s h i g h
as 90 p e r c e n t i n M a l i .
C l i m a t o l o g i s t s a r e a s k i n g vrhether t h e prolonged drought i n t h e
Saliel s i g n i f i e d a l o n g - t e r m
c l i m a t i c s h i f t t o more a r i d c o n d i t i o n s
i n t h i s immense t e r r i t o r y t h a t s u p p o r t s 25 m i l l i o n p e o p l e . But a
r e v i e w of r e c o r d e d c l i m a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a h a s led t o a
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t , however s e v e r e and however
unexpected i t may have seemed t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e S a h e l , must
p r o b a b l y b e , r e g a r d e d a s a p r e d i c t a b l e e v e n t u n d e r t h e c l i m a t i c regime
t h a t e x i s t e d f o r m e r l y , something t o be e x p e c t e d a t long i n t e r v a l s ,
p e r h a p s two o r t h r e e t i m e s a c e n t u r y .
The g r e a t d r o u g h t i n t h e S a h e l a l s o gave r i s e t o a number of
o t h e r q u e s t i o n s . Can such o c c u r r e n c e s be p r e d i c t e d so t h a t p e o p l e
can prepare, f o r them? I'.Tiat should be done t o see. p e o p l e t h r o u g h
such s u c c e s s i o n s of l e a n yea^rs, i n t h e form b o t h of emergency r e l i e f
and long term a c t i o n s ? '.'/ha,t a r e t h e b e s t r e h a b i l i t a t i v e measures t o
be a p p l i e d a f t e r such an e v e n t ?
These q u e s t i o n s a r e t h e more
p e r t i n e n t b e c a u s e t h e Saliel d r o u g h t c o i n c i d e d w i t h r a i n f a l l - , f a i l u r e s ,
l o s s of c r o p s and l i v e s t o c k , and f a m i n e and d e a t h i n otheri p a r t s of
t h e w o r l d s d r y l a n d s , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y E a s t A f r i c a and t h e d e s e r t s
of P ^ c i s t a n and I n d i a .
The d r o u g h t h a s ended and f a v o u r a b l e r a i n f a l l s , have retTirned. t o
Drought
t h e S a h e l s i n c e 1974> b u t a t l e a s t a decade w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o r e s t o c k
and
t h e p a s t u r e s and a t l e a s t a s long a g a i n b e f o r e t h e ravaged land, r e t u r n s
d e s e r t i f i c a - t o something l i k e i t s f o r m e r s t a t e .
I t i s t h i s l o n g - t e r m s p r e a d of
tion
d e s e r t c o n d i t i o n s i n f o r m e r l y more p r o d u c t i v e l a n d s t h a t we c a l l
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e temporary c l i m a t i c
phenomenon of d r o u g h t .
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s f a r from a n o v e l e x p e r i e n c e f o r manlcind.
It
h a s been a m a j o r . f a c t o r i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of human c i v i l i z a t i o n
from t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s . For example because of improper d r a i n a g e ,
s a l t s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e l a n d s i r r i g a t e d by t h e SiMierians and
Babylonians, thus d e s t r o y i n g , t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l productivity.
Prolonged
and i n t e n s i f y i n g d e s i c c a t i o n of t h e land r u i n e d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
b a s i s of t h e H a r a p p a n s , who had c o n s t r u c t e d , a pre-Aryan c i v i l i z a t i o n
i n what i s now P a k i s t a n . The M e d i t e r r a n e a n l i t t o r a l of A f r i c a was
c e r t a i n l y more p r o d u c t i v e i n Roman t i m e s t h a n i t i s , t o d a y .
3 I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a r e a l o s t t o m a n ' s u s e i n t h i s way may be of
t h e same o r d e r of magnitude a s t h e t o t a l ajnount of land l e f t i n c r o p s
o r p a s t u r e t o d a y . There i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t t h e r a t e of l o s s
of l a n d o r p r o d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e s t o t h e o r d e r of almost
50,000 km. squared p e r y e a r and t h a t 30 m i l l i o n Ion squared a r e
v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n a world l i k e l y t o be f a c e d
i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h food s h o r t a g e s .
Although d e s e r t s a r e n o t w i t h o u t l i f e ^ t h e y can be viewed a s
a r e a s w i t h e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l » There i s a
v a r i e t y of d e s e r t t y p e s , h o t and cold5 s t o n y and s a n d y , b u t a l l
a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r a i n f a l d e f i c i e n c i e s so marked t h a t c u l t i v a t i o n
o r s t o c k - r e a r i n g a r e p o s s i b l e only w i t h s p e c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s .
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of d e s e r t
c o n d i t i o n s , d i m i n i s h e s t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e l a n d , and i t i s t h i s
which makes i t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a human problem.
Desertification
a f f e c t s t h e whole g l o b a l community5 f o r example loitered wheat y i e l d s
i n t h e d r y l a n d s a f f e c t a l l vrho depend on wheat a s f o o d . But t h e
human impact of l o n g - t e i m d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s f a r g r e a t e r on t h e
p e o p l e who l i v e where i t i s happening and who depend upon a r i d l a n d s
• f o r t h e i r - l i v e l i h o o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the developing c o u n t r i e s .
There d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n can b r i n g poverty, m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e ,
e r o s i o n of t h e economic b a s e , and t h e f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of
•-- • s o c i a l s e r v i c e s a l r e a d y hampered-by r e m o t e n e s s and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . I t bréales up f a m i l i e s and may wipe out whole
c u l t u r e s . I t lovrers r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e impact of s u c c e e d i n g
d r o u g h t s , each of which may b r i n g f a m i n e , d e a t h and t h e c o l l a p s e of
l i v e l i h o o d s y s t e m s , and each of which i n t u r n t e n d s t o advajice
f u r t h e r t h a t d e g r a d a t i o n which i s i m p l i e d i n p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
The wide
impact of
desertification
V u l n e r a b i l i t y t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e s e v e r i t y of i t s impact
a r e p a r t l y governed by c l i m a t e , i n t h a t t h e lower and more u n c e r t a i n
the rainfall,
the greater
t h e t h r e a t of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , b u t
o t h e r n a t u r a l f a c t o r s a l s o come i r . t o p l a y , such a s t h e s e a s o n a l
o c c u r r e n c e of r a i n f a l l , a s between h o t s e a s o n and c o o l s e a s o n ,
t h e s t r u c t u r e - a n d t e x t u r e of t h e s o i l , t h e t o p o g r a p h y and t h e t y p e s
of v e g e t a t i o n t o be f o u n d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , l i a b i l i t y t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
i n c r e a s e s a s p r e s s u r e s on t h e l a n d i n c r e a s e , a s r e f l e c t e d i n d e n s i t y
o f " p o p u l a t i o n o r l i v e s t o c k , o r i n t h e e x t e n t t o which a g r i c u l t u r e i s
mechaxLized,
Areas r e g a r d e d a s s u b j e c t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on t h e s e v a r i o u s
grounds a r e shown on t h e World Ifep of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , I t shows t h a t
a r e a s a s s e s s e d a s b e i n g a t h i g h o r v e r y h i g h r i s k occupy most of
t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n s and e x t e n d i n t o a d j a c e n t subhumid
z o n e s . fTeglecting t h e extreme d e s e r t s and t h e v e i y c o l d d e s e r t s ,
which a r e s e v e r e and l i t t l e - u s e d e n v i r o n m e n t s u n l i k e l y t o undergo
f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e r e remains an area, of p o t e n t i a l l y
p r o d u c t i v e b u t t h r e a t e n e d d r y l a n d s c o v e r i n g 30 m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s ,
o r 19 p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e . These o c c u r so w i d e l y
t h a t a t l e a s t two t h i r d s of t h e I 5 0 n a t i o n s of t h e world a r e d i r e c t l y
a f f e c t p d . Through i t s s h e e r e x t e n t , t h e r e f o r e , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s shovm
t o be a g l o b a l problem.
5
-
e v e r y o n e w i t h a d e q u a t e f o o d s h e l t e r and c l o t h i n g i s now r e c o g n i z e d
a s an irrgent world problem^ one t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e i n d i f f i c u l t y
a s t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o expand. E f f o r t s t o r e s o l v e
t h i s problem w i t h o u t t h e enormous o u t p u t of t h e d r y l a n d s \JOuld b e
t i n g e d w i t h t h e most sombre p r o s p e c t s »
The world s i m p l y c a n n o t
a f f o r d t o abaxidon i t s d r y l a n d s t o d e s e r t i f i c a - t i o n .
The d r y l a n d s a l s o s e r v e a s r e s e r v e s s h e l t e r i n g an importeint
r a n g e of p l a n t l i f e , i n c l u d i n g t h e g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l from which h a v e
been developed many of manlcind's s t a p l e g r a i n s - w h e a t , b a r l e y ,
sorghum and maize»- The Green R e v o l u t i o n h a s f o c u s e d new a t t e n t i o n
on t h e c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s b o t a n i c a l h e r i t a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
a s a r e s o u r c e which can be u s e d t o k e e p h i g h l y c u l t u r e d s t r a i n s ,
such a s t h e s o - c a l l e d " m i r a c l e w h e a t " , r e s i s t a n t t o d e s t r u c t i o n by
d i s e a s e . As e c o t y p a l r e s e r v e s of a v a r i e t y of i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e f u l
n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s , t h e d r y l a n d s c o n s t i t u t e a p r e c i o u s human h e r i t a g e .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e y have come i n c r e a s i n g l y t o s e r v e a s a r e a s t o
which p e o p l e go - £tnd where t h e y o f t e n r e m a i n - i n q u e s t of h e a l t h
and. r e c r e a t i o n .
Land and
people
already
affected
But d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s more t h a n a, t h r e a t . A g r e a t many p e o p l e
l i v e i n d i y l a n d s t h a t a r e now u n d e r g o i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and. t h e i r
l i v e l i h o o d s are already affected« I t i s d i f f i c u l t to determine
how much l a n d i s b e i n g l o s t t o a g r i c u l t u r e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , b u t
t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n t h a t a g r e a t d e a l of o n c e - p r o d u c t i v e land i s
c u r r e n t l y b e i n g l o s t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , l.'idely a c c e p t e d e s t i m a t e s
p l a c e t h e a n n u a l l o s s of a r a b l e . l a n d a l o n e a t between f i v e m i l l i o n
and seven m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s .
T h i s would b e from a l l c a u s e s - road
c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n d u s t r y and uxban e x p a n s i o n a s w e l l a s g r a z i n g and
cultivation.
O t h e r e s t i m a t e s a r e more p e s s i m i s t i c , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
t h e world w i l l l o s e c l o s e t o o n e - t h i r d of i t s a r a b l e l a n d s by t h e
end of t h e c e n t u r y i f l o s s e s c o n t i n u e a t t h e p r e s e n t r a t e .
Such
l o s s e s , of c o u r s e , a r e t a k i n g p l a c e a t a. t i m e v/hen p o p u l a t i o n s a r e
growing r a p i d l y , w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e food r e q u i r e m e n t s of
t h e human r a c e w i l l r i s e by a t l e a s t o n e - t h i r d , and p r o b a b l y more,
by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y . ' F u r t h e r , i f c u l t i v a b l e land, be v a l u e d a t
an a v e r a g e of i j l , 0 0 0 p e r h e c t a r e , t h e n t h e a n n u a l l o s s would amount
t o $50 m i l l i o n , a sura f a r - i n e x c e s s of t h e p r e d i c t e d c o s t s of t h e
programmes t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Of coixrse l o s s e s may be i n
p a s t u r e valued a t much l e s s t h a n a r a b l e l a n d . But a s t h e d e s e r t
e n c r o a c h e s on p a s t u r e on one s i d e , a r a b l e l a n d on t h e o t h e r i s
degraded to p a s t u r e , keeping t o t a l l o s s e s c l o s e to the e s t i m a t e .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y some of t h i s l a n d h a s a l r e a d y d e t e r i o r a t e d t o t h e
extent t h a t f o r a l l . p r a c t i c a l purposes, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i s economically
impossible.
-
6
-
The n-umbers of p e o p l e i m m e d i a t e l y t h r e a t e n e d , t h e i r g e n e r a l
l o c a t i o n and. l i v e l i h o o d s y s t e m s , a r e a s f o l l o w s ;
ti\sle 2
ESTIMATES OP POPULATIONS kW LIVELIHOODS KESIDBffi:
IN AEEAS RECEÍWLYTOIDERGOINGSEI'EPÜE DESERTIFICATION l /
(in thousands)
Region
Mediterranean
Basin
Urban
Based
Total
Population
9
820
Animal
Based.
Agriculture
Based
2
995
5
900
60fo .
925
1
320
000
6 850
000
4
361
000
979
17 545
000
414
30 0 7 6
000
Sub-Saharan
Africa
16
165
5
072
6
014
7
079
44%
A s i a and t h e
Pacific
28
482
7
740
14
311
54/0
6
431
19/0
683
13
417
56/0
2
490
39
642
51?i
.
Americas •
27 fo
24
079
7
78
546
21
21%
.
17
Area
12'}í>
22%
1 / As e s t i m a t e d by H. Dregne ( i n c l u d e s b o t h s e v e r e an.d v e r y s e v e r e c a t e g o r i e s )
Of t h e s e 78 m i l l i o n , about a t h i r d , may be i n a p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e of
income o r o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t o a v o i d t h e v/orst consequences of
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s s t i l l l e a v e s about 50 m i l l i o n p e o p l e who
a r e i m m e d i a t e l y menaced by m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
of t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s , t h e c o l l a p s e of such s o c i a l s e r v i c e s as
h e a l t h c a r e and ed.ucation, and by t h e grim p r o s p e c t of u p r o o t i n g
t h e m s e l v e s from e v e r y t h i n g f a m i l i a r and of m i g r a t i n g t o o t h e r a r e a s
u s u a l l y i l l - e q u i p p e d t o r e c e i v e them.
Urgency
of t h e
problem
T h i s review,,of t h e problem shows t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s more
t h a n a g l o b a l t h r e a t t o t h e p e o p l e of t h e d r y l a n d s and t o t h e world
community i n g e n e r a l j i t i s an a c t i v e p r o c e s s a l r e a d y d e s t r o y i n g
t h e land, and l i v e l i h o o d , of t e n s of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e . The need
f o r a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a l l t h e more u r g e n t b e c a u s e
t h e p r o c e s s i s a dynamic one, s e l f - a c c e l e r a t i n g a s i t f e e d s on
i t s e l f . With d e l a y , r e h a - b i l i t a t i o n becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y l e n g t h y and
e x p e n s i v e , and d e g r a d a t i o n may r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d l y r e a c h a t h r e s h o l d beyond
which i t i s i r r e v e r s i b l e i n p r a c t i c a l and economic t e r m s .
Fundamental
p r e v e n t i v e measures should be i n t r o d u c e d a s soon a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e
form of l a n d - u s e p r a c t i c e s which a r e b o t h s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y and
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , and which p r e v e n t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n from
mal-cing i t s f i r s t e n c r o a c h m e n t s .
- 7
II
P r o c e s s e s of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
Water and
energy
balances
To s e e pi-ecirjoly \-jliat h a p p e n s when d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s , a t t e n t i o n
should be focusGocl on tlaat s h a l l o u i n t e r f a c e where s o i l and atraosphei-e
meet, and T/hex-e a b a l a n c e must be m a i n t a i n e d between i n c o m i n g and
o u t - g o i n g c n e r s ^ and between w a t e r r e c e i v e d and l o s t .
When r a i n f a l l s , some of t h e w a t e r i s t a k e n up d i r e c t l y by t h e
p l a n t s j s o r j G i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o t h e s o i l , where i t may r e m a i n i n .
s t o r a g e , and t h e r e s t e v a p o r a t e s o r r u n e o f f . Some s o i l m o i s t u r e ,
and t h a t i n t e i - c o p t e d by t h e p l a n t , i s b r e a t h e d back i n t o t h e
a t m o s p h e r e , b;^ t h e p l a n t s i n t r a n s p i r a t i o n , and some of t h e s o i l
m o i s t u r e may s e e p i n t o d e e p e r l a y e r s t o c o l l e c t i n underjípround
reservoirs or aquifers.
The s o i l - a i r i n t e r f a c e a l e o s h a r e s i n a n e n e r g y b a l a n c e
a c t i v a t e d by t h e rt^ys cf t h e sun o r t h r o u g h a t m o s p h e r i c h e a t i n g . Some
e n e r g y i s r c f l o c t o d back i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e and i n t o s p a c e . Some i s
h e l d by t h e s o i l i n s t o r a g e , t h e r e b y warming t h e e a r t h , and i t i s
t h i s energy'- and t h a t from t h e sun d i r e c t l ^ r t h a t i s used by t h e p l a n t s
t o carr^r o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s of p h o t o e ; T a t h e s i s and g r o w t h . Some of t h e
p l a n t s a r e ea,ton by g r a z e r s o r b r o w s e r s , and t h e s e i n t u r n may be
e a t e n b^'' co.mivoros^
w i t h a l l a n i m a l s r e t u r n i n g energj/- and m o i s t u r e
to the atmosphere i n r e s p i r a t i o n .
The e x c r e t a of a n i m a l s , t h e i r
decomposing c a r c a s s e s and t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n of p l a n t s s u p p l y t h e s o i l
w i t h n u t r i e n t s , most d e n s e l y i n t h e topmost l a y e r s and t i i i n n i n g o u t "below.
(These r e l a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m s . )
Adaptation
to the
arid
environment
In s-rid s i t u a t i o n s t h e c y c l i n g of w a t e r and enei-gi'' t a k e s on
s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e i - i s t i c s b e c a u s e of d e f i c i e n t and v a r i a b l e r a i n f a l l
and a b u n d a n t s o l a r enor¡!^ from c l o u d l e s s s k i e s . V e g e t a t i o n i s
g e n e r a l l y s p a r s e r t h a n i n hui'iiid a r e a , s , p r o v i d e s l e s s covex' t o t h e
ground s u r f a c e and r e t u r n s l e s s o r g a n i c m a t t e r t o t h e t o p s o i l .
D u r i n g o c c a s i o n a l i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l s nmoff
may o c c u r i n s p a t e , and i n
t h e l o n g i n t e r v e n i n g Crry s p e l l s t h e s u r f a c e i s p a r c h e d pnd h e a t e d by
the poi'jerful sim.
D e s p i t e i t s s p a r s i t y however, t h e dr;)'-land v e g e t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s
a f u n d a m e n t a l resoLirce which t r a n s f o r m s s o l a r energy i n t o food and
which a l s o p r o t e c t s and s t a b i l i z e s t h e ground s u r f a c e . I t s u r v i v e s
by a d a p t i n g t o w a t e r d e f i c i t i n ways which a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y
d e t e r m i n e s e a s o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e u s e f u l n e s s of d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s .
P a r t of t h e p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s of s h o r t - l i v e d
e p h e m e r a l s wlrLch g e r m i n a t e and c o m p l e t e t h e i r l i f e c y c l e r a p i d l y
a f t e r r a i n , r e m a i n i n g a s seed t h r o i i g h i n t e r v e n i n g d r y p e r i o d s .
Such
p l a n t s a r e commonly f l e s h y and p a l a t a b l e and a r e p r e f e r r e d by
g r a z i n g a n i m a l s . O t h e r p l a n t s , s u c h a s p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s , w i t h e r and
d i e b a c k t o t h e r o c t s t o c k i n d r y s p e l l s and s h o o t anew w i t h f r e s h
r a i n s . These p l a n t s form moi'e dLirable p a s t u r e s and a r e p . t t r e x t i v e
and p a l a t a b l e f o r s t o c k when g r e e n , and may p r o v i d e va.luablo h a y ,
Soil
Surface
e f t , e n e r g y on t h e r i g h t . The d i a g r a m r e f e r s
t e r e x c h a n g e s a r e on t h e
s u r f a ce-whose temperature
a partly vegetated
(for radiative
Most n a t u r a l s u r f a c e s i n d r y
3 convective
forcing)
is
ve e x t e n s i v e
a r e a s of bare s o i l ,
as.shown,
P, a very
intermittent
p u t . The w a t e r r e a c h i n g tl e s u r f a c e may p e r c o l a t e , N q , o r r u n - o f f
5 surface,
The
lyer, of depth z , s t o r e s w a t e r -
soil
m a i n i n g r a i n f a l l may o u t f .ow l a t e r a l l y ,
t e r . With h i g h w a t e r
r an-on.
v e r s e , so t h a t t h e r e i s
t h e r e i s no change i n
the
Ng, o r p e r c o l a t e t o
t a b L s on s l o p i n g s i t e s ,
at
typically
p r e c i p i t a •ion when w e t . I f s t o r a g e i s f u l l ,
o r d e r 10 cm o f
In t h i s case the convective fluxes force the net
ground
NQ, Ng and Ng may
all
and n o n e t s y n t h e s i s ,
evapotrans-
R - 1(1-a)
tending to rise
hadow-casting)
plus
f o cced b y g l o b a l s o l a r r a d i a t i o n ,
d i f f u S 'e , a f r a c t i o n
(a, the albedo)
I,
direct
of which
The s u r f a c e t e n ^ i e r a t u r e i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f
sorfjed s o l a r radiati«pn
ceived from t h e
constant
t c ^ O . a S i n sandy d e s e r t s
in general r a i s e s
(Oguntoyinbo, 1974).
(usually >0.9), a i s
= 1 ( 1 - a)-R,P + Rft.
inual t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d T q i s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e . -R>r + R^ i s
A s i a l l p a r t o f R, GQ, i s
conducted t o the
= 0,
a n d Gg i s n e g l i g i b l e .
l a l l y v a n i s h e s o v e r t h e yt a r . The r e m a i n i n g h e a t ,
c t i v e f l u x e s , H of
is
I f l e v e l z i s t h e depth a t which t h e r e i s
cycle, <
the
h e a t . a n d LE o f l a t e n t h e a t .
soil.
Hence Gq v i r -
R - Gq, f e e d s c o n I f T^, < Ta ( a i r
temp-
vegetation
t h e a l b e d o , cis d o e s d r y i n g t h e s u r f a c e . A b s o r b e d
solar
^ d . h e n c e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e TQ, a r e f t i n c t i o n s o f a , a s
n e t longwave c o o l i n g
(R;^ - Rp) , t h e s o i l h e a t f l u x GQ, t h e
Hence c h a n g e s i n a l b e d o d r a s t i c a l l y
are
convective
Ph.
a l t e r t h e e n t i r e energy and w a t e r
balances.
use of
vehicles,
drought c o n t r a c t i o n or pan formation decrease the i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e ,
and
h e n c e i n c r e a s e N^ a t t h e e x p e n s e o f N^, s o i n c r e a s i n g t h e c h a n c e o f
s h e e t e r o s i o n a n d g u l l y i n g . They a l s o a l t e r t h e t h e r m a l
a n d h e n c e G^.
ecological
no
storage,
vegetation
Degradation of
I n c r e a s e s i n s o i l c o m p a c t i o n due t o o v e r s t o c k i n g ,
radiation
e n e t l o n g w a v e h e a t i n g , ' e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e . The n e t r a d i a t i o n
lere i t may b e s t o r e d .
the
R;^, a n d i n f r a r e d i s e m i t t e d f r o m p l a n t s
where £ i s t h e e m i s s i v i t y
d soil,
efan-Boltzmann
I ( 1 - a) . T h e r e i s d i f f u s e i n f r a r e d
atmosphene
is
net
f r o m v a l u e s n e a r 0 . 1 7 i n f r e s h g r e e n savcmna
f l u x e s o f h e a t a n d l a t e n t h e a t , H + LE, and n e t p h o t o s y n t h e s i s ,
é e n e r g y exchcinges a r e
radiation,
- Rrp + R;^ - Gq = H + I E .
N o t e t h a t a , t h e a l b e d o , i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t a t e o f t h e
T o t a l w a t e r s u r p l u s N = NQ + NQ + N^. r a d i a t i o n ,
s t r a g e , P = N + E, where E i s t h e
(dew
g e n e r a l l y 2 o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e s m a l l e r t h a n R ( s e e com-
p o n e n t r e v i e w on e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e ) . I f t h e r e i s no c h a n g e i n
and s o i l ,
ration.
fleeted, al.
formation).
t h o u g h s m a l l , and LE may a l s o b e n e g a t i v e
r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e v e r s e - t h e t y p i c a l n o c t u r n a l c o n d i t i o n . Ph i s t h e
photosynthesis,
f o r ;r e d b y p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
B water exchanges are
emission
climates
erature) , H is negative,
x• n
conductivity,
T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e component r e v i e w on
change.
TQ i s low b y day when t h e s o i l i s m o i s t , and h i g h e r when i t i s d r y - by
20 t o 30C i n t r o p i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . With m o i s t s o i l and low s u r f a c e t e m p erature,
0.10.
R is large,
and t h e Bowen r a t i o H/LE i s v e r y low - of
W i t h d r y s o i l and h i g h s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e ,
Bowen r a t i o r i s e s t o v e r v h i a h
valnPR.
R i s lower,
order
and t h e
_ 9
-
b u t a r e of l i ' b t l e p a s t o r a l "/alue uhen t h o r o u g h l y d r i e d o-at.
N e v e r t h e l e c s t h e i r e x t e n s i v e f i n e r o o t s y s t e m s r e m a i n t o "bind t h e
t o p s o i l and c o n t r i b u t e i m p o r t a n t l y t o i t s o r g a n i c food a t o r e .
Lastly,
t h e r e a r e t h e l o n g e r - l i v e d p e r e n n i a l p l a n t s which r e s i s t \ ; a t e r l o s s
by a d a p t a t i o n s cu.ch a s voody stems and l e a t h e r y l e a v e s »
These
n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e t h e l a r g e r p l a n t s s u c h a s s h r u b s .and t r e e s .
They a r e o f t e n n u t r i t i o u s and p r o v i d e an i m p o r t a n t food s o u r c e t o
b r o w s i n g a n i m a l s dixring t h e dry p e r i o d s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r a d a p t a t i o n s
may r e d u c e t h e i r p a l a t a b i l i t y and a t t r a c t i v e n e s s f o r some stoclc,
and t h e y have t h e a d d i t i o n a l sjid e s s e n t i a l r o l e of p r o t e c t i n g t h e
grotmd s u r f a c e and p r e s e r v i n g an e n v i r o n m e n t which f a v o u r s t h e
r e s p o n s e of i r n o r t n j i t s h o r t e r - l i v e d p l a n t s .
It i s this function
t h a t i s t h r e a t e n e d when d e s e r t p a s t u r e s must s u p p o r t l a r g e s t o c k
numbers d u r i n g urou.ght.
Impact of
land use
on e q u i l ibriiim on
diyland
ecosystems
Drought
a s an
e n g i n e of
desert".
ification
Under n a t u r ? J c o n d i t i o n s and t l i r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e s t r r / f c e g i e s , t h e
d r y l a n d ecosystoras m a i n t a i n a balaaiced e:cchange of w a t e r and e n e r g y ,
b u t t h i s o f ^ u i l i b r i r i j i s r e a d i l y d l s t u r b e d by m a n ' s use of t h e lc?Jid.
P o r example where meagre v e g e t a t i o n i s f u r t h e r reduced t o e::p0E0 t h e
ground s u r f a c e 5 r a i n f a l l i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e s o i l may f o r n a t h i n
c r u s t which p r e v e n t s w a t e r fx"oa sinld-ng- As t h e v;atei- b u d g e t
d e t e r i o r a t e s i n t h e s o i l beneoA'h, t h e l e v e l of groimd^jater i n n e a r b y
w e l l s may f a l l » The w a t e r l o s t t o t h e s o i l s t o r e now c o n t r i b u t e s
t o o v e r - r a p i d r m a o f f , and where t h e s u r f a c e i s l o o s e o r d i s t u r b e d
t h e topmost c o i l l a . y e r j t h a t ^;ith t h e b e s t s t r u c t u r e and c o n t a i n i n g
t h e b u l k of p l a n t food5, may be washed aviay^ o r blown <away i n d u s t
s t o r m s . The doinudod s o i l i s i n c r e a s i n g l y exposed t o t h e d i r c c t r a y s
of t h e Sim and i t s r e f l e c t i v i t y may i n c r e a s e ; w i t h s t r o n g h e a t i n g
a t t h e s o i l - a i r i n t e r f a c e . A l l t h e s e changes c o n s t i t u t e a clia/nge
t o w a r d s a, raoro h o s t i l e en\'li'on3:nent• foi- p l a n t s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e
v e g e t a t i o n recr)onds l e s s w e l l t o r a i n s rnd p r o d u c e s l e s o
nourishiíientJ r.nd nrîy j j l a n t s T;Í11 t e n d t o d i e o f f a t a.n i n c r e a s i n g l y
e a r l y st?,ge of d r o u g h t . Such changec c o n s t i t u t e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
I n itc i n i t i a l e t a g e s , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n may m e r e l y i n v o l v e a s l i i f t
t o a more d c s c r t - l i l c e and l e s s p r o d u c t i v e e c o s y s t e m , t ; i t h w a t e r and
energy b a l c j i c e s l e s s f a v o u r a b l e t o p l a n t growth t h a n b e f o r e . But l a n d
u s e i n a r i d r e g i o n s p o s e s problems ^.'IrLch c o n t i n u a l l y menace t h e
prevailing equilibrium,
T M s i s pi-ira?.rily b e c a u s e of f l i i c t u a t i o n s
i n r a i n f a l l bGt\;cen d r o u g h t and abundance w h i c h , n o t yet
p r e d i c t a b l e , a r e d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e la,nd i i s e r t o respond t o
e f f e c t i v e l y . ? o r example, i n d r y l a n d p a s t o r a J economies, l a r g o
numbers of s t o c k tend t o b u i l d u p d u r i n g r u n s of good y e a r s , f a r t o o
many t o be s u p p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e i n e v i t a b l y e n s u i n g d r o u g h t . T h e r e i s
a n a t u r a l r e l u c t a n c e t o c u t back on s t o c k numbers i n t h e f i r s t d i y
y e a r , and a t e n d e n c y t o ha,ng on u n t i l d r o u g h t i s seen t o be
established,
But by t h i s time d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s a r e p r o b a b l y b e i n g
ravaged by o v e r g r c , z i n g beyond hope of c o m p l e t e r e g e n e r a t i o n , w h i l e
t h e l a s t s h r e d s of p l s j i t c o v e r a r e b e i n g t r a m p l e d t o d e a t h and t h e
s o i l p u l v e r i s e d and r e n d e r e d v u l n e r a b l e t o wind e r o s i o n i n n i n i - d e s e r t s
around w a t e r i n g p o i n t s o r w h e r e v e r s t o c k c o n g r e g a t e » By t i i i s time too^
- 10 -
prices for Giiinjlurj stock vjill probaoly liave slirimlc and destocldng
through s<alG of surplus numbers uill be opposed by econoaic forcGS,
The untia,ntod rjolu.tion, death of livestock, may becomc inoyitable.
Thu.s the dolc^ycd reeponce of the land user through cyclos of good
ajid bad rainfall ijay convert periodic drought into a true engine of
long-term dccei-tiiication.
The laain "oroeesses and sta,ges of desertification can be
summarised as follovjE, Initially, and especially in dr;^-- periods,
there is a deterioration in the coraposition of desert pastures
subject to e-cescive grazing, pc?.rticularly a reduction in the
proportion of edible perennial plants and an increase in the
proportion of inedible invaders usually \;ith less resistance to
drought. The thinning and death of vegetation in dry ses-sons
increases tlie ertent of bare groimd, and this is followed in tu.rn
by a deterioration in the soil-surface conditions vital to plant
growth, particulcMi-ly a.n irapoverisliment of plant-water relations. The
response of ophci-iGr3.1s to rain suffers accordingly. I'ith consequent
increase in nmoff, sheet and gTilly erosion set in on sloping grromid,
and the topsoil and its organic store a.re lost. All those changes
mean a decrease in produ.ctivity5 palata,bility and dimabili'cy of the
native pastures. 1/ith continuing erosion, formerly productive Isjids
ma;'" be lost through soil stripping <and gully extension, or through
siltation in Vt?i.lley bottoms. These changes are even moro drastic
where devegotation occurs in strategic areas, as on v.'atershed
uplands, and the processes are naturally advanced where soils a.re
exposed and disturbed in dryl.?»nd cultivation.
Wind and ^.-ator erosion work together, as stripped surfaces ajid
redeposited silt a,re increasingly liable to wind transport. The
finer soil particles, including orgs^nic plant food, are blo\ai away
as dust, and the cocirser fragments a,re drifted along as sand, wMch
may accumulate into dunes, loca,lly helped where shrubs trap the
moving sand. íTot only are siiifting sands sterile and difficult to
colonize by plants, but as advancing dunes they may overrun and
destroy valucabloj jiearby cropla,nd.
Is soils dr;'' out with desertification, soluble salts are no
longer so readily lea,ched sj.tay and may concentrate near the stirface
through evaporation. Salinization and alkalinization of soils may
eventually errclude all but worthless vegetation and advo,nce the
process of erosion by Cc?.using the soil to c r a c k and crui'uble.
This desertification i^henomenon is naturally most developed, and
most costly in its consequences, on poorly drained irrigated lands,
where salts introduced by irrigation cannot be leached from the
soils.
Desertification
feeds on
itself
Desertification tends to be self-reinforcing, to feed on
itself, as soils denuded of plajit cover are stripped to impez-vious,
sterile horizons or powdered to fine dust. Biologica,! degradation is
followed by accelerated pli^rsical erosion by wind and water.
Comparatively e.asy to deaj with in its initia-l stages, desertifica,tion
becomes incre<?,singly difficult to treat as the process adva,nces,
- 11 -
with the costs of x-eclamation rising eirponentially, i.mtil the
stark equi-libriiur, of extreme desert is reached and the lend ha,s
for all prs.cticr.1 purposes passoc "oojônd hope of reha/oilitation.
The advance
of desertification
The spc?/cial diwonsion of such changes can be seen in a
progressive orrtcnsion of desert landf;, as subhumid arcac taka on a
semi-arid character and semi-arid ecosj^ctems deterioi-atc to arid
statMS.
In ooncidering the a.rea luider threat^ we muct thei-eforc
include tho subhimid margins of the deserts, as \'3ell
the soui-arid
and arid regions. Only the hyperarid areas of extreme dcrjcrt nay be
considered beyond care; elseuherop combo/bive measures are ca,lled for
to halt and jrovcrsc the processes of desertificationj and
conservationoJ- management of the land to maintain productivity.
The advance of desertification ;:hould only rarely be tlioiight of
in such theatrical iiaages as dmioo ad^âncing over productive soil.
It is usually a more insidiou.G. and irregîlar progress; rîd for tkat
reason more difficult to come to gripe i;ith„ It seems to attack
on all sidcrjp -Jith careas of degraded vegetation or denuded coil
developing here ojid there, far in ad/cjice of any nebiilous 'front lino'
This is becauso arid lands are patchi.'orks of small environments of
differing vulnerability to desertification as determined by local
topograpliyj soil and microclimate, and it is the more "vulnerable
pieces thât first succumb. Is desertification proceeds, the
denuded pa.tchos may lijilc up and the desert extends, but more like a
skin disease th?.n as a v;ave-like front.
- 12 -
"HI
'
> .
The Causes of Desertification
Desertification is a prohlem of interaction "betiveen a difficult .
and unreliable dryland environment and the impact of.man's use ^ d
occupation of it in.his efforts to make a living.
Some understanding
of the controls of drji-land climates helps towards an appreciation of
climatic factors in desertification.
The' desert
Although their boundaries have shifted over time, deserts must
belts
alx^rays have characterized the earth's subtropical zones. Global
patterns of air' circulation dictate that the subtropics are regions of
subsiding air. . Vihen air subsides it warms up and its capacity to hold
moisture incres,ses, so inhibiting the fonnation of rain.
This accounts
for a prevalence of dry climates betireen latitudes I5. and 25 degrees
north and south of the equator. However the dry climates are extended
and their patterns complicated by additional factors, su.ch as distance
from the rain-supplying oceans or moujitain barriers xihich spill air
doxraxrard on their lee sides, creating rain shadows.
The play of these factors is evident in the distribution of deserts
as shown on the ¥orld Desertification Map.
There are five main desert
belts; (l)'the Sonoran Desert of northwestern Mexico and its
continuation in the desert basins of the southwestern United States;
(2) the Atacama desert, a thin coastal strip running west of the Andes
from southern Ecuador to central Chile, whence dry climates extend
eastx/ards into Patagoniai (3) a vast belt running from the Atlantic
Ocean to China and including the Sahara, the Arabian desert, the deserts
of Iran and the USSR, the Rajasthan desert of Pakistan and India, and
the Talila-Malian and Gobi deserts in China and Mongolia, (4) the Kalahari
and its surrounding deserts in southern Africa, (5) most of the continent
of Australia.
Outside these principal desert regions there are
isolated patches of very dry lands in many parts of the world, such as
the Guajira Peninsula in Colombia, southwestern Madagascar and part of
northeastern Brazil. V/ithin the desert belts there are many climatic
contrasts resulting from differences in temperature, from season when
rain "alls (if any) and from ;.egree of aridity. At one extreme are the
intensely cold deserts such as those of Siberia or the Tibetan plateau,
where occupation is precluded by low temperatures and where the
environmental degradation is accordingly small.
On the other are hot
deserts such as the inner Sahara, where plant growth and land use are
absent because of hjrperaridity.
These extreme deserts do not concern
us - they are not subject to further desertification - and they remain
unclassified, in neutral grey on the ¥orld Desertification ííap.
More extensive than the extreme deserts are the world's arid lands,
those with up to 200 mm of rain falling annually in definite seasons,
with sufficient vegetation to support extensive pastoralism, although
necessarily on a nomadic basis in the drier parts.
Outside these are
the semiarid lands, with as much as 6OO mm of rain, depending on
temperattire ajid season, where cu.ltivation of drought-resistant crops
- 13 -
is generally possible vdtli the use of moisiTire-conserving: practices.
Finally, on the greener margins of the dryland belts are the drier parts
of the subhumid zones, where land use and settlement become more
intensive, but which must be considered as ultimately threatened if
desert conditions are peraitted to extend»
Altogether the xisable
:drylands occupy 45.6 million square kilometres, or 30 per cent of the
world's land area»
It is here, where desertification is talcing place,
that its causes must be sought.
Shifting
Despite figiires on areas, it is evident that the boundaries of the
limits of dryland belts are not fixed eternally on the map. Much, of the Sahel
dryland
for example consists of old sand ridges, now quite fossil under cover
climates
of vegetation, which indicate a former extension southwajrds of Saharan
climates and moving sands, some ^00 1cm beyond, their present limit,
about 20,000 years ago. In the same region, Lake Chad was much.more
extensive 10,000 years ago, indicating semiarid or subhumid conditions
in what is no\f ai'id. These climatic changes ha.ve been slioxm to be
part of global shifts of the climate belts, relating to changes in the
earthis atmospheric circulation.
They are linlced to the gxeat changes
of the Ice Age and of subsequent millenia, during which temperature
shifts are Icnoim to have been accompanied by changes in rainfall
patterns.
Such changes, with durations of several centuries,
have continued
and have directly affected the possibilities of man's occupance and use
of the drylands in the past. Por instance much of the presently
hypera,rid Sahara was open to pastoralists and hunters under semiarid
• conditions about 8,000 years ago»
Unfortunately the definite records
of later changes are mainly from higher latitudes and give temperatures
rather than rainfall| from I 6 O O to 1850 for example those latitudes in
the northern h<:ai.sphere underrrent a cooling Icnovrn as 'The Little Ice Age',
then followed a warming x/hich continued into the 1940's, since when
temperatures have again declined. It is being suggested that this
cooling may marl: the resumption of another 'Little Ice Age' in the
north.
Climatic
From this arises the question; "Do recent droughts in the Saiiel .
change as and elsewhere form part of a change to a more arid clinate, expressed
a cause
as an equatorv/ard shift in the limit of the dryland belt?" Those
of desert- replying j^-es vrould note that over the same period deficiency of rainfall
ification in the drylands was compensated by greater rainfall in the wet
equ.atorial belt. The consequences would be that the dryland inhabitants
would face a long period of increased aridity in their part of the world
following a century or more of relatively favourable climate. It would
imply that man might be a vijrb^ of recently accelerated desertification
rather than its active ageirt. Clearly the answer to the qu.estion has
great significance for strategies to combat desertifica.tion.
14 -
Unfor-t7an8.tely the question cannot be answered vitli confidence
because the events are too recent to serve as a. basis for prediction,
particularly with our present inadequate understanding of the global
mechanisms of atmospheric circulation.
The latest Sahelian drought
was far from unprecedented, even in the relatively short historical
record, and it cannot alone form evidence of a change of climate. At
the same time, it would be unwise to rule out the possibility of change,
and the conseqLiences of chan-ê should be looked at, particularly in
areas of strong rainfall gradient such as the Sahel.
It would
certainly mea,n that droughts would become more frequent and more severe,
and the.t plans for land management should talce into account the
possibilitj'- of an even more rigorous climate in the future.
Man made
climatic
changé
Linlced with this postulated skiing to increased aridity is the
suggestion that man himself may have contributed to such changes through
modifications in the energy exchange that have followed man's
degradation of desert ecosystems.
These modifications include an
increase of dust in the upper atmosphere, noted particularly in
association with the recent African and Asian droughts, and the
increased reflection of solar energy from denuded dryland surfaces.
It has been argued that these factors have contributed to a lowering
of temperatures above dryland surfaces and diminished convection in
the atmosphere, with an ensuing rediiction in the frequency of rainstorms.
At this time, however, the direction in which these factors move
remains in doubt.
It may be realistic to grant that man has
accentue^ted climatic stresses but it is most unlikely that the factors
named have been prime causes of any general deterioration of drjdand
climates, v^hich are, after all expressions of fundamental patterns in
the circulation of the atmosphere. It is also probable that the direct
physical consequences of the man-made changes, such as the adverse
effects of surface denudation on the local water balance, are many times
more important than any indirect climatic effects.
Climatic
fluctuation
contribute
to desertification
Climatic boundaries in the drylands are also subject to
shorter-term shifts, corresponding to sequences of lean years and fat
years.
In general, the drier the climate, the greater the rainfall
variability and the higher the drought risk. Such fluctuations are
expressed in expansions and contractions of the dryland belts, such that
a semiarid region may experience arid conditions at one time and
subhumid conditions at another.
These fluctuations, although not so regular as to be predictable,
may nevertheless be classed as short-period, say two to four years,
which merely introduce periodic, stress into livelihood systems, and
those of greater amplitude and duration which lead to significant
changes in the patterns and structure of land use, such as extensions
of cultivation or large build-ups in stock numbers.
These changes can
- 15 -
result in a potential imlsalance which may not he promptly adjus'ted when
drought inevitably follows. It is at such timesj xihen dryland
ecosystems are stretched to the limit of their resilience hy vrater
deficiency, that the pressure of unhalanced land use can be disastrous.
Recovery from such degradation will be slow»
If land use pressures
continue unabated recovery may be partial only^ to a lower plane of
productivity than formerly. Desertification will then have occurred»
Fragility
Desertification may proceed relatively rapidly in dryland ecosystems
of dryland because of• their fragility vmder land-use pressure. They generally
ecosystems support only scanty amounts of plant ajid animal life, and because life
is thinly spread, the soils are poor in organic nutrients, usually found
only in the thin topmost layers. Thinly buffered by a skimpy plant
cover, the soil is exposed io erosion which removes nutrients and results
in structural deterioration. Lack of leaching and strong evaporation
leave unwanted salts on the surface.
All this creates ecosystems delicately balanced on the furthest
edge of biological possibility, particularly during drought. Their
necessary adaptation to water stress restricts dryland ecosystems to a
limited range of response and hampers their flexibility. Life forms
are limited in variety and highly specialized, and when one species is
eliminated there may be nothing to replace it. Such systems have little
slack as it were, and their recuperative processes are slow. They are
especially vulnerable to the impact of land use.
Misuse of
drylands
Any use of drylands that does not take account of this fragility
and of their extreme variability in biological production will
constitute misuse.
This variability demands a flexibility and
promptness to react which desert livelihood systems Imve rarely shoim,
a response which is, indeed, very difficult to carry out in the absence
of long-range weather forecasting.
The situation is complicated by overoptimistic assessments, often
made on the basis of remembered best years, of the potential of the
land for sustained production. Excess optimism often results from
pressures to vrhich arid-land agriculturalists are increasingly subjected from population growth, from distant commercial markets, iôm their ov/n
rising expectations.
Frequently, too, there is a failure to appreciate the relation
between these particular environments and their use. Herdsmen, for
example, tend to see their ultimate resource, their vrealth, in their
breeding flocks or herds rather than in the land and vegetation that
support them.
Pastoralists often herd several kinds of animals, each capable of
profiting from different portions of the ecosystem, just as dryland
cultivators have tended to plant a mixed crop. Out of the push towards
maximum output and toward the environmental limits of land use, the
- 16 -
current trend is toward specialization, which fails to spread the risk
and lessens flexibility, . This is particularly so under the impact of
commercial remching and farming, ?lexiDÍlity may also be hindered by
inequitable systems of land omership and land tenure»
Techniques such as deep ploughing or cleaxi tilling have on occasion
been introduced into dryland 9,griculture even though they are unsuitable
therr , Projects have sometimes been undertake"' without full regard for
the tenuous equilibrium of these ecosystems. ií'or instance, deep tube
wells introduced into pastoral areas have indeed improved the availability
of water but at the same time have had the effect of increasing herd size
while decreasing herd mobility, leading to local overgrazing and
excessive trampling of the soil.
Technological changes can give rise to
desertification through increased, even excessive demands on limited
natural resources.
The misuse of arid lands is by no means restricted to inappropriate
agricultural practices. Modern man is threading the arid lands with
roads and highxiraysi he is exploring them for mineral resources, opening
mines, s.inlcing oil wells, constructing pipelines and canals, establishing
factories, and building cities in them. Increasingly, he is intruding
into arid lands for pxirposes of health and recreation. These
activities are seldom undertalcen with full understanding of or proper
regard for the delicate natural balances that prevail there. Many such
activities have been made possible by advanced technology, but it is
this same ever-growing technological capacity that so enhances man's
ability to disrupt and damage a sensitive environment.
All such activities must take full account of the fact that the
drylands reach to the edge of biological possibility. Generally
impoverished soils^ scanty amounts of life and tenuous biological
linkages among the life forms that do exist there make the drylands
critical areas, their condition becoming ever more critical as aridity
Rapidity
increases.
In such situations, very small changes can trigger
of feedprofound
effects..
V/here the equilibrium is delicate, even a small
backs in
change
in
one
component
will,radiate effects through the entire
dryland
ecosystem.
Drylands
are
extremely sensitive to tiny changes in their
situations
water and energy balances,
Changes brought on by seemingly minor
events can follow with startling rapidity, sometimes suffijcient to throw
the system beyond the critical threshold whence recovery TÍÍII not
naturally occur.
It might be objected that the drylands, wv-íÁ their highly variable
rainfall and periodic drought, are continual!//'subjected to extreme
conditions, and the question arises, how dp^their life forms persist at
all? It has been shown how plant life iu'W-id lands is naturally
adapted to such circumstances, Animal's in arid lands are characterized
by similar adaptations and often by great mobility. "Vflaes rain returns
after a drought, the water store is replenished in the soil, the
- 17 -
vegetation recovers and the animals wander "back. The extent and rate
of restoration are a measure of the resilience of the ecosystems. All
drylands exhibit ecosystems with natural resilience, although the
process of natural restoration is sometimes very slow. If left alone,
they id.ll almost always retiirn to what they were.
Pull restoration will not tsike place if an area is undergoing
climatic change in the direction of greater aridity. But climatic
change takes place at a tempo which allows time for human adaptation.
Desertificaptions a
product of
the interaction between man
aJ^d a
difficult
environment
More commonly5, failure in resilience ar-ises from severe disturbance
and such disturbances5, in the present world, are almost always the work
of man. Human áctivities may have less disastrous impact in more
flexible environments, where a greater richness of land and life forms
aids the process of restoration. Lands on the margin of life lack
these resources. Disturbances there can easily become permanently
destructive5 as evidenced by desertification,
If man is the chief instrument of desertification, the process
should not be viewed exclusively from the human side. Desertification
results from the interaction between man and a difficult ajid changing
environment. It occurs when man penetrates such environments and acts
, there without an understanding of or proper regard for their
sensitivities and limitations.
- 18
IV
^Desertification in Action
Desertification and
livelihood
systems
The interaction between man and a difficult environment - since
that is the main engine of desertification - can well "be examined in
terms of what man does in the drylands, how he -wrests a living from this
envirc .iment, as difficult as . b is.
Dryland agriculture talíes three main forms; pastoralism or the
herding of livestock, rain-fed agriculture, and irrigation agricultxire.
All these systems have evolved strategies and traditional skills to cope
with the stresses and risks imposed by dryland environments. Such
tested practices should not be lightly dismissed; indeed, they should,
be regarded as a basis for further development.
Yet it cannot be said that any such practices have been so selfregulating or so far-seeing that they have incurred no cost to the
environment. Desertification has accompanied all of them although its
effects may, have been less destructive in the past. The accelerated
desertification of recent years may in part be attributed to breakdowns
in traditional practices.
The old ways have come under intense
pressures which have eroded ancient social, economic and-political
constraints.
Such pressures have come from population growth, the
integration of the drylands into money economies, aspirations toward
higher standards of living, the introduction of technological innovations
and the incorporation of dryland agriculture into often remote commercial
systems, into marketing systems where prices fluctuate.
Dryland
pastoral
systems
General
aspects
The extensive pastoral systems characteristic of the darylands use
grazing or browsing animals to harvest a thin crop of natural vegetation.
In semi-arid lands, stock raising is increasingly integrated with
crop production.
In arid regions, beyond the reach of the farm,
pastoralism is dominant, and here the herdsman is subject to the
extremes of climatic hazard.
Herdsmen have found many ways of coping with the climatic stress
that typifies arid zones.
Ordinarily, they spread their stock thinly
over large areas so that grazing pressure is lightened and they can take
advantage of the patchwork ecosystems of arid lands. They are liighly
mobile, often traversing great distances to reach seasonal pastures.
They usually employ some measures to modify the ecosystems in xíhich
they function.
They will limit the size of their herds, if necessary
by selling off surplus animals.
They líill exercise some control of
pastures by deferred or rotational grazing or by spelling certain
rangelands to allow them to accumulate moisture over several years.
They will develop additional watering points, extending the area and
duration of grazing and diluting the pressure on older pastiires. They
sometimes burn pastures to facilitate the growth of more palatable
plants.
Sometimes, too, they will provide supplementary feed by cutting
hay or growing forage crops under irrigation.
- 19 -
Some herdsmen have access to alternative sources of income. They
might engage in hunting and gathering;, or perhaps commercej a natural'
adjunct to their mobility.
They sometimes develop handicraft
industries.
Pastoral systems can range from traditional subsistence, systems,
often nomadic, through more sedentary systems closely linked with
cropp. _ig, to the great 'commer, ial ranches which lainly serve a.s
exporters from tl:o-arid conci.-. All tend to have^ linlcs with the ou Ljide
where the chief markets are to be found - for hides j- wool and stock on
the hoof.
In the more commerciaJ pastoral systems, stock i-rill be bred
in the arid zones and fattened in ¿tree-s closer to the market. As
breeding areas, arid zones have certain advantages, such as freedom from
disease, long outdoor range periods and high protein levels in pastures.
•For all its hard-won skxlls, pasto:.?alism frequently betrays failures
of perspective.
Identification of the'breeding stock, rather than the
land and its vegetation, as the u?.tirQate resource leads to a poor
understanding of the ecology of the plant communities on \íhich the stock
feed.
Comparatively little attention maj^- be paid to the performance
of -pastures under stress, "co the rciiuir3m:ents for successful germination
or to the impact of sel.ective grazing:on the. whole plant community,
Kor do pastoralists always appreciate the difference bet\reen average
stocking rates- and what happens wheT->e animtils cluster together', as
around watering points or settlejnents»
Concentrated grazing and
excessive trampling vrill focus de^'xadation on'such spotá,
Pastoralist systems are generally afflicted with what might be
called a time-lag problem.
ticreased'stock numbers built up in
favourable years persist into drougVt, and c o n v e r s e l j , ' - , herds reduced by
dry years will confront the rcttirn of better grazing with numbers too
scanty to take full advantage of it. The lînd of flexibility that
vrould malee a fully opportun.iotic use of the l£i,nd is difficxilt to
introduce into stable pastoral syE'tems.
Huch misapprehensions an-"' difficulties mear ths.t pastoral lands
exhibit a full range of deseroification, acivanccd v;here' pressures on the
land are concentratéd, less in tho more remote and least attractive
sections.
Mien'deterioration comes to graaing l?rd, it is particularly
important .to-observe its first :Gtages in vej-utation, no!; only because
plants are the basic grazing resor.rce but also because of the part they
play in the stability of dryland ecocystem.
• First to be constimed are the more desirable plant species leaving
the terrain to less desirable invaders. During drought stress when
they constitute the oiily feed, vailiable, soil- holding perennials can bo
grazed to extinction.
Invasions by ;-.:ercphytes are a sign of increasing
salinization,. The exposxire of over ¡¿ore bare ground diminishes the
response of greer». feed following the rain and hinders the return of
desired perennials.
Stripped earth becomes particularly noticeable
around concentration points-, such as watering places, \;here trampling
is Severe,
•
- 20 -
Nomadic
Stoclc-herding nomads have found ways of using land too arid for any
pastoralism other agricultural purpose. ¥ith a diet obtained from their herds and
supplemented by food gathering, xíandering pastoralists have achieved
standards of health and nutrition often superior to their more sedentary
neighbours.
•
It is, of course, mobility that provides the nomad with his principal
weapon against a harsh environment. His wanderings may be continuous,
or he may move back and forth between, fixed^'seasonal pastures. Flocks
and herds are generally oimed by families, but other resources pasture, watering places, fuel - are often communal and their use
regulated by custom.
Almost all nomadic pastoralists have mutually beneficial
relationships with the farmers on their periphery.
Such links may
include nomadic ownership of cropland, provision of seasonal laboixr to
oasis settlements and the right to graze stubble in exchange for the
manure naturally dropped by grazing animals.
If the resiliency of nomadic pastoralism resides principally in
mobility, which spreads pressure on the land and dilutes risk, the system
also contains other important adjustments.
Nomads often herd a variety
of animals, each species capable of exploiting a different portion of
these mixed environments. They may do some rain-fed cropping on the
edge of.the migratory range. As stated, they may supplement their diet
by hunting and gathering, and they may have beneficial relations with
adjacent farmers.
As an adjunct to mobility, they may play a role in
transportation in desert areas and its associated commerce. They may
earn income through handicrafts. Finally, some of their numbers may
emigrate to outside employment, whence they remit funds home.
Yet for all its resilience, pastoral nomadism has not avoided all
damage to its environment.
If its impact- has been less in the past,
there is still evidence, as in the Bible and elsewhere, that damage has
occurred in ancient as well as modern times.
Increasingly over the past fifty to one hundred years, pastoral
nomadism has found itself at bay. The political status of the nomads
had declined, and with it, their control of grazing rights, their
relations vis-a-vis adjacent crop-based systems, and their role in
desert transport and commerce. Their essential mobility has come into
disfavour for political and administrative reasons, and has proved to be
an obstacle in providing them xíith education, health care and other
essential social services.
In addition, imbalances have arisen in systems of pastoral nomadism
which have heightened their potential for desertification. Among nomads,
too, modem health care ha's reduced mortality and given rise to population
growth even if at a lesser, rate than among their neighbours.
Population growth has been a factor, together with improved veterinary
care, leading to an explosion in livestock nxmibers. Expansion of the
systems, together with breakdowns in traditional authority, have
affected rational management and make improvements difficult within the
existing structure.
Traditional subsistence activities have increasingly
- 21
fallen into a neglect hastened "bj the use of monoy.
SedentarizatioU;
lihether voluntary or enforced, lias resulted in severe degradation arounil
permanent settlements vihere former nomads contimê to herd livestocli,
.Technology has been introduced without concern for all factors in the
environment.
The use of off-the-road vehicles for hunting or fuel
gathering has "been particularly destructive.
The provision of large
central watering points, out of harmony with traditional migration
pattei:.S5 have led to unusual concentrations of rtoclc and extreme looa'J.
degradation.
Gra:;irg rc-nges have shrunk •bcc?U3ñ of iiive^sion Ly cr^^, •
based systems or political restrictions on the movements of animals.
That nomadic pastoralism is in trouble is evident in increasing
desertification associated with such systems.
Pastures have widely
deteriorated, showing increased surface instability especially in thei.r
more vulnerable elements, such as once-vegetated sand dunes. Advancod
physical degradation around watering points, stalls and settlements and
along paths of stock movement is marked by accelerated wind erosion and
local dune encroachment. Even though limits are imposed more by lac":
of fodder than lack of water, an over-exploitation of grour.dwater
reserves has lowered vratertables and affected water quality. Pastures
show themselves to be increasingly vulnerable to drought with all that
this implies - destruction of livestock, enforced abandonment of
grazing lands, deterioration in the diet and health of the people
involved.. increasingly, foimer nomads are migrating out of the rangelands, and there is some suspicion that the migrants are largely the
young and the more innovative.
Traditional
Sedentary pastoralism is usually supported b.-y rain-fed croppiDg,
more
Evidence of stock losses during the recent drought in SompJia suggests
sedentary
that these sj'-stems are less resilient than nomadic pastoralism.
pastoral
Because it is sedentary, this stylo ox pastoralism usually encourages
systems
localized degradation vfherever the livitock tend to concentrate.
Desertification also arises from the cropping elements in these systems,
usually practiced on the most marginal farm land, where the herdsmaiifarmer may constitute an impoverished part of a commercial system. The
farmin"^, a secondary activity, may suffer fron a sJiortage of labour,
sometimes due to out-migration.
Commercial
Commercial ranching tends to specialize in one kind of ajiijjial or
ranching
breed, selected usuallji" for marketing reasons railier than becc.iicn the
systems
animal is physiologicalljr efficient in converting the local dryland
vegetation into need.
Such systems compensate for environmental risk and low prodiictivity
by adopting very low stocking lates (lovjer than those of nomadic
pastoralists.j for example)»
They are rarely sited in the most arid5
remote or infertile regio:is. Yet since land is a low-cost item,
commercial ranches tend to be large units put together out of chs
vagaries of competitive stress.
Such ranches tend to minimize labour' costs, especially in higheconomies»
Stock is set to graze in large, fenced enclosures and
controlled with a minimiim of handling, although winter stalling and
feeding may be required in temperate to cold drylands. The
- 22 -
comparatively small laboixr force is highly mobile, whether on horseback,
driving off-the-road vehicles or piloting aircraft. For special tasks,
such as such as fencing or shearing, or at times of seasonal demand,
contract labour v;ill often be employed.
These systems have inherent wealcnesses, one of them stemming from
animal specialization, which increases environmental risk and commercial
vulnerability and results in inefficient use of the pasture complex.
Laxity in grazing control is often combined in commercial ranching
Tfith ignorance of the impact of grazing-on pastures. Despite the
expansion of extension services., comparatively little attention may be
paid to the relative performance of pasture species under grazing
stress and to the requirements of soil and plant life-as they relate to
grazing management - what is needed, for example, for the successful
germination of desirable perennials.
Since land and vegetation are
the low-cost elements, they are not always viewed as the ultimate
resource base, the livestock itself being.so regarded.
Commercial ranching is dependent on external markets whose forces
may or may not be in harmony with v/ise stocking policies and practices
as called for by the local environment. The tendency to maximize profits
can readily lead to poor ecological management and overstocking within
short-term perspectives.
Such ranching is often controlled by
corporate managers or absentee landlords who tend to be less
immediately concerned with the state of the range.
These systems enhance their vulnerability by ignoring subsistance
elements. Food and supplies are purchased at the market.
The growth of large units and the labour economies imposed on them
lead to a progressive decline in the populations they support with
consequent out-raigration, particularly of the yoving and landless. The
populations of ranching areas are generally on the decrease, with an
accompanying decline in secondary service centres.
Capitalization and technical improvements tend to buffer commercial
ranching against the immediate consequences of overgrazing, and high
prices for its products will yield cash returns which may further delay
a response.
Since a determination of range trends.is difficult in any
case, delay can lead to irreversible deterioration of pasture long
before economic collapse occurs or even before the situation is truly
appreciated.
The xieaknesses of commercial ranching have their inevitable
sequence in desertification.
Poor grazing control results in
deterioration of pastures which can be severe at the most vulnerable
spots and around places where livestock congregate and further the
process by trampling the soil.
Unlike more traditional systems, comiii.ercial ranching malíes
large-scale use of heavy machinery for construction and road building.
Such machinery distxirbs the environment, producing localized
degradation.
23
The greater capacity for ecological manip-ulation in these
technically advanced systems may have drastic feedback consequences.
For example, the control of brush fires has resulted in invasions by
undesirable scrub in such places as southern Australia, and the- southwesteiTL United States.
Commercial ranching tendsj as time passes^ to deplete the soil of
nutrients and organic matter.
These elements can conveniently be
returned to the soil wherever v/inter stall feeding is practised»
Even
if it might seem economically impractical to spread bam and feedlot
manure on ra-ngelands, such a practice may be an essential health measure
if cities are nearby or water supplies threatened with contamination.
Depopulation might .be listed as a desertification phenomenon
characteristic of commercial ranching, even though ,it may be caused by
market forces xíorking independently from land degradation.
Rainfed
cropping
systems
Rainfed agricultural systems, referred to in general as "dry
farming", are typical of the semi-arid lands, which •include those regions
in v/hich agriculture was first practised by man.
Rainfall in such regions, although generally more abundant than in
lands dominated by pastoralism, is still limited. Farming is possible
there only through the adoption of special techniques whose primary
objective is the collection, storage, protection and utilization of
every drop of water.
Drought-resistant crops are selected for
planting, notably the coreáis ~ wheat, barley, xye^ sorghum ~ so typical
of dry farming.
Special techniques and careful crop selection have carried dry
farming to the climatic limits set by rainfall - its amount, seasonal
incidence and variability - and by the length of the growing season, as
fixed by the duration of rainfall and, in high latitudes, by light and
temperature.
This push toward the climatic limit has carried rainfed
agriculture deep into areas that vrere once exclusively pastoral,
displacing the herdsmen and pushing them ever further into drier lands.
Although the productivity of dry farming is loxf when compared váth
irrigated agriculture, its returns axe usually much higher than pastoral
yields»
Dry farming compensates for climatic risks by producing crops of
high quality,, hard ^íheats for instance, which can coxomand good prices.
The semi-arid regions are free from disease, notably rust. They
provide extensive stretches of sparsely settled land suitable for tillage
by large-scale mechanized agriculture. The cereal crops produced are
easily handled, transported and stored.
Clearing for agriculture involves a much more drastic
transformation of natural ecosystems than does pastoralism. Dry
farming exposes and disturbs the soil, increasing the risk of erosion^
Some dry farming techniques enhance this risk.
- 24 -
Shallow ploughing, for exajuple, or loosening of the soil in the
preparation of seedheds can set the stage for erosion, just as does
tillage of the subsoil to return organic matter to depth and to
facilitate root penetration and moisture availability in soils that tend
to form lime or clay pans.
33are-fallovdng is also a common practice.
Here the land is left stripped of vegetation to allow the infiltration
of an additional season's rainfall and to minimize losses through
trans; iration.
Such fields are also fine-tille to prevent capillary
loss of moisture and to promote the aerobic nitrification of organic
compounds.
Many of these systems spread across open plains which are already
subject to T'iind erosion. The wind picks up the silty soils, creating
a dust nuisance and sometimes dust storms.
Sand drift and dune
formation are common on the sandier alluvial soils near old river
channels«
All such effects are enhanced by the removal of trees and
high-standing vegetation over extensive areas. .
Dry farming tends to specialize in both crops and techniques, and
it does so at the expense of mixed farming, which would include crop
rotations involving legumes and the raising of animals. . This results
in an -undue removal of organic material, transported away in the offfarm sale of grain and in the burning of straxf and litter after
harvesting with combines.
Decades of producing one specialized crop
have resulted in the depletion and breakdox-m of many semi-arid soils
that once possessed excellent structure and fertility. When this
happens, yields decline and erosion increases especially on finer
textured soils such as those lying on wind-blom parent material
(loess).
These systems support much denser and more settled populations
than do pastoral systems. Man and his works therefore exert a much
stronger impact in them. Many such systems have been worked for
millenia and provide a history of land rise and of land deterioration
extending over thousands of.years.
Regional
Problems
in
rainfed
cropping
•'âinfed cropping systems comprise several types as determined by
clima'Ge and other environmentdl conditions. Each is marked by its
characteristic crops, technology and cultural setting. Each is
vulnerable to desertification, which takes on distinctive forms in each
setting and calls on distinctive measures to combat it.
The Mediterranean
region
The Mediterranean is a semi-arid region with printer cyclonic
rainfall and warm to subtropical temperature regimes.
It is a hilly
region v/ith degradable limestone soils in which cultivation has been
extended into, areas of vei:y low rainfall (locally less than 20Clnnn
annually). Vilnter cereals may alternate with summer crops. Farming
is often coinbined with animal husbandry, especially of sheep and goats.
Tree farming is particularly important.
Connexions between rainfed
and irrigated cropping are particularly close in the Mediterranean,
with the former also deeply involved in water management, as in the
terracing of slopes i^hose upkeep requires not only much labour but
social stability as well.
- 25
The Mediterranean has a long history of land use by fairly dense
populations.
Its history is also one of cities, many of them large and
important, Man has thus had _ a. profound impact on the l^fediterranean
ecosystems5 xíhich provide,, in fact, the longest historical record of
desertification. Land degradation appears to have been associated
'vith the spread of sedentary agriculture and its related settlements=
In some parts of the Mediterranean, desertification has reached advanced
stagey:.
,
.
•
.
It appears there in the deforestation of once-wooded uplands.
Forests have given way to dwarf, leather-leaved dryland shrubs, or to
bare earth, with soil sometimes stripped completely from slopes to
uncover calcareous crusts or naked rock»
This stripping of upslope vratersheds has severely damaged doximslope water regimes o In many places, runoff has become ephemeral and
spasmodic? sometimes giving rise to catastrophic flooding in the lowlands
and to increased deposition of silt in valley bottoms, . Siltationj
which.was a problem in ancient days (as among the Nabateans of the
. liegev) continues to pose a major threat, as for example to the useful
life of large reservoirs in modem water-control schemes.
The region shows broad deterioration in groundx/ater reserves
accompaxiied by a lowering of groundwater tables and a decline in water
quality. Some areas, such as the coastal plain of Israel5 have
suffered.invasions of seawater.
Cultivated footslopes often shovr marked gullying, particularly
where cultivation has been unwisely extended over the past 50 years
because of rising population pressure. The loss of soil has been
considerable and with it, the loss of potentially cultivable land.
Despite growing populations, labour shortages have developed as
a result of heavy migration to cities and settlements, and water
management has been affected.. Terraces and qanat systems have
suffered from lack of proper maintenance.
The removal of trees and shrubs has accelerated wind erosion of
light soils, stripping them of nutrients.
In many places, as in
southern Tunisia, wind erosion has led to the formation of coppice dunes
and made the land unsuitable for cultivation.
Some loxilands soils, particularly in basins of interior drainage,
have suffered from the spread of salinization.
MediterOther areas with a Mediterranean-tjrpe semi-arid climate are
ranean-type distributed around the world»
Such regions include, for example,
regions
semi-arid portions of southern Australia,, southvrestem Cape Province in
South Africa and the'Colombia Plateau in the northwest of the
United States.
These are tjrpically regions of highly mechanized agriculture
producing cereals for export. Their devotion to monoculture has
resulted in a lack of leguminous rotation crops and a virtual absence of
- 26
^^
animal husTjandry, thus limiting the return of organic matter to the soil.
associated with the export of the crop and .the' removal or burning
of the vegetable litter produced by mechanical harvesting, has depleted
the soil of mineral and organic nutrients. Light-textured gray-broim
or; black-earth soils, depleted of nutrients, have increasingly been
subject to wind erosion. Deterioration folloxíing continuous cropping
was reflected in the inter-war years by falling yields.
Depending on the setting, desertification in various forms has
made its appearance in all Mediterranean-type regions.
Extensive gullying Of slopes, as in Gape Province and the Colombia
Plateau, has become a particular handicap to mechanized agriciilture.
Tilled but unvegetated surfaces that occur where dead-fallowing is
practised have been extensively subject to general sheet erosion by water.
The almost complete clearance of vegetation associated with largescale mechanized'agriculture has resulted in wind erosion of light soils
and once-stabilized dunes, causing sand drift and the mobilization of
fresh dunes as in, for example, the Ifellee region of South Australia.
The clearance of deep-rooted shrubs and their substitution by crops
or fallow has reduced transpiration in favour of evaporation and
increased runoff from cleared slopes. This has altered-the water balance
in Valley' soils and brought on salinization.
Such effects are
particularly noticeable in areas of sluggish natural drainage, as in
northern Victoria and southwestern Western Australia where saline
groimdwater. has come to the surface xiith increased effluent seepage from
loxirer slopes.
Subtropical
lii subtropical to warm-temperate regions of dry farming, transitional
to warmrainfall regimes are characterized by viinter and siimmer rainfall. Under
temperate
such conditions, v;inter cereals can be combined with a variety of springregions
sown crops, such as cotton in the southwest of the United Statés or
sugarbeet and sunflower between the Ukraine and the Caapiah'Sea,
resulting in a favourable mixed agriculture with a more continuous cover.
Such farming systems are generally yoimg, having been established over
the past two centuries in such rich soils as the black earths of the
southern USSR.
In these i^rstems, soil depletion with falling yields has only
recently become evident.
The application of mineral fertilizers and
the replacement of organic losses are increasingly required.
The plains topography of these regions, characterized by an
absence of trees, has promoted desertification through wind erosion.
Erosion, together with reduced- yields, has'also been encouraged by '
a moderate salinization and alkanization, arising from limited
leaching, that have affected the drier parts of these regions.
- 27
Cool ternperature
semi-arid
regions
Cool-temperature semi-arid regions typically have rain in spring
and early s-uimnero .. They include, for example, a "broad strip from southern
Siberia into Manchuria and the dry prairies of Canadawhere exposed
surfaces, severe winter temperatures and sunlight limitations result in
a short growing season restricted to spring cereals and great difficulty
in introducing cover crops other than grass. Under such conditions,
animal husbandry is also very difficult.
Wind erosion is the characteristic form of desertification in r.uch
regions of open plains. Host affected during the dry vrinters or late
summer ai-e the light-textured soils often lying on a carbonate or
hardpan layer.
Tropical
semi-arid
summer
monsoon
regions
Tropical semi-arid summer monsoon regions are typified by the
Sudanian belt, \-rith its JOCtam to 60Qmn annual rainfall, to the south of
the Ifrican Sahel.
They also include the margin of the Rajasthan Desert
in northwest India and parts of northeastern Brazil.
They tend to grade
into subhumid savannas, lands which must also be considered at risk.
In these regions, open savanna woodland is cleared, usually by
burning to provide a seedbed, although clearance is not complete and
many large trees may be left standing. , The,pattern is generally that
of shifting agriculture»
Pour to five years of continuous cropping are
followed by abandonment, when successional regrowth may be harvested,
• gum arable for example, or gxazed by cattle, with the growth of. grass
encouraged by burning.
• This is mainly subsistence farming by pes^sants, who grow grain
crops such as sorghum or millet.
The warm climate may allow a second
crop., such as groundnuts or cotton in Africa, increasingly groxm for
cash. Adjacent pastoral peoples may introduce an element of animal
husbandry, into these systems, with the rights to graze on stubble
obtained through various types of exchange or through cash payments.
liuring periods of above-average rainfall, these systems have tended
to encroach on neighbouring animal-based systems because of the
pressirces of population groirbh or for the extension of cash cropping.
Such encroachments are successful until the ralnd fail, as they
inevitably do. The severe imbalances which then appear can act as a
major accelerator of desertification, as they did in the recent
Sahelian drought, affecting not only the fai-mland itself but also the
pastoral areas which farming had invaded.
Desertification in these systems often appears as a marked decline
in fertility folloxíing the loss of organic matter and a deterioration in
the structure of the typical red, sandy subtropical soils. This often
comes about because population pressures and a resulting land hunger act
to speed up the agricultural cji'cle, bringing the farmer back to the same
piece of land in fifteen years, say, instead of twenty»
The rise of
cash cropping accelerates the removal from the soil of mineral and
organic nutrients.
The introduction of equipment unsuited to the
particular conditions of these regions ha.s resulted in deeper tillage
a,nd aeration and a consequent pulverization of the soil.
- 28 -
•• As fertility declines, crop yields are less, and adverse impacts
iDecome self-accelerating.
To malee up the difference,, the land-is
worked even more intensively.
Rainfall in these regions, \fhile localized, is often intense,
causing pluvial erosion of cultivated surfaces.
Soil surfaces "beconie
puddled and soil structure severely damaged.
The dry spells that
alternate -with the onset of rains bake a crust on the surface, hindering
the germination and development of seedlings.
During the dry winters, wind erosion lifts clouds of dust from
these lands, sometimes transporting it over enormous distances. • Soils
in the Caribbean islands have been enriched by what has been lost from
distánt northern Africa.
Irrigated
cropping
systems
Irrigation provides the main basis for agriculture in arid regions
and serves as a vital supplement to crop production in semi-arid'regions,
About I5 per cent of the world's cultivated lands are irrigated.
Although not all of these 200 million hectares are located in drylands,
still that is vrhere the impact of irrigation is greatest.
World food production must increase if present nutritional deficits
are to be ^ corrected and an eicpanding world population adequately
•nourished. A 30 per cent increase in cereal production alone has been
projected as essential between 1970 and I985.
Some of this increase
will have to be obtained by further development of irrigation.
Compared with rainfed agriculture, irrigation can lead to a six-fold
increase in yields of cereals and a four-to-five-fold increase in root
crops.
The importance of irrigation to agricultural development is
revealed by the fact that the irrigated harvest area in developing
countries is expanding at a rate of 2.9 per cent per year compared with
•• an annual expansion of O.7 per cent for rainfed crops.
Irrigation in
arid lands can therefore be expected to play a critical role in
satisfying the world's food requirements.
Measures to combat
desertification in such systems are accordingly of the utmost urgency.
Its remarkable productivity is one aspect of the importance of
irrigation in arid lands.
The productivity of rainfed cropping as
carried out in areas with less than 250-40Ctam of annual'rainfall, is
much lov/er because of this limitation in available moisture. Not only
does annual irrigation increase yields but it also alloxis the replacement
of fallowing systems by annual cropping.
The increased stability of crop systems viith the removal of
drought risk and uncertainty is another advantage of irrigátion.
Animal-based systems are made more stable and efficient v/hen they
are carried out adjacent to irrigation, which can provide them with
forage crops as supplementary feed and can store reserves against the
threat of drought.
Irrigation increases the efficiency of cropping systems. For
instance, the application of fertilizer and the planting of higher-yield
crop varieties are greatly facilitated wherever productivity is not
limited by the availability of xiater.
29 -
Irrigation diminishes the risk of desertification in cropping
systems*;.. The planting .of.trees and a more consistent vegetation cover
replace falloxiing and the open and exposed landscapes oharacteristic of
other dryland systems.
Irrigation provides i/ater which can be used to
reclaim desert lands, whether by supporting a plant cover or by the
leaching of salinized soils»
As rich producers of cash crops, irrigation systems serve as
important economic resources for arid lands.
They provide a basis for
dense settlement and its related social amenities in regions that once
supported only sparse populations. • As such, irrigated lands can be
^^sed for the resettlement progTammes that desertification elsewhere
sometimes makes necessaiy„
; It is not- merely because they are short of rainfall that arid
lands are particularly suited to irrigation»
Situated as many arid
regions are .in the cloudless subtropical zones of atmospheric subsidence5
they are favoured with long hours of sunshine»
This makes irrigated
lands suitable for multicropping and the growing of early maturing,
warmth-demanding crops that command high prices in regions that are not
so sunny. Algeria or Israel,.for instance, produce x/inter and spring
: flowers and tropical fruits that are shipped off for sale in Europe.
Again, under conditions of lov; rainfall, carefully irrigated soils
suffer only limited leaching of fertilizers and nitrogen. Plants
grown in low atmospheric humidity are relatively free of diseases, such
as rust in cerea.ls, that flourish in moister conditions.
Arid- lands are rich in terrain and soils, such as sloping piedmont
plains of interior, well-drained river systems, that are remarkably
productive when water is brought to them. Many such places still remain
to be exploited by intensive cropping.
Irrigation, hoT/over, is often a costly, technically complex
procedure that requires skillful management and sound experience if its
full advantages are to be realized. Furthermore, it gives rise to
changes in all the major ecosy-tem regimes
soil, vrater and atmosphere that may introduce unwanted effects leading to desertification unless
appropriate precautions are incorporated into the system.
A failure to apply efficient principles of - water management will
lead to water wastage and hence loss of productivity.
Such v/astage can
occur at any point in the system - through seepage and evaporation
during storage, conveyance or distribution or as a result of bad timing
in water application, of over-v/atering or poor techniques of field
application.
Poor application can result in v;aterlogging of soils, vihich reduces
productivity through inadequate aeration and its associated salinity,
eventualljr leading to the loss of irrigated lands. This is a problem
locally associated with low-lying tracts and areas of heavy soils.
V/aterlogging is more generally related to the artificial raising of
water tables because of seepage, inadequate drainage and over-watering.
It is a major factor in the salinization of irrigated soils.
- 30 -
\'Jhen soils are inadeq-uately Reached of the minerals contained in
irrigation water,, then excess evaporation and transpiration will result
in salinization and alkalization of soils. li/here drainage is
inadequate, x/hether nat-ural. or artificial, salts accumulate. The
process commonly begins.where natural seepage occurs, as along the
margins of irrigated land commanded by higher ground, in an irrigated
terrace for instance, or where there is seepage from a network of
channels.
It spreads where irrigation has been carried into areas of
unsuitable soil, such as alkaline clays, or into unsuitable terrain,
such as flood plain sumps or the higher parts of poorly levelled lands.
In such situations, when leaching is inadequate, salt crystals will
appear on the stirface.
Salinization and alkalization become general problems wherever
artificially raised water tables, associated with waterlogging,
capillary rise or pollution from salinized outflow, prevent the proper
leaching of salts.
Salinization also occurs xéien the irrigation water
is too salty or when there is not enough of it to, leach the.:salts from
the soils.
It has been estimated that half of all irrigated soils in
a;rid lands are affected by salinization to some degree. Kie eventual
result can be found in lowered yields, restrictions in the choice of
crops and the final loss of irrigable lands which can only be reclaimed
at great expense.
In monetary terms, no type of desertification is
more costly to man.
Alkalization, improper watering, inappropriate tillage of moist
soils and the leaching of soils containing gypsum can lead to a
deterioration of soil structure and compaction.
This results in poor
aeration, reduced transmission of irrigation water and finally to
lovfered yields.
Suffusion of the soil with water that fails to-drain
properly can lead to catastrophic subsidence of"the gro^md. Further
irrigation then becomes impossible without expensive relevelling.
Eacycled irrigation water may become progressively more salty,
aggravating a tendency toward salinization.
Excessive watering can
remove essential nitrogen from the soil.
Since irrigation provides a basis for intensive agriculture in
arid lands and for dense settlements there, often including people who
lack traditional experience in agricultural methods and their associated
societies, the development of irrigated agriculture often brings social
problems to arid lands. These problems are linlced to profound
modifications in local or adjacent ecosystems, ;notably soil and water
regimes, involved in the development of irrigation.
Irrigation calls for particular skills in the application of Tíater
and the tillage of watered soils if its great potential for increased
productivity is to be developed and sustained.. The efficiency of
irrigation schemes rests in, the last analysis on the individual
ciiltivator. Waen cultivators. lack the. appropriate agricultural
experience, irrigation systems and the lands they water can suffer
great damage.
31 -
• Potentially beneficial to health through improved nutrition and
water supplies, irrigation can also give rise to serious health
problems.
It can increase the risk of viater-borne, directly transmitted
diseases such as bilharzia, malaria and typhoid fever. Ifelaria has been
identified as a problem in the early irrigation civilizations of the
Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates.
The transmission of disease is
facilitated by water mismanagement which results in the formation of
stagnant pools and bjr a lack of hygiene and sanitation under conditions
of dense settlement.
Chronic ill health gives rise to losses from
labour inefficiency.
Lavis and traditions can present obstacles to efficient irrigation
by establishing curious restrictions on v/ater "use, illogical
subdivisions of the land or contractual limitations on tenant activities.
Irrigation gives birth to cities in arid lands and to the social
stresses that arise when peoples of diverse backgrounds come into
contact viith one another in a new social and economic environment.
Dense settlements have a profound impact on the surrounding desert
environment J and this impact can be very damaging v;here populations
have no tradition of close settlement.
Irrigation systems can be based on surface waters or on ground
water. Sach type brings with it its osm characteristic problems.
Systems involving the use of surface waters range from flood
farming or flood-recession agriculture in floodplains, through annual
basin irrigation using flood banks, to perennial irrigation using
manmade storage reservoirs and canals. Systems of the last type, based
on rivers flov/ing through or on large upland sources of runoff, support
the largest popiilations and the most intensive agricultural production
in. the arid lands»
Such systems call for advanced, large-scale
management»
Devegetation, surface deterioration or gullying due to overgrazing
or the extension of croplands, the breakdoxm of works such as terracing
intended to control rimoff, all give rise to problems in the management
of surface water. All such deterioration promotes increasingly
spasmodic and violent local flooding wiiich complicates water management
and gives rise to flood damage and siltation in storage reservoirs and
on irrigated lands.
It may also lead to a decline in x-iater quality
through the exposure of saline soil layers«
Irregularity of v;ater supplies is a frequent problem in such systems.
Studies indicate that a given quantity of water is two to three times as
effective if applied regularly and consistently rather than via a onetime flooding.
Systems employing surface waters are confronted vriLth problems of
storage. Reservoir capacity can be lost to siltation in erodible
desert watersheds.
Seepage can involve the loss or salinization of
irrigation water. Evaporation, too, can enhance saiinity.
- 32 -
• Such systems are also confronted with problems relating' to water
conveyamce. Water losses in travel, averaging:fifty per cent, arise
from seepage and evaporation in networks of channels. Such problems
can become acute in very large systems containing long distribution
channels.
.Irrigation water can become increasingly saline as it is recycled
'in. surface"runoff or subsurface flow, when it becomes contaminated by
saline soils, particularly where discharge declines as the vrater moves
dovm valleys.
.When surface-water systems are adjacent to large rivers, they
are subject to a risk of flooding. VJhen they are located in large
:.desert river basins, they always involve problems of water resources and
water rights at local, regional and international levels.
Systems involving the use of groundv/ater suffer from their own
distinctive set of problems. These are usually smaller schemes than
the often elaborate systems that draw on surface water. ,
.told, they
probably amount to less than 10 per cent, of the extent pf surface-water
systems, but they are particularly important within oasis settings,
including those within extreme deserts.
Such systems sometimes exploit
shallow subsurface water by means of hand-dug wells.
In other settings,
they go deeper and require the use of pumps.
They may tap artesian
supplies or they may "mine" non-renewable deep-water sources.
Groundwater- is coimnonly more saline than surface water.
Limitations in supplies and difficulties in terrain may present- great
difficiilties in obtaining effective leaching and drainage.
Salinization of soils, often xrorking through the mechanisms described in
connexion with surface-water use, is a frequent problem in groundwater
systems.
Problems also arise from over-exploitation of limited supplies.
As via,ter is used up, shallow sources may be abandoned, and pumping
becomes increasingly expensive as draw-doxm affects,marginal wells.
Less favourably sited wells may become so drained that marginal lands
will be abandoned. , Heavily exploited water mas'" suffer from an
increasing accumulation of salts throiigh recharge by salinized water,
thus aggravating the problem of soil salinization.
Seavrater- may,.
,-encroach on aquifers that are intensely exploited in coastal diylands.
Problems can arise in gromdvrater systems due to the raising of
the \iatertable as supplies are brought up from depth. When.drainage
is hindered, this can lead to the pollution of aquifers by saline soil
water.
Conversely, watertables may be lowered in aquifers as supplies are
drawn from them.
This can cause land subsidence on a major scale, as
in a.lifomia's Central Valley.
Here, too, problems can arise in-connexion with water management
and x^rater rights leading to conflicts and resulting in inefficiencies.
- 33 -
Pishing,
hunting
and
gathering
Hiere are communities that .persist in gaining :their subsistence
by traditional methods of hunting, fishing or gathering or some
combination' of these activities. More often¡, however,. such pursuits
are supplementary to agricultural systems of livelihood^ and when compared
with the latter, their environmental impact is generally local and
.slight, \Ihen these activities are affected by desertification, it is
likely that they have.been damaged by adjacent agricultural systems.
Since, diminished biological productivity is the hallmark of
desertification, that label can be applied to circumstances leading to
reductions in wildlife populations or to the loss of their habitats.
In addition to its value as a food supplement, dryland wildlife,
an intrinsic part of its ecosystems, constitutes a vital element in the
natural environmental balance.
Its presence may therefore be essential
in restorative measures to combat desertification.
As part of the
world's ecotypal heritage, wildlife is intrinsically worthy of
preservation. As a tozzrist attraction, dryland animals may also serve
as an economic resource.
The larger native herbivores in .dryland ranges have become reduced
in numbers almost everywhere.
Some species are threatened with
extinction.
This is in part due to heightened himting pressure as man
increasingly intrudes into the more remote dryland refuges in search of
oil, minerals, or pleasure. Such intrusions are increasingly made in
the off-the-road cross-country vehicles by men carrying sophisticated
vreapons.
It is also due to deterioration of animal habitats as described
in connexion with animal-based livelihood systems. As their situations
become ever more precarious, dryland animals decline in both vigour and
numbers.
Competition with domestic animals, vrhether real or merely perceived,
is a factor leading to deliberate reductions in the popiilations of
larger animals or to their exclusion from habitats they formerly
occupied.
Under these worsened conditions, the impact of supplementary
hunting by pastoral peoples has become increasingly severe, especially
when accelerated by the general increase in human populations.
Dryland fishing communities, without considering ocean fisheries
off coastal deserts, as in Peru, which are otitside the scope of this
review, are also subject to desertification.
Desert lalces, coastal lagoons and perennial dryland rivers support
fishing industries which contribute important amoujits of protein-rich
supplements to loqal diets. Por example, the Lake Chad fisheries
reportedly produce an annual yield of 100,000 tonnes.
-
34
-
Lake Chad, however, ,v/as much reduced during the recent Sahelian
drought, since drought reduces discharge by ;rivers and shrinlcs the lakes
which they feed.
Sliallow bodies, such as L ^ e Wanc'har in Pakistan, vrill
suffer -shfinkage'when the waters that feed them are diverted for other
purposes such as irrigation.
Lakes and lagoóns can be salinized by excessive evaporation, by
the increased salinity of entering wátérs in irrigated regions or by the
encroachment of seawater. The Aswan.dam, for example, has prevented
íTile sediments from reaching the beách barriers that once protected the
lakes in the delta and has allowed seawater to' penetrate them.
The degradation of river catchments increases siltation and
generates turbidity in the lalces and lagoons fed by such rivers. This
acts to kill aquatic vegetation and causes a decline in fish catches.
(Conversely, the sardine fisheries"in the Eastern Mediterranean failed
after the Aswan Dam cut off the Nile-bome nutrients that once supported
them.)
The desertification of watersheds brings on adverse changes in
river regimes leading to increasingly spasmodic discharge, to siltation
or flood scour in river channels and to the destruction of aquatic
ecosystems.
Mining,
These livelihood systems are practised in all types of climate and
tourism
environment, but they take on special importance in the drylands as
and
alternative resources in conditions of relative scarcity. Oil revenues,
recreation for instance, have fundamentally improved the prospects of a m;unber of
developing desert nations and indeed have given them the means to combat
desertification.
These activities have provided a fundamental impetus
to the establishment or development of dryland settlements and
communications.
Yet they have not been carried out without environmental
impact, especially in the very fragile ecosystems that make up the
diylands.
Mining and mineral based industries, including the extraction and
processing of oil, cause direct disturbance of vegetation, soil and
terrain, not only in the actual mining operation itself, but also in
such ancillary activities as the construction of roads and pipelines and
the development of heavy vehicular traffic.
Disturbed and denuded soil is subject to wind erosion with
increasing dust nuisance and sand drift. Disturbed ground is also
vulnerable to accelerated water erosion, with consequent siltation and
obstruction of siorface drainage. These problems are exacerbated in
drylands where,water for irrigation is in short supply and where
denuded ground is recolonized by vegetation only at an extremely slow
natural rate.
Airborne or waterbome mining or industrial wastes cause pollution
of soils and groundwater, a particularly hazardous problem in the
drylands where there is rarely enough xirater to remove pollutants through
leaching or surface drainage.
- 35 -
The patterns of air circiilation over drylands are characterized by
limited atmospheric mixing and frequent temperature inversions which
hold the lo\-/er layers of air firmly in place»
In such conditions,
atmospheric pollution tends to hang on instead of being carried away.
Held in place under brilliant sunlight, pollutants are then subject to
photochemical synthesis ^^rhich can transform them into even more noxious
substances»
liineral industries can bring about desertification by intense,
localized competition for scarce resources such as water, wood (for
fuel and construction materials), energy/ sources and labour. Such
competition is often detrimental to local agricultural livelihood
systems.
Problems arise from the impact of mining settlements in drylands.
Apart from the physical impact a,nd demands common to settlements anyifhere,
dryland mining toi^ms bring with them an array of social problems related
to their often temporary character, their remoteness, and to the unusual
and chajiging composition of populations which may be wholly or partly
foreign to the dryland setting.
TourisDi and recreation have been dravm to deserts and drylands by
warm sunny climates, a dry healthy atmosphere and natural landscapes
with distinctive life forms x-zhere parks and reserves can be easily
established.
Drylands contain archaeological and folklore attractions
and they provide ideal settings for certain kinds of sanatoria. Their
popularity as tourist and recreation areas has been aided by the
development of communications to and within them and has risen steeply
with the increasing leisure and affluence of industrialized societies,
especially those that experience cold winters.
The tourist industiy is
an increasingly important source of revenue and employment in diylands,
although complaints are often heard that the control and benefits of
tourism remain outside the dryland communities.
Tourism and
recreation can also serve as active agents of desertification.
The construction of tourist roads and camps and the resulting
increase of traffic, particularly by cross-country vehicles, is disturbing
to and destructive of vegetation and soil cover in the usually sensitive
landscapes that constitute the scenic attractions.
Tliis leads to"
accelerated erosion.
Attractive plant or animal species can be reduced or even wiped out
by the uncontrolled gathering of wild flovrers or by disturbing animals
at critical periods in their life cycles.
Tourist settlements give rise to problems of health and sanitation,
and these can be exacerbated through contacts betv/een tourists and local
populations.
Commercial tourism can have an uncontrolled impact on traditional
commimities resulting in interactive social complications, including the
resentment of local populations at being regarded merely as objects of
interest.
Seasonal labour requirements have great effects on local
life systems as does an increased demand for local craft products.
~ 36 -
ryland
, \AriMty stimulates the formation of, nucleated settlements since
ettlements their necessary supports, such as water and agricxiltural land, tend to be
localized in deserts and drylands. Depending.-on how "urban" is defined,
between 20 per cent and 50 per cent of the 680 million people living in
dryl^ds are urban. Dryland cities include some of the oldest in the
world. • Today they function as irrigation centres (including oasis
settlements), garrisons, communications and caravan centres, political,
administrative and regional services centres, or they may be focused on
tourism, sanatoria, mining or other industries.
Deserts and dryl^ds have been subject to an accelerated
urbanization over -the past 50 years, often superimposed on general
population increases.
In Iran, for example, where the population has
tripled since I9OO to a present total of almost 50 million, the
percentage of urban population has increased from 20 per cent to
40 per cent.
Today, the world's drylands contain nine metropolitan
centres with more than one million people each. Expanding/dryland
cities share many of the problems of cities in more humid lands.
But situated where they are, they have additional problems as agents of
desertification.
Diî-land communities have a direct and often adverse impact on the
lands s-urrounding them. As concentrations of people and traffic,
including livestock traffic in agricultural settlements, they are often
surrounded by naked perimeters of bare ground subject to constant
disturbance. Movement on such perimeters is rarely confined to
established roads or tracks. The result is intensified dust nuisance
and localized Siand .drift. After rains, these bare surfaces become
muddy and filled with stagnant pools which can constitute a health
hazard.
Such conditions may extend right into settlements built on
an open grid pattern of large blocks, like most Australian outback
towns, ;whÍGh contain extensive uncontrolled surfaces which cannot be
grassed because of water shortages.
V/aste disposal in dryland settlements is confronted with particular
difficulties-. : The disposal of domestic or industrial wastes is hampered
by a lack of water for flushing or leaching, by slow rates of biodegradation and by problems in revegetating vjaste dumps. This leads to
chemical and bacterial: pollution of soils and groundwater with attendant
health hazards, particularly in more primitive conditions.
Included in
this problem is the impact of feedlots and slaughterhouses located in
to\'m perimeters.
Rubbish is often dumped on the outskirts of dryland towns in
sparsely settled areas difficult to supervise. Dumping is encouraged
by a v/idespread attitude that desert land is inexhaustible and otherwise
,worthless.
Atmospheric pollution from vehicles or the burning of fuels in
cities is aggravated by the same dryland conditions that affect
atmospheric pollution from mining or industry - low ratios of atmospheric
mixing, temperature inversions and a high level of photochemical .
synthesis.
- 37 -
Like; all to\ms¡, -dryland settlements malee demands on their
hinterlands J and more ,so in developing nations where commxjnications may
be poor. Desert toi-ms in developed economies may import many of their
necessities from far away. Under any circxunstances, however, the
impact of the modern city on its surroundings is considerable.
Per capita consumption of water increases with urbanizationj and
to meot its domestic, industrial and poxrer-geneiating needs, the torn
may compete for water with adjoining agriciiltural systems, as Mexico City
does. I'/here a city is dependent on groundwater, its rising needs may
lead to a lowering of regional watertables, as in the Tucson basin of
Arizona, irith adverse consequences for surface water regimes.
In developing countries especially, demand for wood and charcoal
tends to devegetate an expanding area around the city xfith the usual
adverse consequences»
As time passes, supplies must be brought in
from farther and farther av;ay at continually rising cost to the consumer»
Tlie expanding settlement may engulf the cultivated land that
supported its earlier growth. Unrealistic land-boom sales in the
United States have caused lots and roadv/ays to be scraped out of
distances often remote from to\-ms, where they lie stagnant ivithout
further development, constituting a source of accelerated erosion.
Although the grovrth of cities in deserts or drylands ma.y entail smaller
losses in agricultiiral productivity than in humid areas, such losses
occur in environments that are very sensitive to disturbance and they
may be very important locally»
The demand for labour by urban services and industries, reinforced
by higher wages, may dravr workers from adjoining livelihood systems to
their great detriment. Forms of agriculture requiring intensive
upkeep, such as rainfed terraced agriculture or qanat-fed irrigated
cropping, have suffered particularly from labour shifts of this Icind.
Just as settlements have an impact on their surro\mdings, so
desertification of a region has an impact on cities and settlements
located within or near it.
During droughts, rural peoples suffering desertification stress
migrate in large numbers to nearby tovms. This happened in the recent
Sahelian drought, where urban population growth rates, already very
high at 10 per cent per year, briefly doubled.
Although towns provide
a successful escape for the migrant in terms of wages and welfare, such
movements impose severe burdens on urban housing and services and tend
to intensify the adverse environmental impacts that cities and tovms
already exert.
The accelerated growth of cities, so characteristic of the
contemporary world, places continuous stress on urban water reso^Jrces,
a stress that is aggravated in periods of low rainfall. V/hen
- 38 -
desertification affects the hinterland or surrounding regions, the city's
water supply can be fvirther stressed "by increasing siltation in surface
water storages, reducing their useful life, and by lowered gromdwater
tables and a deterioration in water quality.
Desertification of surrounding lands will heighten environmental
stress within the settlement.
The tovm may experience hot winds and
more frequent dust storms, particularly in periods of summer drought
when local shade and shelter will also have diminished. These impacts
will be most strongly felt when settlements and houses are unsxrLtably
designed and particularly in the temporary dwellings of newly arrived
urban immigrants.
- 39 -
V
The Human Consequences of Desertification
The
Desertification is a human problem.
Its most important aspect lies
impact
in its impact on man himself - on the individual, the family, the community
of
or the nation. The environmental degradation, the biological and physical
desert- stress described as desertification in the different dryland livelihood
ificat- systems have their direct counterparts in physical, emotional, economic and
ion on
social consequences for man.
man
As with the environmental manifestations, the impact of desertification
on human beings shows a corresponding vulnerability, chronic or progressive,
upon which are superimposed those critical periodic stresses that result in
human disaster.
Unless long-term remedies are found and applied, the
passage of each crisis must leave dryland communities further weakened and
still less equipped to deal with stress conditions or to confront the next
crisis, which will inevitably occur, bearing with it its potential for
catastrophe.
The Sahelian drought, for example, meant a drastic slash in
productivity and income in the six countries most affected. Two million
nomadic pastoralists lost more than half of their livestock - in the worst
local situations losses exceeded 90 per cent. For almost 15 million
villagers, harvests yielded less than half of the usual crop during most of
the years between 1968 and 1973The result was the destruction of already
low standards of living. The repercussions were felt not only by
individuals and families but resounded as disastrous cuts in national
incomes.
The consequences of the Sahelian drought cannot be grasped solely in
terms of its severity.
It must be appreciated that even before 1968, the
six Sahelian countries and the people who live in them were already among
the poorest in the world. In the list of the 13 least developed countries,
four of them aire in the Sahel. These countries have gross national
products that amount to less than JJlOO a year for each inhabitant. Chronic
poverty and lack of capital are chexacteristic of desert and dryland
communities in developing countries.
This is a major reason why they are so
vulnerable to drought disaster.
As the Sahelian drought advanced, food stocks dwindled to extinction,
and famine, prevalent by 1971s was general throughout the area by 1972. It
is estimated that 100,000 people died of starvation and associated disease,
most of them young children. Typically, famine and disease did not strike
those who had been healthy and well-nourished5 it ravaged populations
already debilitated by malnutrition.
Seasonal hunger and epidemic disease are facts of life among desert and
dryland p.oples in developing countries, where health services are usually
inadequate if they exist at all. Malnutrition and low resistance to disease
are among the more insidious aspects of desertification. They reduce the
capacity of dryland communities to cope with periodic hardship, and they sap
the will of dryland peoples to improve their condition. They must be dealt
with as part of any set of measures to combat desertification.
- 40 -
In the pastoral areas worst affected by the Sahelian drought, there was
a complete brealidown of livelihood systems and a mass exodus to towns sind
refugee camps located in the less affected south.
Some parts of Upper Volta
lost 80 per cent of their inhabitants. Many died on these migrations, but
to a large number of nomadic refugees, the journey brought survival, since
they found food,,medical care and eventually wage employment in the towns
towsird which they.headed.
Surveys have since shown that a sizeable
proportion of the pastoralist refugees may never return to their former
homelands. Thus it is that the drought brought about what must be viewed
as a social revolution.
On the other hand, it is possible to view such an exodus as a temporary
magnification of a regular and pre-existing out-migration, both seasonal and
permanent, of the nomads to the towns. Although the pastoral systems
receive some benefit from the remittance of money sent from wage-earners in
towns, still, even before the drought, out-migra.tion had reached levels
sufficient to cause local weaknesses and stagnation in the pastoral systems.
Such movements, persisting through good years as vrell as bad, suggest
chronic instability and the land's lack of capacity to support its
populations.
It is something that must be taken into account in remedial
policies.
The Sahelian drought generated an international relief effort which
eventually reached substantial size. Nonetheless, the effort suffered
failures indicative of underlying weaknesses which existed before the
drought crisis and which have undoubtedly survived it. That food and
medicine could not be brought in time to those who needed them most iinderlines
the remoteness of such regions and their lack of transport facilities.
Administrative failures and bureaucratic obstacles hampered relief operations
locally.
Such matters must be dealt with if measures to combat
desertification are to succeed.
The traditional antagonism between nomad and peasant in the Sahel, which
led to inequities in the distribution of food to refugees, draws attention
to the kinds of cultural conflicts and political bias which also face
anti-desertification prograames. A lack of effective communication between
refugees and those who were supposed to be helping them serves as a reminder
that literacy rates in affected countries are sometimes very low, below
10 per cent in most countries of the Sahel, and that programmes of education
must accompany measures for improving land use.
Just as dryland ecosystems react with greater or lesser sensitivity to
climatic stress and the pressures of land use, suggesting an order of
priorities for measures directed toward physical improvement, so differences
in the inherent vulnerability of dryland communities, as reflected in the
greater or lesser sufferings of their inhabitants, suggest- priorities on
human grounds. Full consideration should be given to whether or not
international action should be directed toward the most vulnerable nations,
and national action to the most vulnerable communities, rather than to areas
of the greatest ecosystematic disturbance, although, of course, the two
categories might on occasion coincide.
However they ?j:e ordered> remedial progrnrnmos should have as their
perspective the treatment of long-term disabilities, not merely relief from
temporary hardship.
41
Hiiman
and
social
mani"
festations of
desertification
While the adverse human and social consequences of desertification
become critical in periods of stress, their persistence provides evidence of
chronic disabilities in marginal dryland communities. As such, they may
not be specific to desertification but broadly common to families and
livelihoods on the margin of the modern world, particularly in remote and
hazardous environments and where tradition, social inequality or political
indifference further isolate people and systems from the resources and
capacity needed to effect improvement,
Among these adverse consequences are hunger, disease and premature death
brought on by continued crop failure or the massive destruction of livestock,
particularly in marginal subsistence societies where transport facilities
are inadequate. Malnutrition increases vulnerability to epidemic diseases
such as measles. Few diseases are specific to desertification, eye
diseases such as trachoma marginally so, and certain disea.ses, such as
bilharzia, are linked with inefficiencies in irrigation systems. Debility
leads to further inefficiencies in another kind of cycle that may become
self-accelei'ating.
In developed nations, such as the United States or Australia, the first
noticeable sign of desertification may be loss of income.
In subsistence
societies, loss of income gives rise to acute problems of physical well-being
and becomes increasingly important when income is dependent on the sale of
crops or livestock. Loss of income is a constant problem in marginal
societies, and there are a number of devices for coping with it, such as the
sharing of resources or seasonal out-migration.
When drought is long-continued, there may be an incipient breakdown in
livelihood systems.
In nomadic societies, this stage may be marked by
self-enforced sedentarization, settling down on agricultural land. Outmigration to the towns, both seasonal and permanent, may show a marked
increase on the part of nomads and of those who work traditional cropping
systems as well. This offers immediate relief in the foim of remitted
wages, but it can easily reach the point at which the local livelihood
systems suffer from labour shortages, thus weakening them further. Although
traditional societies have various ways of coping with such problems, some
are particularly vulnerable to them, those especially which have become
commercially or technologically more specialized or those in which traditional
social bonds have broken down.
V/hen the stage of incipient breakdown was reached in the disaster of
the Sahelian drought, nomadic pastoral communities generally fared better
than sedentary agriculturalists.
In developed countries, buffering of the
livelihood system at this stage may take the form of government drought
relief and loans. It is likely that indebtedness will increase and the
less viable holdings abandoned.
Selective depopulation will occur in rural
settings, vrhile the local tovms based on rural services and industries will
suffer economic depression.
This process can proceed until livelihood systems collpase utterly.
V/hen this stage is reached, the greatest hardships fall on those communities
that are most exposed environmentally and least equipped to transfer to a net-/
- 42
livelihood system. At this point in the Sahelian drought, the nomadic
pastorálists suffeired most, with many areas• experiencing a mass exodus.
stated earlier, there are indications that'-many of these refugees have
permanently abandoned their former livelihood systems.
As
Apart from the physical hardships involved, such an upheaval brings
with it severe emotional stress. Those most hard hit may succumb to an apathy
stemming'from'their felt loss of status.
Social disasters of this
magnitude are more characteristic of marginal societies in marginal lands.
Industrialized societies have access to resources that can blunt the
impact of disaster.
- 43
.
.
.
.
Measures to Combat Desertification
Principles
Any measures undertaken to com'bat desertification must be inioimed
which
. "by certain principles long recognised by the Member States which compose
should . the United Nations. While some such principles may seem predom-nantly
guide all. humanitarian in character, the fact is that they are also intensely
measures practical. Desertification is a human,problem, and measures to combat
against
it involve people, especially those most affected, who must be convinced
desertiof the virtue and practicality of participating in the measures proposed,
fication
Measures to coabat desertification must be seen as having human
and social objectives. They must be inspired by an acknowledgement of
the right of people living in drylands to acceptable standards of health
education, livelihood and social well-being, consistent with human
dignity,.
Account must be taken of traditional social values and an appropriate respect shown for life styles and ancient knowledge developed
in harmony with the dryland environment.
Priorities in programmes to combat desertification should be
influenced by the severity of its impact on the populations concerned,
and by the degree of their vulnerability.
The approach should be an integrated one, in,which proposals
involving technological or environmental change are linked with social
and economic measures.
Measures to combat.desertification will not succeed without the
willing participation of local communities. The need must be recognized to work through existing livelihood systems and established social
patterns. The involvement of the community must be sought, as by
enlisting the example of local leaders. Educational and publicity programmes must be designed with this in mind.
It may be necessary to cisate incentives toward community participation, The practicality and advantages of proposed measures should
be demonstrated at the earliest,stage through realistic pilot projects.
Prom the outset, programmes should contain some measures selected
because they relate to immediate local problems, .because they demon-^
strate prompt action within the community, because they are possible
with existing resources, and because they promise convincing results
within a reasonable time.
Advantage should be taken of crisis situations, when societal and
livelihood systems have been disrupted and people, are ,more prepared to
consider change and to carry out whatever restructuring of dryland livelihood systems that conditions may, call for.
Campaigns against desertification must be realistic and planning
should not set goals which can neither be.,supported nor achieved in
"regions of essentially low productivity.
-
The ideal objective is the recovery and maintenance of ecological
"balance in the drylands in the interests of sustained productivity, hut
this must he reconciled with the needs of local populations. Some
degree of environmental disturbance must be tolerated in land management.
On the other hand, it must be accepted that land-use pressures have
been a major factor in existing problems of desertification. Any effort
to improve conditions must recognize that fact. Accordingly, changes in
land use will be required, and these bring with them a need for corresponding social changes. Some element of control will obviously be
required, but it will not succeed without a sympathetic community
response. This must be sought through education, demonstration projects,
and a sense of involvement and shared decision among the local people.
Where limits are set by rainfall, the productivity of drylands per
unit area will never be anything but low. Such lands can command only
modest investments in keeping with their productivity. Eeclamation and
preservatory measures should be designed in accordance with this outlook,
as should the goals of redevelopment schemes.
Since rainfall will remain variable in the drylands, they will
continue to be high-risk areas for most land-use systems, and this should
be reflected in development plans. However, measures to stabilize their
livelihood systems and buffer them against pex-iodic drought should not
deprive them of their flexibility and the risk-spreading strategies
characteristic of traditional dryland practices.
Apart from limitations set by climate, dryland ecosystems will
remain sensitive to land-úsé pressure because their soils and dynamics
are delicately balanced. The best designed dryland livelihood system
will still require constant surveillance if balance is to be sustained.
It is therefore essential that campaigns against desertification should
not be presented as sets of single episodes. Development plans must
incorporate systems of monitoring and maintenance. This requirement
strongly underlines the need to develop indigenous science and technology.
The drylands and their threatened margins cover more than a third
of the earth's land surface. As might be expected, a scope so immense
comprises a vast variety of biophysical, economic and social settings.
Desertification and its problems are correspondingly varied and complex.
Any plan of action to combat desertification will recognize this, and with
it that there can be no single set of remedies. Eecommendations must take
account of different situations and be flexible enough to encompass a
wide range of.conditions.
Review of the desertification problem strongly supports the contention that past failure to maintain balanced livelihood systems in drylands is the outcome of an inability to apply existing knowledge of
physical processes rather than from any lack of understanding of what
the processes are. The same appears to be true of the design of measures
to combat desertification. Accordingly, plans of action should address
themselves particularly to the removal of obstacles to the application of
existing knowledge, to the adaptation of existing knowledge to local
s i t u a t i o n s in the social as well as i n the physical sphere, and to probr. ¡ j ^ - h r n n - n m n n g
nnmrrmni-t.i-P'g-.—RI a n a
action should stress action rather than future res&grch.
nf
- 45 -
It should not te taken for granted that action to combat desertification will take first place among national commitments. The Plan of
Action to Combat Desertification should not appear to pre-empt alreadyestablished national priorities. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind
that action on the ground will largely be carried out by national
organizations, and presentation of the plan should accordingly aim to
influence national governmental attitudes toward the problem of desertification and should seek to eccure the active c-:;irmitment of governments.
This isfflostlikely to. occur when combative measures are linked to
broad national plans for development and appear to be consistent with
national goals. .
Because dryland ecosystems are fragile, they are particularly
vulnerable to misapplied technology. Techniques and equipment tried
with success in more humid regions have contributed to desertification
in drier environments. When innovations are suggested, attention should
be paid to the impact they will have on the dryland environment and to
their adaptability to local livelihood systems. In developing countries,
attention must also be paid to low cost, simplicity of operation and
acceptability by the local community. It follows that modifications of
existing technology and practice are likely to prove more effective than
radical innovation.
Beyond these guiding principles, measures to combat desertification
must take as their point of departure the identification of the process
when it occurs and the assessment of its nature and severity.
IdentifiExperience indicates that the long-term progressive deterioration
cation
of areas that constitutes desertification may not be readily identifiand
able against the background of short-term environmental fluctuations that
assessspring from periodic shifts in the rainfall. There is a consequent need
ment of
for regular monitoring of the status of dryland ecosystems to provide
deserti- early warning of trends, to identify areas in which change is taking
fication place, and to provide a basis for the investigation of causes and processes. It is in terms of such information that measures for prevention
or reclamation will ultimately be designed.
Because the problem is global, calling for international effort
and a worldwide exchange of information, monitoring should be established in the form of uniform, worldwide surveillance. Such arrangements might usefully be identified and co-ordinated as a "world desert
watch".
Global surveillance of the status of dryland ecosystems and of
land use can be achieved most economically through the remote sensing
powers of specialized orbiting satellites. The so-called LAEDSAT system,
already in operation, has this capacity. LAKDSAT now provides imagery at
a scale of 1;250,000, with prospects that a scale of 1;100,000 will soon
be achieved.
The first step in the use of a satellite such as LAHDSAT is to
employ it for the identification and mapping of distinct units on the
ground. This can be carried out in false colour imagery (lAHDSAT bands
4, 5 and 7) or in black and white. Much of the world's drylands, perhaps
pe"r-ênt,~-±s already'^covered" by-TarroSAT. The~ mafppiñg~would''define
functional environment types as determined by their geology, landform
- -46
and surface drainage, each type,characterized by certain soils and
vegetation cover. The,, characteristics of each unit would'he established, from imagery and supported by already existing infoxination on
geology,: soils and vegetation. The findings would be validated on the
: grounds, this. ,so-called "ground truth" being ' determined by field sampling
: and traverses. ...
Initial demarcation of the topographical and soils units by a
skilled photo-interpreter would be inexpensive, costing in the order
of some dollars per thousand of hectaires. ''Ttie building up of ground
truth would be a separate and continuing operation. Different combinations of boundaries .would allow the information so obtained to be
expressed in terms, oí a variety of references, such as pasture land,
vegetation or .salinity. „ The ,|achieva.ble scale would be'adequate for
general, surveys of land status, for planning for exteriSive land use such
pastoralism, or as a first stage in the identification of likely
:,rareas,, for-more intensive kinds of íand use. The maps obtained, could
^pro^vide .a framework for the interchange of experience between comparable
.environments.
To fix trends in dryland ecosystems repeated monitoring on a uniform basis is required. This can be obtained from the LAKDSAT system
via remote sensing satellite-to-ground receiving stations. Each of
these has an effective radius of about 2,700 km. but at the present
time, only a part of the drylands is properly covered. Access to a
ground receiving station provides an opportunity for manipulating the
data output to conform with local needs.
' The storage, handling and reproduction of the data from the groundreceiving station, and its integration with data from other sources, '
calls for linked computer-based data systems which will generally foiin
part of a national land-data system. Information can be related to á
given topographical unit or to another geographical subdivision" by the
use of a standard system, and experience suggests that a one-to-two_
kilometre grid provides adequate definition for the general surveillance
of drylands.
A feasibility study set in,South America is proposing to validate
a transnational approach.to monitoring;desertification on the above
basis. The annual cost of establishing a,ground receiving station and
linked data system would be $2 million, which amounts, as suggested, to
dollars per thousands of hectares covered. The establishment and validation of such a system using pilot test areas would take about three
years, and such systems are not likely to be generally established
before five years. It looks as if world coverage would be most economically achieved through regional groupings of countries.
MHDSAT imagery will have to be reinforced by ground truth from
periodic field surveys, measured transects and other types of groundbased reporting.
The further investigation of areas revealed by LAHDSAT as undergoing desertification or as potentially suitable for more intensive
. i
47 -
land use will call for mapping and monitoring at the finer scales provided by conventional air photography-»
The evidence obtained from satellite imagery and other sotircesj
linked through the data bank, should provide the basis for a number of
important activities.
The first of these should be the construction of a map showing
types of desertification present and the relative vulnerability of the
demarked ground units to further desertification. Then regional plans
can be formulated for measures to combat desertification, linked with
plans for improved land use, for resettlement, or for whatever else conditions call for. Following the regional plan, specific combative
measures can be designed and sites selected for demonstration or pilot
projects.
. Monitoring will continue, both to maintain surveillance of land
use systems and to provide assessment of the progress of combative
measures.
The conditions
of dryland
people
must also
be assessed.
If measures to combat desertification require continuous assessment of vulnerable lands, they demand also a comparable understanding of
the people who live in such places. Experience with existing programmes
has indicated that physical problems associated with desertification
are commonly more amenable to solution than the typically human
problems.
Assessments of physical conditions should therefore be accompanied
by efforts to obtain a more precise understanding of the state of dryland peoples. Surveys should be undertaken, perhaps through a strengthening of census services and techniques, of their demographic characteristics of the state of their health, and of their social and economic
circTmstances. On the basis of what the surveys reveal, measures can
be designed to combat malnutrition, ill health, poverty, illiteracy and
other social and economic disadvantages commonly suffered by people
living in the drylands. Social and economic changes, such as resettlement or alternative livelihood systems, should be presented and proposed
as integral parts of a plan to improve conditions and not as mere afte3>thoughts to environmental measures.
If plans are to succeed, they must be acceptable to local communities. Social, economic and technological acceptance are likely to
be as important as environmental compatability in detennining the
effectiveness of what is proposed. Studies should be directed toward
uncovering obstacles to community acceptance and to ways in which acceptance can be gained.
In order to obtain the agreement of local communities and their
participation in measures to combat desertification, the planning process should maintain close contact with community leaders and involve
them at all stages, while preparatory studies are looking into a number
of matters directly involving the local people.
¿8
-One such matter would concern how people can be best be^
approached through publicity and eSucatioii on- the .natur^ and consequences of desertification and the need for action to combat it. A
study might by made of v;hat social and econo..nic incentives would best
contribute to coinmunity. participation.
Some demonstration projects
are easy to do.and produce prompt
be persuaded that, action against
ijDprove their lives and.that such
should be designed and executed that
and desirable results. People must
desertification will work, that it will
campaigns are more than idle talk.
Whether they concern land or people, plans must be flexible. They
should incorporate periodic checks, .on the progress of measures put into
operation and should allow for concurrent reassessment of the problem in
human as well as in physical terms.
Measures to combat desertification will take .on distinctive
characteristics depending on the.nature of the land and the livelihood
systems practised there.
Measures
to combat
desertification in
extensive
pastoral
systems
In pastoral systems, desertification makes its appearance primarily in the degradation of natural pastures following over-grazing. . .
It shows itself in-wind erosion, sand drift and dune advance,, in gullying where stock have concentrated and trampled the earth or where"
cutting or uprooting of woody vegetation has laid bare the surface.
To combat desertification in these circumstances means in general
to adopt grazing practices that will allow the native vegetation to
recuperate. In areas too dry for rainfed cropping, the natural vegetation usually forms the most efficient pasture in terms of upkeep,
grazing returns and protection of the soil surface. The maintenance
of a plant cover that will sustain the pastoral system under most conditions is the obvious goal of combative efforts. Anything more intensive reclamation, for example, by planting programmes or mechanical
controls - will be feasible.only in restricted areas where the physical
processes of desertification threatens installations, commurdcations,
settlements or valuable cropland.
It is basic that pastoral systems accept the principle that
their fundamental resource'resides in the dryland pasture rather than
in the livestock. The, experience of the Sahelian drought indicated
that the death of livestock was chiefly due to the failure of pastures
rather than of water supplies. Accordingly, conservation measures
should be introduced for the control of'grazing access to dryland ranges
where such measures do not exist, including fencing when necessary.
As a first step, surveys should be initiated to deteimine the
useful productivity of the main varieties of dryland pasture under
differing seasonal conditions, the requirements of pasture plants for
successful regeneration under grazing, and the dimensions of the grazing
impact of a proposed system composed of certain animals in certain
nxunbers. Surveys must take into account the dual role of perennials as
- 49 -
surface protectors and as fodder during drought» A logical first step
in the assessment of dryland pastures is to map them, indicating the
distinct topographic, soil and water conditions. Maps can be prepared
inexpensively from satellite imagery or conventional air photographs.
Surveys lead to assessments of carrying capacity under a variety
of conditions and these, in tvrn, form the basis of appropriate grazing
strategies. Such strategies should include a nuraber of elements.
They should incorporate possibilities for deferred or rotational
grazing and for the establishment of protected reserves as seed reservo irs, grazing reserves in the event of drought, and plant and wildlife
refuges in which genetic variety can be conserved. As far as possible,
they should preserve the mobility, flexibility, diversity and lovi
stocking rates traditional in dryland grazing systems. Consideration
should be given to fencing those parts of the rangeland subject to concentrated stock movements, those made up of particularly vulnerable
pasture types because of soil or the formation of the land, or such
sensitive areas as town perimeters.
Opportunity should be taken to enrich natural pastures locally by
developing simple water-harvesting schemes, such as by the construction
of trenches and flood banks in areas of natural flooding.
These areas
should generally be treated as controlled reserves, available for the
breeding of animals, as a resource against drought and for the harvesting
of forage. Consideration should be given to using such areas for subsistence cropping. They should be fenced off from the open range and
their use integrated into the general grazing scheme.
Range conditions should be periodically surveyed to determine
what grazing pressures are doing to the land and vegetation and with a
view to adjusting the grazing system when required. Satellite imagery
and air-photographs are now in use for continuing assessment of plant
cover and productivity, but remote sensing must be supplemented by ground
surveys in carefully selected areas.
While grazing strategies refer to average ctocking rates, attention
must also be given to localized concentrations, as along tracks and around
watering points and settlements, and measures should be taken to avoid
intensive local grazing and trampling. An example might be the establishment of watering points . of moderate size in a network that gives adequate access to all pastures being grazed. Measures should be introduced
for the controlled and responsible use of such watering points, including
the levying of charges on graziers who use communal supplies.
When the trend of rangeland conditions indicates that grazing
pressure should be reduced, a niamber of measures can be taken. They
might include the improvement of transport facilities, assistance, with
breeding programmes to improve productivity per animal and measures to
reduce the risk of losses from breeding herds. Marketing outlets should
be established for the efficient disposal of surplus animals, for example
in stratified management programmes as suggested by the SOLAR feasibility
study, with subsidies and price supports where necessary.
- 50 -
A l t h o u g h p a s t o r a l s y s t e m s have p r o v e n e f f i c i e n t i n t h e i r u s e oí
e x t r e m e e n y i r o n m e n t s , expera.ence i i i d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e l i v e l i h o o d s y s temía
s h a r e f u l l y i n t h e c l i m a t i c r i s k s of such e n v i r o n i n e n t s , w i t h a d v e r s e
human and . p h y s i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . Although t h e y s h o u l d n o t be b u t t r e s s e d
t o t h e p o i n t of l o s i n g t h e i r a d a p t i v e " f l e x i b i l i t y , t h e y n e e d h e l p i n
c o p i n g w i t h r e c u r r e n t d r o u g h t s t r e s s . A number of m e a s u r e s can be t a k e n
t o . p r o v i d e t h i s h e l p , such a s t h e s e t t i n g a s i d e o'f g r a z i n g and f o r a g e
r e s e r v e s i t h e p r o v i s i o n of t r r n s p o r t : f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e movement of
s t o c k , f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o r e s t o r e "herd numbers f o l l o w i n g d r o u g h t ,
and.insurance a g a i n s t drought l o s s e s .
Mutual support from adjoining" crop-"based systems has traditionally
provided'pastora3.ists with an important safeguard. Such arrangement;
should be maintained and stífehgthenéd where possible. They have included, market exchanges, arrangements-"for..stubble or fallow grazing (in exchange fbir natural fertilizerO, and the introdu.ction'of forage cro;:.s
into crop-básed systems. Arrangfemsnts vary widely, from the incorporation of seasonal..noaadie pastoral systems into schemes for irrigated
agriciilture, as in the south-eastern USSE, to the intégration of aniLalbased and rainfed crop systems in zones of controlled land use, as io.
green belts around the Sahara.
i
basuras to
iombat delertifica;ion
iomadic
)astoral
jy steins
•••
• '
"
•
Reicént years have shown an increased tendency for pastoral nomsds
to settle down in fixed habitations. This happens because of chahgiig
personal' goals or attitudes, because of drought disaster, or as a result
of'goveipment programmes. Nomadic herding is then left to part of the
former community, which comes increasingly to resemble more settled castor^
al systems. These changes will continue, and assistance should be given
to accocjffiodate them.
Such assistance might take several foims. Consideration might be
given-to the.establishment of propérly designed settlements equipped
with water supplies and community services.- Fomads can be-aided to
develop'ancillary farming, -whether irrigated or rainfed, particularly
for subsistence or forage crops. Vrherever nomads have settled down¡,
measures should be taken to reduce the environmental impact of stock
concentrations or fuel-gathering activities among people unaccustomed
to living in permanent settlements. Woodland or range reser-res can be
established near settlement perimeters.
Oyer recent years,'nomadic pastoralists'have-been increasingly at
a • disad-vantage relative'to adjacent farmers, particularly during periods
of above-average rainf'áll when cropping tends' to er.croach on pasture
lands. Care should be\taken to preoerve the traditional access by
pastorafists to; rangelands and watering points, by legislation or taxation policies if necessary.
Little had been done to strengthen nomadic pastoralism by usinj;;
traditibnal practices, with all their adaptations, as a base. - iíeaBures
could bp taken-'to- improve livestock quality' through breeding programmes
in an effort to incréáse-yields • from smaller herds and de'cre'ase ios'-ês
through''disease. • Control- of grazing can be effected through '-f-echnic^.l
advide,! preferably directed toward the reinforcement of traditional
51 -
practice and authority. Breeding and marketing schemes can te developed
in harmony with traditional systems» Additional watering points can be
provided that aare moderate in size, cheap to construct and easy to maintain, Here the use of windpumps should be investigated. The use of such
waters should be controlled to conform with broad grazing programmes
and should aim to bring all pastures into effective use.
These animal-based systems are often at the extreme edge of environmental productivity and are therefore vulnerable to periodic extremes
of protracted drought. This situation should be recognized by setting
aside food reserves and in the advance planning of emergency measures»
The seasonal or permanent out-migration characteristic of these
communities has long provided them vjith supplementary income in the foEn
of remittances from once-nomadic wage earners. Plans to combat desertification should seek to accommodate and assist such population movements
through appropriate resettlement schemes. Alternative sources of livelihood might be provided in the local setting5 as through employment in
tourism, craft industries and services or through the establishment of
new industry or agricultural activities. Attempts should be made to
reduce the selective out-migration of the most able workers whose loss
tends to impoverish the local community.
Measures to
Commercial ranching differs from more traditional animal-based
comlDat de- systems, and often in ways that make it more vulnerable to
sertifica- desertification.
tion in comCommercial ranching tends to be more settled, less free ranging,
mercial
with greater likelihood of disturbance around fixed installations.
ranching
Attention should be given to arrangements for moving and yarding stockj
systems
and some installations, such as yards, paddock gates and troughs, may
have to be shifted periodically to avoid extreme effects.
, The use of mechanized transport and other equipment characterizes
commeircial ranching. Care should be taken in routing and grading tracks
and roadways, especially where protective stone covers are involved.
Attention should be paid to possibilities of stabilizing surfaces as an
alternative to grading fresh routes. Particular care is required where
runoff is channeled along tracks or their margins.
High labour costs in commercial ranching mean a minimum use of manpower, which causes difficulties when labour-intensive measures, such
as planting, are called for. Proposals for pastoral development should
include an assessment of environmental impact and an estimate of the
likely costs of reclamation measures, an expense that may be made taxdeductible.
Vulnerability to .price'fluctuations, including those on distant,
international markets, introduces an additional hazard into commercial
ranching systems, reinforcing the hazard of climatic variability»
Depressed markets may lead to the aband-onment of properties and the
loss of xrstallations and may discourage appropriate long-term investment. Government-assisted marketing and price-stabilization schemes
should be introduced when necessarji-.
- 52 -
vlt the same time, commercial ranchiiig has some characteristics
which' give it advantages in combating desertification.
These include lower stocking rates, "better control of stock movements and watering points, and improved facilities for the transport of
stock and forage by road or rail. Such advantages point to the need for
more, imaginative stocking policies, particularly those that avoid
extreme grazing pressure. Enlightened policies would include the maintenarice of grazing reserves on the ranch and even more extensively on
the unalloted or public rangelands within the pastoral district. Provision should be made in advance for the transport of stock to such
reserves when circumstances require it, for de-stocking in times of
drought and for re-stocking when the rains return, and for access to
forage when drought occurs. Such provisions may call for outside
assistance.
I Mechanized equipment can be used to counter extreme desertification
in local situations. Encouragement should be given to research on
improved methods of revegetation, including soil treatment, pitting or
furrowing, seeding and fertilizing. Assistance might include technical
advice, the loan of plant stocks, the provision of seeds and fertilizers,
and financial subsidies for approved measures.
I In operation, commercial ranching can take advantage of economies
of scale. It is also more subject to governmental regulation, either
directly through lease provisions or indirectly through financial or
taxation policies. Recommended stocking practices can be enforced through
these means,, which can also be used to achieve the subdivision or amalgamation of holdings so as to favour operations on recommended lines.
iorabating
j Rainfed agriculture, embracing much of the world's production of
iesertifi- staple cereals, extends across semi-arid and sub-humid lands subject to
brief but intensive rainfall. In these systems, exposure,and loosening
jation in
of the ground surface facilitates erosion by wind and water. When the
rainfed
systems are mechanized, extreme clearing increases the impact of wind.
cropping
Desertification appears in the blowing away of topsoil, in sand drift
systems
and ;the local growth of coppi.oe dunes, in sheet erosion and gullying
on sloping ground and the deposition of infertile alluvium on bottom
lands. \'/hen these events occur, productivity declines and croplands
are abandoned.
Although it covers less territory than pastoral systems, rainfed
cropping supports larger dryland populations, and the potential losses
through desertification, in terms of both capital arid livelihood, are
correspondingly greater. The impact of desertification is intensified
because denser settlements and more intensive communications are
associated with rainfed agriculture.
Great problems have arisen through incursions by cropping systems
into areas of excessive climatic risk. This commonly happeihs'during
wetter years, when faimers are attracted by the prospect of short-term
gains. Such invasions are usually made at the expense of adjacent
pastoral systems, ahd they commonly end in the collapse of the intrusive cropping system when drier years return, sometimes with the land
so damaged that it is no longer suitable for grazing.
53
Studies of...the relation between agriculture and climate, such as
those carried out "by, the World Meteorological Organization in Western
Asia aijd Saharan Africa, have done much to determine: the crnnexi"onB •
between climate and the water needs of cereal crops, thus fixing the
probability of the occurrence of effective seasons on the basis of
climatic re cords o These studies should be extended and improved through
additional meteorological recording and investigations into the water
requirements of crops at different stages of grcth and under a range
.of. soil conditions.
.Such studies, by providing good estimates of climatic risk, will
support policies of la.nd zoning-, and measures should'be taken to discourage the extension of cropping beyond certain climabic limits.
At the same time and because cropping rapi-esents a more productive
use of the land, attempts should be made to expand the safe-cropping
area by introducing strains or types of crops that are more resistant to
extreme conditions and through improved methods of cultivation and water
conservation. Such actions should be supported by demonstration projects
and extension services.
Research should be encouraged that will lead to improved weather
forecasting with accompanying warning systems, particularly for such
critical periods as seedingj^ germination and harvesting.
Hainfed systems have also been extended onto steep slopes and veiy
fragile soils and into areas subject to flooding, particularly under the
pressures of population increase. The result has been accelerated erosion,
lowered yields and the loss of cultivable land» These are common occurrences when uplands have suffered deforestation with a consequent increase
in runoff and water erosion at lower levels. Such developments are well
exemplified on the Mediterranean margins of the Old World deserts.
It. .is essential that plans for thfe reclamation and improved use
of rainfed croplands should form part of integrated schemes for- the .
use of funGtional:,areas such as drainage catchments and which recognize
the interdependence of upland, piedmont and valley with their associated
land use.
.
1 first step in formulating a plan is to map land types and lahd
use at a scale appropriate to cropping (is50,000 to Is250,000, depending
on conditions)I The land units.mapped should be classified according
to potential use as determined by the éxistence of'hazards, such as "
steepness and length of slope, the presence of stones'or'íócks, the'
risk of flooding, the quality of the drainage and vulnerability to witid
erosion.
•
• •
.'Becommendations as to how the various parts of tíñs -lánd should "fae
used î.ill constitute the plan, which must iecognize appropriaté limits
to rainfed cropping, as determined by rainfall, terrain, soils and •
relationship with adjacent land uses such as forestry or grazing. The
marginal lands outside these, limits should-"be removed from cropping by
acquisition, such measures as financial inducements or'by the establishment of forest, grazing or water-catchment reserves» When such ineasuie's
- 54 -
involve the disruption of traditional livelihood systems, they are
unlikely.to succeed unless they form part of larger schemes of rural
reconstruction involving appropriate chaíiges in land tenure, such as the
consolidation of holdings, or resettlement schemes offering alternative
livelihoods.
Clean fallowing, or allowing a field to rest while stripped of
vegetation, provides a way of conserving the moisture in the soil. Like
several such techniques, clean fallowing happens to increase the land's
vulnerability to desertification. Safeguards can "be erected "by improved
methods of rainfed cropping, measures which maintain ground cover and
improve soil structure. The things that can he done to counter risks
and improve productivity vary considerably among different situations
and different systems of rainfed agriculture.
In regions of a Mediterranean type, traditional combinations of
tree and field crops should be encouraged. An element of livestock husbandry should be retained, increasing the diversity of the¿é systems,
their resilience, and hence their resistance to climatic stress.
In some Mediterranean regions, decay and disuse have affected
certain traditional methods for the conservation of soil and water, such
as terracing and water-spreading systems. These old systems should be
brought back into service, maintained and even improved, and assistance
should be provided for such puiposes. Tree planting should be encouraged,
whether in shelter belts or in coppice groves for firewood. Tillage
should avoid powdering light topsoils, and farm machinery, some of which
may have to be designed, should be suitable for working such situations
as terraced slopes. Strip cropping should be introduced as a counter to
wind erosion. More use shoúld be made of crop rotations, including
legumes, at the expense of fallow.
Crop rotation, including cover crops to be ploughed back into the
soil, should also be introduced into mechanized systems of rainfed .monocropping. Such systems should restrict the burning or removal of litter,
and livestock should be introduced to graze on feed cropá or crop residues.
Strip cropping should be encouraged, with inducements on occasion, as well
as the planting of shelter belts on open plains. To combat salinization
on valley floors, deep-rooted varieties or salt-tolerant pasture can be
planted.
In the svjidden system, the slash-and-bum agriculture so typical
of rainfed cropping in drylands with summer rain, the farmer will
return to ,a particular plot after its vigour has been restored by extended fallow, often after as long as twenty years. Shortening the cycle,
coming back too soon, can have adverse effects on plant recovery and
regrowth and on soil fertility. When this happens, measures should be
taken to restore the cycle to its older rhythm, perhaps by expanding
the area available to cultivation or by rremoving: population pressures
through resettlement or the development of alternative livelihoods.
In these systems, valuable substances, such as gum arabic, can
SQusetimes be extracted from the natural regrowth during the fallow part
of ,the cycle. Steps can be taken to increase the value of regrowth by
introducing new trees or by adopting good forestiy practices.
- 55 -
Traditional crops and ancient tillage practices have sometimes
Taecome fixed in these systems -í^íhere new varieties and alternative
techniques would work better to maintain the fertility and structure
of tropical soils and to diminish the effects of pluvial erosion and
soil crusting. Swidden agricultxire should he closely scrutinized
everywhere with a view to reducing its impact on the land.
Once rainfed cropland h. 3 "been degraded, e 'forts to rehabilitate
it should fona part of larger actions directed toward water managei:;ont<,
improved land use and the control of erosion. Within broader plans,
quite definite actions can be taken depending on the form that degradation takes.
Gullying, a particularly unsightly form of erosion? can be
arrested by planting trees in upper catchments and along gully margins
and by grassing areas that feed the gullies with flows. Also helpful
are the construction of diversion banks and furrows across gully heads
and the installation of check dams and silt traps along gully courses.
Under favourable conditions, gullies can simply be filled in and their
banks regraded.
Sheet erosion, which scours topsoil from wide areas, can be
countered with contour banks and ditchess with grassed contour strips
and by means of terraces.
Wind erosion, which blows soil away from rainfed cropland and which
causes sand drift and dune encroachment, can be countered by planting
shrubs and trees in shelter belts (at a spacing four times as far apart
as their eventual height).
Fences can be constructed or lines of resistant shrubs and trees
planted as barriers against oncoming sand, upwind of threatened areas.
Bare sand dan be covered with matting, bituminous coating or mulches
of vegetation litter.
Sand surfaces can be stabilized by seeding and planting proper
successions of vegetation, including plants whic^ thrive in sand,
legumes and cover plants in association with shrubs and trees, supported
by irrigation where necessaiy. Finally, dunes can be levelled or reshaped to remove slip faces.
Combating
desertification in
irrigated
cropping
systems
On turning to irrigation systems, a harsh fact is promptly
encountered. The amount of irrigated land lost annually to desertification (some hundreds of thousands of hectares) is probably about
equal to the amount of land newly brought under irrigation each year,
Great costs are involved in the breakdown and abandonment of such intensive, highly-capitalized agricultural projects.
Irrigable land is
scarce, and new enterprises are enormously expensive. Such considerations stress the importance of maintaining existing irrigation schemes
by countering desertification whenever it affects them.
The most prevalent form of desertification in irrigated cropping
systems occurs when waterlogging causes salts and alkalines to infect
soils, particularly where drainage is poor and proper leaching fails to
take place.
- 56 -
That particular problum.emphasizes the importance of preliminary
.surveys and testing of proposed irrigation projects to assure adequate
-design. Most salinizatipn. problems arise from design deficiencies,
,, Good design should be based, on an understanding of how much water
is available for irrigation and,its silt and salt loads, including
seasonal variations. A close study must be made of the' soils in the
area,embraced by the project, their texture and salinity, and especially: of their water properties, as these will determine drainage
requirements and how much water will be available to crops. .Water
requirements should be determined for proposed cropping systems. The
position and salt content of the groundwater table should also be
determined as well as seasonal fluctuations in both. This will require
some understanding of the hydraulic properties of the .soil's lower
layers.., or how thope layers store, and transmit water.
. These investigations should yield a map showing salt hazards and
how they might restrict the proposed cropping system. On the basis of
the map.and the surveys, design work can continue with particular
emphasis on the distribution of the water and efjfective drainage systems
and the subdivisions of the system as determined by estimated water
needs. .Finally, design should take account of the services and communications the system will require and the settlements that serve and are
served by it.
Whether under development or in operation, irrigation schemes
should be. run by operating authorities equipped with professional
staff,- adequate funding and the powers to control land use. As a way
of proceeding, especially with new schemes, the authority should undertake pilot projects which can be expanded into research and demonstration projects as they prove their worth.
Irrigation schemes require extensive maintenance. The main
distribution canals should be properly banked and lined, as with concrete, to reduce seepage. Canals and drainage ditches should be kept
clear of silt and weeds and pools of stagnant water eliminated. Takeoffs or turnouts, -where water is drawn into the system, should be
designed and maintained to keep silt loads to a minimum.
The plots to be irrigated should be levelled to ensure even watering and leaching, and where local subsidence occurs, levelling should
be carried out periodically. While provisions and requirements for
adequate.leaching should be maintained, there should also be checks a
against over-irrigation. ,
Irrigation ..schemes are" sometimes established where farmers have
neither familiarity with nor tradition in this type of agriculture.
Yet the tillage of heavy soils under irrigation'calls for particular
skills,, as does-the application of irrigation water at prescribed
stages in the, development of the crops. Extension services must be
provided if irrigation schemes are to work successfully. Land-holders
should also be given a.ssistance in. the form of credit, purchasing and
marketing plans, and whqre suitable and desirable, in the development
of agricultural co-operatives. Improved land use should be encouraged
through such measures as economic incentives and tax concessions.
- 57 -
When irrigation schemes are designed, individual or family
holdings should he shaped to ensure an appropriate level of intensive
use, without being too large to preclude effective maintenance.
Encouragement should he given to an appropriate balance of subsistance
and cash-crops, tree and field crops. Forage crops may be included if
circumstances favour a livestock component» Great care should he taken
in the allocation of holdings and in the formulation and administration
of regulations for their prop^^r management.
When successful, irrigation schemes inevitably give rise to close
settlement, to towns, usually inhabited by people unaccustomed to
congestion and its attendant problems. Housing should be planned for
and provided at the same time that land holdings are allocated. Houses
should be equipped with potable water and sanitation services, and all
the more so here, where diseases can be transmitted through the irrigation system itself. Indeed, new communities should be provided with
all the standard community servicesj including health, education, welfare and cultural centres, and these should be sited as part of the land
settlement plan. Transport services should be established;
Irrigation projects based on groundwater supplies encounter
special difficulties because groundwater quality is usually lower than
that of surface waters and the threat of salinization is generally
higher. Limitations in groundwater supplies may hinder proper leaching.
Groundwater supplies must be kept in balance with the requirements of
land use, and enough water must be provided for both irrigation and
leaching. Generally, discipline applied to water use must be stricter
when irrigation is based on groundwater rather than surface water.
Such discipline may include central control over the siting of
bores and wells and the installation of pumping equipment. Monitoring
must be constant of such factors as groundwater levels, draw-down and
salinity, and the proper staff must be on band to conduct such monitoring or any other investigations as required.
When based on groundwater supplies, irrigation schemes often
suffer from poor drainage, with increased chances that the groundwater
supplies will be contaminatea by saline irrigati.on runoff. Such schemes
are often characterized by networks of small distribution channels under
individual control affected by wastage through seepage and higher risks
of salinization.
Many such problems arise because older groundwater-based irrigation
projects often grew up without any planning, and their operations remain
hampered because of entrenched rights to land and water. Some of these
old projects should be rationalized, with compensation when necessary.
Groundwater assessment together with the mapping and classification of
land types ~ the information used to plan a new system - would provide
a basis for rationalizing older systems and for their continuous
reassessment»
l//hen irrigated lands have suffered salinization or other forms
of desertification, they should be surveyed as a first step to reclamation. By deteitnining what topographic changes have occurred, the degree
.. 58 --
of saliíiization of soil and grounáwater. amounts and levels, an estimate
• can 136 made of what is. needed to lea eh .a.nd drain affec-ted lands and
what else might be -required to restore- the system
"by. re levelling of
-ground surfaces, for example,- or-renewal-of irrigation channels. How
drainage will he effected - whether by tube wel-ls,, tile drainage or
open -ditches - will. depend on groundwater conditions, soil: properties
.' and costs of land and labour-.
¥hen the -situation has been made clear, decisions can be made on
priorities, which might -include abandonment of.lands most severely
affected, and a reclamation programme designed in. terms pi;, the availability of water,- labour and capital.- After the-programme-^ has been
implemented, reclaimed, lands can be re-allocated,, but not \iithout clear
regulations on what., can be done-with them. Reclamation provides an
occasion for- the enforcement of practices, that will prevent-^ desertification from recurring.
•Comba tingThe drylands have always held vast treasure in mineral resources,
desertifi- including the modern world's petroleum^, and it can be expected that new
cation in
discoveries will be exploited there in a now familiar pattern: Revenues
will be large compared with other local sources-of .income; direction
mining
and financing will come from outside the region,' and almost all financial
benefits .will be. exported away.
.,.>....
In the past, or so-it generally seemed,, such, resources would have
been exploited whatever the, local human consequences and environmental
impact. Nowadays, it is agreed that the region and the local community
should be protected from the,worst, consequences of such exploitation,
which is indeed expected to make a proper contribution to regional development ,and welfare. To assure this, mining proposals must contain an
assessment of their environmental impact» and the prqprietors of the
-mines will be expected to meet, the full costs-of environmental protection
and reclamation. Their operations must,, be so conducted: that they contribute to the general development of the region.
It may be difficult to maintain principles when great riches are
involved, but in any competition for scarce .resources, such as water or
land, the rights- and needs of the local community should receive priority.^ When mining or drilling operations are about to be introduced,
the local people; should participate fully in planning and in all other
decisions that concern them, and arrangements; should be made for continuing consultation.
The ^drylands should be. favoured with the--same standards of
environmental protection that are applied in more humid areas. Indeed,
drylands may require additional precautions be-cause, of, the special
sensitivity of-the arid environment, its. susceptibility to-air pollution,
groundwater pollution., dust nyisance a.nd surface, disturbance. As an
example, restriptions should be placed on the grading, of unsealed roads
in drylands and on their use by heavy vehicles. .. - .,
• The activity of mining or drilling .and the people who carry it
out, many of - them brought in from, .outside,,.. w;i'll ha;ve. all. sorts of effects
- 59 -
on the surrounding region. Plant and animal reserves may have to "be
established on the perimeter of the activity, with restrictions on hunting or plant removal over a wider surrounding area. Employees brought
in from outside should be placed in suitably designed settlements
equipped with proper services.
Mining or drilling ventures -will view local communities as a
sourc of labour and a supplier of food and matt--iaIs,and fulfilling
these roles can affect a community adversely. It sometimes happens
that a once-isolated, traditional society is brought into sudden contact
with people of a very different kinds often rootless, sometimes violent,
accustomed to a transient, unstable society» It will be difficult to
maintain the principle that the rights and needs of the local community
should be protected and local people are given every opportunity to participate in and benefit from the new development.
Combating
Many of the considerations relating to mining and drilling have
desertifi- equal application to tourist activities and insxallations in deserts
cation
and drylands. Local communities should share in the benefits of tourism,
associated It should provide them with opportunities for employment, improved
with
communications and access to other support services and improved markets
tourism
for local products, including those of craft industries. But before
local communities can share in the benefits of tourism, they may have to
be protected from it.
For example, local livelihood systems, such as pastoralism, may
have to be protected from interference by tourist activities. The
information tourists are provided should include comments on the local
people, their customs and way of life, to help ensure respect for their
practices and for themselves as persons. Protection may have to be
given to sites and objects of traditional cultural importance. In the
competition for scarce resources such as water, land and pasture, the
needs of local communities should be assigned first priority. This
viewpoint and the protection required may best be achieved when local
communities participate in the planning and management of tourist
activities.
The natural environment will also require protection against
tourist activities. Great care must be taken in the siting, design and
maintenance of tourist roads, camps and rest areas. Traffic restrictions will be needed, particularly on the use of cross-country vehicles,
and roads subject to heavy traffic will have to be paved. Lodges and
camps will have to be served with proper facilities, for water, sanitation, rubbish disposal and the control of local traffic. Penalties
should be applied to combat littering. Plants and animals will require
pTOtection, particularly of endangered or attractive species. Archaeological and scientific sites, interesting geological formations and natural
monuments will all require special protection.
The concept of environmental management, so important to
productivity in agriculture, should be extended to the tourist
This might involve the establishment of.reserves or wilderness
from which tourists líould be excluded and which would serve as
sustaining
industry.
areas
refuges
- -60 -
and sources of regeneration for plants and animals. Or it might embrace
••'''the boncept of natural parks for controlled tourism in which the tourist
< could 'view an interesting and typical range of natural ecosystems without causing them damage. -The management of such parks should incorporate the concept of "recreational carrying capacity" vith "deferred" or
"rotational" uses to allow for the seasonal vulnerability of species
and to spread'the impact of tourism. , It is obvious that such parks
must be adequately staffed with professionals capable of providing
tourists with expert guidance.
•
The'development of tourism should be generally controlled in the
interest of environmentail protection. Such control can be exercised
by tourism ministries or tourist boards on which local communities and
land users are represented or can be heard. Each tourism proposal
should be required to incorporate an environmental impact study, and
approval of the proposal should be subject to the provision of adequate
environmental protection. The costs of- such protectión and of reclamation, if subsequently needed, should be borne by the project.
Combating
desertification
associated
with human
settlements
Dryland settlements can range all the way from the''one-family
homestead with its thorn-tree fencing to great, modern oities with
millions of inhabitants. The usual dryland settlement, however, will
be a village or small town that has growfi up to serve'the needs of the
livelihood systems practised in arid settings. A number of measures
can be taken to improve conditions in such settlements and reduce their
adverse impact on the environment.
Reserves should be established surrounding settlements and extending for a few kilometers out from their limits and within which grazings,
farming and fuel gathering are restricted. Such reserves ínü'st be well
fenced on their boundaries and wherever they are traversed'by roads.
• They should be regarded as areas affording regeneration of natural
• ' "vegetation, but they may be subject to land treatment and planting
where degradation is advanced.
' '
Special measures will be required to check active physical
degradation around settlements when it threatens urban land and gardens.
It may be necessary, for example, td stabilize moving sands and to check
gullies or fill them in.
'Roads in and near settlements should be paved or otherwise
improved. Traffic should be confined to roads by fettc'iiig. ^
Open areas inside settlements which form sources of dust nuisance
or which retain stagnant water after rain should be brought under
control. ' Grassing and planting of shélter belts may be required, but
attention should be given to types of wind-stable ground cover which
require little maintenance and consume little water, as for example
gravel surfaces relieved by the planting of local trees and shrabs.
; Adequate storm drainage should be provided to handle- the mnoff
from'rains which if infrequent are often intense" when they-come.
- 61 -
- Services such as water supply, sanitation, waste disposal and
street maintenance should not only meet general standards Tmt should be
reinforced to cope with the special stresses due to the desert environment.
Assistance and encouragement should be given to residents to
improve, conditions in and around their own homes. Insulating or
scree- ing materials might be rovided or help given in the reconstruction of homes or in the establishment of gardens, shelters and shade
belts.
If much can be done to improve the conditions of existing settlements, control must be exercised over their further growth.
Proposals-to expand settlements or to establish new towns
should incorporate environmental impact assessments which take into
account the possibilities for desertification that such activities
bring with them. The assessments should include estimates of future
demand for water and energy and for land presently used for other
purposes, and of the consequences of these projected demands. They
must include estimates of requirements for waste disposal, sanitation
and other services.
New housing and settlements should be designed to reduce
stresses-imposed by the desert environment, for example-by the layout
and orientation of houses, by screening, insulation and cooling devices
and the provision of outdoor living areas, all planned to be compatible
with local life styles. Roofs should be designed to catch and store
stormwater and should be adaptable to the use of solar heaters. Settlements should incorporate shelters and the control of open spaces to
reduce the threat of wind, dust and moving sand. Perimeter reserves
and controlled recreation areas should be included as a normal part of
urban plans.
Research should be encouraged into architectural and living problems in desert regions.- Studies shorld be. made of the use of solar
eêxgy at various scales for domestic need? and industry, of the use
of wind energy in small installations, and of o oner alternative energy
sources which can reduce the use of wood as fuel. Local materials
should be studied for their use in construction. Progress can be made
in improving insulation and cooling systems, including those employing
solar power. Trees and shrubs should be examined for their suitability
as protection and ornaments in deserts settlements. Research should
continue on techniques for the desalination of water, on recycling
water, and on the use of brackish water in sanitation and industry.
Studies can result in improvements in subsurface water storage and the
purification of water supplies. Methods of waste disposal can be more
compatible with the arid environment.
Some control needs to be exercised over the relationships between
settlements and their hinterlands. In recent decades, urban growth
in and near deserts has been linked to out-migration from nearby rural
areas. Since such migration will continue, it should be anticipated
in plans for housing and community-services. Urban development plans
sEould form an integral part of'-regional development and resettiement
schemeSo
- 62 -
.
Urban de'ws.lopinejnt, w i t h , i t s demands f o r . w a t e r , f u e l , c o n s t r u c t i o n
material^.,.-, land,.and^^^Î^^
be c a r r i e d , .put t o t h e . d e t r i m e n t
. o.f . a d j a c e n t : l i v e í i h d p d . - s y s t e m s . . . The. p r i o r needs and r i g h . t s .of t h o s e
s y s t e m s s h o u l d be p r o t e c t e d from t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact o f . p l a n n e d
s e t t l e m e n t g r o w t h , and t h e s i t i n g and d e s i g n of s e t t l e m e n t s s h o u l d be
i n f l u e n c e d by sü'ch c o n s i d e r a t i o n s v . ,,At '^ê same t i m e , r u r a l p e o p l e
s h o u l d , be; made aware of... the., P 9 s s i b i e ' , a d v a n t a g e s t o .them of n e a r b y
s e t t l e m e n t s , and t h e y s h o u l d be i n v o l v e d i n p l a n n i n g new communities
a n d p r e p a r i n g f o r the grow.th .of e s t a b l i s h e d s e t t l e m e n t s .
In Conclusion
... This survey of desertification contains many suggestions, both
explicit and implicit, for combating the process and for reclaiming
land that has suffered the ravages of degradation. Many of these
suggestions appear, as'recommenda.tion^ in the,. P.Ian of. ActiQ.n .to Combat
I)e;sertifcatipn,. that w ü l be .submitted to., the. United Nations'Conference
on .DeseriificaticnVrto be held.,in later summer of 1977:'
- : Soine suggestions call for additional research and an improved
understanding:of ways in which .desertification operates and of methods
for combating it. This is all to the good, as is any proposal that
would make the task of land reclamation easier. But the fact is that
most instances of desertification can be dealt with through knowledge
and esip.erience. that are available, right now. The Romans applied
terracing;,to. Qon^
the North African littoral into the breadbasket
of the Mediterranean.. G o o d ^ p r a c t i c e s transformed.the Great
American Desert:into, the wheat empire that it is today. The SCARP
project ill; Pakistan has reclaimed 45 per cent of one million waterlogged
acres of once-productive irrigated land.
The immense changes affecting the contemporary world have brought
the problem of desertification into sharper focus than ever before,
just as pressures on the sensitive dryland ecosystems are more intense
than ever before;. Dqsertif i cation, can be halted and ravaged land
reclaimed in terms of what is known now. All that remains is the
political will and determination to do it.
C U R R W IITSRmTIOML ACTIVITIES TO COÍÍMT DESERTIFICATION
Introdttctioa
lo
At it® fifth session th© 'ivi^-onmeat Go-oMim-feioa Boani decided
tha-fe its focal poiats should prmps^T® a psporfe OB the impleraeatation of
pamâph 1 of Gener&l AsseaWy resolutioa 3337(XSIX)o Through this
resolution^ th©
Assea'bly d<scid®d that coae®pt©d intenmtioml
actios to combat des^rtificatio® was & priority responsibility for th©
whole of the United MatioBS systesao Th© EnviroMeat Co-ordiaatioH Board
considered that it could best serv© th® espeetatiom® of th© General
Assembly through s review of curroat iatersmtioml activities to combat
desertificatioa» assd an aimlysis of th© ©steat to ^hich these activities
ar© co-ordimted or coacerledo
2o
For
yeare^ several orgaaisatioHi® of the Uaiied Hatioas ©ystam^
individually or joiatlyi, hav© Iseea engaged ia or provided resources for
activities related to arid aad s©ai-®rid laMSg raagiag from research and
th® disseaismtioa of irforraatiom to trainiag
th® applioatioa of
©xistirag kaowledg®., Preseat dev©l©p®satsg hoMev®?^ ia certain part® of
th© w r M j particularly th§ S«daBO-=-Sah©lian mgiom aM adjacent areas of
Africaj have served to stisalate iaterast ia the iateractioa betwae® the
incidence of droiagM -••M the process of dss^rtificatioag M d to iateaeif^
coac®ra about th© iapact of this iat®raotioM oa saa aad 013 drylaad ®cosystemso
3o
This coaeera is reflected in th© large ataraber of receat áeoisioas
affid iaitiativeg takes by various United Matioias orgaai sat ions. Among
these aaay be meatioaed Gaaerjal A^sesbly resolutioa 3054iXX¥Il) coaceraing,
araoKg other thiags^ th® search for a aediua and loag^terá solutioa'to the
problems of desert eacroachraeat ia th© coimtries bordering oa th® Sahara
aad other aross with similar geographical cowiitioasf the IMDP Goveraiag
Council decisioa at its seveateeath se^sioa calling for actioa prograimnes
correspoadiag to the aediuia aad loag~t@M implicatioas of the drought
affectiag Africa and adjacent areasf th© UIEP Goveraiag Couacil deeisioa
8(11) adopting proposals for aa integrated research prograsmne aad other
activities oa arid aad serai-arid laadsf General Assembly resolution 3202
(S-¥I) regarding th® PrograiMe of Action on the Establishment of a New
lateraatioaal Ecoaomic Order which^ aaosrig other things^ called for
concrete aad speedy, measures to arrest desertifieatioa? ECOSOC resolution
1874(L¥IÍ) oa the strategy for traasfomiag ecological eoaditions ia the
Sudaao-Saheliaa region? ECOSOC resolutioa I878 (LVII) stressing th® aeed
for a well ce-ordiaatedj systera-wide attack on th© drought probleia ia
Africa! aad ECOSOC resolutioa 1898(L¥II) aiaed at the preparation of a
world prograeaa© of developmeat research ató applicatioa of science aad
techaolo®- to solve the Bpecial problems of the arid areas®
4o
la r@spoas© to a auuter of th© deeisioas jiost leaatioaedj aa iaterag®aoy nseetiag was ©oiiveaed uader the aegis ©f th© Atoiaistrative
GE.77-82317
Commi-ttee on Co-ordination (ACC) in Octoter 1974 (®e® C0-0RDIKATI0W/Ra058)
for the purpose of working out an appropriate allocation among the concerned
organizations of the various tasks stemming from these decisionse Pollomng
the adoption of General Assembly resolution 3337(XXIX) on international
co-operation to combat desertificationy another interagency meeting was
convened by the ACC in March 1975 (s®® CO-ORDINÁTIOM/R.IO8I) in order,
chiefly, to prepare the ground foi the work of the secretariat of the United
nations Conference on Desertificat. jn, envisaged in that resolution, and of
the interagency task for«e which, under the same resolution, was later
convened to assist that secretariate The Conference, scheduled to be held
29 August - 9 September 1977» is aow seen as a principal mechanism for
co-ordinating current international activities to combat desertification
and for starting new activities which, together with cxirrent activities,
will constitute a concerted international programme of action against
desertification and for the rational social and economic development of
drought-prone areas.
Reviews of Desertification and Related Problems.
5o
In its resolution 1898(LVII), the Economic and Social Council
requested the Secretary-General to convene an ad hoc interagency task
force on the arid zones, which would identify the obstacles to development
of arid and semi-arid ssones, including social, economic, institutional,
and other obstacles. The task force was also asked to prepare an inventory
of current research and development actions and programmes with the view to
preparing a world-wide research and development programme for the arid and
semi-arid zoneso The task force was convened under the auspices of UNESCO
on 29 January to 2 February 1975* It adopted a report on obstacles to
development (E/C«8/ifô I/3) which was reviewed
the Intergoverjsmental
Woricing Group of the Coiraaittee on Science and Te'chnolo^ for Development
(CSTD) guid submitted in its final revised form to the full Committee in
February I9760 The repoirt has been issued by ÜHESCO»
60
Regarding the inventory of current research and development actions
and programmes, the ÜIÍEP secretariat produced in late I974 a comprehensive
survey of activities related to arid and semi-arid lands and soil loss
(UMIP/GC/30). This survey was part of the review of UHEP^s priority
subject ares "Land, Water and Desertification"c UBESCO is expected to
convene a second meeting of the ad hoc interagency task force on arid
lands to update and expand this survey to comply with the ECOSOC resolution.
7o
The subsequent General Assembly resolution 3511(XXX) requested CSTD,
with the assistance of the Advi'sojy Committee on the Application of Science
and Technology to Developaent (ACAST), to include in its prograasne of work
on arid areas, in pursuance of ECOSOC resolution 1898(LVII), proposals to
close the gaps in scientific knowledge and technologies concerning
desertification. The Office for Science and Technology of UH/ESA, which
serves both Committees, is preparing these proposals for submission to the
Conference on Desertification.
80
The Conference secretariat has arranged for the preparation by
consultants of scientific reviews of four components of the desertification
problems climatic change, ecological change, demographic, social, economic,
and behavioural aspects, and technological suspects. These have been
synthesized in aa overview document for presentation to the Conference. In
a d d i t i o n , ÜIESCO has pr©paE=®dp u i t h ÜEDP fiasuaciagj, s i : : cas® s t u d i e s
of d e s e r t i f i c a - f e i o a bM. © f f o r ^ s t o coaât i t i n s e l e c t e d axâs of C h i l e j
I n d i S j I r a q , MgQ^c PrJcistan, aad Tuuaisiao Those s t u d i e s , aloEig w i t h
s i M l a r cas© 'stradies t o ' b o ooatrlbrated by th© Co'íJ'es'Ments of A u s t m l i a , ,
ChÍM.5 Iraô Is2=sy3lj USA axA USSRj have "been s y a t h e s i a o d for p r e s e a t a t i o n t o t h e Coafes^mceo F i a a l l y p a world a s p shoiiiag th® ©sterat of
d e s e r f e i f i c a t i o a has b®©» px=©pa.
by FáO ira co-operatioia m t h ÜISCO
aad MOo These asid othes' prepi-. -..tioms f o r th® Coaf©3t»Qaee a r e r e p o r t e d
i n UIS>/GC/67 aad TOEP/GC/^5o
9o
Regardiag ©scharag® of i a f o r a a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a aad r e l a t e d
t o p i c s j t h e r ^ as^ som® r e c e a t d e w l o p a e a t s w i t h i a t h e U a i t e d
tetioas
systeffl which
sooa h®lp raeet th® imforBatioia aeeds of r e o e a r c h e r s j
p r o j e c t a d s i m s t s ^ - t o r s j m ú gov®rs2®©iat decisioffi—aakerso FAO i s
d e v e l o p i a g AGRISs l a t e r s m t i o a a l l a f o r s a a t i o a System f o r th© A g r i c u l t u r a l
S c i e a c e s asud T©ehaolo®r¡, u h i c h i s a a a f e s t r a e t i a g s o r ^ c © p r o m d i a g
suEEmrie® of r s s o a r c h r s s u l t s j and th© Ciarrsffit A g r i c ^ l t m r a l Research
Infom&tioa
3jmt®m (CARIS)^ dhxQh. t i i l i c o l l o o t j o r g m i s e má d i s s e a i a a t ©
a c t i ' í r i t i e s isa th© f i e l d s of agrie®ltur®5 ©aiffial prodwctiomj f o r e s t s y ,
iffllaad f i s h e r i e s , axid foodo USIEP i© o r g a a i a i a g t h e l a t e r s m t i o a a l
R e f e r r a l S y s t e a ( i R S ) , whieh w i l l i a t e r e o a a e c t u s e r s of ©aviromaantal
bs t a k e a of t h e SGr.- -¿ary-GQaQralos r a p o r t ( s / 5 ^ 7 ) OH strsEigthemffig of
Uffiited l a t i o E S iafor-îatioa SQrmcon im th© n a t u r a l r©soTaTC©s f i e l d o
This i s a p r o p o s a l t h a t th® Ceatr© f o r fetural Resoarces, Eijer®r aad
T r a a s p o r t (CIRET) of th© W/SSA, i a do©© e o l l a b o r a t i o a w i t h th© U a i t e d
Hatioas S t a t i s t i c a l Office„
m a focal poiat f o r collectioffij
lOq
Regardiag raomtoriag of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n m d r e l a t e d f e a t u r e ® oí
a r i d asad sesíaiârid a r e a s , UHEP i s p l a a a i a g th© Global E a - r i r o s s e a t a l
r-feaitoriag S y s t e a (GMS), which will i n c l u d e a ÜBIEP/FAO p i l o t p r o j e c t
oa m o a i t o r i a g of raag® and p a s t u r e ecosystenaso l a a d d i t i o n , th©
s e c r e t a r i a t of th© Coafereaee oa B e s e r t i f i c a t i o a has a í ^ a a g e d f o r two
s t u d i e s of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of r s g i o a a l c o = o p s r a t i o a i a South Aaierica
aád s o u t h w e s t e r n Asia f o r s a o a i t o r i a g of d e s e r i i f i c a t i o a aad n a t u r a l
llo
Regardiag r e s e a r c h oa d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a aad r e l a t e d t o p i c s , UKSCO^s
Arid Zone Prograiaie, 1951-=19^59 produced some t h i r t y p u b l i c a t i o a s which
• 9
a r i d areaSo Aa achievemeat of t h i s prograssae has beea th® m o b i l i s a t i o n
of s c i e n t i s t s fro® maa^ c o u n t r i e s i a t h e p u r s i i i t of a s h a r e d o b j e c t i v ®
t h e developnseat of a a i n t e r d i s c i p l i a a r y and i n t e g r a t e d approach t o t h e
s t u d y of djylasffid problesaso HuMrsd® of s c i e a t i s t s from de-yelopiag e o u a t r i e s
have bsea t r a i a e d t h r o u g h f e l i o t j s h i p s aad r e g i o a a l c o u r s e s , ami a ausnber
of permaaeat i a t e r d i s c i p l i a a r y r e s e a r c h c s a t r ® s have b©ea c r e a t e d o r
s t r e a g t h e a e d , i a c l u d i a g th© C a a t r a i Arid Zoae Research I n s t i t u t o of JodhpuTj
l a d i a , th® Hegev Research l a s t i t u t e of Boersheba, I s r a e l , th© D e s e r t
Research l a s t i t u t e of
E ^ p t , aad t h e N a t u r a l Resources Research
12o
UNESCO's l o n g s t a n d i n g a c t i v i t i e s on a r i d zone problems r e c e i v e d
f u r t h e r imp©t\is w i t h t h e l a u n c h i n g i n I97O o f t h e Man and t h e Biosphere
Programme (MAB), an i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l programme o f s c i e n t i f i c c o o p e r a t i o n aimed a t p r o v i d i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c "basis f o r t h e r a t i o n a l use
o f n a t u r a l resources»
I t i s p r i m a r i l y a prograasiíé o f r ® s e a M h and
training®
Two o f t h e f o u r t e e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t a r e a s o f MAB a r e
o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t o problenr- o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , namely P r o j e c t 3
on t h e impacts o f human a c t i v i t i e s and l a n d use p r a c t i c e s on g r a z i n g lands
ajid P r o j e c t 4 which i s concerned OTth man®s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i r r i g a t e d
systems i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zoneSo
I n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h DNEP and o t h e r
c o l l a b o r a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , plajns f o r a Mfflber o f p i l o t
r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s have been p r e p a r e d , and a number o f t h e s e f i e l d p r o j e c t s
have now Ijeen launched by c o u n t r i e s as p a r t o f MáB® Those i n c l u d e
systems ainalysis o f M e d i t e i r a n e a n d e s e r t ecosystems o f n o r t h e r n Egypt5
develojaaent o f raügelands i n s o u t h e r n c e n t r a l T u n i s i a aad i n t h e W i l a y a
o f Saida i n A l g e r i a , a p r o j e c t on t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f environment by
S a h e l i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n Upper V o l t a , a UMEP/UHESCO p r o j e c t
on i n t e g r a t e d e c o l o g i c a l development o f a r i d lands ( i n i t i a l l y focused
on t h e Acacias-dominated g r u a i n g ecosystems i n t h e Moimt K u l a l r e g i o n o f
K e n y a ) , and a p r o j e c t i n a r i d a r e a s o f t h e s t a t e o f Durango, ifexico®
In
s e d i t i o n , a number o f c o u n t r i e s have d e s i g n a t e d a r i d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e i r
t e r r i t o r i e s as "biosphere r e s e r v e s " , n a t u r a l a r e a s p r o t e c t e d f o r t h e r o l e
t h a t t h e y p l a y i n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f p l a n t and a n i m a l g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l ,
i n e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , and i n e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g o
13o
F o l l o w i n g on t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I t y d r o l o g i c a l Decade, 1965-19749
UMESCO^s I n t e r n a t i o n a l ^ j r d r o l o g i c a l Programme ( I H P ) p l a c e s s p e c i a l
emphasis on t h e i n t e g r a t e d management o f m t e r r e s o u r c e s and on t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f human a c t i v i t i e s upon them.
IAEA i s a l s o i n v o l v e d i n
h y d r o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h u s i n g r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s f o r groundwater eissessment, e s p e c i a l l y i n checking t h e age o f g r o u n d w a t e r , i t s source, aad
rate of recharge.
The J o i n t P i o / I A E A D i v i s i o n o f Atomic Energy i n Pood
and A g r i c u l t u r e i s p l a n n i n g i s o t o p e - a i d e d s t u d i e s on w a t e r and f e r t i l i z e r
use i n s e m i - a r i d regions»
14o
PAO, UNESCO and UWEP s«re j o i n t l y making a w o r l d assessment o f s o i l
degradation ^hich could a s s i s t countries i n c o n t r o l l i n g the loss o f s o i l s
throTigh e r o s i o n , s a l i z a t i o n , a l k a l i n i z a t i o n , and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ®
A
complementary gwstivity i s t h e PAO/UMESCO p r o j e c t j i n i t i a t e d i n 1961, t o
p r e p a r e a World S o i l Sfep®
15®
A number o f s t u d i e s and experiments were i n i t i a t e d xmder UNESCO's
A r i d Zone Prograaase on the use o f s o l a r and wind energy i n a r i d l a n d s ,
where these sources a r e u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e and where i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
a v o i d c u t t i n g wood f o r f i r e o
These s t u d i e s a r e c u r r e n t l y r e c e i v i n g a new
impetus i n UNESCO as a consequence o f t h e r e c e n t renewal o f i n t e r e s t i n
t h e development o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l sources o f energy^
160
Woiîmg groups and r a p p o r t e u r s o f t h e WMO Commissions f o r Atmospheric
Sciences, f o r A g r i c u l t i i r a l M e t e o r o l o g y , f o r S p e c i a l A p p l i c a t i o n s o f M e t e o r o logy and C l i m a t o l o ^ , and f o r Efydrology a r e concerned w i t h subjects r e l e v a n t
t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , such as meteoroloQr o f s e m i - a r i d zones, c l i m a t i c
f l u c t u a t i o n s , and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l aspects o f l a n d use, a g r i c u l t u r e , s o i l
d e g r a d a t i o n , sand dunes, and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between h ^ r o l o g i c a l regimes and
droughto Th© ICSU/WM) Glo'bal Alsmospheric Research Prograrsnn® (GARP)
has r e c e n t l y ©mbe.3£Íc0d upon a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d of c l i m a t i c change o
A long-teraij
on r e s e a r c h on modelling c l i m a t e and c l i m a t i c
change i s b e i n g ¿.cvelopsdo WO a M UHEP ar® a l s o s u p p o r t i n g agro=
m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a M h y u r o l o g i c a l stiadies i n t h e Swdano-Sathelian zomo
Th® FAO/UIESCO/TOO I n t e r a g e n c y Group on A g r i c u l t u r a l B i o m e t e o r o l o ^ ,
s i n c e i t s c r e a t i o n , has supers sed a ^ r o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l s u r v e y s of a r i d
and serai-arid a r e a s i n t h e Mear âstp t h e S a h e l j E a s t A f r i c a j and South
America which a l l provide infor¿uóitioa r®levgat t o t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s e areaso
17o
As f a r a s b o t h t r a i n i n g and r a s e a r c h a r e concerned, t h e
p r o j e c t i n t h e Sahel c o u n t r i e s aimed a t s t r s s g t h e n i a g t h e n a t i o n a l
m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s aad a t th© e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a
r e g i o n a l a g r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l c e n t r e i s of p a r t i c u l a r
importamceo I n t h e i n i t i a l phase of t h i s p r o j e c t , , which i s a l s o supported
by a niunber of donor countrieSp th© t r a i n i n g of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and l ^ d r o logical experts in these countries will greatly contribute to future
r e s e a r c h on and a p p l i c a t i o n s t o th® problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and drought
occurrence i n t h e Sahelo
180
Regarding t h e human and econosiiic i m p l i c a t i o n s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
and droughtp ÍMDRO i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r t a k i n g a World S u w e y of D i s a s t e r
Dajmgep which w i l l i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e economic l o s s e s over t h e
p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s due t o drought 5 farainsj and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a o IMDRO
i s a l s o prapariagj, - " t h Ü0EP f i n a a c i e l s u p p o r t asnd i n co=op®ra,tiora ráth
MO and UlESCOj a e y r i e s of s t u d i e s on t h e s t a t e of e m s t i n g knowledge
i n d i s a s t e r p r e v e n t i o n and m i t i g a t i o a » Porfeioas of th® s t u d i e s on hydrol o g i c a l j m e t e o r o l o g i c a l 5 v o l c a a o l o g i c a l y and laffid-ûs® a s p e c t s concern
d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y s ^ c i f i c n a t u r a l pheaoaana i-jhieh can cause or
t o drought ©ffld
19o
The I n t e m a t i o a s l Federatiosa of I n s t i t u t e © f o r Mvaac®d S t u d i e s
(IFIAS) asd UliEP ar® s u p p o r t i n g a study5 e n t i t l e d "Drought and Man"5
which w i l l esasiine th® s o c i a l 5 economic, p o l i t i c a l , and e t h i c a l coffisequences of droiaghto UMT&Rp w i t h UIEP s u p p o r t s has a r r a n g e d f o r a
s t u d y j accompanied by a syaposiisms on a l t e r n s t i v © economic s t r a t e g i e s
f o r t h e dev®lopa©at of a r i d aad semi-=arid laffldSf, s® p a r t of IMITARAS
P r o j e c t on t h e Futurso Coraplesseatars^ t o t h i s s t u á y a r e two UKEP/UICTAD
r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s 0 one on th© envirosMnental component i n t h e s o c i a l
e v a l u a t i o n asd p r i c i n g of nstusâl resouifcesp th® o t h e r on t h e impact of
environmental i s s u e s on t h e f o r e i g n tr&d© s t r a t e g i e s of d e v e l o p i n g
i s p r e p a r i n g cas© s t u d i e s on
a g r a r i a n s t m c t u r ® w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d area© of
t h e l e a r East and Africa® ILO has prepared e a s e s t u d i e s i n I n d i a aad
B r a z i l a s p a r t of i t s de"5'©lopasnt of emergency Qsaploysseat schemes under
th© Morid Mgployíasat Prograsiasso l-JKO has m d s r t s l s s a survey® i n c o I l a =
boratiom w i t h ÜHC1F amd F£.0 t o a s c e r t a i n th® h e a l t h mñ. m t - r i t i o j a
i n droMght-»-striek©a siraas o i
20o
S e v e r a l of t h e s p e e i a l i s e d a g s n e i e s m d b o d i e s of t h e United
l a t i o n S y e s p e c i a l l y UIDP má ÍMEPj ar® esaesiniag w i t h t h e Saheliass
Govemaents t h e p r o s p e c t s fos^ © o t a b l i s h i n g t h e l i s s t i t u t du Sahel
( S a h e l i a n I a s t i t u t e ) D th© main o b j e c t i v e s of tjhich would be promotion
and c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h , d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s , t r a n s f e r
and a d a p t a t i o n o f technologjTp and t r a i n i n g o f r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s .
This
i n s t i t u t e c o u l d s e r v e as a p r o t o t y p e f o r r e g i o n a l r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p ment c e n t r e s i n o t h e r axeas a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
A p p l i c a t i o n o f Knowledge
21,,
D u r i n g 1973 ? t h e Permaaeat I n t e r s t a t e Committee on Drought C o n t r o l
i n t h e S a h e l (CILSS) m s c o n s t i t u t ® d hy r e p i r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Chad, M a l i ,
M a u r i t a n i a , K i g e r , Senegal and Upper V o l t a ,
They have s i n c e "been j o i n e d
b y Cape Verde and Gambia and have e s t a b l i s h e d a s e c r e t e ^ r i a t i n Ouagadougou.
CILSS, w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e U n i t e d H a t i o n s S a h e l i a n O f f i c e , i s becoming
t h e p r i n c i p a l i n t e r g o v e m m e n - ^ a l c o - o r d i n a t o r f o r development p r o j e c t s i n t h e
region»
As such, t h e Uîited K9,tions and t h e s i ^ c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s a c t i v e i n
t h e r e g i o n a r e c o l l a b o r a t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h CILSS®
22,
I n March 1SJ6 t h e Club des Amis du S a h e l was formed a t a m e e t i n g i n
D a k a r under t h e a u s p i c e s o f OECD and CILSS»
The Club i s sponsored j o i n t l y
"by t h e member c o i m t r i e s o f CILSS and a number o f donor c o u n t r i e s and
o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i s open t o a l l F r i e n d s o f t h e Sahel®
I t s purpose i s t o
support measures t a k e n by CILSS, t o encourage c o - o p e r a t i o n among d o n o r s ,
and t o p r o v i d e a forum where t h e S a h e l i a n S t a t e s can e x p l a i n t h e i r mediumt e m and l o n g - t e r m develojanent i ^ l i c i e s and p r i o r i t i e s and d i s c u s s them
w i t h donorso
23c
I n t h e Sudan, UHEP i s h e l p i n g t o o r g a n i z e a m e e t i n g o f donor c o u n t r i e s
and o r g a o i i z a t i o n s t o encourage and c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i r f i n a n c i a l suppoirt f o r a
s e r i e s o f n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g d e s e r t encroachment.
24=
The p r i n c i p a l donor« o r l e n d e r s o f f i n a n c i a l support t o n a t i o n a l
development pirograjmnes i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s , as e l s e w h e r e , a r e t h e
e c o n o m i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e World Bank ( I B R D ) , and UKDP, t h r o u g h
b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i l a t e r a l p r o j e c t s f o r improvement o f smimal p r o d u c t i o n
and h e a l t h , f o r e s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r e , l a n d and w a t e r u s e , development p l a n n i n g
and p o l i c y f o r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , w a t e r development, h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , and
r e l i e f activities®
R e g i o n a l banks and f u n d s , such as t h e A f r i c a n Development
Bank, t h e Arab Bank f o r Economic Development i n A f r i c a , t h e Arab Fund f o r
Economic and S o c i a l Development, t h e A s i a n Development Bank, and t h e I n t e i v
American Development Baxik, a r e a l s o f i n a n c i n g p r o j e c t s i n t h e s e s e c t o r s .
25c
The World Food Programme (WPP) p r o v i d e s food a s s i s t a n c e t o f o s t e r
t h e advancement o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s by u s i n g s u p p l i e s o f f o o d as aji
i n v e s t m e n t i n p r o j e c t s f o r economic and s o c i a l development, i n c l u d i n g l a n d
development, r e f o r e s t a t i o n , and s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n .
26.
A l a x g e p T O p o r t i o n o f p r o j e c t s a p p l y i n g e x i s t i n g knowledge i n t h e
f i e l d a r e e x e c u t e d by t h e members o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s system w i t h funds
p r o v i d e d by UHDPa A p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e r e s o u r c e s d e v o t e d
t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s a r e spent on a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g knowledge
i n numerous l o c a l p r o j e c t s , m a i n l y i n A f r i c a .
The p r i n c i p a l e x e c u t i n g
a g e n c i e s and b o d i e s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a r e PAO, I L O , UWICilP, UN/OTC,
WHO, and WMO® As many o f t h e i r p r o j e c t s a r e l i s t e d i n t h e UKEP r e v i e w
on l a n d , w a t e r and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n (UHEP/GG/30), o n l y t h e g e n e r a l
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e agency programmes w i l l be r e v i e w e d h e r e .
27o
PAO a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o d e s e i r f c i f i c a t i o n p r i n c i p a l l y i n v o l v e
animal p r o d u c t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g t h e sub-prograsOTes on g e n e t i c r s s o t i r c e s
and f e e d r e s o u r c e s , meat aad milk development5 and p r e v e n t i o n o r
c o n t r o l of animal d i s e a s e s and p e s t s ) and f o r e s t r y ( i n c l u d i n g sand d m e
f i x a t i o n , s h e l t e r b e l t s , watershed isanageraent, and w i l d l i f e management)o
One s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y d i r e c t l y "oanected w i t h p a s t o r a l a r e a s around
d e s e r t l a n d s i s work s t a r t e d ir- 970 on t h e impsxtvsBient of nomadic ^ d
transhumant animal p r o d u c t i o n systems,,
280
I n co<=operation w i t h UlEP, FAO i s about t o launch a prográsnme on
t h e E c o l o g i c a l Management of Arid and S@mi-=Arid Rangslaisds i n A f r i c a and
t h e Hear aad Middle East ( B i i S A R ) » A persnaneat secretaxîat i s t o promote
and a s s i s t n a t i o n a l prograsaEas and r e g i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o range
KsaiaigeEent and t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n a t s u b » r e g i o n a l ,
regional,
and g l o b a l levelSo The programie w i l l i n v o l v e s u r v e y i n g and m o n i t o r i n g ,
e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g , âdvigiozy s e r v i c e s , and dev®lop0snt prograssneso
29o
Complementajry t o FAO a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h r e e s t u d i e s of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y
of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o = o p e r a t i o n i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n smd Eiarketing of l i v e s t o c k
i n t h e Saiiel asad the' e s t á b i l s h a e n t of a s t a b i l i s a t i o n zone o r g r e e n b e l t
of 3aaturally=regenerated o r p l a n t e d v e g s t a t i o a oa t h e a o r t h e r H assi s o u i h e M
b o u n d a r i e s of t h e Saharao These s t u d i e s a r e sponsored by t h e s e c r e t a r i a t
of t h e United Mations Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h
FAO asid o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e from UlDPo
3O0
The U n i t e d m t i o a S p throtiigh t h e Water Resources Branch of CIRE^T/ESA,
i s s p o n s o r i n g t j a t e r developaent p r o j e c t s i n a r i d amd s e m i ^ a r i d a r e a s i n a l l
c o n t i n e n t s , w i t h s p e c i a l a t t e a t i o j a paid t o t h e Sahel r e g i o n and t h e i'liddle
Easto These p r o j e c t s incliade t h e i n t e g r a t e d develcpsiont of s c a r c e w a t e r
r e s o u r c e s , t h e t r a i n i a g of l o c a l t e c ^ s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r
p o i n t s , a M t h e s t r e n g t h e a i s i g of t h e w a t e r = r e l a t e d goverajTsent s e r v i c e s ^
U I / E S A has played a s i g a i f i c a a t r o l e i n t h e development of fractured™
compact rock a q u i f e r s , which cam b© f o m d isa l a r g e a r e a s of t h e a r i d zones
affid v e r y o f t e a p r o v i d e t h e s o l e s o u r c e of wat©:^ i n t h e developmeat of
a r t i f i c i a l r e c h a r g e u n d e r sx=id e o a d i t i o a s , and i a p l a a a i n g w a t e r u s e i n
a r i d aêaSy t h r o u g h siatheajatical m o d e l l i n g affid a d m i a i s t r a t i v e / l e g a l reformo
r a t i o n a l xase of w a t e r i n a r i d amd s e m i - s r i d a r e a s i s one of t h e s u b j e c t s
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United l a t i o a s Conference on I t e s e r t i f i c a t i o n has cosraissioaed a stiaSj of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of mgioa&l
co-operatioa
iffi t h e îse of s h a r e d a q u i f e r s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n A f r i c a a M t h e Arabiaa P e a i a s u l a o
B e c m s e of t h e o v e r l a p i a t h e i r a r e a s of c o a c e r a , t h e s e c r e t a r i a t s of t h e s e
two c o n f e r e n c e s have co«=»ordiaated t h e i r p r e p á r a t e ^ a c t i v i t i e s o
Í
31 o
MO sffid •¡OHICEP h a w t o g e t h e r d e f i n e d t h e f3?aE©work f o r aa a c t i o ®
prograffisae for í3eáiua=ter® astd loiag--tera d e v e l o p s e a t s i n h e a l t h o
Ssphasis
i s placed o¡a f o w a d v e r s e e f f e c t s of drought s M d e s e i ^ l f i c a t i o n s
íasln u t r i t i o n s outTbreaks of coHOBunicable d i s e a s e s ? enviroMnental he&lth
problems? and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of h e a l t h laaapower t o p r o v i d e t h e necessaryh e a l t h s e r v i c e s o The MO Regional O f f i c e f o r A f r i c a i s g i v i n g p a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n t o improving t h e f t o c t i o a i n g of t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s and t o
a d a p t i n g new s t r u c t u r e s t o t h e s o l u t i o n of probleras s p e c i f i c t o t h e a r e a s
coacemedo A c c o r d i n g l y , MO i s e x p l o r i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h e a l t h
developmen-t i n t h e S a h e l i a n r e g i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e primary h e a l t h concept,
which p l a c e s maximum r e l i a n c e on a v a i l a b l e commxmity manpower resources»
320
WMO i s p r o v i d i n g s h o r t - t e r m e x p e r t s t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s t o
a s s i s t t h e i r a g r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s t o a i d food production»
I t is
expected t h a t about t e n c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zones o f
t h e world w i l l be p r o v i d e d w i t h such support
d u r i n g 1976-1978»
33.
ILO i s c a r r y i n g o u t , i n close l i a i s o n w i t h CILSS, t e c h n i c a l coo p e r a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s concerned w i t h r u r a l development, quick employment
g e n e r a t i n g schemes, v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , which
c o n t r i b u t e t o r e c o v e r y and r e s e t t l e m e n t programmes f o r people a f f l i c t e d
by the drought i n t h e SaJiel.
34»
The U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l produce a
w o r l d p l a n o f a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
A d r a f t o f t h i s plsin o f
a c t i o n has been r e v i e w e d by government-nominated e x p e r t s i n f o u r r e g i o n a l
p r e p a r a t o i y meetings sponsored by t h e Conference s e c r e t a r i a t and t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s r e g i o n a l commissions i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n
f o r Africgua Unity®
While c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e numerous and r e l a t i v e l y
w e l l c o - o r d i n a t e d , new a c t i o n programmes a r e needed t o f i l l gaps i n t h e
present r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t »
The Conference p r o v i d e s an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o i d e n t i f y and f i l l t h e s e gaps and t o improve c o - o r d i n a t i o n
o f n a t i o n a l 5 r e g i o n a l , and g l o b a l a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . .
UNITED NATIONS CONFEKENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
PLAN OF ACTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
SECOND PRELIMINARY DRAFT
PREPARED ON THE OCCASION OF THE
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETINGS
FOR THE CONFERENCE
Corrigendum
P a r a g r a p h s 73 and
I n l i n e s 5 and 6 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 3 and l i n e 1 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 ^ , change
" I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research Council" to " I n t e r n a t i o n a l
A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n R e s e a r c h " .
I n l i n e s k and 5 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 ^ , d e l e t e "The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e C o u n c i l
would i n c l u d e " and i n s e r t a comma a f t e r "ÜNEP", f o l l o w e d by t h e words
"and would a d v i s e t h e Chairman o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board
on:".
I n l i n e 1 o f p a r a g r a p h 7^ ( c ) , d e l e t e
l e a v i n g " S u p p o r t i n g " a s f i r s t word o f
77-2-0368
" A d v i s i n g on means o f " ,
the sentence.
thus
DE SCOÜÍF/AMERICAS/2
UNITED NATIONS COHFERENCE ON DISERTIFICATIOM
PLAB OF ACTION TO COMBAT DESERTIPICATIOM
SECOl® PRELIMINARY DRAFT
ITEM 5
Oí'
THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA TOR THE PREPARATORY MEETINGS POR
THE AMERICAS
Santiago^ Chile
23 - 26 February 1977
S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United H a t i o n s
Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
F , 0 , Box 30552s
NAIROBI,
January 1977
OE.77-82294
UIITED WÁTIOMS CONFERENCE ON DESSRTIFICATIOI
PLAI OP ACTIOM TO COMBAT DESERTIPICATIOI
SECOND PRELIMIMRY DRAFT
PREPARED Ofi TH:Í: OCCASION OP THE
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETIMGS
PGR THE COKPEREKCE
ITEM 5
OF
THE PROVISIOIAL AGENDA POR THE PREPARáfOOT MEETINGS POR
THE AMERICAS
S a n t i a g o , Chile
23 - 26 February 1977
AFRICA SOOTH OP THE SAHARA
12 ~ 16 A p r i l 1977
THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA
, Portugal
29 March - 2 A p r i l 1977
ASIA AID THE PACIFIC
New Delhis I n d i a
19 - 23 A p r i l 1977
S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United NatioBS
Coaference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o a j
P.O. Box 305528
lAIROBI,
Jaamxy
1977
IMLE OP COITfflTS
la-fepeáme-feos^
% -Séiq C©iaf®í^2¡ic® SeercitaFiat
ii
Paragraph»
Ctep^Qj? Ic
O m g i a a M Scops of t h e Plan
1 -
Ctep-fe©? I I o
0"bj@ctiv©s aad P r i B c i p l e s
8-16
CSmp'SoF I I I o
Recoffismdatioag f o r Act: jn
17 " 77
AsBQSsssn-^ s M F l a m i n g
21 »
PspmlatioE a s á H e a l t h
28 » 35
7
21
Co
Mates'9 La®i aad L i w l i h o o d B
-
Bo
Mteraatiw ^ © r ^
- 57
ájo
Iffisiaraac© a g a i s s t t h e Risk of Droiight
58-60
Fc
S i r e n g t h e n i i ^ I m i ^ a o u s Soienc® and
61 ~ 62
G.
H.
lo
Sources
feehaolo^
63-64
S a p p o r l i a g Measures
i B B t i t u t i e a a l ArTwugBmentB
Role of l E t e m a t i o n a l
ChaptsK' I?o
54
F i m a o i a g th© P l a n
Organizations
63 - 74
75 - 78
79 - 82
(ii)
I N T R O D U C T O R T B O T E B T T H E SECRI?RARIAT O P T H E
UFITED NATIONS COHPERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
i.
I n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n
3337 (XXIX) on i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a
d r a f t P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s t o be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ( 2 9 August - 9 September
1 9 7 7 ) , f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n and a d o p t i o n .
The p r e s e n t d r a f t o f t h e P l a n o f
A c t i o n has been p r e p a r e d f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e f o u r r e g i o n a l
p r e p a r a t o r y meetings f o r t h e Conference,
T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e p o r t s on
t h e r e g i o n a l c o n s u l t a t i o n s , t h i s d r a f t w i l l a l s o be p r e s e n t e d f o r review
a t t h e F i f t h Session o f t h e Governing Council o f t h e I h i i t e d N a t i o n s
Environment Programme a c t i n g i n i t s c a p a c i t y as t h e i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l
p r e p a r a t o r y body f o r t h e Conference.
ii.
A p r e l i m i n a r y d r a f t was c i r c u l a t e d f o r coament i n August 1976 t o
Governments, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s system, i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,
r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s and o t h e r b o d i e s , and t h e p a n e l o f s e n i o r
c o n s u l t a n t s , a p p o i n t e d by t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f t h e U n i t e d Nations
Environiaent Programme, t o a d v i s e t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f t h e Conference,
The
present d r a f t has been e l a b o r a t e d , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e comments and
suggestions r e c e i v e d , and w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e a d v i s o i y group o f
e x p e r t s on t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n .
iii.
The t e s t remains p r e l i m i n a r y i n b o t h i t s scope and c o n t e n t .
F u r t h e r d r a f t s w i l l be p r e p a r e d i n t h e l i g h t o f d i s c u s s i o n s a t t h e
r e g i o n a l meetings and a t t h e f i f t h s e s s i o n o f t h e Governing C o t m c i l o f
UNEP, a c t i n g i n i t s c a p a c i t y as t h e i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l p r e p a r a t o r y body
f o r the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n conference.
The f i n a l d r a f t i s t o be i s s u e d on
1 June 1977 as one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l documents f o r t h e Conference.
I t is
expected t h a t t h e s e l a t e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e P l a n w i l l i n c l u d e an i n d i c a t i o n
o f t h e o r d e r o f magnitude o f t h e funds r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e g i o n a l and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i n t h e immediate p e r i o d o f t h e P l a n t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n !
i . e . , from 1978 t o 1984.
iv.
The p r e s e n t t e x t has been w r i t t e n t a k i n g i n t o account t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d a c t i o n recommendations f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Water Conference
(E/C.7/L.52).
I t has a l s o been prepared i n t h e l i g h t o f d i s c u s s i o n s
d u r i n g t h e twenty-second s e s s i o n o f t h e A d v i s o r y CoBBaittee on t h e
A p p l i c a t i o n o f Science and Technology t o Development (E/AC.52/XXII/CRP,17)«
The P l a n , because o f t h e t i m i n g o f t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t d r a f t ,
o n l y p a r t l y r e f l e c t s t h e f i n d i n g s and reconsnendations o f t h e component
r e v i e w s , t h e o v e r v i e w , t h e case s t u d i e s and t h e f e a s i b i l i t y stxidies.
The
P l a n i n i t s subsequent d r a f t w i l l t a k e f u l l account o f t h e s e and o t h e r
p r e p a r a t o r y m a t e r i a l f o r t h e Conference, as w e l l as t h e d i s c u s s i o n a t
t h e regional piêparatoiy m e e t i n g s .
CHAPTEH lo
ORICIM Ai® SCOPS OF THE PLAI?
lo
More thsai o n s - t h i r d of t h e e a r t h " s l&ad spea i s s r i d o Eiaeh of
i t has " b e c o i E S d e s e r t S Í B C S t h e dawn of c i v i l i g a t i o n , a M many v u l n e r a b l e
a r e a s a r e evea xsow b s i a g turraed i n t o d e s e r t because of msffl's s c t i o a s o
This pj'ocsss has i n t e n s i f i e d d u r i n g r e c e n t decades., The s p r e a d of d e s e r t
coYiditioas t h r e a t e n s t h e f u t u r e of 680 m i l l i o a p e o p l e , o r t h a t 16 p e r cent
of t h e tforld^s p o p u l a t i o n who l i v e i n t h e d r y l a n d s » I n t h e p a s t h a l f
centurgcp oin th® s o u t h s r a edge of t h e Sahara a l o ñ e , a s rauch a s 65O5OOO
square k i l o m e t r e s of lamd oiac© s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e aad g r a s i a g s has
becoa® d e s e r t o The SaJ-aelian drought of 1968=1973 aad i t s t r a g i c e f f e c t
on t h e p e o p l e s of t h a t r e g i o n drew world a t t e n t i o n t o c h r o n i c problems
of humas s u r v i v a l gad development on t h e d e s e r t raargias»
2o
I n confosñcasice %?ith t h e Q i a r t e r of t h e United IstiosiiSc a aianber
of rssolutiofSB bgr t h e Uaited N a t i o n s General Assembly hav© a d d r e s s e d
t h e s e problsiaso Th© f i r a t á l l = Á f r i c a i í Semiraar oa th© HuiaM Efemroaments
coHveiaeá i s Augxast 1971 usdsjp t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e Seoaoiaic Corssaiseioa
fos^ Africa (BCA)g saade s p e c i f i c recoaasendatioas f o r (steps t o be t a k e n
t o eosi'ibat th© s p r e a d of d e s e r t s i n A f r i c a o M tlhs this=d s e s s i o a of t h e
EGA Coaf©?®s\eG of l i m s t e r s s R e s o l u t i o n 264 (XII) on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a
drew a t t Q a t i o a t c t-Ms mossac® md Tzrged t h a t EGA ts&Q step® iis c o l i g a
'bor&tioa ü i t h t h e iffit©s=aatioiaal c o P i a u s i t j t o se©k Bolmtiom
to ths
pôblesso G s a s r a l Asseably R e s o l u t i o a 3202 ( S - ¥ l ) of 1 Ks^ 1974
«Iia^ t h s i a t e r a a t i o m l
coasuusiity a r g s a t l y -feake c o a s r @ t e
'Sc otei?, t h e spyead of d e s e r t a as.d a s s i s t t k o seososiie
e f e , f f o 8 t s á ejcsaso Bsonomic aad S o c i a l C o m s i l R e o o l u t i c s I878
{hlZl) ef 16 i'-aly 1974 r e g a e s t e d a l l t h e c o s e e r a s á os^gassinations of tiio
United latioffis syste® t o pursue a broad att&ek on t h e dro^z^ht pro'blemo
Beci
GovsKaifig C o u n c i l s of th© U n i t e d l a t i o n s Developmant
Pxôgiâisse (üSB?) ajid t h e Oaited I s t i o B S EaviroraiÊt PsxjgraíSEe (üHEP)
©aphasiged th® aeed t o isadertei© s t u d i e s on th© © s t e s t of d r o u g h t s ^ ^
t o drau lap appxôpriate actiosa prograffljnss a g s i a s t t h e s p r e a d of deserts®
3o
a s G@aers.l Asseebly th©s d e c i d e d , h j R©solutioB 3337 (XXIX) of
17 D@c©0b0r 1974t, t o i a i t i a t © c o n c e r t e d i n t e r a s t i o i m l a c t i o n t o combat
th©
of d o s s r t c o a á i t i o a s j or "desertification®® a s i t ÍÍB aow c a l l e d »
f o g^.v® iiT.pet'ss t o i n t e r a a t i o m l actioEy th© Geae^sl Assembly d e c i d e d t o
Qowea®
ü a i t e á í í a t i o a e CoBf®r@Bcs on D e s e r t i f i e s t i o í & j aow s e h a á u l e á f o r
29 iagffist <= 9 S s p t e a b s r 19779 which would prcdixc© a® e f f e c t i v e s e o a p r g h e a siv® bmS. cc=-ordiEstQd Plm of A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i e a t i o a o
4o
B e s a r t s a r e s,rm,e of sps-ysa o r a b s e a t v ^ g e t a t i o a asd low b i o l o g i e a l
p s ^ d u s t i v i t j p:?ií3g,rily dus t o d s f i c i e i a t r a i a f s l i o B s s e r f e l f i e a t i e a i s s e e s
S.S t h e srfeejisioia o r i a t s a s i f i c s t i o a of sueh © o a á i t i o a s o
la
for the Cosfe^ôaesp a t t e a t i o a í€&b f o c u s e d on t r o p i c a l s s i a M r o p i o a l md
éj^XesEdSo 'iê P l a a of A c t i o s cov&m ay©«®
ásseytificatioa
i s oQGmîng sxm s a d o t h e r s x m l s o r a b l s t o f a t u s e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a ^ isssj.udijsg
a ? i d 5 í3eEl" -ari ¿
areaso
d i s t r l b - a t i o E as.d ipolativ©
.istojRSity o f ¿ s s s i r S i f i e a t i o s problecis ajpo s3iO!m oa t^.s B e s e r t i f i c a t i o E Map
of ti©
5o
e a t i o E KPG
(il/C02í=/74/
)o
t h e p , \ f s i e s l sad "aiolcgi.©®! s f f e e t s of á e s e r t i f i - - .
t c th© w r l d aoramusxty a a i a l y oeoamsa of t h e i r impact
-
2
-
on human b e i n p « , t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n focuses on t h e problems o f people
a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n »
6.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s an aspect o f t h e widespread d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f
ecosystems under the combined pressures o f adverse and f l u c t u a t i n g c l i m a t e
amd e x c e s s i v e o r i l l - a d v i s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n .
Such e x p l o i t a t i o n has
d i m i n i s h e d or d e s t r o y e d t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f food ajid f i b r e p r o d u c i n g ecosystems a t a t i m e when i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y i s needed t o
support growing p o p u l a t i o n s i n quest o f development.
Important f a c t o r s
i n modem s o c i e t y - t h e s t r u g g l e f o r development, p o p u l a t i o n growth and
change and t h e e f f o r t t o i n c r e a s e food p i ^ d u c t i o n - i n t e r l o c k i n a n e t work o f cause aond e f f e c t .
Progress i n development, planned p o p u l a t i o n
growth, and improvements i n food p r o d u c t i o n must t h e r e f o r e be d e a l t w i t h
together.
The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i v e ecosystems i s an obvious and
s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o human p r o g r e s s .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e quest f o r ever g r e a t e r
p r o d u c t i v i t y has i n t e n s i f i e d e x p l o i t a t i o n and has c a r r i e d d i s t u r b a n c e by
man i n t o l e s s p r o d u c t i v e and mor« f r a g i l e l a n d s .
O v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n gives
r i s e t o d e g r a d a t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l and w a t e r , t h e t h r e e elements
which serve as t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r development i n many n a t i o n s .
Desertific a t i o n i s a s e l f - a c c e l e r a t i n g process, f e e d i n g on i t s e l f , and as i t
advances, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n c o s t s r i s e e x p o n e n t i a l l y .
I n exceptionally
f r a g i l e ecosystems, such as those on t h e d e s e r t margins, t h e loss o f
p r o d u c t i v i t y through t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l can e a s i l y become i r r e v e r s i b l e , permanently r e d u c i n g t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o support htunan l i f e .
Action
t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d u r g e n t l y b e f o r e t h e cost f a c t o r
r i s e s beyond p r a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y or b e f o r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c t i s
lost forever.
7.
T h i s P l a j i o f A c t i o n presents a set o f recommendations f o r
i n i t i a t i n g and s u s t a i n i n g a c o - o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t on t h e s c a l e r e q u i r e d t o
combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
CHAPTER l i o
OBJECfnrES M D PRINCIPLES
80
ThQ iiaasdiat© g o a l of t h s P l a a of á c t i o a t o Coiabat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
i s t o a r y e s t t h e pg-oc®©®®© of d a s ® r f e i f i c a t i o n aad^ whera possil)!©^ t o
r e c l a i a d e s ® ? t i f i © d Ismd f o r p r o d u c t i v e us©o Tli® ultiaaat© o b j e c t i v e i s to
sustain t h e p ^ d u c t i v i t j of a,rid¡, s e r a i - a r i d acd swb-hiimid areas vulnerable
to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o i cafflpsiga a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should^ therefore,
t a k e i t s p l a c e a s a p r i o ? i t j a a o a g e f f o r t s t o a o h i a w op-î m\:i)ii a
auntaxnei
production.. Fo^ d e v e l o p i a g e o i m t r i s s a f f e c t e d by i n c r e a s ng ar..<¿ ^y, the
i m p l e e e a t a t i o a of t h i s P l a n of i c t i o a i m p l i e s la-- ; t h a n
campaign against
desertificatioa„
I t i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e broad p r o c s s s of d e v e l o p ment»
9®
D ® s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s not a problera s u s c e p t i b l e t o quick solutions.
I t c a l l s f o r c o a t i a u o u s a s s e s s m s n t and losig-term plasming a M management
a t a l l l e v e l s , s u p p o r t e d by i a t e r a a t i o a a l co-=op®ratioiie Such programmes,
even when l o n g - t e r a , should be s t a r t e d w i t h o u t d e l a y . Since i t i s easier
t o p r e v e n t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a t h a n t o '-eclaira d e s e r t i f i a d l a n d , d e l a y i n the
i m p l e m e n i a t i o a of p r e v e n t i v e ise&sxires c a a only i n c r e a s e t h e u l t i m s t e cost
and decpsase t h e ehaace® f o r euccesB» I n raasiy cas«©j t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s
a r e a v a i l a b l ® nowo Biatj evsia m t h s - o f f i c i e n t t i m e j iavestraent^ and labour^
t h e i r e v e n t m l impiesssatatioa
fe®
p r s w E i t e d b j s o c i a l p l e g a l j , and
sometimes i a s t i t i a t i o H a l factoFiSo
lOe
Civea th® iEterdepsiideac© of t h e davelopmsnt p r o c e s s j population
change and a g r i e u l t a r a l pFoducti^yitji, i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s of
d e s e r t i f i e a t i o a oa p r o d u c t i v e ©cosystems c m b e s t be a m e l i o r a t e d i f
a c t i o s i s t a k e s i s a l l t h s ^ e S3cto:«So I n o t h e r woyds, e f f o r t s t o combat
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n must be p a r t of a b r o a d progrararae f o r p r o m o t i n g social
a M eeoaomic p r o g r e s a o The U n i t e d Matioos h a s e x p r e s s e d a consmon
a s p i r a t i o n t o isprov© t h e c j u a l i t j of l i f e f o r a l l p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n
d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s » T h i s a s p i r a t i o n m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n the Charter of
the United l a t i o a s aad i a i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e c l a r a t i o n s , d e c i s i o n s and
r e c o m m e a d a t i o M j p a r t i c u l a r l y of t h e p a s t decad©j e s p e c i a l l y i n the
D e c l a r a t i o n for t h e E s t a b l i s h i a e a t of a Mew I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order
and t h e programme of a c t i o n t o a c h i e v e i t , i n t h e Charter of Eksonomic
R i g h t s aad D u t i e s of S t a t e s ^ is. t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development S t r a t e g y
for t h e Second limited Mations Development Decade,, i a t h e Declaration on
the Hujcan Environment stnd i n th© a c t i o n p l a n s of the U n i t e d Nations
C o n f e r e n c e s on t h e Human ^ v i r o n m e n t , on S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o ^ , Population,
Pood, Women^ 'Prsde and Developtnsnt and Human S e t t l e m e n t s »
These represent
steps t a k e n by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l eomnsunity t o m r d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of
essential p r o g r a m e s f o r deTOlopraeist ÍE i t s b r o a d e s t sanseo To be
s u c c e s s f u l 5 t h e e f f o r t t o comsat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , must be seeE a s sm
i n t e g r a l e l e m e a t i s t h i s l a r g e r e f f o r f c toward s o c i a l and e c o a c s i e a d v a n c e TOnt®
11,
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n fr®qy.estly a p p s a r s a s t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of land^
w a t e r and o t h e r jjâtiiral p®scuress "jar.dsr s z t r s m s c l i m & t i c e o n d i t i o n s .
D e g r a d a t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t 8>ctiviti®s undsr'ásJcsa
asi ars&s have "been
u n s u i t a b l e s e i t h e r i a dsgx>®9 o r i n kindj, t o t h e reso-orees aad t h e
c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p s w a i i t h e r e o Such a c t i v i t i e s may have been pursued
~
bocaus® a l t e n i & t i v Q S is®?® Xmking
4
-
or "b@ca«s® of s-fetoapt© to aasisiz®
s h o r t - t e m g a i a a t th® ©speas® o f l o n ® - t ® r a p r o d u c t i - y i t y o
While
aolu-tions p r o W b l y
u l t i a a t s l y i n ©ducatiooj s o c i a l aad ©ooaomic
a d v a n c e s a e a t asad th© adjustM®at o f p o p u l a t i o a growth t o g r o ^ h isa
reoourcae, th® p r o s i m t © © o l u t i o n c s a t r e s on improved 1®M u®©» This
invoXv®8 -ths^© ©iQjaeatiii a )
asi i H ^ e n t o r y o f l o c a l laad us® c a p s b i l i t i ® ® ,
b)
a d e t e r a i a ^ t i o f f i of Mhleh
az^ d@@irabl@ i n t@mii o f Irad-^mis®
c a p a b i l i t i e s aisá ®oei®»®e©ao®ic goal® aad coas-tmiatSy asá c )
& sjst®®
f o r i m p l e B e n t i a i r th® s ^ s u l t i a g p l a n f o r th® proper ® x p l o i t a t i o a a M
p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l r®s©wo©s«,
12.
S o c i a l probl@KS i a l©wi-use faaaagemeni ar© a p r i n c i p a l coaoera
o f t h i s P l a a o f A c t i o n t o CoBubat B ® s ® r t i f i c a t i o a .
As th®
o f n a t i i r a l resources i s a c r i t i c a l component o f M y s t r a t a ^ f o r p h y s i c a l 5
s o c i a l , or economic d©¥®lop¡Ji®nt, the a d o p t i o n o f improved polici©® f o r
t h e management o f n a t u r a l r®so\m;es i s e s s e n t i a l t o a l l ecosystems i f
t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y i® t o be m a i n t a i n e d .
The r e c o m e a d a t i o n s i n t h i s P l a n
o f A c t i o n f o r assessment awi msiagement o f n a t u r a l resources have general
a p p l i c a t i o n but^ i n t h e contest o f t h i s plaap t h e y focus on areas v u l n e r a b l e
t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and on those d e s e r t i f i e d areas t h a t admit t o a degree
of recovery.
13.
The causes of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n v a r y among the a f f e c t e d region© o f
t h e world owing t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ® ajsd
t h e i r s o c i a l ai»i econooic s t r u c t u r e s and a s p i r a t i o n s »
Each r e g i o n insy
r e q u i r e a d i s t i n c t i v e approach t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n probl®aSo, With n a t u r a l
resource nssmgeaent as i t s primary concern, t h i s Plaia o f A c t i o n r^cossaends
methods f o r s e t t i n g p r i o r i t i e s f o r a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but i t
leaves th® a c t u a l d e t e r m i i m t i o a o f p r i o r i t i e ® t o Goversaaat©..
There a r e ,
however, d e s e ^ i f i c a t i o a ppoblass which cross n s t i o s m l bousîari®®, a M
t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n aims a t st3E=âgtheni5ag r e g i o n a l s M i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c a p a c i t i e s t o d e a l l i i t h such t r a n s n a t i o n a l problems and t o provide
e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l co~op®ration when r e q u e s t e d .
14.
A c t i o n a f a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be supported by g o a l - o r i e n t e d
research.
This c a l l s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f those s u b j e c t s on which research
i s s t i l l needed and o f c e n t r e s i n a f f e c t e d c o u n t r i e s t h a t should be
strengthened and supported t o carxy out the r e s e a r c h required»
This i a
t u r n n e c e s s i t a t e s aa i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i v e research e f f o r t i n v i t i n g
exchange and a d v i s o r y v i s i t s asaong c e n t r e s and consultation® t o review
progress and a d v i s e oa furfeh®^»
While m c h of t h i s may be ®®©a a®
a p p l i e d researohf bo®® b a s i c reseaiHjh m®y al©o be envisagedo
15.
The b a s i c p r i a o i p l ® s g u i d i n g t h i s P l a a o f A c t i o n ar© theses
(a)
A l l a c t i o n a h a l l be consistent m t h the provisions
o f t h e C h a r t e r o f th© I f a i t e d S a t i o n ® »
(b)
Th® p l a a i s t o be c a r r i e d out as
effective,
coaprehenisiv© and co=-ordinat©d a c t i o n prograioa®
a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g th® b u i l d i n g up
o f i M i ^ j a o i a s s o i e a t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l
c a p s e i t i e s i a t h e areas conceraedo
(e)
i l l measm^s a r a t o b@ ps'imag'ilsf dis=®c-fe©d
ibQ
w a l l - b e i n g axd developsnent o f t h e paoplas a f f e c B í i d by
o r •rulaera'ble t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a »
(d)
E f f o r t s s h o u l d te e o n s i s t e n t w i t h a M , n h e r s p r a ^ t i e a f e l s t ,
f o m p a r t ©f w i d e r prograisraes f o r a d v m o i n g ©coacraie m d
s o c i a l prograese
(@)
ImplementatiOB ia based on t h e r e c o g a i t i o a o f e u l t u s m l
aaad e c o l o g i c a l v a r i e t y i n t h e v u l n e r a b l e a r e a S j and t h e
o v e r r i d i n g need f o r a s e n s i t i v e euad f l e x i b l e response®
(f)
A c e n t r a l theme w i l l be t h e immediate a d a p t a t i o n aisd
a p p l i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g knowledge.
(g)
There i S j however, t h e need f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h t o
c l a r i f y a number o f fundamental problems f o r t h e s o l u t i o n
o f which t h e r e q u i s i t o s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s not yet
available.
(h)
A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h should be e o n s i s t e n t w i t h s t r e n g t h e n i n g
t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e a f f e c t e d
(i)
Improved l a n d u s e , c a l l i n g for a s s e s s m e n t and p l a m i n g j
a key t o s u c c e s s i n c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ®
(j)
Improved
is
land use s h o u l d r e c o g n i s e t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of
p e r i o d i c drought i n drylaunds and t h e i r pienerally low
agricultural potential.
(k)
Implementation c a l l s f o r a concentration of t h e r e s o u r c e s
o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s systems i n l a u n c h i n g t h i s Plan o f
A c t i o n and i n c a r r y i n g out an i n t e g r a t e d and worldwide
progrsuume o f development r e s e a r c h and a p p l i c a t i o n o f
science and t e c h n o l o g r t o s o l v e t h e s p e c i a l problems o f
desertification.
(l)
Liuid management shov-ld t a k e i n t o account a number o f
ecological principles?
(i)
u n i t s o f l a n d need t o be maaaiged as wholes
( e . g » an e n t i r e watershed, t h e t o t a l o f plaint
and animal communities, an a r e a viewed as a
complex o f m i c r o t o p o g r a p h i e s ) 5
(ii)
t h e us© o f d r y l a n d s should be c a r e f u l l y timed
t o conform w i t h f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c l i m a t i c
conditions;
(iii)
t h e use of l a n d s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y a l l o c a t e d 00
a s t o g i v e maximTom s u s t a i n e d p r o d u c t i v i t y 1 i ^ s
u s e must b® f i t t e d t o i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s ®
-
6
-
(n;
While populations currenlily a f f e c t e d
desertifioatioa
u r g e n t l y require short-term r e l i e f Masxares, l o n ^ t e r a
a s e l i o r a t i o n should not be delajred, eiaoe the c o s t of
prevention i s l e s s than t h e ctire.
(n)
A t t e n t i o n should be given t o t h e a s s e s s a e n t of seoondaiy
environmental problems which majr be t r i g g e r e d
measures
intended t o remedy a d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n , a s w e l l
as the e f f e c t s o f development a c t i v i t i e s undertaken outside
a f f e c t e d areas.
16,
The implementation of t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
i s expected t o be c a r r i e d out by Governments t h r o u ^ t h e i r n a t i o n a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s , with the support, when requested, of i n t e r n a t i o n a l , b i l a t e r a l
or p r i v a t e progranaes.
CHAPTER
III«
RECOMMENDÁTIONS FOR
ACTIO®
17®
The f o l l o w i n g s e t o f reconsnendations i s proposed f o r c o - o p e r a t i v e
a a t i o B a l aad i a t e r a a t i o a a l a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Taken a l o n e
no s i n g l e recommendation would "be s u c c e s s f u l a g a i n s t t h e "broad problem o f
desertification.
An i n t e g r a t e d complex o f mestsures i s t h e o n l y way t o
a r r e s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and r e s t o r e t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f areas a l r e a d y
desertified.
I n t e g r a t i o n means t h a t each recommendation i s l i n k e d i n
some way t o o t h e r recommendations.
I d e a l l y , a l l t h e recommended a c t i o n s
should be implemented t o g e t h e r , but T i n f o r t u n a t e l y many c o u n t r i e s do not
have s u f f i c i e n t resoTirces t o do t h i s .
Hard choices must be made i n t h e
a l l o c a t i o n o f scarce resources t o a c t i o n programmes.
National p r i o r i t i e s
must be e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l and
t e c h n i c a l resources a r e committed t o ' a c t i o n progranmes.
18.
I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d o r l i k e l y t o be
a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a t d i f f e r e n t stages w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o cope
w i t h them.
Depending on t h e l e v e l o f n a t i o n a l awareness and on t h e k i n d s
o f a c t i o n a l r e a d y t a k e n , c o u n t r i e s w i l l f o l l o w a c e r t a i n seqixence i n
t h e i r e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , e n t e r i n g t h e campaign a t an
appropriate stage.
The sequence o f stages might be as f o l l o w s t
(a)
F i r s t , e s t a b l i s h whether d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s , and
i f so, d e f i n e i t s magnitude and impact as follows:—
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(b)
d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a f o r i d e n t i f y i n g and
assessing d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n j
e s t a b l i s h a n a t i o n a l body f o r assessment
and m o n i t o r i n g o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ?
assess t h e problem on t h e b a s i s o f t h e
c r i t e r i a and technicjufs odoptedi
I f a s i g n i f i c a n t problem does e x i s t ,
(i)
s e t up a system t o m o n i t o r
then:
it;
0
(ii)
(c)
draw up and implement programmes eis o u t l i n e d
i n t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Where r e m e d i a l progranmes have a l r e a d y been s t a r t e d :
(i)
(ii)
m o n i t o r t h e progress o f t h e programmes,
t h e i r usefulnessI
d i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on them t o t h e
n a t i o n a l commtinity.
assesing
inters
-
8
-
F o r c o u n t r i e s a t aui advanced s t a g e , t h e second s t e p might
s e r v e as a convenient p o i n t o f e n t i y , whereas c o u n t r i e s t h a t a r e
s t i l l more advanced may wish t o e n t e r a t t h e t h i r d s t e p , o r t h e y
may c o n s i d e r t h e i r c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e
recommendations i n t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n .
19.
T a r g e t d a t e s f o r the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f recommended a c t i o n s
a r e proposed i n the P l a n .
I t i s not a l w ^ s p o s s i b l e t o s p e c i f y
t i m e t a b l e s i n such a broad prograame, e s p e c i a l l y when l o n g - t e r m
a c t i o n s axe r e q u i r e d .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , whenever a p p r o p r i a t e , t a r g e t
d a t e s a r e suggested.
The g o a l i s t o implement t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n
by t h e y e a r 200C, s t a r t i n e i n 1978.
20.
Given t h e premise t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s b a s i c a l l y a problem
o f t h e misuse o f n a t u r a l resources under extreme c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ,
and b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f
areas a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s not f u l l y assessed, t h e proposals
s t a r t w i t h arrangements f o r assessment and p l a n n i n g .
They t h e n prx)ceed
t o s p e c i f i c recommeodations f o r improved l a n d management and t o a c t i o n
a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , c o n c l u d i n g w i t h s u p p o r t i n g measures, i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n and comments on f i n a n c i n g t h e p l a n ,
A.
ASSESSMENT AND PLANNING
Recommendation 1
21.
Before u n d e r t a k i n g any a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i t i s
d e s i r a b l e t o assess and e v a l u a t e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n the l o c a l s i t u a t i o n ,
i t s magnitude and e x t e n t , i t s causes and e f f e c t s .
I t i s necessary t o
know e x a c t l y what p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y a r e a f f e c t e d or v u l n e r a b l e .
I t i s recommended t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n be assessed and
e v a l u a t e d as i t a f f e c t s b o t h l a n d and people i n c o u n t r i e s
experiencing or l i k e l y t o experience i t .
22.
To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r « . b l e ,
A system o f survey and m o n i t o r i n g should be e s t a b l i s h e d o r s t r e n g t h e n e d
t o assemble i n f o r t n a t i o n on d r y l a n d resources and p o p u l a t i o n s and t o
c a r r y out continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f d i y l a n d dynamics, i n c l u d i n g t h e human
condition.
The aissembly and e v a l u a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n should be a
continuous process p r o v i d i n g a feedback mechanism f o r n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g
and a c t i o n .
To c a r r y t h i s o u t , n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be c o n s i d e r e d t o :
(a)
Improve networks o f
raeteoix)logioal
and h y d r o l o g i c a l
s t a t i o n s i n areas subject to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n order
t o a l l o w c l o s e r and more continuous m o n i t o r i n g axÁ
assessment o f c l i m a t i c and h y d r o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s as
t h e y r e l a t e t o t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n process.
I n most
o f t h e a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d where d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s
p l a c e such networics a r e d e f i c i e n t .
They c o u l d be
c o n s i d e r a b l y improved t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n by
n a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and hydi>ological s e r v i c e s ,
w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e World M e t e o r o l o g i c a l
O r g a n i z a t i o n (WÍE>) i f
requested.
I n a r e a s o f sparse
p o p u l a t i o n where s t a f f i n g o f s t a t i o n s may be d i f f i c u l t
th® use o f automatic observing s t a t i o n s could be
consider^sdo
N a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l
s e r v i c e s should provide continuous assessments o f
c o n d i t i o n s based on these d a t a .
(b)
Monitor d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t^y o b s e r v i n g atmospheric
processes5 th® s t a t e of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l c o v e r ,
dust t r a n s p o r t J t h e s h i f t i n g o f sand dunes, t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , m i g r a t i o n and abundance o f w i l d l i f e ,
t h e c o n d i t i o n o f l i v e s t o c k , t h e phenology o f c r o p s ,
crop y i e l d s , and changes i n i r r i g a t e d l a n d s .
(c)
Compile d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n maps and see t h a t t h e y a i ^
r e v i s e d through p e r i o d i c r e s u r v e y s ixsing modem
t e c h n i q u e s , i n c l u d i n g remote s e n s i n g ,
(d)
M o n i t o r socio-economic, demographic and h e a l t h
conditions of population a f f e c t e d or threatened,
by s t r e n g t h e n i n g census procedures where n e c e s s a r y .
Such m o n i t o r i n g should address these v a r i a b l e s and
indicators?
(i)
Populations
composition,
s i z e , d e n s i t y , age and sex
r a t e o f growth, m i g r a t i o n
(ii)
Human and e n v i r o n m e n t a l h e a l t h s
incidence
and p r e v a l e n c e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e ,
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of psychological factors
a f f e c t i n g h e a l t h , t h e p h y s i c a l and psychol o g i c a l development o f c h i l d r e n ;
(iii)
Poods i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y , e a t i n g h a b i t s and
food t a b o o s , s t a t u s o f n u t r i t i o n e d u c a t i o n ;
(iv)
Human s e t t l e m e n t s :
housing, d r i n k i n g w a t e r
and sewage d i s p o s a l , s a n i t a t i o n , f u e l and
electricity;
(v)
(vi)
(wii)
Education:
level;
l i t e r a c y r a t e , mean e d u c a t i o n a l
Sociocultural patterns:
national or t r i b a l
composition, income aaá s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g ,
s o c i a l impediments t o advancement, e x t e n t
and impact o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e a c t i v i t i e s ;
lisB a s a l a n d u s e r :
how l a n d i s used and
worked, what o b s t a c l e s e x i s t t o c a n y i q j out
t h © changes c a l l e d f o r by measures t o combat
desertification.
-
23.
24.
10
-
The recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n ,
such ass
(a)
The implemerrtation o f r e g i o n a l schemes suggested "by
s t u d i e s on the f e a s i b i l i t y o f r e g i o n a l o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f d e s e r t processes,
i n c l u d i n g the use o f s a t e l l i t e i o a g e r y ( 1 9 7 8 - I 9 8 0 ) .
(»)
The o r g g i n i z a t i o n o f , a system f o r t h e exchange o f
i n f o r m a t i o n gained from m o n i t o r i n g amon^: t h e c o u n t r i e s
o f t h e regions concerned ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) •
Finally,
t h e recommendation c a l l s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o :
(a)
Make a v a i l a b l e t o Govenaments on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g
s e r v i c e f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n o r g a n i z i n g systems o f
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n monitoring (1978-8O).
(b)
Provide t e c h n i c a l assisteuice t o Governments on r e q u e s t ,
f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , expansion a M improvement o f
netwoiics o f meteoirological and h y d r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s i n
areas subject to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 2 ) .
(c)
Compile, p u b l i s h and d i s t r i b u t e a d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a t l a s
c o n t a i n i n g maps a t a s c a l e adequate t o show d e t a i l .
Such
an a t l a s should be p e r i o d i c a l l y r e v i s e d ( 1 9 7 S - 8 2 ) .
(d)
Promote t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d r y l a n d biosphere r e s e r v e s
t h a t could preserve g e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y and p r o v i d e a
baseline for monitoring ( I 9 7 8 - 8 2 ) .
Recommerdation 2
25.
I n t r o d u c t i o n o f improved and e f f e c t i v e l a n d management i n a r e a s
s u b j e c t t o , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a broad range o f s o c i a l , economic,
i n s t i t u t o n a l , l e g i s l a t i v e , t e c h n i c a l and o t h e r measures. Among v a r i o u s
c r i t e r i a which might guide t h e proposed changes t h e most i m p o r t a n t a r e :
d e s e r t i . ' i c a t i o n hazards as d e f i n e d by c l i m a t e , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of w a t e r ,
l a n d c a p a b i l i t y , and o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s , and by p o p u l a t i o n
and i t s p r e s s u r e s , s o c i a l and economic g o a l s and c o n s t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l
and b e h / i v i o u r a l p a t t e r n s , h e a l t h c o n d i t i o n s , l o c a t i o n auid r e l a t i o n s h i p s
with other areas.
The wide d i v e r s i t y o f socio-economic s t r u c t u r e s and
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n d r y l a n d r e g i o n s demands f l e x i b i l i t y and
suggests t h a t b l a n k e t proposals a r e u n s u i t a b l e .
Each d r y l a n d a r e a has
e s t a b l i s h e d i t s own land-use p r a c t i c e s on t h e b a s i s o f l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s
and a s p i r a t i o n s , and these c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r proposed
changes.
At t h e same t i m e , some g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f l a n d - u s e
p l a n n i n g and management, as w e l l as o f l a n d - u s e s u r v e y s , might be
recommended i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y on t h e b a s i s o f e x i s t i n g knowledge.
Whereas
t h e p r e s e n t P l a n o f A c t i o n i s concerned o n l y w i t h a r e a s a f f e c t e d o r
l i k e l y t o be; a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , changes i n l a n d - u s e management
proposed f o r those a r e a s should be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h broaider n a t i o n a l o r
r e g i o n a l development plains.
I-fe i s FQooaBeaáQd t h a t i a a r e a s a f f e o t a á OF l i k © ] ^ t o
"te a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a , ehaages i n l&nd~its®
p r a o t i o e s "based o a Q o o l o g i c a l l y asai e c o a o a i e a l l y s o m d
p g i a c i p l e s shoxad be i a t r o d u c e d i a conforaanoe w i t h
s8ooial Qcmity bM
t o aconomio bM s o c i a l
d9V0lo]i»8QBto
260
t©s
f 0 isplsaga-fe t M ©
(®)
a a t i o a a l a e t i o a i@ d®@irabl®
Stsâgth©a a a t i o m l c a p a b i l i t i ® ® i a l a ^ - u s ® p l a a n i n g
a M d i r a e t -feh®® t o w a M s ppol)l@ffis of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
^ « y sm-feioB® Imê a a t i o a a l or ( i a f e d e r a l s y s t e m s )
0 t a t © / p r ® v i ! a c i a l ©comoaic p l ^ a a i a g c o j ^ i s s i o n s o
It is
l o g i c a l for
p l a s m i a g t o fe® om of t h e laajor
2=aspoMi'biliti©s ©f higfe"l®y®l p l s a a i a g group® concerned
w i t h a a t i o m a l o r s t a t e / p r o v i n c i a l d f e v e l o p s e n t . Where
a p l a a m a g g r o u p do®@ a o t © s i s t ^ i t s h o u l d be
e s t a b l i s h e d &t s h i g h la-rol of
m t h authority
t o f o r s m l a t © p o l i c y aad plan® aad t o giaid® t h e implemeot®ti©a of tkos® p l a a s c I h c a r s y i a g ©at such a c t i o n ^ th«»«
f a c t o r s s h o u l d r®e©ive c o n s i d e r a t i o m s
(i)
(ii)
Loeal=l©TOl p l a a m i a g s h o u l d to e a c o u r a g e d whenever
p s s s i b l © o r a p p r o p r i a t © o I t i® a l s o important to
c a l l Mpea a l l a v a i l a b l ® t a l e a t t o jmrticipate i n
t h e p l s m i i a ^ processo
LaM=m@© planner® s h o u l d haTO a c c e s s t o ©xpertise
i n laws economicsj deaograptyi s o c i o l o g y j urban
p l a a a i n g j eoologys geogrsphjj, a g r i c u l t u r a l sciences,
b y d r o l o g r s c l i m a t o l o ^ ^ r m o t ® sensing, s t a t i s t i c s ,
and cartograply®
However, t h e p l a n n e r ' s p r i m a i y
t i n n i n g should b e i n t h e theozy and techniqtxes
©f assessB^ntj, p l a n n i n g a M management o f human and
a a t t a r a l resoiircea»
Ifihes^ such t r a i n i n g i s not
l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e arrangements should be made t o
t r a i a planners e l s e w h e r e ®
(iii)
(iv)
(b)
a © l a n d - u s © p l a n n i n g g r o u p should b e supported by
a n a t i i r a l resources s u r v e y a n d m o n i t o r i n g proi
However^ a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d r o t
u a i t oa t h e f o r r a a t i o a of a u n i t composed of
s p e c i a l i s t s i n a l l p e r t i a e n t f i e l d s of land-usfe
p l a a a i n g o When d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems 81»
apparent;, a s t a r t s h o u l d b© made by c a l l i r ^ upon
t h e b e s t t a l e n t aiai i a f o r i s a t i o n a v a i l a b l e Cor t h e
f o m a l a t i o a and implemamtatioa of plan® t c combat
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o B p which ar© c o a s i s t e n t w i t h n a t i o n a l
goalSo
l a f o r a t h e p u b l i c o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e n i s u s e of l a n d
sad o t h e r s m t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and of t h e need f o r l a n d - u s e
-
12
-
plaaming and management so as t o ensTir© g e n e r a l p u b l i c
awareness o f and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n lanriing and a c t i o n t o
combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Successful land-use p l a n n i n g
and management depends on p u b l i c c o - o p e r a t i o n .
Plans or
a c t i o n s t o change land use should t a k e account o f the
wishes, needs, wisdom, and a s p i r a t i o n s of the people
. f o r whose b e n e f i t t h e p l a n i s u l t i m a t e l y intended»
This
cam be done only by i n v o l v i n g the people i n p l a n n i n g and
implementation, by c o n s u l t i n g them and o b t a i n i n g t h e i r
agreement.
To ensure p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n plaunning
2Uid a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n should
be given t o :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
t h e development and o p e r a t i o n o f a system o f
community e d u c a t i o n and p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n on
problems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n amd measures t o
combat i t , u s i n g e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r p u b l i c
i n f o r m a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s and e d u c a t i o n ;
t h e establishment o r strengrthening o f f a c i l i t i e s
f o r p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n land-use p l a n n i n g and
management;
programmes o f education i n the use o f l a n d and o t h e r
n a t u r a l resources i n r u r a l schools, t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s
and e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , as w e l l as i n a p p r o p r i a t e
i n s t i t u t e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s »
(c)
Survey n a t u r a l resources and the human c o n d i t i o n i n areas
a f f e c t e d or l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
To
be r e a l i s t i c , land-use plans must be based on accurate d a t a .
To provide c o n t r o l f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , the s o c i a l and
environmental o b j e c t i v e s f o r an a r e a must be p r e c i s e l y
d e f i n e d , t h u s producing a f l ^ e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r the survey
work.
Considerable i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e f o r most
areas o f t h e world®
The f i r s t t a s k o f a land-use p l a n n i n g
group and i t s a s s o c i a t e d survey programme i s t o assemble and
analyse t h i s c u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n .
The survey should t h e n be
designed t o f i l l gaps i n e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and t o update
i t through continuous s u r v e y i n g or m o n i t o r i n g .
A land-use
p l a n must be f l e x i b l e enough t o accommodate changes i n t h e
a r e a covered, as r e v e a l e d by m o n i t o r i n g .
(d)
Formulate a land-use p l a n f o r an a r e a small enough t o be
managed e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h i n t h e resources immediately
available.
This can serve as a p i l o t a r e a f o r t e s t i n g
p l a n s , t r a i n i n g managers and c o r r e c t i n g p l a n n i n g errox>s.
Out o f t h i s w i l l a r i s e a comprehensive land-tise p l a n
embraciag a broad a r e a . At t h e h e a r t o f land-use p o l i c y
i s t h e d i f f i c u l t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f what people
realistically
hops t o achieve w i t h the resoiirces a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l .
Once
a r e l a t i v e l y complete i n v e n t o r y o f n a t u r a l resources euad
t h e human c o n d i t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e land-use p l a n n i n g
group w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e mana^ment options f o r each s e c t i o n
o f t h e a r e a w i t h i n i t s purview.
Ifemagement o p t i o n s concern
t h e types and i n t e n s i t y o f use which are p h y s i c a l l y and
b i o l o g i o s l l y apps=©pîat® t o ih©
©f th©
8«otioa®
Th® p l M n a r ® w i l l ehooffl© from ©aoag th®©Q
option® th® TM® whioh l a most © o s s i a t s s t wi-feh l o c a l
Q u t r i t i o m l ¡seeds o M t h e
go@.l@ axid
©OBS-lmiBt® o f th® ^ o p l ® li'wimg m t h i a tli©
dietion®
The e o é i f i e a - S i o a o f th®®® goal© a M
Qonstr&iat® l a s ^ l a t i o a t© laad-vi»® QoaBtitut®©
pólipo
á ©@®pi^h@a®iv® lâd-ffise
v o u l d ®esigffl a l l s s e t i o a s o f th® a r a a t o p a r t i c u l a r
mseB; @uoh
l i v e e t o o k , gass@ raacMii^p for3@t@¡,
T0OT®&tions mimmgg i a d u s t i y j roads aod u r b a n i s a t i o a »
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(e)
I f f i i t i a l l ^ a t l e a s t s laad-mse p l a n a i a g raay "b©
i a p r e e i s e j g i v e n t h e sia® o f th® aresis
eonoeraed;, t h e abseaoe o f p r e v i o u s plems
l i m i t a t i o s a s i a f i a a a e i a l aisd t e c h n i c a l support®
These roogh p j r e l i m i a a r y ' plan® can b® e l a b o r a t e d
and s p e c i f i e d l a t e r as survey Mad monitoran^r
proceed.
E r r o r s w i l l ussdoubtedlj be
but
a c t i o n should not be d e f e r r e d f o r f e a r o f makiB^
laistakes.
Repeated © v a l u a t i o n s assd r e v i s i o n s o f t h e l a M - »
use should be a n t i c i p & t e d o
¥he iispl@«@ntatioffl
®f laud-tt®® p l a n s should a l l o w f o r c o n t i n u i n g
© v a l u a t i o n o f th® r@al impact o f th® pi=oj©ct
s o c i a l l y 5 ©conoffiically and © n v i r o n a e a t s l l y j
a u t h o r a t i e ® should be pr^paared t o learai f?om
i f f i i t i a l fflist@ke@ má t o e o r a ^ c t thsm®
Mhere th® p l a n n e r s d e t e m i a ® t h a t a s e c t i o n o f l a a d
has b®coH® u n s u i t a b l e f o r human a c t i v i t i e s , t h e y
should propose complete piôtection, o r a use which
proBotes n a t u r a l recovery®
This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i m p o r t a n t i n a r e a s r e c e n t l y s u b j e c t t o severe
d e g r a d a t i o n under t h e imimct o f huasan a c t i v i t i e s »
Such a r e a s may r e c o v e r and b® u s e f u l i a t h e f u t u r e
i f t h e y a r e c o a p l e t e l y pirotacted f o r a p r a s o r i b e d
period®
Develop procedures f o r i a p l e e e n t i ^ a eonprehensive l a n d use p l a n .
A eonprehensiv® land-vuB® p l a n s p e c i f i e s t h e
p r e f e r r e d use f o r each s e c t i o n o f th© a r e a covered5 but
t h e c u r r e n t o r i n t e n d e d use o f t h e s e c t i o n i® a o t alway®
t h e saae as t h a t i a t h e plaa®
Th© problem o f e n f o r c i n g
o r i a p l e a e n t i n ^ t h e piara i s t h e problem o f © h a n ^ n g a
c u r r e n t o r imteaded ua@ t o eorrespoad w i t h what i®
mended i n the piano
(i)
A process should be e s t a b l i s h e d by l e g i s l a t i v e
a c t i o n to resolve national^ regional or l o c a l
c o n f l i c t s aaong c o s p e t i a g u s e r s and uses o f
land» T h i s p r o o e s s w i l l i n v o l v e compensation t o
landowners and users who s u f f e r economic mid
p e r s o n a l h a r d s h i p s f r o a th® r e q u i r e d chamge® i a
land use.
I t may a l s o i n v o l v e a system o f
i n c e n t i v e s and p e n a l t i e s , such as g r a n t s - i n - a i d
and d i f f e r e n t i a l t a x a t i o n .
(ii)
(iii)
27»
Systems o f t a x a t i o n , lamd t e n u r e , w a t e r and
mineral r i g h t s , a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t , insurance,
m a r k e t i n g , suid t r a n s p o r t a t i o n should t e reviewed
t o ensure t h a t t h e y w i l l encourage compliance
w i t h t h e comprehensive p l a n .
Legislation relevant
t o e x p l o i t a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l resources
should be reviewed and when necessary r e v i s e d o r
supplemented t o ensure c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h t h e p l a n .
There a r e many p o s s i b l e enforcement or implement a t i o n schemes.
Research and a n a l y s i s a r e r e q u i r e d
t o determine the best scheme f o r t-. p a r t i c u l a r
country or p r o v i n c e / s t a t e .
Pi i.ot p r o j e c t s t h a t
demonstrate t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a proposed l a n d - u s e
p l a n a r e an e s s e n t i a l p r e l i m i n a r y t o l a r g e - s c a l e
efforts,
T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
to:
action
(a)
O r g a n i z e t h e t r a i n i n g o f isuid-use planners a t
t r a i n i n g centres (i97<>-85).
international
(b)
S t r e n g t h e n t h a A f r i c a i i L n s t i t u t e f o r Economic Develop/;>'iat
anil P l a n n i n g ilDEP) f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g o f l a n d use planners ( 1 9 7 8 - ^ 2 ) .
(c)
S t r e n g t h e n t h e n a t u r a l and human resources survey u n i t s
t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned, upon t h e i r request ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 ) .
(d)
Organize p i l o t p r o j e c t s f o r t h e implementation o f comprehensive land-use plans i n each o f f i v e major regions
a f f e c t e d by or v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o - o p e r a t i o n
w i t h o r i n a d d i t i o n t o n a t i o n a l p i l o t p x c j e c t s (SudanoS a h e l , Northernmost A f r i c a , Wesx A s i a , South A s i a , L a t i n
America;
1978-85).
(e)
Organize short-t-^rm t r a i n i n g courses on the implementation
o f comprehensive land-use plans f o r e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s o f
t h e covintries concerned.
(f)
Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g
s e r v i c e on land-use p l a n n i n g ( I 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) ,
(g)
Viork out and d i s t r i b u t e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t ,
methodoloQi f o r l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) .
(h)
Organize t h e t r a i n i n g o f survey s p e c i a l i s t s a t
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g centres (1978-82).
a
existing
in
(i)
Itev^lop assi á i s t r i l s u t ® io Goverasaents,, oa request5
educa-fcioaal prograaames on t h e d i y l a a d ©aviroament affiS
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r inclusion i n the e u r r i c u l s of
i n s t i t u t e s ^ t r ® . i a i n g c e n t r e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s aad o f
r u i - a l schools ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) <>
(j)
Develop and d i s t r i í j u t e t o GoverxMBentSp on r e q u e s t , s ^ i o
&nd t e l e v i s i o n progrsuaaes on t h e d r y l a n d e n v i r o a r o n t a M
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n (1978)®
(k)
Produce and d i s t r i l s u t e t o GovemmentSj on r e q u e s t , l e a f l e t s
or b o o k l e t s 5 i a t h e languages o f t h e c o u n t r i e s conceraedj
on th© d j y l ^ i d envirosanent and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r taass
e d u c a t i o n progr^saes ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) "
(1)
s e r v i c e f o r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l caiapaigns on d e s e r t i f i cation (1978-79)0
(m)
Undertake comparative s t u d i e s on e x i s t i n g laws and
i n s t i t u t i o n s concerned w i t h t h e tise o f n a t u r a l resources^
i n c l u d i n g l a n d j a n d dev®lop g u i d e l i n e s f o r legisla"^ i o n
(1978-80)0
POPUMTIOM AID HEALTH
Recommendation 3
28.
Present r a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n growth a r e xmprecedented i n human
histoiy.
P o p u l a t i o n growth i n t e n s i f i e s pressures on t h e d r y l a a d s by
i n c r e a s i n g t h e number o f people who l i v e i n them - farmers e s p e c i a l l y
and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s - amd by i n c r e a s i n g g l o b a l
food r e q u i r e m e n t s , a l r e a d y on t h e r i s e because o f r i s i n g l i v i n g standards
and h e i g h t e n e d expectations®
At t h e same t i m e , p o p u l a t i o n growth i s
accompanied by massive m i g r a t i o n s from r u r a l a r e a s t o t h e c i t i e s ®
Is
e x c e s s i v e p r o p o r t i o n s , r u r a l s i g r a a t s t e n d t o corae from t h e most a e t i v e ,
w o r k i n g ' - a ^ groups, c r e a t i n g t h e paradox o f l a b o u r shortages i n r u r a l
a r e a s i n t h e midst o f p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e .
Labour shortsiges, i n t u m j
have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l works and have
t h u s served as a cause o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
At t h e same t i m e , waves o f
r u r a l m i g r a n t s have compounded t h e problems o f c i t i e s , o f t e n overcrowded
t o b e g i n w i t h and unequipped t o r e c e i v e t h e m i g r a n t s a j i i p r o v i d e them
employment smd t h e b a s i c a m e n i t i e s o f l i f e o
Demographic p o l i c i e s
designed t o r « s o l v e or a m e l i o r a t e such problems, should be seen as &
n a t u r a l and necessary c o r o l l a r y t o p o l i c i e s d i r e c t e d toward improved
l a n d ixse.
I t i s recommended t h a t c o u n t r i e s should adopt demographic
p o l i c i e s t h a t w i l l support programmes f o r i m p r o v i n g l a n d
\ise, g i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o t h e maintenance o f an adequate
r u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e and t o t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t o f those
m i g r a t i n g from r u r a l t o u r b a n a r e a s so as t o minimiz®
economic and p s y c h o s o c i a l d i s t r e s s »
i- v -
reduce r a t e a o f m o r b i d i t y a M m o r t a l i t y araoag
"both mothers and c h i l d r e n , i n confonsiance w i t h
t h e recommendations o f t h e World P o p u l a t i o n
Conference»
(b)
Provide d r y l a n d peoples w i t h primaxy f a s a i l j h e a l t h
care5 i n c l u d i n g a t t e n t i o n t o n u t r i t i o n and t h e spread
o f coaimunicable disease»
The d r y l s M s i t u a t i o n a®^
r e q u i r e i n n o v a t i v e methods f o r the d e l i v e i y of p r i m a r y
h e a l t h c a r e , p o s s i b l y i n c l u d i n g t h e us® o f mobile
h e a l t h u n i t s o r ""barefoot doctors"®
35*
T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e w m t i o n a l a c t i o n , inclxading
t h a t o f non-govemmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t o provide eidvisory s e r v i c e s t o
Governments, on recfuest, on f a m i l y p l a n n i n g and f a r a i l y h e a l t h a M t o
p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l support t o programmes designed t o d e l i v e r
h e a l t h care t o peoples l i v i n g i n drylands»
CE
WATER J U M D
AND
LIVELIHOODS
Recommendation 5
36.
Water i s t h e main f a c t o r l i m i t i n g p r o d u c t i o n a M s e t t l e m e n t i n
t h e dryleuids, and l a c k o f w a t e r o r i t s i n e f f i c i e n t use a r e fundamental
causes o f many d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems»
Improved w a t e r s u p p l i e s ,
r e d u c t i o n i n w a t e r l o s s e s , more e f f i c i e n t use o f w a t e r and t h e d e v e l o p ment o f new w a t e r resources a r e c a l l e d f o r i n many o f the measures
proposed t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
I t i s recommended t h a t e f f i c i e n t and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y sound
w a t e r management and development be i n t r o d u c e d as p a r t o f
measures t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
( T h i s recommendation may be r e d r a f t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e U n i t e d Nations Water
Conference i n Llarch, 1 9 7 7 ) .
37»
to;
To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be considered
(a)
Improve d a t a on t h e q u a n t i t y sind q u a l i t y of
water, through:
available
(i)
p e r i o d i c assessments o f s u r f a c e and grotmd
w a t e r , p r e f e r a b l y i n terms o f t h e w a t e r
balance;
(ii)
expanding and e x t e n d i n g t h e network o f
m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s „
and s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n and storage
of data!
— J.U —
(iii)
(iv)
promoting t h e development and use o f a u t o m a t i c
r e c o r d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s f o r remote s t a t i o n s ;
d e v e l o p i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f remote sensing i n
monitoring water supplies,
("b)
Develop schemes o f w a t e r management, p r e f e r a b l y as p a r t o f
n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , t o secure and i n t e g r a t e p r o j e c t e d needs
f o r domestic u s e , a g r i c u l t u r e , l i v e s t o c k , i n d u s t r y amd o t h e r
uses.
(c)
Promote t h e e f f i c i e n t use o f w a t e r g e n e r a l l y "by d e v e l o p i n g
and a d o p t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s and p o l i c i e s ,
i n c l u d i n g w a t e r use i n p u h l i c f a c i l i t i e s such as s a n i t a t i o n
amd waste d i s p o s a l »
(d)
Provide adeqxiate domestic w a t e r s u p p l i e s ,
nation.
(e)
Improve t h e supply and q u a l i t y o f s u r f a c e w a t e r and i t s
management, t h r o u g h !
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(f)
f r e e from c o n t a m i -
catchment management and t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n o f w a t e r sheds, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h measures t o reduce f l o o d
hazards guid s i l t a t i o n :
e s t a b l i s h i n g l o c a l w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g schemes;
promoting t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s m a l l e a r t h
reservoirs;
r e d u c i n g r e s e r v o i r losses t h r o u g h seepage and
evaporation;
improved means o f w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e
use o f p o l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e pipes and channels and
l i n i n g s made from l o c a l m a t e r i a l s ;
Promote measures t o improve t h e supply and q u a l i t y o f groundw a t e r eind i t s management, t h r o u g h ;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
c o n t r o l l i n g t h e development and s i t i n g o f w e l l s
and pumps;
improved maintenance o f w e l l s amd pumps;
continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f groundwater l e v e l amd
q u a l i t y as p a r t o f managed u s e ;
p r e v e n t i n g groundwater p o l l u t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e
i n t r u s i o n o f s a l i n e groundwater i n t o a q u i f e r s ;
t h e use o f s o l a r and wind energy f o r pumping;
t h e promotion o f schemes f o r groundwater recharge
and t h e substurface s t o r a g e and p u r i f i c a t i o n o f
water.
-
19
(g)
Introduce a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o ^ e s f o r m t ® ? r o e y c l i a g , the
use o f "brackish w a t e r , d e s a l i n a t i o a and p u r i f i c a t i o x i o
(h)
Promote research i n t o weather m o d i f i c a t i o n s e v a p o r a t i o n
suppression^ and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems a n a l y s i s t o
w a t e r resource p l a n n i n g and management i n d r y l a M s o
(i)
Launch g e n e r a l campaigns f o r e d u c a t i o n i n e f f i c i e n t a z d
responsible water use, u s i n g p u b l i c i n f o n a a t i o n s e r v i c e s
and seeking community p a r t i c i p a t i o n through a p p r o p r i a t e
organisations,
38.
This recommendation also i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n t o develop iâter
resources f o r r a t i o n a l use w i t h i n r e g i o n a l economieSj as sxiggested by the
f e a s i b i l i t y study on t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n the shared use and
management o f l a r g e a q u i f e r s i n North A f r i c a and t h e Arabian Peninsula
(1978-85)»
39«
F i n a l l y 5 t h i s recommendation i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n tos
(a)
Organize r e g i o n a l t r a i n i n g courses o n w a t e r management i n
l o c a l languages a t t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s s t r e n g t h e n e d f o r t h i s
purpose ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 5 ) .
(b)
Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a
s e r v i c e on water management ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 5 ) 0
consulting
Recommendation 6
40.
The d e g r a d a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n of d r y l a n d pastxires i s the most
widespreeid form o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h animal-based l i v e l i h o o d
systems, and has r e s u l t e d i n impoverishment and i n p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l
hardship among maiiy d r y l j i n d p a s t o r a l communities.
Regeneration o f p a s t u r e s
and the establishment o f systems o f rangeland management t o provide
improved and s u s t a i n e d p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e t h e main o b j e c t i v e s o f combative
measures. Remoteness, s c a t t e r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o b i l i t y
o f p a s t o r a l peoples have made i t d i f f i c u l t t o provide them w i t h a d e q u a t e
h e a l t h cind s o c i a l s e r v i c e s .
These and o t h e r r e l a t e d disadvantages must b e
remedied, w i t h measures t o a s s i s t s e d e n t a r i z a t i o n and r e s e t t l e n ^ n t w h e r e
required.
I t i s recommended t h a t measures be taken t o a m e l i o r a t e d e ^ a d e d
c o n d i t i o n s i n d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s , t o i n t r o d u c e improved s y s t e m s
o f rangeland and l i v e s t o c k management and t o improve t h e l o t o f
d e s e r t p a s t o r a l communities.
41.
This recommendation c a l l s f o r n a t i o n a l
(a)
action:tos
Improve degraded pastiires throughs
(i)
svirveys o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p a s t u r e s a a d
e x t e n t and i n t e n s i t y o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ?
the
-1; 16
-
29*
Dryland, faxming p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d a r e growing
a t around t h r e e percent per y e a r .
Less i n touch w i t h modern m e d i c i n e ,
nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s g e n e r a l l y have h i g h e r d e a t h r a t e s , w i t h somewhat
lower growth r a t e s as a consequence.
I t would he unreasonable t o expect
e i t h e r r a t e o f growth t o d e c l i n e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t h e immediate f u t u r e —
i n d e e d , growth r a t e s among p a s t o r a l i s t s may w e l l r i s e b e f o r e d e c l i n i n g .
I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a c o n t i n u e d s t r o n g m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r y l a n d s t o urban
a r e a s can be a n t i c i p a t e d .
Problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i g r a t i o n and r e s e t t l e ment can t h u s be expected t o p e r s i s t .
30.
N a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e t o ease t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f d r y l a n d
m i g i ^ t s i n t o urban a r e a s .
r4any d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s have a l r e a d y
i n i t i a t e d programmes t o t h i s e f f e c t - t o assure migrants o f housing auid
o t h e r s o c i a l a m e n i t i e s such as e d u c a t i o n ajid h e a l t h s e r v i c e s ajid t o supply
them w i t h c o v i n s e l l i n g on employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
C o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by
such l a r g e - s c a l e m i g r a t o r y movements can a n t i c i p a t e t h a t programmes t o ease
t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f m i g r a n t s w i l l be needed u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e end o f t h e
century.
31.
At t h e same t i m e , n a t i o n a l a c t i o n would be d e s i r a b l e t o reduce t h e
s e l e c t i v e o u t - m i g r a t i o n of t h e most a c t i v e age groups from r u r a l a r e a s .
Improved l a n d - u s e p r a c t i c e s , as recommended elsewhere i n t h i s P l a n o f
A c t i o n , w i l l a s s i s t t h i s t a s k by enhancing t h e p r o s p e r i t y of the d r y l a n d
economies.
A f t e r determining?: t h e s i z e and c h a r a c t e r o f d r y l a n d o u t m i g r a t i o n , c o u n t r i e s so a f f e c t - e d m.ay wish t o c o n s i d e r a d d i t i o n a l measures
t o reduce excessive losses among those i n t h e most vigorous age groups.
Such measures could c o n s i b t i n s u p p l y i n g s e r v i c e s t o d r y l a n d peoples,
i n c l u d i n g t h e development of a l t e r n a t i v e sources o f income.
32.
This recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o make
a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on request, an a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e on problems
r e l a t e d t o m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r y l a n d s and t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t o f m i g r a n t s .
The i n t e r n a t i o n a l community should a l s o p r o v i d e , on r e q u e s t , f i n a n c i a l
and t e c h n i c a l support t o programmes designed t o ease t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f
d i y l a n d m i g r a n t s i n t o urban a r e a s .
Recommendation 4
33.
Areas v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n are o f t e n remote, f a r removed
from c e n t r e s o f p o l i t i c a l power.
T h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s are f r e q u e n t l y
d i s p e r s e d and d i f f i c u l t to c o n t a c t .
This r e s u l t s i n d e f i c i e n t h e a l t h
s e r v i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y among nomads.
I t i s recommended t h a t programmes should be underiiaken t o
p r o v i d e d r y l a n d peoples w i t h h e a l t h care of a q u a l i t y comparable
t o t h a t p r o v i d e d t o more a c c e s s i b l e elements i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,
w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on f a m i l y h e a l t h and f a m i l y p l a n n i n g .
34.
To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be
considered t o :
(a)
Provide v o l u n t a r y f a m i l y h e a l t h and f a m i l y p l a n n i n g
s e r v i c e s t o d r y l a n d peoples so t h a t t h e y can e x e r c i s e
t h e ' i u m a n r i g h t o f p a r e n t s t o decide f r e e l y on the
number and spacing o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n conformance
w i t h t h e Teheran D e c l a r a t i o n on Human R i g h t s , and t o
-
(iij
(iii)
("b)
(ii)
(iii)
water harvesting.
through:
assessing the p r o d u c t i v i t y of pasture
under a v a r i e t y o f o o z i d i t i o n s ;
associatioi&s
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e impact o f graaixig on p a s t u r e
a s s o c i a t i o n s and t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n
under g r a z i n g ;
d e v i s i n g methods o f r o t a t i o n a l and d e f e r r e d g r a z i n g
and p l a n n i n g drought r e s e r v e s t o m a i n t a i n p a s t u r e
c o n d i t i o n xmder g r a z i n g .
thi>ough:
d e t e r m i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e c a r r y i n g c i ^ p a c i t i e s under a
v a r i e t y of c o n d i t i o n s ;
(ii)
p r o v i d i n g managed w a t e r i n g p o i n t s t o f e u s i l i t a t e
recommended use o f p a s t u r e s ;
(iii)
establishing p i l o t or denonstration projects to
demonstrate range management.
Improve l i v e s t o c k management,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(e)
measxiros t o a i d r e g e n e r a t i o n , such as "temporary
p r o t e c t i o n from g r a z i n g , s e e d i n g or p l a n t i n g o f
d e s i r a b l e f o r a g e p l a n t s , and pfagrsical t r e a t a i e n t
t o a i d t h e r e - e s t a h l i s h s e n t o f plsmt cover i n
auded a r e a s ;
E s t a b l i s h improved range management,
(i)
(d)
-
E s t a b l i s h improved g r a a i n g s t r a t e g i e s ,
(i)
(c)
20
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
throu^;
t h e improvement o f e x i s t i n g breeds and t h e
d u c t i o n o f new breeds and s p e c i e s ;
intro-
t h e c o n t r o l o f a n i m a l d i s e a s e s and p e s t s ;
t h e development o f improved methods o f l i v e s t o c k
management arai t h e i r p r o m u l g a t i o n t h r o u ^ e x t e n s i o n
s e r v i c e s and d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s .
Reduce drought r i s k s ,
(i)
the
throughs
t h e c r e a t i o n o f drought f o r a g e stocks and drought
grazing reserves;
t h e p r o v i s i o n o f means f o r removing stock from
drought-affected areas;
l o c a l w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g o r i r r i g a t i o n Bchemss f o r
th® p r o d u c t i o n o f f o r a g e ;
i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h a d j a c e n t f a m i n g systeraso
(f)
s t r e n g t h e n t h e economic b a s i s o f t h e p a s t o r a l
iiûsti^
hyi
(i)
(ii)
42.
e s t a h l i s h i n e n.. "
f a c i l i t i e s and p r i c e
s t a b i l i z a t i o n schemeBf
consideration of price controls to protect
the l i v e s t o c k breeder i n r e l a t i o n t o other
p r i m a r y producers and t h e consumer»
(G)
P r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s o f p a s t o r a l i s t s through planned l a n d use
supported by a p p r o p r i a t e l e g i s l a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n and
education,
(h)
Promote t h e combination o f c o n t r o l l e d c u l l i n g o r r a n c h i n g o f
w i l d l i f e with pastoralism.
(i)
Promote a l t e r n a t i v e
and t o u r i s m .
(j)
Provide h e a l t h , w e l f a r e , and e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s compatible
w i t h d i s p e r s e d and mobile p o p u l a t i o n s , f o r example through
t h e use o f r a d i o .
(k)
A s s i s t w i t h r e s e t t l e m e n t or p a r t i a l
(l)
Prom t h e b e g i n n i n g , i n v o l v e p a s t o r a l i s t s i n t h e p l a n n i n g and
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a l l measures t h a t a f f e c t them®
l i v e l i h o o d sourcesj such as c r a f t
industries
sedentarization,
T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o ;
(a)
Employ r e g i o n a l c e n t r e s i n t h e t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g d r o u g h t r e s i s t a n t , h i g h y i e l d and n u t r i t i o u s f o r a g e p l a n t s amd o f
o r g a n i z i n g meclianisms f o r t h e i r widespread d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Such c e n t r e s should a l s o a p p l y themselves t o r e s e a r c h and
a c t i v i t i e s d i r e c t e d toward t h e improvement and a d a p t a t i o n
of livestock (1978-85).
(b)
s e r v i c e f o r improving l i v e s t o c k and rangeland management
(1978-85).
(c)
Make a v a i l a b l e f o r c o u n t r y use methodologies
(i)
fori
t h e meeisurement o f l i v e s t o c k c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f
rangelands and improved p a s t u r e s , t a k i n g i n t o
account seasonal v a r i a t i o n and drought r i ^
(197S-80)Í
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
de-termimn^ the op-tinraa s i s e and coopoBi-kion of
herds according t o the neaaxired c a r i y i n g
c a p a c i t y of the land (1978-80);
planning and carrying out pasture r o t a t i o n and
def~,.?cd grazing (1978-8O);
planning and c a n y i n g out the e c o l o g i c a l and
geographical s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of l i v e s t o c k
breeding, f a t t e n i n g and market l o g (1978-80).
43 o
Areas of r a i n - f e d fanning i n semi-arid euad sub-humid lands have
undergone e x t e n s i v e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n through g u l l y i n g and sheet e r o s i o n ,
the blowing away of s o i l , sand d r i f t , and the growth of dunes. Degradation
has f o l l o w e d e x t e n s i v e c l e a r i n g , exposure and powdering of t o p n o i l , and
c l e a n f a l l o w i n g t o s t o r e s o i l moisture. I t i s linked with the l o s s of
s o i l f e r t i l i t y and the breakdown of s o i l structure a f t e r continuous
cropping. A major f a c t o r i n degradation has been the e x t e n s i o n of farming
i n t o areas of high drought risk or on t o marginal t e r r a i n , o f t e n under
pressure of increased population. Some d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n has, however,
r e s u l t e d from the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s f o r s o i l conservation due
t o labour shortages, f o r t h e s e are areas of strong out-migration t o
urban a r e a s . In the t r o p i c s , degradation i s a s s o c i a t e d with the shortening
of c y c l e s i n farming and regrowth systems, again linked with population
pressure.
44.
The consequences have been lowered y i e l d s and l o s s of productive
lands, with r e s u l t i n g economic, physical and s o c i a l hardship, o f t e n
a s s o c i a t e d with high r a t e s of out-migration. D e t e r i o r a t i o n has adversely
a f f e c t e d neighbouring amimal-based l i v e l i h o o d systems. Combative
measures f o r s o i l and water conservation must form part of comprehensive
reclamation schemes, i n c l u d i n g f o r example the r e f o r e s t a t i o n of watersheds, They may i n v o l v e the removal of marginal lands from c u l t i v a t i o n ,
the c o n s o l i d a t i o n of h o l d i n g s , and resettlement schemes linked t o the
p r o v i s i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e forms of l i v e l i h o o d .
Reconunendat i o n 7
I t i s recommended t h a t comprehensive p l a n s f o r s o i l and
o o n s e r v a t i o n be i n t r o d u c e d t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
farming in drylands.
45®
To implement t h i s
desirable to;
recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o a
would be
(a)
Survey a f f e c t e d a r e a s t o d e t e r m i n e l a n d c a p a b i l i t y p d e g r a d a t i o n h a z a r d s and c l i m a t i c r i s k , and pait f o r w a r d p r o p o s a l s f o r
c o n s e r v a t i o n a l land useo
(b)
A s s i s t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of improved c r o p s y s t e m s , l a e l u d i n g
c o v e r c r o p s , r o t a t i o n a l systems w i t h legumesp aad th© u s e
of o r g a n i c and chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , t o r e d u c e Qxposure of
s o i l and m a i n t a i n f e r t i l i t y and s o i l s t r u c t u r e o
(c)
A s s i s t w i t h t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n t r o d u c t i o n of wo^ks such
a s t e r r a c i n g f o r s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n and w a t e r
(d)
Encourage t h e a d o p t i o n of measures t o c o u n t e r exôsioaB such a s
s t r i p c r o p p i n g and s h e l t e r íselts®
(e)
Reclaim degraded l a n d s , by sucii a c t i o n s a s s t a ^ i g i n g sand
s t i r f a c e s p l e v e l l i n g dunes and c h e c k i n g g u l l y s y s t ^ s s o
(f)
A s s i s t t h e a f f o r e s t a t i o n of w a t e r s h e d s m á t h e p r o t e c t i o n
of u p l a n d p a s t u r e s from e x c e s s i v e g r a z i n g o r e a t t i n g f o r
fuels
(g)
Encourage d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n i n f a r m i n g systSHSj w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
i n c l u s i o n of l i v e s t o c k and t r e e p l a n t i n g o
(h)
I n t r o d u c e a l t e r n a t i v e l i v e l i h o o d p o s s i b i l i t i e s , such ©s
a g r i c u l t u r a l based i n d u s t r i e s and cash crops,,
46.
regional
improved
resistant
The recommendation i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n t o d e v e l o p , t h r o u g h
i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s u n i v e r s i t i e s and t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ,
a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s which r e s i s t d e s e r t i f i e a t i o a , d5?©iaght=
and more p r o d u c t i v e c r o p v a r i e t i e s , and new cash crops0
47.
F i n a l l y , t h i s recommendation i m p l i e s i n t e r a a t i o a a l a e ^ i o a to§
(a)
Develop and d i s t r i b u t e t o Governments, oa reques-s, iiaforsBation
on t r a i n i n g f a r m e r s i n r a i n f e d f a r a i a g t e c h n i q u e s , ©¡a s t r s n g t h e n i n g e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , and on f a r s n e r - t r a i n i E g ( l 9 7 8 - 8 o ) o
(b)
Develop and d i s t r i b u t e t o Gfoveraments, on r s q w e s t , a s©t of
recormnendations ons t h e u s e of impro^tó f e r t i l i g s
d r y l a n d f a r m i n g with s p e c i a l emphasis ©a o r ^ m i e
and b i o l o g i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s t h a t improire s o i l
t h e development of new p l a n t v a r i e t i e s r e e i s t a a t
d i s e a s e s and p e s t s (1978-80)o
Recommendation 8
48.
' ' I r r i g a t e d a g f i e u l t u ^ © s u p ^ r t s t h e eleses'^ s s t t l s M S i t ia'a:?id- lasi-da,
represents t h e most i n t e n s i v e form of primary l a a d « s e , « i d i
h i ^ l y productive® N e v e r t h e l e s s , many i r r i ^ t i o a s©ttl©2s®Bts
a f f e c t e d hj;- d e s e r t i f i cat i on. W a t e r l o g g i n g and secondary s a l i n i z a t i o n
or a l k a l i n i t i a t i o n o f s o i l s has caused a r e d u c t i o n i n crop y i e l d s and
abandonment of i r r i g a b l e l a n d s , and farm incomes i n t h e s e a r e a s have
commonly become too low f o r an adequate l i v e l i h o o d .
I r r i g a t i o n is costly
and r e q u i r e s s k i l l e d techniques i f i t s b e n e f i t s a r e t o be r e a l i z e d ;
hoviever, many i r r i g a t o r s a r e i n e x p e r i e n c e d and l a c k e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s
or support through c a p i t a l or m a r k e t i n g f a c i l i t i e s .
These c o n d i t i o n s
l e a d t o a l a c k o f i n c e n t i v e or o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t .
Many
problems a r i s e from t h e c l o s e s e t t l e m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n
schemes, such as d i s e a s e , inadequate housing and community s e r v i c e s , and
l a c k o f a l t e r n a t i v e employment f o r t h e f a m i l i e s o f i r r i g a t o r s .
I t i s recommended t h a t measures be t a k e n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
i n i r r i g a t e d lands by p r e v e n t i n g w a t e r l o g g i n g , s a l i n i z a t i o n and
a l k a l i n i z a t i o n , by r e c l a i m i n g d e t e r i o r a t e d l a n d s , by m o d i f y i n g
i r r i ^ t i o n and f a r m i n g techniques t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y , by
d e v e l o p i n g new i r r i g a t i o n schemes where a p p r o p r i a t e , and t h r o u g h
improvement o f t h e s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s o f people
dependent upon i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e .
49.
To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s c a l l e d f o r
(a)
Improve w a t e r management through such measures a s :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(b)
to:
r e d u c i n g water losses d u r i n g storage and d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
through improved d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and maintenance
o f canals and d i t c h e s ;
adeq\iate watershed maaiagement t o reduce s i l t i n g and f l o o d
risks;
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f crops and
t h e establishment o f a p p r o p r i a t e i r r i g a t i o n schedules;
a d v i s i n g f a r m e r s on t h e e f f i c i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a t e r said
associated t i l l a g e t o r e t a i n s o i l moisture;
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n o f f i e l d and crop systems i n
schemes based on groxindwater, i n an e f f o r t t o s u s t a i n
water supplies.
Improve d r a i n a g e and s a l t - l e a c h i n g through such measures a s ;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
i n v e s t i g a t i n g s o i l - w a t e r p r o p e r t i e s and t h e hydrogeology
and s a l i n i t y o f groundwater b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n schemes;
p r o v i d i n g adequate d r a i n a g e systems t o m a i n t a i n groundw a t e r below t h e c a p i l l a r y zone;
p r o v i d i n g adequate water f o r s a l t
leaching;
u n d e r t a k i n g t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f s a l i n i z e d or
lands;
alkalinized
e s t a b l i s h i n g a network of s t a t i o n s t o m o n i t o r
cindâai-iniiy-oondd=ti-onc-5—^^^—
• •
.
groundwater
•
(c)
Improve f a r m i n g systems through such measures a s ;
(i)
s o i l surveys a s a b a s i s f o r d e v i s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e crop
systems i n t h e l i g h t of a v a i l a b l e w a t e r ;
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
50,
cablir.hing p i l o t or d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s ?
a d v i s i n g f a r m e r s on farming and i r r i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
through e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s ;
p r o v i d i n g c a p i t a l , a n d / o r p u r c h a s i n g and marketing
f a c i l i t i e s , as through a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i v e s ;
t h e encouragement of a n c i l l a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l
such as r e a r i n g l i v e s t o c k or t r e e c u l t u r e »
activitie?,
(d)
Provid©
p o t a b l e water s u p p l i e s , s a n i t a t i o n atnd h e a l t h
services,
(e)
Provide a p p r o p r i a t e housing and s e t t l e m e n t s with commixnity
services,
This recommendation a l s o implies i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o s
(a)
s e r v i c e f o r improved technology i n i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e , ,
Elements of t h e United Nations now concerned with i r r i g a t i o n
a g r i c u l t u r e should be geared and c o - o r d i n a t e d t o provide
a d v i c e on t h e p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n , and c o n s t r u c t i o n of i r r i g a t i r ; n
systems, t h e r e c l a m a t i o n of waterlogged, s a l i n i z e d and a l k ^ ' l i nized l a n d s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g of soil-ra:fe=watpr
r e l a t i o n s , and t h e c o n t r o l of w a t e r - r e l a t e d d i s e a s e s (l97B-B5)„
(b)
MaJce a v a i l a b l e t o Ck)vemments, on r e q u e s t , a d v i c e on problems
a s s o c i a t e d with s o c i a l smd economic c o n d i t i o n s in i r r i g a t e d
a r e a s (1978-85)0
Recommendation 9
51»
There i s need t o r e s t o r e and maintain v e g e t a t i o n cover and t o
s t a b i l i z e and p r o t e c t s o i l s i n denuded arear;, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e affon-fcñd
by i n t e n s e human impact, f o r excimple around s e t t l e m e n t s and n e a r mining
i n s t a l l a t i o n s . This i n c l u d e s t h e requirementr; t o s t a b i l i z e moving sands
and h a l t dime advance where land u s e , corarni-inications o r s e t t l s m e n t s a r e
threatened® R e v e g e t a t i o n of d e s e r t uplands i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s o i l and
water c o n s e r v a t i o n and f l o o d c o n t r o l » On a l a r g o r s c a l e , "green b e l t s "
t o promote r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , planned land use and e n v i r o n mental p r o t e c t i o n a r e c a l l e d f o r along d e s e r t margins and in o t h e r sensi+.ive
areas.
I t i s recommended t h a t s p e c i a l measures f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l
c o n s e r v a t i o n , and s t a b i l i z a t i o n of moving sands be undertaken in
á r e a s of l o c a l i z e d hiaman impact, on w a t e r s h e d s , where r e s e t t l e m e n t s , ,
r o a d s and farai lands a r e t h r e a t e n e d , and along v u l n e r a b l e d e s e r t
margins»
52.
To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e t o i
' " ^ a j ^ S t a f t i z e añd revegetate~Tands~ d e g r a d e d ' b y mining, i n d u s t i y ,
•toixrism o r o t h e r d r y l a n d a c t i \ / - i t i e s 5 and prevent f u r t h e r
d e g r a d a t i o n through?
(i)
(ii)
l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g responsible organizations to
i m d e r t a k e r e c l a m a t i o n , and c o n t r o l l i n g f u r t h e r developments
through requirements f o r environmental impact assessments
and o b l i g a t i o n s t o meet t h e cost o f r e q u i r e d environmental
p r o t e c t i o n amd o f p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l ;
r e s e a r c h i n t o methods f o r s t a U l i z i n g and r e v e g e t a t i n g
degraded s u r f a c e s i n d e s e r t a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g s o i l t r e a t m e n t s
and t h e development o f d r é u g h t - r e s i s t a n t smd s a l t - t o l e r a n t
plants.
(b)
E s t a b l i s h fenced r e s e r v e s aroTind s e t t l e m e n t s and a l o n g roads i n
o t h e r a r e a s o f i n t e n s e human p r e s s u r e , from which g r a z i n g , t r a f f i c
and f u e l - g a t h e r i n g a r e excliided.
(c)
C o n t r o l open spaces i n s e t t l e m e n t s through r e v e g e t a t i o n or t h e
p r o v i s i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t a b l e pavements and t h e p l a n t i n g
of s h e l t e r b e l t s .
(d)
C o n t r o l t r a f f i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n and n e a r s e t t l e m e n t s and a t
r o u t e i n t e r s e c t i o n s , through t h e s u r f a c i n g and f e n c i n g o f
roeuis emd by p l a c i n g l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e use o f c r o s s - c o u n t r y
vehicles.
(e)
Revegetate vra.tersheds f o r improvement o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c b a l a n c e
amd s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , as p a r t o f g e n e r a l programmes o f c a t c h ment management.
(f)
Check sand d r i f t and a r r e s t dune movement, w i t h p r i o r i t y f o r
a r e a s where s e t t l e m e n t s , communications, f a r m l a n d s , and
imiwrtant i n s t a l l a t i o n s are threatened, through:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(g)
checking sand d r i f t by e r e c t i n g f e n c e s , r e v e g e t a t i n g source
a r e a s and pleuating s h e l t e r b e l t s ;
s t a b i l i z i n g dune s u r f a c e s by t h e use o f m a t t i n g , mulches,
o r chemical or bitumenous c o a t i n g s , v e g e t a t i n g dime
svirfaces, r e s h a p i n g dunes and removing s l i p f a c e s where
necessary;
c o n t r o l l i n g l a n d use i n areas o f s t a b i l i z e d dunes.
Reduce t h e impact o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a n t m a t e r i a l and manure
f o r f u e l , through:
(i)
r e s t r i c t i o n s on f u e l - g a t h e r i n g i n s e n s i t i v e
areas;
(ii)
establishing plantations for the controlled
of fire-wood;
production
(iii)
(h)
s u r v e y i n g t h e e x t e n t o f sand d r i f t and dune advance,
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e wind regime and sand sources;
making a v a i l a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e h e a t i n g and cooking d e v i c e s .
C r e a t e " g r e e n b e l t s " c o n s i s t i n g o f mosaics o f r e v e g e t a t e d
_areas_and_plant_ed_sh&ltje.rJbe.lts_in_z.one5_o.f_conse.rv^
c o n t r o l l e d l a n d use a l o n g d e s e r t margins and . i n a r e a s o f
i n t e n s e human p r e s s u r e .
^
y
IiÍ
(i)
S-ferengthsn n a t i o n a l f o r e s t p range managementp sad s o i l aad
water c o a s e r m t i o n s e r v i c e s and o t h e r o r g a s i i z a t i o a s iwol'^'sd
i n i s p l e m e n t i a g t h e s e reconaraendations, i a c l M i a g t h e i r
advisory amse
(j)
Est-''
.h o r s t r e n g t h e n e d u c a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n aad p u b l i c i t y
s e r v i c e s 5 u n d e r t a k e prognanases t o c r e a t e m. iafos«®d s M
f a v o u r a b l e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e towards r e c l a a a t i o n aad e©sasQF!m=t i o n i n degraded a r e a s | a n d j s e c u r e t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n ©ad
l ^ r t i c i i ^ t i o n of consaunities i n t h e proposed moasuresc
(fc)
Establish p i l o t or demonstration p r o j e c t s to t e s t the
f e a s i b i l i t y of l a r g e - s c a l e u n d e r t a k i n g s 5 t r a i n t h e recmired
s t a f f , aad d e m o n s t r a t e t h e l i k e l y b e n e f i t s t o come from
l a r g e r progrsyimeso
53o
This recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l actio?, t o implemmt
s e a s t i r e s suggested by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s on t r a n s n a t i o n a l co-op®ratio
f o r t h e establishspent of "green b e l t s " (1978-85)^
54°
F i n a l l y , t h i s reconanendation i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n tos
(a)
Establish or strengthen t r a i n i n g centres f o r the s p e c i a l i s t s
r e q u i r e d f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n , a f f o r e s t a t i o n , and sand s t ' V " •Smt i o n (1978-85)0
(b)
E s t a b l i s h o r s t r e n g t h e n r e v e g e t a t i o n c e n t r e s f o r t h e produuxiyij
and d i s t r i b u t i o n of p l a n t m a t e r i a l (1978-85)0
(c)
Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i a ' '
s e r v i c e on dxylaad r e v e g e t a t i o n stnd a f f o r e s t a t i o n (l978-=85)o
Do
ALTERNATIVE HiJERCrr SOURCES
Recoasaendation 10
55®
The u s e of a l t e r n a t i v e o r \ m c o n v e n t i o n a l energy soiirces i n d r y l a n d s ,
u s i i a l l y so favoured with s t m l i g h t and wind, should be v i g o r o u s l y i n v e s t i ^ t e d
a s a means of p r e s e r v i n g o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s , of r e d u c i n g t h e t e d i o u s huraaii
l a b o u r so o f t e n involved with f u e l c o l l a c t i o n , and of p r o v i d i n g t h e peoples-,
of t h e d i y l a n d s with s i m p l e , i n e x p e n s i v e and convenient d e v i c e s t o s e r v e
their daily lives o
I t i s recommended t h a t r e s e a r c h be v i g o r o u s l y pursued on t h e use
of a l t e r n a t i v e o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l ener^'' soTirces i n t h e d s y l a a d s
t h a t w i l l y i e l d simple^ i n e x p e n s i v e and u s e f u l d e v i c e s t o seirve
t h e needs of d r y l a n d peopleso
560
This recommendation i m p l i e s n a t i o n a l a c t i o n "fe®»
(a)
Establish
manufacturing f a c i l i t i e s f o r the local production
of whatever simple and e f f i c i e n t d e v i c e s a r e produced by i n v e s t i g ® ^
t i o n s i n t o t h e u s e of a l t e r n a t i v e energr s o u r c e s i n t h e dryla-aáso
(TD)
57.
E s t a b l i s h d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c i l i t i e s t o ensure t h a t such d e v i c e s
r e a c h t h e people who can use them, a t a s u b s i d i z e d p r i c e when
necessary.
D i s t r i b u t i o n should be accompanied by i n s t r u c t i o n
i n t h e use o f t h e d e v i c e s which c o u l d be d e l i v e r e d by such
agencies as e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s and f u e l d i s t r i b u t o r s .
T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o :
(a)
Carry out r e s e a r c h on t h e use o f a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources,
e s p e c i a l l y wind and s o l a r energy, i n t h e d r y l a n d s .
Such
r e s e a r c h should be keyed t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i m p l e ,
i n e x p e n s i v e and e f f i c i e n t d e v i c e s f o r t h e use o f d r y l a n d
peoples ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) .
(b)
Carry out t r i a l s on t h e use o f d e v i c e s employing a l t e r n a t i v e
energy sources and see t h a t d e v i c e s which prove e f f i c i e n t
a r e brought t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f Governments, s p e c i a l l y o f those
f a c i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) *
E.
INSURANCE AGAINST THE RISK OP DROUGHT
Recommendation 11
58.
As a r e a s s u b j e c t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a t h i ^ r i s k o f droxight
d i s a s t e r d u e t o n a t u r a l c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s , t h e need f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f
a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m u s t be a n t i c i p a t e d .
I f r e l i e f operations are c a r e f u l l y
p l a n n e d b e f o r e t h e need a r i s e s , t h e o p e r a t i o n s w i l l not o n l y be more
r a p i d a n d e f f e c t i v e , but o p p o r t x m i t i e s f o r s o c i a l change c r e a t e d by
d i s a s t e r can b e c o n s t r u c t i v e l y used t o promote programmes recommended i n
t h i s P l a n of Action.
E x p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e r i s k o f drought l e a d s
t o insurance a g a i n s t t h e r i s k .
Planning f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f involves a
s e t o f f i n a n c i a l and o t h e r measures t o insiire i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e a r e a s
a t r i s k a g a i n s t l o s s o f c r o p s , livepto'^V. means o f l i v e l i h o o d , housing and
food supply.
I t i s recommended t o develop an¿ adopt insrurance schemes t h a t
p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o p i n g w i t h drotight d i s a s t e r and which promote
t h e s o c i a l and economic changes r e q u i r e d t o reduce l o n g - t e r m r i s k s
of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
59.
60.
To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n w i l l be d e s i r a b l e
(a)
E s t a b l i s h o r r e i n f o r c e , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e ,
l i v e s t o c k insurance schemes.
crop and
(b)
C r e a t e f o o d , f o d d e r , and f u ^ l r e s e r v e s a g a i n s t
(c)
P l a n i n advance f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f o p e r a t i o n s , b e a r i n g i n
mind t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n .
(d)
P l a n t o t a k e advantage o f d i s a s t e r t o a c c e l e r a t e development
programmes and t o i n t r o d u c e changes.
disaster.
The recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o :
(a)
Review t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f d i s a s t e r r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h
' a v i e w t o t h e i r p l a y i n g an enhanced r o l e , t a k i n g i n t o account
t h e present Plan of Action ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 ) .
to:
"
(b)
ej
Eíncourage and supíK)rt c l i m a t o l o g i c s l r a s e a r o h -fehat shows
promise of making p o s s i b l e l o n g - r a a g e weather p r ^ i c t i o n ®
S p e c i a l emphasis should be p l a c e d on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t w i l l
make p o s s i b l e t h e l o n g - r a n g e p r e d i c t i o n of drought o
Fc
irRMG-niMING INDICfENOUS SCIMCE MD TECHMOLOOr
Recommendation 12
61.
Á l a c k of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a b i l i t y i n many d e i r e l o p i i ^
c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t©
s u c c e s s f u l n a t i o n a l c a m p a i g n B eigainst d e s e r t i f i c a t i o s o For t h i s Plaa of
Action t o be s u c c e s s f u l , indigenotis s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h a o l o g i e a l c a p a b i l i t i e s must be s t r e n g t h e n e d , e s p e c i a l l y s i a c e t h e s t r u g g l e a ^ i a s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a long continisasus p r o c e s s , and an e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t of n a t i o n a l
dervelopmento Although i t i s expected t h a t d e t a i l e d recoasnendation in
t h i s r e s p e c t w i l l be considered' in 1979 by t h e United l a t i o n s Conference
on Science and Technology, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e t o xmdertake
c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l measures w i t h i n t h e frainew©rk of t h e p r e s e n t Plan of
Action, which could s e r v e a s an input t o t h i s l a t e r conference»
I t i s recommended t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n be taken t o s t r e n g t h e n
indigenous c a p a b i l i t i e s i n s c i e n c e and technology f o r t h e pj^jxüse
of combating d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n »
62«
Although t h i s recommendation concerns long-terra a c t i o n , t h e measuras
o u t l i n e d should be i n i t i a t e d immediately i f r e s u l t s a r e t o b® achieved
w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e time» The implementation of t h i s recoramsndation
c a l l s f o r broad i n t e r n a t i o n a l support i n t h e form of a d v i c e , t e c h n i c a l
and f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , eind t r a i n i n g . This could be a c h i e v e ! through
t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , with t h e a i d
of a ^ n c i e s of t h e United Nations system and governmental m d noa=
governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g b i l a t e r a l arrangements® Kiatioaal
a c t i o n would be d e s i r a b l e t o ;
(a)
D e s i g n a t e o r o r g a n i z e n a t i o n a l c e n t r e s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r of
technology and t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n on c u r r e n t
p r o g r e s s i n s c i e n c e and technolos?^ r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
and t o provide a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e s on how t o s t r e n g t h e n ejrtension
s e r v i c e s t h a t give i n s t r u c t i o n on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of new technolotîss.
(b)
E s t a b l i s h , c o - o r d i n a t e or s t r e n g t h e n , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e ,
n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s concerned with t h e problems of d e s e r t i f i c a s ^
tion.
(c)
Provide e x i s t i n g s c i e n t i f i c ajid t e c h n o l o g i c a l c e n t r e s with
t h e e q u i p n e n t , m a t e r i a l and f u n d s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r e f f i c i a a t
operation;
i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r o t h e r a g e n c i e s a r e i w i t é d and
urged t o a i d e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s which f i n d i t d i f f i c u l - S
t o o p e r a t e due t o l a c k of r e s o u r c e s o
(d)
E s t a b l i s h o r r e i n f o r c e , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e ,
with
t h e h e l p of i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , raachinsry f o r
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g (See Recomsiendation l ) o
(e)
Stren,'7th9n e x i s t i n ; : ex-fcenrîon s e r v i c e s f o r t h e proraotion of
improved lajid-use»
(f)
C o n s i d e r o t h e r recommendations o f t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n
f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g n a t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s
i n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , as t h i s i s a n important f a c t o r i n
t h e implementation o f most o f t h e recommendations.
G.
SUPPORTING
MEASURES
63A c t i o n s t o be xindertaken i n i n f o r m a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g
a r e o r d i n a r i l y regarded as meas-ures i n support o f t h e key a c t i v i t i e s
proposed as recormendations i n a p l a n o f a c t i o n , and a r e o f t e n l i s t e d
separately.
I n t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , such
s u p p o r t i n g measures a r e not l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y but a r e c i t e d i n t h e same
s e c t i o n as t h e c e n t r a l a c t i o n they serve t o s u p p o r t .
64.
F r e q u e n t l y , but not i n v a r i a b l y , s u p p o r t i n g measures v á l l be r e g i o n a l
o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t a k e n on request o f a n a t i o n a l Govemrnent t o support
t h a t Govemn;ent*s g o a l s and a c t i o n s . As an example, consider Recoinmendaticn
9 , paragraph 5 1 , on r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o r and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f
moving sands.
One proposed n a t i o n a l a c t i o n ( 5 2 - 3 ; t o s t r e n ^ h e n e d u c a t i o n ,
e x t e n s i o n and p u b l i c i t y s e r v i c e s can be regarded as a s u p p o r t i n g measure»
A l l siiggested i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n under t h i s recommendation ( 5 2 - a - b - c ) can
be regarded as s u p p o r t i n g measures.
H.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Recorrjnendation 13
65.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s o f t e n a n a t i o n a l problem, and a c c o r d i n g l y a
s t r o n g n a t i o n a l machinery i s necessary t o combat i t .
I n many c o u n t r i e s ,
a c t i v i t i e s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e s c a t t e r e d aunong v a r i o u s m i n i s t r i e s
and departments w i t h no s p e c i a l arrangements t o c o - o r d i n a t e them. A
v a r i e t y o f bodies w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p l a n n i n g and development o f
a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zones o f t e n have powers t h a t o v e r l a p .
This c o n s t i t u t e s
an obsxacle t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l progress amd t o t h e advance o f measures f o r
t h e recovery o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a s .
I n these circumstances i t would be
necessary t o c r e a t e n a t i o n a l nachinery f o r t h e e l a b o r a t i o n and implement a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l progra^jnes f o r combatting d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
I t i s recommended t h a t where none e x i s t s n a t i o n a l machinery t o
combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n be e s t a b l i s h e d .
66.
To irr.plement t h i s recommendation i t would be d e s i r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h
a n a t i o n a l d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n commission or t a s k f o r c e , c o n s i s t i n g o f h i g h r a n k i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m i n i s t r i e s , agencies and
i n s t i t u t e s and coramxmity l e a d e r s sind non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s ;
or t o
a s s i g n t h e t a s k of c o - o r d i n a t i o n t o one o f t h e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s
( m i n i s t r y , department o r b o a r d ) .
The fvinction o f t h i s n a t i o n a l machinery
would be t o c o - o r d i n a t e and c o n s o l i d a t e a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n impose a new a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e on an a l r e a d y
overburdened c i v i l s e r v i c e .
Even so, t h i s body must be a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y
and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y supported by a s m a l l t e c h n i c a l s t a f f .
Many c o u n t r i e s
have s e c r e t a r i e s o r commissions f o r t h e human environment or p l a n n i n g
commissions which could provide t h e necessary s t a f f s u p p o r t .
I n countries *
where t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem i s serious,, past and c u r r e n t a c t i " y i t i e s
have a l r e a d y produced r.mch d a t a and inforr:,ation, t h e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
niay be v e s t e d i n t h e Council of M i n i s t e r s .
67o
The r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of such n a t i o n a l b o d i e s might i n c l u d e s
(a)
The a r ^ l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n f o m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g
t h e problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ;
(b)
The p r e p a r a t i o n of a n a t i o n a l plan of a c t i o n t o combat
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t h a t would c o - o r d i n a t e a l l n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ;
(c)
Arranging f o r t h e implementation of a n a t i o n a l p l a x of a c t i o n
throxigh n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ;
(d)
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l or r e g i o n a l p r o g r a mes, and
m a i n t a i n i n g l i a i s o n v i t h r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s on problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; and
(e)
R e p o r t i n g t o t h e Govemment on p l a n s , r e s u l t s ^ o b s t a c l e s o r
o t h e r r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n e f f o r t s t o combat
desertification»
Recommendation 14
68.
A f a c i l i t y f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y
to combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s needed» Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n e x i s t i n g
i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e i r f i e l d s of a c t i v i t y and t h e
u n d e s i r a b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g new i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodiess
I t i s recommended t h a t t h e Environir:ent C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board should
be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o l l o w i n g up implementation of t h e Plan of
Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t h a t a D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Unit
should be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e United N a t i o n s Environment
Programme t o c o - o r d i n a t e t h e implementation of t h e P l a n .
69»
To c a r r y out t h i s recommendation, t h e Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board
should be r e q u e s t e d t o r e p o r t t o t h e General Assembly every two o r t h r e e
y e a r s through t h e Governing Council of t h e United Mations Environment P r o gramme and t h e Economic and S o c i a l Council on t h e p r o g r e s s of implementing
t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o l /
70.
The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Unit would s e r v e as a c o - o r d i n a t i n g o f f i c e f o r
n a t i o n a l s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o
I t would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s
1/
General Assembly r e s o l u t i o n A / R S S / 2 9 9 7 ( X m i ) of 19 J a a i m y 1973,
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e ECB " d e c i d e s t h a t ^ i n o r d e r t o provid© f o r t h e raost e f f i c i e n t
c o - o r d i n a t i o n of t h e United N a t i o n s Environment Programmes asi. Environment
C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board, lander t h e chaizrcaaiship of t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r ^ s h a l l
be e s t a b l i s h e d imder t h e a u s p i c e s and w i t h i n t h e frsmework of t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Committee on C o - o r d i n a t i o n ; f u r t h e r d e c i d e s t h a t t h e I k v i r o s a e n t
C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board s h a l l meet p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r t h e prarpos© of ens-oring coo p e r a t i o n and c o - o r d i n a t i o n among a l l b o d i e s oonceraed i n t h e implement ion
of ©nvironmental progrOTiraes « . , "
- iií -
(a)
The e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t o
corrbat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ;
(b)
The p r e p a r a t i o n of peiriodic r e p o r t s on t h e s t a t e of d e s e r tification;
(c)
The p r e p a r a t i o n of recommendations on problems of d e s e r t i f ication;
and
(d)
L i a i s o n among a g e n c i e s and coxintries concerned»
71o
A Working Grooip on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e
Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board t h a t would:
(a)
A s s i s t t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t i n t h e f o l l o w - u p and coo r d i n a t i o n of the implementation of the Plan of Action;
and
(b)
H e l p i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s t o t h e Environment
C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board on t h e same s u b j e c t .
Recommendation 15
72o
I n s p i t e o f t h e knowledge accumulated thro\igh past and c u r r e n t
e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e remain gaps i n our u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e processes and phenomerâ i n v o l v e d , and s t i l l l a r g e r gaps i n our
xxnderstanding o f how t o a p p l y e x i s t i n g knowledge t o p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l
and socio-economic circumstances.
There a r e many c e n t r e s and i n s t i t u t e s
throiaghout t h e w o r l d , b o t h n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l , t h a t c a r r y out
r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but t h e i r programimes and methods
may not always be c o - o r d i n a t e d , nor p e r t i n e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l problems.
73.
Some o f t h e gaps i n knowledge w i l l vmdoubtedly be f i l l e d i n t h e
coxirse o f a p p l y i n g present knowledge t o t h e a c t i o n s recommended f o r
immediate i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
But o t h e r gaps w i l l recfuire a l o n g - t e r m n a t i o n a l
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t .
I t i s recommended t h a t an I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research
Council should be e s t a b l i s h e d t o be s e r v i c e d by t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
U n i t , (see p r e v i o u s recommendation) t o c o - o r d i n a t e g l o b a l ,
com.prehensive r e s e a r c h programmes, embracing e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l p
r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s and i n s t i t u t e s , f o r t h e
r a p i d and economical a c q i d s i t i o n and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f new knowledge
r e g a r d i n g t h e problems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
74.
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research C o u n c i l would i n c l u d e
i n i t s composition d i r e c t o r s o f i n s t i t u t e s w i t h r e s e a r c h f u n c t i o n s , and
would c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t .
The Council would be
s e r v i c e d by t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t t o be e s t a b l i s h e d i n UNEP. The
f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Council would i n c l u d e ;
(a)
E s t a b l i s h i n g r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s and a l l o c a t i n g p r o j e c t s ,
g i v i n g s p e c i a l emphasis t o t h e need t o s t r e n g t h e n indigenous
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y .
The Council would a l s o r e v i e w progress
and a d v i s e on t h e f u r t h e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s .
-
33
-
(b)
Arranging exchange and auivisory v i s i t s among r e s e a r c h b o d i e s .
The Council would a l s o e s t a b l i s h a system f o r t h e prompt
i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of inforrriation on r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s
and i n n o v a t i v e d e s e r t t e c h n o l o g i e s .
(c)
Advising on means of sup3X)rting s e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h progranmes^
g i v i n g s p e c i a l emphasis t o t h e r e s e a r c h suggested i n t h e Plan
of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ^ such a s s t t i d i e s ons
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
dro\ight-resistant
crops;
dryland livestock?
a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources5 w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on
s o l a r energy and wind energy devices?
t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n of w a t e r use?
desalination techniques;
mechanisms f o r g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o
the fieldo
(d)
S e l e c t i n g i n each e c o l o g i c a l r e g i o n , embracing s e v e r a l
c o u n t r i e s of a region or of a c o n t i n e n t , one of t h e e x i s t i n g
n a t i o n a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s e r t r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s t o be
d e s i g n a t e d a s a r e g i o n a l c o - o r d i n a t i n g s c i e n t i f i c agency;,
w i t h f m c t i o n s a s i n ( e ) below, but on a r e g i o n a l scale<=
Where n e c e s s a r y such c e n t r e s should be given t e c l m i c a l and
f i i ^ c i a l support»
(e)
D e s i g n a t i n g one of t h e e x i s t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s e r t o r a r i d l a n d s r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s a s t h e co-oi°dinating c e n t r e f o r t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l campaign t o coir,bat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; t h i s c e n t r e
would ensure t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h programme c a r r i e d out through
o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i s comprehensive and c o - o r d i n a t e d , and i t s
f u n c t i o n s would i n c l u d e t h o s e under ( d ) above, a s w e l l ass
(i)
t h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n and plaiming of r e s e a r c h work and t h e
assignment of r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s ;
(ii)
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r ( l i a b i l i t i e s of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s involved and a l l o c a t i n g p r o j e c t s of i n t e s ^ t i o n a l
importance among them;
(iii)
t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and new
r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v e d ; and,
(iv)
o r g a n i z i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n among t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r
s p e c i f i c research p r o j e c t s , special i s t e r - i n s t i t u t i o a a l
t a s k f o r c e s , workshops and s c i e n t i f i c semiaarSo
- 34 I.
ROLE OF INTERHATIONAL ORGAMIZATICMS
Recommendation 16
75*
The i.nplementa-tion of the Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
w i l l require c l o s e co-ordination of n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
progra-mnes. The s e r v i c e s of the agencies o f the United Nations system
should "be avadlable, and t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e implementation of the
Plan of Action mtist "be ensiired. The gigencies of t h e United Nations system,
i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s of a c t i v i t y and w i t h i n the scope of the Plan of
Action, should g i v e advice t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , and should elaborate
methodologies, co-ordinate and support s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l research,
f a c i l i t a t e the exchange of information, and provide f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l
support f o r the implementation of the recommendations o u t l i n e d here.
I t i s recor.mended t h a t t h e G e n e r a l Assembly request t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d - t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e heads o f t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s Development Programme, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s
Environment Prograirime, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n d u s t r i a l Development
O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on Trade and
Development, and i n v i t e t h e e x e c u t i v e heads o f t h e Food and
Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Educational, S c i e n t i f i c
and C u l t T i r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e World M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n »
t h e World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bsmk f o r
R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and Development t o support i n t h e t y - r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s
o f a c t i v i t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o combat d e e e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e
context o f t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n and t o make a p p r o p r i a t e p r o v i s i o n s and
a l l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i r programmes.
76.
The implementation of t h i s recommendation would reqtiire a s e t of
a c t i o n s by t h e a g e n c i e s concerned, incltiding:
(a)
The r e v i s i o n of current a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o the problems of
a r i d zones, and t o the problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , with a view t o adjtisting and co-ordinating them t o
confonr. to the Plan of Action. The r e v i s i o n should be
conducted i n c l o s e co-operation with t h e United Nations body
entrusted by the General Assembly, on t h e recommendation of
the United Nations Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , with coo r d i n a t i o n and f o l l o w - u p . P r i o r i t y should be given t o the
a p p l i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g knowledge r a t h e r than t o research
programmes.
(b)
The planning of advisory, f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l support f o r
the Plan of Action, including budgetary follow-up, i n the
following f i e l d s :
(i)
(ii)
the t r a i n i n g of land-use planners, natural resource and
s o c i a l survey s p e c i a l i s t s and other s p e c i a l i s t s as
reqiiired;
t h e f i n a n c i n g and c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l programmes f o r
r e s e a r c h i n land-Tise p l a n n i n g and management and i n t h e
improvement o f s p e c i f i c l a n d uses i n areas v u l n e r a b l e t o
d e s e r t i f i cat i o n ;
-
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
35
-
the f i n a n c i n g - a n d c o - o r d i n a t i o n of r e g i o n a l survey and
monitoring programmes;
t h e p r o v i s i o n of f i n a n c i a l a i d t o GoveminentSp on r e q u e s t ,
which have formulated a c c e p t a b l e schemee f o r l a s d - u s e
management;
support f o r d i s a s t e r prevention and r e l i e f programmes»
Recommendation 17
77.
The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e United
Nations systeir., both intergovernmental and non-govemir.ental, w i l l b® añ
important f a c t o r i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l implementation of t h e Plan o f A c t i o n .
I t i s recommended t h a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s General Assembly should
request t h e S e c r e t a i y - G e n e r a l t o i n v i t e governmental and nongovernmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s concerned w i t h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems
to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the implementation o f the Plan of A c t i o n to
Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a v i e w t o c o - o r d i n a t i n g t h e i r
a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t h e worldwide progranme.
78.
To implement t h i s recommendation such o r g a n i z a t i o n s may f i n d i t
necessary t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f o r t s t o r a i s e t h e r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r
t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n programmes and p r o j e c t s r e l a t e d
t o research and the development o f s t r a t e g i e s , plans and programmes,
f e a s i b i l i t y stxidies, and t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f i n s t i t u t i o n s engaged on
combatting d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
C}L\PTER IV.
FIKAíICING THE PLAM
79.
i I i s perhaps not now a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
c f nev f u n d s f o r f i n a r c i n f t s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n s of t h e magnitude of a
f r l o b a l programme t o arrcsi- and, where p o s s i b l e , r e v e r s e t h e p r o c e s s e s of
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Ncr wculd. such p r o p o s a l s be necessair,' i f e x i s t i n g
developxerst a s s i s t a n c e funds have b u i l t i n t o them t h e d e g r e e of f l e x i b i l i t y r e q u i r e d to respond t o new and c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d r e q t d r e i r . e n t s .
F o r t h e most pari, vh^t i s r e q u i r e d , a s f a r a s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
f i n a n c i n g oT t h e Pls-n i s concerned^, a r e s n i f t s i n emphases and i n
priorities
w e l l a s a r e g r o u p i n g of fijnding i n some cirCUTS*».anees t o
resnond t c t h e needs of t h e P l a n .
80.
In a d d i t i o n to t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t n a t u r a l l y a r i s e i n a period
of f i n a n c i a l s t r i n g e n c y , t h e r e i s a l s o t h e c o n s t r a i n t of l i r i t e d r e s o u r c e s
a l r e a d y cor-mitted n a t i o n a l l y t o a c t i v i t i e s t h a t may be e x p e c t e d t o show a
h i g h e r r a t e of r e t u r n . Hierh r e t u r n s cannot be r e a d i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a
P l a n d e s i ^ . e d t o a r r e s t t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n of f r a g i l e e c o s y s t e m s .
Neverthel e s s , l o n g e r t e r r . o u t l a y s t o g u a r a n t e e t h e r e g e i n e r a t i o n of l o s t l a n d and
t h e a v o i d a n c e of d i s a s t e r rr.a.y be j u s t i f i e d when s e t a g a i n s t t h e l o s s of
p r o d u c t i v e land and t h e burden of er.ergency and c r a s h progra~jnes t o
p r o v i d e r e l i e f from d r o u g h t and i t s e n s u i n g s o c i a l and econor.ic d i s l o c a t i o n .
These a r e concerr.s s h a r e d by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o r m u n i t y .
61.
I t if. v d t h t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n mind t h a t t h i s P l a n h a s been
p r e p a r e d . By t h e ti;ne t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e i n t h e
P l a n r e a l i s t i c and r e a l i z a b l e o r d e r s of magnitude o f t h e f i n a n c i n g
i n v o l v e d f o r r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e seven y e a r s
1978-1984.
T h i s seems t o p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l e span of t i m e f o r ir;mediate a c t i o n , a s
w e l l a s t o g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of e x t e r n a l s u p p o r t r e q x d r e d f o r a c t i o n i n
t h e l e a s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s where d o m e s t i c r e v e n u e s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t
t o f i r j i n c e t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s e r v i c e s and f a c i l i t i e s n e e d e d , n o r i s t h e r e
c a p a c i t y t o d i r e c t s c a r c e s k i l l s t o t h e s e new and demanding t a s k s .
82.
At t h i s s t a g e , t h e r e f o r e , i t would seem a p p r o p r i a t e t o p l a c e
e m p h a s i s , not so much on t h e o r d e r s of magnitude i n v o l v e d , b u t , r a t h e r t h e
gToxipings of s o u r c e s of f u n d i n g t h a t frcrm t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , i n v o l v e m e n t o r
c o n c e r n , r.ay be e x p e c t e d t o a s s i s t i n l a u n c h i n g o r u n d e r p i n n i n g d i f f e r e n t
c o r p o n e n t s of t h e P l a n . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l commtmity, b o t h w i t h i n and
o u t s i d e t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s y s t e m , has ample p r e c e d e n t s i n t h i s .
Lessons
l e a r n e d have been a p p l i e d f o r exar.ple t o t h e o n c h o c e r c i a s i s c o n t r o l scherr.e
i n t h e V o l t a R i v e r Basin a r e a , i n t h e f i n a n c i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h
c e n t r e s t h r o u g h t h e C o n s u l t a t i v e Group on A g r i c u l t u r a l Research and, more
r e c e n t l y , i n t h e approach t a k e n by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S a h e l i a n O f f i c e and
by Club d e s Amis du Saliel t o w a r d s S a h e l i a n r e c o v e r y .
/ i t would seem t h a t t h e r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y m e e t i n g s c o u l d c o n s i d e r how
s i m i l a r g r o u p i n g s could b e s t be drawn t o g e t h e r i n s e l e c t e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
of t h e P l a n and t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s u n d e r which t h e s e could b e s t be made and
maintained_^
UNITED MTIONS
TRMSMTIONAL
COÍTPERMCE
COOPERATION
TO
ON DESERTIfTCiffiEON
COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
FEASIBILITY STUDIES
A REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT OP THE UNITED
NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
REGIONAL PREPARATORY JIEETINGS
FOR THE CONFERMCE
ITM 5
OF
THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY ICEETINGS FOR
THE MERICAS
Santiago, Chile
2 3 - 2 6 F e b r u a r y 1977
AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA
Addis Ababa, E t h i o p i a
12 - l 6 A p r i l
1977
Algarve^ P o r t u g a l
28 March - 1 A p r i l 1977
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
New D e l h i , I n d i a
19 - 23 A p r i l 1977
S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United N a t i o n s
Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
P. 0 . Box 30552
NAIROBI.
February 1977
Na.77-496
I . . . GEtíERáL
A.
The r o l e of f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s i n "the p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r
t h e Conference
1» The main o b j e c t i v e of t h e United N a t i o n s Conference on
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s t o g i v e impetus t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o
combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . To t h i s end, t h e Conference w i l l p r o v i d e
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community w i t h a P l a n of Action t o Combat
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , The proposed p l a n w i l l e s t a b l i s h p r i n c i p l e s
and o b j e c t i v e s , recommendations f o r a c t i o n , and p r o p o s a l s f o r
s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n d i g e n o u s c a p a c i t y i n s c i e n c e and technologyo
2„ One of t h e sources on which t h e P l a n h a s drawn i n
f o r m u l a t i n g i t s recommendations i s a c o l l e c t i o n of s t u d i e s
a s s e s s i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of c e r t a i n t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e
activities»
Be
S e l e c t i o n of t i t l e s and scope of t h e F e a s i b i l i t y
Studies
3. The concept of t h e F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d i e s i s t o work towards
t r a n s n a t i o n a l ( i n t e r g o v e r m - . c n t a l ) agreements which can a l s o
serve a s models f o r l a r g e - s c a l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n t o
combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o
Senior c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e Conference
S e c r e t a r i a t and t h e ad hoc i n t e r a g e n c y t a s k f o r c e e s t a b l i s h e d
to assist the Secretariat i d e n t i f i e d four areas for these studies.
On f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e p r o p o s a l s were developed i n t o t h e s e
six f e a s i b i l i t y studies;
Bo
Management of l i v e s t o c k and r a n g e l a n d s i n t h e
Sudano-Sahelian region? (SOLAR)»
b.
Management of major r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s i n n o r t h
e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l n ,
c.
E s t a b l i s h m e n t c^ a North Saharan Green B e l t .
d.
E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a Sahel Green B e l t .
e.
Monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n South America.
f«
Monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n southwest A s i a .
4 . I t was agreed t h a t a f e a s i b i l i t y study should s t o p s h o r t of
e n g i n e e r i n g drawings, d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and f i n a n c i a l
p l a n s . These would be i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r e - i n v e s t m e n t s t u d i e s t o
f o l l o w l a t e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t should i n c l u d e e s t i m a t e s of t h e
magnitude of t h e f i n a n c i n g , i n v o l v e d .
2.
C.
Procedure f o r Devgloping F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d i e s
5o I n each c a s e , a p r e l i m i n a r y p a p e r on t h e scope ajid c o n t e n t
of t h e s t u d y was g r e p ^ é d by t h e Conference S e c r e t a r i a t ,and
s e n t t o concerned Govemmonts, United N a t i o n s o f f i c e s and a g e n c i e s ,
s e l e c t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l b o d i e s and c o n s u l t a n t s and
e x p e r t s , A p a n e l of governnant r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s who
r e c e i v e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y document was convened t o c o n s i d e r and ;
guide t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e s t u d y . Whenever p o s s i b l e , an
i n s t i t u t i o n from t h e r e g i o n concerned was chosen t o p r e p a r e t h e
s t u d y which was t h e n c i r c u l a t e d t o Governments, United N a t i o n s .
Bodies and i n t e r n a t i o n a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r comments. Another
d r a f t of t h e document was c i r c u l a t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n b e f o r e a
second meeting 6f t h e p a n e l s which s e r v e d a s t h e occasion on
which t h e Governments conpemed e x p r e s s e d t h e i r agreement i n
p r i n c i p l e , and p r o p o s e d , . w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , i n i t i a l s t e p s f o r
implementation and recommendations b e a r i n g on t h e Plan of A c t i o n .
lio
MANAGEMENT
OP
LIVESTOCK
AND
StIDANO-SAHELIM REGIONS
RAHGELANDS
IN
THE
Í
(SOLAR)
6,
Countries involved!
C o u n t r i e s i n i t i a l l y s e l e c t e d i n c l u d e Chad,
M a l i , M a i i r i t a n i a , N i g e r , S e n e g a l , Sudan and Upper Volt a .
7,
The n a t u r e of t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o t l e m i n t h e s e
countries
The main c a u s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s r e g i o n a r e : o v e r g r a z i n g
w o o d c u t t i n g , 'burning of ' v e g e t a t i o n and t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of m a r g i n a l
l a n d s . Some r e s e a r c h e r s e s t i m a t e t h a t about 650,000 knr of l a n d
s u i t a b l e f o r some form of a g r i c u l t u r e or i n t e n s i v e g r a z i n g have b e e n
f o r f e i t e d t o t h e Sahara over t h e p a s t 50 y e a r s a l o n g i t s s o u t h e r n
edge. The p r o d u c t i v i t y of a huge s u b - S a h a r a n zone i s s u f f e r i n g damage
from o v e r g r a z i n g and o v e r l y i n t e n s i v e c r o p p i n g of m a r g i n a l a r e a s .
In
t h e Sudan, d e s e r t c r e e p s i n t o s t e p p e , s t e p p e c r e e p s i n t o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g
savanna which, i n t u r n , c r e e p s i n t o t h e f o r e s t ,
8,
I n N i g e r , w i d e s p r e a d d e a t h of t r e e s h a s o c c u r r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y of
shallow r o o t i n g s p e c i e s i n d r i e r s e t t i n g s , . such a s A c a c i a and Cammiphora
I n g r a z i n g l a n d s t h e r e was d e c l i n e i n d r y - m a t t e r p r o d u c t i o n from about
2,000 t o n n e s t o 360 t o n n e s p e r h e c t a r e . T h i s was c o u p l e d w i t h a r e l a t i v e
d e c l i n e i n p a l a t a b l e s p e c i e s and an i n c r e a s e i n ephemerals a t t h e expense
of p e r e n n i a l s or l o n g e r - l i v e d a n n u a l s . There was s e a l i n g of s o i l s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of m e d i u m - t e x t u r e t h r o u g h t r a m p l i n g by s t o c k n e a r
w a t e r i n g p o i n t s and i n f a v o u r e d wet s e a s o n p a s t u r e s . M o b i l i z a t i o n of
sand on c r e s t s of p r e v i o u s l y s t a b l e dunes t o o k p l a c e . T h i s p i c t u r e of
N i g e r i s t r u e f o r most a r e a s i n t h e S a h e l ,
9,
N a t i o n a l c o n c e r n and e f f o r t s C o u n t r i e s i n t h e S a h a r o - S a h e l i a n and
Sudaho-Sahelian zones a r e t h o s e i n which d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n h a s r e c e n t l y
assumed t h e most d r a m a t i c f o r m . The n a t u r e of t h e problems f a c e d i n
t h e s e c o u n t r i e s and t h e s i m i l a r i t y
of f a c t o r s a t p l a y , have prompted
many of them t o p l a n and implement p r o j e c t s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t o v e r g r a z i n g
and o v e r s t o c k i n g . The 1967-72 d r o u g h t i n t h e s e r e g i o n s i n f l u e n c e d t h e
a t t i t u d e s of Governments t o w a r d s development p l a n n i n g , and h i g h p r i o r i t y
was accorded t o i n t e g r a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e (embracing animal h u s b a n d r y , c r o p
p r o d u c t i o n , f i s h e r y and f o r e s t s ) and t o t h e development of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
s e c t o r . S e v e r a l n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l p r o j e c t s a r e i n o p e r a t i o n and
programmes a r e imder c o n s i d e r a t i o n , some i n v o l v i n g b i l a t e r a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
a s s i s t a n c e , y e t s u c c e s s h a s been l i m i t e d .
10, S e r i o u s c o n c e r n w i t h problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e i n t e n t i o n
t o h a l t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s h a s been e x p r e s s e d on many o c c a s i o n s
by t h e S a h e l i a n c o u n t r i e s and p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e m e e t i n g s of t h e
p a n e l of government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s convened f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of t h i s f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y ,
11, Problems and gaps i n knowledge The second m e e t i n g of t h e p a n e l of
Government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l problems and
gaps i n knowledge which r e q u i r e t h e immediate a t t e n t i o n of n a t i o n a l
Governments and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community. Foremost among them a r e
t h o s e of a s o c i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e . I n t h e r e g i o n s of e x t e n s i v e g r a z i n g ,
t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t o r a l i s m seems t h e most s u i t a b l e method of c o n v e r t i n g
t h e r a n g e l a n d v e g e t a t i o n i n t o p r o d u c t s u s a b l e by man. The main
d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n t h e p a s t o r a l i s t s t h e m s e l v e s becoming r e p o n s i b l e f o r
t h e p r o t e c t i o n of l a n d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e t h e development of
new p a t t e r n s of l a n d ownership and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , b o t h p r e f e r a b l y
b a s e d on e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . Problems r e l a t e d t o l i m i t e d
12. Gaps i n kncwledge a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o i n t e g r a t e d r e s e a r c h
and t o t h e t r a n s f e r of s u i t a l i l e modern t e c h n o l o g i e s . Research programmes
should c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e development of r o t a t i o n systems comprising
a p p r o p r i a t e crops,, p o s s i l s l y i n c l u d i n g animal draught and p e a s a n t opex-sted
f a t t e n i n g programmes. P l a n s should i n t e g r a t e p l a n t and animal production:,
t o e n s u r e h o r i z o n t a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e
S a h e l i a n zone. To make t h e w e t t e r e c o l o g i c a l zones complementary t o t h e
S a h e l , r e s e a r c h should be d i r e c t e d t o develop f o d d e r s p e c i e s adapted t o
an A f r i c a n r e g i o n w i t h 4OO'- 8OO mm r a i n f a l l and t o p o p u l a r i z e simple
a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s t o guard a g a i n s t e r o s i o n and t h e u s e of r u n o f f
w a t e r s t o improve t h e t í a t e r b a l a n c e i n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s ,
13o I h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t The proposed t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t h a s
been f o r m u l a t e d w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e major c o n s t r a i n t s of t h e
v u l n e r a b l e zones and w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c aim of p r e s e r v i n g p o t e n t i a l n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s ' and t o combating d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I t i s based on t h e f o l l o w i n g :
a.
D e s p i t e t h e danger of damage t o t h e environment caused by
o v e r s t o c k i n g , t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r a l p a s t u r e s by domestic
and w i l d a n i m a l s must be r e g a r d e d a s t h e b e s t way of u t i l i z i n g
t h e a r i d r a n g e l a n d s of t h e Sudano-Sahel,
,
•
b.
Emphasis must "be p l a c e d on an i n t e g r a t e d approach i n f o r m u l a t i n g and
. e x e c u t i n g development p r o j e c t s ; t h e absence of such an approach
i n t h e p a s t was one of t h e main c a u s e s of t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e Sudano-Sahel,
c.
E x t e n s i v e or transhumant g r a z i n g seems t h e b e s t system f o r d r y
r a n g e l a n d s . S e t t l i n g s t o c k - r a i s e r s on t h e land w i t h i n c l e a r l y
• d i f i n e d p e r i m e t e r s , or s e t t i n g a s i d e a r e a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d .
f o r .'grazing t o e s t a b l i s h r a n c h e s or i r r i g a t e d farms,, x i i l l
p r o b a b l y a c c e l e r a t e t h e . d e g r a d a t i o n of• t h e r a n g e l a n d s and t h e
worsening of socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s ,
d.
Measures f o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n . o f l a n d r e s o u r c e s should not be
c o n f i n e d t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n of o v e r s t o c k i n g i n t h e S a h e l ,
G u r r e h f a g r i c u l t u r a l methods'ajad systems of s e t t l e m e n t i n
t h e r e g i o n a r e important f a c t o r s i n the d e g r a d a t i o n of i t s
l a n d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of r o t a t i o n ' , i n c l u d i n g f o d d e r c r o p s ,
and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r t i f i c i a l p a s t u r e s could p r o v i d e a ,
partial solution,
e.
A s s i s t a n c e should be pirovided t o t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e r e g i o n
i n p l a n n i n g f o r t h e development of v a s t u n d e r - u s e d a r e a s vdiich
could i n t h e f u t t i r e be opened up f o r major s e t t l e m e n t ,
f.
Regional s t r a t i f i c a t i o n programmes which wotild l e a d t o an
i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r i c e s p a i d t o p r o d u c e r s f o r young animals
or t h o s e r a i s e d on t h e r a n g e u n t i l m a t u r i t y ^ f o r example,'
t h r o u g h grovring-out r a n c h e s and programmes f o r p e a s a n t o p e r a t e d f a t t e n i n g on small f a r m s , could c o n t r i b u t e ,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o s o l v i n g t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem. The
Guinean r e g i o n seems t o o f f e r t h e b e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r
growing-out r a n c h e s , x-jhereas p e a s a n t - o p e r a t e d f a t t e n i n g
and animal draught programmes a r e e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o e i t h e r
t h e Sudan or t h e Guinean r e g i o n .
'
5.
14<.
The t r a n s n a t i o n a l . p r o j e c t i s composed of t h e f o l l o w i n g e l e m e n t s ;
P r o j e c t 1. A Sah e l i an p a s t o r a l iinit i n an e x c l u s i v e l y c a t t l e r a i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s i s an e x t e n s i v e g r a z i n g u n i t on r a n g e l a n d
r e c e i v i n g l e s s t h a n '400 mm annual r a i n f a l l .
P r o j e c t 2« An annex t o an i r r i g a t e d r e g i o n t o compensate t h e
. t r a d i t i o n a l c a t t l e r a i s e r of t h a t r e g i o n f o r t h e damage i n c u r r e d ,
by t h e l o s s of d r y - s e a s o n grazing» 'In t h i s u n i t , a n i m a r ' p r o d u c t i o n
(growing-out or f a t t e n i n g ) would be developed a s a complementary
activity.
P r o j e c t 3o Aii a g r o - p a s t o r a l tinit combining crop and l i v e s t o c k
p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e wet savanna» T h i s u n i t i s t o be l o c a t e d i n
r e g i o n s r e c e i v i n g between 400 and 800 mm annual r a i n f a l l .
P r o j e c t 4 . A ^ o w i n g - o u t and f a t t e n i n g u n i t f o r SaheTíaá: animals
i n t h e wet savanna. I n t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n scheme f o r animal
p r o d u c t i o n , t h i s x«iit combines t h e p r o d u c t i o n of f o d d e r i n ;
r o t a t i o n i^rith food and: commercial c r o p s with animal draught and
peasant-operated f a t t e n i n g .
P r o j e c t 5 . To e n s u r e c o o r d i n a t i o n and complementarity between t h e s e
b a s i c p r o j e c t s which could be s e p a r a t e d - a n d i s o l a t e d from each
o t h e r a s components of t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l ; SOLAR p r o j e c t , - a
c o o r d i n a t i o n u n i t i s envisaged a s a component of or associatesd
w i t h Comité I n t e r E t a t s pour l a L u t t e Centre l a Sécheresse au
Sahel (CILSS) a s t h e h o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n .
15, Views and recommendations of t h e p a n e l of GoveiTOnent
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s .The second m e e t i n g of t h e panel was
h e l d i n Ouagadougou a t t h e c o r d i a l i n v i t a t i o n of t h e Government of
Upper V o l t a on 22-25 November 1976o The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e main views and
recommendations of t h e meetings
a.
The meeting e x p r e s s e d unanimous support t o t h e s t r a t e g y of
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of c a t t l e p r o d u c t i o n both h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h i n
t h e Sahel and v e r t i c a l l y t h r o u ^ o u t e c o c l i m a t i c zones a s t h i s
approach r e f l e c t s t h e n a t i o n a l development p o l i c i e s f o r
animal p r o d u c t i o n i n a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned.
b.
Unanimous support was given t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e
a c t i o n i n o r d e r t o make p o s s i b l e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o o p e r a t i o n between
t h e s t a t e s . Government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e n t i f i e d b a s i c p r o j e c t s
f o r implementation w i t h i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s . I n some
c a s e s p r i o r i t i e s were a l l o c a t e d ,
c.
A p r o j e c t must be designed i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s t o c k r a i s e r s
so t h a t i t w i l l be u n d e r s t o o d and a c c e p t e d by them,
d.
The meeting recommended t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o j e c t s must be
c a r r i e d out under n a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , but f i r s t an
i n v e n t o r y of a v a i l a b l e manpower must be c a r r i e d o u t ,
e.
I t reccmmended t h a t a c o o r d i n a t i o n u n i t
i)
a s s u r e t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of p r o j e c t s ;
should;
ii)
iix)
ensure t h e t r a i n i n g of t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l ; and,
a c t a s an i n f o r m a t i o n c e n t r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e
g a t h e r i n g of d a t a from t h e p r o j e c t s , and t h e i r
s t o r a g e and d i s s e m i n a t i o n among t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g
states.
16, Links w i t h t h e P l a n of Action t o Comhat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n The proposed
t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t h a s t e c h n i c a l , economic and s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s
a f f e c t i n g many a s p e c t s of l i f e i n t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned.
Its
p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s have loeen i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e P l a n of A c t i o n .
The s t r a t e g y of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i o n i n i t s
implementation h a s been recommended f o r S i m i l a r e c o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ,
17» Follow-up Action P a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s and e x p e r t s recommended
t h a t a small m i s s i o n be sent t o v i s i t each of t h e c o u n t r i e s i n o r d e r t o :
a«
i d e n t i f y e x i s t i n g p r o j e c t s and programmes d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d
t o or d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e t h e same o b j e c t i v e s a s SOLAR;
b , • a s s e s s c o u n t r y needs and endorse n a t i o n a l
c.
priorities;
look i n t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of manpower r e q u i r e d f o r
implementation of SOLAR. This would a s s i s t i n advance
p l a n n i n g of t h e t r a i n i n g component s t r e s s e d d u r i n g t h e
discussions.
18. As a m a t t e r of u r g e n c y , t h e p a n e l r e q u e s t e d t h e S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e
Conference and CILSS t o i n i t i a t e p r e l i m i n a r y a c t i o n t o implement, SOLAR,
The panel a l s o r e q u e s t e d UNEP.and t h e Conference S e c r e t a r i a t . t o c o n t a c t
donor a g e n c i e s and c o u n t r i e s t o get t h e SOLAR p r o j e c t o f f t h e ground
and h e l p i n i t s implementation u n t i l i t a c h i e v e s i t s o b j e c t i v e s . Some
donors who a t t e n d e d t h e meeting agreed t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e p r o j e c t
and pledged t h e i r s u p p o r t .
7.
III.
MáMGMSíT. OF, THE MJOR REGIONAL AQUIEERS
lU -NORTHEAST AFRICA AND THE ARABIAN'
, . PENINSULA
19o C o i A t r i e s i n v o l v e d This study i n v o l v e s 12 c o u n t r i e s i n two s u b r e g i o n s l N o r t h e a s t A f r i c a i n c l u d e s Chad,. Egypt, Libya and Sudan;
t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l a i n c l u d e s B a h r a i n , Kuv-iait, Oman, t h e P e o p l e ' s
Democratic Republic of Yemen, Q a t a r , Saudi A r a b i a , t h e United Arab
B n i r a t e s , and t h e Yemen Arab Republic, Duo t o s i m i l a r i t y ; i n •
g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e p r e v a l e n c e of e s s e n t i a l l y a r i d c o n d i t i o n s i n modern t i m e s , . i t • a p p e a r s j u s t i f i e d t o i n c l u d e both
r e g i o n s i n one p r o j e c t ,
20, The Nature of t h e Problem N o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian
P e n i n s u l a r e p r e s e n t conspicuous c a s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The a r e a
of t h e r e g i o n i s about ^^ m i l l i o n km s u p p o r t i n g a p o p u l a t i o n of
more t h a n 80 m i l l i o n » With t h e e x c e p t i o n of two c o u n t r i e s , Egypt
and Sudan, t h e o t h e r t e n covered by t h i s study a r e almost
e n t i r e l y dependent on groundwater f o r t h e i r n e e d s , whether d o m e s t i c ,
a g r i c u l t u r a l or i n d u s t r i a l . Away from t h e N i l e V a l l e y , t h e o n l y ,
source of water i n Egypt and Sudan i s a l s o groundwatero
21, A l l t h e c o u i i t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s t u d y l i e e s s e n t i a l l y i n
an e c o l o g i c a l zone r a n g i n g from e x t r e m e l y a r i d t o a r i d , w i t h some
s e m i - a r i d p a t c h e s . I n t h e extreme s o u t h e r n p a r t s of t h e Sudan and
Chad t h e c l i m a t e p a s s e s i n t o t r o p i c a l ,
22o Desert encroachment has o c c u r r e d i n the. Arabian P e n i n s u l a and
north.east A f r i c a f o r t h e l a s t s e v e r a l t h o u ^ i d y e a r s and may have
a c c e l e r a t e d i n r e c e n t t i m e s by t h e a c t i o n s of man. Problems caused
by n a t u r e or man i n c l u d e i n t n i s i o n of s a l i n e sea w a t e r xíith
d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on groundwater p o t e n t i a l . The i n j e c t i o n of sea
or b r a c k i s h water i n t o o i l f i e l d s h a s - a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on "the f r e s h v/ater a q u i f e r s ,
2.3« N a t i o n a l concern and e f f o r t s
Most c o u n t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s study
have had l o n g concern m t h problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Their
e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n systems should be viewed a s e f f o r t s t o r e c l a i m
v a s t a r e a s o t h e r w i s e l o s t t o d e s e r t . I n r e c e n t y e a r s e f f o r t s have been
mounted t o a t t a c k t h e problem from s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . These i n c l u d e
improved management of groundwater r e s o u r c e s proper range management
and sand dune f i x a t i o n .
24o Problems and fflps i n knowledge The s i m i l a r i t y of t h e g e o l o g i c a l
and c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian
P e n i n s u l a h a s l e d t o t h e development of r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s of comparable
c h a r a c t e r i s t b s and with common problems. S u b s t a n t i a l knowledge h a s a l r e a d y
been a c q u i r e d on t h e r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s . Much remains t o be done, however,
t o e s t a b l i s h a sound d a t a b a s e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g g u i d e l i n e s and a c t i o n f o r
a q u i f e r management. Some v a s t a r e a s l a c k d a t a . I n o t h e r s , d a t a a l r e a d y
g a t h e r e d have not been p r o p e r l y d i s s e m i n a t e d . How much y i e l d can be
e x t r a c t e d without endangering groundwater p o t e n t i a l i n q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y ,
and a v a i l a b i l i t y needs t o be d e t e r m i n e d . I n a d d i t i o n ^ t h e r e i s o f t e n
l a c k of awareness of w a t e r problems by t h e water u s e r ,
a / Aa
8.
25» Problems i n c l u d e
t m r e l i a b i l i t y of some d a t a on groundwater
r e s o u r c e s , t h e l a c k of s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n and t h e
u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of c e r t a i n d a t a c o n s i d e r e d c o n f i d e n t i a l . There a r e
a l s o problems i n aquifer management caused by n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s or by
t h e impact of human communities on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e s e a q u i f e r s ;
f o r example, t h e i n t r u s i o n of s a l i n e water and t h e i n j e c t i o n of sea
or b r a c k i s h w a t e r i n t o o i l f i e l d s ,
260 The T r a n s i m t i o n a l P r o j e c t The study r e p o r t concludes t h a t t h e r e
i s no doubt t h a t i n t e r c o u n t r y c o o p e r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h e r e g i o n a l
l e v e l f o r studying shared a q u i f e r s , f o r screening, processing,
i n t e r p r e t i n g and i n t e g r a t i n g a l l d a t a a v a i l a b l e and f o r d e f i n i n g
management g u i d e l i n e s . I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o achieve c o o p e r a t i o n
a t t h e i n t e r - r e g i o n a l l e v e l f o r comparing e x p e r i e n c e , exchanging
i n f o i m a t i o n on methods and t e c h n o l o g i e s and f o r c a r r y i n g out i n t e r r e g i o n a l surveys and combining c o n s u l t a n t assignments t o reduce c o s t s .
Such c o o p e r a t i o n c a n b e s t be e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e e x e c u t i o n of a
transnational project,
27» Due t o t h e l a r g e a r e a of t h e p r o j e c t and t h e complexity of i t s
problems, p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r a one-year p r e p a r a t o i y phase d u r i n g
which a programme of a c t i v i t i e s c o v e r i n g a f o u r - y e a r o p e r a t i o n a l phase,
would be e l a b o r a t e d ,
28. The P r e p a r a t o r y Phase The b a s i c elements f o r a p r o j e c t c o v e r i n g
t h e p r e p a r a t o r y phase a r e t h e s e ;
a.
Objectives;
The l o n g - t e r m o b j e c t i v e of t h e p r o j e c t i s t o a r r i v e
r a t i o n a l , economical and c o n t i n u i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n .of
major r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s of n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e
P e n i n s u l a , This o b j e c t i v e i s t o . be reached t h r o u g h
c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n of t h e c o u n t r i e s ' i n v o l v e d .
at a
the
Arabian
the
Short-term objectives a r e ;
i)
. r.
To c o o r d i n a t e p r e s e n t or f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n s f o r
t h e e x p l o r a t i o n , assessment..^nd development of - '
groundvjater r e s o u r c e s i n t h e a q u i f e r s , e s p e c i a l l y
when such o p e r a t i o n é have t r a n s n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ,
This c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l be achieved through t h e
exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n on methods and t e c h n o l o g i e s
and t h e r e s u l t s of t h e o p e r a t i o n s ,
ii)
To s t a r t a d d i t i o n a l p i l o t s t u d i e s of a t r a n s n a t i o n a l
n a t u r e and t o i n t r o d u c e a p p r o p r i a t e methods and
technologies in t h e i r support.
iii)
To o r g a n i z e c o n t i n u i n g t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n f o r
t h e management of t h e a q u i f e r s based on p r o p e r
i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements,
iv)
v)
To c a r r y out an i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programme f o r
national personnel,
To p r e p a r e documents, such a s maps and r e p o r t s ,
p r o v i d i n g a b a s i s and g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e management
of t h e a q u i f e r s .
.......
b.
Institutional arrangements would include-;
i) A technical committee,
organiised at the country
level for all operations related to the aquifers,
ii) A technical steering committee, organized at the
regional level. It would include one representative
from each country of the regions, The steering
committee would designate a regional representative
who would assist in coordinating regional activities,
iii) An interregional coordinating office for the management
, of the regional aquifers (ICOMRA) would be established as
a project of the United Nations system. This office
would "be directed by an international expert (coordinator)
assisted by two regional representatives, consultants,
and any other required experts,
iv) The inter-regional coordination office would work in
close cooperation with all institutions and-projecte
dealing with the aquifers. The steering.committeestogether with the coordinating office would meet
periodically.
c. Work Programme
The proposed pilot projects are:
i) The exploration and development of an untapped
sandstone aquifer on the borders of Egyptf Chad,
Libya and the Sudan, Por this study the necessaiy
coordination would be affected with the projects now operating in Kufra (Libya) and in the New Valley
(Egyp-fc).
ii) The exploration and development of an untapped
sandstone aquifer on the borders of the People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the
Yemen Arab Republic,
iii) The exploration and development of sulmarine
springs in the Arab Gulf,
iv) The management of a limestone aquifer on the
eastern border of the Arabian Peninsula threatened
by seawater intrusion.
d«
Project support
i) External contribution
The external contribution is exclusively for the ,
orgamation ajid operation of ICOMRA. The costs for
personnel and equipment run to US$190,000,
ii) Governnont contribution
One Government would put office space at the disposal
of the project on a permanent basis. All Governments'
would put such facilities at the disposal of the
project on a temporary basis.
29. The Operational Phase;
a.
Objectives and ..iagráiutional arrangements are the same as for
•file preparatory phaseo It is expected that after one year
national, regional and interr-regional arrangements will have
iD'een made,
TD. 'GJIie work programme
.1' i)
would include five types of operations:
coordination of national activities;
ii) execution of transnational pilot projects;
:iii) institution "building for regional and inter-regional
activities;
iv) training; and, ' ,
v) preparation of comprehensive reports and maps,
30. The Views and Recommendations of the Panel of Gcfvemment
Representatives and Experts; The second meeting of this panel
was held on 7-10 December 197^ at^Doha, Qatar, at the cordial
invitation of the Government of Qatar, The following are the main
views and recommendations of the panel meeting:
a.
The meeting expressed, -unanimous support for transnational
cooperation for the management of regional aquifers and
also for the proposed transnational project.
b.
Individual Government representatives identified the
pilot projects in which their respective countries wished
to participate,
c.
Government representatives gave statements on present
projects which vrould "be complementary to or form part
'of the transnational project. They also provided"
infonnation and data requested for more accurate
formulation of the project,
31. Links to the Plan of Action to Com"bat Desertification
The
panel meeting recommended for inclusion,in the draft Plan of Action the
following proposals, (They are not reflected in the Second preliminary
draft of the Plan of Action "before the regional preparatory meetings as
the draft Plan v;as completed before the following recommendation had
been formulated),
a. Every facility and assistance should be extended to promote
inter-regional cooperation on matters related to the processes
of desertification and groundwater which-transcend national
boundaries,
b.
The plan should include a recommendation on the management
of major regional aquifers in arid regions with emphasis
on areas where the environment is threatened, and especially
wherever the supply of water is endangered in terms of
quantity, quality and availability. Special attention
should be given to groundwater bodies crossing an international
botmdary, for which transnational co-operation is essential.
lio
c. As this transnational project is a major venture in the field
of technical co-operation between developing countries and,
as such, contributes in a tangible manner to the build-up of
an indigenous scientific and technological capacity in areas
affected by desertification, the Plan of Action should bring,
such activities into sharp focus and recommend them for high
priority in financing and implementation.
d, A recommendation on the establishment of a large-scale data
bank, a water resources institute and a training institute
for water specialists, as well as on the preparation.of comprehensive plans for the development of water resources, was passed
to the consideration of the Secretariat of the United Nations
Water Conference for inclusion in their Plan of Action,
32. Follow-up To start implementation of the transnational project
the delegations of countries in the Arabian Peninsula intend to recommend
to the Conference of Ministers of Agriculture of the Arabian Peninsula
to be held in February 1977 that a technical steering committee be formed
as described above,
33o Governments in both subregions were virged to express officially their
interest and willingness to participate in a letter addrossod ta the
Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, As soon
as two or more countries from each region have expressed their interest,
steps will be taken to organize ICOMRA,.
34. As a positive step for immediate action, the Panel recommended that
countries involved should give priority to data collection on all aspects
of the aquifers.
12.
IV. TRANSNATIONAL
PROCESSES
PROJECT ON MONITORING DESERTIFICATION
AND RELATED NATURAL RESOURCES IN
SOUMffiST ASIA
35, Co-untries involved The study covers four coun-fcries: Afghanistan,
India,, Iran and Pakistan. What is learned with respect to desertification
is one vulnerable part of the region should "be readily related to an testable in other parts of the region.
36. The Mature of the desertification problem The deserts and their
margins in the re^n stiffers from extremes of temperature, aridity and
vdnd. Desertification in the form of deterioration and decrease of vegetative cover coupled with soil deterioration is widespread in the arid
and semi-arid lands in the region. This has been mainly caused by overgrazing, overexploitation of the ligneous vegetation for fuel and
construction, and clearing marginal land for opportunistic dry farming.
Smaller in extent, but nevertheless very important economically, is
the problem of waterlogging, salinization ánd alkalinization due to poor
irrigation practices.
37o The whole of Afghanistan, excepting only small areas in the east
and npiiiheast, is vulnerable to desertification, India is crossed by
a zone of arid and semi-arid land. Natural resource surveys have show
that 4«35 percent of western Rajasthan has already been.affegted by
desertification processes and that 76.15 percent (l62,900 km ) is
vulnerable. In western Rajasthan the cropping area has increased but the
net productivity of nearly all crops has decreased. It is estimated that
a forage deficit of 50 percent in I957 has increased to over 70 percent
today. Of Iran's I64 million hectares, it is estimatéd that about
80 million are sparsely vegetated and vulnerable to desertification
through excessive pressure by man. In Pakistan, desertification appears
in waterlogging and salinization on the one hand, and the deterioration
of rangelands on the other.
38. National concern and efforts The degree of concern with
desertification problems and the efforts directed against them vary in
the region. The Govemnent of India established a Desert Afforestation
and Soil Conservation Station at Jodhpur in 1952. In 1955, "this station
was upgraded as the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRl). Five
other institutions in India are concerned with one or another aspect of
desertification. Major efforts include the Rajasthan Canal started in
the early sixties to provide irrigation water for 11 percent (2.7 million'
hectares) of the total desert area, a World-Bank-assisted programme
known as "Drought Prone Area Programme", and the creation of the Desert
Development Commission for Rajasthan,
39* In Iran, consciousness of desertification problems has grown
steadily since the fifties. Public and Government awareness reached a
peak in 1975»
a coordinated programme for the conservation and
development of Iran's desert areas is novj being formulated.
A numberof institutions are concerned with research and development in and around
Iran's desert areas. Their activities include sand stabilization, watershed management and the improvement of rangelands and vegetation cover.
13
40o In Pakistan, salinity and xíaterlogging are major problems in
irrigated areas, wind and water erosion in rainfed areas. The Government's
concern with desertification has been grov/ing. As a result, several
institutions and programmes have been set up, including the Drainage and
Reclamation Institute of Pakistan and the Mona Reclamation Experimental
Project,
41. Problems and gaps in knowledge The countries involved in this
study are threatened with a similar range of desertification processes.
The feasibility study report deals with these in some detail for each
country. It goes on to state that the pressure of human use, which in
most situations has been increasing over recent decades has lessened
the productivity of ecosystems. As the ground 1 oses its cover, niicro«climates change and soils deteriorate and erode. These problems occur
throughout most of the area covered in this study.
42o The ability to move investments and switch resources into drylands
of low productivity is an important factor in the long term prospects
for the human use of systems in and around deserts. The technological
flexibility which characterizes most traditional land use patterns in
these areas is being lost or reduced because of changes in the larger
socio-economic system of which, they form a part and is a major cause
of increased pressure on resources leading to desertification.
43o Gaps in knowledge and training are essentially related to the
efficient monitoring of desertification processes and related natural
resources which is required for improved planning, management and
development. To be effective, monitoring requires a fairly complete
survey of natural resources. At present there are gaps in the natural
resource data base viiich camot be filled by conventional means except
at h i ^ cost. For this reason, the programmes could be immensely assisted
by the use of satellite imagery. Another gap relates to classification
of areas as to their potential,
44» The proposed transnational project was revised and adopted by the
panel in accordance with the following objectives?
45» The long-term objective of the project is to enhance the capabilities
of the individual countries of the region to combat desertification and
promote regional self-sufficiency. This objective would be pursued
primarily by means of a co-operative monitoring programme, initially
focused on pilot areas, in which satellite imagery would be processed
and interpreted at a regional centre and the results reported to national
committees for action,- The regional centre would also carry out other
functions that would allow the four countries to make the best use of
the total facilities and expertise available and maintain a working
relationship with remote sensing and desert research agencies in other
parts of the world.
9 4
46, The Institiiîonal Framework
Each country would set up a national . •
committee on desertification and appoint a representative to a regional
conimittee on desertification. The Regional Committee would function as '
the Governing Council of the Regional Centre, which would "be the physical
focus of the project, and would appoint its director.
47. Budget
The cost of setting up the project is estimated rou^ly
at US$657000 for the first year and US$4 million from the second to the
fifth years. The budget for the second five years m i l he estimated
on the hasis of a budgetary review at the end of the first two years,
48. Work Programme The Regional Committee would begin work as soon as
possible on the following tasks?
a.
Investigate possibilities for the establishment of
the Regional Centre,
b.
Draw up a list of training institutions in the
reôh, select suitable institutions for regional
•training responsibilities, ajld make reoommendations
- to the appropriate Governments,
c.
Investigate and identify sources of financing,
49.
The Regional Centre, as soon as established, shotild begin work on
the following;
i)
a documentation centre;
ii) the processing of satellite imagery for reports to
National Committeesi
iii) liaison with other international programmes and M S A |
iv) assisting Governments to increase public awareness of
desertification problems throughout the regioni
v)
vi)
a detailed proposal for a regional training programmej
remote sensing monitoring techniquesj and,
vii) regional implementation of the Plan of Action voted on
by the Desertification Conference,
• 50, Vievjs and Recommendations of the Panel of Government Representatives
and Bgperts The second meeting of this panel was held on 3-6 January ,1977
at Jodhpur at the cordial invitation of the Government of India, "Iê
following are its main views and recommendationsÍ
a.
The meeting eaqjressed manimous support for transnational
cooperative activity in monitoring desertification
processes and related natural resources, approving the
project as described in the previous section. It was
considered important to start the project immediately
in order to achieve some results before the Conference
and not to lose the momentum already generated. The
panel, therefore, recommended that the first and
„immedi at e_-st ep _ ,sh oul d be _the_est.abl i shaent _ of, a
Regional Committee on Desertification,
«
j,,
15.
b.
On the proposal included in the draft study
regional centre in Iran to facilitate close
with the satellite receiving station there,
was expressed that Iran would consider this
to site the
cooperation,
the hope
favourahly,
c.
To establish a strong base at, the country level for
effective work to combat desertification, the.Panel
recommended the immediate cEcation of National Committees
on Desertification representing the various disciplines
relevant to the problem.
d.
In order to make the best use of existing facilities
and to spread the activities of the project as ^íidely
as possible through the region, several training
centres instead of one should be established,
51» Links to the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification The panel
agreed to present the following recommendations for inclusion in the
proposed Plan of Action to Combat Desertifications
a»
It is recommended that regional centres be established
for groups of countries that are particularly
vulnerable to desertification and share ecological and
ctiltiiral conditions to assist in the coordination of
national programmes and organize maximum use of expertise
available in the region,
bo
It is recommended táat specific international procedures
be established for monitoring and assisting the progress
of transnational and regional projects aimed at combating desertification»
c.
Since attention to the human factor in desertification
has, until recently, been generally neglected, it is
recommended that special attention be given at the
international level to harnessing expertise in the
analysis and treatment of the humanfactor,
52, Follow-up
As it vias considered important to start the project
immediately, each Government was urged to appoint its representative to
the Regional Committee on Desertification. Governments were requested
to convey their decision to the Secretary-General of the United Nations
Conference on Desertification» Each of the four Governments was urged
to establish its National Committee with inter-disciplinary composition.
The National Committee should embark immediately on preparations related
to the requirements of the transnational project, particularly in the
selection of pilot areas, and in inventories of training centres.
Ifa,
53. Considering the -urgency of the desertification prohlem in
Southwest Asia, the Panel requested the Secretary-General.of the United
Nations Conference on Desertification to arrange the first meeting of
the Regional Committee as soon as countries have designated their
representatives to that body. The meeting may he held in one of the
countries involved and representatives of the United Nations family
and other interested international organizations may he invited to
attend.
17.
V.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF A PROPOSED TRANSNATIONAL
PROJECT ON MONITORING DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES
AND RELATED NATURAL RESOURCES IN CRITICAL AREAS
OF SOUTH AMERICA
54. The couiitries involved in this study are Argentina, Brazil, Chile
and Peru. Kie study focuses on the dryland regions extending from the
Peruvian coast to Pc.tngonia- it also includes the semi-arid areas of
northeast Brazil»
The Nature of the desertification probleia in these countries The
area identified in this study as vulnerable to desertification,includes
2.5 million km . As in other parts of the world desertification results
here from an interaction between land-use pressures, climate, geology,
soils £nd natural vegetation. The most important processes appear as
a decrease in rangeland productivity due to -uncontrolled grazing,
accelerated xiind and water erosion and a loss of irrigated land due
to salinization,
5.6 There has been a significant loss of agricultural productivity in
this region over the last 50 years, but neither the extent of loss nor
its present rate can be estimated accurately» However, some losses have
been identified in certain countrieso In Argentina, of an original 25
million hectares of hardwood forest, only 1-|- million remain, and of
60 million hectares of all forest, I6 million remain. Pire is
destroying vegetation in the central area of the country at a rate
estimated at 100 km" annually. Inadequate control of grazing has
caused a decline in herbaceous and shrub varieties and an increase in
less desirable vegetation. About two million hectares of irrigated
land have declined in productivity due to salinization and alkalinization,
while erosion has caused extensive degradation and gullying,
57, As in Argentina, desertification processes in Chile have been the
result of extensive cutting of forests for timber, overgrazing andinappropriate cultivation practices. Ecological deterioration has followed,
as evidenced bys
a. the formation of sand dunes due to loss of stabilizing
vegetationi
b.
the formation of gravel and rock surfaces due to loss
of, soil J
c.
the accmulatinn of salts and loss of productivity
of irrigated agricultural land due to the use of
saline water in poorly drained soils| eni,
do
the loss of soil by water erosion on bare cultivated
fields.
58. National concern and efforts All countries involved in this study
have been concerned with dryland problems including the special problems
of desertification. The reasons behind their concern include: the need
to conserve natural resources threatened by irrational exploitation; •
the need to expand crop production because of population growthj and,
the need to improve standards of living in arid and semi-arid areas.
18.
59» In each of these countries, institutions and universities are
involved in studies, e3q)erimentation and programmes relating to
dryland problems in general and desertification in particular.
Inventories of these institutions were presented to the first
meeting of the panel of Government representatives and experts
convened for this study in San Martin, Argentina, 26-29 April 1976»
60, Problems and Gaps in Knowledge The problem facing these countries
is declining productivity and resultant economic losses. Related to •
this is the need to assign priorities to areas according to their
classification as to high or low potential. This cannot be done without
a complete survey of resources. Several gaps need to be bridged.
Declining productivity and resource potential cannot, be assessed
without effective monitoring using satellite imagery combined with aerial
photography and ground surveys.
61, The Transnational Project If the countries involved are to
establish programmes to control desertification and to reclaim lost
productivity, a better understanding of the extent and rate of
desertification as well as the potential of natural resources must be
developed. If such programmes are to be implemented, continuous
monitoring will be reqiir-ed to evaluate the approach taken and to modify
the programme when necessary. The proposed transnational project would
be organized as follows;
62, While it is anticipated that measures to control and reverse
desertification would be undertaken on a national basis, it is felt
that regional cooperation vrould be valuable in order to share technical
expertise, to develop standardized monitoring techniques and data bases,
and to facilitate the transfer of successful measures for the control
of desertification.
63, The monitoring of soil and vegetation patterns over the large
area of concern can be done by a multistage approach based on satellite
imagery analyzed in conj\mction xvith available aerial photography and
ground-s-urvey data. Where the interpretation of data is uncertain or
where more detailed informatdon is required, ground surveys or new aerial
photography may be required,
64, The approach proposed in this study should first be tested in
small pilot projects with test areas in each of the countries involved
over a period of about five years. On the basis t)f theGOL.projécts,
the approach would be refined; estimates of the required financial,
technical and organization resources would be made and a programme to
monitor the larger area of concern would be drawn up,
65, The long-term objective of the project is to enhance the
capabilities of the countries involved to combat desertification, .. The
immediate objective is to assess the technical, organizational and
political feasibility of transnational cooperation in monitoring
desertifLcation processes. Specifically, an assessment is required of:
a,
the use of satellite data as a basis for a continuing :
•nTOi'T'cimmp n-F m n-n -i +
™.
ly.
b,
the value of a computerized resource inventory
Eystem for management and planning; and,
c, the advantage of sharing facilities, expertise and
experience among the countries involved. The duration
of the project is five years and its estimated cost
for the whole period is US$ 1,8 million¿_
66, Institutionái Framework arid Implementation The implementation
of the proposed project requires the following steps:
i
a. In order to continue the work which has heen done with ' .
the least possible delay, the Governmenta should
immediately designate a representative to a Regional
Committee, and the Committee should meet to plan the
transnational project in greater detail and investigate and identify sources of funding.
b.
The Gdvornnoot^, should establish Natiopal,Committees
on Dcsertificafion'to"'coorjffliaie''national programmes
with the transnational project, establish a national
data base for monitoring desertification, and identify
national institutions which can provide training in
relevant disciplines,
c. As the national data bases are established, and
as satellite and other data are collected and guialyzed,
the national committees and the regional committee
should consider the need for facilities which could
perform the following functions on a regional basis:
i) provide a reference system for remote sensing
imagery, maps, literature and other useful
documentati on j
ii) process satellite imagery and provide other
data processing servicesj
iii) establish efficient communication channels
with M S A and other relevant organizations
outside the region;
iv) assist Governments in increasing public
awareness of the processes of desertification in the region; and,
v)
develop training programmes to ensure that
trained scientists and technicians in all
relevant disciplines will be available to
carry out an ongoing programme to combat
desertification.
67, The second meeting of the panel is scheduled to be held 17 - 19
February in Lima, Peru,
20.
VI.
TRANSNATIONAL
NORTHERN
SAHARA
GREEH BELT
68, The study covers the five countries on the northern side of
the Sahara, namely Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. In
each of them, a programme or a project to fight desertification is
"being formulated or implemented. The great advantê in coordina,-,
ting these national programmes and"projects constitutes the basis
for studying the feasibility of a transnational cooperative
activity which links the cotintries' initiatives, A meeting of
Ministers of the coimtries concerned is to be héld on 5 February
in Cairo,
VII.
FEASIBILITY
STUDY ON A
GREEN
TRMSNATIOML
SAHEL
BELT
69, The proposed Green Belt extends from the Atlantic to the Red
Sea. The countries concerned are: Chad, Mali, Mauritanin, Niger,
Senegal, Sudan and Upper Volta. Gape Verde and Gambia will also
be considered in the study. These are the countries on the southern
side of the Sahara and are most affected "by desertification processes
accentuated by the recent drought, A study of whether such measures
can be introduced is being completed.
UNITED N A T I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N
DESERTIFICATION
T R A N S N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I O N TO C O M B A T DESERTIFICATION
Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources
in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study
An Abridgement
PREPARED O N THE O C C A S I O N OF THE R E G I O N A L
PREPARATORY M E E T I N G FOR THE AMERICAS
ITEM 5
OF
THE P R O V I S I O N A L A G E N D A FOR THE PREPARATORY M E E T I N G
FOR THE AMERICAS
Santiago, Chile
Secretariat of the United Nations
Conference on Desertification
Lima
19 February 1977
23 - 2 6 February 1977
FEASIBILITY S T U D Y O N M O N I T O R I N G DESERTSFiCATiON PROCESSES A N D RELATED
N A T U R A L RESOURCES I N CRITICAL AREAS O F S O U T H A M E R I C A
I
INTRODUCTION
This study coneludes fhat remete sensing teshnsbgy ean be us©d f©r monitoring deserti-
fication processes in th® arid and semi-arid regions ©f Argentina^, ChiS© and Peru, and pro poses a pilot project t© adapt the teehnebgy t© the needs
this Fggien and evaluate the
usefulness of monitoring as parr ©f pregiammes t© eemba*' deseft-iiiieaileri.
It should be re-
cognized that the teehnology proposed here is not unique te th© preblems ©f South America^
and if the proposed epproaeh proves t@ be vaiuabi®^ it eouid bo readily applied to other
parts of the world.
II
NATURE A N D EXTENT Q j L D l S E j l l B C M l O N
The area under eonsideration is the brood band of arid end semi-erid lands extending
diagonally across the eontinent from the Peruvian eeast^, thfough ríorrhem Chile and western
Argentina, to Patagonia,
There are two factors which deminafe the atmespherle circulation
in this region and determine the preeipitatien patterns^, the s@Sd Humboldt eyrrent flowing
northward along the Paeific coast^ and th© Andes meuntain ebain whiel^ serves as a barrier
preventing humid air masses from erossing the eontinent,
The total area in this region vul -
nerable to desertifieatien is about 2,500,000 Km^, g@vef»ng 6 0 % ©f AirgentínQ and Chile
and 25% of Perú^ ineluding the most highly p@pul@)ted regiom.
It is widely agreod that there has been a signSfieent i@ss ©f ag'ieulf-yrei prodyetivity In
this region over the lest 50 years^. bur neither ih© ©«tent
can be estimated aeeyrately.
no» the present rate of loss
As in other parts ©f the warid^ the d@se«tifieatÍ0n processes
result from on interaetion between th© pressure ©f bnid uhQ,, the rjimatelogieaf ehotaetetistics of the region^, th© geology and soils of the region, ond the nafuial vegetation .
_2 .
ARGENTINA
In a large part of Argentina, the vegetation exists in a precarious balance. While in
many regions this balance has been respected and preserved, in others there has been a progressive deterioration and ultimately abandonment of the land® The population of the drylands tends to be rather mobile, and this factor, combined with the division of the land int© either very extensive or very small holdings, discourages the capital investment and the
scientific management necessary to maintain and improve productivity.
Although it is impossible to make accurate estimates of the total economic loss due to
desertification, some losses can be identifiedo
O f 25 million hectares of hardwood forest, only 1^/2 million remain. Cutting has con
tinued since the 19th century in all of the warm semi-arid regions. O f 60 million hec_
tares of all forest, 16 million remain.
Fire is destroying vegetation in the central areas of the country at a rate estimated at
100 Km2, annually.
Inadequate control of grazing has caused the decline of the desirable herbaceous and
shrub varieties and an increase in vegetation types that do not provide productive
grazing»
Some 2 million hectares of irrigated land have declined in productivity due to salinization, alkalinization, and contamination resulting from inappropriate irrigation systems and low quality water supplies.
Erosion by wind, streamflow, and rainfall runoff has caused extensive soil degradation
and gullying»
CHILE
In Chile as in Argentina, the important processes of desertification are uncontrolled
cutting of forests for timber, overgrazing of natural pasture, and inappropriate cultivation
systems. These processes are widespread throughout northern Chile particularly in the N^r
te Chic© where the destruction of the natural vegetation has had the greatest impact.
-3 There is no data available on the extent of economic losses caused by desertification in
Chile, but a number of processes are evident:
formation of sand dunes due to loss of stabilizing vegetation
formation of gravel and rock surfaces due to loss of soil
solidification of clay or bogs due to lack of organic matter and to alternating periods of
drought and rainfall
decreased retention of fresh water
accumulation of salts and loss of productivity of irrigated agricultural land due to use
of saline water in poorly drained soils
loss of soil by water erosion on bare cultivated fields
PERU
In Peru the arid regions are of the greatest importance because of their contribution to
the national economy, concentrating approximately 80% of its population and almost all the
agricultural, industrial and mining activity of the country. This demographic pressure and
the resulting economic and social disjustment have caused the misuse of the natural resources resulting in desertification.
The overcutting of woods for various uses, the over-irriga-
tion in the alluvial valleys, the over grazing, the over intensive utilization of the land
under inappropriate conditions and with primitive methods and the deterioration of the en vironment by the solid, liquid and gaseous effluents from the mining activity is an example
of this extensive process»
While it is impossible to estimate the economic losses caused by desertification in Perú,
some indication can be given of the areas affected by the desertification processes.,
O f 800,000 Ha o of irrigated agricultural land in the coastal desert, approximately
300,000 Ha, have been affected by salinization and poor drainage in different degrees.
The Northern Coast forests, covering approximately i;000,000 Ha., suffering a dramatic yearly decrease through indiscriminate felling and over grazing.
These woods now
extend to the central and interior areas of the Lambayeque, Piura and Tumbes depart ments, whereas there are references indicating that they were previously very near
to
the sea and twice their present area»
The "Coastal Lomas, covering an area of about 800,000 Ha., are decreasing in exten -
- if s i o n and q u a l i t y o f v e g e t a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e man-made
ecological
c h a n g e s and i n t h e p a s t e x c e e d e d 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Ha.
-
The i n t e n s i v e u s e o f s t e e p l a n d on t h e W e s t e r n Andean S l o p e s and
t h e i n t e r a n d e a n v a l l e y s and t h e o v e r g r a z i n g i n t h e h i g h Andean
r e g i o n s h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e s o i l q u a l i t y and r e s u l t e d i n a r a p i d
d e c r e a s e of t h e v e g e t a t i v e
-
cover.
The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e l a n d and v e g e t a t i o n i n t h e upper p a r t
the r i v e r b a s i n s i n the c o a s t a l region cause periodic
and l a t e r a l
-
erosion in the irrigated a l l u v i a l
landslides
valleys.
The c o n t i n u o u s e o l i c a c t i o n i s a l t e r i n g m a r k e d l y t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e i r r i g a t e d
soil
coastal
v a l l e y s a s w e l l a s i n t h e newly i r r i g a t e d r e g i o n s i n t h e
that join these
of
areas
valleys.
I l l THE ROLE OF MONITORING
T h i s study does not d e a l w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of whether d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
is
c a u s e d by t h e c l i m a t e o r by man.
i s variable,
Rather i t a s s u m e s t h a t t h e
b o t h i n t h e s h o r t term and t h e l o n g term, and t h a t
climate
man's
a c t i v i t i e s must b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c u r r e n t c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s
maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y i s t o b e a t t a i n e d .
if
I t i s a p p a r e n t from t h e
p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n t h a t i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t t e r n s o f l a n d u s e e x i s t i n many
areas i n Argentina,
has d e c l i n e d .
C h i l e and P e r u , and t h a t ,
as a result,
To c o n t r o l and r e v e r s e t h i s d e c l i n e ,
productivity
national
a r e r e q u i r e d t o promote a p p r o p r i a t e s y s t e m s o f l a n d u s e .
programmes
While i t
would
b e t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o b e d e t a i l e d p e r i o d i c s u r v e y s o f l a n d u s e eind
land c a p a b i l i t y i n the region,
and,
would be a s l o w and e x p e n s i v e
process
s i n c e most o f t h i s l a n d i s i n h e r e n t l y o f l o w p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
s u c h an
e x p e n s e c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d .
it
The problem t h e r e f o r e i s t o d e v e l o p a
r a p i d and i n e x p e n s i v e s y s t e m f o r i d e n t i f y i n g and s t u d y i n g t h o s e
where s u b s t a n t i a l l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y h a s o c c u r r e d ,
l i k e l y t o occur i n t h e near
areas
i s occurring,
or
future.
The d a t a t h a t h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d by r e m o t e s e n s i n g s a t e l l i t e s
the l a s t
f e w y e a r s p r o v i d e s a new and u s e f u l t o o l w i t h w h i c h t o
t h i s problem.
in
tackle
S i n c e 1 9 7 2 t h e U . S . LAWDSAT s a t e l l i t e s h a v e b e e n
c o l l e c t i n g data over the e n t i r e world,
without r e s t r i c t i o n .
times in the l a s t
times a year.
is
and t h e d a t a h a v e b e e n
For most a r e a s d a t a h a v e b e e n a c q u i r e d
distributed
several
f i v e y e a r s and i n some a r e a s a r e b e i n g c o l l e c t e d many
-5 While these satellites provide the best available data for large area surveys of ecological systems and ecological change, they cannot provide all the needed information.
In
areas where more detailed or quantitative data are required or where the interpretation
of
the satellite data is not clear, additional information must be obtained from other sources
including high altitude aircraft, low altitude aircraft, and ground surveys. In general,
more precise information is acquired on the ground or at low altitude but at higher cost.
The design of a large areas survey, therefore must use various levels so as fo acquire a maximum of useful information at minimum cost.
In general, the monitoring of vast areas of drylands that are generally of low economic
productivity conljsts of the following steps:
1)
determination of what information is required at what level of detail, and how recent;
2)
evaluation of the existing satellite data, aerial photography, maps and ground
survey data with respect to the required information;
3)
extraction of as much information as possible from the satellite data;
4)
acquisition of new aerial photography and ground survey data if necessary to complete the information required.
The management of large quantities of data from diverse sources can be handled
efficiently and Inexpensively by recently developed computer techniques for data storage
and retrlevof o Resource data can be taken from various sources, at various scales,and with
various degrees of accuracy and placed on a reliable base map for easy reference and use.
The geographical area is divided Into elements of any convenient size on the basis of an
appropriate coordinate system.
The characteristics of each element, with respect
to
climate^ geology^ soils^ etc,, can then be classified from remote sensing imagery or other
observations, and computer based maps of these factors can be generated. Given a model
which relates potentiol for a particular land use to these features, the computer can
then
classify each element as more or less suitable for that use. As new data are added periodically, the old data are retained and maps of changes in land use patterns or soil and vegetation conditions can be generated.
If satellite data are available frequently, the extent
arid nature of seasonal change can be mapped, and as new satellites with new sensors such
as thermal sensors are launched over the next few years, new data can easily be added to
the system.
-6 To adapt the technology to the ecological conditions and technical resources of
the
project region and to determine the value of the monitoring programme under the prevail ing economic and social conditions, a test project will prepare such an information system
for pilot areas in each of the countries involved. From the results of such a test project,
the proposed approach can be refined, the usefulness of such system can be evaluated and
the costs of extending the system to cover the entire area can be accurately assessed,
IV
THE T E C H N O L O G Y OF M O N I T O R I N G
To demonstrate the concept of the computerized data base and information system, a
data base was set up for an area of one L A N D S A T image, 185 km. by 185 km.; centred
around Mendoza, Argentina.
This area was selected because considerable resource infor-
mation was available and because the scope of this study did not permit field wor|c or
aerial photography.
The proposed project includes extensive field work and mapping of
areas where little informotlon now exists.
The sample maps that were generated are the following:
Basic Data Maps
Soils
Vegetation
Geology
Salinity
Evaluation Map
Pasture Potential
The advantages of such a computer based information system over conventional cartographic approaches are three: (1) the basic data are registered according to geographic
coordinates in an easily accessible and easily updated form;
from the basic data, the
system can generate maps of development potential at any scale, and the models which
relate development potential to basic data can be easily changed; and (3) for inventory
purposes, the system can automatically measure the area of any feature.
-7 V
O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF THE PROJECT
A,
Institutional Arrangement-s
The purpose of the pilot project is to assess organizational and political feasibility of
transnational cooperation in monitoring the processes of desertification^ Specifically,
an
assessment is required of (1) the use of satellite data as a basis for a continuing programme
of moniforing ecological change; (2) the value of a computerized resource inventory system
for management and planning and (3) the advantage of sharing facilities, expertise and experience between the countries involved.
The assessment of the technology requires a small scientific group with adequate technical and administrative support. All of the countries involved have competent scientists
and institutions in the disciplines involved in ecological change, and appear to have computer facilities which could be programmed with the data base system.
While information
and expertise will be needed from a number of institutions in each country, it would seem
appropriate that one scientific institution in each country, be given overall responsibility
for the scientific aspects of the project.
Some training in specific techniques of remote sensing interpretation will be required,
and it is proposed that technical people from each country receive practical training at
appropriate training institutions.
In addition, international experts should work in the
countries involved to assist with technical implementation and to assist the trained local
personnel in further training.
An objective of the programme should be to make the region self-reliant in the fight
against desertification. Since this will require a large number of trained specialists, the
project should include the identification of existing institutions in the region which can
provide training relevant to desertification and which might serve as regional centres of
expertise.
The assessment of the value of the proposed information system for management and
planning purposes Is complex and requires that the scientific team have close connections
with and the full support of the planning agencies.
It must be emphasized that the com -
puterized data base is more a management facility than a scientific research facility, and
its value can only be assessed by an agency with management and planning functions. Such
-
8
-
an agency should therefore be designated to work with the scientific
institution to ensure that the information system is organized to serve
national policy.
To ensure that the activities of the various programmes
and institutions concerned with desertification are coordinated with the
project, National Committees on desertification should be established in
each country.
These Committees should include representatives of a range
of disciplines including the social sciencies as well as the natural
sciencies.
Since resource management is basically a national responsibility,
each country should designate a scientific institution and a planning
agency to manage and evaluate the project«
The problems of
desertification are common to all of the countries, and since there axe
similarities in the social and economic conditions of the countries, it
would be wasteful for each country to carry out the proposed studies
independently.
The remote sensing and information system technology is
common to all countries, and the exporiences of cach country in applying
the information system to resource managemenb will certainly be valuable
to the other countries»
The facilities for receiving and processing
satellite data are very expensive and should serve the entire region of
coverage if possible, and the training programme and the visit of expert
consultants can be more efficiently organized on a regional basis.
To
carry out these general policies of regional cooperation, a Regional
Committee on Desertification should be established consisting of
representatives of the governments concerned.
The Regional Committee
should meet at least twice a year with appropriate consultants and
representatives of international organizations.
If necessary the
Committee might establish a peiraanent secretariat or technical centre to
provide continuous coordination and expert assistance to the national
programmes.
If the project is to monitor ecological change, it should be
continued for a minimum of five years since it will require several years
to establish a solid data base and five to ten years to demonstrate
significant changes in the ecology of the region.
At the end of two or
three years, however, it should be possible to evaluate the costs and the
value of expanding the programme, and planning for the next phase could
begin at that time.
A preliminary evaluation of the project should
therefore be prepared at the end of the second year and should make
recommendations for the organization and funding of a permanent programme
r.nmhat
rtfi
ration»
-9B,
Financial Requirements
While it is not possible to establish the exact financial requirements of the proposed 5
year project, some estimates can be made of the initial expenditures and of the operational
costs=
!i is estimated that about $310^000 per country would be required as initial expenses
for equipment, training and consultants^ and about $140^000 per country per year would be
required for operational expenses,
Vi
iMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of the proposed pilot project requires the following steps;
1,
In order to continue the work which has been done with the least possible delay,
the
governments should immediately designate representatives to the Regional Committee,
and the Committee should meet to plan the transnationol project in greater detail and
invesHgate and Identify sources of funding»
2o
The governments should establish National Committees on Desertification to coordinate
national programmes with the transnotional project, establish national data bases for
monitoring desertification, and identify national institutions which can provide train Ing In relevant disciplines^
3o
As the national data bases are established, and as satellite data and other data are col'iected and analyzed, the National Committees and the Regional Committee should
consider the existence of and need for facilities which could perform the following
functions on a regional basis;
a,
provide a reference system for remote sensing imagery, maps, literature and other
useful documentation^"
bo
process satellite Imagery and provide other data processing services;
c.
establish efficient communication channels with N A S A and other relevant organizations outside the ragion;
d=
assist governments in increasing public awareness of the processes of desertification
In the region;
e.
develop training programmes to ensure that (rained scientists and technicians In all
relevant disciplines will be avoilable to carry out an ongoing programme to combat
TRANSNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
FEASIBILITY STUDIES
A REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT OF THE UNITED
NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETINGS
FOR THE CONFERENCE
Add. 1
ITEM 5
OF
THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR
THE AMERICAS
Santiago, Chile 23-26 February 1977
AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA .
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 12-16 April 1977
Algarve, Portugal 28 March-l April 1977
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
New Delhi, India 19-23 April 1977
P.O. Box 30552
NAIROBI.
February 1977
77-2-0359-150
- 1 -
of -Governmenj:
/JThevi^ws and recommendatioris jP.f ;jtiie
R ^ re sen t a t iv e s and Experts»
The secoiid meéting óf this Panel
was held on 17-19 February 1977 at Lima, Peru, at the cordial
invitation of the Peruvian. Government.
The following are the main
views and recommendations of the Panel meeting:
(a) The meeting expressed unanimous support for transnational
co-operative activity in monitoring desertification processes,
approved the main elements of the transnational project aind endorsed
a minimum, period of five years for the project»
, (b) The Panel recognized that the proposed list of features
to be. monitored should not be regarded as definitive and will
likely be modified as the project progresses.
Erosion was recommended
for inclusion in the list and the use of remote sensing for studying
historical land use and settlement patterns was recommended for
consideration.
(c) The budget and time periods proposed for experts and
training in the draft feasibility study report
were accepted as
reasonable. . However, it: was recommended that a detailed proposal
on equipment,1 training, staff, operational requirements:and costs
should be prepared by a study group established by the regional
committee.
LA^kg- to
an^ of Action to Combat Desei^t jfica.tion. The
Panel recommended the following to be considered for inclusion in
the proposed Plan of Action to Combat Desertificationi
(a) Realizing the importance of surveys of natural resources
and monitoring of desertification processes in vast areas under high
or medium vulnerability maximxiin use should be made of the available
advanced technology of remote sensing in combination with other
techniques in obtaining results in the shortest possible time and
at comparatively cheaper costs.
(b) Since monitoring can serve a useful purpose only if it
forms part of a programme to- combat, desertification, and since, in
many countries, there exist project proposals, study groups and
/committees related
- 2 -
committees related to desertification, it is essential thát monitoring
projects be integrated with existing national and inteinatioiial
programmes and policieso
69»
Follow-up.
As it was considered important to start the
project immediately the Panel recommended that:
(a) Each government concerned should be urgfed to appoint its
representative to the ¡Regional co-ordinating committée and establish
iiis national multidisciplinary co-ordinating committee =
(b) The designation of a country representative to the regional
committee should be communicated to the Secretary General of the
United Nátions Conference on Desertification who has been-rteûested
by the Pánel to arrange administratively and financially for convening
the first meeting óf the regional committee.
VI= .-TRANSNATIONAL NORTHERN SAHARA GREEN BEIS' •
70.
The study covers the five countries' on 'the northferri side of
the Sahara, namely Algeria, ¡Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisiáo '- In
each of them, a programme or a project to fight-d'esertificatiori is
being formulated! or implemented.
The gieat advantage in cd-brdiriating
these national programmes and projects constitutes the basis for
studying the feasibility of a transnational cb-operative activity
which links tixe countries' initiatives.
71.
Tj^ Natuige of the Deg_ertificatîon :^roblems in these countries;
Desert occupies three quarters or móre of the three big countries
(Algeria, Egypt and Libya) in North Africa.
Generally the gréater'"
part of North Africa is characterized by an arid climate which gives
rise to a vast desert north of lóQN.
Rainfall over a large part
of the area is less than 25 mm a year.
72.
The climate of the North African arid zone could conveniently
be divided into desert, sub-desert and Mediterranean.;'" The threat
of
desertification is faced in the latter two areas.
In the sub-
desert, about 25 per cent of the area is covered with vegetation,"
although much vegetation has been degraded over the millenia.
/The forest
- 3 -
The forest has almost disappeared due to uncontrolled burning and
overgrazing»
Several thousand heC;tares of grazing steppe or,
agricultural land are being lost annually to the deserto
Soil
: ,
erosion has affected extensive areas of land in all five countries
and marching sand dunes blown by wind have decreased the area of
productive agricultural lands, . They have also caused severe damage
to villages and transportation routes.,
73• -
National Cone ern
...
.
^
National concern with problems of desertification dates back
several decades in all countries of North Africa»
In Morocco,
efforts have mainly been directed towards prevention of soil erosion
and deforestation.
In Egypt and Libya,.sand-dune fixation and land
reclamation have been the principal goals.
The .study cites several projects, which have been implemented,
and the successes achieved and also records the amount of lands
reclaimed.
In Algeria, the most important measure undertaken to
combat desertification is the.planning and initiation of a Green
Barrier across the country to protect an area of 3»5 million
hectares.
In Tunisia, nearly two-thirds of the land is threatened
by desert encroachment.. This serious situation has prompted the
Government to formulate and initiate programmes of sand-dune fixation,
development and tnanagement of natural range, afforestation and;other
projects designed to prevent soil erosion and ecosystem degradation.
Problems and Gaps.,
The .deserts in the five countries comprise extensive bodies of
sand .dunes and sandy soils.
Movement, of sand by wind, causes great
damage when sand overwhelms villages, farms, roads and fertile soils
which are under cultivation or used for grazing.
Accordingly, it is
essential that measures should be, taken to prevent and stop sand-dune
mobility to avoid endangering the. present populations.
The feasibility
report describes the problems o-f soil degradation caused by various
types of soil erosion and state.s that millions of hectares are
vulnerable to desertification processes of one type or another in all
five countries.
/75. Effective
_ if -
75» • Effective measures to combat desertification require a
determination of the areas most vulnerable to the hazards of
desertificationo
Detailed maps showing degree of vulnerability do
not exist and this constitutes a gap which calls for immediate
attention.
Although a great deal of work has' been done, there.still
appears to be a need for mapping of vegetation and its classification,
and the determination of the carrying capacities of natural pastures.
Certain methods used in sand-dune fixation in some countries need
to be tested and adapted to conditions in the other countries in
the region facing the same problems.
The report also points out
the need to expand studies related to the control iof biotic and
a.biotic agents which endanger plant life.
The Transnational Project
•
The proposed transnational project is primarily directed towards
co-ordination of national initiatives in the five, countriea an
setting up the intergovernmental machinery required to. pursue this
co-ordination.
The'main features of the project are described in
the following paragraphs.
77.
The Green Belt, is an interconnected belt across these five
countries at the fringes of the areas where rainfall rangea from • ^
150 to 250 mm per year.
The green belt should not be conceived as
a wall of tress-grown perpendicular to the wind direction in order
to reduce itsWelocity.
It: is á zone comprising a variety of deyices
for the prevention of further degradation of the ecosystem and the
creation of an improved habitat.
Soil stabilization, moisture
conservation, afforestation, range improvement, appropriate plant,
and animal husbandry and dryland farming are among these devices.
These need tó be integrated within the green belt.
The width Of the green belt will depend upon local climatic and
topographic conditions.
It may vary between a few to tens of
kilometers. The exact location in each country will be determined
after further study.
Existing and on-going national schemes will be
taken into considerationi
/Within the
- 5 -
V/ithin the proposed green beltvthere may exist farms,
shelterbelts, wóodlands, ranges and other forms of land use.
Each
type should be treated separately and,there may be variations in
structure and tsomposition from one location to another.
' 78.
Protocol on Co-operation between North African Countries in
Combatting: Desertification
It consists of a preamble which describes the dangers facing
the countries concerned from desert creep, the need for international
and transnational co-operation to put an effective barrier against
desertification.
In its operative sections the protocol establishes
a permanent Joint Committee, with specific objectives and terms of
reference.
It also states the procedure and practical steps including
a proposal for finances required to put the committee into action.
79.
The Permanent Joint Committee is a regional body to be created
by the protocol after signature by the five governments.
Each
government is to be represented by one member on the committee.
The
broad terms of reference of this Coraraittee are the planning of a
"transnational Green Belt", its implementation, and the co-ordination
of the existing national desertification projects.
The Committee
would have a technical and administrative secretariat.
The
Governments of the five countries would provide the funds necessary
for the functioning of the Committee.
80.
Views and Recommendations of the Panel of Government
Representatives and Experts
The meeting of the panel was held on 3-5 February 1977 in the
building of the Arab League in Cairo.
The following are its main
views and recommendations:
(a) The meeting expressed satisfaction with the draft
feasibility study reporJ:,.and support for co-operative activity
between the five countries in North Africa.
(b) The panel endorsed the recommendations in the study report
as guidelines for the work programme.
(c) The draft protocol was polished and recommended for
signature by the ministers of agriculture in the five countries.
/8I.
Signature
- 6
81.
Signature of the 'Protocol
The Protocol &n the Co-operation between North African Countries
in Combatting Desertification was signed ;by the Minister of ;Agriciilture
in Egypt and "the delegates of Libya and Tunisia, both officially
representing, their.jiêspective ministers of agriculture.
The protocol
is being taken for the signature of the Ministers in Algeria and
Morocco.
82.
Follo\ir-up
Realizing the urgency of the desertification problems in North
Africa, the páñel' requested:
(a) The Secretariat of the Desertification Conference' and the
Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO)
to undertake the preliminary work of tlie technical secretariat of
the Permanent Joint Committee until the latter has been formally
eetablishedi
'
_
(b) Each of the five governments concerned to appoint its
representative in the Committee and to communicate that to the
Secretary Geiaeral of the Desertification Conference.
(c) The Conference Secretariat and ALECSO to complete all
preliminary steps including the first meeting of the Committee by
the'end of June 1977.
(d) The Secretary General of the Conference and ALECSO to
assume administrativfe, technical, a^d financial resj)onsibi^
for
convening: the first meeting of the. Committee,
VII.
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON A TRANSNATIONAL .
SAHEL GREEN BELT
83.
The proposed Green Belt extends from the Atlantic to the Red
Sea.
The countries concerned are: Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Senegal, Sudan and Upper Volta.
considered in the study.
Cape Verde and Gambia will also be
These are the countries on the southern
side of the Sahara and are most affected by desertification processes
accentuated by the recent drought.
A study of whether such meaáures
can be .introduced is being completed.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX)
Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on
Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related
Natural Resources in Critical Areas of
South America
Lima, Peru
17-19 February 1977
Table of Contents
Paragraphs
I.
Introduction
1- ^
II.
Statements by Participants
5- 9
III.
The Feasibility Study Report
10-13
IV.
The Transnational Project
1^-15
V.
Proposals on Implementation
16-20
VI.
Proposals for the Plan of Action
21-23
VII.
Closing Session
Lima, Peru
19 February 1977
77-2-0372-80
2k-26
- 1 -
I.
INTRODUCTION
lo
The second meeting of the panel of government repreeentativee
and experts on monitoring desertification processes and related natural
resources in critical areas of South America was held at Lima,
17-19 February 1977 at the cordial invitation of the Peruvian
Government.
The meeting was held at the premises of the National
Office for the Evaluation of Natural Resources (ONERN)..
Dr. José Lizarraga Reye.s the Director General of ONERN opened the
meeting extending a warm welcome to all participants and assured the
panel of Peru's co-operation in such an important co-operative activity.
The opening session was also addressed by Mr. J. Labbens, the UNDP
Resident Representative and Mr. G. Karrar the Representative of the
Conference Secretariat.
2. .Mr, Carlos Zamora Jimeno, leader of the Peruvian delegation
was elected Chairman.
The business of the moeting was conducted in
eight sessions according to the agenda which was adopted at the
beginning of the meeting and appears as Annex I.
3.
Three of four countries invited attended the meeting,
namely, Brazil, Chile and Peru.
The meeting was also attended by
representatives of international and regional organizations as well
as consultants.
4.
The list of participants, appears as Annex II.
Documents before the meeting included the provisional
agenda, the calendar of the meeting, a note by the Secretariat on the
Conference preparations and the draft feasibility study report.
The
note on the Conference preparations was presented in the first session.
II.
STATEMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS
,5.
The representative of Chile supplemented the information
contained in the draft feasibility study report on Chile by giving
more data on the conditions of arid zones in his country.
He then
expressed the interest of,his country in the transnational project
/and their
-
and t h e i r a g r e e m e n t i n p r i n c i p l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
He r e q u e s t e d ,
however, the panel t o c o n s i d e r preparing a f i n a l l i s t of
and; r e a l i s t i c
c o s t s of the
equipment
project,-
6. .The Peruvian representative summarized the characteristics
of the arid ^nd semi-arid zones of, his .country, its economic importance
and the urgent,need of protecting the natural resources in critical
areas where desertification processes dominateb
At the same, time, •
he submitted a document on Peru to be .included in the Feasibility
Study report.
He added that Peru, in yi^w of the importance of
monitoring among the actions to combat, the desertification as well
as the use of the techniques of remote,sensing,.expresses its interest
and agreement in principle to participate in the project..
7.
The representative of Brazil gave, a brief description of
the arid and semi-arid zones in his country.
He stated that .the
conditions in these zones were 7 Sifferent from -those-prevailing
similar zones in, the other countries, ... Although Brazil is interested
in co-operating technically in realization of the.îms, of the project
it does not wish to have its arid and semi-arid zones included in the
project areas a;t, the. present time.
6.
In the absence of an official delegate from Argentina,,
Mr. Virgilio Rpig informed the panel that hip country, through itis
specialized agencies has given its approval to-support and participate
in the project.. He added,that these agencies are willing to direct
their efforts towards initiation of action as soon as possible.
The
texts of country statements appear in Annex III. .
9«
The representative of the IDB stated that one of the main
factors in the desertification process is the human action characterized
by the overuse, of an eztremely fragile matrix of natural resources..
The purpose of monitoring is to facilitate the action of the
Governments and the agencies and individuals that must take political
and managerial decisions destined to stop or reverse the process..
It. iSi therefore necessary that, a socio-,economic, suaalysis of the .
process is made at the time as the-physical analysis., For this
purpose the national committee concerned in the desertification should
/include economists
-349-
include economists and social scientists which can evaluate the
social costs of the process of desertification and estimate the
expected net benefits of the actions destined to combat the process.
To ensure that the metho4ology to be used should be common to all
th? countries participating, the national activities should be
co-ordinated by a regional.committee. ,The financing of the socioeconomic studies could be. included, in the project budget or in the
budget of existing national or international programmes.
III.. THE FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT
10,
The leader of the study group, Dr. Eoig, presented the
second draft of the feasibility study report.
He gave a summary of
the nature and extent of desertification in Argentina, Chile and
Peru.
This part also included information on climate and types of
ecological zones in the countries involved.
The presentation also
included the features to be monitored and their significance.
Finally the transnatiioâl character of the proposed project was
emphasized and placed within the context of the general philosophy
of the Desertification Conference.
11.
In his presentation of the technology of monitoring,
Dr. Myers stated that the technology of monitoring is presently a
reality,and, is available for implementing a desertification programme.
The main problems of-a technical nature that remain are concerned
with transfer of the technology to South American countries and
making plans for analysis of resources, preparing a data base, and
placing the data in a resource, information system.
It is suggested
that a type of training be pursued that will qualify a few individuals
from the respective countries thoroughly enough to enable them to
conduct training seminars for additional scientists who become
involved in the desertification programme.
This transfers responsibility
to individuals in South America and may be the most successful means
of training scientists in the remote sensing technology. Such a
training programme can be supplemented by short courses conducted by
the United Nations and other groups.
/Ultimately the
- k -
Ultimately the above procedures will contribute to a succesBful
information retrieval and deoisipn-tmîng mechanism which will aid
inisolvirig the desertification problems.,
12o
The peinel recognized that the list of features to be
monitorec^ should not be regarded a? definitive and will likely be
modified as the project, progresses.
In particular, the panel .agreed
that erosion should be included in the, list of features, and
consideration might be given to the use of remote sensing for studying
historical land use and settlement patterns.
Similarly the, numbers
and time periods specified for consultants and training, while
providing useful guidelines, should be left open for more detailed
consideration later.
13.
During the discussion on the technology, of monitoring it
was pointed out that while for most areas satellite imagery exists
for establishing the•proposed data base for pilot areas in the three
countries,, an ongoing programme for monitoring desertificatîon ;
requires regular repetitive data which,can best be provided by, local
or reigional satellite, data receiving stations.
In-1973 Brazil
established such a station with the capability pf receiving data for
most of Peru and. the northern portions of Argentina and Chile.
Recently Argentina and, Chile have signed agreements with NASA for
establiehing receiving stations but no construction, schedules have
been established.
The United States, has committed itself to
launching a third LANDSTAT satellite in late 1977 or early 1978,
which will provide data thrPugh about I98O.
Plans are well advanced
in the United States for a new series of satellites with higher
Resolution, about 30 m., to be-launched in the early 1980s, and other
countries are considering plans, for such satellites^.
„ /IV..
THE
-5
IV.
-
THE TRANSNATIONAL PROJECT
'
The p r o p o s e d transnatitM'ait p r o j e c t ,
c o n t a i n e d i n Chapter V
o f t h e d r a f t f e a s i b i l i t y r e p o r t ' W a s t>i'esented by t h e l é a d é r of- t h e
study group.'
The f i r s t s e c t i o n c o v e r e d t h e o b j e c t i v e s and t h e
institutional
arrangements 'required, mainly the c r e a t i o n of a r e g i o n a l
committee' and n a t i o n a l m u l t l d i s c i p T i n a r y ó o m m i t t e e s . •
covered the f i n a n c i a r a s p e c t s .
Chapter VI d e a l t w i t h
s t e p s and t h e n e e d f o r one o r more i n s t i t u t i o n s
f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n s on a r e g i o n a l
The o t h e r
section
implementation
to perform the
basis:
( a ) p r o v i d e a r e f e r é n c e s y s t e m f o r remote s e n s i n g i m a g e r y ,
• l i t e r a t u r e and othéí" u s e f u l
documentation;
( b ) p r o c e s s s a ; t e l l i t e imagery and provide' o t h e r d a t a
services;
maps
'
processing
-
( c ) e s t a b l i s h e f f i c i e n t c ó m m ü n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s w i t h NASA and
o t h e r r e l e v a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s o u t s i d e the
region;
( d ) a s s i s t governments i n i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c awareness of
the
p r o c e s s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n the r e g i o n ;
( e ) d e v e l o p t r a i n i n g programmes t o e n á ú r e t h a t t r a i n e d
and t e c h r i i c i a n s i n a l l r e l e v a n t d i s c i p l i n é i s w i l l
scientists
be
a v a i l a b l e t o c a r r y o u t an o n g o i n g programme t o combat
desertification.
15.
project.
The panel approved the main elements of the transnational
On the duration of the project the panel endorsed a minimum
period of five years to bé reviewed during the first years o f ^
implementation.
The budget estimates proposed in the draft study
were accepted as guidelines with the details to be worked out at a
later date.
V.
PROPOSALS ON IMPLEMENTATION
16.
I n v i e w o f t h e above p r e s e n t a t i o n s and d i s c u s s i o n s ,
p a n e l made t h e f o l l o w i n g
recommendations:
/I7.
That
the
-
17.
6
-
That the governments of the cóuntries involved/designate,
as soon as possible, a representative to a regional co-ordinating
committee to continue the planning and co-ordinate execution of the
transnatiottal aspects of the pilot project. •
18.
That the governments communicate the designated
representative to the Secretary-General of the United Nations ^
Conference on Desertification with a request to convene a meeting
. • 6f the regional committee with , representai;'ives of appropriate international agencies.
19.
.
'
That the governments establish na¿tional co-ordinating
committees with representatives of the various agencies and
disciplines concerned with desertification^: including the social and
economic disciplines.
Gonsideration should be given to the designation
of existing committees for this purpose where possible»
20. ' That the; next step an the
be the elaboration of a .detailed proposal. ? While the budget and the
.time period.proposed in the feasibility study report appear
reasonable, further, study, on equipment, training, staff, operational
..require,mente and .costs is required.. This further work should be
carried out byâ stiady group establislied by the regional committee.
VI.
PROPOSALS FOR THE PLAN OF ACTION •
21.
The panel suggests the .followittg ;recommendations for ^
inclusion in the proposed'plan of action to combat desertification.
22.Ó
Realizing the importance of surveys of natural resources
and monitoring of desertification processes in vast areas under high
or medium vulnerability maximum use should be made of the available
advanced technology of remote sensing in combination with other
techniques in obtaining results in the shortest possible time and at
comparatively cheaper costs.
25.
Since monitoring can serve ,a useful purpose only if it
forms part of a programme to combat desertification, and sincet in
many countries, there exist project proposals, study groups and
/committees related
- 7 -
committees related to desertification, it is essential that monitoring
projects be integrated with existing national and international
programmes and policies.
VII.
CLOSING SESSION
2k.
. :,:
Thei representative- of Brazil Mr. Pereira thanked the
Government of Peru and ONERN for hosting this meeting and reiterated
Brazil'is willingness to co-.operate In the project by providing
satellite image data according to ,the needs of the project.
He was
followed by the representative of Chile Mr. del Pozo, who expressed
gratitude for Peru's hospitality as well as satisfaction in seeing
the meeting arrive at a clear conclusion on the objectives and
means of implementation of the project.
Dr. Roig then added his
thanks to the Government of Peru for their hospitality and sincerely
wished that that the plans formulated before and during the meeting
will become a reality.
25.
Mr. Ralph Townley, Director of the Secretariat of the
Desertification Conference, expressed gratitude to the Government of
Peru for hosting the meeting and to ONERN for offering their premises
and facilities.
He also congratulated the chairman for the able
manner in which he conducted the meeting.
In his address, he described
desertification as a synthetic concept and also as a perceived
problem seen from different angles by the various scientists.
The
wealth of knowledge on desertification, he added, accumulated so
far by the secretariat of the Conference has been used to develop an
overview and a plan of action, and what we have accomplished today
contributes in establishing a strong corner of the plan of action.
He concluded by emphasizing the need for follow-up action.
/26.
In
.. 8
26.
-
Iti his clpsing address tíie Chairman Ing. C. Zamora expressed
Peru's pleasure in hosting this meeting and offering the facilities
of ONERN for the service of such an important transnational co-operative
activity.
He stressed the fact that environment and desertification
processes dp not recognize political boundaries.
Ecologica,l studies
should therefore be performedl on this full coverage and not
restricted by frontiers.
He added that remote sensing was a valuable
technique in the service of such studies and its use in this project
should contribute to the realization of the'project aims.
Annex III
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337
(XXIX)
F e a s i b i l i t y Study on M o n i t o r i n g o f D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
P r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s i n C r i t i c a l
A r e a s o f S o u t h America
Panel of Government Representatives and Experts
Second Meeting
Lima, Peru
17-19 February 1977
AGENDA
1.
Opening of the meeting and election of chairman
2.
Adoption of the Agenda
3.
Report by the Secretariat on the Conference preparations
k.
Presentation of the draft feasibility study report
5.
Country statements on the feasibility study report
6.
Statements by other participants (United Nations agencies,
international organizations and consultans)
7.
General discussion and comments on the proposed transnational
project in the feasibility study report
S e c r e t a r i a t of the United Nations
C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
U n i t e d N a t i o n s Environment Programme
P . O . Box 30552
N a i r o b i , Kenya
17 February 1977
77-2-0363
Annex III
'
•
''
'
'
"""
1.
Feasibility Study on Monitoring, of Desertification
Processes and related Natural Resources in Critical
Areas of South America
Second Meeting
Lima, Peru
17-19 February 1977
List of Participants
Countries
Brazil
Mr. José Maria Andrade Pereira
Expert of the Departamento de Recursos Naturales
Oficina de Desarrollo de la Región Brasilera
Nor-Este (SUDENE)
Av. Profo Moraes Regó s/n«
Cidade Universitaria
•
Recife - Brasil
Mrs. Vera Pedrosa Martins de Almeida
Emba-jada de Brasil
Cmte Espinar I8T
'
Lima, Perú'
Chile
Mr. Genaro del Pozo
Secretario General del Instituto Nacional
de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA)
Av. Bilbao 5200
Santiago - Chile
Peru
Ing. Carlos Zamora Jimeno
Director Ejecutivo de Estudios Integrados - ONERN
Apartado >+992
Lima 1, Perú
77-2-036if
-
-
I n g . M i g u e l C a l d e r ó n Gómez
J e f e d e l Area de S e n s o r e s Remotos - ONERN
A p a r t a d o ^992
;
,; • '
.
Lima 1 , Perú
V
I n g . J o s é E n r i q u e M i l l o n e s Olano
A s i s t e n t e de l á D i r e c c i ó n G e n e r a l - ONEHN
•Apartado ^992
—
•
Lima 1 , Perú ' ,
;
: ..
I n g . L u i s Masson M e i s s •
J e f e de . l a O f i c i n a de I n f o r m a c i ó n y G o m u n i c a c i ó n - ONERN
Apartado'4992 '
'
Lima 1 , Perú . ,
.... ,
D r . C a r l o s López Ocaña
D i r e c t o r C o o r d i n a d o r bf CIZA
Los Q u í m i c o s
Residencial
Lá M o l i n a , Lima, P e r ú
Ingeniería
D r . Amaro Z a v a l e t a ,
S o i l S c i é ' n t i e t " - ooixS" ' D e p o i r t m e n t - üniversidad Nacional Agraria
La M o l i n a , Lima, Perú
D r a . Miriam V a l l e j o s Arce
"Research Center of Arid Zones
Universidad Nacional Agraria
La M o l i n a , Lima, P e r ú
.
Organizations
Mr. Manuel Valderrama ( o b s e r v e r )
I n t e r Americktí'-Development'Bank R e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Perú
A v . R e p ú b l i c a de C h i l é 3 8 8 - 7 9 P i s o
Lima - Perú
: -•
Mr. A l b e r t o S o j i t ( o b s e r v e r )
I n t e r American D e v e l o p m e n t Bank
R e p r e s e n t á t i v e - V/ashingto.n
U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t . Progrgimme
Santiago - Chile
I n g . Odyer A. S p e r a n d i o ( o b s e r v e r )
Director, ,
Panamérítían "Center o f S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g
and E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s
C a s i l l a 4337
Lima - Perú
i., 1';
- 3 -
I n g . J u l i o Burbano ( o b s e r v e r )
Area Engineer
World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n
C a s i l l a ?117
Lima - Perú
Mrso R i t v a J o l k o n e n
United N a t i o n s Development
A p a r t a d o khS
Lima, Perú
Programme
Consultants
Mr. V i r g i l i o R o i g
Director
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f o r A r i d Zones
C a s i l l a de C o r r e o 5 0 ?
Mendoza - A r g e n t i n a
Mr. Ralph Chipman
Box 20 - Room 3550A
G.C.PoO,
New York, N . Y . 1001?
U.S.A.
Mr. V i c t o r Myers
Remote S e n s i n g I n s t i t u t e
S o u t h Dakota S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
B r o o k i n g s , South Dakota 57006
U.S.A.
Observers
Mr, M i c h a e l G i a n t z
National Center f o r Atmospheric Research
Box 3000
Boulder, Colorado 80307
U.S.A.
Mr. Fernando L i r a Zerpa
P r i v a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f P i u r a - Perú
A v . Pardo 2 2 3 - 72 P i s o
Miraflores
Lima - Perú
(NCAR)
^ k^
Secretariat of the
U.No Conference
on Desertification
Mr. Ralph Townley
U.N.E^P,
•
P.O. Box 30332
Nairobi, Kenya
Mr. Gaafar Karrar
U.N.E.P.
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, Kenya
Annex III
Feasibility Study on Monitoring of Desertification
Processes and related Natural Resources in Critical
Second Meeting
Lima, Peru
17-19 February 1977
AGENDA
1.
Opening of the meeting and election of chairman
2.
Adoption of the Agenda
3.
Report by the Secretariat on the Conference preparations
k.
Presentation of the draft feasibility study report
5.
Country statements on the feasibility study report
6.
Statements by other participants (United Nations agencies,
international organizations and consultans)
7.
General discussion and comments on the proposed transnational
project in the feasibility study report
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, Kenya
17 February 1977
77-2-0363
Annex III
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION' TO' C-OMBiftT^ PESBRTIFICATION
Feasibility Study on Mpi^toring,of Desertification
Processes and related fíatural Resources in Critical
Second Meeting
Lima, Peru
•17-19 February 19.77
List of Participants
Countries
Brazil
Mro José María Andrade Pereira
Expert of the Departamento de Recursos Naturales
Oficina de Desarrollo de la Región"Brasilera
Nor-Este (SUDENE)
Av, Profo Moraes Regó s/n.
Cidade Universitaria
Recife - Brasil
Mrso Vera Pedrosa Martins de Almeida
Embajada de Brasil
Cmte. Espinar. 181
Lima, Perú
Chile
Mr. Genaro del Pozo
Secretario General del Instituto Nacional
de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA)
Av. Bilbao 5200
Santiago - Chile
Peru
Ing. Carlos Zamora Jimeno
Director Ejecutivo de Estudios Integrados - ONERN
Apartado ^992
Lima 1, Perú
77-2-036'+
-
2
-
Iiig. Miguel Calderón Gómez
Jefe del Area de Sensores Eemotos - ONERN
Apartado ^992
Lima 1 , Perú :
'
'
Ing. José Enrique Millones Ólano
Asistente de la Dirección General - ONEHN
Apartado 1+992
Lima 1, Perú ;.
Ing. Luis Másson'Meiss
Jefe de la Oficina de Información y Comunicación - ONERN
Apartado ^992
'
'
Lima 1, Perú
Dr. Carlos López O.caña
Director Coordinador of CIZA
Los Químicos Q-8, Residencial Ingeniería
La Molina, Lima., Perú
Dr. Amaro Zavaleta
Soil Scientist - SoiiB-Department"
Universidad Nacional Agraria
La Molina, Lima, Perú
,. .
•
.
Dra. Miriam Vallejos Arce i •
Research Center of Arid Zones
Universidad Nacional Agraria ..,
La Molina, Lima, Perú
Organizations
Mr, Manuel Valderrama (observer)
Inter American.Development Bank Representative in Perú
Av. República de Chile 388 - 70 Piso
Lima - Perú
Mr. Alberto Sojit (observer)
Inter American Development Bank;
Representative - Washington
United Nations Development ..Programme
Santiago - Chile
Ing. Odyer A. Sperandip (observer)
Director, .
, Panamerican Center of Sanitary Engineering
and Environmental Sciences
Casilla 1+337
Lima - Perú
- 3 -
Ing. Julio Burbano (observer)
Area Engineer
World Health Organization
Casilla ?117
Lima - Perú
Mrs. Ritva Jolkonen
United Nations Development Programme
Apartado kk8
Lima, Perú
Consultants
Mr. Virgilio Eoig
Director
Research Institute for Arid Zones
Casilla de Correo 507
Mendoza - Argentina
Mr. Ralph Chipman
Box 20 - Room 3550A
G.C.P.O.
New York, N.Y. 1001?
U.S.A.
Mr» Victor Myers
Remote Sensing Institute
South Dakota State University
Brookings, South Dakota 57006
U.S.A.
Observers
Mr. Michael Giantz
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
Box 3000
Boulder, Colorado 80307
U.S.A.
Mr. Fernando Lira Zerpa
Private University of Piura - Perú
Av. Pardo 223 - 7^ Piso
Miraflores
Lima - Perú
-
if
Secretariat of the
y.N. Conference
on Desertification
Mr. Ralph Townley ,
U.N.E.P. .
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, Kenya
Mr. Gaafar Karrar
U.N.E.P.
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, Kenya
-
Annex I I I
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on Monitoring
Desertification Processes «md Related Natural Resources
in Critical Areas of South America
Lima, Peru
17-19 February 1977
Statements by participants
77-2-0if56-50
- 1 -
Argentina After the presentations submitted during the meeting of the
panel of experts and representatives of the countries concerned in
the project, and because of the absence of the official delegate
of the Government of the Argentine Republic, Mr. Virgilio Eoig
announces that his country's specialized national agencies
(Argentine Institute for Research in Arid Zones (lADIZA), National
Commission for Spatial Research (CNIE), and the Planning Ministry)
have agreed to support and participate in the project and are
willing to do all they can to secure its crystallization and
initiation as soon as possible.
For this purpose these agencies wi^l take the official steps
to allow final approval at the level of a political decision by
the Argentine Government.
Without prejudice to this, the agencies
in question also expressed through Mr. Roig their agreement to the
modifications made in the project at the Lima meeting.
Brazil
I wish to clarify the Brazilian position on the matter under
study.
:
Having in mind the consequences for many developing countries
of the desertification processes that are taking place, the
Brazilian Government has great interest in,the preparations being
made for the Nairobi Conference.
For this reason it is attending ,.
this regional expert meeting, with the aim of giving all possible
co-operation in the solution of problems that affect countries which
are friends and neighbours.
Because of not having participated originally in the drafting
of the document under consideration, which proposes a programme
applicable to regions with critical processes of desertification
in Argentine, Chilean and Peruvian térritory, the Brazilian Government
would like to join the development of studies oh this matter
without, for the moment, taking.a position on the specific aspects
of the project.
/This attitude
- 2 -
This attitude of the Brazilian Goverame.nt derives mainly from
the physical and socio-economical characteristics of the semi-arid
zone of the Brazilian Northeast, which can not be related to the
problems of the above critical areas.
Although in the regions under consideration there may exist
different features due mainly to the differences in climatic
conditions, soils and vegetation, the problems of the semi-arid
Brazilian zones are not identical with the desert and semi-desert
areas covered by this study.
Despite the différent characteristics of its Northeast region,
however, Brazil is ready to co-operate with its neighbours in the
study of this problem.
For this reason, it is ready to examine with
great interest the possibility of technical co-operation in the
provision of LANDSAT data useful to this project.
Chile
The Chilean representative to the Panel approve the contains
of the second draft of the study of feasibility of monitoring
processes of Desertification, and agree in participate in a
Transnational Project to combat and monitoring processes of
Desertification.
Peru
The Peruvian Government acknowledges the efforts being made
at the level of the world community to fight against desertification
and views with special interest its participation in the Feasibility
Study on the Monitoring of Processes of Desertification and Related
Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America.
In this light, the Peruvian Delegation, having participated
fully iaiid jointly in the revision of the document so that it reflects
the real problems concerning desertification, .has-also proposed a
possible pilot area for study, subject to modification by the
high-level decision makers.
In addition, the Peruvian Delegation undertakes to take all
necessary steps at the level of its Government to bring about,
through the established official channels, the acceptance of the Project.
A
, ,
AKRANGEMENTS FOR THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE
•
^
;,0N DESERTIFICATION , :
•
1.
Note lay the Conference secretariat for
provisional agenda item 3
• ;T.he-purpose of. ..this note is to place the individual documents
before ,the regional prepara-tpry^meetings in the context of the
diverse activities undertaken to prepare for the United Nations
Conference on Desertification.
The participa,nts in the meetings
are invited- to discuss the results of this broad prograjnme of
preparations.
2.
.
r.,
The United Nations General; Assembly, in its resolution 3337
(XXIX) on international co-operation to combat desertification, called
inter g.lia for the convening of a United Nations Conference on
Desertification to be held from 29 August to 9 September 1977. This
Conference is now seen as the principal mechanism for giving impetus
to current international activities to combat desertification and
for starting new activities.which, together with current actions,
will constitute a concerted international programme of.action against
desertification, as part of the rational
of desertification-pr.one areas. .,
3.
social and economic development
. , .
As the Seo.re-âry-General of the Conference is.also the Executive
Director of the United Nations Environment Piôgramme (U.NEP), the
secretariat preparing the Conference is administratively attached to
UNEF.
An ad hoc inter-agency task force has met foiir times to review
in detail the secretariat's work.. In addition, the secretariat has
met several times,with senior scientific consultants from around the
world to receive their advice on.the substantive preparations. .
if-.
The preparations involve three principal activities.
The firet
is assessment of available information on the causes and cures of .
desertification.
Ta .do this the secretariat.commissioned scientific
reviews of four components, of the problem; climate, ecological change,
technology, .and population and society^
These component reviews have
now been synthetized in an overview of desertificatio^. In addition,
UNESCO has prepared, with UNDP financing, case studies,of desertification
77-2-0206
/and efforts
Á
- 2 -
and efforts to combat it. The case studies were carried out in dry areas
with predominantly cool season rainfall (Chile and Tunisia),dry areas
with predominantly Warm séason rainfall' (Northwest India ahd Niger),
and irrigated areas suffering from waterlogging and salinization
(Iraq and Pakistan).
Additional case studies have been contributed
by the Governments of Australia, China, Iran, Israel, United States
and USSRo A synthesis of the lessons learned from these case studies
has been prepared. . Several; countries and the Uniteid Nations regional
r
commissions have prepared papers on national, or regional experience in
the combating of desertification.
5.
Assessment activities also included the preparation of maps showing
the areas affected or likely to be affected by desertification» In
co-operation with UNESCO and WHO, FAO has compiled and produced
a desertification map of the world at, a scale of 1:25 million. These
organizations have also prepar.ed a more, detailed desertification map
of Africa north of the Equator at, a scale of 1:5 million..
The
secretariat has commissioned a similar map for South America, as well
as three more world, maps at 1:25 million, one showing the degree to
which the arid regions of the world have suffered damage due to
desertification, a second showing the distribution of aridity and
drought probability, and a third, a climate aridity index map, is
incorporated into the component review on climate and desertification.
6.
The second principal activity i'n preparing for the Conference
was the formulation of a Plan of Action to Combat Desertificatipn which
is a set ,Qf specific action recommendations to. governments and
r.egional, and international organizations, based on the information .
contained in the. component reviews, case studies,. ^nd. maps.
The Plan
if
is also based on the six feasibility studies for, regional co-operation
in the halting and reversal of the desertification process,. These
proposed regional co-operative efforts are management of livestock
and rangqlands in the Sudano-Sahelian regionr establishment of
green belts of planted or naturally regenerated vegetation on
the southern and northern margins of the Sahara, monitoring of
desertification processes and survey of natural resources in South
America and Southwest Asia, and management of the major regional '
aquifers in Northeast Africa and the Arabian Peninsula., Crafts of
/these feasibility
1
- 3 -
these feasibility studies have been prepared after discussions at
meetings of government representatives, consultants, and secretariat
staff.
It -is hoped that regional arrangements to pursue th.ese
proposals w i n be agreed by the governments involved before the
Conference.- A summary of the feasibility studies has been prepared
by the secretariat.
7. .
A draft of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification has
been,circulated by the secretariat to all States Members of the
United,Nations and the specialized agencies, to interested United
Nations bodies and agencies, to other intergovernmental organizations,
and to, non-governmental scientific experts and organizations for
comments and suggestions.
Based on the response to this wide
circulation, a,revised preliminary draft has been prepared for the
third principal activity, which consists of four regional preparatory
meetings of.government-designated experts.
These meetings are meant
to give government experts the opportunity to discuss thé rélevance
of the Plan of Action to their countries, to identify regional
priorities, and to consider the institutions, technologies, and
programmes needed to implement the Plan.
On the basis of these
discussions and a subsequent expert consultation on modalities for
financing, the Plan will be revised
for presentation to the
Conference.
8.
The regional preparatory meetings are being held in co-operation
with the regional,commissions of the United Nations, for the Americas
in .Santiago, Chile, 23-^6 February 1977; for the Mediterranean area,
including the Arabian Peninsula, in the Algarve of Portugal\
aS.March to 1 April 1977; for Africa South of the Sahara, in co-operation
with.the Organization of African Unity, in Addis Ababa, ¿thiopia,
I27I6 April 1977;. and for Asia and the Pacific in New Delhi, India,
19-23 April 1977.
The reports of these meetings, as well as the
documents b.efor.e these, meetinigs will be submitted for discussion and
review on 12-13 May 1977 to the Governing Councilôf Ulfep, acting
in its capacity as the intergovernmental preparatory body for the
Conference,.
••
, ,
^ • ; •••
..
.
.. •/9.
As
r ^
9..
As approved by the General.Assembly, invitation to participate
in the Conference will be,sent to all States.
The, following
organizations will be invited to . attend as, observers: (a) repréisentatives
of organizations that, have received a standing invitation from the
General Assembly to participate in the session and the work of all
international conferences convened under its auspices; (b) representatives
of .national liberation movements recognized by the Organization of
African Unity; (c) the United Nations Council for Namibia; (d) the
specialized agencies and ,the ,International Atomic Energy Agency, as
.well as interested organs of the United Nations; (e) interested
intergovernmental organizations; (f) interested non-governmental
organizations that might have a specific contribution to make to,the,
work of the Conferenceo
The General Assembly also approved the use
of Arabic, Chinese, English, French,.fiuesianand Spanish as
laaguagea of the Conference.
lOo,
"" '
The Conference is scheduled to be held from 29 August to
9 September 1977.
It will be ..preceded by two days of informal
consultations with governments,to review procedural matters relating
to the timetable and organization of the work of the Conference.
The
draft provisional agenda, as approved by the General Assembly, calls
for the opening of the Conference to be followed by the election of
a President, the adoption of the rules of procedure and the agenda,
the establishment of committees and other sessional bodies, the .
•election of officers, and the appointraeht of
credentials committee.
It .,is expected that the Conference will then wish to hold a general
debate and discussion in Plenary.
The Conference will consist of the
Plenary and a Sessional Committee of the Whole.
The report of the
Conference will be forwarded through the Economic and Social Council
,to the General Assembly at its thirty-second session.
11., ,; Immediately following the Conference the secretariat plans to
organize a workshop on the implementation of the Plan of Action to
Combeit Desertification, principally for. representatives of governments
and those engaged in field operatjions concerned with problems of
desertification.
Journalists will also be invited to attend.
A draft
proposal for the workshop has been prepared by the secretariat,
/12. As
f'
- 5 -
12,
As the success of the Conference depends critically on the
quality of its pre-session documentation, particularly the draft Plan
of Action, the participants in the regional meetings can play a
crucial role in the Conference preparations by ensuring that the
documents are scientifically sound, practically oriented, and
politically acceptable.
N
if)
•ti
fi
DESERTIFICATION
IN
THE UNITED STATES
Jack D. Johnson
Office of Arid Lands Studies
University of Arizona
for the
U.S. Department of State
February 1977
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
1
I.
Overview
2
II.
History of Land Use in Arid Regions of the United States
6
III.
Range Resource Utilization
9
IV.
Irrigated Agriculture
10
V.
Mining
11
VI.
Urbanization
12
vilo
Recreation
12
VIII.
Phreatophyte and Other Vegetation
IX.
Summary
Controls
13
14
Appendix A
Bibliography
Appendix B
A Partial List of U.S. Agency-
15
Supported Activities
Associated with
Appendix C
Spanish Summary
-X-
Desertification
22
35
'A
INTRODUCTION
This paper is an attempt to indicate the extent of the
desertification problem in the United States.
It includes a
historical review of the land-use problems in the arid and semiarid regions of the United States, discusses some of the current
problems and emphasizes the need for concerted and sensible
land-use planning and management if the U.S. is to curb its
degradation of the semiarid and arid western lands and avoid
the creation of deserts in those areas where land is being misused.
Desertification is not a problem for the developing
countries to tackle alone.
Indeed it is a problem which the
world must confront.
The United States shares this problem,
can offer some solutions, and will definitely benefit in the
exchange of ideas and methodologies which will be presented
throughout and following the U.N. Conference on Desertification.
In addition to the text this paper contains three appendices,
Appendix A is an annotated bibliography of reading material, most
of which was used in the preparation of the text, although specific references and quotes are not included as a part of the text.
Appendix B is a partial list of activities which the U.S. government is either conducting or funding. The list could have included many other activities which are funded or conducted
by the Soil Conservation Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of Commerce, Agricultural Extension Service, state and
local governments, universities or other public or private instituitions conducting research.
To be all inclusive would require
more time than was available, but Appendix B is representative
of U.S. activities and interest in desertification.
Appendix C is a summary of this paper in Spanish.
-1-
DESERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES
By Jack Donald Johnson
"•1
I.
OVERVIEW
The total population (based on 1970 census) of the United
States presently exceeds 203 million. The population of the
12 western states exceeds 45 million and is a little over 22
percent of the total population of the U. S.
These same
12 states comprise about 40 percent of the total land area of
the U.S. and almost all of the arid portions of the nation.
(See map, p a g e ^ . )
Approximately 23 million people reside in
the arid regions of the U.S.
The 12 western states constitute a land area of about
1.4 million square miles.
Seventy-two percent of this land, or
in excess of one million square miles, is within the region
currently or potentially subjected to desertification processes.
Population growth in the West during the last decade
almost tripled that of the eastern states. The combination of
T5 immigration, 2) migration from Mexico, north-central states
and eastern states to the West, and 3) general population growth
because of local birth rates is causing an alarming increase in
the population of many of the western states. Land developers,
chambers of commerce and individual businessmen expecting
financial rewards are advertising and exploiting the arid regions,
In the populous eastern states the population density is
high. In New Jersey, for example, there are over 953 people
per square mile of land area, and in Washington, D.C. there are
more than 12,400.
In California, even with its large urban
centers, the population density is only about 128, and within
the other western arid states the population density is considerably less. For example, Arizona has about 16 and Wyoming
about 3.4 people per square mile. This seems to indicate room
for growth, but unfortxmately growth from the large urban
centers is rapidly expanding into the deserts and up into
the mountains with little regard for the resources of arable
land, water, vegetation and wildlife.
-2-
Reprinted from DESERTS OF T H E W O R I D :
A n A p p r a i s a l o f R e s e a r c h Into T h e i r P h y s i c a l
and B i o l o g i c a l E n v i r o n m e n t s .
McGInntes,
G o l d m a n , and P a y l o r e , e d s . , c l 9 6 8 , by
p e r m i s s i o n U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a P r e s s .
— 70°
70 —
-60°
60°—
—50°
50°—
—40°
10°
—30°
30°—
—20°
20°—
MEIGS
CLASSIFICATIONS
E — Extremely arid
A — Arid
S — Semiarid
10°—
a — no marked season of precipitation
b — summer precipitation
e — winter precipitation
—10°
Digits
0°—
1st digit indicates mean temperature
of coldest month
2nd digit indicates mean temperature
of warmest month
0 — less than 0°C
1 = 0° to l O ' C
2 = 10° to 20°C
3 = 20° to 30°C
4 = more than 30°C
500
MILES
Arid Lands of North America (after Meigs)
-3-
—0°
Archaeological sites, ghost towns, abandoned ranches and
empty farms that dot the arid West are dramatic examples of man's
early failure to obtain a balance between his natural arid environment yid his desire for expansion. When the earth was sparsely
populated or uninhabited, land was abundant; man could abandon
old environmental failures and move onto new lands. Today, the
situation is much different; with expanding world population it
is impossible to abandon or ignore the arid lands of any country.
Within the U.S. 60 to 70 percent of the arid lands are in
federal or other public ownership.
Some 130 million acres in
arid lands states have been placed txnder multiple-use, sustained
yield management within the national forests, which are administered by the U.S. Forest Service. Recent passage of the Federal
Land Policy and Management Act has overcome some of the policy
indeterminacy of the U.S. public lands, which are administered
by the Bureau of Land Management.
The n e w Act addresses the
multiple-use and sustained yield management concept through an
interdisciplinary land-use planning system.
One of the attributes of the rugged, arid western
United States is that one can drive from the hot desert floor
or large urban area into the dense mountain forests, often
within a matter of minutes and never more than a few hours.
Irrigated agriculture is an important aspect of arid
regions, and some irrigated portions o f Arizona and California
deserts comprise the most productive land in the U.S. It may
not, however, be the most desirable or economically efficient
use of water, and the expansion of irrigation farming farther
into the desert requires a critical review. Much of the arid
and semiarid areas is used as grazing land, and some of the arid
regions are rich in mineral deposits, particularly in copper and
coal.
(Over 50 percent o f U.S. copper is mined in Arizona.)
Energy potential (solar, coal, uraniiim, oil and gas, and hydroelectric) is being exploited for use in large urban centers,
particularly for Phoenix, Las Vegas and Los Angeles.
Recreation is rapidly becoming an important economic use
of arid regions in the U.S.
Surveys in desert recreational areas
of Southern California during 1958 indicated that there were
570,000 people on one-day field trips; 1.1 million overnight
trips; and about $30.9 million expended by these recreation
users. Projections based on 1968 statistics of 4.9 million
visitor days are that Southern California deserts will see 7.8
million visitor days in 1980 and 13.2 million by the year 2000.
-4-
One of the recreational uses which has recently received
much publicity (mostly negative) is the use of motorcycles, "dune
buggies" and four-wheel drive vehicles in remote desert areas.
Because of the climatic and biotic conditions, physical scars
on the landscape remain for centuries before nature can hide them.
(For example, some of the tracks left by wagon trains crossing
the arid regions o f the western United States in the 1840s
are visible today.)
The lack of moisture slows natural decay
processes and allows discarded waste products and containers
to remain almost iinaltered for long periods of time.
(For
example, a discarded paper tissue on the desert floor may
remain as a visible symbol of human thoughtlessness for many
years.)
Pits from mining operations could possibly serve
as recreational facilities or as sitss for other industrial
development, but usually they simply stand as a reminder that
man can dig a big deep hole in the ground.
Desertification, as a definitive process, has received
only recent attention in the United States. But if w e accept the
concern regarding misuse of arid and semiarid lands, desertification concerns began sometime in the 1800s. In 1947 Dr. Walter
P. Cottam authored a University of Utah Bulletin (Vol. 37 No.
11) entitled "Is Utah Sahara Bound?" Had he been able to predict today's use o f the term "desertification," he might have
used some other title such as "The Extent of Desertification in
Utah." While economic data have not been researched for presentation herein, desertification does have serious economic
impact. Arid land recreation and agricultural land are producers of a significant national income, and any reduction of
that income through the desertification process has had and
will have national consequences.
A recent disastrous drought of a few months' duration
on the Papago Indian Reservation required emergency funds and
services from several federal agencies and brought crippling
losses of cattle and crops. The earlier experiences of the
"dust bowl" in Oklahoma, the land reclamation programs, and
the assistance to Indian reservations have totaled billions
of dollars — and both the benefits of these expenditures and
the burden of these costs are borne nationally.
It should
b e emphasized that the U.S. experiences with desertification,
reported herein, should be relevant to other arid and semiarid
areas of the world, with the possible exception of some of
the recreational uses.
-5-
II.
HISTORY O F LAND USE IN ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
There is evidence that man has lived in the arid and semiarid regions of the U.S. for as long as 11,000 to 25,000 years,
and ecological adaptations to the arid environments indicate
a zone of extreme aridity in the Great Plains between about
5500 and 2000 B.C. Evidence from caves in west central N e w
Mexico indicates that the period from perhaps 4000 B.C. to a
few centuries before the beginning of the Christian era was
a time of life based on cultivation.
Established agriculture,
however, did n o t replace the ancient food gathering practices
until about 300 B.C.
It w a s with the growth of cultivation and
the improvement o f agricultural techniques that the American
Indian became capable of mastering m a n y of the arid and semi^
arid zones o f the continent.
Until the middle o f the 19th century the vast arid/
semiarid region lying between the Rocky Motintains and the
ranges bordering the Pacific Oceaa was virtually unknown to the
anglo. A century earlier Spanish missionaries had penetrated a
small part of southern A r i z o n a , introducting cattle to the
scattering of Catholic missions they had f o m d e d there.
They also
made occasional trips across the intervening desert to the chain
of similar missions along the California coast.
These and
other travelers, such as trappers and traders, did not write
detailed descriptions of their travels; maps were not published
prior to the 1840s.
The discovery o f gold, which was in 1848 in California,
brought tens o f thousands o f people across the desert region
en route to the gold fields, but the arid area still lay
virtually empty and unused until the latter part o f the 1860s.
From the early 1800s through the late 1860s grazing animals were
brought into the Southwest by Spanish and Mexican missionaries
and cattlemen.
In the late 1860s there occurred an influx of
settlers, chiefly comprised o f cattlemen from the semiarid
regions farther east.
California presents some interesting
statistics regarding sheep population which had increased to
1.9 million in 1860, 2.8 million in 1870 and 4.4 million by
1890. At that time, conditions in the arid West were far from
stable and the nation was still recovering from the Civil War.
Partially settled western territories were poorly administered,
and the military and police forces were inadequate.
The f o l l o w i n g h a l f c e n t u r y was t h e e r a o f t h e o p e n r a n g e .
H e r d e r s l a i d c l a i m t o t h e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d w a t e r i n g p l a c e s and
thus h e l d p r a c t i c a l i f not l e g a l c o n t r o l over the v a s t waterless grazing lands.
Land t e n u r e was t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m i n t h e
United States.
The f i r s t a t t e m p t a t c o n t r o l was t h e d e v e l o p ment o f a G e n e r a l Land O f f i c e as an a g e n c y o f t h e U . S . f e d e r a l
-6-
government to administer and apportion public lands of the U.S.
Under the Homestead Act of 1862 any citizen could attain title
to 160 acres, but this Act was principally created for the purpose of developing the agricultural land of the East and the
Midwest = One hundred sixty acres in .the eastern and midwevStem
United States was adequate for maintenance o f moderate to high
standards of living, but land holdings o f such small size were
totally inadequate for enterprises in a semiarid or arid pastoral region.
In most o f the arid regions 160 acres would
support no more than two head of cattle.
The Desert Land Act of 1877 provided that title might
be obtained to a full section (640 acres), but that Act had
only limited effect since it required that part of the land be
irrigated. Most of the land in the arid West was not irrigable.
In 1879 a federal commission headed by John Wesley Powell
turned in its report on the governmental policies concerning
the public lands of the arid West.
The report stated t h a t —
"the Homestead and Preemption laws are not suited for securing
settlement o f more than an insignificant portion of the country."
Powell's report went on to suggest: 1) that land should
be scientifically appraised and classified before settlement
and that each category should be handled under laws specifically
applicable to it; 2) that land must be disposed of ia quantities sufficient to the establishment of working enterprises,
and that the price of such a grant must be kept low...at
least four square miles (2,560 acres) was proposed as a minimum;
3) that farm and ranch residences b e grouped to permit a
form of social life not possible on isolated ranchsteads;
4) that surveys should deviate from rectangular systems when
necessary to divide irrigation waters properly;
and 5) because
of the great expense required to develop irrigation, irrigation schemes should be undertaken under the auspices of the
federal government.
Unfortunately, no action was taken by the Congress of
the United States on Powell's suggestions, which proved to be
-far ahead of their time.
During the 1890s and on into the early 1900s, particularly xander the impetus provided by President Theodore Roosevelt,
conservation measures were beginning to evolve.
This was a rather
stormy period in the grazing land areas where cattlemen fought
farmers, sheepmen fought farmers, and cattlemen fought sheepmen.
Pitched battles were waged over the right to build fences and
section off land.
In general the land was heavily overgrazed
but the cattlemen were perceived as popular heroes with the "dirt
farmer" and sheepmen getting the worst of most battles-- both
physically and legally.
-7-
The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 was the first major congressional action aimed specifically at the management of grazing
lands of the arid and semiarid X\iest. The Taylor Act was stimulated
by the result of a 1932 survey indicating that rangeland productivity had declined by 50 percent and that grass removal had exposed 80 percent of the range to erosion. The Act established
grazing districts and created the Grazing Service.
Under
federal control the niomber of animals was regulated to
approximate a balance between range use and the forage-producing
capacity of the land. It was fortvinate that the Act was passed
and implemented during the depth of the drought and the depression
of the 1930s, for during that period the number of animals was
already sharply reduced.
The government therefore had to face
principally the problem o f preventing an increase in the animal
population rather than having to bring about a drastic reduction.
For administrative purposes a system of range inspection and
evaluation was inaugurated to check on different stocking and
management programs. Although relative stability has characterized the western desert ranges since the late 1930s, many areas
are still poorly managed, and attempts at scientific grazing
control are often frustrated by the complications o f land tenure,
multiple use of landS' and the ease with which legal actions
against agencies can be brought into the courts.
Many settlers migrating from the eastern United States
brought their more htjmid region technology into the arid regions
and attempted rain-fed farming.
This usually accomplished
nothing except to lay the land open to erosion by wind and
rain, and in all cases failed to provide dependable crop
production.
The development of irrigation in the arid portions dates
back to the Hohokam and Pueblo Indians, but it was not m t i l
the 1840s that the anglos began irrigated agriculture.
Among
the first to establish successful irrigation farming were the
Mormons in the Salt Lake City area. One of the reasons for their
early success was the inseparability in the Mormon philosophy
of church and state. Thus, it was relatively easy for them to
establish a communal irrigation system and thereby allocate
the land and water rights and obligations.
It was during the reclamation era of the 1930s and 1940s
that the arid regions saw the harnessing o f most of the major
streams originating in the mountainous West. This resulted in
multipurpose dams and the extension of irrigation to vast areas
of the desert and semidesert.
Other land uses in the arid Southwest included Indian
reservations, large urban centers, electrical energy production,
mining and industrial development, and recreation.
- f i -
III.
RANGE RESOURCE UTILIZATION
As a result o f the severe overgrazing wbj.ch occurred during
the late 1800s, the U.S. government has attempted to develop range
control on its publicly owned land.
Private, state-owned and
Indian lands are not under federal grazing control, but through
the Agricultural Extension Service associated w i t h the Land Grant
colleges and universities m a n y improved range management techniques h a v e been and are being adopted on hon-federal lands.
Both the U.S. Bureau o f Land Management and the U.S.
Forest Service lands are grazed, in keeping with the multipleu s e management concept.
Multiple use m a y include recreation,
timber production, mining, w a t e r resource development, transportation and p o w e r production.
While multiple-use policy
has its obvious advantages, it also leads to complications
for the range manager.
Range scientists are as yet m a b l e
to predict accurately the s3naergistic effects of multiple
use o n the carrying capacity of the land.
*
While severe overgrazing is generally prevented on most
public lands, the result o f multiple use is that the associated
impact on range vegetation and soil requires continual assessment
and re •êvaluation of carrying capacity.
Land tenure also complicates the problem in the U . S . , as grazing may occur in a geographical area which involves land in which various parts are owned
by the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management,
Indian reservations, the states or private parties.
The Indian
reservations are generally severely overgrazed, and control of
animal numbers is through tribal councils or cattlemen's
associations.
Indian cattlemen are reluctant to reduce herd
size because to m a n y the existence of a large herd is a source
of savings, community power, influence and prestige.
M o s t range scientists agree that m a n y o f the public and
private lands are being degraded, and that controls must be
stepped up.
There are m a n y well-documented historical cases
in which overgrazing caused the invasion of low woody plants
of little nutritive value, the acceleration of erosion processes and depletion of groundwater.
Western cattle ranches today average over 20,000 acres
w i t h a carrying capacity o f about one grazing cow p e r 100 acres.
The economic stability brought to the desert ranch is largely
a result o f the transportation system, the development of w a t e r
w e l l drilling and pumping equipment, and the application of
m o d e m scientific methods in range management, breeding, feeding,
veterinary medicine and marketing.
-9-
^y
IV.
IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
Irrigation has literally transformed many parts of the
deserts of the arid Southwest into agriculture production centers. Irrigation has, in the U.S., contributed to the
desertification process v i a its constimptive use of scarce
water supplies, salinization of soils, and, occasionally,
the retirement of these agricultural lands to become barren
wastelands.
The water problem is most critical in areas in which
groundwater is being constmed faster than the rate of recharge
to the g r o m d w a t e r system.
Several streams and rivers that once
were perennial are n o w ephemeral.
This problem is particularly
acute in those parts of the semiarid Southwest where g r o m d w a t e r
is the only source of water.
In the Santa Cruz Valley in
southern Arizona, for example, water withdrawal for the urban
center of Tucson, for irrigated agriculture and for mining
copper is so far in excess of natural replenishment that the
groxmdwater level has declined 200 feet or more in some areas.
One of the problems facing the irrigation farmer, who
depends upon a declining groundwater supply, is that he must
not only incur steadily increasing costs associated with the
energy required to pump from ever-greater depths, but the
rapidly increasing cost o f energy itself. This places farmers
in a position of exponentially rising costs and has caused many
of them to abandon their lands. This abandonment of formerly
productive agricultural lands leaves vulnerable top soil, which
is often saline and does not naturally revegetate with low
rainfall. As a result, the barren land serves primarily as a
producer of windblown dust and sand. So severe is this problem
that many motorists on the highway between Tucson and Phoenix
have perished in auto accidents caused by blinding duststorms.
This highway now has special sensor signs posted to warn travelers when duststorms are anticipated.
The salinization of soils is, of course, a well-known
process associated with irrigation which may contribute to
desertification.
The general solution to the problem within the
U.S. is simply to apply sufficient water to leach out the salts
through a subsurface or well drainage system. While the solution
clearly solves the problem locally, it results in other complications. It creates a downstream leachate that is higher in dissolved salts than the upstream waters, and, as our friends in
Mexico are keenly aware, when the return flows are cycled through
several uses, the end user receives water which may be too laden
with salt to grow many crops. The Colorado River below Yuma,
Arizona is just such an example, where the U.S. is n o w in the
process of building a 100 million-gallon-a-day desalting plant.
-10-
Land abandoned because of salinity problems presents
special difficulties in reclamation or revegetation with
native plants.
One of the greatest challenges of the future,
one that numerous civilisations have failed to meet, is dealing with the effects of long-term arid lands irrigation.
V.
MINING
r-
While not particularly extensive in areal terms, mining
can create a virtual desert locally. Mine reclamation is a field
n o w receiving considerable attention. The effects of mining are
different, depending upon the method and the ore body. This paper
will discuss only two of the more obvious mining activities that
have stimulated considerable public awareness.
Copper mining is extremely vital to the economy of Arizona,
and it constitutues the major industry o f the state. Most of
the copper is mined in open pit operations that may be several
square miles in top area and about bOO feet deep. There are
several of these huge holes in the Arizona landscape, and the
removed overburden plus evaporation ponds, holding processing
wastes, create relatively large unproductive areas around the mine.
Architects have looked at the possibility of locating
housing developments on the overburden, but for n o w they
lie as m u s e d waste, a tribute to man's ability to move a
lot of dirt.
This may be called desertification, but in
general it is a local phenomenon and does not spread beyond
the m i n e operation.
Its visual impact is felt by residents
or visitors for miles in all directions.
The depletion of
water resources required for milling may involve nearby or
distant aquifers.
Coal mining in Arizona, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Montana and Wyoming has the potential to lay waste large areas.
To date, strip-mining reclamation has had only sporadic success.
The Four C o m e r s area in New Mexico has such highly alkaline
overburden that revegetation has failed, but in the Black Mesa
area of Arizona and in parts of Montana and Wyoming strip-mine
revegetation has been more successful. Huge deposits of coal
and oil shale exist in the West, and exploitation seems inevitable. Many U.S. citizens, n o n - g o v e m m e n t a l agencies and
governmental organizations are concerning themselves with the
environmental impact of this exploitation, especially that
which is related to the
shale deposits that have both
huge energy potential and huge land degradation potential.
Recklessly approached, ^ ^ shale mining has the potential to
desertify large expanses of land.
-11-
^
VI.
URBANIZATION
Urban development may be one of the best uses of arid
and semiarid lands, if proper planning and common sense accompany
such use.
While wasteful and improper water use in these cities
may ultimately lead to ghost towns or concrete deserts, the most
publicized problems are those caused by thoughtless land developers
who carve up dry desert areas with roads in an attempt to sell
these arid plots of waterless land to gullible easterners and
m i d w e s t e m e r s . A flight over New Mexico, Arizona and Nevada
will reveal hundreds of these unpaved roads simply cross-hatching
the land with no housing at all. On the groxmd one sees that
many of the "streets" have become gullies which carry away the
thin topsoils that typify the arid areas.
Another problem associated with urbanization is the demand
for water and land. These demands often force agricultural lands
to be retired, either to housing, as in the Los Angeles and Phoenix areas, or to simply unused lands so that the groundwater resource can be used by the city dwellers. Part of the once agriculturally rich Avra Valley in southern Arizona is in the process
of becoming a wasteland and potential source o f windblown sand
and dust, because Tucson needs the groundwater resource for its
increasing population.
Population growth with the attendant
demands for scarce resources is the basis for most arid lands
problems.
Many of our western arid and semiarid areas were originally
developed for irrigated agricultural usage. Recent population
increases (largely attributable to the desirability of the climate for living), reductions in groundwater levels and quality,
and increased costs of energy for high-technology agriculture
that typifies these areas suggest that U.S. arid lands are on
the threshold of a revolution in usage patterns.
VII.
RECREATION
The plentiful sunshine of the arid regions, the general
affluence of the average U.S. worker, plus more and more spare time
have created an interesting and bothersome land degradation problem. As previously mentioned, motorcycles, "dune buggies," fourwheel drive off-road vehicles and campers have invaded the desert
areas, and they leave their marks.
-12-
Although widespread, this problem is particularly acute
in the Mojave and California deserts, on federal lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Eleven million Southern
C a l i f o m i a n s view this unreserved public domain as "their own
backyard." Use of the area by off-road vehicles was unregulated tintil 1972. During one 12-month period there were 151
organized competitive racing events for off-road vehicles involving more than 67,000 participants and 189,000 spectators.
The most extraordinary of the "scramble" races was run
each Thanksgiving weekend over a 160-mile course between Barstow, California and Las Vegas, Nevada.
Three thousand motorcyclists spread across the desert, traveling at breakneck
speeds as they compact the soil, devastate vegetation, stir
up clouds of dust and terrorize wildlife. The long-term
results o f such activities have been denudation of significant patches of the landscape. The Bureau of Land Management
has subsequently canceled the races, but the damage remains.
VTII.
/
PHREATOPKYTE A N D OTKER VEGETATION CONTROLS
The demand for water resources in arid areas is always
greater than the supply, causing agricultural, mining and
municipal planners to be constantly devising n e w schemes for
diverting larger portions o f the limited water resources through
the human portion of the desert ecosystem. Recently great concern has been expressed about phreatophytes.
Rivers and washes,
the arteries of our watersheds, are frequently bordered by stands
of tall trees in significant riparian communities. Many of the
trees are heavy water users, phreatophytes, and their elimination
has been advocated in some areas. Phreatophyte control programs
frequently include channeling water courses.
It has also been noted that vegetation could be stripped
from several million acres of Arizona forest and desert (largely
chaparral vegetation) to increase water runoff.
Such schemes to
remove large tracts of vegetation are possibly ill-advised because of the long-range degradation and desertification potential.
In the short term, increasing water runoff through vegetation
removal may mean less water infiltrating to groundwater, and
sediment may accumulate more rapidly in water catchments and
reservoirs.
-13-
Jr
IX.
SUMMARY
While desertification is a relatively n e w term in the
U.S. scientific vocabulary, land and resource misuse and degradation are not.
Desertification is indeed a serious problem,
with overgrazing, salinization of soils, depletion of water
resources, land subsidence, population pressures, abandonment
of lands, some mining operations, and destruction of vegetation
or desert pavement through careless recreation, and other exploitations of the desert resources all contributing factors.
To ignore the impact of desertification on the U.S. is
a mistake. While very high-level U.S. technology (and capital
expenditures) has tremendous capacity to produce, it has equally
tremendous capacity to destroy.
If resource planners and managers,
private investors and government regulatory agencies do not establish and maintain awareness and vigilance of land degradation
in the Southwest, desertification could become a problem of increasing national impact. We have the technical knowledge to
control and in some instances to reverse the land degradation,
but as in many countries the pressures from a too rapidly increasing population coupled with the social problems of implementing known technology do not permit a careless optimism.
It is for these reasons that U.S. government agencies have
undertaken a variety of activities aimed at control and possible
reversal of arid lands degradation.
For instance, in 1968 the
Bureau of Land Management laimched a California desert study.
Its purpose was to inventory current and prospective land uses
in the first step toward introduction of integrated management.
The study focused public attention on management needs of the
fragile arid lands environment creating a gradual increase in
management awareness. As part of the Federal Land Policy and
Management Act, the Bureau of Land Management has been directed
to effect an interim management plan pending development of a compre
hensive multiple-use, sustained yield plan for the Southern California desert conservation area. The interim plan will emphasize
orderly public use and authorizes a patrol to ensure public safety
and to enforce orderly use o f the lands. The comprehensive plan
will be developed through the Bureau of Land Management Land
Use Planning System. A p e m a n e n t federal appropriation of $40
million has been authorized to support the \indertaking.
-14-
i
APPENDIX A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arraillas, Pedro
1961
Land use in pre-Coliimbian America.
^ L.Do Stamp, ed. ,
A history o f land u s e in arid regions.
UNESCO, Paris.
Arid Zone Research 17: 255-276.
U.S. coverage concentrates on the Great Plains, the
Colorado Plateau and the Sonoran Desert, followed by
Meso-America, Peru, the Andean Plateaus and the Chilean
Desert.
Particular emphasis is on the development of
cultivation and irrigation agriculture.
Bibliography.
Ayres, J. E.
1971
Man, the desert faianer. ^ Hydrology and water resources
in Arizona and the Southwest, Vol. 1. American Water Resources Association, Arizona Section/Arizona Academy of
Science, Hydrology Section, proceedings o f the 1971 meetings,
Tempe, Arizona, 373-379.
1
I
The pre-Columbian Hohokam Indians occupied the major river
drainages of central Arizona and have been the subject o f
m u c h intense archaeological research.
Evidence indicates
that the Hohokam began using river water for crop irrigation about 300 B . C . and-modified and improved their irrigation systems over time until the maximum extent of these
systems was achieved about 900 A.D.
Two types of w a t e r
control seem to have been utilized:
1) the direct exploitation of rivers through the use o f irrigation canals, and
2) indirect use through controlled runoff within microdrainages at higher elevations before it reached the rivers.
At first, probably only those parcels of land with optimal
soils and drainage w e r e used, but apparently population
increases fostered by agriculture itself, combined with
-increasing social and political complexity, necessitated
more and more exploitation of marginal lands.
Eventually,
soil problems increased, imposing severe limitations on
agriculture.
These involved salt and alkali accumulation
due to inadequate drainage, soil density and waterlogging.
Additionally, the extension of cropping required the
clearing of natural vegetation, which resulted in increased
erosion and decreased available native food resources for
periods when crops failed.
The culture vanished completely
about 1450 A.D., probably mainly because of their manner
of river exploitation for irrigation. More recent archaeological studies are concentrating not only on river use but
also on river abuse.
-15-
Bochert, J. R.
1971
The dust bowl in the 1970s. Association of American
Geographers, annals 61 (1): 1-22. GA 72C-0326.
Major droughts in the grassland region of the central
have occurred rhythmically during the period of instrumental record. The time for the next one may be near.
Early droughts disastrously reduced farm income through
loss of crops and livestock.
Since the 1930s they have
accelerated contemporary basic changes in Americans within
this region:
fewer, bigger and more fragmented farms;
public controls and subsidies; consolidation of urban
business and services; and greater management. The next
major drought will again accelerate long-term agricultural
trends, but a sharp increase in urban federal assistance
is likely, and revolutionary changes in settlement could
b e initiated.
Brown, G. W . , Jr., ed. 1968-1974
Desert Biology. Two volumes.
London.
1236 p,
4i
f
Academic Press, New York,
The first volume deals with the biological aspects of the
world's deserts. It focuses on the forces causing desert
and arid regions, the evolution of desert plants, water
economy, desert ecology and limnology, poisons, desert
animals, and the adaptation and behavior o f plants, reptiles, amphibia, birds, fish and mammals (including man).
The second volume discusses hydrogeology o f arid regions,
desert soils, physical and vegetational aspects of the
Sahara Desert, desert algae, lichens and fungi. A new approach
to water relations of desert plants, desert anthropods and
fishes, and man in arid lands (particularly the Pima Indians of the Sonoran Desert and the Mada in Salih Valley
in the northwestern c o m e r of Saudi Arabia) .
Clyma, W./Young,R.A.
1968
Environmental effects of irrigation in the central valley
of Arizona. American Society of Civil Engineers, national
meeting on environmental engineering, Chattanooga, Tennessee, May 13-17, 1968. Preprint.
28 p. SWRA W70-07053.
Irrigation has modified the environment of the central
valley of Arizona for past 2500 years, beginning with the
irrigation systems of the Hohokam'Indians.
Modification
of the physical environment has included changes in climate, groundwater, surface water and vegetation. The social
environment has been changed from a rural economy to an
urban industrial economic system.
Present and future problems related to irrigation in the area are discussed.
Some
of the problems are water demand, land subsidence, salinity,
groundwater management and allocation of Colorado River
water.
Solutions to some of these problems are suggested.
-16-
^
t
j
'Cooke, R.V./Reeves, R.W.
1976
Arroyos and environmental change in the American Southwest.
Oxford Research Studies in Geography, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, England.
213 p.
Cottam, W.P./Evans, F.R.
1945
A comparative study of the vegetation of grazed and ungrazed canyons of the Wasatch Range, Utah. Ecology 26
(2): 171-181.
Two canyons in the Wasatch Mountains near Salt Lake City
were compared: Red Butte Canyon had been protected from
grazing for 40 years, while Emigration Canyon had been
grazed heavily since settlement in 1847. Evidence points
to the complete substitution of the original grass type
in Emigration Canyon to one with unpalatable shrubs and
Bromus tectorum, while Red Butte Canyon has maintained a
rich plant cover including ten native grasses not found
in Emigration Canyon.
Sheet and gully erosion are prominent in Emigration Canyon.
Denevan, W.M.
1967
Livestock niimbers in 19th century New Mexico and problems
of gullying in the Southwest. Association of American
Geographers, annals 57(4): 691-703.
GA 69A-990.
I
In the 1880s intensive accelerated erosion began producing
large gullies throughout the southwestern U.S. This m o d e m
arroyo cutting was originally attributed to deterioration
of the protective vegetation cover because of belownormal rainfall and overgrazing by excessive niombers of
livestock (4 million sheep in New Mexico in 1880).
However, recent studies have stressed the greater importance of increased high intensity rainfall.
Additional
perspective is provided by an examination of livestock
numbers in the upper Rio Grande region of New Mexico during
the 19th century, particularly during the Mexican period
when the ranges were heavily stocked with sheep (possibly
3 million head in the 1820s), but with little or no gullying. The incomplete record of livestock numbers in
relation to climate and gullying backs up the climatic
argument but also gives some new support to the older
view that overgrazing was a major contribuíive factor
causing severe m o d e m gullying.
Dregne, H.E., ed.
1970
Arid lands in transition. American Association for the
Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. Pub. 90. 524 p.
Invited papers given at a 1969 conference in Tucson, Arizona, jointly sponsored by AAAS and UNESCO on "Arid Lands
in a Changing World."
(A summary appeared in Nature and
Resources 5(3): 7-12.)
-17-
Humphrey, R.R.
1958
An analysis of causes. Botanical Review 24(4): 193-252.
(Reprinted as Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 299.)
Extensive portions of the desert grassland of southern
Arizona, New Mexico and southwestern Texas have been invaded by woody species. Mesquite, creosote bush, cacti of
the genus Opuntia, burroweed and snakeweed are among the
principal invaders.
The principal factors commonly believed to have caused this change- are change of climate,
grazing by domestic livestock, plant competition, rodents
and fire. Of these various factors, change of climate
seems to have had the least effect. Fires that were formerly frequent and widespread were the chief agency restricting shrub invasion.
Since fires have been controlled,
the introduction of domestic livestock, plant competition
and rodents have been effective agents favoring woody
plants at the expense of grasses.
^
Law, J.P., Jr./Witherow, J.L. eds.
1970
Xiater quality management problems in arid regions.
U.S.
Federal XJater Quality Administration, Water Pollution Control
Research Series 13030.
105 p. Available NTIS as PB=198
125.
SWRA W71-06111.
A selection o f papers presented at the AAAS committee on
arid lands conference. Arid Lands in a Changing World,
held in Tucson, Arizona, June 1969. Included are papers
covering nitrate removal from agricultural wastewater, the
effects of salinity standards on irrigated agriculture in
the Colorado River Basin, problems of pollution of irrigation water in arid regions, salinity control in return
flow from irrigated areas, natural pollution in arid land
waters, distillation of wastewaters, animal waste runoff,
water quality requirements, re-use of wastewater effluents, and water quality control problems in inland sinks.
Logan, Richard F.
1961
Post-Col\imbian developments in the arid regions of the
United States of America. to L.D. Stamp, ed., A history
of land use in arid regions.
UNESCO, Paris. Arid Zone
Research 17: 277-297.
]
/
A companion review to Armillas' on pre-Columbian America
(q.v.), this paper describes the physical setting, including landforms, climate and vegetation.
It offers a brief
history of the development of a national land use policy:
grazing industry, dry f a m i n g , irrigation agriculture,
recreation and urbanization.
,
•
-406-
Love, R.M.
1970
The rangelands of the western U.S.
Scientific American
212{1):
88-96. GÁ 71C-1155.
SWRA W70-04907.
Cattle grazing is the primary use of the rangelands of
the western United States, The western ranges fall into
three distinct categories: northern Rocky Mountains, intermountain and Southwest.
True grassland is rare in the Southwest.
Instead, deserts and seraideserts predominate.
Vegetation management is the major problem in improving
the rangelands.
Brush conversion programs have shown
substantial increases in water yield in the treated
areas. This is due to the fact that an acre of brush uses
six more acre-inches of water than does herbaceous vegetation. With proper management of brush in the watersheds
of the West, the land can provide more meat and lumber,
suffer less from erosion and flood, and be more usable
for recreation. The rapidly growing need for more recreational land is causing conflicts with other land uses.
The advantages of brush control and the use of controlled
fires, transhumance, canopy architecture, leaf-area index
and exotic grasses are other topics discussed.
McGinnies, W.G./Goldman, B.J./Paylore, Patricia
1968
Deserts of the world, an appraisal of research into their
physical and biological environments.
University of
Arizona Press, Tucson. .788 p.
A book intended for those seriously interested in planning, managing and executing research or development
efforts in the arid world.
It contains evaluative comments
on the work accomplished in weather and climate, geomorphology and surface hydrology, surface materials, vegetation,
f a m a and desert coastal zones. Extensive bibliographies
for each section.
Morris, E.H.
1948
M o d e m overgrazing by livestock as the direct cause of
ruin of southwestern agriculture, with a note by H.H.
Chapman.
Journal o f Forestry 46(12): 929-931.
Reprint of a portion (p.5-8) of the author's 1939 Carnegie Institution of Washington publication, Archaeological
Studies of the La Plata District, southwestern Colorado and
northwestern New Mexico, dealing with conditions in the
pueblo area before the advent of white man and the grazing
of sheep and cattle. Overgrazing disturbed the equilibrium
o f a natural balance of forces such as rainfall, erosion
and vegetation.
-19-
Paylore, Patricia, ed.
1976
Desertification: A world bibliography.
University of
Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies.
644 p.
'
Compiled for the International Geographic Union's 23rd Congress, Moscow, 1976.
Consists of 1,750 citations, most
with abstracts. Produced from the OALS computerized
Arid Lands Information System. Divided into regions
covering the Sahara-Sahel, East Africa, South Africa,
the Middle East, the USSR, Pakistan, India, China, Australia, and South and North America, with regional
introductions by world experts.
Maps.
é
'
f
Paylore, Patricia, ed.
1976
The Sonoroan Desert, a retrospective bibliography.
Historical perspective, by W.G. McGinnies. University of
Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies, Arid
Lands Abstracts 8.
777 refs.
Citations selected from the computerized Arid Lands
Information System (ALIS) cover such diverse topics as
environment, fauna, geomorphology, geography, surface
materials, vegetation, desert grassland, succulents,
water, weather and climate.
Full abstracts for each
with computerized keyword and author indexes.
Paylore, Patricia/Haney, Richard A., Jr., eds.
1976
Desertification:
Process, problems, perspectives.
Papers presented during a 14-week seminar series,
November 1975-April 1976. University of Arizona,
Tucson.
125 p.
The topic of this series was addressed by several
generalists speaking on its ecology, trends, causesj
followed by several case studies to illustrate the theses
advanced generally.
These dealt with areas in Australia,
eastern Oregon and southwestern Arizona and northwestern
Mexico.
Powell, J. W.
1962
Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States,
with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah. Ed.
by Wallace Stegner.
Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
202 p. •
A first-hand account of the arid region of the U.S. written
in 1878.
Subjects covered include physical characteristics
of the region, the land system needed, rainfall of western
U.S., water supply, questions relating to irrigable lands
of Salt Lake drainage system, valley of Sevier River and
that portion of Utah drained by Colorado River and tributaries. Author considers character of lands and engineering problems involved in their redemption and suggestions
for the legislative action necessary.
•1
,
'
'
!
^
Sears, P.B.
1959
Deserts on the inarch. 3rd ed., rev. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman.
178 p.
This popular account of man's misuse of the land and
failure to tinderstand its ecology centers around the
historical development of land use in the United States.
The cutting of forests, farming of cotton, plowing of
prairies, polluting of rivers, overgrazing and general
disregard for the welfare of the land are shown to be
related to floods, mudslides, duststorms, erosion and
natural calamities. The author argues that only through
a broad ecological understanding of the environment and
man's relationship to it coupled with moral commitment
in the emplo3nnent of technical resources and in our way
of living will we be able to change our historic precedents.
Steward, George
1936
History of range use.
In U.S. Senate Document 199, The
western range, p. 119-IBI". Washington, D.C.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management
1968
The California desert. A recreation study of the desert
public domain lands of California. Preliminary review
U.S. National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management,
Washington, D.C.
Woodbury, R.B.
1963
Indian adaptation of arid environments.
In C. Hodge and
P.C. Duisberg, eds., Aridity and Man. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pu. 74: 55-85.
i
I
Briefly traces man's changing roles in the western U.S.
Discusses food gathers, big game hunters, village farming
life, villages and water sources, water control techniques,
decline of village farming life, introduction of adaptable
Athabascans, shift to wagework, collapse of Great Basin
culture, rise and fall of the Sioux, adjustment to reservation life, Papago struggles in the desert, Indian adjustments and prospects.
Climatic change in the 13th century was probably responsible for early decline of village
farming life. Grazing abuses by Indians and whites have
resulted in deteriorated rangelands. The plight of the
Indian in the last century or so is not the result of
environmental causes such as aridity; the causes are social.
It can be seen as part of the worldwide problem of the nonliterate, non-industrial world confronted by the technology
and social and ethical systems of the western world.
Indian techniques and their philosophy of working with the
environment rather than against it may be indispensible
ingredients for the successful utilization of arid lands.
-21-
APPENDIX B
u
A PARTIAL LIST OF U.S. AGENCY-SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES
ASSOCIATED WITH DESERTIFICATION
I.
U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
(USAID)
A.
Programs in the Sahel region include assistance to the
Comité Permanent Interetats de Lutte contra la Secheresse
dans le Sahel (CILSS) in planning its regional development program; establishing a water data collection
and processing system for the Sahel Water Data Network;
and developing national capabilities to control food
crop pests throughout the Sahel.
B.
Grants to institutions include one to the Florida
Institute o f Technology and another to the University
of Arizona.
!
f
a. The Florida Institute of Technology is conducting a project entitled "Solar Cookers for
Haiti: A Feasibility Study." Haiti's firewood
and charcoal resources are becoming scarce as
are those in other developing c o m t r i e s .
The
project consists of a review of solar cooker
designs, evaluation of their compatibility with
Haitian cooking requirements and preliminary
design of a solar cooker appropriate to Haitian
needs.
2. The University of Arizona was awarded a grant
to strengthen its response capability in "Multiple
Use Planning and Management of Natural Resources
in Arid and Semiarid Developing Areas."
The
interdisciplinary faculty at the University of
Arizona involved in the program is establishing
linkages with institutions in developing arid
and semiarid regions to promote service, training
and research aimed at developing solutions to
their problems.
C.
^
^
;
f
USAID projects w i t h specific coxmtries are listed below.
1. Chad--The"Chad Range and Livestock Development"
project will develop the manpower capability
to implement a national range management program
and, in the process, design a national range
management plan. The project will include training in principles and practices of range management and a position on a national range and livestock planning commission.
-22-
i
2. C a m e r o o n — T h e "North Cameroon Livestock and
Agricultural Development" project involves
regional development through resource management
and will include a land use potentials inventory
and development of range management practices,
food crops and a livestock industry.
3. E t h i o p i a — A "Drought Rehabilitation and
Development Strategy" project will guide government rehabilitation and development efforts in
southern Ethiopia and will include aiding in
the process of identifying proper donor assistance; studying and analyzing environmental,
demographic and socioeconomic variables in Ethiopia; and formulating drought rehabilitation and
development strategies for the southern lowlands.
4. G h a n a — T h e "Developmental Applications of
Science and Technology in Ghana" program administers a pilot research program on the problems of
desertification in northeast Ghana which includes
application of the experience and methods derived
from the pilot study to two areas and an examination of mechanisms to establish research priorities.
5o Kenya--The "Survey of Semiarid and Marginal
Lands" will include quantitative, narrative and
graphic descriptions of the hxirnan and natural
resources and existing infrastructure in the
project area.
Core problems that constrain
development will be identified and delineated
including population, migration patterns, erosion, desertification, water availability,
deforestation, credit, production technology,
marketing, extension, elements of agricultural
education and institutional infrastructure along
with the potential sociocultural constraints.
6. Mali--There are several projects with Malian
institutions„
a. The "Land Use Capability Inventory"
will provide guidance in national resource
allocation through development of a 1:
200,000 map showing economic land classes
and movement m i t s and a tabular and narrative description of potentials and limitations of management units.
-23-
b. The "Mali Livestock Project" will
test the vertical stratification of the
livestock industry through range development, controlled grazing, post-season
maintenance feeding, small-scale farm
fattening and feedlot operations.
c. "Mali Livestock Sector Development"
will initiate development of the Malian
livestock sector through light development and management o f the Dilly area
(800,000 ha.), controlling the tsetse fly
in a small area near Bamako, market development and training at all levels.
,
f^
:
d. The "Mali Small Ruminant Survey" will
determine the present position and appropriate place of sheep and goats in the
Malian economy by surveying numbers,
distribution, ownership and economic roles
and by testing certain hypotheses of
the role of sheep and goats in economic
development.
e. The "Mali First Region Integrated
Agricultural Production" project involves
the western panhandle of Mali and should,
with its successors, bring 13,800 sq. km.
into ecological balance. Activities include a project allocation survey, developing a cropping system compatible with
the environment and a program of grazing
management.
f. The "Mali Operation Haute Vallee"
will bring that portion of the Niger River
bottom extending from just above Bamako
to the Guinea border into ecologically
balanced management through land-use condition and potentials survey, small-scale
irrigation and village grazing and livestock programs.
7. Mauritania--Two projects in Mauritania are
discussed below.
a. The "Mauritania 10th Region Development" program aims at optimizing ecological
balance for economic endeavors, sustained
livestock production and output and increased
food supply in the region through a range
and livestock management controlled demonstration, adaptive trials of soil and crop
management, extension adoption of the n e w
practices and grass fire control.
-24-
H
'i
)
i
i
b. The "Mauritania Reforestation" project will improve the institutional
condition of the national forest service
and increase the supply of cooking fuel.
Improved capability to manage the renewable resources of the public domain
are likely to be emphasized as the project design proceeds.
8. Niger--The "Niger Range and Livestock Development" project will develop a pilot, controlled
grazing program and a national grazing management
system.
9.
Senegal--There are two projects in Senegal.
a. The "Senegal Range and Livestock
Project" is a pilot, integrated'range
management activity and will initiate a
national resource management program
through balanced grazing within defined
boundaries, veterinary support, stock
water development and salt, minerals
and trace elements.
b. The "Senegal Land Conservation and
Forestry" project will initiate a resource management program through the
forest and wildlife program.
10. Upper Volta--The "Onchocerciasis-free Area
Planning" project will develop an environmentally
sound settlement plan for the "oncho-free" areas
of Upper Volta and will include a land-use
capabilities survey.
II.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
A.
^
K
(USDA)
Wide-ranging research programs are discussed below.
1. Research directed toward classification procedures for range resources, formulating guidelines for predicting potentials and assessments
of range responses to forage utilization regimes
and vegetation manipulations alternatives is
conducted at Tücson, Arizona.
2. Studies on the adaptation of plants to desert
environments are conducted at the University of
California, Riverside.
3. Methodology for the application of remote
sensing to natural resources analyses is being
developed at Tucson, Arizona. _ ,
B.
Cold desert research programs are discussed below.
1. Research concerning ecology and management
of salt desert shrub ranges is conducted at
Provo, Utah.
1
2. Studies of shrub and tree improvement and
culture for rehabilitation of wildlands is
xmderway at Provo, Utah.
3. Investigations of ecology and management of
pinon-juniper woodlands and associated shrub lands
in the Great Basin are ongoing at Reno, Nevada.
C.
Arid range research programs are discussed below.
1. Plants for arid range conditions are being
selected at the Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas,
New Mexico.
2. Mechanical treatment for establishing plants
in arid ranges is being studied at the University of Arizona, Tucson.
3. Research aimed at selecting techniques^^NÍ^^^
species for establishing range cover under
arid conditions is being conducted at Tucson,
Arizona at the -Plant Materials Center.
D.
Irrigated lands research includes a pilot projact to
determine ways to reduce best the saline drainage
flows from irrigated lands into fivers, with return
flow desalinization being the focus of this study
at Wellton, Arizona.
E.
Rehabilitation and Management Programs are discussed
below.
1. Research directed toward developing methods
for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils
in the Southwest is conducted at Albuquerque;
New Mexico.
2. Studies to promote reestablishment of plants,
animals and hydrologic stability on surface mine
spoils and water impoundments in the northern
Great Plains are underway at Rapid City, South
Dakota,
3. Investigations to develop methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Intermountain and northern Rocky Mountains regions are ongoing at Logan, Utah.
-26-
i
vr,
III.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
A.
(EPA)
tiide-ranging research activities are discussed below.
1. A cooperative research project with Egyptian
institutions will assess the environmental and health
consequences of the Aswan High Dam.
2. A desert biome study with the University of
Alexandria (Egypt) utilizes modeling techniques
to predict responses should certain events occur
such as deforestation or reforestation.
3. Arid lands research projects are underway in
portions of the western United States.
B. Specific animal and irrigated crop production environmental assessment projects are being conducted in
both India and Pakistan.
1. Research is underway to develop management
tools to dispose of animal wastes resulting from
a production of animals and poultry in an environmentally safe manner.
2. Methods are being developed to control the
quality of irrigation return flow along with
investigating the bio-engineering aspects of
agricultural drainage.
IV.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
A.
(USGS)
LANDSAT research activities are outlined below.
1. General applications of LANDSAT imagery are
discussed in the following sections.
a. Methods are being developed for
terrain description and monitoring utilizing the Australian land systems research
approach. Present experiments in Queensland, Australia will be continued in the
western United States.
The mapping system
is an integrated system in which soils,
vegetations and geomorphic features are
combined into single mapping and land
management units.
-27-
b. Methods of flood mapping with LANDSAT
images are being researched which are
particularly applicable to determination
of flooded areas in arid and semiarid
regions and which have potential for
identifying recharge areas of both surface
and deep aquifers.
c. A prime example of the use of LANDSAT
images in desert regions on a worldwide
basis is a project entitled "Sand Seas
of the World," although it is not speci-fically an Earth Resources Orbiting
Satellite project.
2. A regional LANDSAT program involves the impact
of strip mining on range resources and wildlife
habitat.
The environmental impact analysis is
using LANDSAT and aerial data in southeastern
Idaho, but techniques and methods are transferable on a worldwide basis.
B.
Two "Training in Remote Sensing Applications" courses
for international students are given each year with
the goal of teaching remote sensing data interpretative techniques. Other specific courses in various
disciplines are given or requested.
Courses can be
tailored to address specifically land cover and other
mapping of desert regions.
C.
Two research programs focus on mineral wastes.
1. Stabilization of mineral wastes research aims
to develop new. or improved methods of stabilizing
and/or reclaiming mined lands and mineral waste
piles.
Six field test sites which have either
arid or semiarid climates are located in the
states of Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Washington and
Wyoming.
Testing has been done on wastes from
mining and/or processing copper, lead, zinc,
uranium and asbestos.
2. Research on purification and conservation of
mineral processing wastewaters seeks to develop
effective methods of decontaminating metallurgical
wastewaters for process reuse or for discharge.
Recycling of process wastewaters is particularly
important in regions having either arid or
semiarid climates.
/
D.
Several projects address arid and semiarid lands
vegetation.
1. Studies of desert shrub ecology and utilization of soil moisture under high moisture
stresses are being conducted.
2. Many aspects of the "Gila River Phreatophyte
Project" have worldwide applications, especially
the use of remote sensing in monitoring water use
by vegetation and analysis of evapotranspiration.
3. An analysis of soil moisture data from sampling desert ecosystems to estimate evapotranspiration led to the discovery that the greatest reduction in available soil moisture was in desert
grassland rather than oak woodland.
4. A study of saguaro populations in the Arizona
desert is being conducted to determine causes for
fluctuations in plant establishment.
Climate,
disease and man's activities are being investigated.
5„ Abandoned agricultural land in the TucsonPhoenix (Arizona) area is being studied to determine the rate of reestablishment of native vegetation species.
The fields have been abandoned
for about 40 years.
E.
Hydrology research is also being conducted.
1. A study of grazing patterns aims to determine
their effects on runoff and sediment yield in
salt desert shrub terrain. The study site is
in western Colorado.
2. The effects on arid lands hydrology of converting vegetation cover from woody shrubs to grassland are being investigated.
3. Another study involves assessing the effects
of mechanical land treatments such as contour furrowing, pitting and ripping on hydrology including
riinoff, soil moisture availability and plant
communities.
-29-
V.
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
A.
(NOAA)
NOAA participates with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the U.S. Air Force Environmental Technical Applications Center (ETAC) in
extending the global inventory of existiag climatic
data.
1. Analyzed and observed data from the National
Meteorological Center (NMC) flow into NOAA's
National Climatological Center (NCC).
2. Similar data from the Air Force Global Weather
Central go to ETAC and subsequently to NCC, where
it becomes part of a common poll of global meteorological data. NCAR, using data from NCC and other
sources, reformulates the data in ways convenient
for research purposes, archives it and makes it
available as a service to members of the research
community.
(A July 1975 NCAR report, "Data Sets
for Meteorological Research," describes the types
of data made available through the efforts of these
three organizations.)
B.
Long-range predictions and satellite programs within
NOAA furnish a starting base for a climate diagnostic
activity.
1. The National Weather Service (NI^JS/NMC) longrange prediction program includes necessary analyses with diagnostic studies as circiamstances
permit.
Data sets are generated which extend
back over the useful history of data used.
2. NMC ongoing programs include the study of
year-to-year fluctuations in the stratospheric
circulation, analyses of stratospheric warming
and calculation of selected parameters related
to the global stratospheric energy budget.
Interrelationship between stratospheric and
tropospheric circulations is explored.
3. NMC maintains a 30-day field of global weather
data which, with similar data from the National
Environmental Satellite Service (NESS), is the
present source for compiling current climatic
data sets.
-
4. NMC is compiling, for the Environmental Data
Service Center for Climatic and Environmental
Assessment (CCEA) and the NWS Agricultural Weather
Service Office (AWSO), weekly extracts of the
x
most elementary climatic parameters needed to
assess current climatic and crop conditions over
the world's major agricultural areas.
5. NVJS AWSO, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), analyzes and
publishes the previous week's weather and
crop conditions in the U.S. A monthly summary
for major foreign agricultural areas is included
(although monthly climatic data from many areas
are incomplete).
6. To the extent limited resources permit,
CCEA is developing experimental crop yield
models and is participating in the NASA/USDA/
NOAA effort termed "Large Area Crop Inventory
Experiment" (LACIE) to develop grain production
forecasts.
Current and potential applications
include providing timely and early warning crop
alerts, fresh water supply estimates and crop yields.
7. NESS prepares on an operational basis global
charts of monthly and seasonal values of radiative
heat budget and monthly and seasonal resultant
wind fields at 200 and 700 millibars and their
anomalies.
8. NESS is studying interrelations of cloudiness
and circulation over large space and time scales.
9. NESS applies satellite imaging for detecting,
measuring and mapping mean monthly winter snow
cover over the Northern Hemisphere and is experimenting with snowfall prediction methods for
North American and Eurasian winter months.
10. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is examining variations in stanshine amount, total ozone and
tropospheric temperature changes as part of a
continuing investigation into climatic trends
during the last few decades.
11. The Geophysical Fluid D3mamics Laboratory
(GFDL) is investigating the sensitivity and stability of climate models to such external variables
as the solar constant and atmospheric carbon dioxide to assess the value of using simple models
in climate studies.
-31-
C.
NOAA Experimental Research Laboratories conduct cloud
seeding experiments in cumulus clouds over southern
Florida for the purpose of inducing the merger and
growth of cumulus towers developing in proximity
to one another thereby increasing precipitation frora
the larger cloud system and hopefully increasing
net precipitation over a large target area.
The
technique once proven may have a potential application
in semiarid regions when appropriate clouds occur;
although successful transfer of the massive or dynamic seeding approach used in Florida to drought
areas is unlikely.
D.
NOAA administers the World Weather Watch Voluntary
Assistance Program for the Department of State.
These funds:
1. Provide radio transmitting and receiving
equipment to developing countries to improve
national and international meteorological
data exchange.
2. Provide wind-finding radar to tropical
area countries.
3. Supply direct readout equipment to provide
a capability for intercepting processed data
from the GOES system.
4. Provide long-term and short-term fellowships
to meteorologists in developing countries to
increase their capability to use m o d e m equipment and to improve their understanding of atmospheric processes that result in eventual, longrange weather and climate change.
5. Support international efforts m d e r the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to define
the research required to advance knowledge on
the physical basis of climate and climatic fluctuations.
E.
Understanding the physical basis o f climate is the
"second" objective of GARP. NOAA is contributing
directly to GARP by:
1. Processing, analyzing and archiving atmospheric and oceanographic data.
2. Developing mathematical models and data
management systems.
-32-
3. Specifying, developing and procuring special
observing systems.
4. Conducting fundamental investigations of the
dynamics of geophysical fluids, the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere and the cryosphere over a wide
range of time and space scales.
5. Expanding research efforts on cause-and-effect
relationships between climate and atmospheric
pollutants.
6. Conducting a comprehensive program to develop
ground-based techniques for remote measurement
of critical meteorological and oceanographic
parameters.
F.
VI.
NOAA input into the World Weather Watch (WWlO will
impact on the United Nations Environment Program
EARTHWATCH since the Global Environment Monitoring
System (GEMS), the monitoring segment of EARTHWATCH, will make use of the observing, processing
and telecommunicating systems of WXiJW.
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
(NSF)
A.
"Analysis of Structure and Function of Desert Ecosystems" has as its goal elucidation of patterns
and magnitude of accumulation and transfer of biologically important resources such as water, nutrients
and energy; discovery and quantification of mechanisms
by which those processes are limited or augmented;
modeling the system conceptually and mathematically;
and advancement of the base of ecosystem theory and
aid in making management decisions about renewable
n atur al re s our ce s.
B.
"Structure, Function and Utilization of Grassland
Ecosystems" will model the ecosystem; improve ecosystem theory; understand the biomass, trophic structure, water, nutrient and energy flow; and utilize
and synthesize the results.
C.
"African Climate During the Last Ice Age" is designed
to test the hypothesis that East Africa was dry during
the height of the the last temperate glaciation; examine the movement o f the convergence zone between
the dry Sahara Harmattan and cooler, moist air flows
off the Gulf of Guinea; and understand the fvindamental nature of global climate change using East African
lake cores.
-33-
D.
Research about "Aerosol Transport over the Equatorial
North Atlantic Ocean as Related to Weather, Climate
and Land Use in North Africa" will establish an aerosol and atmospheric turbidity network across the
equatorial North Atlantic for monitoring the aerosol output of North Africa; identify source areas,
determine if increased aerosol output is derived
from normally arid and/or desert use practices; measure the time required for soils to become stabilized
against wind erosion once rains return to normal;
and measure mass transport of mineral aerosols to
the ocean.
Eo
"D3mamics of Large-Scale Atmosphere and Oceanic
Processes" research is a model study of the Sahelian
region indicting that feedbacks from the ground
creates weather patterns that reinforce and accentuate the arid or desert region.
Other NSF research includes "Formation of Deserts,"
"Midwestern Drought Indices and Drought Cycles
Using Sea-Surface Temperature Anomalies from the
Pacific," "Frequency and Power Spectral Analysis
of Drought Cycles," "Arid Land Climate Patterns,"
"Southwestern U.S. Deserts and Their Similarity with
African Weather and Climate," "Bovine Adaptation to
Desert Environments Focusing on North Africa,"
"Adaptation of Large Mammals to the Sahara," "General Dynamics of Arid Land Ecosystems."
Also "Ways in Which Disparate Organisms Evolved
in the Desert," "Management of Environmental Systems
to Prevent Desertification," "Studies of Nomadism,"
"Relationship Between Drought and Grazing Patterns,"
"Ancient Social Adaptation," "Hunting and Gaming
Practices in Botswana and the Kalahari," "Social
and Biological Anthropology in the Kalahari,"
"Drought and Population Resettlement in the American
Southwest," and "Bedouin Use of Surface Water,
Grazing, etc., in Northern Arabia."
APPENDIX C
Spanish Summary
Introducción
La presente es para indicar el estado del problema de
desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Se incluye un resumen
histórico sobre los problemas del use de tierras en las zonas
áridas y semi-áridas de los Estados Unidos, se discute algunos
de lo.s' problemas actuales, y se delinea la necesidad de planeamiento y manejo racional de tierras en Norteamérica. La desertificacion no es un problema solo para los países en desarollo.
Es un problema qué el mundo entero tiene que combatir.. Norteamérica comparte en este problema, puede ofrecer soluciones, y
sin duda beneficiará del intercambio de ideas y metodologías que
serán presentadas durante y despúes de la Conferencia de Desertificacion de las Naciones Unidas.
Una sequía qué duro varios meses .en la Reservación de los
Indios Papago en Arizona ocasiono fondos y servicios de emergencia
de varias agencias federales, y causo severas perdidas de ganado
y cultivos. Los programas de reclamación de tierras y la asistencia a las reservaciones Indias han alcanzado a los billones
de dolares—y tanto los beneficios como los gastos tienen ramificaciones nacionales. Con la posible excepción de algunos de
los usos de recreación, se deberá acentuar qué la experiencia
nortecamericana sobre la desertificacion será pertinente y
aplicable a otras zonas áridas y semi-áridas del mundo.
Historia
Se han utilizado las tierras áridas y semi-áridas en
Norteamérica durante los últimos 11,000 años, y quizás mas,
con el cultivo ocurriendo hace 6 ,000 años. Hasta el siglo XIX,
la tenencia de tierra fué el problema principal en Norteamérica. '
Acción por parte del Congreso de los Estados Unidos trato de
establecer controles sobre pastoreo, pero hasta hoy día el control
científico del pasturaje se complica par el uso multiple y las
numerosas acciones legales referentes a la propiedad y arrendamiento de tierras.
-35-
Pasturaje
La mayoría de los especialistas sobre el control científico
del pasturaje están de acuerdo que" muchas tierras publicas (federales) y privadas se están degradando, y qué se deberían
aumentar los controles. Hay muchos casos bien documentados
en los Estados Unidos en los cuales el sobre-pastoreo causo la .
invasion de arbustos pequeños de poco valor nutritivo, la aceleración del proceso de erosion, y el agotamiento de aguas
subterráneas.
Agricultura de Riego
El riego ha transformado literalmente muchas partes de
los desiertos del suroeste árido de los Estados Unidos en centros
de producción agrícola. Pero el riego ha contribuido al proceso
de desertificacion debido al consumo de agua, salinizacion •. del
suelo, y a veces el abandonamiento de estas tierras agrícolas,
y su conversación a tierras estériles sin utilidad.
Minería
Aunque sus efectos-no son extensivos en area, la minería
puede prácticamente crear un desierto local.
Urbanización
La urbanización puede ser uno de los mejores usos para
las tierras áridas y semi-áridas, con tal de que" el buen manejo
y el sentido común se use en cada caso. Aunque el mal uso de
aguas urbanas podría resultar en "ciudades fantasmas" y desiertos
de concreto, los problemas qué mas se comentan son causados por
los comerciantes de tierras, quienes subdividen el desierto, construyen "calles," y tratan de vender terrenos áridos a personas
crédulas. Centenares de estas "calles" sin pavimiento cruzan
los desiertos dé Arizona, Nueva Mexico, y Nevada, sin ningún
edificio visible, y se convierten én arroyos, los cuales destruyen
las capas superficiales del suelo.
-36-
Recreación
Debido al sol en las regiones áridas, el buen ingreso
del trabajador americano, y mas tiempo para el recreo,
se ha creado un problema de degradación de tierras tanto fastidioso como interesante. Motocicletas, jips de cuatro-traccion,
y otros vehículos de recreo han invadido el desierto y han dejado
sus marcas.
Freatofitas y Otros Controles de Vegetación
Muchos de los arboles que se encuentran al borde de los
ríos y arroyos, y qué consumen mucho agua, las freatofitas, debrían,
en la opinion de algunos, ser eliminados en ciertos lugares.
También se ha sugerido la eliminación de vegetación de millones
de acres de bosque y desierto en Arizona, para incrementar el
drenaje de aguas. Tales planes, sinembargo, podrían tener
consequencias serias al largo plazo .en cuanto al potencial de
desertificacion, Al corto plazo, incrementando el drenaje de
agua por medio de la eliminación de vegetación representará
menos agua infiltrándose a las aguas subterráneas, y sedimento
se accumulará mas rápidamente en las cuencas de captación.
Resumen
Aunque la palabra "desertificación" es relativemente
nueva en el vocabulario científico inglés, el mal uso de la
tierra y los recursos naturales no es nuevo. , La desertificacion es realmente un problema serio; entre otros, los factores
contribuyentes son: sobre-pastoreo, salinización de los suelos,
agotamiento de recursos de agua, presiones de población, abandonamiento de tierras, algunas actividades mineras, y la destrucción de la superficie del desierto por vehículos de recreo.
Sería un error ignorar las consequencias de la desertificación en los Estados Unidos. Mientras que la alta tecnología
americana tiene gran capacidad de producción, tiene igualmente
gran capacidad de destrucción. Si los planificadores y administradores de recursos naturales, los intereses privados, y las
agencias federales de regulación no mantienen vigilancia sobre
la degradación de tierras en el suroeste, la desertificacion
podría llegar a tener repercusiones nacionales de serias proporciones. Tenemos el conocimiento técnico para controlar, y en
ciertos casos, hasta reversar la degradación de tierras.
Sinembargo, las presiones de una población que está creciendo
demasiado rápido, como en muchos otros países, junto con los
problemas sociales relaciondandos con la aplicación de la
tecnología conocida, no permiten un optimismo sin cautela.
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
ARID LANDS
^
Cover Photo
Seemingly growing from space, this booium (Idria columnaris),
photographed
near the site of the former San Fernando Hîssion in central Baja California, is
characteristic of a droop that often occurs after maturity, possibly during periods
of drought when the cells are less turgid and the total structure thus weaker. In
this instance, either prior or subsequent to drooping, the end of the original main
stem was broken off and several new stems developed. These latter, in contrast
with the slender side branches, always grow upward, as these are doing. Flowers
typically occur near the ends of the main stems as they have here.
Blossoming
occurs in mid-summer, after which the seeds ripen until they are shed in the fall.
This photograph shows these ripening seeds.
R. R.
Humphrey
I he primitive sun symbol appearing on the title page, opposit
is internationally recognized as the colophon of the Universi
of Arizona's Office of Arid Land Studies. Similar renditions t
desert-dwelling man of five continents reflect his historic pn
occupation and dependence upon the sun.
Dune field, extreme southern portion of the
Gran Desierto, northwestern Sonora, tal<en
from the southern Pinacates looking west
toward the Sea of Cortez.
G. Donald
Kucera
Arid
atth©
ers
Situated as it is on tfie edge of the Sonoran Desert, the University of Arizona forms
a great research matrix of arid lands investigations. Its traditional commitment to this
purpose is evident in its dedication to the needs of the state, in its scholarship, in its
publications, in the intellectual accomplishments of its faculties and students, in the
leadership it has exerted throughout the arid world in such fields as greenhouse agriculture, desert ecology, anthropology, water resources development, crop production
and plant breeding. To select only these, however, is to do a disservice to the numerous other agencies of the University whose total contributions to arid lands research
make it a truly multidisciplinary fulfillment of an historic obligation. In what follows,
then, we set forth the dynamics of the University's present position, trusting that such
an overview may be the instrument by which you will arrive at a better understanding
of this arid lands design.
i5
Text by Patricia Payiore
R. R.
Humphrey
Reflection of an ocotillo (Fouefuieria splendens) in an
intermittent
canyon stream on the lower
west-facing
slope of the Rincón Mountains, east of Tucson. This odd
conspicuous plant illustrates adaptive mechanisms
that
allow it to drop its leaves as soon as the soil dries but as
quickly refoliate after a good rain. Cuttings, which root
readily, are commonly
used throughout
the Sonoran
Desert for living fences and ramadas.
G E O H Y D R O L O G Y
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The extraordinary attraction tinat the world's deserts have had for man immemorial ly has accelerated in modern times, as he seeks refuge from other environments
more crowded, more ugly, less satisfying, less pleasurable. From its founding, the
University of Arizona has devoted its energies to making Arizona itself more habitable.
Now well into the second half of its first century, the University recognizes its obligations beyond immediacy — to make sure that the arid land to which most of us came
from elsewhere retains those qualities which Drought us here.
Ancient Man in an Arid Land:
Ancient man solved on a primitive level many of the environmental problems that
persist more critically for our highly technological contemporary society. When he
brought water by canals to his fields, he was able to create a stable society in a region
of relatively limited resources, supported by land-use patterns designed to mitigate
the restrictions of adverse climatic conditions.
The University of Arizona through its Department of Anthropology and the Arizona
State Museum has uncovered through several generations of research a knowledge
and understanding of those earlier civilizations that went before us, not only here in
the familiar southwest but in similar environments in the Near East, Africa, Mexico.
Related research in dendrochronology, palynology, and the geósclences is being
merged to provide us with the most complete picture possible of our arid lands predecessor, and how he managed, or, ultimately, failed to manage his environment. Field
work at sites throughout Arizona and northern Mexico supports the laboratory findings, and the comprehensive academic program helps interpret the evidence.
The Physiology of Adaptation:
The total environment in which the university operates provides an unusual laboratory for the development of arid lands-oriented research. The College of Medicine
is directing attention to the problems of thermal stress on human physiology, while
the Department of Psychology, in a new program designed to parallel this, is emphasizing studies on the environmental psychology of living in an arid land and the relationship between psychological processes and the large-scale environment. In the
College of Agriculture an interdisciplinary graduate program relates to the effects of
high climatic temperatures on livestock and their productivity. Further studies on hormonal changes in people working outdoors in high temperatures, the effect of heat
on reproductive processes, the effect of arid soil-borne organisms on humans and
animals, and the comparative psychology of indigenous populations in various arid
regions of the world are all avenues of exploration to be undertaken here by interacting teams from medicine, engineering, architecture, and others.
Atmospheric Sciences is developing research in bioclimatology where the dynamic interaction of climate, plants, and man is shown in the context of those special
micrometeorological and hydrometeorological conditions peculiar to arid lands. In
Arizona
State Museum,
He/ga
Teiwes-French
View along excavated 14th century irrigation canal
at Snaketown, a prehistoric Hohokam
community
in south-central Arizona. Dr. Emil W. Haury,
excavator of the site, stands on the latest of four
superimposed canal surfaces. This canal is part of
an extensive irrigation system that began about
300 BC in the desert valleys of the Gila and Salt
Rivers near present-day Phoenix, Arizona.
Engineering, such relatively new concepts as bioengineering and biomechanics are
being harnessed to probe the relation between medicine and engineering, with emphasis ah such topics as cardiovascular dynamics, body fluid and renal physiology,
isotopesjand radiation, and solid state electronics in biology and medicine, all of which
are dire<;tly affected by aridity. In the Biological Sciences, the University is seeking
answers to survival and adaptation in an arid climate from the behavior of desertdwelling animals and plants.
Social Institutions:
Arizona
State Museum,
Helga
Teiwes-French
Although the Hohokam depended mainly on rivers and canals
for domestic water, they also exploited groundwater in favorable spots by digging wells. These were of two types: a conventional tube-like well and a walk-in well which had a large
diameter at ground level, tapering to a small diameter at the
water table. In time, these wells were abandoned and the holes
became convenient places for dumping refuse. In the Snaketown picture here, the deposits in one of these walk-in wells
has been sectioned preparatory to the stratigraphic removal of
the contained cultural
materials.
The physical and biological environment of the arid lands requires an unusual
degree ()f comprehension on the part of desert-dwelling man, if he is to appreciate
its uniqi e qualities, use them to improve the ambience of his own life, and leave
behind him for the future as much of his inheritance as he can. To achieve this, he
must d e i e n d on his institutions to guide him, educate him, enlarge his understanding of hi} special environment. In turn, these same institutions will depend upon him
to devot3 his creativity, his skills, and his invention to those aspects of education by
which W5 endure and broaden.
in a ûniversity atmosphere we should find the ideal juxtaposition of these lines.
Here wejseek through studies in Political Science, Economics, the Law, Anthropology,
to relate man's best instincts to his dominant role in any environment, but especially
in the aricl regions where the risk of failure is the more visible. The role of government
in the management of energy, natural resources, and the environment, for example,
is studied in the course in "Environmental Policy," where process and policy alternatives w i t i special reference to the arid southwest are reviewed. The role of Agriculture in ebonomic growth and development, including economic policies related to
arid lanes agriculture and to world trade in agricultural commodities, is examined in
courses h international rural economic development and natural resources economics.
In A'chitecture, the University is exploring relationships between the built environme |it and the unique characteristics of the natural arid land environment. Lessons of (¡ariier indigenous architecture are being re-examined to discover the implications f()r our contemporary energy-short society. Students in this field are challenged
to think Creatively in the search for new methods of achieving functional efficiency,
structure ! simplicity, and environmental harmony in arid lands architecture. Consideration of í piar energy systems, natural means of cooling and heating, indigenous landscape applications, insulative construction, orientation, and other needs should result
in the de velopment of a more appropriate aesthetic expression and community design for irid lands architecture. Architecture's "zero energy house," an autonomous
living unit, provides actual student experience in the requirements for substitute sources
of energy, including solar stills, sun shields, and mechanisms for the recycling of wastes.
Pianning for the Future:
Whil 5 it is possible to say that such technological amenities as air-conditioning,
artificial akes for recreation, even the mobility that our automobiles afford us, have
allowed IS to adapt to an arid environment, or to escape it, according to our needs,
nevertheil ess a university has an obligation to help society plan in far-reaching ways.
yû'üuí^y •û ¿îj u¿i.û ¡jtsj u^ ¡û ^¡ij/wu
.iw
wñeireweir needed, teliewimg Stss th
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to She degree thst ñ is sií!llemp¡'¡ed
ürame'jífoirk of undeirstsmdmg of aihe
aire oñen suMle mn-
rs
ucyuMU uur immeaiaifci uuiivtíriifcíriütJ anu uuiiiiuii, lu iiisurt; luiiy-it!irri envinjiiiiiciuai
qualiw and conservation. With proper planning by attention to certain functional
aspecte of apid lands habitation, it is possible to minimize social conflicts deriving
from fjpor planning, and turn them instead into acceptable, even pleasurable, interactive contacts.
To these ends, other University departments than Architecture are pooling their
con petence, notably Civil Engineering in courses in land development and water resou ces engineering, Systems and Industrial Engineering and Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering in courses in environmental engineering analyzing and designing Isystems and components for control of temperature, air distribution, air cleanliness,
ana acoustics in building space in warm climates. The use of solar energy is contingent upon engineering research, to which much attention is being given here in an
area of abundant solar heat, specifically through experimental designs for its use in
both private dwellings and industrial buildings, as well as for the generation of electrical power, exemplifying how the stimulus of crisis can challenge students to think
innovatively.
Water:
D
C. B. Cluff
In the multipurpose
water harvesting system
demonstrat 3d
here, wine grapes have been planted in the channels of t he
shaped compacted earth catchment. Excess water is collect 3d
in a sodium-treated raft-covered tank to prevent seepage a nd
evaporation. The rafts are constructed with coupled, expand ed
polystyrene panels, coated with asphalt and chips. Cooperati ng
departments: Soils, Water, and Engineering and the Water <esources Research Center.
Water resources, their use and conservation, have been the classic concern of the
University since its beginnings. Today, no less than earlier, much of its focus in the
field of natural resources is on the groundwater and surface water available, its quality,
w^ys of using it and conserving it for those needs most urgent, and methods of augmenting a diminishing and insufficient supply.
To the execution of these purposes, departments such as Hydrology and Water
Resources, Soils, Water, and Engineering, Civil Engineering, and the Water Resources
Research Center and the School of Renewable Natural Resources are devoting their
skills and experience. Such courses in water resources administration as "Water, Sociely, and the Environment," for example, deal with the role of behavioral sciences
(social, legal, economic, political, and psychological) in the public administration of
the use, development, and management of water resources, and the ecological relation of water in the biosphere.
The Water Resources Research Center deploys its staff and associated personnel, including graduate students, in research into such problems as the harvesting
of additional water from arid and semiarid watersheds, artificial recharging of groundwater aquifers, evaporation suppression, and systems modeling.
Changes in desert agriculture resulting from increased costs and shortages of
associated energy needs are being studied by the Department of Soils, Water, and
Encineering. Courses on and research into the need to manage salt-affected soils, an
aric lands problem of world-wide proportions, deal with diagnostic procedures for
eva uating soil-water-plant relationships, reclamation, and the economics of irrigation
pro.ect development. Drainage of irrigated lands, desert strip farming, reservoir engineering, erosion, and flood control are other facets of the interaction of water and
the and, as we extend our traditional preoccupation with water to the management of
arid lands in general.
Autonomous Living Unit
Number 2, designed and
constructed by advanced
Architecture students, is a
highly portable low-cost housing
unit, independent of external
systems, relying on solar
energy, energy storage, and
other techniques for its selfsufficiency. Experience
gained
from ALU-2 is also being used
to develop more advanced
systems by the College of
Architecture.
After a decade of research into ways of overcoming
problems
of heat stress in dairy cows. University research in the College
of Agriculture demonstrates Increased milk flow and calf production through use of evaporative coolers installed in corral
shelters.
Governor Alexander
Lewis, Sr, Gila River
Pima-l\/laricopa Indian
Community, southcentral Arizona, where
the University's Bureau
of Ethnic Research is
assisting in developing
a plan for more effective
tribal government and
management.
Autonomous
Arizona
Helga
State
Museum,
Teiwes-French
Interior of
Living Unit
Number 2
For (ixample, scientists in the Department of Plant Sciences are asking: Can economic plants be improved so ttiat they will produce more useable dry matter while
using less water? and to answer, are conducting pioneering research in efforts to determine if ways can be found to assure more efficient use of water by crop plants. Our
plant breeders have made great strides in developing varieties with high yields, insect and disease resistance, plant uniformity and other desirable characteristics. Similar prog "ess in improving water-use efficiency seems entirely possible.
The University's research in these areas has had an incalculable influence on the
agriculture of Arizona for over eighty years, and its focus during the next eighty will
reflect the region's continuing need to redirect its energies in new and innovative
ways that will keep pace with a changing dynamic society.
Waters leds/Waterways:
So c losely related to the overall focus on water in general as to be almost indistinguishable are studies relating to Water Management. Watershed hydrology,
forest resource economics, autecoiogy/synecology dealing with the relationships
betweenj organisms and biological communities and their environments, all affect the
arid lanqs that lie below our watersheds and contribute to the surface water flow that
comprises our streams, ephemeral or perennial. Our understanding of these processes
constitu es one of the University's lodestars, as we combine these tasks with others
relating o fisheries management, recreation resource planning, and natural resources
conservation.
Minerails/Energy:
G. Donald
Kucera
We can no longer afford to scoff at tfie simple generation of
wind power by the familiar windmill, visible throughout
the
western prairies of the last century. Despite the fact that it ranks
far below solar radiation as a continuously available
resource
Ca ratio of 740 to 5, in units of current U.S. rate of energy consumption), and that its scientific feasibility, costs, and hazards
have not yet been determined, the potential of wind power is
undergoing scientific examination. Meantime, in isolated desert locations such as this one near Tule Well, Cabeza Prieta,
extreme southwestern Arizona, it serves well the desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) population of this game refuge
by pumping water during long periods of drought.
Arizona, largely arid and semiarid, possesses a wealth of mineral and other energy
sources solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, fossil. The exploration of these resources has
been a (|haracteristic of the University's dedication to the needs of the State since its
founding, and the increasingly sophisticated technology it is now able to employ in
these amas will continue to place these considerations in the fore of its total commitments. The Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, for example, applies radioactive
dating techniques for the correlation of geologic events and trace element geochemistry. Much of its work has centered around the evolution of Basin-and-Range and
Colorado Plateau physiographic features, and the use of isotope hydrology studies in
the interpretation and analysis of dynamic groundwater problems.
Arizona, at a crossroad of interest in natural resources, may be looked upon as a
prototype of similar environments because of a number of factors: its aridity demands
keener understanding of groundwater geology; the growing hunger for energy requires r3search into the area's petroleum, coal, geothermal, and nuclear fuel capabilities; a growing urban complex calls for planning and understanding of industrial
mineral and rock geology; and the University's location at the hub of a multi-billion
dollar copper-silver ore deposit province demands involvement in base metal exploration anc research.
Int fie Laboratory of Economic Geology will be found broad instrument and laboratory support, with special capability in petrologic and mineragraphic techniques.
In Mining and Geological Engineering, attention is now being given to minerals and
View of a summer thunderstorm on the San Simon Valley,
southeastern Arizona. Average annual precipitation in this area
is about 9.5 inches. The sand dune mesquite (Prosopis) vegetation community in the foreground includes very little herbaceous vegetation as a consequence of heavy livestock grazing
and recurring droughts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The grass in the background is a result of brush
control methods, species trials, and seeding research by the
School of Renewable Natural Resources under a contract with
the Bureau of Land Management. The established grass stand
is effective in reducing soil erosion from this frail watershed of
the San Simon.
ijiMl i
L. G. Wilson
This Stabilization lagoon in use by the Pima County (Arizona)
Department of Sanitation shows platform, water sampling wells
and access well, facilities used for studies on subsurface water
movement and quality transformations (including nitrate ion)
during deep seepage. Cooperating University
departments:
Civil Engineering and the Water Resources Research Center.
School
N. F. Oebker and A.D.
Halderman
At the University's Mesa Farm in the Salt River Valley, bell
peppers are being cultivated under a drip irrigation system that
provides for timer valves, set for a given volume of water, and
meters for measuring the amount (foreground), fertilizer injector pump, and half-inch diameter pipe laid along the rows
under either alumnized or black-coated paper mulches. While
this practice has the prime advantage of water savings, it also
requires lower labor costs compared to conventional
irrigation
systems. Experimentation
is still going forward into problems
associated with these practices whose solution will help desert
farmers everywhere utilize this system beneficially.
ol Renewable
Natural
Resources
environmental conservation, where tine impact of mining on tfie environment, and tine
management of mine wastes and reclamation practices are being assessed.
Biological:
The biological resources of the arid Southwest are surprisingly rich and varied,
and much of the University's efforts in this field are devoted to a deeper understanding
of the area's natural history. Studies in plant geography and zoogeography provide
abundant experiences with living laboratories available at such sites as the Marine
Science Laboratory at Puerto Peñasco on the Gulf of California; the Desert Biology
Station at Superior, Arizona, where arid zone flora and fauna are displayed in a relatively undisturbed 1,200-acre preserve; and Tumamoc Hill on the edge of Tucson
proper, where a 75-year history of a desert environment little touched by man is one
of the southwest's historic landmarks, now under the management of the University.
G. Donald
This banded gecko TColeonyx variegatusj at ease on the trunk
of a fallen ironwood tree fOlneya tesotaj represents a species of
lizard widely distributed throughout the Sonoran and Mojave
Deserts. While largely nocturnal in habit, this specimen was
photographed very early on a July morning in the Cabeza Prieta,
extreme southwestern Arizona.
R. R.
Dept. of Nuclear
Engineering
TRIGA reactor operating at lOOkw of thermal power provides
a wide range of research capabilities, covering in addition to
nuclear engineering and material uses, projects in agriculture
such as feed lot waste problems and analysis of livestock forage
digestibility; in earth sciences, dating techniques in geochronology; and in engineering, activation analysis of trace maforlalQ
Kucera
Humphrey
The combination of barbed spines and densely-armed
easily
detached joints of this teddy bear cactus COpuntia BigelovtU was
no deterrent to the white-winged dove fZenaida asiatica^ who
built her nest here. This species of Opuntia occurs in abundance
on warm slopes throughout the Sonoran Desert, including this
site west of Caborca, Sonora, Mexico, where the photograph
was taken moments after the first egg was hatched.
A large diversity of habitats and of game species native to the state provide the
framework for a program of game management, with the School of Renewable Natural Resources sharing the course and research work with the Arizona Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit. The Arizona Cooperative Fishery Unit participates in similar
activities directed toward learning how to meet the demands for inland sport fishing
opportunities in a state where much of the population is outdoor-oriented. Such wildlife and wilderness studies have occupied our research specialists traditionally, but
now the emphasis is increased as the University invests its resources in the training
of students, including those from foreign arid lands, to seek an understanding in greater depth of the interrelationships of all forms of desert life and the total desert environment.
From its beginnings in 1958 as a loose collaboration of faculty and research associates with common arid lands interests, the OALS has evolved to its present position
as a research and information center that coordinates University-wide arid lands programs aimed toward the solution of both local and worldwide problems in the understanding, regeneration, and development of the world's arid lands.
Throughout its development to its present configuration, the Office of Arid Lands
Studies has held fast to its primary concept, that desert and arid lands studies are
interdisciplinary in nature, and that only through the interaction of many subject areas
can the total arid environment be understood and dealt with intelligently and factually.
The OALS seeks to identify arid lands research investigations on a broad spectrum of disciplines, and to bring together those research scientists whose interests
are correlative. Such integration is being conducted not only locally, but internationally, as relationships are established to'vprovide opportunity for mutual cooperative
undertakings. The research activities of the OALS itself are reflected in the design
of the many international conferences and seminars it plans and conducts on such
diverse topics as economic plants, energy, remote sensing, technology transfer, and
desertification. This microcosm of world arid lands dilemmas and the efforts being
made for global responses represents in itself the framework of interconnectedness
in which arid lands research flourishes best.
in addition to prime funding from the University, support for the OALS has come
from such sources as the Rockefeller Foundation, U.S. Army Research Office, National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, U.S.
Department of the Interior, U.S. AID, the U.S.-lsrael Bi-National Science Foundation,
and many state and local governmental agencies.
On the practical level, the OALS administers the unique Doctor of Philosophy
degree in Arid Lands Resource Sciences for the Graduate College. This broadly-based
interdisciplinary degree introduces a new dimension to opportunities for the unusually
gifted mature student who may not fit into the traditional academic degree-granting
structure but who has the qualities and experience to make an outstanding contribution to the worldwide problems of the arid lands. He must be able to demonstrate
the research skills needed to stand up to the rigorous program required, and to show
evidence of competence beyond that expected of the average doctoral candidate.
In addition to furnisiiing information services to the public and the scientificgovernment community through custom computer print-outs from both the worldwide
coverage available from the Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) and from the Arizona Water Information System (AWIS), the OALS is experimenting in cooperation
with the University's Radio-TV-Film Bureau with the use of satellite transmission of its
arid land information resources through remote terminals.
OALS staff member goes over a computerized
bibliography for visitors to the DocCenter.
The OALS issues a series of publications entitled Arid Lands
Resource Information Papers, Arid Lands Abstracts, and several
series of newsletters and bulletins. Its University of Arizona
Press books include Deserts of the World, Arid Lands in Perspective, Food, Fiber, and the Arid Lands, and Arid-Lands Research Institutions: A World Directory. Besides such OALS
books as these, the University of Arizona Press has published
other titles in its arid lands series, including The Sonoran
Desert, Coastal Deserts, and Polar Deserts.-
Left to right: Dr. Assibi O. Abudu, National Economic Planning Council,
Ghana; Wade Sherbrooke, Office of Arid Lands Studies; and Mr. Mike
Henry, instructor in agriculture, Baboquivari High School, Papago Indian Reservation, examining a jojoba plant.
For over eighty years University applied research has been largely arid landsoriented to serve the people of a state more than ninety percent arid or semiarid. Withiri Arizona's boundaries are counterparts of the natural features of all arid lands except
such cold continental deserts as the Gobi and such cool coastal areas as the Atacama.
No desert area of comparable size contains a greater variety of arid landscapes:
'
I
In some areas of the state, average annual precipitation is less than 3.5 inches
(compare As Samaway, Iraq). In others, sheep graze and crops grow where temperatures dip to minus 32 degrees Fahrenheit (compare southern portions of
cold Asiatic deserts)...
Climatic diversity in Arizona is caused largely by scattered mountains and tabular highlands, conditions similar to those of northern Algeria...
I
I
!
Processes and results of weathering, erosion and deposition have been examined at less than 200 feet elevation along the Colorado River, just as on the
Nile, while the Colorado Plateau stands at elevations comparable to portions of
the plateau of Iran, the central Sahara, and the Kalahari...
j.
Since this state's portion of the American southwest has historically and currently a greater variety of human activity than any other desert area, it is a useful
one for drawing human-use analogies. The seminomadic sheep grazing of the
Navajo, for instance, is much like that of the Kirghiz of Asia and the Berbers of
Africa, while flood agriculture has been practiced in Arizona by several Indian
tribes, as in the Sahara.
These similarities have sponsored an affinity between the University of Arizona
and regions of the Earth with comparable environments. Students from arid lands outside the United States constitute fifty-two percent of the total University of Arizona
foreign student body, with Saudi Arabia, Libya, Mexico, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, and
Iran among those represented. Many such students are here for graduate studies in
fields chosen to contribute a greater understanding of their homeland needs, and
solutions to their own arid lands problems. Many former students have gone on to positions of responsibility in government, education, and technology. Their ties remain
strong with Arizona, through contacts continued by mail, by visits in both directions,
and by durable relationships based on mutual arid lands interests.
Institutional programs of international scope have sent faculty and research personnel on ariii lands assignments in northeastern Brazil, Turkey, West Africa, Sudan,
Pakistan, Peru, Israel, Australia, India, the Sahara, Argentina, and elsewhere. The experience of the University over a period of more than eighty years in research on arid
soils, irrigation, climate, hydrology, native and introduced vegetation, and other aspects of this environment has been translated throughoutithe arid world into projects
of incalculable benefits.
As neighbors, our history of cooperative programs with the states of northern
Mexico and those related to the Gulf of California is a long and close one, the most
p
.-i
Gaud-I-Zirreh,
Afghanistan
spectacular being the Puerto Peñasco experimental facility that began with a desalting project and is now devoted to production of marine shrimp in controlled environment structures. Similar projects growing out of the original desalting program there
have been undertaken under the direction of the University's Environmental Research
Laboratory in Abu Dhabi and Iran, where large-scale power/water/food plants are in
full-scale operation; and in Fort Yuma, California, where a comparable facility is in
operation by the Quechan Indian tribe.
international research on economic wild plants is another area where the University of Arizona's leadership is demonstrating its capacity to identify and explore
arid lands potentials. Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), native to the Sonoran Desert,
is presently the most visible, now being experimentally cultivated in Israel, Iran, Iraq,
and Australia. Its spread under these conditions will eventually be assured, with the
several benefits that can accrue from its products and use. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) and the common buffalogourd (Cucurbita foetid i ssi ma) are other native
plants with economic possibilities now being re-examined for research investigations
through international collaboration.
Beyond these formal and informal alliances with governments and institutions
throughout the arid world, the University of Arizona is dedicating its experience and
competence in a number of ways. Its membership in the Consortium for International
Development (CID) assures that it has a role to play in determining the needs of lessdeveloped countries in arid and sub-humid areas, and in contributing to ways of meeting those needs.
U.S. AID projects designed to develop training in natural resources management
will have great impact in arid regions other than the southwest U.S., where pilot programs in microcosm can be extrapolated to the macrocosm of the world's arid lands.
Such renewable natural resources as forests and their effects on watersheds, game
management, recreation, and hydrology can be cited, where substantial academic
effort is devoted to creating the kind of experiential background necessary to understand and direct programs of conservation and development.
The influence of such unique research capabilities as those present in the Environmental Research Laboratory, the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research and its programs
in dendrochronology, and the work of the Department of Geosciences in the fields of
palynology and isotope geochemistry, for instance, is far-reaching. While research
done in the arid environs of the University of Arizona provides the state of Arizona
with an understanding of ways of responding to such demands as are made on us in
the fields of groundwater, energy, the environment, such research can be extended in
the service of comparable needs elsewhere, as indeed it has been traditionally.
Comparable to installations in Abu Dhabi and the Arabian Gulf
is this large-scale power/water/food
plant in full-scale
operation by the Quechan Indian Tribe at Fort Yuma, Arizona. Here
five acres of tomatoes grown for the commercial market are
being cultivated in the greenhouses shown in the photograph.
The facility is operated and administered by the Tribe, providing
employment and income. Well water is bracicish but used as it
comes for the cooling aspects of the operation. A water treatment facility provides better quality water for irrigation.
The Catalina Mountains, a gneissic massif uplifted 25 to 30 million years ago,
form the northern boundary of the Tucson basin and rise to an elevation of
2,770 meters. Vegetation in the foreground is dominated by the Saguaro cactus
{Carnegiea gigantea), a plant unique characteristic of the Sonaran Desert.
The Desert from Space:
The gaps in our knowledge of various aspects of the physical features of the
world's arid lands are enormous, in part because of the inaccessibility of many areas,
in part because of the inhospitable nature of deserts. Now we have an opportunity to
conduct detailed natural resource and land-use inventories using aircraft and spacecraft imagery. The remote sensing techniques developed by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey are being employed at the University of Arizona to give us the synoptic
view that we urgently need to establish our development priorities.
The worldwide search for scarce resources is being enhanced by this technology,
as we use U-2 and satellite data to monitor hydrology and water, marine, soil and vegetation, minerals and fossil fuel resources, and land use and land use changes. In each
of these areas, research data are being improved and expedited as we learn to corre-late information from space with ground surveys. For many reasons, this technology
is most admirably suited to arid lands, and its employment here on an ever-increasing
scale is a significant factor in our present and future investigations. Remote sensing
technology is used throughout the University, with laboratories in the Office of Arid
Land Studies (Applied Remote Sensing Program), Optical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Geosciences, Civil Engineering, Mines, and Agriculture. The campus-wide
Remote Sensing Committee coordinates academic endeavor and serves as a focal
point for the many and varied remote sensing activities.
Computer Services:
Apollo photograph
126 miles.
of Colorado River Delta from an altitude
of
Aside from courses offered in computer science, the technical services of the
University's Computer Center are employed in a number of ways related to the arid
lands research program. The Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) of the Office of
Arid Lands is a completely computerized system used in the preparation of its specialized bibliographies and in custom searches on arid lands inquiries. As a sub-system
of ALIS, coverage of watershed management and related subjects is provided by the
School of Renewable Natural Resources. Similar services are furnished by the Arizona Water Information System (AWIS), also a function of the Office of Arid Lands
Studies in cooperation with the Water Resources Research Center and the Arizona
State Water Commission.
The new DEC-10, in addition to the CDC 6400 and smaller analog and digital
computers in use across the campus, is giving the University computational capacity through individual terminals that will greatly accelerate the use of data acquired
in several ways for the vital arid lands studies going forward in such areas as hydrology, land use planning, natural resource inventories, and particularly in modeling
and simulation of desert biome sites.
M n a
L a n a s
n e s e a r c n
in Academic Departments
The following departments and divisions of the University of Arizona offer courses
and conduct research closely related to arid lands studies in all subject fields represented. For further information in any of these specific areas, please write to the Head
of the individual unit, c/o University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA.
College of Agriculture
Agricultural Economics
Animal Sciences
Entomology
Nutrition and Food Science
Renewable Natural Resources
Soils, Water, and Engineering
College of Mines
College of Architecture
Environmental Research Laboratory
College of Business and Public Administration
Geography, Regional Development, and
Urban Planning
Office of Arid Lands Studies
College of Earth Sciences
Geosciences
Hydrology and Water Resources
College of Engineering
Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
Civil Engineering and Engineering
Mechanics
Electrical Engineering
Nuclear Engineering
Systems and Industrial Engineering
College of Liberal Arts
Anthropology
Atmospheric Sciences
Biological Sciences
Oriental Studies
Political Science
Psychology
Mining and Geological Engineering
Computer Center
Coordinator of Interdisciplinary Programs
Coordinator of International Programs
Special Research and Service Divisions
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
Arizona Bureau of Mines
Arizona Cooperative Fishery Unit
Arizona Cooperative Wildlife Research
Unit
Arizona State Museum
Bureau of Ethnic Research
Engineering Experimental Station
Herbarium
Institute of Atmospheric Physics
institute of Government Research
Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research
Optical Sciences Center
Radio-TV-Film Bureau
Water Resources Research Center
ARID LANDS
Jojoba (Simmondsia ch
native to the Sonoran L
southern Arizona,
souii
California, and nortt
Mexico including Baja C
has several potential
being explored
u
by the
Arid Land Studies in coo
with researchers
Mexico, and Israel.
ment of an Indian
based on
mentation
with a
in C
The
jojoba
successfu
number
is being undertaken
versity in
several Arizona
looking toward
at
conjuna
Indie
establisi
large plantations
to
industrial uses such as
waxes, lubricants,
animal feed
higt
suppleme
even as ornai
lentals.
E. F. iaase
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
Developing Countries . . . Environment . . . Arid Lands . . . Natural Resources
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ARID
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NEWSLETTER
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Geothermal . . . ALIS . . . Desertification . . . Economic Plants . . . Research
ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER*
No. 4, October 1976
Published by the University of Arizona, Arid/Semi-Arid
Natural Resources Program, for a U.S.AID 211(d) institutional grant.
Editor: Patricia Paylore, Assistant Director (International),
Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona 85721, USA.
Distributed worldwide without charge. Address correspondence relating to contents, or requests for future mailing, to
the Editor.
•Originally issued (No. 1, March 1975) as Arid/Semi-Arid Natural Resources Program Newsletter.
QUERY TO READERS:
If you readers out there, whoever you are, wherever you are, whatever your concerns are, want to use Arid Lands
Newsletter as a forum to speak out through letters to the Editor, I should like to add a page or two in each issue for this
kind of exchange.
Please keep them brief and to the point, and do not feel hurt if I cut or change or don't use at all. That's what mean
editors are for.
Next issue will be out by January 1, 1977, so take pen in hand and let me know what you are thinking about arid
lands problems, or what you would like to see covered in future issues, or what you don't like about what has aheady
appeared.
_ pp
MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH WATERS IN ARID LAND AGRICULTURE:
Modem Experiences with Ancient Problems
by
Marvin Twersky*
II. WATER QUALITY AND SOIL SALINITY CRITERIA
I. INTRODUCTION
In those arid areas worldwide
which conceal in their depths an
abundance of water containing
variable quantities of soluble
salts, irrigation agriculture presents us with a modern challenge
to utilize such water resources
nevertheless
for intensifying
crop production to feed the
i
inhabitants of those regions.
Since there is as yet no economical large-scale way to
. .J
eliminate salts from brackish water, we need to concentrate on
ways of living with saline irrigation water whose varying salt
composition can contribute to improper water management
and to increased soil salinity. To achieve this, we need to
define the vulnerability of soils and crops to the dangers of
various water qualities, and to use this knowledge to correct
irrigation technology accordingly.
The objective of this paper is to point to modern
opportunities in brackish water irrigation technology that
make it possible to achieve economical production of foodfiber crops. In Israel, where 200 million cubic meters of
brackish waters are available yearly for agricultural use, new
techniques based on the national experience have contributed
to successful cultivation of those desert regions employing
brackish water irrigation (Fig. 1).
A. Criteria of Water Quality
The term "quality of irrigation water" implies a specific
rating of the potential hazards water has for crops and soils
(24, 34, 48). Waters vary from one source to another in one or
all of the following: 1) total dissolved soUds (TDS); 2) cationic
and anionic composition (Na+, CI", sodium adsorption ratio,
residual sodium carbonate, permeabihty index); and 3) phytotoxic impairments (B- limits, NOj concentrations, pathogens
and disease organisms). Water quahty can be expressed as total
salt concentration in ppm, mg/1, pr ppm CI", especially where
CI' sensitive crops are involved (e.g., citrus) (22, 34). The total
dissolved salts (TDS) is most easily measured by electrical
conductivity of water (ECw) and is expressed as mmhos per
cm at a temperature of 25°C (mmho/cm).
Specifically, waters having ECw ranging from 2-8 mmho/cm
(1000-10,000 ppm) are considered brackish (i.e., slightly to
moderately saline) (11, 37). Waters having greater salt concentrations are classified as saline. Brackish waters of up to
5000 ppm are of the most potential interest for irrigation
agriculture.
In practice, no singular set of criteria exists for brackish/
saline waters (21, 30, 34, 48). Available water resources for
irrigation programs must be assessed in the context of the
conditions under which they are to be used. Any classification
system based on the composition of water alone can serve only
as a general guide in water management programs because of
the interactive effects of soil, plant, and climatic conditions in
each locality.
B. Salinity Criteria in Irrigation
, -
•«a^—
^
--ig.
Fig. 1. Field of cotton seedlings irrigated with brackish water.
Two factors are important for assessing the suitability of
brackish water for irrigation: l ) t h e amount of salt accumulated with each irrigation in the soil profile, and 2) the degree
of response of a specific crop to the level of soil sahnity in the
root zone.
Salts accumulate in the soil profile due to evapotranspiration, which is controlled by climatic demand and the
physiochemical properties of the soil (1, 7, 28, 31, 44, 48).
The movement of water and salt in the soil profile is less
restricted in light (sandy) to medium-textured (loamy sandy)
soils due to their high infiltration capacity.
The salt resistance of crops largely determines the
suitability of brackish water for irrigation. The salinity damage
*Dr. Twersky, a University of Illinois Ph.D. (agronomy, 1964), is Senior Scientist, Research and Development Authority, Ben-Gurion University of
the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel, where he specializes in saline water-soil-plant problems.
to a crop, however, is a combination of plant growth stage,
rate of soil salinization, and duration of exposure to soil
profile salinity in the irrigation interval. Due to the heterogeneity of soil in space and time within the soil profile, it is
the weighted mean soil salinity that determines the
performance of an individual crop. Weighting of soil salinity is
done on the basis of water uptake by plant roots (46).
Our experience suggests that the most singular soil salinity
problem occurs during the first stages of germination,
emergence, and plant establishment. The buildup of salts at
the soil surface due to evaporation delays germination, and
causes poor emergence and spotty seedling establishment.
Sugar beets serve as a classic example, being very sensitive
at the germination-estabUshment stage, though highly salt
resistant at maturity (4, 29). Peanuts, on the other hand, are
nonsensitive at initial stages of germination, but are highly
salt-sensitive to brackish water as mature plants (35,
unpublished results).
It is possible to increase seed planting quantity in order to
attain a higher density and more uniform plant population
(Table 1), or substitute fresh water irrigation (if available) at
these sah sensitive stages of plant growth.
Table 1. Effect of Planting Rates on Seedling Establishment
of Crops Sprinkle-Irrigated with Fresh or
Brackish Water (27)
PLANTING RATE
ONIONS
1.0
CARROTS
ALFALFA
ECw mmho cm"^
4.0
1.0 4.0
1.0
4.0
number of seedlings m'^
100*
130
200
17*
23
33
14
19
28
83* 56
126
72
198 120
29*
39
51
24
34
36
*Acceptable field practice in Israel.
Although there is general agreement as to the relative salt
resistance of various crops (4, 22, 27, 44), information on the
influence of salinity on growth is scattered and difficult to
evaluate (9). Salt tolerance tests should be carried out within
an ecologically discrete area in order to have the greatest
validity. The USDA SaUnity Laboratory, Riverside, California,
has prepared a reevaluation of salt tolerance literature covering
the last 80 years.
C. Leaching Control Criteria
When more water is applied than the plant requires, the
extra water moves the salts past the root zone. This is known
as leaching (22, 25, 28, 31, 33, 44) and is more efficient under
unsaturated flow conditions (26). Proper leaching and drainage
management prevents salts from building up in the root zones
of plants.
The effectiveness of leaching is determined by irrigation
frequency, amount of water in each application, and specific
irrigation methods. Surface flooding, sprinkler, and trickle/
drip irrigation have different effects on salt accumulation and
soil salinity distribution. Control of soil salinity by leaching,
therefore, is a function of the irrigation management system
(7,32,46).
in. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS USED WITH
BRACKISH WATER
A. Surface Methods
Surface flooding methods are used in the traditional irrigation systems existent in 95 percent of the irrigated lands of
arid regions (12, 13). These techniques are the easiest to
operate and have lower initial capital costs than sprinkler or
trickle/drip methods, even though they have certain inherent
weaknesses for utilization of brackish water.
(1) Flooding
Surface flooding requires land leveling. This destruction of
the physical structure of the soil surface decreases leaching
efficiency.
Distribution of the water is uneven, requiring more water
per unit area, with constant vigilance of the surface coverage.
Irrigation efficiencies are low, only 55-70 percent (37). In
sandy soils, surface irrigation is very inefficient.
More water is required per irrigation for leaching. On the
other hand, a surplus of water may cause waterlogging and
increased soil salinity.
(2) Furrow Irrigation
Furrows are used for the irrigation of row crops on gently
sloping lands. However, there is more soil erosion with this
method.
The salt content of the soil will vary from place to place
with brackish water furrow irrigation, with the greatest salt
concentration being in the center of the bed near the surface.
Accumulation of salts on the surface affects germination (16,
32). For highly brackish waters (>5000 ppm) the furrow
method is less satisfactory.
B. Sprinkler Irrigation
There is a clear superiority of sprinkler irrigation over
surface irrigation (12, 13, 37, 45, 46) in brackish water
management.
Irrigation efficiencies are higher (60-80 percent) than with
surface irrigation methods. Watering can be controlled in time
and intensity simply by choosing the right combination of
sprinklers, nozzle size, line pressure, and spacing of sprinklers
(Fig. 2).
Sprinkler irrigation is comparatively more efficient for
leaching salts in the soil (16, 46). By regulating sprinkling at a
rate below the maximum infiUration capacity of the soil, the
water content of the soil profile is controlled. Because of
slower profile wetting, the zone of leached salts is extended
deeper into the soil profile than with surface irrigation.
Intermittent leaching has been found to be more efficient in
salt removal per unit water applied (26).
Table 2. Yields of Crops Sprinkle-Irrigated with Either Fresh
or Brackish Water in the Negev Area ( 8 , 1 3 , 2 7 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 3 )
CROP
ECw mmho cm"l
1.0
REMARKS
4.0
—yield, tons ha-1 Cotton
Fig. 2. Demonstration of sprinkler equipment.
Wheat
Sorghum
Sugar beets
Forages
Bermudagrass
Rhodes grass
Peas (canning)
Onions
Sweet corn
Muskmelon
Tomatoes
The many existent types of sprinkler systems [portable,
semi-permanent, and permanent (solid-set) installations] can
be adapted to most crops. In Israel, a variety of crops have
been grown successfully using brackish water (Table 2, Figs.
1-2).
As with all irrigation systems, sprinkler irrigation also has
its disadvantages, but to a great extent, these can be overcome
by proper management (19,47).
The small droplets of sprinkler spray are more subject to
evaporation and wind drift, the latter causing a distortion of
water application pattern (19). The resultant decrease in
leaching efficiency can be particularly harmful when using
brackish water. This can be partially overcome by irrigating at
night (33).
Large droplets can cause damage to salt-sensitive emerging
plants and increase crusting of the soil surface. The impact of
energy of the drops tends to destroy the aggregates at the soil
surface causing particle dislodgement and soil splash (Fig. 3).
—
VF145 F5
Meacheast 22
VF198
NapoU
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.25 5.40
4.74 5.20d
6.70 6.70
10.0
8.40
80
60
seed cotton
(2 locations)
grain
grain
taproot
—
33
21.oa 33
18.5 17.2
34
26
6.36
17C
—
24
dry weight
dry weight
green pods
bulb
78.0b
72.0
78.5
86.5
108
31.0®
38.8
57.1
49.1
73.5
table
processing
processing
processing
processing
varieties
varieties
varieties
varieties
average for State of Israel
water £ 0 ^ = 1.2
water ECyy = 0.4
water ECw = 4.6
water EC^y =3.6
The NaCl of brackish waters intensifies this effect. The plant
establishment problems of salt tolerant crops (45) may also be
due to this effect. Large droplet size can be controlled by
decreasing nozzle diameter or increasing water pressure (19).
Overhead sprinkler irrigation with brackish water must be
avoided during daytime windy and dry hours. The process of
mineral uptake of leaves is intensified when brackish water is
Fig. 3. Soil splash damage of onion seedlings. Right: Heavy soil splash showing leaf tip damage before brushing. Left: After brushing off soil particles.
applied by sprinkling (2, 40). Accumulation of salts, especially
chlorides, on the leaves causes leaf burn and defoliation. By
irrigating at night, the dangers of foHar salt adsorption are
decreased (32).
C. Trickle/Drip Irrigation
Development of trickle/drip irrigation methods has
introduced a new and exciting innovation for management of
brackish water (2, 5, 6, 8 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 23). The common use of
tricklers has grown rapidly in recent years with 29,000 ha
being irrigated in the U.S. and another 29,000 ha in other
areas of the world. This amount will more than double in five
years. Trickle/drip irrigation has been found to be particularly
suitable where land is difficult to level and where sandy soils
predominate. In Israel, a variety of crops which have been
considered too sensitive to brackish water irrigation have been
grown efficiently and economically with tricklers (Table 3).
Table 3. Yields of Crops Trickle/Drip-Irrigated
with Brackish Water (EC^ = 4) in the Negev (8,13, 27)
CROPS
YIELDS
tons ha'l
Tomatoes
Muskmelons
Watermelons
Cucumbers
Sweet Corn
Onions
Eggplant
80-113
23-48
23-62
25-42
12a
50
35
a. Water ECw = 4.5
Trickle/drip irrigation gives greater water control. The
system consists of plastic pipes (hoses) placed on the surface
amongst the plants (the preferred method), or under the soil.
The water is delivered in the pipes under low pressure where
the water enters drippers (emitters), which reduces the line
water pressure and is discharged as drops at a controlled rate
(Fig. 4).
Success of the surface approach is due to the formation of a
low salt zone in the vicinity of the trickier where most of the
roots tend to cluster (5, 33). The dripper is placed directly on
the soil surface so that the area across which infiltration takes
place is small compared with the total soil surface. Salts from
the irrigation water are concentrated in a shallow surface layer
(from evaporation) and in a deep layer with a leached zone
between them. The result can be described as three-dimensional water flow as opposed to the one-dimensional flow of
flood and sprinkler and two-dimensional of furrow irrigation.
In drip irrigation, deUvery of the leaching water to the actual
root zone is therefore more efficient than in either surface
flooding or sprinkler irrigation. Furthermore, soil moisture in
the immediate root zone is continuously high, maintaining a
low salt concentration level.
Like the other irrigation methods, trickle/drip systems also
have inherent technical weaknesses which limit their usefulness
(6, 13, 15, 23). Experience has shovm that these methods
require more careful management than surface flooding or
sprinkler irrigation. More skill is needed in design, installation
and operation. Major problems are encountered with plugged
drippers (emitters), rodent and bird damage, and fluctuating
water pressure. There can be a buildup of accumulated salts in
the regions between tricklers, where there is a predominantly
upward water flow near the soil surface. This salt accumulation affects germination and establishment of plants in the
regions between tricklers (16).
Even though trickle/drip irrigation methods have contributed to the success of growdng salt-sensitive crops with
brackish water, development of these methods lags behind that
of others discussed (23). However, systems are being
developed that should be more efficient and economical for a
broadening variety of crops.
IV. IMPROVING AND OPTIMIZING SOIl^
PLANT-FERTILIZER AGROTECHNICS
New management concepts have become available for the
control of soil water and salinity (6, 7, 18, 23, 25, 26, 28, 33,
46).
A. Salinity Measurement Techniques
Fig. 4. Trickle (dripper) emitter on onion seedlings.
Practical methods are being developed that can provide
immediate on-the-spot soil salinity information. One method
estimates in situ soil salinity (ECe) with a 4-electrode conductivity probe (14). The information can be used by the
farmer to plan a proper irrigation-leaching schedule which will
minimize development of adverse root zone salinity levels.
Salinity sensors and tensiometers can be utilized for
continuous monitoring of soil water and soil salinity (25). This
could provide in situ feedback information for automatic
control of soil water and salinity within the root zone.
However, salinity sensors and tensiometers are at present
subject to control levels and appropriate depth placement
restraints.
B. High Frequency Irrigation (HFI)
We can now apply water at a low enough flow rate so that
the infiltration rate is controlled by the irrigation system
rather than by the soil. By using frequent Ught appUcations of
water, the irrigator no longer depends on storage of soil water
to supply water demand of the crop between irrigations.
High frequency irrigation (HFI) optimizes the water and
salt balance in the root zone while drastically reducing water
use (6, 7, 28, 46). This technique maintains high water content
in the root zone and at the same time prevents excessive
drainage. More frequent irrigations raise the time average of
the soil water content even with leaching, thus assuring the
average actual salt concentration and water suction to be
lower. HFI salinity control will in turn modify crop response
to the salt concentration of the irrigation water.
Systems meeting requirements for HFI range from solid-set
or travelling sprinkler to trickier/drip systems (28, 46). A
hazard of HFI sprinkling with saline water is that it can cause
damage to leaf tissue and reduce yields (1). This of course is
not a problem in trickle/drip irrigation.
plant canopy. This would decrease the danger of foliar absorption of salts already mentioned in sprinkler irrigation.
The salinity sensors and tensiometers discussed under
measurement techniques can be incorporated in automatic
systems.
D. Optimizing Chemical Fertilization
Agrotechnics for leaching accumulated salts must be
integrated with fertilizer programs (44). The leaching required
when using moderately saline water also removes nutrients
from the soil especially nitrates (10, 16). This requires higher
fertilizer inputs with modern irrigation systems. Tomatoes
fertilized daily with nitrogen have larger and stronger seedlings
(Table 4, Fig. 6). In the Arava of Israel, 2 kg ha'^ of nitrogen
fertilizer is applied daily to tomatoes irrigated with brackish
water. The results vindicated the high fertilizer input in
trickle/drip irrigation systems.
Table 4. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on Tomato Seedlings
Trickle/Drip Irrigated with Fresh or Brackish Water in a
Sandy Loessial Soil (10)
C. Automatic Irrigation Control Systems
Changes in salinity control management require more
precise control of large irrigation systems. The appUcation of
automatics and electronics to irrigation is essential if resources
of brackish water are to be optimally exploited (8, .13, 46).
Since most brackish irrigation should be done at night,
water losses have to be prevented by automatic detection of
line leakage and breakage.
Automatic water meters for quantity and flow control can
be used to regulate brackish water delivery by amount rather
than time (Fig. 5). This is particularly important in HFI. By
utiUzing several valves, it is possible to operate Unes sequentially. Each line receives the amount of water necessary for
leaching, which is calculated on the basis of updated records.
DAYS AFTER
PLANTING
CONTROL
KNO3
NH4NO3
, mmho cm"
1.0
4.0
11
78
462
9
48
250
1.0
4.0
1.0
4.0
dry weight, mg plant"
17
26
35
29
164
808
29
135
628
57
307
1,515
34
208
952
Fig. 6. Applying nitrogen fertilizer via trickle irrigation
system to tomatoes.
Fig. 5. Automatic water meters for quantity and flow control.
If at least a small amount of fresh water is available, a
network of lines can be designed to deliver alternately fresh
and brackish water for the purpose of briefly washing the
Fertihzer programs can be formulated to 1) alleviate
nutrient imbalances, 2) counterbalance specific salt toxicities,
or 3) increase the total salt tolerance level of particular plant
species (44).
Automated irrigation systems create new opportunities and
strategies for placement and timely application of nutrients in
combination with brackish water leaching management.
E. Selection and Genetic Potential
Selection of crop varieties should be made in accordance
with local conditions. For example, it is k n o w n that vegetables
generally do not have high salt resistance, but in recent
experiments in the Negev o f Israel, out of seven varieties o f
processing tomatoes, 2-3 varieties show a commercial potential
with irrigation water o f ECy, = 4 , although there was a
reduction in yield (Table 2). In a greenhouse experiment with
grain sorghum, forty-eight cultivars were found to differ
widely in their ability t o germinate and grow as seedlings
under high-salt conditions (36). A Mexican wheat variety has
been found that has 2-4 times greater salt resistance than three
other wheat varieties ( 3 8 ) . Efforts must be increased t o look
for those species and genotypes adapted t o higher levels of
salinity.
Plant breeders have k n o w n for some time that certain crops
are more salt tolerant than others. However, virtually n o
attempts have been made t o exploit the genetic potential o f
desirable plant components. Brackish water may increase
desirable plant components and improve the market and
storage quality o f vegetable crops ( 2 0 ) .
V . FIELD INDICATORS FOR IRRIGATION N E E D S
Growers must be o n the alert for the macrophysiological
responses of plants t o water-salinity stresses (3). A f e w
indicators are: changes in leaf color, where leaves of stressed
plants b e c o m e darker; changes in plant movement or elongation, where leaves curl or change their angle o f orientation;
and leaf temperature, where stressed plants feel warmer to the
touch.
Commercial instrumentation to monitor macrophysiological stress changes in plants under field conditions is still far
f r o m practical development.
VI. CONCLUSION
Modern research has not only contributed to an understanding of the dangers and shortcomings o f brackish water
irrigation, but has also provided the farmer with modern
technological means for overcoming them. Looking ahead,
research developments indicate that w e are o n the verge o f
significant management improvements leading t o a viable arid
lands agriculture based o n brackish water irrigation.
NOTE: My deepest thanks and appreciation go to Ms. Yaffa Glassman,
Director, Documentation and Information Unit, R&D Authority, BenGurion University of the Negev, whose assistance and encouragement in
the preparation of this paper was more valuable than this mere
acknowledgment can convey.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Bernstein, L. (1967). Quantitative assessment of irrigation water
quality. American Society for Testing Materials, National Meeting
on Water Quality Criteria, 1st, Philadelphia, 1966. ASTM Special
Technical Publication 416:51.
2.
and E.E. Francois (1975). Effects of frequency of sprinkling
with saline waters compared with daily drip irrigation. Agronomy
Journal 67:185-190.
3. Bielorai, H. (1973). Prediction of irrigation needs. In B. Yaron, E.
Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone irrigation, p. 359-368.
Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p.
4. Branson, R.L., P.P. Pratt, J.D. Rhoades, and J.D. Oster (1975).
Water quality in irrigated watersheds. Journal of Environmental
Quality 4:33-40.
5. Bresler, E. (1972). Control of soil salinity. In D. Hillel, ed.,
Optimizing the soil physical environment toward greater crop
yields, p. 101-132. Academic Press.
6.
(1975). Two-dimensional transport of solutes during nonsteady infiltration from a trickle source. Soil Science Society of
America, Proceedings 39:604-613.
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(1975). Trickle drip hrigation: Principles and application to
water management in tropical soils. Cornell University, Ithaca,
N.Y., Agronomy Department, Agronomy Mimeo 75-14. 81 p.
8. Bustanay, M. (1974). Saline water irrigation in Israel: Practice and
research. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage,
Israel National Committee. Mekorot Water Co., Ltd. 198 p.
9. Childs, S.W., and R.J. Hanks (1975). Model of soil salinity effects
on crop growth. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings
39:617-622.
10. de Malach, Y., D. Pasternak, M. Twersky, I. Borovic, and Y. Zohar
(1976). Importance of nitrogen fertilizers on the development of
tomato seedlings by trickle irrigation with fresh and brackish
water. Hassadeh (in press) (in Hebrew).
11. Feth, J.H. (1970). Saline groundwater resources of the
conterminous United States. Water Resources Research 6(5): 14541457.
12. Forges, J.M. de (1970). Research on the utilization of saline water
for irrigation in Tunisia. Nature and Resources 6(1):2-4.
13. Goldberg, D., B. Gornat, and D. Rimen (1976). Drip irrigation,
principles, design and agricultural practices. Drip Irrigation
Scientific Publications, Kfar Shmaryahu, Israel. 296 p.
14. Halvorson, A.D., and J.D. Rhoades (1974). Assessing soil salinity
and identifying potential saline-deep areas with field soil resistance
measurements. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings
38:576-581.
15. Heller, J., and E. Bresler (1973). Trickle irrigation. In B. Yaron, E.
Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone irrigation, p. 339-351.
16. Hummadi, K.B., D.D. Fangmeier, T.C. Tucker (1975). Soluble salts
and nitrate distribution in irrigated lettuce beds. American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 18:686-689.
17. International Drip Irrigation Congress, 2d, San Diego, California,
July 7-14, 1974. Proceedings. 569 p.
18. Karmeli, D., and G. Peri (1974). Basic principles of pulse irrigation.
American Society of Civil Engineers, Division of Irrigation and
Drainage, Journal 100(IR3):309-319.
19. Kohl, R.A. (1974). Drop size distribution from medium sized
agricultural sprinklers. American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Transactions 17:690-693.
20. Levitt, J., and M. Twersky (1976). Benefits of brackish water
stresses to crop production. In A. Issar, ed.. Brackish water as a
factor in development. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer
Sheva, Israel, Institute for Desert Research.
21. Lunin, J. (1967). Water for supplemental irrigation. American
Society for Testing Materials, National Meeting on Water Quality
Criteria, 1st, Philadelphia, 1966. ASTM Special Technical Publication 416:66.
22. Meiri, A., and J. Shalhevet (1973). Crop growth under saline
conditions. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone
irrigation, p. 277-289. Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological
Studies, 5. 434p.
23. National Academy of Sciences (1974). More water for arid lands.
Promising technologies and research opportunities, p. 38-44,
97-110. Washington, D.C.. 153 p.
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Oster, J.D., L.S. Willardson, J. van Schilfgaarde, and J.O. Goertzen
(1976). Irrigation control using tensiometers and salinity sensors.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions
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techniques for reclaiming saline soils. American Society of
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Pasternak, D., M. Twersky, and Y. de Malach (1975). Irrigation
experiments with brackish water 1974/75. Ben-Gurion University
of the Negev, Beet Sheva, Israel, Research & Development
Authority, Report BGUN-RDA-54-75.
Rawlins, S.L., and P.A.C. Raats (1975). Prospects for high
frequency irrigation. Science 188:604-610.
Reiniger, P., J. Shalhevet, E. Mor, and R. Levy (1964). Irrigation of
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113:277-284.
Shelhevet, J. (1970). The use of saline water for irrigation. In
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Tel-Aviv, 1970, Papers: Dialogue in Development, vol. 1, p.
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(1973). Irrigation with saline water. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors,
and Y. Vaadia, eds., ~Arid zone irrigation, p. 263-276. SpringerVerlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p.
(1975). Aspects of soil salinity and sodicity in relation to
irrigation and reclamation. In Ecological research on development
of arid zones (Meditenanean deserts) with winter precipitation.
Symposium Israel-France, 1974, Bet-Dagan, Israel, Centre Volcani,
Organisation de la Recherche Agronomique, Publication Speciale
39, p. 117-140.
and J. Kamburov (1976). Irrigation and salinity, a worldwide
survey. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New
Delhi, India. 106 p.
, P. Reiniger, and D. Shimshi (1969). Peanut response to
uniform and nonuniform salinity. Agronomy Journal 61:384-387.
Taylor, R.M., E.F. Young Jr., and R.L. Rivera (1975). Salt
tolerance in cultivars of grain sorghum. Crop Science 15:734-735.
37. Todd, D.K., ed. (1970). The water encyclopedia, a compendium of
useful information on water resources. Port Washington, N.Y.,
Water Information Center. 559 p.
38. Torres, B.D., and F.T. Bingham (1973). Salt tolerance of Mexican
wheat. 1: Effect of NO3 and NaQ on mineral nutrition, growth and
grain production of four wheats. Soil Science Society of America,
Proceedings 37:711-715.
39. Twersky, M. (1971). Factors of chemical fertilization in saline
irrigation: A review. Negev Institute for Arid Zone Research, Beer
Sheva, Israel. 35 p.
40 .
and F. Felhendler (1973). Effect of water quality on
relationships between catonic species and leaf lipids at two different development stages in cotton. Physiologia Plantaium
29:396-401.
41 .
and D. Pasternak (1972). UtUization of saline water for
irrigation of salt tolerant crops. Negev Institute for Arid Zone
Research, Beer Sheva, Israel, Report for year 1971/72, p. 61-62.
42 .
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, and I. Borovic (1976). Effect of brackish water
irrigation on yield and development of cotton. In A. Issar, ed.,
Brackish water as a factor in development. Ben-Gurion University
of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel, Institute for Desert Research.
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, Y. de Malach, and I. Borovic (1974). Irrigation of
agricultural crops with brackish water. Ben-Gurion University of
the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel, Research & Development Authority,
Scientific Activities 1973/74, p. 36-37.
44. UNESCO/FAO (1973). Irrigation, drainage and salinity: An international source book. N.Y., Hutchinson Co., Ltd. 510 p.
45. UNESCO/UNDP (1970). Tunisia: Research and training on irrigation with saline water, 1962-1969. Tech. Rtp./UNESCO/
UNDP(SF) TUN 5. 256 p.+.
46. van Schilfgaarde, J., L. Bernstein, J.D. Rhoades, and S.L. Rawlins
(1974). Irrigation management for salt control. American Society
of Civil Engineers, Irrigation and Drainage Division, Journal
100(IR3):321-338.
47. Willardson, L.S., B.L. Ertsgaard, C.F. EhUg, and A.J. MacKenzie
(1974). H^h rate sprinkling of a low intake soil. American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 17:280-281.
48. Yaron, B. (1973). Water suitability for irrigation. In B. Yaron, E.
Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds.. Arid zone irrigation, p. 71-85.
AAAS COMMITTEE ON ARID LANDS
Directory of North American Arid Lands Scientists
The A A A S Committee o n Arid Lands is preparing a directory of North American (including Mexican) scientists
active in arid lands research, including geology and geography, biological sciences, anthropology, social and e c o n o m i c
sciences, engineering, medical sciences, agriculture, atmospheric and hydrospheric sciences, and other related sciences.
The directory will be on computer tape at the University o f Arizona's Office o f Arid Lands Studies, with continuous
updating. If y o u have n o t already seen the announcement in a recent issue of Science, send your entry to either Dr.
Gordon L. Bender, Department o f Zoology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 8 5 2 8 1 , or to Patricia Paylore,
Office o f Arid Lands Studies, University o f Arizona, 8 4 5 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 8 5 7 1 9 . We need to
k n o w your title, professional address, specific arid lands interests, b o t h geographical and subject. A computer-produced
publication is anticipated in time for the United Nations Environment Programme's Desertification Conference in the
late summer o f 1977.
INFORMATION WORKSHOP IN GHANA
by
Mary Michael*
At the request of Ghana's
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the
University of Arizona ^sent an
information team to Accra for a
two-week workshop in late
February 1976, on goals of
information management, document acquisition and processing,
and information retrieval and
dissemination. Techniques presented were those used by the
University of Arizona-based Arid
Lands
Information
System
(ALIS) and its sub-system
Mary Michael
(WAMIS), with emphasis on arid
— Julie Garrettson
(1976)
lands information, including the
computerized documentation comprising the Tucson-stored
data base. Other members of the team were Nancy Ferguson,
Office of Arid Lands Studies Research Associate, and Linda
White, Information Systems Specialist, Center for Quantitative
Study.
The workshop was one of a series of activities defined by
the linkage between the University of Arizona and the CSIR
under the auspices of the University's Natural Resources
211(d) Program. The primary objective of the workshop was
to present information management techniques to facilitate
identification, storage and retrieval of scientific literature
pertinent to land and resource management in the semi-arid
savannah area in the Upper Region of Ghana. Expanding on
this objective, course work was designed so that it would be of
value to all information personnel interested in methods for
the operation and maintenance of a topically specific hterature
collection. The broad scope of interests reflected by attendees
of the workshop included not only library management of
natural resources information, but a variety of disciplines in
both the physical and social sciences as well.
The text used for the workshop, A Handbook for
Implementation and Maintenance of a Manually Operated
Information Storage and Retrieval System, was prepared by
the University of Arizona workshop team specifically for use
at this workshop, and is based on the program developed by
ALIS/WAMIS for the identification, acquisition, processing,
and use of its respective users. The distinction between
bibliographical information prepared for storage, with or
without abstracts, and the actual handling of documentation
for use in the library sense, was part of the instruction.
The fifty workshop attendees included representatives from
several of the CSIR Branch Institutes throughout Ghana,
students from undergraduate and graduate programs from the
University of Ghana Department of Library and Archival
Studies, as well as from other Departments of the University;
the Ghana Library Board, the Ghana National Museum, the
Atomic Energy Commission, the National Development Bank,
the Ghana News Agency, the Department of Civil Aviation,
and the Association of African Universities. In addition to
presenting basic techniques for management, storage and
retrieval of information in the special collection, the workshop
brought together special librarians from throughout the
country and provided an opportunity to share common goals,
problems and solutions.
Following the workshop, two of the team members,
Ferguson and Michael, made various contacts with existing
information systems in Upper Volta, particularly the Comité
Inter-Africain d'Etudes Hydrauliques, Ouagadougou; and in
Senegal, with the Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du
Fleuve Senegal, Saint Louis.
•Coordinator of Information Systems, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, and Team Leader, Ghana Information Workshop
1976.
Editorial
VIVA LA CUCARACHA!
To be an animal is to be capable of ingenuity and of joy; of achieving beauty and of
demonstrating affection. These are surely not small things, though there is danger that we are
forgetting how far from small they are. They are godlike attributes whether or not there is
anything else godlike in the universe. To be alive at all, even if only as an amoeba is alive, is to
be endowed with characteristics possibly unique and certainly exceptional throughout that vast
expanse of space which extends for billions of light years beyond us, farther than
telescopes—and much farther than thought—can reach.
Joseph Wood Krutch
The Great Chain of Life
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, ©1957
Historically, man has been ambivalent in his relationships with animals. He has worshipped them, feared them, domesticated
them, used and abused them, and now he is in a fair way to exterminating them.
It is somewhat of a tangled web in which desert-dwelling man has entrapped himself, needing animals as those in more
temperate environments may not, to survive, as a source of food, to pull his plow, to turn his water wheel, to transport him and his
household from place to place as he follows the seasons. With none of these needs do we find a conflict between our role as sentient
beings and the uses we make of other sentient creatures. We justify the necessity to slaughter, shoot, club, harpoon, and in all other
ways our imagination can devise to kill, because as human beings, we believe we need to eat meat to survive, miUions of vegetarians
- willing or unwilling - notwithstanding. We see nothing wrong, wicked, evil, or immoral in raising animals to satisfy this hunger.
We do this deliberately, expertly, scientifically, whether we Uve in Arizona or in Kenya.
Animals aUve are the index of many men's status in desert societies, or elsewhere for that matter. We equate a nomad's wealth
with the number of camels he owns. [What manifestations of this status will be substituted when he is sedentarized?] We build our
drought reUef programs around the need to replace the desert pastoralist's decimated herd. [Do we help him understand the
limitations of the drought-ravaged rangeland, when it is rehabiHtated, so that its carrying capacity will be in balance with his animal
assets?]
Well, let us not concern ourselves with these nagging problems. Others are worrying about such matters, great international
organizations are assembling and preparing position papers to deal with these issues, and generous single governments are fielding
expert teams to advise and assist.
So let us think about those other animals, the wildhfe supposedly under no man's control. Well, who needs them? Take the
kids to the zoo and let them see there the coyote, the Gila monster, the buffalo, the ferret — sorry about the carrier pigeon; or the
oryx and the addax and the dama gazelle, far from the desert homeland in the Sudan where they are no longer to be seen in the
wild. Who cares? Certainly not the greedy poacher who defies with impunity the feeble laws that do exist some places on paper.
Certainly not the evil owner of that wretched U.S. roadside display of animals confined under unbelievable conditions of filth,
hunger, thirst, and abuse. Certainly not those Texans celebrating their rattlesnake hunts. Certainly not the western sheepman who
cries piteously when a coyote kills a lamb but who cheerfully sends thousands of lambs, if he has had a good year, to the
slaughterhouse.
Who cares? Jeremy Swift cares, when he writes: " . . . It seems that the addax, a beautiful animal whose presence extends the
boundaries of the habitable world into the heart of the world's harshest desert, is too exceptional an animal to be allowed to live,
even in the deserted dunes for which it alone has been prepared by thousands of years of evolutionary hardship." {The Sahara,
Time-Life International, ©1975, p. 108.)
And we'll tell you who else cares: the mighty hunters of the world who kill pour le sport, killing for killing's sake, those rich
potentates who do their hunting from the air, like gods, from helicopters and low-flying aircraft, guns blazing as they race the
impalas across the desert landscape. Is it possible that such human beings — and I use the word human advisedly — can indulge in
the exquisitely cruel and senseless ways that he now commands as his authority over the world's diminishing wildlife, and not in the
indulgence thereof be diminished himself? We think not.
And can governments which continue to issue Ucenses to big game hunters, themselves willing victims of professional hunting
firms, when all the evidence already in dictates that the species for which the hcense is issued will soon be extinct - can such
governments command the respect of the world community? Can the insignificant income from such activities really mean the
difference between survival of a country and non-survival? We think not.
Has the technological cruelty that we have cleverly invented protect any of us from the extinction that we have brought
about for our fellow creatures? When the deserts' wildhfe is gone — pour le sport, or indeed for food — will the deserts be more
useful for man's needs, much less his enjoyment? We think not.
In the twentieth century, our increasing contempt for life, initiated by our overwhelming capacity to destroy hfe, is bringing
closer the day when our world will be despoiled and plundered irrevocably. Today the impala, tomorrow the desert world's
wretched humans. What difference?
So we say angrily and bitterly, without apology, viva la cucaracha!
- Patricia Pay lore
MAN'S PAST AND FUTURE IN ARID LANDS:
AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
by
Theodore E. Downing'
Farming, the second preindustrial adaptive strategy,
primarily refers to the irrigation of floodplains in arid zones
using surface waters. This adaptation increased man's affluence
and allowed him a more sedentary life. Preindustrial irrigation
has not been without difficulties, however, as salinity
problems and waterlogging have helped lead several great
civilizations into extinction in both the Old and New Worlds.'*
These early arid land civiUzations also faced an additional
difficulty: the provision of fuel sources for the increased
demands of pottery and metal work that accompanied the
sedentary life made possible by irrigated agriculture. MohenjoDaro, an ancient city in southwestern Asia, found its
immediate hinterlands increasingly deforested as demands for
high-temperature kindling increased with the complexities of
human material wants.® Once one of the world's most
advanced civilized cities, today it is an archaeological ruin. In
the short run, man may reclaim the desert, but in the long run
man himself is outdone.
To grow or not to grow? To encourage or discourage
industrialization? To support large-scale irrigation projects or
not? These and similar questions
are crucial issues currently facing
the citizens of arid lands not
only in the United States but
also in the Middle East and subSahara Africa. Because the
gravity of these issues demands
that scientists and policy makers
keep their field of vision as clear
as possible, perhaps an anthropological outlook can assist in
placing contemporary issues in
the longer time perspective of
man's different adaptations to
arid conditions.
^
,
.
Theodore E. Downing
—HelgaTeiwes
(1976)
Two factors appear to have held these early adaptations in
check: a low transport efficiency (high cost to move goods)
and low storage efficiency (high cost to store products). Both
factors restrained the extent of man's search for food and
energy to a limited range. This meant that preindustrial
adaptations captured httle energy outside their immediate
surroundings and depended primarily on long distance trade in
luxury goods. Arid zones in the preindustrial period, from the
perspective of energy exchange, were (and a few still are)
closed systems.
Early Adaptations
Food collecting has been man's most stable adaptation to
arid lands. Either directly through human efforts, or indirectly
through the use of animals, man has been a food collector,
since over 90 percent of the several billion humans who have
lived on this earth since the dawn of man have been hunters,
herders, or food collectors.^ More recently, that is within the
past few thousand years, the agricultural revolutions forced
the few remaining food collectors into the most marginal arid
and tropical lands. Early anthropologists propagated the misimpression that these marginal peoples eke out their subsistence in a constant struggle for food.
We were wrong.
New evidence reveals that even with marginal environments,
contemporary food collectors have considerable leisure.^ It
has been found that primitive food collectors provide for all
their subsistence needs working less than four hours a day!
This primitive affluence is restricted by several conditions
including a low standard of living, constant exposure to the
elements, limited human wants, and an exceedingly low
population density. Moreover, it requires constant moving
from one area to another as the renewable resources are
temporarily exhausted.
Industrial Adaptations
Industrialization was a temperate zone revolution requiring
vast quantities of raw materials and energy. Its impact on arid
lands was delayed for at least a century while energy was being
tapped within the immediate hinterlands of industriaUzed
regions. Transport and storage efficiency and the demand for
arid zone energy sources were still too low to make their
exploitation profitable. These inefficiencies and demands
quickly changed with the invention of the railroad and intemal
combustion engine. As resources near the great industrial
centers of Westem Europe and the United States became
limited and expensive, the expanding industrial areas stretched
1. Research Specialist, Bureau of Ethnic Research, and Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
2. Lee, R.B., and I. DeVore, eds. (1968). Symposium on Man the Hunter, University of Chicago, 1966. Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago. 415 p.
3. Lee, R.B. (1968). What hunters do for a living, or. How to make out on scarce resources. Op. cit, p. 30-48.
Woodbury, J. (1968). An introduction to Hadza ecology. Op. cit., p. 49-55.
Sahlins, M.D. (1972). Stone Age economics. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago. 348 p.
4. See articles by R. Adams, S. Neely, M. Gibson, and B. Spooner (1974) in T.E. Downing and M. Gibson, eds.. Irrigation's impact on society.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Anthropological Papers, No. 25. 181 p.
5. Whyte, R.O. (1961). Evolution of land use in south-Western Asia. In L. Dudley Stamp, ed., A history of land use in arid regions. UNESCO,
Paris, Arid Zone Research 17:57-118.
10
giant umbilical cords-rails, highways, and pipelines-into arid
zones. The age of extraction began.
The extraction adaption consisted of transferring energy,
resources, and materials from arid zones to temperate areas for
industrial use. This adaptation produced social patterns
distinct from the preindustrial adaptations of food collecting
and irrigated agriculture. A new type of society emerged, the
one-company town, primarily based on the exploitation of
mineral deposits, and characterized by a single company which
controls most of the social, economic, and political power in
those settlements heavily dependent on an extractive
economy. The company's powers might include control of
banking, transportation, schools, churches, libraries, health
care, and commercial stores. In the United States, this
economic dependency led Dr. Courtney Cleland to observe
that "southwestern man meshes with the national economy of
abundance, not with the regional economy of aridity."® In
nations whose territory was confined entirely to arid zones,
this economic dependency has led to economic, social, and
sometimes political intervention by nonarid powers into the
arid nation's internal affairs.
The belief in the possibility of self-sufficient adaptation for
all arid lands was strengthened by a handful of success stories:
the southwestern United States, Israel, and Kuwait. These
cases, however, were oddities brought about by an enormous
influx of capital generated either in nonarid sectors within the
country, or resulting from a favorable balance of payments
whose ultimate sources were the extractive industries. Following the second World War, the optimism for self-sufficiency
was further stimulated by the emergence of an international
community of scientists and engineers interested in arid lands
development. More than one arid lands scientist has felt that
the arid zones have begun to "shake off the shackles of the
extractive economy."
The lesson from the past, however, suggests that an epitaph
for extractive adaptation to arid zones may be premature. This
lesson has been that the social future of arid lands is heavily
dependent on outside factors. Discovering the future social
and economic patterns of arid zones should begin with a
consideration of what future demands placed on them by the
rest of the world will be.
Other social patterns are common to the extractive phase,
including short-lived boom towns, highly mobile populations,
and the destruction or marginalization of native peoples who
previously inhabited the regions. In sectors of arid zones
suitable for large scale irrigation, heavy capital outlays have
brought the development of a new style of irrigation farming
based on large scale farms employing seasonal labor. The
tapping of groundwater resources has permitted an earlier
subtype of food collection adaptation, nomadic herding, to
increase to levels adequate to make vegetation rather than
water the key Hmiting resource on herd size.
Intra-zonal energy demands increased greatly, but most of
the flow of resources and energy was for export to nonarid
lands. Arid zones acquired a reputation for being lands of
hidden wealth. As Antione de Saint Exupery's infamous Little
Prince suggests, "What makes the desert beautiful... is that
somewhere it hides a well." Man's demands on arid lands were
strongly influenced by a perspective and ideals based upon
temperate zone experiences, including what constituted a
"good" society for arid lands. Under this moral scheme, the
instability of settlement and the sensitivity of intra-arid
developments to extra-arid zones were considered the
antithesis of a good society. The ideal was expressed by desires
for another form of social adaptation.
Arid Lands in World Perspective
It is becoming increasingly clear that world demands for
food and nonrenewable energy will create greater and greater
extractive demands on arid lands. ^ Arid lands (and humid
tropical lands) will be asked not only to fee and fuel themselves, but also to assume part of the burden for the rest of the
world. The future relationship between nonarid and arid
powers may become one of parasitism, with arid lands being
the host, rather than symbiosis some had hoped for.
Above all, the exact demand for arid zone resources by the
nonarid world depends on how the consumers of energy in
nonarid zones solve their own technological and social
problems so that they need not depend on arid zone sources.
The demand will also depend on technological innovations
developed by arid land scientists and engineers. Many of these
future technological developments, such as low-cost solar
refrigeration, transportation, and electricity, might serve only
to improve the abilities of nonarid zone people to extract
energy from arid regions. Such innovations may prove to be
technological demons to those engineers and scientists whose
goal is to improve the self-sufficiency of arid lands. On the
other hand, these innovations may be viewed as blessings
which drastically increase employment in the extractive
industries. Whichever perspective is taken, the futures of
Arizona, New Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and Libya are inexorably
linked to decisions of consumers in New York, Illinois, Japan,
and Germany.
This new social ideal emerged, based on the philosophy of
"self-sufficient adaptation." Arid man began his search for a
viable, socio-political and economic organization that would
be less dependent upon the instabilities inherent in an
extraction-based economy. On the ground, this idealism meant
building permanent settlements based upon agriculture,
industry, trade, and in some cases, tourism.
6. Cleland, C. (1966). Do we need a sociology of arid regions? In J.W. Bennett, ed.. Social research in moisture-deficient regions. American
Association for the Advancement-of Science, Southwestern and Rocky Mountain Division, CODAZR Contribution 9, p. 9.
7. Meadows, D.H., et al. (1972). The limits to growth. A report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind. Universe Books,
N.Y. 205 p.
11
The overall pattern seems clear. Arid lands have moved
from an early condition of self-sufficiency into iacreasing
dependence on nonarid regions. This trend is reversing, and
now arid regions are becoming increasingly crucial to the
world's future demands for food and energy. The goal of
self-sufficiency for arid regions stressed by some planners and
implied in technological schemes is coming into direct conflict
with world demands for their energy and resources. What
appears important is that each technological scheme, each
innovation, and each opportunity should be carefully
evaluated not only as to its ecological and economic impact on
arid lands, but also as to its long range social impact on those
who call an arid land home,
WEST AFRICA CONFERENCE
The University of Arizona, under the auspices of the Arid/Semi-Arid Natural Resources Program and the
Ghanaian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), cosponsored a West Africa Conference in Tucson in
April 1976, to discuss problems of natural resources development and management in the countries of West Africa, and
their related social, economic, and poUtical constraints. While the Sahel region has been experiencing severe drought
conditions that have disrupted traditional demographic patterns and regional economies, other countries in the
semi-arid tropics have also begun to be affected. Topics discussed included historical perspectives, the use of natural
resources, increasing population, agricultural practices, physical geography, and land degradation.
Visitors to this conference from out of country included:
K.B. ASANTE, Ghanaian Ambassador to Belgium.
Albert BALIMA, Economic Counsellor to the President, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta.
Albert BARON, Regional Development Officer, AID, Niamey, Niger.
John BUURSINK, Project Manager, Interafrican Committee for Hydraulic Studies, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta.
Neil CARPENTER, Chief of Farm Management, Agricultural Services Division, FAO-Rome.
Robert DODOO, Secretary, Planning and Analysis Group, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Accra, Ghana.
Kobena Gyapea ERBYNN, Department of Economics, University of Ghana, Legon/Accra.
R.J. HARRISON-CHURCH, Department of Geography, London School of Economics.
Samuel E. QUARM, Ghanaian Ambassador to the United States.
AJN. TACKIE, Executive Chairman, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Accra.
T. YAGUIBOU, Upper Voltan Ambassador to the United States.
ARID LANDS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS:
A New Edition
The University of Arizona is pleased to announce that the Office of Arid Lands Studies is undertaking a completely
revised and énlarged edition of its 1967 directory of arid zone research institutions. Instructions are going out
worldwide for submission of entries for this new version, but Arid Lands Newsletter takes this opportunity to urge all
those agencies not represented in the original edition to communicate with the Office of Arid Lands Studies before
December 1, 1976, to insure consideration for inclusion.
12
FOREIGN STUDENT PROFILES
III: losef Weiss
losef Weiss
-Patricia
I was remembering driving up
through the Negev Desert from
Eilat one winter evening, listening on our car radio to the Voice
of America about our moon
landings, and thinking that the
surface of
that "familiar"
heavenly object must be very
like what we were travelling
through, with the geomorphology of the landscape laid bare as
it must have been when the
world was new. These fanciful
and unscientific thoughts came
Paylore (1976)
^^ j^g
yg^^^
j^jg^
^^
I sat in my office in faraway Arizona and talked with losef
Weiss, a 27-year-old Israeli citizen, now in residence at the
University of Arizona as a graduate student in chemical
engineering. We talked about the difference between the
hauntingly beautiful desert he now calls home, and our
comparatively lush Sonoran Desert, with its greater vegetative
cover. In my mind I have always thought the Negev
corresponded more nearly to our Great Basin Desert, but Weiss
reminded me that as far north as Beer-Sheva, the marginal
semiarid aspect there is one I should not find strange.
During his undergraduate years at the Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev, where he obtained his B.S. degree in
Chemical Engineering under Professor David Wolf, he lived
with his emigre Rumanian parents, which led our conversation
back to "Old Town" Beer-Sheva where our mutual recollections of the most marvelous Rumanian restaurants there made
us both hungry.
Typical Negev landscape near Arad.
Dead Sea.
—Patricia Paylore
(1972)
—Patricia Paylore
(1975)
Eyn Avdat, Negev.
—Patricia Paylore
(1972)
13
In a more serious vein, I brought up the presence of the
great Research and Development Authority associated with
the Ben-Gurion University that emphasizes the commitment of
the State of Israel to the development of the Negev and its
resources for industrial uses. Potash from the Dead Sea Works
and phosphate deposits inland are examples of those
applications of desert technology for which the R&D
Authority has responsibility.
Committee on the Ben-Gurion University campus, helps create
a situation within which the many problems in common can
be reviewed in the context of faculty-student exchanges and
coordinated research efforts. Weiss' Israeli mentor, David Wolf
[see Visitors, this issue of the Newsletter], is chairman of the
Arizona Committee, and his good offices in serving as Uaison
between our institutions helped bring Weiss here for his
graduate work.
But not to be overlooked is the academic training at the
Ben-Gurion University in such fields as chemical engineering
that underwrites this development technically, and Weiss
spoke gratefully of the skills imparted to him there that
enabled him to slip into a tough sophisticated graduate
program here such as transport phenomena, mass transfer, and
thermodynamics, without missing a beat.
The existence on the University of Arizona campus of the
Negev Committee, together with its counterpart, the Arizona
losef Weiss and his charming IsraeH wife are typical perhaps
of the enormous reservoir of brainpower potential at the
service of the State of Israel, and their determination to
contribute to a peaceful and stable society there. The
development of the Negev will depend on the knowledge and
dedication of such students. We hope that this couple will
remember the Sonoran Desert after their return home with the
same sense of a shared environment and landscape that we
remember the Negev.
_ pp
VISITORS PARTICIPATING IN THE
DESERTIFICATION SEMINARS
The University of Arizona's 211(d) Natural Resources Program conducted a 14-week series of seminars on
Desertification: Process, Problems, Prescriptions, November 1975-April 1976, that took advantage of visiting and
invited scholars as well as its own faculty to cover a wide-ranging look at the topic. Dr. Harold E. Dregne, Director of
Texas Tech University's ICASALS, spoke on the subject as a
"symptom of a crisis"; and Dr. Sherwood B. Idso, Research
Physicist with the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory,
Phoenix, Arizona, took up desertification from the view of the
effects thereon from atmospheric dust and surface albedo.
Two other visitors presented case studies: Ian Douglas,
Professor of Geography, University of New England, Armidale,
New South Wales, speaking on desertification and the salinity
problem in Australia; and Dr. Harold F. Heady, Associate
Dean, College of Natural Resources, University of Cahfornia,
Berkeley, who described "a desert repaired" in southeastern
Oregon through a successful Bureau of Land Management
program of range rehabiUtation.
Other authors than the visitors noted above include the
University's Terah L. Smiley, William G. McGinnies, W. Gerald
Matlock, Wilham B. Bull, Bernard L. Fontana, and Julian D.
Hayden. All papers have been edited for publication and are
Ian Douglas points out to Directoi Jack D. Johnson, Office available at $15.00 per copy from the University of Arizona's
of Arid Lands Studies and Program Director of the Natural
office of Arid Lands Studies, 845 North Park Avenue, Tucson,
Resources
Program,
an
area
m
Australia
subject
to
desertification.
- Patricia Payiore
(1976)
. .
oc-7in t t c » t^
ui-
j ^
í trsnr •
Arizona 85719, USA. It carries a pubhcation date of 1976, is
illustrated by numerous photographs, and runs to 125 pages.
14
NEW ARID LANDS PUBLICATIONS:
A Random Selection
BREAD FROM THE DESERT. 1976. Scala, special issue
[English edition], p. 20-25.
Popular account of engineering activities sponsored by the
Federal Republic of Germany designed to create what are
called artificial irrigation systems involving extensive net
awnings of varying thicknesses over cultivated areas, climatized
domes, and novel shade-providing tent roof designs. Dlustrations show helicopters ferrying in prefabricated components to
distant deserts without adequate transportation systems.
DESERTIFICATION: A WORLD BIBLIOGRAPHY. ©1976.
Compiled and edited by Patricia Paylore for the International
Geographical Union's 23rd Congress, Moscow, 1976. University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies, 845 North Park
Ave., Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA. 644 p., paper. $21.00 US,
or $25.00 for foreign orders shipped air parcel post.
Consists of 1,750 citations, most with abstracts, produced
from the OALS computerized Arid Lands Information
System. Divided into regions covering the Sahara-Sahel, East
Africa, southern Africa, the Middle East, the USSR, Pakistan,
India, China, AustraUa, and South and North America, with
regional introductions by world experts. Maps.
Eckholm, Erik P. 1976. LOSING GROUND. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND WORLD FOOD PROSPECTS. Foreword by Maurice F. Strong. Norton, N.Y., 223 p.
Jointly sponsored by the United Nations Environment
Programme and the Worldwatch Institute, this anguished book
vividly documents the global extent of ecological stress, its
political causes, and its human consequences. The author calls
for massive tree-planting campaigns, agricultural reforms to
benefit peasant farmers, and a slowdown in world population
growth, predicting that unless there is a major shift in global
political priorities, a third of mankind will become mired in
hopeless destitution, a tragedy with ominous implications for
world order. Global food shortages with attendant inflation
will undoubtedly intensify if the undermining of foodproducing systems is not arrested. Special attention is devoted
to deforestation, desert encroachment, salting/silting of irrigation systems, and the third world fuel crisis triggered by
increasingly scarce firewood.
Firouz, Eskandar. 1974. ENVIRONMENT IRAN. National
Society for the Conservation of Natural Resources and Human
Environment, Tehran. 51 p.
Iran is one of the most advanced countries in the Middle
East in the area of environmental protection. The author is
Director of the Department of the Environment, and in this
slight and charming book, beautifully illustrated with his own
photographs, he states the firm determination of the country
to implement an action program to recognize and protect the
aquatic ecosystems, preserve habitats, manage the country's
enormous arid lands through conservation, environmental
engineering, and monitoring. A little recognized aspect is the
bilateral arrangements made with countries with which Iran
shares some of these unusual and historic preserves. Maps.
Gomez-Pompa, A., and A. Butanda C., eds. 1975. INDICE DE
PROYECTOS EN DESARROLLO EN ECOLOGIA
TROPICAL (Index of Current Tropical Ecology Research),
vol. 1. Instituto de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bióticos,
A.C., H. Colegio Militar No. 7 ó AP-63, Xalapa, Ver., México.
227 p.
A directory of over 500 names of specialists in tropical
ecology, including the following additional information about
each: title of project, objectives, date of initiation and
probable date of completion, name of institution responsible
for the research, names of scientific personnel participating
locally, citation of most recent contribution on the subject,
and country or region where the research is being carried out.
Computerized geographical index of authors, name index of
authors, and two keyword indexes, English and Spanish.
Goodall, David W., ed. 1976. EVOLUTION OF DESERT
BIOTA. University of Texas Press, Austin & London, 250 p.
Papers explore evolution of animals and plants on the
deserts of North and South America and Australia, and their
adaptations to these environments.
Goodman, Gordon T., and Shirley A. Bray. 1975.
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE RECLAMATION OF
DERELICT AND DISTURBED LAND. An Annotated
Bibliography. Natural Environment Research Council,
London/Geo Abstracts, Ltd., Norwich. 351 p.
A bibhography of over 1,500 citations, with annotations,
relating to problems of estabUshing and maintaining vegetation
on derelict land in the north temperate region which has been
disturbed or polluted by urban or industrial activity.
Categories include coalspoil, acid mine drainage, bauxite, sand
and gravel (including sand dunes), domestic refuse and sewage
disposal, disused airfields, bombing ranges, canals and railways,
soil erosion, and several other specific waste materials or
substrates. There is an accompanying "commentary" that gives
definitions, discusses the extent of damaged land, why
damaged land is a problem, why derelict land is not reclaimed
faster, the importance of revegetation, a survey of revegetation
problems, and the physical and chemical factors inhibiting
plant growth. There is a computerized subject index of
kevwords-in-title, plus an author list.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Office of Information
Services, Technical Information Center. 1974. SOLAR
ENERGY, A Bibliography. Reprinted by ERDA. Available
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia
22161, TID-3351. 356 p. $10.60 paper.
Israel, Prime Minister's Office, Environmental Protection
Service. 1975. SELECTED PAPERS ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN ISRAEL. 3 Hakirya Bldg., 3, Jerusalem.
This issue includes a comprehensive listing of Israel's
environmental laws, plus an article by Ralph Mitchell of the
Weizmann Institute on "Environmental Deterioration in
Israel."
Over 3,500 citations on the economic use of solar energy in
the generation of electricity and for heating and cooling of
buildings. References are arranged in broad subject categories,
including site geology and meteorology, economics, environmental aspects, conversion, photovoltaic powerplants, solar
thermal powerplants, ocean thermal gradient powerplants,
solar radiation use, and solar collectors and concentrators.
Kelly, Kathleen, and R.T. Schnadelbach. ©1976. LANDSCAPING THE SAUDI ARABIAN DESERT. Delancey Press,
Phüadelphia. 182 p.
Includes chapters on the Saudi Arabian Desert, its water,
climate, geology and topography, vegetation, and desert wildlife. Factors important for landscape design are wind, sun and
heat, and water; elements organic to landscape construction
are soils, irrigation, and maintenance. The extensive section on
recommended plants includes under each species information
on its uses, its wind resistance qualities and water requirements,
with black-and-white photographs of many. The appendices
include a discussion of ecological communities, and a list of
more than 180 species known to have been observed growing
naturally in Saudi Arabia or cultivated there long enough to
have developed local strains. BibUography.
Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, U.E.R. de Géographie.
1975. TYPES DE CROUTES CALCAIRES ET LEUR
REPARTITION REGION ALE. Comptes-Rendus du CoUoque,
Strasbourg, 9-11 janvier 1975. 146 p. + 8-page bibliography
laid in. 25F.
Papers on structure and petrography, micromorphology and
pedology, processes and genesis, and regional distribution,
with examples from Israel, Morocco, Spain, Algeria,
Afghanistan, and Senegal.
Wehmeier, E. 1975. DIE BEWAESSERUNGOASE PHOENIX,
ARIZONA. Stuttgarter Geographische Studien 89. 176 p.
National Academy of Sciences. 1975. UNDEREXPLOITED
TROPICAL PLANTS WITH PROMISING ECONOMIC
VALUE. Available NAS Commission on International Relations (JH 215), 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, D.C.
20418, USA. 188 p.
Starting from the premise that ecological imperatives often
are superseded by economic imperatives, this author develops
the following ideas relating to the irrigated "oasis" of Phoenix:
irrigation agriculture is the only possible form of crop production within the oasis; different methods of irrigation result
solely from variabiUty of crops rather than terrain; degrees of
soil salinity seem not to have had any significant impact on
cultivation of specially adapted crops; the effects of intensive
urbanization on the irrigated areas and on the water balance of
the oasis are shown; and finally, the possibility of extensive
Indian irrigation agriculture around the periphery of the oasis
in future is explored as a trend of importance for increased
food supplies for an expanding oasis.
The 36 plants described, selected from among 400
reviewed, were chosen on the basis of several criteria: Can it be
grown in the tropics? Does it have significant potential as a
source of food, forage, or industrial raw material? Can it help
make developing countries (or areas within them) more productive? Divisions are: cereals, roots and tubers, vegetables,
fruits, oilseeds, forage. Each plant within these categories is
described, its limitations and special requirements, and
research contacts and germ plasm sources noted. Arid lands
species include buffalo gourd, jojoba. Acacia albida, Cassia
sturtii, saltbushes, and guayule. Resumes in French and
Spanish.
Weise, O.R. 1974. ZUR HANGENTWICKLUNG UND
FLAECHENBILDUNG IM TROCKENBEBIET DES
IRANISCHEN HOCHLANDES (Contributions to slope development and plain formation in the deserts of the Iranian
highland). Wuerzburger Geographische Arbeiten, 42. 382 p. +
portfolio of maps.
River Niger Commission, Documentation Centre. 1975.
INDEX OF THE RNCDC, No. 1. B.P. 933, Niamey, Niger. 273
PThe Commission is responsible for the collection, analysis,
and circulation by means of this index, of documentation of
use in the economic and social development of the Niger basin.
Included: a bibUographical listing giving references and indexing synopsis for each document, a computer-produced
analytical index (KWIC), and an author index. Available in
both English and French. The 2d vol. is due later this year.
Landforms in Iran may be divided into those regions with
basin-and-range structure and young tectonic movements
(especially high mountains with bajadas in the forefront), and
those in the so-called Lut block, a relatively stable region on
which extensive pediplains and desert domes are developed. In
the deserts, slopes are formed chiefly by areal fluvial degradation and weathering. The erosional processes affect mountains,
mountain rims, cuestas, and their surroundings equally, with
the levelling plain formation from the interior of the
mountains having its greatest effects.
Ruiz Leal, Adrian. 1972 [received 1976]. FLORA POPULAR
MENDOCINA. Special issue of Deserta, No. 3, Instituto
Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas, Casilla de
Correo 507, Mendoza, Argentina.
16
VISITORS FROM OUT OF COUNTRY
February 1976
5P00NER, Brian
Division of Human Environment
Department of Environmental Conservation
Tehran
[ran
July 14,1976
WOLF, Dr. David
Department of Chemical Engineering
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Beer-Sheva
Israel
^prÜ 1976
:>ENA, Carlos
director of Coordination
"National Council for Science & Technology
Viexico, D.F.
July 2 7 , 1 9 7 6
SCHICK, Dr. Asher P.
Department of Geography
Hebrew University
Jerusalem
Vpril 1976
'UEBLA, Manuel
ôciate Technical Director
National Council for Science & Technology
(iexico, D.F.
August 5 , 1 9 7 6
BRAUN, Rolando H.
Ingeniero Agronomo
lADIZA
Mendoza, Argentina
day 1976
lAID, Rushdi
Mrector, Geological Survey of Egypt
"airo
ígypt
August 10,1976
DALIN, Moseph S.
Head, Flood Water Utilization Department
TAHAL - Water Planning for Israel, Ltd.
Tel-Aviv
lay 3 , 1 9 7 6
IBU-IZZEDDIN, Faisal
ivestock Consultant
badieh
£banon
August 13, 1976
AL-KUBAISI, Mohamed
President
Organization of Soil & Land Reclamation
Baghdad
Iraq
une 1976
/ISNIAK, Dr. Jaime
¡en-Gurion University of the Negev
teer-Sheva
¡rael
August 13,1976
HANNA, Dr. Augustine B.
Director General, Scientific Research
State Organization of Soils & Land Reclamation
Baghdad
Iraq
une 14,1976
HEKO, Ibrahima
conomic Counsellor to the President
amako
laH
August 17,1976
RIMAWI, Dr. Walid
Chairman, Civil Engineering Department
University of Kuwait
Kuwait
ily 6 , 1 9 7 6
ELIMIROVIC, Dr. Boris
hief. Field Office US-Mexico Border
Pan American Sanitary Bureau
I Paso, Texas
August 18,1976
Del CASTILLO DAVILA, Tito Javier
Ingeniería Industrial
Universidad de Guadalajara
Guadalajara
Mexico
17
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
1
I.
Overview
2
II.
H i s t o r y o f Land Use i n Arid Regions of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
6
III.
Range Resource
9
IV.
Irrigated Agriculture
10
V.
Mining
11
VI.
Urbanization
12
VIX.
Recreation
12
VIII,
Phreatophyte and Other V e g e t a t i o n
IX.
Summary
Utilization
Controls
13
14
Appendix A
Bibliography
Appendix B
A P a r t i a l L i s t o f U.S. Agency-
15
Supported A c t i v i t i e s
Appendix C
Associated with D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
22
Spanish Summary
35
-i-
A
INTRODUCTION
T h i s paper i s an attempt t o i n d i c a t e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem i n the United S t a t e s .
I t includes a
h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e l a n d - u s e problems i n t h e a r i d and semia r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , d i s c u s s e s some o f t h e current
problems and emphasizes t h e need f o r c o n c e r t e d and s e n s i b l e
l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g and management i f t h e U.S. i s t o curb i t s
d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s e m i a r i d and a r i d w e s t e r n lands and a v o i d
t h e c r e a t i o n of d e s e r t s i n t h o s e a r e a s where l a n d i s b e i n g m i s used.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s n o t a problem f o r the d e v e l o p i n g
countries to tackle alone.
Indeed i t i s a problem which the
world must c o n f r o n t .
The United S t a t e s s h a r e s t h i s problem,
can o f f e r some s o l u t i o n s , and w i l l d e f i n i t e l y b e n e f i t i n t h e
exchange o f i d e a s and m e t h o d o l o g i e s which w i l l be p r e s e n t e d
throughout and f o l l o w i n g t h e U.N. Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
In a d d i t i o n t o the t e x t t h i s paper c o n t a i n s t h r e e appendices,
Appendix A i s an a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y o f r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l , most
o f which was u s e d i n the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e t e x t , although s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s and q u o t e s are not i n c l u d e d as a p a r t o f the t e x t .
Appendix B i s a p a r t i a l l i s t o f a c t i v i t i e s which t h e U.S. government i s e i t h e r c o n d u c t i n g or f u n d i n g . The l i s t c o u l d have i n cluded many o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s which are funded or conducted
by t h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e , Bureau o f Indian A f f a i r s , Department o f Commerce, A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , s t a t e and
l o c a l governments, u n i v e r s i t i e s or o t h e r p u b l i c or p r i v a t e i n s t i t u i t i o n s conducting research.
To be a l l i n c l u s i v e would r e q u i r e
more time than was a v a i l a b l e , but Appendix B i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f U.S. a c t i v i t i e s and i n t e r e s t i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Appendix C i s a summary o f t h i s paper i n Spanish.
-1-
DESERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES
By Jack Donald Johnson
I.
OVERVIEW
The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n (based on 1970 c e n s u s ) o f t h e United
S t a t e s p r e s e n t l y e x c e e d s 203 m i l l i o n .
The p o p u l a t i o n of t h e
12 w e s t e r n s t a t e s e x c e e d s 45 m i l l i o n and i s a l i t t l e over 22
p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e U. S.
These same
12 s t a t e s comprise about 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f
the U.S. and almost a l l o f t h e a r i d p o r t i o n s o f t h e n a t i o n .
(See map, p a g e ^ . )
Approximately 23 m i l l i o n p e o p l e r e s i d e i n
the a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U.S.
The 12 w e s t e r n s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e a land a r e a of about
1 . 4 m i l l i o n square m i l e s .
S e v e n t y - t w o p e r c e n t of t h i s l a n d , or
i n e x c e s s o f one m i l l i o n square m i l e s , i s w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n
c u r r e n t l y or p o t e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t e d t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s .
P o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h e West during t h e l a s t decade
almost t r i p l e d t h a t of t h e e a s t e r n s t a t e s .
The combination of
1) immigration, 2) m i g r a t i o n from Mexico, n o r t h - c e n t r a l s t a t e s
and e a s t e r n s t a t e s t o t h e West, and 3) g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n growth
because of l o c a l b i r t h r a t e s i s c a u s i n g an alarming i n c r e a s e i n
t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f many o f t h e w e s t e r n s t a t e s .
Land d e v e l o p e r s ,
chambers o f commerce and i n d i v i d u a l businessmen e x p e c t i n g
f i n a n c i a l rewards are a d v e r t i s i n g and e x p l o i t i n g t h e a r i d r e g i o n s ,
In t h e populous e a s t e r n s t a t e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s
high.
In New J e r s e y , f o r example, t h e r e are over 953 p e o p l e
per square m i l e of land a r e a , and i n Washington, D.C. t h e r e are
more than 1 2 , 4 0 0 .
In C a l i f o r n i a , even w i t h i t s l a r g e urban
c e n t e r s , t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s o n l y about 1 2 8 , and w i t h i n
the o t h e r w e s t e r n a r i d s t a t e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s considerably l e s s .
For example, Arizona has about 16 and Wyoming
about 3 . 4 p e o p l e per square m i l e .
This seems t o i n d i c a t e room
f o r growth, but u n f o r t u n a t e l y growth from t h e l a r g e urban
c e n t e r s i s r a p i d l y expanding i n t o the d e s e r t s and up i n t o
the mountains w i t h l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a r a b l e
l a n d , w a t e r , v e g e t a t i o n and w i l d l i f e .
-2-
Reprinted f r o m DESERTS OF T H E WORLD-.
A n A p p r a i s a l o f R e s e a r c h Into T h e i r P h y s i c a l
and B i o l o g i c a l E n v i r o n m e n t s .
McGlnnles,
G o l d m a n , and P a y l o r e , e d s . , c l 9 6 8 , b y
p e r m i s s i o n U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a P r e s s .
— 70°
70°—
50°--
50°—
W—
30°
20°—
MEIGS
CLASSIFICATIONS
E — Extremely arid
A — Arid
10°
S—
a—
b—
c—
Semiarid
no marked season of precipitation
summer precipitation
winter precipitation
Digits
1st digit indicates mean temperature
of coldest month
2nd digit indicates mean temperature
of warmest montfi
0 = less ttian O'C
1 = 0° to 10°C
2 = 10° to 20°C
3 = 20» to 30°C
4 = more than aO'C
—10°
KEY
Extremely Arid
S
S
£'233
Arid
Semiarid
500
MILES
Arid Lands of North America (after Meigs)
-3-
-0°
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s , g h o s t towns, abandoned ranches and
empty fa:ms t h a t dot t h e a r i d West are dramatic examples of man's
e a r l y f a i l u r e t o o b t a i n a b a l a n c e between h i s n a t u r a l a r i d e n v i ronment y i d h i s d e s i r e f o r expansion." When t h e e a r t h was s p a r s e l y
p o p u l a t e d or u n i n h a b i t e d , land was abundant; man c o u l d abandon
o l d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a i l u r e s and move onto new l a n d s .
Today, t h e
s i t u a t i o n i s much d i f f e r e n t ; w i t h expanding world p o p u l a t i o n i t
i s i m p o s s i b l e t o abandon o r i g n o r e t h e a r i d l a n d s o f any c o u n t r y .
Within t h e U.S. 60 t o 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e a r i d l a n d s are i n
f e d e r a l or o t h e r p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p .
Some 130 m i l l i o n a c r e s i n
a r i d l a n d s s t a t e s have been p l a c e d m d e r m u l t i p l e - u s e , s u s t a i n e d
y i e l d management w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s , which a r e administ e r e d by t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e .
Recent p a s s a g e o f t h e Federal
Land P o l i c y and Management Act has overcome some o f t h e p o l i c y
indeterminacy o f t h e U.S. p u b l i c l a n d s , which are a d m i n i s t e r e d
by t h e Bureau o f Land Management. The new Act a d d r e s s e s t h e
m u l t i p l e - u s e and s u s t a i n e d y i e l d management c o n c e p t through an
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y land-use planning system.
One o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e rugged, a r i d w e s t e r n
United S t a t e s i s t h a t one can d r i v e from t h e h o t d e s e r t f l o o r
or l a r g e urban area i n t o t h e dense m o m t a i n f o r e s t s , o f t e n
w i t h i n a m a t t e r o f m i n u t e s and n e v e r more than a few h o u r s .
I r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e i s an important a s p e c t o f a r i d
r e g i o n s , and some i r r i g a t e d p o r t i o n s o f A r i z o n a and C a l i f o r n i a
d e s e r t s comprise t h e most p r o d u c t i v e l a n d i n t h e U.S. I t may
n o t , however, be t h e most d e s i r a b l e or e c o n o m i c a l l y e f f i c i e n t
u s e o f w a t e r , and t h e e x p a n s i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n farming f a r t h e r
i n t o t h e d e s e r t r e q u i r e s a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w . Much o f t h e a r i d
and s e m i a r i d a r e a s i s u s e d as g r a z i n g l a n d , and some o f the a r i d
r e g i o n s are r i c h i n m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n copper and
coal.
(Over 50 p e r c e n t o f U . S . copper i s mined i n A r i z o n a . )
Energy p o t e n t i a l ( s o l a r , c o a l , uranium, o i l and g a s , and hydroe l e c t r i c ) i s b e i n g e x p l o i t e d f o r u s e i n l a r g e urban c e n t e r s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r P h o e n i x , Las Vegas and Los A n g e l e s .
R e c r e a t i o n i s r a p i d l y becoming an important economic u s e
o f a r i d r e g i o n s i n t h e U.S.
Surveys i n d e s e r t r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s
of Southern C a l i f o r n i a during 1958 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were
5 7 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e on one-day f i e l d t r i p s ; 1 . 1 m i l l i o n o v e r n i g h t
t r i p s ; and about $ 3 0 . 9 m i l l i o n expended by t h e s e r e c r e a t i o n
u s e r s . P r o j e c t i o n s b a s e d on 1968 s t a t i s t i c s o f 4 . 9 m i l l i o n
v i s i t o r days are t h a t Southern C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s w i l l s e e 7 . 8
m i l l i o n v i s i t o r days i n 1980 and 1 3 . 2 m i l l i o n by t h e year 2000.
-4-
One o f t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s which has r e c e n t l y r e c e i v e d
much p u b l i c i t y ( m o s t l y n e g a t i v e ) i s t h e u s e of m o t o r c y c l e s , "dime
b u g g i e s " and f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e v e h i c l e s i n remote d e s e r t a r e a s .
Because o f t h e c l i m a t i c and b i o t i c c o n d i t i o n s , p h y s i c a l s c a r s
on t h e l a n d s c a p e remain f o r c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e n a t u r e can h i d e them.
(For example, some o f t h e t r a c k s l e f t by wagon t r a i n s c r o s s i n g
t h e a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s i n the 1840s
are v i s i b l e t o d a y . )
The l a c k o f m o i s t u r e slows n a t u r a l decay
p r o c e s s e s and a l l o w s d i s c a r d e d w a s t e p r o d u c t s and c o n t a i n e r s
t o remain almost x i n a l t e r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e .
(For
example, a d i s c a r d e d paper t i s s u e on t h e d e s e r t f l o o r may
remain as a v i s i b l e S3nnbol o f human t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s f o r many
years.)
P i t s from mining o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d p o s s i b l y s e r v e
as r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s o r as s i t s s f o r o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l
development, but u s u a l l y t h e y s i m p l y s t a n d as a reminder t h a t
man can d i g a b i g deep h o l e i n t h e ground.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , as a d e f i n i t i v e p r o c e s s , has r e c e i v e d
only recent a t t e n t i o n i n the United S t a t e s .
But i f we a c c e p t the
concern r e g a r d i n g m i s u s e o f a r i d and s e m i a r i d l a n d s , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n s began sometime i n t h e 1 8 0 0 s .
In 1947 Dr. Walter
P. Cottam a u t h o r e d a U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah B u l l e t i n (Vol. 37 No.
11) e n t i t l e d " I s Utah Sahara Bound?" Had he been a b l e t o p r e d i c t t o d a y ' s u s e o f t h e term " d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , " he might have
u s e d some o t h e r t i t l e such as "The E x t e n t o f D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n
Utah." While economic d a t a have n o t been r e s e a r c h e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e i n , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n does have s e r i o u s economic
impact. Arid l a n d r e c r e a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d are produc e r s o f a s i g n i f i c a n t n a t i o n a l income, and any r e d u c t i o n o f
t h a t income through t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s has had and
w i l l have n a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .
A r e c e n t d i s a s t r o u s drought o f a few months' d u r a t i o n
on t h e Papago I n d i a n R e s e r v a t i o n r e q u i r e d emergency funds and
s e r v i c e s from s e v e r a l f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s and brought c r i p p l i n g
l o s s e s o f c a t t l e and c r o p s . The e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e
"dust bowl" i n Oklahoma, t h e l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n programs, and
the a s s i s t a n c e t o I n d i a n r e s e i r v a t i o n s have t o t a l e d b i l l i o n s
o f d o l l a r s - - a n d b o t h t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e s e e x p e n d i t u r e s and
t h e burden o f t h e s e c o s t s are borne n a t i o n a l l y .
I t should
be emphasized t h a t t h e U . S . e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
r e p o r t e d h e r e i n , s h o u l d be r e l e v a n t t o o t h e r a r i d and s e m i a r i d
a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f some o f
the r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s .
-5-
li^
II.
HISTORY OF LAND USE IN ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
There i s e v i d e n c e t h a t man has l i v e d i n t h e a r i d and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U.S. f o r as l o n g as 1 1 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ,
and e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e a r i d environments i n d i c a t e
a zone o f extreme a r i d i t y i n t h e Great P l a i n s between about
5500 and 2000 B.C. Evidence from c a v e s i n w e s t c e n t r a l New
Mexico i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r i o d from perhaps 4000 B.C. t o a
few c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a was
a time o f l i f e b a s e d on c u l t i v a t i o n .
Established agriculture,
however, d i d n o t r e p l a c e t h e a n c i e n t food g a t h e r i n g p r a c t i c e s
u n t i l about 300 B.C. I t was w i t h t h e growth o f c u l t i v a t i o n and
the improvement o f a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t t h e American
Indian became capable o f m a s t e r i n g many o f t h e a r i d and semiârid zones of the continent.
U n t i l t h e middle o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y the v a s t a r i d /
s e m i a r i d r e g i o n l y i n g between the Rocky Movintains and t h e
ranges b o r d e r i n g t h e P a c i f i c Ocean was v i r t u a l l y unknown t o t h e
a n g l o . A c e n t u r y e a r l i e r Spanish m i s s i o n a r i e s had p e n e t r a t e d a
small p a r t o f southern A r i z o n a , i n t r o d u c t i n g c a t t l e t o the
s c a t t e r i n g o f C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n s t h e y had f o m d e d t h e r e .
They a l s o
made o c c a s i o n a l t r i p s a c r o s s t h e i n t e r v e n i n g d e s e r t t o t h e chain
o f s i m i l a r m i s s i o n s along t h e C a l i f o r n i a c o a s t .
These and
o t h e r t r a v e l e r s , such as t r a p p e r s and t r a d e r s , d i d n o t w r i t e
d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r t r a v e l s ; maps were n o t p u b l i s h e d
p r i o r t o the 1 8 4 0 s .
The d i s c o v e r y o f g o l d , which was i n 1848 i n C a l i f o r n i a ,
brought t e n s o f thousands o f p e o p l e a c r o s s t h e d e s e r t r e g i o n
en r o u t e t o t h e g o l d f i e l d s , but t h e a r i d area s t i l l l a y
v i r t u a l l y empty and vinused x m t i l t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 8 6 0 s .
From t h e e a r l y 1800s through t h e l a t e 1860s g r a z i n g animals were
brought i n t o t h e Southwest by Spanish and Mexican m i s s i o n a r i e s
and c a t t l e m e n .
In t h e l a t e 1860s t h e r e o c c u r r e d an i n f l u x o f
s e t t l e r s , c h i e f l y comprised o f c a t t l e m e n from the s e m i a r i d
regions farther e a s t .
C a l i f o r n i a p r e s e n t s some i n t e r e s t i n g
s t a t i s t i c s r e g a r d i n g sheep p o p u l a t i o n which had i n c r e a s e d t o
1 . 9 m i l l i o n i n 1860, 2 . 8 m i l l i o n i n 1870 and 4 . 4 m i l l i o n by
1890. At t h a t t i m e , c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a r i d West were f a r from
s t a b l e and t h e n a t i o n was s t i l l r e c o v e r i n g from t h e C i v i l War.
P a r t i a l l y s e t t l e d w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s were p o o r l y a d m i n i s t e r e d ,
and t h e m i l i t a r y and p o l i c e f o r c e s were i n a d e q u a t e .
The f o l l o w i n g h a l f c e n t u r y was t h e e r a o f t h e open r a n g e .
Herders l a i d c l a i m t o t h e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d w a t e r i n g p l a c e s and
thus h e l d p r a c t i c a l i f n o t l e g a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e v a s t w a t e r l e s s g r a z i n g l a n d s . Land t e n u r e was t h e major problem i n t h e
United S t a t e s .
The f i r s t attempt a t c o n t r o l was t h e d e v e l o p ment o f a General Land O f f i c e as an agency o f t h e U . S . f e d e r a l
-6-
government t o a d m i n i s t e r and a p p o r t i o n p u b l i c l a n d s o f t h e U.S.
Under t h e Homestead Act o f 1862 any c i t i z e n c o u l d a t t a i n t i t l e
t o 160 a c r e s , but t h i s Act was p r i n c i p a l l y c r e a t e d f o r t h e purp o s e o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d o f t h e East and t h e
Midwest.
One hundred s i x t y a c r e s i n .the e a s t e r n and m i d w e s t e m
U n i t e d S t a t e s was adequate f o r maintenance o f moderate t o h i g h
s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g , but l a n d h o l d i n g s o f such small s i z e were
t o t a l l y inadequate f o r e n t e r p r i s e s in a semiarid or arid pastoral region.
In most o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n s 160 a c r e s would
support no more than two head o f c a t t l e .
The D e s e r t Land Act o f 1877 p r o v i d e d t h a t t i t l e might
be o b t a i n e d t o a f u l l s e c t i o n (640 a c r e s ) , but t h a t Act had
o n l y l i m i t e d e f f e c t s i n c e i t r e q u i r e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e land be
irrigated.
Most o f the land i n the a r i d West was n o t i r r i g a b l e .
In 1879 a f e d e r a l commission headed by John Wesley Powell
t u r n e d i n : i t s r e p o r t on t h e governmental p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n i n g
t h e p u b l i c l a n d s o f t h e a r i d West.
The r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t . . .
"the Homestead and Preemption laws are n o t s u i t e d f o r s e c u r i n g
s e t t l e m e n t o f more than an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f the c o i m t r y . "
P o w e l l ' s r e p o r t went on t o s u g g e s t : 1) t h a t land s h o u l d
be s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d and c l a s s i f i e d b e f o r e s e t t l e m e n t
and t h a t each c a t e g o r y s h o u l d be h a n d l e d under laws s p e c i f i c a l l y
applicable to i t ;
2) t h a t l a n d must be d i s p o s e d o f i n q u a n t i t i e s s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f working e n t e r p r i s e s ,
and t h a t t h e p r i c e o f such a grant must be k e p t l o w . . . a t
l e a s t f o u r square m i l e s (2,56Q a c r e s ) was proposed as a m i n i mum; 3) t h a t farm and ranch r e s i d e n c e s be grouped t o permit a
form o f s o c i a l l i f e n o t p o s s i b l e on i s o l a t e d r a n c h s t e a d s ;
4) t h a t s u r v e y s s h o u l d d e v i a t e from r e c t a n g u l a r systems when
necessary to divide i r r i g a t i o n waters properly;
and 5) b e c a u s e
of t h e g r e a t e x p e n s e r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p i r r i g a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n schemes s h o u l d be undertaken under t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e
f e d e r a l government.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no a c t i o n was t a k e n by t h e Congress o f
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on P o w e l l ' s s u g g e s t i o n s , which proved t o be
- f a r ahead o f t h e i r t i m e .
During t h e 1890s and on i n t o t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m d e r t h e impetus p r o v i d e d by P r e s i d e n t Theodore R o o s e v e l t ,
c o n s e r v a t i o n measures were b e g i n n i n g t o e v o l v e .
T h i s was a r a t h e r
stormy p e r i o d i n t h e g r a z i n g l a n d a r e a s where c a t t l e m e n f o u g h t
f a r m e r s , sheepmen f o u g h t f a r m e r s , and c a t t l e m e n fought sheepmen.
P i t c h e d b a t t l e s were waged o v e r t h e r i g h t t o b u i l d f e n c e s and
s e c t i o n o f f land.
In g e n e r a l t h e l a n d was h e a v i l y o v e r g r a z e d
but t h e c a t t l e m e n were p e r c e i v e d as p o p u l a r h e r o e s w i t h t h e " d i r t
farmer" and sheepmen g e t t i n g t h e w o r s t o f most b a t t l e s — b o t h
p h y s i c a l l y and l e g a l l y .
-7-
The T a y l o r Grazing Act o f 1934 was the f i r s t major cong r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n aimed s p e c i f i c a l l y a t the management o f g r a z i n g
lands o f t h e a r i d and s e m i a r i d West. The Taylor Act was s t i m u l a t e d
by the r e s u l t o f a 1932 s u r v e y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t rangeland product i v i t y had d e c l i n e d by 50 p e r c e n t and t h a t g r a s s removal had e x posed 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e range t o e r o s i o n .
The Act e s t a b l i s h e d
g r a z i n g d i s t r i c t s and c r e a t e d t h e Grazing S e r v i c e .
Under
f e d e r a l c o n t r o l t h e nximber o f animals was r e g u l a t e d t o
approximate a b a l a n c e between range u s e and t h e f o r a g e - p r o d u c i n g
capacity of the land.
I t was f o r t u n a t e t h a t t h e Act was p a s s e d
and implemented during t h e depth o f t h e drought and t h e d e p r e s s i o n
of the 1 9 3 0 s , f o r during t h a t p e r i o d t h e nxamber o f animals was
a l r e a d y s h a r p l y reduced.
The government t h e r e f o r e had t o f a c e
p r i n c i p a l l y t h e problem o f p r e v e n t i n g an i n c r e a s e i n the animal
p o p u l a t i o n r a t h e r than having t o b r i n g about a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n .
For a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s a system o f range i n s p e c t i o n and
e v a l u a t i o n was i n a u g u r a t e d t o check on d i f f e r e n t s t o c k i n g and
management programs. Although r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y has c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e w e s t e r n d e s e r t r a n g e s s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s , many a r e a s
are s t i l l p o o r l y managed, and a t t e m p t s a t s c i e n t i f i c g r a z i n g
c o n t r o l are o f t e n f r u s t r a t e d by the c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f land t e n u r e ,
m u l t i p l e u s e o f landS' and t h e e a s e w i t h which l e g a l a c t i o n s
a g a i n s t a g e n c i e s can be brought i n t o the c o u r t s .
Many s e t t l e r s m i g r a t i n g from the e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s
brought t h e i r more htraiid r e g i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n t o t h e a r i d r e g i o n s
and attempted r a i n - f e d farming.
This u s u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d
n o t h i n g e x c e p t t o l a y the l a n d open t o e r o s i o n by wind and
r a i n , and i n a l l c a s e s f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e dependable crop
production.
The development o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e a r i d p o r t i o n s d a t e s
back t o t h e Hohokam and Pueblo I n d i a n s , but i t was n o t m t i l
t h e 1840s t h a t t h e a n g l o s began i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e .
Among
t h e f i r s t t o e s t a b l i s h s u c c e s s f u l i r r i g a t i o n farming were t h e
Mormons i n t h e S a l t Lake C i t y a r e a . One o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r
e a r l y s u c c e s s was t h e i n s e p a r a b i l i t y i n t h e Mormon p h i l o s o p h y
o f church and s t a t e .
Thus, i t was r e l a t i v e l y e a s y f o r them t o
e s t a b l i s h a communal i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m and t h e r e b y a l l o c a t e
t h e land and w a t e r r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s .
I t was during t h e r e c l a m a t i o n e r a o f t h e 1930s and 1940s
t h a t t h e a r i d r e g i o n s saw t h e h a r n e s s i n g o f most o f t h e major
streams o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e moimtainous West. This r e s u l t e d i n
m u l t i p u r p o s e dams and t h e e x t e n s i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n to v a s t a r e a s
o f the d e s e r t and s e m i d e s e r t .
Other land u s e s i n t h e a r i d Southwest i n c l u d e d I n d i a n
r e s e r v a t i o n s , l a r g e urban c e n t e r s , e l e c t r i c a l energy p r o d u c t i o n ,
mining and i n d u s t r i a l development, and r e c r e a t i o n .
-8-
III.
RANGE RESOURCE UTILIZATION
As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e v e r e o v e r g r a z i n g which o c c u r r e d during
t h e l a t e 1 8 0 0 s , t h e U . S . government has a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p range
c o n t r o l on i t s p u b l i c l y owned l a n d .
P r i v a t e , s t a t e - o w n e d and
I n d i a n l a n d s are n o t under f e d e r a l g r a z i n g c o n t r o l , but through
t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Land Grant
c o l l e g e s and v i n i v e r s i t i e s many improved range management t e c h n i ques have been and are b e i n g adopted on ñ o n - f e d e r a l l a n d s .
Both t h e U.S. Bureau o f Land Management and t h e U.S.
F o r e s t S e r v i c e l a n d s are g r a z e d , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e m u l t i p l e u s e management c o n c e p t . M u l t i p l e u s e may i n c l u d e r e c r e a t i o n ,
timber p r o d u c t i o n , m i n i n g , w a t e r r e s o u r c e development, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and power p r o d u c t i o n . While m u l t i p l e - u s e p o l i c y
has i t s o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e s , i t a l s o l e a d s t o c o m p l i c a t i o n s
f o r t h e range manager. Range s c i e n t i s t s are a s y e t u n a b l e
to predict accurately the s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s of multiple
u s e on t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e l a n d .
While s e v e r e o v e r g r a z i n g i s g e n e r a l l y p r e v e n t e d on most
p u b l i c l a n d s , t h e r e s u l t o f m u l t i p l e u s e i s t h a t the a s s o c i a t e d
impact on range v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l r e q u i r e s c o n t i n u a l assessment
and r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .
Land t e n u r e a l s o complic a t e s t h e problem i n t h e U . S . , as g r a z i n g may o c c u r i n a geographic a l a r e a which i n v o l v e s l a n d i n which v a r i o u s p a r t s are owned
by t h e U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e , t h e U.S. Bureau o f Land Management,
Indian r e s e r v a t i o n s , the s t a t e s or p r i v a t e p a r t i e s .
The Indian
r e s e r v a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y s e v e r e l y o v e r g r a z e d , and c o n t r o l o f
animal numbers i s through t r i b a l c o u n c i l s o r c a t t l e m e n ' s
associations.
I n d i a n c a t t l e m e n are r e l u c t a n t t o reduce herd
s i z e b e c a u s e t o many t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a l a r g e herd i s a s o u r c e
o f s a v i n g s , community power, i n f l u e n c e and p r e s t i g e .
Most range s c i e n t i s t s agree t h a t many o f t h e p u b l i c and
p r i v a t e l a n d s are b e i n g degraded, and t h a t c o n t r o l s must be
s t e p p e d up. There are many w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d h i s t o r i c a l c a s e s
i n which o v e r g r a z i n g c a u s e d t h e i n v a s i o n o f low woody p l a n t s
of l i t t l e n u t r i t i v e value, the a c c e l e r a t i o n of erosion proc e s s e s and d e p l e t i o n o f groundwater.
Western c a t t l e ranches t o d a y average o v e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s
w i t h a c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f about one g r a z i n g cow p e r 100 a c r e s .
The economic s t a b i l i t y brought t o t h e d e s e r t ranch i s l a r g e l y
a r e s u l t o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e development o f w a t e r
w e l l d r i l l i n g and pumping equipment, and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
modem s c i e n t i f i c methods i n range management, b r e e d i n g , f e e d i n g ,
v e t e r i n a r y m e d i c i n e and m a r k e t i n g .
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IV.
IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
I r r i g a t i o n has l i t e r a l l y transformed many p a r t s o f the
d e s e r t s o f t h e a r i d Southwest i n t o a g r i c u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n c e n ters.
I r r i g a t i o n has, in the U.S., contributed t o the
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s v i a i t s cons\imptive u s e o f s c a r c e
water s u p p l i e s , s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s , and, o c c a s i o n a l l y ,
the r e t i r e m e n t o f t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s t o become barren
wastelands.
The w a t e r problem i s most c r i t i c a l i n a r e a s i n which
groundwater i s b e i n g consimed f a s t e r than t h e r a t e o f recharge
t o t h e groiandwater system.
S e v e r a l streams and r i v e r s t h a t once
were p e r e n n i a l are now ephemeral.
This problem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
acute i n t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e s e m i a r i d Southwest where groundwater
i s the o n l y s o u r c e o f w a t e r .
In t h e Santa Cruz V a l l e y i n
southern A r i z o n a , f o r example, water withdrawal f o r t h e urban
c e n t e r o f Tucson, f o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r mining
copper i s so f a r i n e x c e s s o f n a t u r a l r e p l e n i s h m e n t t h a t t h e
groxindwater l e v e l has d e c l i n e d 200 f e e t o r more i n some a r e a s .
One o f t h e problems f a c i n g the i r r i g a t i o n farmer, who
depends upon a d e c l i n i n g groxindwater s u p p l y , i s t h a t he must
not only incur s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g costs a s s o c i a t e d with the
energy r e q u i r e d t o pump from e v e r - g r e a t e r d e p t h s , but t h e
rapidly i n c r e a s i n g cost o f energy i t s e l f .
This p l a c e s farmers
i n a p o s i t i o n o f e x p o n e n t i a l l y r i s i n g c o s t s and h a s caused many
o f them t o abandon t h e i r l a n d s .
This abandonment o f f o r m e r l y
p r o d u c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s l e a v e s v u l n e r a b l e t o p s o i l , which
i s o f t e n s a l i n e and does n o t n a t u r a l l y r e v e g e t a t e w i t h low
r a i n f a l l . As a r e s u l t , t h e barren land s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y a s a
producer o f windblown dust and sand. So s e v e r e i s t h i s problem
t h a t many m o t o r i s t s on t h e highway between Tucson and Phoenix
have p e r i s h e d i n auto a c c i d e n t s caused by b l i n d i n g d u s t s t o r m s .
This highway now has s p e c i a l s e n s o r s i g n s p o s t e d t o warn t r a v e l e r s when d u s t s t o r m s are a n t i c i p a t e d .
The s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s i s , o f c o u r s e , a well-known
p r o c e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n which may c o n t r i b u t e t o
desertification.
The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem w i t h i n t h e
U.S. i s simply t o apply s u f f i c i e n t water t o l e a c h o u t t h e s a l t s
through a s u b s u r f a c e o r w e l l drainage s y s t e m . While t h e s o l u t i o n
c l e a r l y s o l v e s the problem l o c a l l y , i t r e s u l t s i n o t h e r c o m p l i cations.
I t c r e a t e s a downstream l e a c h a t e t h a t i s h i g h e r i n d i s s o l v e d s a l t s than t h e upstream w a t e r s , and, as our f r i e n d s i n
Mexico are k e e n l y aware, when t h e r e t u r n f l o w s a r e c y c l e d through
s e v e r a l u s e s , t h e end u s e r r e c e i v e s water which may be t o o laden
w i t h s a l t t o grow many c r o p s . The Colorado R i v e r below Ytima,
Arizona i s j u s t such an example, where t h e U.S. i s now i n t h e
p r o c e s s o f b u i l d i n g a 100 m i l l i o n - g a l l o n - a - d a y d e s a l t i n g p l a n t .
-10-
Land abandoned b e c a u s e o f s a l i n i t y problems p r e s e n t s
s p e c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e c l a m a t i o n or r e v e g e t a t i o n w i t h
native plants.
One o f t h e g r e a t e s t c h a l l e n g e s o f t h e f u t u r e ,
one t h a t nxamerous c i v i l i z a t i o n s have f a i l e d t o meet, i s d e a l ing with the e f f e c t s of long-term arid lands i r r i g a t i o n .
V.
MINING
While n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y e x t e n s i v e i n a r e a l t e r m s , mining
can c r e a t e a v i r t u a l d e s e r t l o c a l l y .
Mine r e c l a m a t i o n i s a f i e l d
now r e c e i v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n .
The e f f e c t s o f mining are
d i f f e r e n t , depending upon t h e method and t h e o r e body. This paper
w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y two o f t h e more o b v i o u s mining a c t i v i t i e s t h a t
have s t i m u l a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s .
Copper mining i s e x t r e m e l y v i t a l t o t h e economy o f Arizona,
and i t c o n s t i t u t u e s t h e major i n d u s t r y o f t h e s t a t e .
Most of
t h e copper i s mined i n open p i t o p e r a t i o n s t h a t may be s e v e r a l
square m i l e s i n top area and about 800 f e e t deep. There are
s e v e r a l o f t h e s e huge h o l e s i n t h e A r i z o n a l a n d s c a p e , and t h e
removed overburden p l u s e v a p o r a t i o n ponds, h o l d i n g p r o c e s s i n g
w a s t e s , c r e a t e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e u n p r o d u c t i v e a r e a s around t h e mine.
A r c h i t e c t s have l o o k e d a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l o c a t i n g
h o u s i n g developments on t h e overburden, but f o r now t h e y
l i e as unused w a s t e , a t r i b u t e t o man's a b i l i t y t o move a
l o t of d i r t .
This may be c a l l e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but i n
g e n e r a l i t i s a l o c a l phenomenon and does n o t spread beyond
t h e mine o p e r a t i o n .
I t s v i s u a l impact i s f e l t by r e s i d e n t s
or v i s i t o r s f o r m i l e s in a l l d i r e c t i o n s .
The d e p l e t i o n o f
w a t e r r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r m i l l i n g may i n v o l v e nearby or
distant aquifers.
Coal mining i n A r i z o n a , Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Mont a n a and Wyoming h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o l a y w a s t e l a r g e a r e a s .
To d a t e , s t r i p - m i n i n g r e c l a m a t i o n has had o n l y s p o r a d i c s u c c e s s .
The Four C o m e r s area i n New Mexico has such h i g h l y a l k a l i n e
overburden t h a t r e v e g e t a t i o n has f a i l e d , but i n t h e Black Mesa
a r e a o f A r i z o n a and i n p a r t s o f Montana and Wyoming s t r i p - m i n e
r e v e g e t a t i o n has been more s u c c e s s f u l .
Huge d e p o s i t s o f c o a l
and o i l s h a l e e x i s t i n t h e West, and e x p l o i t a t i o n seems i n e v i table.
Many U . S . c i t i z e n s , non-governmental a g e n c i e s and
governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s are c o n c e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact o f t h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t
which i s r e l a t e d t o t h e -^sat s h a l e d e p o s i t s t h a t have both
huge e n e r g y p o t e n t i a l and huge land d e g r a d a t i o n p o t e n t i a l .
R e c k l e s s l y approached, e ^ á . s h a l e mining has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o
d e s e r t i f y large expanses of land.
-11-
VI.
URBANIZATION
Urban development may be one o f t h e b e s t u s e s o f a r i d
and s e m i a r i d l a n d s , i f proper p l a n n i n g and common s e n s e accompany
such u s e . While w a s t e f u l and improper water u s e i n t h e s e c i t i e s
may u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o g h o s t towns o r c o n c r e t e d e s e r t s , t h e most
p u b l i c i z e d problems are t h o s e caused by t h o u g h t l e s s l a n d d e v e l o p e r s
who carve up dry d e s e r t a r e a s w i t h roads i n an attempt t o s e l l
t h e s e a r i d p l o t s o f w a t e r l e s s land t o g u l l i b l e e a s t e r n e r s and
midwestemers.
A f l i g h t o v e r New Mexico, A r i z o n a and Nevada
w i l l r e v e a l hundreds o f t h e s e unpaved roads s i m p l y c r o s s - h a t c h i n g
the land w i t h no h o u s i n g a t a l l .
On t h e grotond one s e e s t h a t
many o f the " s t r e e t s " have become g u l l i e s which c a r r y away t h e
thin t o p s o i l s that t y p i f y the arid areas.
Another problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u r b a n i z a t i o n i s t h e demand
f o r water and l a n d . These demands o f t e n f o r c e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s
to be r e t i r e d , e i t h e r t o h o u s i n g , as i n t h e Los A n g e l e s and Phoen i x a r e a s , o r t o simply xmused lands so t h a t t h e groundwater r e source can be u s e d by t h e c i t y d w e l l e r s .
P a r t o f t h e once a g r i c u l t u r a l l y r i c h Avra V a l l e y i n southern A r i z o n a i s i n t h e p r o c e s s
o f becoming a w a s t e l a n d and p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f windblown sand
and d u s t , b e c a u s e Tucson n e e d s the groxmdwater r e s o u r c e f o r i t s
increasing population.
P o p u l a t i o n growth w i t h t h e a t t e n d a n t
demands f o r s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s i s the b a s i s f o r most a r i d l a n d s
problems.
Many o f our w e s t e r n a r i d and s e m i a r i d a r e a s were o r i g i n a l l y
d e v e l o p e d f o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s a g e . Recent p o p u l a t i o n
increases (largely attributable to the d e s i r a b i l i t y of the c l i mate f o r l i v i n g ) , r e d u c t i o n s i n grotmdwater l e v e l s and q u a l i t y ,
and i n c r e a s e d c o s t s o f e n e r g y f o r h i g h - t e c h n o l o g y a g r i c u l t u r e
t h a t t y p i f i e s t h e s e a r e a s s u g g e s t t h a t U.S. a r i d l a n d s are on
the t h r e s h o l d o f a r e v o l u t i o n i n usage p a t t e r n s .
VII.
RECREATION
The p l e n t i f u l stinshine o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l
a f f l u e n c e o f t h e average U . S . worker, p l u s more and more spare time
have c r e a t e d an i n t e r e s t i n g and bothersome l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n problem. As p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , m o t o r c y c l e s , "dune b u g g i e s , " f o u r wheel d r i v e o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s and campers have invaded t h e d e s e r t
a r e a s , and t h e y l e a v e t h e i r marks.
-12-
Although w i d e s p r e a d , t h i s problem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y acute
i n t h e Mojave and C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s , on f e d e r a l l a n d s adminis t e r e d by t h e Bureau o f Land Management. E l e v e n m i l l i o n Southern
C a l i f o m i a n s v i e w t h i s u n r e s e r v e d p u b l i c domain as " t h e i r own
b a c k y a r d . " Use o f t h e a r e a by o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s was vinregul a t e d u n t i l 1972.
During one 12-month p e r i o d t h e r e were 151
organized competitive racing events for o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s inv o l v i n g more than 6 7 , 0 0 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s and 1 8 9 , 0 0 0 s p e c t a t o r s .
The most e x t r a o r d i n a r y o f t h e "scramble" r a c e s was run
each T h a n k s g i v i n g weekend o v e r a 1 6 0 - m i l e c o u r s e between Barstow, C a l i f o r n i a and Las Vegas, Nevada. Three thousand motorc y c l i s t s s p r e a d a c r o s s t h e d e s e r t , t r a v e l i n g at breakneck
s p e e d s as t h e y compact t h e s o i l , d e v a s t a t e v e g e t a t i o n , s t i r
up c l o u d s o f d u s t and t e r r o r i z e w i l d l i f e .
The l o n g - t e r m
r e s u l t s o f such a c t i v i t i e s have been denudation o f s i g n i f i cant patches of the landscape.
The Bureau o f Land Management
has s u b s e q u e n t l y c a n c e l e d t h e r a c e s , but t h e damage r e m a i n s .
VIII.
PHREATOPHYTE AND OTHER VEGETATION CONTROLS
The demand f o r w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n a r i d a r e a s i s always
g r e a t e r than t h e s u p p l y , c a u s i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l , mining and
m u n i c i p a l p l a n n e r s t o be c o n s t a n t l y d e v i s i n g new schemes f o r
d i v e r t i n g l a r g e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e l i m i t e d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s through
t h e human p o r t i o n o f t h e d e s e r t e c o s y s t e m . R e c e n t l y g r e a t concern h a s been e x p r e s s e d about p h r e a t o p h y t e s .
R i v e r s and washes,
t h e a r t e r i e s o f our w a t e r s h e d s , are f r e q u e n t l y bordered by stands
o f t a l l t r e e s i n s i g n i f i c a n t r i p a r i a n communities.
Many o f t h e
t r e e s are heavy w a t e r u s e r s , p h r e a t o p h y t e s , and t h e i r e l i m i n a t i o n
has been a d v o c a t e d i n some a r e a s .
P h r e a t o p h y t e c o n t r o l programs
f r e q u e n t l y include channeling water courses.
I t has a l s o been n o t e d t h a t v e g e t a t i o n c o u l d be s t r i p p e d
from s e v e r a l m i l l i o n a c r e s o f A r i z o n a f o r e s t and d e s e r t ( l a r g e l y
chaparral v e g e t a t i o n ) to increase water r u n o f f .
Such schemes to
remove l a r g e t r a c t s o f v e g e t a t i o n a r e p o s s i b l y i l l - a d v i s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g - r a n g e d e g r a d a t i o n and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l .
In the s h o r t term, i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r r u n o f f through v e g e t a t i o n
removal may mean l e s s w a t e r i n f i l t r a t i n g t o groundwater, and
sediment may accumulate more r a p i d l y i n w a t e r catchments and
reservoirs.
-13-
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:
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IX.
SUMMARY
While d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a r e l a t i v e l y new term i n t h e
U.S. s c i e n t i f i c v o c a b u l a r y , land and r e s o u r c e m i s u s e and d e g r a dation are n o t .
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s i n d e e d a s e r i o u s problem,
w i t h o v e r g r a z i n g , s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s , d e p l e t i o n o f water
r e s o u r c e s , land s u b s i d e n c e , p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s , abandonment
of l a n d s , some mining o p e r a t i o n s , and d e s t r u c t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n
or d e s e r t pavement through c a r e l e s s r e c r e a t i o n , and o t h e r e x p l o i t a t i o n s of the desert resources a l l contributing f a c t o r s .
To i g n o r e t h e impact o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on t h e U . S . i s
a m i s t a k e . While v e r y h i g h - l e v e l U . S . t e c h n o l o g y (and c a p i t a l
e x p e n d i t u r e s ) has tremendous c a p a c i t y to produce, i t has e q u a l l y
tremendous c a p a c i t y t o d e s t r o y .
I f r e s o u r c e p l a n n e r s and managers,
p r i v a t e i n v e s t o r s and government r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s do n o t e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n awareness and v i g i l a n c e o f l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n
i n t h e S o u t h w e s t , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o u l d become a problem of i n c r e a s i n g n a t i o n a l impact. We have t h e t e c h n i c a l knowledge t o
c o n t r o l and i n some i n s t a n c e s t o r e v e r s e t h e l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n ,
but as i n many c o u n t r i e s t h e p r e s s u r e s from a t o o r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l problems o f i m p l e menting known t e c h n o l o g y do n o t permit a c a r e l e s s optimism.
I t i s f o r t h e s e r e a s o n s t h a t U.S. government a g e n c i e s have
undertaken a v a r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t c o n t r o l and p o s s i b l e
r e v e r s a l o f a r i d lands d e g r a d a t i o n .
For i n s t a n c e , i n 1968 t h e
Bureau o f Land Management laxmched a C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s t u d y .
I t s purpose was t o i n v e n t o r y current and p r o s p e c t i v e l a n d u s e s
i n the f i r s t s t e p toward i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e g r a t e d management.
The s t u d y f o c u s e d p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n on management n e e d s o f the
f r a g i l e a r i d l a n d s environment c r e a t i n g a gradual i n c r e a s e i n
management awareness. As p a r t o f t h e Federal Land P o l i c y and
Management A c t , t h e Bureau o f Land Management has been d i r e c t e d
to e f f e c t an i n t e r i m management p l a n pending development o f a compre
h e n s i v e m u l t i p l e - u s e , s u s t a i n e d y i e l d p l a n f o r t h e Southern C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a . The i n t e r i m p l a n w i l l emphasize
o r d e r l y p u b l i c u s e and a u t h o r i z e s a p a t r o l t o e n s u r e p u b l i c s a f e t y
and t o e n f o r c e o r d e r l y u s e o f t h e l a n d s . The comprehensive p l a n
w i l l be d e v e l o p e d through t h e Bureau o f Land Management Land
Use P l a n n i n g System. A permanent f e d e r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f $40
m i l l i o n has been a u t h o r i z e d t o support t h e u n d e r t a k i n g .
-14-
J
APPENDIX A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A r m i l l a s , Pedro 1961
Land u s e i n pre-Columbian America.
In L.D„ Stamp, e d . ,
A h i s t o r y of land use i n arid r e g i o n s .
UNESCO, P a r i s .
A r i d Zone Research 17: 2 5 5 - 2 7 6 .
U.S. coverage c o n c e n t r a t e s on the Great P l a i n s , t h e
Colorado P l a t e a u and t h e Sonoran D e s é r t , f o l l o w e d by
Meso-America, Peru, t h e Andean P l a t e a u s and t h e Chilean
Desert.
P a r t i c u l a r emphasis i s on t h e development of
c u l t i v a t i o n and i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e .
Bibliography.
Ayres, J. E.
1971
Man, t h e d e s e r t farmer. to Hydrology and w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
i n A r i z o n a and t h e Southwest, Vol. 1. American Water Res o u r c e s A s s o c i a t i o n , Arizona S e c t i o n / A r i z o n a Academy of
S c i e n c e , Hydrology S e c t i o n , p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1971 m e e t i n g s ,
Tempe, A r i z o n a , 3 7 3 - 3 7 9 .
The pre-Columbian Hohokam I n d i a n s o c c u p i e d t h e major r i v e r
d r a i n a g e s o f c e n t r a l Arizona and have been t h e s u b j e c t o f
much i n t e n s e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .
Evidence i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e Hohokam began u s i n g r i v e r water f o r crop i r r i g a t i o n about 300 B.C. a n d - m o d i f i e d and improved t h e i r i r r i g a t i o n systems o v e r time u n t i l t h e maximum e x t e n t o f t h e s e
systems was a c h i e v e d about 900 A.D. Two t y p e s o f w a t e r
c o n t r o l seem t o have been u t i l i z e d :
1) t h e d i r e c t e x p l o i t a t i o n of r i v e r s through t h e u s e o f i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , and
2) i n d i r e c t u s e through c o n t r o l l e d r u n o f f w i t h i n microd r a i n a g e s at h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s b e f o r e i t reached t h e r i v e r s .
At f i r s t , probably o n l y t h o s e p a r c e l s o f l a n d w i t h optimal
s o i l s and drainage were u s e d , but a p p a r e n t l y p o p u l a t i o n
i n c r e a s e s f o s t e r e d by a g r i c u l t u r e i t s e l f , combined w i t h
, i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , n e c e s s i t a t e d
more and more e x p l o i t a t i o n o f marginal l a n d s .
Eventually,
s o i l problems i n c r e a s e d , imposing s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s on
agriculture.
These i n v o l v e d s a l t and a l k a l i accumulation
due t o i n a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e , s o i l d e n s i t y and w a t e r l o g g i n g .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f cropping r e q u i r e d t h e
c l e a r i n g of n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , which r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s e d
e r o s i o n and d e c r e a s e d a v a i l a b l e n a t i v e food r e s o u r c e s f o r
p e r i o d s when crops f a i l e d .
The c u l t u r e v a n i s h e d c o m p l e t e l y
about 1450 A . D . , probably mainly b e c a u s e o f t h e i r manner
of river exploitation for irrigation.
More r e c e n t archaeol o g i c a l s t u d i e s are c o n c e n t r a t i n g n o t o n l y on r i v e r u s e but
a l s o on r i v e r a b u s e .
-15-
B o c h e r t , J. R.
1971
The d u s t bowl i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . A s s o c i a t i o n o f American
Geographers, annals 61 ( 1 ) : 1 - 2 2 .
GA 72C-0326.
Major droughts i n t h e g r a s s l a n d r e g i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l
U.S. have o c c u r r e d r h y t h m i c a l l y during t h e p e r i o d o f i n strumental record.
The time f o r t h e n e x t one may be n e a r .
E a r l y droughts d i s a s t r o u s l y reduced farm income through
l o s s o f crops and l i v e s t o c k .
S i n c e t h e 1930s t h e y have
a c c e l e r a t e d contemporary b a s i c changes i n Americans w i t h i n
this region:
f é w e r , b i g g e r and more fragmented farms;
p u b l i c c o n t r o l s and s u b s i d i e s ; c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f urban
b u s i n e s s and s e r v i c e s ; and g r e a t e r management. The n e x t
major drought w i l l a g a i n a c c e l e r a t e l o n g - t e r m a g r i c u l t u r a l
t r e n d s , but a sharp i n c r e a s e i n urban f e d e r a l a s s i s t a n c e
i s l i k e l y , and r e v o l u t i o n a r y changes i n s e t t l e m e n t c o u l d
be i n i t i a t e d .
Brown, G. W., J r . , e d . 1968-1974
D e s e r t B i o l o g y . Two volumes.
London. 1236 p,
t
Academic P r e s s , New York,
The f i r s t volume d e a l s w i t h the b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e
world's deserts.
I t f o c u s e s on t h e f o r c e s c a u s i n g d e s e r t
and a r i d r e g i o n s , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f d e s e r t p l a n t s , water
economy, d e s e r t e c o l o g y and l i m n o l o g y , p o i s o n s , d e s e r t
a n i m a l s , and the a d a p t a t i o n and b e h a v i o r o f p l a n t s , r e p t i l e s , amphibia, b i r d s , , f i s h and mammals ( i n c l u d i n g man).
The s e c o n d volume d i s c u s s e s h y d r o g e o l o g y o f a r i d r e g i o n s ,
d e s e r t s o i l s , p h y s i c a l and v e g e t a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e
Sahara D e s e r t , d e s e r t a l g a e , l i c h e n s and f u n g i . A new approach
t o w a t e r r e l a t i o n s o f d e s e r t p l a n t s , d e s e r t anthropods and
f i s h e s , and man i n a r i d l a n d s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e Pima I n d i a n s o f t h e Sonoran D e s e r t and t h e Mada i n S a l i h V a l l e y
i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n c o m e r o f Saudi Arabia) .
Clyma, W./Yoimg,R.A.
1968
Environmental e f f e c t s o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l v a l l e y
of Arizona.
American S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , n a t i o n a l
m e e t i n g on e n v i r o n m e n t a l e n g i n e e r i n g , Chattanooga, Tenness e e , May 1 3 - 1 7 , 1968. P r e p r i n t .
28 p . SWRA W70-07053.
I r r i g a t i o n has m o d i f i e d t h e environment o f t h e c e n t r a l
v a l l e y o f Arizona f o r p a s t 2500 y e a r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e
i r r i g a t i o n systems o f the Hohokam'Indians.
Modification
o f t h e p h y s i c a l environment has i n c l u d e d changes i n c l i mate, groundwater, s u r f a c e w a t e r and v e g e t a t i o n .
The s o c i a l
environment has been changed from a r u r a l economy t o an
urban i n d u s t r i a l economic s y s t e m .
P r e s e n t and f u t u r e problems r e l a t e d t o i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e area are d i s c u s s e d .
Some
o f t h e problems are w a t e r demand, land s u b s i d e n c e , s a l i n i t y ,
groundwater management and a l l o c a t i o n o f Colorado River
water.
S o l u t i o n s t o some o f t h e s e problems are s u g g e s t e d .
-16-
^
t
I
^
'
• Cooke, R . V . / R e e v e s , R.W.
1976
Arroyos and environmental change i n t h e American S o u t h w e s t .
Oxford Research S t u d i e s i n Geography, Clarendon P r e s s ,
Oxford, England.
213 p.
Cottam, W.P./Evans, F.R.
1945
A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of t h e v e g e t a t i o n of g r a z e d and u n g r a z e d c a n y o n s of t h e Wasatch Range, U t a h . E c o l o g y 26
(2) : 1 7 1 - 1 8 1 .
Two canyons i n the tiasatch Mountains n e a r S a l t Lake C i t y
were compared: Red B u t t e Canyon had been p r o t e c t e d from
g r a z i n g f o r 40 y e a r s , w h i l e Emigration Canyon had been
grazed h e a v i l y s i n c e s e t t l e m e n t i n 1847. Evidence p o i n t s
t o t h e complete s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l g r a s s type
i n Emigration Canyon t o one w i t h u n p a l a t a b l e shrubs and
Bromus tectorum, w h i l e Red B u t t e Canyon has m a i n t a i n e d a
r i c h p l a n t c o v e r i n c l u d i n g t e n n a t i v e g r a s s e s n o t found
i n Emigration Canyon. Sheet and g u l l y e r o s i o n are prominent i n Emigration Canyon.
Denevan, ¥.M.
1967
L i v e s t o c k numbers i n 1 9 t h c e n t u r y New Mexico and problems
o f g u l l y i n g i n t h e Southwest. A s s o c i a t i o n of American
Geographers, a n n a l s 5 7 ( 4 ) : 6 9 1 - 7 0 3 .
GA 69A-990.
In t h e IBBOs i n t e n s i v e a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n began producing
l a r g e g u l l i e s throughout t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n U.S. T h i s modem
arroyo c u t t i n g was o r i g i n a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n
o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n cover b e c a u s e o f b e l o w normal r a i n f a l l and o v e r g r a z i n g by e x c e s s i v e numbers o f
l i v e s t o c k (4 m i l l i o n sheep i n New Mexico i n 1 8 8 0 ) .
However, r e c e n t s t u d i e s have s t r e s s e d t h e g r e a t e r importance of increased high i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l .
Additional
p e r s p e c t i v e i s p r o v i d e d by an examination o f l i v e s t o c k
ntimbers i n t h e upper Rio Grande r e g i o n o f New Mexico during
t h e 19th c e n t u r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y during t h e Mexican p e r i o d
when t h e ranges were h e a v i l y s t o c k e d w i t h sheep ( p o s s i b l y
3 m i l l i o n head i n t h e 1 8 2 0 s ) , but w i t h l i t t l e or no g u l lying.
The i n c o m p l e t e r e c o r d o f l i v e s t o c k numbers i n
r e l a t i o n t o c l i m a t e and g u l l y i n g backs up t h e c l i m a t i c
argument but a l s o g i v e s some new support t o t h e o l d e r
v i e w t h a t o v e r g r a z i n g was a major c o n t r i b u t i v e f a c t o r
c a u s i n g s e v e r e modem g u l l y i n g .
Dregne, H . E . , ed.
1970
Arid lands i n t r a n s i t i o n .
American A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e
Advancement o f S c i e n c e , Washington, D.C. Pub. 90.
524 p .
I n v i t e d papers g i v e n at a 1969 c o n f e r e n c e i n Tucson, A r i z o n a , j o i n t l y sponsored by AAAS and UNESCO on "Arid Lands
i n a Changing World." (A summary appeared i n Nature and
Resources 5 ( 3 ) : 7 - 1 2 . )
-17-
Hiimphrey, R.R.
1958
An a n a l y s i s of c a u s e s .
B o t a n i c a l Review 2 4 ( 4 ) : 1 9 3 - 2 5 2 .
( R e p r i n t e d as A r i z o n a A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n
B u l l e t i n 299.)
E x t e n s i v e p o r t i o n s of t h e d e s e r t g r a s s l a n d of southern
A r i z o n a , New Mexico and s o u t h w e s t e r n Texas have been i n v a d e d by woody s p e c i e s . M e s q u i t e , c r e o s o t e b u s h , c a c t i of
t h e genus O p u n t i a , b u r r o w e e d and snakeweed a r e among t h e
principal invaders.
The p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s commonly b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c a u s e d t h i s change- a r e change of c l i m a t e ,
g r a z i n g by d o m e s t i c l i v e s t o c k , p l a n t c o m p e t i t i o n , r o d e n t s
and f i r e .
Of t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s , change o f c l i m a t e
seems t o h a v e h a d t h e l e a s t e f f e c t . F i r e s t h a t were f o r m e r l y f r e q u e n t and w i d e s p r e a d were t h e c h i e f agency r e s t r i c t i n g shrub invasion.
S i n c e f i r e s have b e e n c o n t r o l l e d ,
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of domestic l i v e s t o c k , p l a n t competition
and r o d e n t s h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e a g e n t s f a v o r i n g woody
p l a n t s at the expense of g r a s s e s .
Law, J . P . , J r . / W i t h e r o w , J . L .
eds.
1970
Water q u a l i t y management problems i n a r i d r e g i o n s .
U.S.
F e d e r a l X'Jater Q u a l i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Water P o l l u t i o n Control
Research S e r i e s 13030.
105 p. A v a i l a b l e NTIS as PB-198
125.
SWRA W71-06111.
A s e l e c t i o n o f papers p r e s e n t e d a t the AAAS committee on
a r i d l a n d s c o n f e r e n c e . Arid Lands i n a Changing World,
h e l d i n Tucson, A r i z o n a , Jime 1969.
I n c l u d e d are papers
c o v e r i n g n i t r a t e removal from a g r i c u l t u r a l w a s t e w a t e r , the
e f f e c t s o f s a l i n i t y s t a n d a r d s on i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n
t h e Colorado River B a s i n , problems of p o l l u t i o n o f i r r i gation water in arid r e g i o n s , s a l i n i t y control in return
f l o w from i r r i g a t e d a r e a s , n a t u r a l p o l l u t i o n i n a r i d land
w a t e r s , d i s t i l l a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s , animal waste r u n o f f ,
water q u a l i t y requirements, r e - u s e of wastewater e f f l u e n t s , and w a t e r q u a l i t y c o n t r o l problems i n i n l a n d s i n k s .
Logan, Richard F.
1961
Post-Columbian developments i n t h e a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America. ^ L.D. Stamp, e d . , A h i s t o r y
of land use i n arid r e g i o n s .
UNESCO, P a r i s . Arid Zone
R e s e a r c h 17: 2 7 7 - 2 9 7 .
A companion r e v i e w t o A r m i l l a s ' on pre-Columbian America
( q . v . ) , t h i s paper d e s c r i b e s t h e p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g , i n c l u d i n g l a n d f o r m s , c l i m a t e and v e g e t a t i o n .
It offers a brief
h i s t o r y o f t h e development o f a n a t i o n a l l a n d u s e p o l i c y :
g r a z i n g i n d u s t r y , dry farming, i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e ,
r e c r e a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n .
-489-
Love, R.M.
1970
The r a n g e l a n d s o f t h e w e s t e r n U.S.
S c i e n t i f i c American
222(2): 88-96.
GA 71C-1155.
SWRA W70-04907.
C a t t l e g r a z i n g i s t h e primary u s e o f t h e r a n g e l a n d s o f
the western United S t a t e s .
The w e s t e r n ranges f a l l i n t o
t h r e e d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s : n o r t h e r n Rocky Mountains, i n t e r mountain and Southwest.
True g r a s s l a n d i s r a r e i n t h e Southwest.
I n s t e a d , d e s e r t s and s e m i d e s e r t s predominate.
V e g e t a t i o n management i s t h e major problem i n improving
the rangelands.
Brush c o n v e r s i o n programs have shown
s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n water y i e l d i n t h e t r e a t e d
areas.
This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t an acre o f brush u s e s
s i x more a c r e - i n c h e s o f w a t e r than does herbaceous v e g e t a tion.
With proper management o f brush i n t h e watersheds
o f t h e West, t h e land can p r o v i d e more meat and lumber,
s u f f e r l e s s from e r o s i o n and f l o o d , and be more u s a b l e
for recreation.
The r a p i d l y growing n e e d f o r more r e c r e a t i o n a l land i s c a u s i n g c o n f l i c t s w i t h o t h e r l a n d u s e s .
The advantages o f brush c o n t r o l and t h e u s e o f c o n t r o l l e d
f i r e s , transhumance, canopy a r c h i t e c t u r e , l e a f - a r e a index
and e x o t i c g r a s s e s are o t h e r t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d .
McGinnies, W.G./Goldman, B . J . / P a y l o r e , P a t r i c i a
1968
D e s e r t s o f t h e w o r l d , an a p p r a i s a l o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i r
p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s .
U n i v e r s i t y of
Arizona P r e s s , Tucson.
788 p.
A book i n t e n d e d f o r t h o s e s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n n i n g , managing and e x e c u t i n g r e s e a r c h o r development
e f f o r t s in the arid world.
I t c o n t a i n s e v a l u a t i v e comments
on t h e work a c c o m p l i s h e d i n weather and c l i m a t e , geomorphol o g y and s u r f a c e h y d r o l o g y , s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s , v e g e t a t i o n ,
faima and d e s e r t c o a s t a l z o n e s .
Extensive bibliographies
f o r each s e c t i o n .
Morris, E.H.
1948
Modem o v e r g r a z i n g by l i v e s t o c k a s t h e d i r e c t cause o f
r u i n o f s o u t h w e s t e r n a g r i c u l t u r e , w i t h a n o t e by H.H.
Chapman. Journal o f F o r e s t r y 4 6 ( 1 2 ) : 9 2 9 - 9 3 1 .
Reprint o f a p o r t i o n ( p . 5 - 8 ) o f t h e a u t h o r ' s 1939 Carn e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Washington p u b l i c a t i o n . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l
S t u d i e s of t h e La P l a t a D i s t r i c t , s o u t h w e s t e r n Colorado and
n o r t h w e s t e r n New Mexico, d e a l i n g w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e
pueblo area b e f o r e t h e advent o f w h i t e man and the g r a z i n g
o f sheep and c a t t l e .
Overgrazing d i s t u r b e d the e q u i l i b r i u m
o f a n a t u r a l b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s such as r a i n f a l l , e r o s i o n
and v e g e t a t i o n .
-19-
Paylore, P a t r i c i a , ed.
1976
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n : A world b i b l i o g r a p h y .
U n i v e r s i t y of
A r i z o n a , Tucson, O f f i c e o f Arid Lands S t u d i e s .
644 p .
Compiled f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geographic Union's 23rd Cong r e s s , Moscow, 1976.
C o n s i s t s o f 1 , 7 5 0 c i t a t i o n s , most
with abstracts.
Produced from t h e OALS computerized
Arid Lands I n f o r m a t i o n System. D i v i d e d i n t o r e g i o n s
c o v e r i n g t h e S a h a r a - S a h e l , East A f r i c a , South A f r i c a ,
t h e Middle E a s t , t h e USSR, P a k i s t a n , I n d i a , China, Aust r a l i a , and South and North America, w i t h r e g i o n a l
i n t r o d u c t i o n s by world e x p e r t s .
Maps.
Paylore, P a t r i c i a , éd.
1976
The Sonoroan D e s e r t , a r e t r o s p e c t i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y .
H i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , by W.G. McGinnies. U n i v e r s i t y o f
A r i z o n a , Tucson, O f f i c e o f Arid Lands S t u d i e s , Arid
Lands A b s t r a c t s 8.
777 r e f s .
C i t a t i o n s s e l e c t e d from t h e computerized Arid Lands
I n f o r m a t i o n System (ALIS) c o v e r such d i v e r s e t o p i c s as
e n v i r o n m e n t , f a u n a , geomorphology, geography, s u r f a c e
materials, vegetation, desert grassland, succulents,
w a t e r , w e a t h e r and c l i m a t e .
F u l l a b s t r a c t s f o r each
w i t h computerized keyword and author i n d e x e s .
P a y l o r e , P a t r i c i a / H a n e y , Richard
Desertification;
Process,
Papers p r e s e n t e d during a
November 1 9 7 5 - A p r i l 1976.
Tucson.
125 p .
A., J r . , eds.
1976
problems, p e r s p e c t i v e s .
14-week seminar s e r i e s ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Arizona,
The t o p i c o f t h i s s e r i e s was a d d r e s s e d by s e v e r a l
g e n e r a l i s t s s p e a k i n g on i t s e c o l o g y , t r e n d s , c a u s e s ;
f o l l o w e d by s e v e r a l c a s e s t u d i e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e t h e s e s
advanced g e n e r a l l y .
These d e a l t w i t h a r e a s i n A u s t r a l i a ,
e a s t e r n Oregon and s o u t h w e s t e r n Arizona and n o r t h w e s t e r n
Mexico.
P o w e l l , J . W.
1962
Report on t h e l a n d s o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n o f t h e United S t a t e s ,
w i t h a more d e t a i l e d account o f t h e l a n d s o f Utah. Ed.
by Wallace S t e g n e r .
Belknap P r e s s o f Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s .
202 p .
A f i r s t - h a n d account o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n o f t h e U.S. w r i t t e n
i n 1878.
Subjects covered include p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e r e g i o n , t h e l a n d s y s t e m needed, r a i n f a l l o f w e s t e r n
U . S . , water supply, questions r e l a t i n g t o i r r i g a b l e lands
o f S a l t Lake d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , v a l l e y o f S e v i e r River and
t h a t p o r t i o n o f Utah d r a i n e d by Colorado River and t r i b u taries.
Author c o n s i d e r s c h a r a c t e r o f l a n d s and e n g i n e e r i n g problems i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r redemption and s u g g e s t i o n s
for the l e g i s l a t i v e action necessary.
_9n_
V
S e a r s , P.B.
1959
D e s e r t s on t h e inarch. 3rd ed. , r e v . U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma
P r e s s , Norman. 178 p.
^
This popular account o f man's m i s u s e o f t h e l a n d and
f a i l u r e to imderstand i t s e c o l o g y c e n t e r s around t h e
h i s t o r i c a l development o f land u s e i n t h e United S t a t e s .
The c u t t i n g o f f o r e s t s , farming o f c o t t o n , plowing of
p r a i r i e s , p o l l u t i n g o f r i v e r s , o v e r g r a z i n g and g e n e r a l
d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e w e l f a r e of t h e land are shown t o be
r e l a t e d t o f l o o d s , m u d s l i d e s , d u s t s t o r m s , e r o s i o n and
natural calamities.
The author argues t h a t o n l y through
a broad e c o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the environment and
man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t coupled w i t h moral commitment
i n t h e employment o f t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s and i n our way
o f l i v i n g w i l l we be a b l e t o change our h i s t o r i c p r e c e d e n t s .
Steward, George
1936
H i s t o r y o f range u s e .
In U.S. Senate Document 199, The
w e s t e r n r a n g e , p. 119-133". Washington, D.C.
U.S. Bureau o f Land Management
1968
The C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t .
A r e c r e a t i o n study of the desert
p u b l i c domain l a n d s o f C a l i f o r n i a .
Preliminary review
U.S. N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e , Bureau o f Land Management,
X'iashington, D.C.
Woodbury, R.B.
1963
Indian a d a p t a t i o n o f a r i d e n v i r o n m e n t s . to C. Hodge and
P.C. Duisberg, e d s . , A r i d i t y and Man. American A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement o f S c i e n c e , Pu. 74: 5 5 - 8 5 .
B r i e f l y t r a c e s man's changing r o l e s i n t h e w e s t e r n U.S.
D i s c u s s e s f o o d g a t h e r s , b i g game h u n t e r s , v i l l a g e farming
l i f e , v i l l a g e s and w a t e r s o u r c e s , w a t e r c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s ,
d e c l i n e o f v i l l a g e farming l i f e , i n t r o d u c t i o n o f adaptable
Athabascans, s h i f t t o wagework, c o l l a p s e o f Great Basin
c u l t u r e , r i s e and f a l l o f t h e S i o u x , adjustment t o r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e , Papago s t r u g g l e s i n t h e d e s e r t , Indian adj u s t m e n t s and p r o s p e c t s .
C l i m a t i c change i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y was probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e a r l y d e c l i n e o f v i l l a g e
farming l i f e .
Grazing abuses by I n d i a n s and w h i t e s have
r e s u l t e d i n d e t e r i o r a t e d r a n g e l a n d s . The p l i g h t o f t h e
Indian i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y o r so i s n o t t h e r e s u l t o f
environmental c a u s e s such as a r i d i t y ; t h e c a u s e s are s o c i a l .
I t can be s e e n as p a r t o f t h e worldwide problem o f the nonl i t e r a t e , n o n - i n d u s t r i a l world c o n f r o n t e d by t h e t e c h n o l o g y
and s o c i a l and e t h i c a l systems o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d .
Indian t e c h n i q u e s and t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y o f working w i t h t h e
environment r a t h e r than a g a i n s t i t may be i n d i s p e n s i b l e
ingredients for the s u c c e s s f u l u t i l i z a t i o n of arid lands.
-21-
APPENDIX B
A PARTIAL LIST OF U.S. AGENCY-SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES
ASSOCIATED WITH DESERTIFICATION
I.
U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID)
A.
Programs i n the Sahel r e g i o n i n c l u d e a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e
fj;
Comité Permanent I n t e r e t a t s de Lutte c o n t r a l a S e c h e r e s s e
dans l e Sahel (CILSS) i n p l a n n i n g i t s r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p ment program; e s t a b l i s h i n g a w a t e r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n
and p r o c e s s i n g system f o r t h e Sahel Water Data Network;
and d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s t o c o n t r o l food
crop p e s t s throughout the S a h e l .
B.
Grants t o i n s t i t u t i o n s i n c l u d e one t o t h e F l o r i d a
I n s t i t u t e o f Technology and another t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of Arizona.
a. The F l o r i d a I n s t i t u t e o f Technology i s cond u c t i n g a p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d "Solar Cookers f o r
H a i t i : A F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d y . " H a i t i ' s firewood
and c h a r c o a l r e s o u r c e s are becoming s c a r c e as
are t h o s e i n o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s .
The
p r o j e c t c o n s i s t s of a r e v i e w o f s o l a r cooker
d e s i g n s , e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i r c o m p a t i b i l i t y with
H a i t i a n cooking r e q u i r e m e n t s and p r e l i m i n a r y
d e s i g n o f a s o l a r cooker a p p r o p r i a t e t o H a i t i a n
needs.
2.
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Arizona was awarded a grant
t o s t r e n g t h e n i t s r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t y i n "Multiple
Use P l a n n i n g and Management o f Natural Resources
i n Arid and Semiarid D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s . " The
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f a c u l t y at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
A r i z o n a i n v o l v e d i n t h e program i s e s t a b l i s h i n g
linkages with i n s t i t u t i o n s in developing arid
and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s t o promote s e r v i c e , t r a i n i n g
and r e s e a r c h aimed a t d e v e l o p i n g s o l u t i o n s t o
t h e i r problems.
C.
USAID p r o j e c t s w i t h s p e c i f i c c o u n t r i e s are l i s t e d below.
1.
Chad--The"Chad Range and L i v e s t o c k Development"
p r o j e c t w i l l d e v e l o p t h e manpower c a p a b i l i t y
t o implement a n a t i o n a l range management program
and, i n t h e p r o c e s s , d e s i g n a n a t i o n a l range
management p l a n .
The p r o j e c t w i l l i n c l u d e t r a i n i n g i n p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s o f range management and a p o s i t i o n on a n a t i o n a l range and l i v e s t o c k p l a n n i n g commission.
-22-
/
i
,
/
j
(A
2.
Cameroon--The "North Cameroon L i v e s t o c k and
A g r i c u l t u r a l Development" p r o j e c t i n v o l v e s
r e g i o n a l development through r e s o u r c e management
and w i l l i n c l u d e a l a n d u s e p o t e n t i a l s i n v e n t o r y
and development o f range management p r a c t i c e s ,
f o o d crops and a l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y .
fti
3. E t h i o p i a — A "Drought R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and
Development S t r a t e g y " p r o j e c t w i l l guide government r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and development e f f o r t s i n
s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a and w i l l i n c l u d e a i d i n g i n
t h e p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i f y i n g proper donor a s s i s t a n c e ; s t u d y i n g and a n a l y z i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l ,
demographic and s o c i o e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s i n E t h i o p i a ; and f o r m u l a t i n g drought r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and
development s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e southern l o w l a n d s .
4.
Ghana--The "Developmental A p p l i c a t i o n s o f
S c i e n c e and Technology i n Ghana" program administ e r s a p i l o t r e s e a r c h program on t h e problems o f
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n n o r t h e a s t Ghana which i n c l u d e s
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e and methods d e r i v e d
from t h e p i l o t s t u d y t o two a r e a s and an examinat i o n o f mechanisms t o e s t a b l i s h r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s ,
'
j
i
I
5 . Kenya--The "Survey o f Semiarid and Marginal
L a n d s " w i l l i n c l u d e q u a n t i t a t i v e , n a r r a t i v e and
g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e human and n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s and e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n the
project area.
Core problems t h a t c o n s t r a i n
development w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d and d e l i n e a t e d
including population, migration patterns, eros i o n , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , water a v a i l a b i l i t y ,
d e f o r e s t a t i o n , c r e d i t , production technology,
marketing, e x t e n s i o n , elements of a g r i c u l t u r a l
e d u c a t i o n and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e along
with the p o t e n t i a l s o c i o c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s .
6. M a l i - - T h e r e are s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s w i t h Malian
institutions.
a. The "Land Use C a p a b i l i t y Inventory"
w i l l p r o v i d e guidance i n n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e
a l l o c a t i o n through development o f a 1:
2 0 0 , 0 0 0 map showing economic l a n d c l a s s e s
and movement u n i t s and a t a b u l a r and n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f management' u n i t s .
-23-
b . The " M a l i L i v e s t o c k P r o j e c t " w i l l
t e s t the v e r t i c a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of the
l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y through range development, c o n t r o l l e d g r a z i n g , p o s t - s e a s o n
maintenance f e e d i n g , s m a l l - s c a l e farm
f a t t e n i n g and f e e d l o t o p e r a t i o n s .
•-
c.
"Mali L i v e s t o c k S e c t o r Development"
w i l l i n i t i a t e development o f the Malian
l i v e s t o c k s e c t o r through l i g h t d e v e l o p ment and management o f t h e D i l l y area
(800,000 h a . ) , c o n t r o l l i n g the t s e t s e f l y
i n a small area n e a r Bamako, market development and t r a i n i n g at a l l l e v e l s .
|
ffi
;
-<'
d. The "Mali Small Ruminant Survey" w i l l
determine t h e p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n and app r o p r i a t e p l a c e o f sheep and g o a t s i n the
Malian economy by s u r v e y i n g numbers,
d i s t r i b u t i o n , ownership and economic r o l e s
and by t e s t i n g c e r t a i n h y p o t h e s e s o f
the r o l e o f sheep and g o a t s i n economic
development.
e.
The "Mali F i r s t Region I n t e g r a t e d
A g r i c u l t u r a l Production" p r o j e c t involves
the w e s t e r n panhandle o f Mali and s h o u l d ,
w i t h i t s s u c c e s s o r s , b r i n g 1 3 , 8 0 0 s q . km.
into ecological balance.
A c t i v i t i e s inc l u d e a p r o j e c t a l l o c a t i o n s u r v e y , devel o p i n g a cropping s y s t e m c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
the environment and a program o f g r a z i n g
management.
f.
The "Mali Operation Haute V a l l e e "
w i l l b r i n g t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e N i g e r River
bottom e x t e n d i n g from j u s t above Bamako
to the Guinea border i n t o e c o l o g i c a l l y
b a l a n c e d management through l a n d - u s e condit i o n and p o t e n t i a l s s u r v e y , s m a l l - s c a l e
i r r i g a t i o n and v i l l a g e g r a z i n g and l i v e s t o c k programs.
7. Mauritania--Two p r o j e c t s i n Mauritania are
d i s c u s s e d below.
a.
The "Mauritania 1 0 t h Region Development" program aims a t o p t i m i z i n g e c o l o g i c a l
b a l a n c e f o r economic e n d e a v o r s , s u s t a i n e d
l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n and o u t p u t and i n c r e a s e d
f o o d supply i n t h e r e g i o n through a range
and l i v e s t o c k management c o n t r o l l e d demons t r a t i o n , a d a p t i v e t r i a l s o f s o i l and crop
management, e x t e n s i o n a d o p t i o n o f the new
p r a c t i c e s and g r a s s f i r e c o n t r o l .
-24-
•
i
i
¡[
•
!
b.
The "Mauritania R e f o r e s t a t i o n " proj e c t w i l l improve t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
condition of the national f o r e s t service
and i n c r e a s e t h e supply o f c o o k i n g f u e l .
Improved c a p a b i l i t y t o manage t h e r e newable r e s o u r c e s o f t h e p u b l i c domain
are l i k e l y t o be emphasized a s t h e proj e c t design proceeds.
8. N i g e r - - T h e "Niger Range and L i v e s t o c k Development" p r o j e c t w i l l develop a p i l o t , c o n t r o l l e d
g r a z i n g program and a n a t i o n a l g r a z i n g management
system.
9.
S e n e g a l - - T h e r e are two p r o j e c t s i n S e n e g a l .
a.
The "Senegal Range and L i v e s t o c k
P r o j e c t " i s a p i l o t , i n t e g r a t e d range
management a c t i v i t y and w i l l i n i t i a t e a
n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e management program
through b a l a n c e d g r a z i n g w i t h i n d e f i n e d
boundaries, veterinary support, stock
w a t e r development and s a l t , m i n e r a l s
and t r a c e e l e m e n t s .
b.
The "Senegal Land C o n s e r v a t i o n and
Forestry" project w i l l i n i t i a t e a res o u r c e management program through t h e
f o r e s t and w i l d l i f e program.
10. Upper V o l t a - - T h e " O n c h o c e r c i a s i s - f r e e Area
Planning" p r o j e c t w i l l develop an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y
sound s e t t l e m e n t p l a n f o r t h e " o n c h o - f r e e " areas
o f Upper V o l t a and w i l l i n c l u d e a l a n d - u s e
c a p a b i l i t i e s survey.
Ii
II.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
A.
^
I
I
(USDA)
Wide-ranging r e s e a r c h programs are d i s c u s s e d below.
1. Research d i r e c t e d toward c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedures f o r range r e s o u r c e s , f o r m u l a t i n g g u i d e l i n e s f o r p r e d i c t i n g p o t e n t i a l s and a s s e s s m e n t s
o f range r e s p o n s e s t o f o r a g e u t i l i z a t i o n regimes
and v e g e t a t i o n m a n i p u l a t i o n s a l t e r n a t i v e s i s
conducted at Tiicson, Arizona.
2.
S t u d i e s on the a d a p t a t i o n o f p l a n t s t o d e s e r t
environments are conducted at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
California, Riverside.
3. Methodology f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f remote
sensing to natural resources analyses i s being
d e v e l o p e d a t Tucson, Arizona. „ ,
B.
Cold desert research
programs are discussed below.
<5
1. Research concerning ecology and management
of salt desert shrub ranges is conducted at
Provo, Utah.
2. Studies of shrub and tree iitiproveirient and
culture for rehabilitation of wildlands is
ijnderway at Provo, Utah.
3. Investigations of ecology and management of
p i n o n - j m i p e r woodlands and associated shrub lands
in the Great Basin are ongoing at Reno, Nevada.
C.
Arid range research programs are discussed below.
1. Plants for arid range conditions are being
selected at the Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas,
New Mexico.
2. Mechanical treatment for establishing plants
in arid ranges is being studied at the University of Arizona, Tucson.
3. Research aimed_ at_ selecting techniques^^^jand
species for establishing range cover under
arid conditions is being conducted at Tucson,
Arizona at the Plant Materials Center.
D.
Irrigated lands research includes a pilot project to
determine ways to reduce best the saline drainage
flows from irrigated lands into fivers, with return
flow desalinization being the focus of this study
at Wellton, Arizona.
E.
Rehabi-litation and Management Programs are discussed
below.
1. Research directed toward developing methods
for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils
in the Southwest is conducted at Albuquerque;
New Mexico.
2. Studies to promote reestablishment o f plants,
animals and hydrologic stability on surface mine
spoils and water impoundments in the northern
Great Plains are underway at Rapid City, South
Dakota,
3.
Investigations to develop methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Intermountain and northern Rocky Mountains regions are ongoing at Logan, Utah.
- 4 9 7 -
.¿r
III.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
A.
(EPA)
Wide-ranging research activities are discussed below.
1. A cooperative research project with Egyptian
institutions will assess the environmental and health
consequences of the Aswan High Dam.
2. A desert biome study with the University of
Alexandria (Egypt) utilizes modeling techniques
to predict responses should certain events occur
such as deforestation or reforestation.
3. Arid lands research projects are imderway in
portions of the western United States.
B. Specific animal and irrigated crop production environmental assessment projects are being conducted in
both India and Pakistan.
1. Research is underway to develop management
tools to dispose of animal wastes resulting from
a production of animals and poultry in an environmentally safe manner.
2„ Methods are being developed to control the
quality of irrigation return flow along with
investigating the bio-engineering aspects of
agricultural drainage.
IV.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
A.
(USGS)
LANDSAT research activities are outlined below.
1. General applications of LANDSAT imagery are
discussed in the following sections.
a. Methods are being developed for
terrain description and monitoring utilizing the Australian land systems research
approach. Present experim.ents in Queensland, Australia will be continued in the
western United States.
The mapping system
is an integrated system in which soils,
vegetations and geomorphic features are
combined into single mapping and land
management units.
-27-
b. Methods of flood mapping with LANDSAT
images are being researched which are
particularly applicable to determination
of flooded areas in arid and semiarid
regions and which have potential for
identifying recharge areas of both surface
and deep aquifers.
c. A prime example of the use of LANDSAT
images in desert regions on a worldwide
basis is a project entitled "Sand Seas
of the World," although it is not speci-•
fically an Earth Resources Orbiting
Satellite project.
2. A regional LANDSAT program involves the impact
of strip mining on range resources and wildlife
habitat.
The environmental impact analysis is
using LANDSAT and aerial data in southeastern
Idaho, but techniques and methods are transferable on a worldwide basis.
B.
Two "Training in Remote Sensing Applications" courses
for international students are given each year with
the goal of teaching remote sensing data interpretative techniques.
Other specific courses in various
disciplines are given or requested.
Courses can be
tailored to address specifically land cover and other
mapping of desert regions.
C.
Two research programs focus on mineral wastes.
1. Stabilization of mineral wastes research aims
to develop new. or improved methods of stabilizing
and/or reclaiming rained lands and mineral waste
piles.
Six field test sites which have either
arid or semiarid climates are located in the
states of Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Washington and
Wyoming.
Testing has been done on wastes from
mining and/or processing copper, lead, zinc,
uranium and asbestos.
2. "Research on purification and conservation of
mineral processing wastewaters seeks to develop
effective methods of decontaminating metallurgical
wastewaters for process reuse or for discharge.
Recycling of process wastewaters is particularly
important in regions having either arid or
semiarid climates.
'23
D.
Several projects address arid and semiarid lands
vegetation.
1. Studies of desert shrub ecology and utilization of soil moisture under high moisture
stresses are being conducted.
2. Many aspects of the "Gila River Phreatophyte
Project" have worldwide applications, especially
the use of remote sensing in monitoring water use
by vegetation and analysis of evapotranspiration.
3. An analysis of soil moisture data from sampling desert ecosystems to estimate evapotranspiration led to the discovery that the greatest reduction in available soil moisture was in desert
grassland rather than oak woodland.
4. A study of saguaro populations in the Arizona
desert is being conducted to determine causes for
fluctuations in plant establishment.
Climate,
disease and man's activities are being investigated.
5. Abandoned agricultural land in the TucsonPhoenix (Arizona) area is being studied to determine the rate of reestablishment of native vegetation species. The fields have been abandoned
for about 40 years.
E.
Hydrology research is also being conducted.
1. A study of grazing patterns aims to determine
their effects on rvinoff and sediment yield in
salt desert shrub terrain. The study site is
in western Colorado.
2. The effects on arid lands hydrology of converting vegetation cover from woody shrubs to grassland are being investigated.
3. Another study involves assessing the effects
of mechanical land treatments such as contour furrowing, pitting and ripping on hydrology including
runoff, soil moisture availability and plant
communities.
-29-
V.
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
A.
(NOAA)
NOAA participates with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the U.S. Air Force Environmental Technical Applications Center (ETAC) in
extending the global inventory of existing climatic
data.
1. Analyzed and observed data from the National
Meteorological Center (NMC) flow into NOAA's
National Climatological Center (NCC).
2. Similar data from the A i r Force Global Weather
Central go to ETAC and subsequently to NCC, where
it becomes part of a common poll of global meteorological data. NCAR, using data from NCC and other
sources, reformulates the data in ways convenient
for research purposes, archives it and makes it
available as a service to members of the research
community.
(A July 1975 NCAR report, "Data Sets
for Meteorological Research," describes the types
of data made available through the efforts of these
three organizations.)
B.
Long-range predictions and satellite programs within
NOAA furnish a starting base for a climate diagnostic
activity.
1.
The National Weather Service (Nía7S/NMC) longrange prediction program includes necessary analyses with diagnostic studies as circumstances
permit. Data sets are generated which extend
back over the useful history of data used.
2. NMC ongoing programs include the study of
year-to-year fluctuations in the stratospheric
circulation, analyses of stratospheric warming
and calculation of selected parameters related
to the global stratospheric energy budget.
Interrelationship between stratospheric and
tropospheric circulations is explored.
3. NMC maintains a 30-day field of global weather
data which, with similar data from the National
Environmental Satellite Service (NESS), is the
present source for compiling current climatic
data sets.
-
4. NMC is compiling, for the Environmental Data
Service Center for Climatic and Environmental
Assessment (CCEA) and the NWS Agricultural Weather
Service Office (AWSO) , weekly extracts of the
/•
most elementary climatic parameters needed to
assess current climatic and crop conditions over
the world's major agricultural areas.
5. mis AWSO, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), analyzes and
publishes the previous week's weather and
crop conditions in the U.S. A monthly summary
for major foreign agricultural areas is included
(although monthly climatic data from many areas
are incomplete).
6. To the extent limited resources permit,
CCEA is developing experimental crop yield
models and is participating in the NASA/USDA/
NOAA effort termed "Large Area Crop Inventory
Experiment" (LACIE) to develop grain production
forecasts.
Current and potential applications
include providing timely and early warning crop
alerts, fresh water supply estimates and crop yields.
7. NESS prepares on an operational basis global
charts of monthly and seasonal values of radiative
heat budget and monthly and seasonal resultant
wind fields at 200 and 700 millibars and their
anomalies.
8. NESS is studying interrelations of cloudiness
and circulation over large space and time scales.
9. NESS applies satellite imaging for detecting,
measuring and mapping mean monthly winter snow
cover over the Northern Hemisphere and is experimenting with snowfall prediction methods for
North American and Eurasian winter months.
10. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is examining variations in sunshine amount, total ozone and
tropospheric temperature changes as part of a
continuing investigation into climatic trends
during the last few decades,
11. The Geophysical Fluid D3mamics Laboratory
(GFDL) is investigating the sensitivity and stability of climate models to such external variables
as the solar constant and atmospheric carbon dioxide to assess the value of using simple models
in climate studies.
-31-
C.
NOAA Experimental Research Laboratories conduct cloud
seeding experiments in cumulus clouds over southern
Florida for the purpose of inducing the merger and
growth of cumulus towers developing in proximity
to one another thereby increasing precipitation from
the larger cloud system and hopefully increasing
net precipitation over a large target area.
The
technique once proven may have a potential application
in semiarid regions when appropriate clouds occur;
although successful transfer o f the massive or dynamic seeding approach used in Florida to drought
areas is xmlikely.
D.
NOAA administers the World Weather Watch Voluntary
Assistance Program for the Department of State.
These funds:
1. Provide radio transmitting and receiving
equipment to developing countries to improve
national and international meteorological
data exchange.
2. Provide wind-finding radar to tropical
area countries.
3. Supply direct readout equipment to provide
a capability for intercepting processed data
from the GOES system.
4. Provide long-term and short-term fellowships
to meteorologists in developing countries to
increase their capability to use m o d e m equipment and to improve their understanding of atmospheric processes that result in eventual, longrange weather and climate change.
5. Support international efforts m d e r the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to define
the research required to advance knowledge on
the physical basis of climate and climatic fluctuations.
E.
Understanding the physical basis of climate is the
"second" objective of GARP. NOAA is contributing
directly to GARP by:
1. Processing, analyzing and archiving atmospheric and oceanographic data.
2. Developing mathematical models and data
management systems.
-32-
3. Specifying, developing and procuring special
observing systems.
4. Conducting fundamental investigations of the
dynamics of geophysical fluids, the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere and the cryosphere over a wide
range of time and space scales.
5. Expanding research efforts on cause-and-effeet
relationships between climate and atmospheric
pollutants.
6. Conducting a comprehensive program to develop
ground-based techniques for remote measurement
of critical meteorological and oceanographic
parameters.
F.
VI.
NOAA input into the World Weather Watch (WWW) will
impact on the United Nations Environment Program
EARTm^7ATCH since the Global Environment Monitoring
System (GEMS), the monitoring segment of EARTHWATCH, will make use of the observing, processing
and telecommijnicating systems of Wl\fW.
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
(NSF)
A.
"Analysis of Structure and Function of Desert Ecosystems" has as its goal elucidation of patterns
and magnitude of accumulation and transfer of biologically important resources such as water, nutrients
and energy; discovery and quantification of mechanisms
by which those processes are limited or augmented;
modeling the system conceptually and mathematically;
and advancement of the base of ecosystem theory and
aid in making management decisions about renewable
natural resources.
B.
"Structure, Fxmction and Utilization of Grassland
Ecosystems" will model the ecosystem; improve ecosystem theory; imderstand the biomass, trophic structure, water, nutrient and energy flow; and utilize
and synthesize the results.
C.
"African Climate During the Last Ice Age" is designed
to test the hypothesis that East Africa was dry during
the height of the the last temperate glaciation; examine the movement of the convergence zone between
the dry Sahara Harmattan and cooler, moist air flows
off the Gulf of Guinea; and understand the fundamental nature of global climate change using East African
lake cores.
-33-
D.
Research about "Aerosol Transport over the Equatorial
North Atlantic Ocean as Related to Weather, Climate
and Land Use in North Africa" will establish an aerosol and atmospheric turbidity network across the
equatorial North Atlantic for monitoring the aerosol output of North Africa; identify source areas,
determine if increased aerosol output is derived
from normally arid and/or desert use practices; measure the time required for soils to become stabilized
against wind erosion once rains return to normal;
and measure mass transport of mineral aerosols to
the ocean.
Eo
"Djmamics of Large-Scale Atmosphere and Oceanic
Processes" research is a model study of the Sahelian
region indicting that feedbacks from the ground
creates weather patterns that reinforce and accentuate the arid or desert region.
Other NSF research includes "Formation of Deserts,"
"Midwestern Drought Indices and Drought Cycles
Using Sea-Surface Temperature Anomalies from the
Pacific," "Frequency and Power Spectral Analysis
of Drought Cycles," "Arid Land Climate Patterns,"
"Southwestern U.S. Deserts and Their Similarity with
African Weather and Climate," "Bovine Adaptation to
Desert Environments Focusing on North Africa,"
"Adaptation of Large Mammals to the Sahara," "General Dynamics of Arid Land Ecosystems."
Also "Ways in Which Disparate Organisms Evolved
in the Desert," "Management of Environmental Systems
to Prevent Desertification," "Studies of Nomadism,"
"Relationship Between Drought and Grazing Patterns,"
"Ancient Social Adaptation," "Hunting and Gaming
Practices in Botswana and the Kalahari," "Social
and Biological Anthropology in the Kalahari,"
"Drought and Population Resettlement in the American
Southwest," and "Bedouin Use of Surface Water,
Grazing, etc., in Northern Arabia."
APPENDIX C
Spanish Summary
Introducción
La presente es para indicar el estado del problema de
desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Se incluye un resumen
historico sobre los problemas del use de tierras en las zonas
áridas y semi-áridas de los Estados Unidos, se discute algunos
de lo.s problemas actuales, y se delinea la necesidad de planeamiento y manejo racional de tierras en Norteamérica. La desertificacion no es un problema solo para los países en desarollo.
Es un problema que el mundo entero tiene que combatir-, Norteamérica comparte en este problema, puede ofrecer soluciones, y
sin duda beneficiará del intercambio de ideas y metodologías qué
serán presentadas durante y despúes de la Conferencia de Desertificacion de las Naciones Unidas.
Una sequía qué duro varios meses .en la Reservación de los
Indios Papago en Arizona ocasiono fondos y servicios de emergencia
de varias agencias federales, y causó severas perdidas de ganado
y cultivos. Los programas de reclamación de tierras y la asistencia a las reservaciones Indias han alcanzado a los billones
de dolares—y tanto los beneficios como los gastos tienen ramificaciones nacionales. Con la posible excepción de algunos de
los usos de recreación, se deberá acentuar qué la experiencia
nortecamericana sobre la desertificacion será pertinente y
aplicable a otras zonas áridas y semi-áridas del mundo.
Historia
Se han utilizado las tierras áridas y semi-áridas en
Norteamérica durante los últimos 11,0 00 años, y quizás mas,
con el cultivo ocurriendo hace 6 ,00 0 años. Hasta el siglo XIX,
la tenencia de tierra fué el problema principal en Norteamérica. '
Acción por parte del Congreso de los Estados Unidos trato de
establecer controles sobre pastoreo, pero hasta hoy día el control
científico del pasturaje se complica par el uso multiple y las
numerosas acciones legales referentes a la propiedad y arrendamiento de tierras.
-35-
Pasturaje
La mayoría de los especialistas sobre el control científico
del pasturaje están de acuerdo que'' muchas tierras publicas (federales) y privadas se están degradando, y qué se deberían
aumentar los controles. Hay muchos casos bien documentados
en los Estados Unidos en los cuales el sobre-pastoreo causo la .
invasion de arbustos pequeños de poco valor nutritivo, la aceleración del proceso de erosion, y el agotamiento de aguas
subterráneas.
Agricultura de Riego
El riego ha transformado literalmente muchas partes de
los desiertos del suroeste árido de los Estados Unidos en centros
de producción agrícola. Pero el riego ha contribuido al proceso
de desertificacion debido al consumo de agua, salinizacion del
suelo, y a veces el abandonamiento de estas tierras agrícolas,
y su conversación a tierras estériles sin utilidad.
Minería
Aunque sus efectos- no son extensivos en area, la minería
puede prácticamente crear un desierto local.
Urbanización
La urbanización puede ser uno de los mejores usos para
las tierras áridas y semi-áridas, con tal de que' el buen manejo
y el sentido común se use en cada caso. Aunque el mal uso de
aguas urbanas podría resultar en "ciudades fantasmas" y desiertos
de concreto, los problemas qué mas se comentan son causados por
los comerciantes de tierras, quienes subdividen el desierto, construyen "calles," y tratan de vender terrenos áridos a personas
crédulas. Centenares de estas "calles" sin pavimiento cruzan
los desiertos dé Arizona, Nueva Mexico, y Nevada, sin ningún
edificio visible, y se convierten en arroyos, los cuales destruyen
las capas superficiales del suelo.
-36-
Recreación
Debido al sol en las regiones áridas, el buen ingreso
del trabajador americano, y mas tiempo para el recreo,
se ha creado un problema de degradación de tierras tanto fastidioso como interesante. Motocicletas, jips de cuatro-traccion,
y otros vehículos de recreo han invadido el desierto y han dejado
sus marcas.
Freatofitas y Otros Controles de Vegetación
Muchos de los arboles qué se encuentran al borde de los
ríos y arroyos, y qué consumen mucho agua, las freatofitas, debrían,
en la opinion de algunos, ser eliminados en ciertos lugares.
También se ha sugerido la eliminación de vegetación de millones
de acres de bosque y desierto en Arizona, para incrementar el
drenaje de aguas. Tales planes, sinembargo, podrían tener
consequencias serias al largo plazo .en cuanto al potencial de
desertificacion. Al corto plazo, incrementando el drenaje de
agua por medio de la eliminación de vegetación representará
menos agua infiltrándose a las aguas subterráneas, y sedimento
se accumulará mas rápidamente en las cuencas de captación.
Resumen
Aunque la palabra "desertificacion" es relativemente
nueva en el vocabulario científico inglés, el mal uso de la
tierra y los recursos naturales no es nuevo. , La desertificacion es realmente un problema serio; entre otros, los factores
contribuyentes son: sobre-pastoreo, salinización de los suelos,
agotamiento de recursos de agua, presiones de población, abandonamiento de tierras, algunas actividades mineras, y la destrucción de la superficie del desierto por vehículos de recreo.
Sería un error ignorar las consequencias de la desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Mientras que la alta tecnología
americana tiene gran capacidad de producción, tiene igualmente
gran capacidad de destrucción. Si los planificadores y administradores de recursos naturales, los intereses privados, y las
agencias federales de regulación no mantienen vigilancia sobre
la degradación de tierras en el suroeste, la desertificacion
podría llegar a tener repercusiones nacionales de serias proporciones. Tenemos el conocimiento técnico para controlar, y en
ciertos casos, hasta reversar la degradación de tierras.
Sinembargo, las presiones de una población que está creciendo
demasiado rápido, como en muchas otros países, junto con los
problemas sociales relaciondandos con la aplicación de la
tecnología conocida, no permiten un optimismo sin cautela.
DESERTIFICATION IN LATIN AMERICA FROM AN ECOLOGICAL AND
AGRICULTURAL VIEWPOINT
F e r n a n d o S u á r e z de C a s t r o
This document was presented at the Regional Preparatory Meeting for
the Americas held at Santiago, Chile, from 23 to 26 February 1977
in preparation for the United Nations Conference on Desertification
to be held at Nairobi, Kenya, from 29 August to 7 September 1977.
77-2-411
' D E S E E T I F Í C A T I O N I N L A T I N AMERICA FROM AN ÉCOLOCSICAL
AND AGRICULTURAL VIEWPOINT
b y F e r n a n d o S u á r e z de C a s t r o
A,
1.
It
with i t
it
to attempt
before
to define
so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t
or s i t u a t i o n
is
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
m i g h t be as w e l l ,
this subject,
entering.into
2o
, The f i r s t
term
desertification.
that
Only w i t h c l e a r l y
defined
to
to
i n the understanding
must be d e f i n e d i s
it
is
the recently
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n would t h e r e f o r e
reasons,
t a k i n g place over
w h i c h we s h a l l
try
fairly
which
3.
or areas w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
zones,
deserts.
in this
of
the
study.
scope r e a c h i n g o n l y t o
which excludes the
rainfall
for
the
the
extensive
continuous
thus d e l i b e r a t e l y
omits
the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of l a r g e areas s i t u a t e d outside
as a r e s u l t
for
crops.
The d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
problem of
the
culminates
l o n g p e r i o d s and
to give l a t e r
b o r d e r s o f t h e zones w i t h s c a r c e r a i n f a l l ,
production of a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o i n e d word
be a f o r m o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a .
The t e r m i s i n t e n d e d t o h a v e a g e o g r a p h i c
humid r e g i o n s ,
and
intended to i d e n t i f y
i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f such zones i n t o u n p r o d u c t i v e
different
apparent
described.
We u n d e r s t a n d t h a t
ecosystem,
terminology
misunderstandings,
o r e v e n more s e r i o u s ,
process of degradation of a r i d or s e m i - a r i d zones,
specific
connected
t h e y a r e u s e d t h e same phenomenon
agreement which c o n c e a l s marked d i f f e r e n c e s
the s i t u a t i o n s
of
some t e r m s
t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n which g i v e s r i s e
d i v e r g e n c e s and even c o n f l i c t s ,
evaluation of
a discussion
the meaning o f
wherever
i s being described»
possible
^
i m p r o p e r use o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
land
the
the
which
Director of Operation Analysis, Inter-American I n s t i t u t e of
A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s , San J o s é , Ccvsta S2 ca o
The a u t h o r w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e
c o - o p e r a t i o n o f D r . P e t e r D u i s b e r g , who r e v i e w e d t h e s t u d y
and c o n t r i b u t e d some i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n s .
/causes
or
arid
- 2 -
causes or
fávctíiií's W a t é r e r o s i ó n o r . t h é
p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l by
rain.
ko
this
I n L a t i n Awerica,
great significance
since
a r e a s and t h r e a t e n s
We r e f e r ,
it
deterioration
affects
territories
i n the f i r s t
case,
the boundaries of H a i t i ,
destruction of
extensive
and d e n s e l y
w i t h a vîst p r o d u c t i v e
potential.
a n d i n t h e second c a s e t o a r e a s . o f
the future of
the continent
Therefore,
the
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n referred to i n this
of
populated
t o r e g i o n s such as those l o c a t e d
for
within
such
a s t h e Amazon r e g i o j j .
s t u d y does n o t
c o m p l e t e r a n g e o f phenomena c a u s i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f l a n d
L a t i n America,
present
5.
but
is
very special
c o n f i n e d t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n s ,
f e a t u r e s and r e q u i r e
The t e r m s e x t r e m e l y a r i d ,
arid,
d e s i g n a t e r e g i o n s i n which r a i n f a l l
scarce,
so t h a t
is
treatment
"impossible" to
agricultural
"very
difficult
either
infrequent
it
and i r r e g u l a r ;
so t h a t
not i n f r e q u e n t l y
in the
f o r m o f one o r two
non-existent
or
very
when i t
from
occurs i n a r i d zones,
almost
the whole o f
the annual r a i n f a l l
is.
heavy,
occurs
showers.
the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
the c l i m a t i c
relates rainfall
with temperature,
relates
with potential
and T h o r n t h v / a i t e ' s
evapotranspiration
completely covered w i t h v e g e t a t i o n ,
moisture permajiently a v a i l a b l e ) ,
taking into
(or
index
the
of
characteristics
Among them may be m e n t i o n e d M a r t o n e ' s e q u a t i o n
rainfall
and
c o v e r s s m a l l a r e a s and i s o f t e n v e r y
a n d t h e s e c a n be u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h
zones.
range
Under
or merely " d i f f i c u l t
S e v e r a l i n d e x e s have been d e v e l o p e d f o r
from a s u r f a c e
which ,
accordingly.
activities
and l i m i t e d "
Rainfall,
of a r i d
in
and s e m i - a r i d a r e used t o
and l i v e s t o c k
requiring special care".
climates,
cover
ecosystems develop w i t h s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
such c o n d i t i o n s ,
6.
soil's
o f humid r e g i o n s i s
importance
the
the
which
which
evaporation
when t h e r e
is
account the l e n g t h o f
the
day a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . 1 / , P r o f e s s o r M e i g s was c o m m i s s i o n e d by UNESCO
1/
I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s much d i p c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e
accuracy or usefulness of the various indexes developed f o r the
c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of geographical regions.
From a
p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view, however, the p r e d o m i n a t i n g f a c t o r f o r
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g d e s e r t s ( o r e x t r e m e l y a r i d z o n e s ) a r i d z o n e s and
s e m i - a r i d z o n e s , a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g e q u a l , s h o u l d be t h e
e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y c a n be u s e d b y man a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c l i m a t i c
c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y those r e l a t e d t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water
f o r ü l a n t s and a n i m a l s .
- 3 -
,to w o r k o n t h i s b a s i s o n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a map s h o w i n g
d i s t r i b u t i o n of a r i d land i n the world,
America i n c l u d e d here
7.
f r o m w h i c h t h e map o f
( w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s )
Needless to say,
has b e e n
relative
humidity,
Latin
extracted.
although the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
a r i d zones i s t h e s m a l l q u a n t i t y a n d i r r e g u l a r i t y
t h e r e a r e many o t h e r
the
factors
of
the
vegetation,
of
rainfall,
i n v o l v e d such a s t e m p e r a t u r e ,
evaporation,
factor
insolation,
and c o m p o s i t i o n o f
the
soil.2/
80
With the purpose o f
aridity
differentiating
zones w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s
on an e c o l o g i c a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l
according to the c r i t e r i a
agriculture
basis,
applied in Argentina,3/
t o be s u c c e s s f u l
rain that
even i f
precipitation
extensive
a r i d regions,
for
for
their
the storage,
part,
receive
d r y f a r m i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e used t h e r e
in extremely a r i d regions there
t h e needs o f any k i n d o f n a t u r a l
a few w i d e l y - s c a t t e r e d
12 m o n t h s . j j /
for
is
that,
o r common
conservation
so
i s not
little
enough
insufficient
vegetation except,
specialized plants,
from a complete l a c k of r a i n f a l l
2j
for
t o c o v e r t h e needs o f s u c h common c r o p s as c e r e a l s
cotton,^/ while
for
m i g h t be s a i d
i n a s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n i t w o u l d h a v e ,to be
p r a c t i s e d w i t h the a i d of s p e c i a l techniques
a n d use o f r a i n - w a t e r ;
it
of
and
rainfall
i n some c a s e s ,
such r e g i o n s o f t e n
suffering
c o n t i n u o u s p e r i o d s o f as much a s
Some a u t h o r s a d d t h a t
a f e a t u r e of these desert
zones
A sound d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h y d r o m e t e r e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s u s e d i n t h e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a r i d z o n e s may be f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y by
C.C. W a l t e r , "Climatologyand hydrometeorology w i t h s p e c i a l regard
t o t h e a r i d l a n d s " i n The p r o b l e m s o f t h e a r i d z o n e s . P r o c e e d i n g s
o f t h e P a r i s Symposium.
UNESCO, 1 9 6 2 .
For a f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n o f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d l a n d i n A r g e n t i n a , t h e
r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d by t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f t h a t c o u n t r y a t t h e L a t i n
A m e r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e f o r t h e S t u d y o f A r i d R e g i o n s , h e l d a t Buenos
A i r e s i n 1 9 6 3 , may be c o n s u l t e d .
(Comité Argentino p a r a e l E s t u d i o
de l a s R e g i o n e s A r i d a s y S e m i á r i d a s .
Laa t i e r r a s á r i d a s y semiá r i d a s de l a R e p ú b l i c a A r g e n t i n a , I n f o r m e N a c i o n a l , Euenos A i r e s ,
1963,
pages.")
E . S . H i l l s , Ed.
Arid lands.
A geof^raphical a p p r a i s a l .
a n d C o . a n d UNESCO, London, 1 9 6 9 ,
pages.
/is
Methuen
that
- it -
is
that
it
even a f t e r
has never been p o s s i b l e
t o u s e them f o r p e r m a n e n t
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s have been o c c u p i e d f o r
which i s a c l e a r
sign of t h e i r
absolute
most e x t e n s i v e - a n d meagre a g r i c u l t u r a l
B,
9«
inhospitability
10.
these regions are located f o r
it
UNESCO.
t h e most p a r t
i s estimated that
m i l l i o n hectares
country),
even'for
the
a r i d or
semi-arid
shown i n
It
the
w i l l be
in Argentina,
seen
Chile,
V e n e z u e l a and M e x i c o .
I n Argentina
area of
the d r y ,
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f which i s
a t t a c h e d map p r e p a r e d b y P r o f e s s o r M e i g s f o r
Peru,
years,
use.
These d a t a c a n be u s e d t o ' c h a r a c t e r i z e
Brazil,
over 50
ARID AND S E M I - A R I D ZONES OF L A T I N AMERICA
regions of L a t i n America,
that
pasture,
while
( o r 15 per
the
s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n c o v e r s an
cent
of
t h e whole a r e a o f
t h e a r i d r e g i o n covers 170 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s ,
60 p e r c e n t o f t h e whole t e r r i t o r y ,
so t h a t
the
or
more t h a n 7,5 p e r
cent
of
t h e c o n t i n e n t a l a r e a o f A r g e n t i n a i s a f f e c t e d by " a r i d c o n d i t i o n s "
footnote
3) o
The s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n i s
d i v i d e d i n t o tvio s u b - r e g i o n s i
t h e Pampa a n d t h e C h a c o ; and t h e a r i d r e g i o n i n c l u d e s f i v e
t h e Chaco,
pre-puno,
The economic
gauged n o t
existence
Andean p u n o ,
importance of
monte a n d P a t a g o n i a
o f o v e r 10 m i l l i o n h e a d o f
h e c t a r e s sown t o c e r e a l s and i n d u s t r i a l
to forage
(see footnote
3 m i l l i o n head o f
Over h a l f
cattle
it
covers,
but also
cattle,
over 5
from t h e
million
c r o p s and a s i m i l a r
i s worth n o t i n g
a r e a sown
that
there are
over
and a b o u t 20 m i l l i o n s h e e p ( s e e f o o t n o t e
the t e r r i t o r y
a r i d or s e m i - a r i d .
is situated;
T h i s huge r e g i o n i n c l u d e s t h e N o r t e
the Norte Chico,
and t h e C e n t r a l
especially
because o f
agricultural
while
Grande,wwith
There i s
the Central
important mining
Desert
activity,
Zone i s t h e h e a r t
of
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e and
and i n d u s t r i a l
arid,
w i t h t h e p r o v i n c e s o f A t a c a a a a n d Coquimbo;
Zone ( s e m i - a r i d ) .
i n the north,
3).
o f C h i l e may b e c o n s i d e r e d e x t r e m e l y
t h e p r o v i n c e s o f T a r a p a c a a n d A n t o f a g a s t a i n w h i c h t h e Atacama
country,
3).
crops.
I n the a r i d region,
11.
sub-regions:
t h e s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n o f A r g e n t i n a may be
only from the extensive area i t
in i t
(see
production.
/12,
In
the
its
- 5 -
12.
In Peru,the a r i d
zone c o m p r i s e s a n a r r o w c o a s t a l s t r i p
extends the l e n g t h o f the P a c i f i c
r a i n f a l l . , than the Sahara,
and c u l t u r a l l i f e ,
since
it
it
wealth of t h i s
Indian inhabitants
In Brazil,
iirhose w o r s t
is
p o p u l a t i o n and t h e a r i d i t y
irrigation
foothills
of
constitute
for
a sizable
together
raining,
mainly
where
country.
irregular
found i n t h e
rainfall
north-east,
which
t h e p r o b l e m s o f p o v e r t y due t o
the s o i l
of
with
a n d e x t e n d i n g up t o B o l i v i a ,
the
the
population
depressed r e g i o n populated
the exceedingly
severe droughts i n the r e g i o n ;
large-scale
economic
of n a t u r a l grasses
t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s a r e
feature
less
I n the highlands,
f a m i l y a n d 'sheep w h i c h ,
i s t h e most d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a o f
13»
country's
i n t h e Andean
extensive plains
c a p a c i t y p r o v i d e s sustenance
the main
by t h e o r i g i n a l
rise
irrigated agriculture.
of animals o f the Camelidae
constitute
that
receives
h a v e c r e a t e d soiafe 5 0 o a s e s w h i c h
semi-arid Altiplano with i t s
low s u b s i s t e n c e
although i t
the centre of the
the r i v e r s
and f l o w i n t o t h e P a c i f i c
as many r i c h c e n t r e s o f
is
coast;
which
a r e very s e r i o u s and,
causes
overalthough
p r o j e c t s have been c a r r i e d out i n t h i s
region
o v e r t h e p a s t hO y e a r s a n d t h e r e h a s b e e n mass m i g r a t i o n t o more humid
areas,
t h e b a s i c e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s h a v e n o t y e t
completely
solved.
I n Venezuela the
extends to t h a t
northern part
part
d r y zones c o m p r i s e G u a j i r a
of G u a j i r a which i s
on t h e G u l f o f C a r i a c o ,
I n Mexico,
( t h e d r y zone
i n Colombia),
of the Maracaibo depression,
the Paraguaná P e n i n s u l a ,
15»
been
the land i n
the west coast o f
the Barquisimeto highlands,
8 m i l l i o n persons are c l a s s i f i e d
as a r i d ;
p a r t o f the S t a t e s of Baja C a l i f o r n i a ,
2/
approximately
t h i s huge t e r r i t o r y
Sonora,
bordering
Island.^
i n h a b i t e d by
the
Falcon,
the lands
and v a r i o u s p a r t s o f M a r g a r i t a
a b o u t 57 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s
also
Chihuahua,
covers
Coahuila,
^
An e x c e l l e n t s t u d y w h i c h was w i d e l y c o n s u l t e d i n p r e p a r i n g t h i s
a r t i c l e i s t h a t by A . L . C a b r e r a , " L a t i n A m e r i c a " i n UNESCO, P l a n t
e c o l o g y . R e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h , P a r i s , 1955» PP. 7 7 - 1 1 3 »
The a t t a c h e d
b i b l i o g r a p h y i n c l u d e s 2 S Í p u b l i c a t i o n s which r e p r e s e n t a v e r y
w i d e c o l l e c t i o n o f s t u d i e s on t h i s s u b j e c t p u b l i s h e d up t o 1 9 5 5 .
2/
Marco A u r e l i o V i l a , Las s e q u í a s en V e n e z u e l a .
Común, S . C . , C a r a c a s , 1975» 1 7 ^ p a g e s .
"
Fondo
Editorial
/Durango,
Zacatecas,
- 6 -
Durahgo, Zacátecas, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Quérétaro,
HidaigÓ, Puebla, Oaxacá, and Territorio de Baja California.
arid zones .cover about
The semi-
million hectares, mostly bordering on the
arid z o n e . ^
16.
Owing to the lack of moisture and consequent absence of vegetation
in the arid zones, the soil is generally undeveloped, the degree of
immaturity being such that it frequently consists of simple accumulations
of partially decomposed rock material.
There is no vegetable mould and
there oiay be quite á high accumulation of minerals that are not
dissolved in water and so cannot be assimilated by the plants.
The
organic material content of the surface horizon is generally less than
1 per cent, and the neighbouring^horizons show calcium accumulations
which may become consolidated in the form of saline crusts.
This type
of soil tends to accumulate sodium salts if there is contact with water
and poor drainage, and it is commonly found to contain materials that
are carried by the wind and deposited on the surface (see footnotes 3,
6 and 8).
Sometimes the removal by erosion of the surface horizon,
which consists of a very few centemetres of useful soil, uncovers a
deserty-type paving with a great quantity of pebbles and ruts which show
the tírilliant burnished surface of the desert (see footnote 3).
It may
be added that since no mineral elements are lost through leaching,
the soil in arid zones is often rich in minerals and capable of
producing abundant crops when irrigated,
17.
The vegetation has been studied in the various phytogeographical
regions, domains, and provinces.
Some studies which máy usefully be
consulted are those by MacDougal and his colleagues of the Carnegie
_§/
For a description of the arid and semi-arid zones of Mexico,
sefe Comité Mexicano de Zonas Aridas, Informe Nacional, México.
Conferencia Latinoamericana para el Estudio de las Regciones
Aridas. Mexico City,
52 pages. On the utilization of
these areas, it is worthwhile consulting the following study:
M. Lorenzo Martinez and L.J. Maldonado, Iicportancia, de las
zonas áridas en el desarrollo general del país. Productora
Nacional de Semillas, Mejcicó City, 1973, 29 pages.
/Institute in
- 7 -
Ins1;itute in Washington, D.C.; Nelson, Mueller and Johnston of
Harvard University; X. Hernández, etc. for Mexico; Svenson,-Williams,
etc» for the coastal strip on the Pacific extending from Peru to Chile;
while Pitier and Williams have made a study of the vegetation on the
arid coast of Venezuela and Sampaio, Nobrona, Smith, etc. have
described the vegetation of the arid zones in the north-east of
Brazil (see footnote 6).
18.
According to several authors (although the nomenclature they give
of phytogepgraphical territories varies somewhat) it may be accepted
that a functional classification of the arid zones of Latin America
would be to consider them as lying in the neo-tropical phytogeographical
region, with five domains (the Caribbean, the Brazilian extra-Amazon
domain, the Pacific coast, the Chaco and the Andean domain) and a
varying number of "phytogeographical provinces" within each.9/
19»
It is not the intention in this schematic outline, however, to
go more deeply into such specialized analyses as those presented in
many scientific studies, among which mention may be made of several
prepared by UNESCO in its ambitious programme of studies on arid zones
carried out actively since 1950.10/ 11/
2/
In the important study comprising a bibliographical review and
synthesis referred to in footnote 6, a schematic description is
given of the various phytogeographical domains, from Mexico in the
north to Argentina in the southern cone of South America.
10/
In order to enlarge on these concepts expressed here in broad
outline, it is worth consulting the UNESCO reports of the Programme
Series on Man and the Biosphere (MAB), particularly the Final Report
of the Panel of Experts on Project 3' Impact of human activities
and land use practices on pastureland: savannas, pastures (from
temperate to arid areas), tundra. This Panel met at Montpellier,
France, from 2 to 7 October 1972.
11/
Conferencia Latinoamericana para el Estudio de las Regiones Aridas.
Comunicaciones y resúmenes de traba.jo. Buenos Aires, 1963» This
includes the summaries of over I50 studies presented at the
Conference. These studies, most of them by Argentine authors
(although there are also valuable contributions from Chilean and
Mexican specialists), cover a wide range of subjects connected with
the evaluation of available resources and their utilization in
arid zones.
/20.
For
- 8 -
20, : For the purposes of this study, suffice it to say that in the
arid 'zones of Latin America there are various natural communities of
low forest. species which grow in the rainy season, among v/hich
grasses predominate .(such as some species of the Agrostié, Eragróstis,
Pañicum, Paspalum, Festuca, Setaria and Bronus genera); in some cases
there are also leguminous bushes (Cassia, Prosopis) and succulent
plants (Cactaceae) all of which are of some value for animal feed and
in a few cases for industrial use.
The fact that the annual plants
used as forage dry up and die if the dry season is prolonged, and that
there are many species of plants and bushiss which are of-little or
no value as forage, greatly ireducés the "subsistence capacity" of arid
zones, the maximum usé to which they could be put, uride'r-natural
conditions, being no doubt for extensive grazing, combined in á few
cases with the exploitation of plants of some commercial value (Prosopis,
Opuntia,'Parthenium, Agave, etc).
Some indigenous tribes which still
exist and other which have been exterminated by the white man
subsisted or subsist at very low levels of living by exploiting
several of these products of commercial value (Candelilla, Guayule,
Sisal, etc,).
It should also be noted that the arid and semi-arid
zones of the continent have generally been utilized on the basis of
permanent occupation and that nomadism is not a common practice.
C.
21b
DEGRADATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
The growth of vegetation as a result of rainfall gives the
false impression during a short period of the year that the land in
arid zones may have a greater subsistence or productive capacity
than it actually has, resulting in. too many animals being put on the
land.
As the drought continues these animals have less and less
forage and, consequently, the vegetation is destroyed by over-grazing.
A similar but even more serious situation arises in years with more
than average rainfall, which are frequently followed by several years
of severe drought.
If to this is added the effect of being
/extensively trodden
- 9 -
extensively trodden by cattle, which hardens the surface layers of
the soil and hampers the renewal of the plant cover, it is easy to
assess the cumulative effect of the exploitation of arid zones by
over-^grazingo
The soil, denuded of all vegetation, is then an easy
victim first of wind erosion, and later of water erosion with the
rains, and a cumulative process of degradation is set in
motion
which culminates in the desertification of the affected area.
22.
Wind erosion, especially the "suspension" type l^rhich removes
and carries the lighter particles of the soil, often over considerable
distances, in a direction parallel to the air currents, is very
frequent in the arid zones and its effects are particularly harmful
as it carries precisely the most valuable part of the soil, which
is that formed by the lighter particles.12/
23.
An extreme case of ecological deterioration caused by wind
is the massive drifting of sand in the form of dunes or loose
deposits which invade agriculturally usable land and literally convert
it into desert by covering
it with thick layers of fine sand which
inexorably follow their course in the direction of the prevailing
winds.
This phenomenon is significant in the arid zone of Argentina
and the Pacific coast strip of Peru and Chile, and in many arid areas
of Latin America the stabilization of the dunes is one of the most
urgent needs in the fight against desertification.
The process of
the deterioration of arid and semi-arid pastureland already described
is shown schematically in figure 1, adapted from a
UNESCO publication
(see footnote 10).
2k,
Another serious form of deterioration is that caused by
ploughing and the sowing of crops which require weeding in arid areas,
taking advantage of the short period of humidity produced by the
sporadic and irregular rainfall»
Misled by the possibility of
cultivating annual food crops, populations which live at subsistence
12/
Suárez de Castro, Fernando. Conservación de suelos. Colección
Agrícola Salvat. Salvat Editores, S.A., 2nd edition, Barcelona,
1965, 519 pages,
/level, in
- 10 -
level, in virtually arid areas generally located on the limits
betweeii arid and semi-arid regions plough and sow this type
of land.
The torrential downpours which are the characteristic,
of rainfall in very arid areas then hit soil which is bar%,
and cleared and thus in a state of extreme vulnerability for?the waters to wash aifay the upper layersi causing damage
which in some cases is irreversible and contributing to the
deterioration of the fragile ecological system of the type of
area concerned and the consequent merciless advance of the
desert (see footnote 12).
25.
Among the effects deriving from desertification which
can be termed reversible, but nevertheless serious,, mention may
be made of the loss of livestock through lack of fodder, which
is an intermediate link in the chain of events beginning with
the poor use of land and ending with the deterioration of the
economic situation, health and general standard of living, of
the population affected.
Even the death of human beings through
starvation, especially children and old people, is not unknown
in some arid areas of the continent where the process of ;
ecological deterioration has reached its greatest extremes,
26.
The tree cover of the arid areas generally.consists of
high thickets or slow-growing drought-resistant arboreal, plants
which in many cases form patches within areas covered by
herbaceous vegetation and in others constitute vegetal areas
of varying extent which are sometimes developed commercially
(for example, thickets of izote and mesquite).
These have
suffered continuous and intense destruction because they are
used for firewood in the homes of the families which ixüiabit ,
the region or for raw material to make charcoal; because ;of
excessive grazing (especially when the herbaceous cover has
been dried out by prolonged drought and goats have been reared) .
/which causes
- 11 -
which causes the progressive weakening and death of the trees;
because of the burning.of pastureland, a practice which is
widely used on a periodic basis as a means, of destroying
weeds and encouraging the reemergence of natural pastureland
and which, while advantageous in that respect, in many
cases destroys the trees; and, lastly, because of direct
cutting in order to extend pastureland or sow fresh crops,
especially in the short periods of rainfall and above all in
the years when the rainfall is more abundanto
In such
cases the destruction of the forests through the generally
combined action of these factors represents a serious
damage to the ecological system, since it destroys the
tree cover and breaks a delicate balance, thus unleashing
the multiple action of high temperatures and the active
agents of erosion.
27.
In their natural state, semi-arid areas can be more
intensely utilized since the conditions of drought are not
so extreme.
The supportive capacity of the land is
greater, so.that it is possible to cultivate forests of
economic value by choosing the species with care and to
rear livestock permanently with a much higher density
per unit of area than that possible in the arid stretches.
Harvests of annual crops can be produced with precautions
which could be termed of medium intensiveness related to
the prolongation of the period during which the vegetation
can utilize the available quantities of water.
In some
countries a large proportion of the most productive agriculture
is found in this area: Argentina, for example, produces over
per cent of all its cereals and forage crops in the semi-arid
Pampa
subregion and about 50 per cent of the total area of
cotton is sown in the semi-arid Chaco subregion (see footnote 3)«
This ecosystem is also very fragile, however, and needs careful
management to protect it from water and wind erosion.
/D.
UTILIZATION
- 12 -
D.
28.
UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARID AND SEMI-ARID AREAS
As may be gathered from the foregoing, there are three objectives
which should be sought in designing systems for the utilization and
control of arid and semi-arid areas.
In the first place, vigorous
action to protect the existing production capacity is essential;
secondly, there is a need for careful work to increase that production
capacity in order to seek a higher stable ratio (or perhaps a better
dynamic balance) between the available resources and the society which
lives from them, at a much higher or more intensive level of utilization
than the natural level; thirdly, it is important to design systems of
land management in keeping with this level or dynamic balance which
will make possible the intensive and permanent use of the resources
without decreasing or damaging them.
29.
Since water is the main limiting factor in the utilization of arid
areas, it is not surprising that in the search for a much higher and
more intensive level of utilization than the natural level the task of
providing this element in order to complement the quantities which are
supplied by the scarce and sporadic rainfall has had very high priority
since the most distant times.
Irrigation is the system which has, been
most used in the past, and will assuredly continue to be used, to
t
increase the production potential of the arid and semi-arid areas.
When man became sedentary he began to carry out works designed to
capture available or excess cjuantities of water at one point and convey
it to an arid area for application to the soil so as to provide for the
needs of thé vegetables he wished to cultivate and produce.
Run-off,
which during the rainy months originates in the arid regions themselves
(and can constitute high volumes since, as has already been pointed out,
the rainfall in arid areas is intense and largely falls during the
periods of a few days or weeks); ground water originating from the
vertical and lateral movements of this element under the surface of the
land, and the deposits or currents existing in areas some distance from
the place where the water is to be used are all sources v/hich can be
used to irrigate land, although obviously the use of each of the three
/sources mentioned
- 13 -
s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t mechanism and g i v e s r i s e t o v e r y
d i f f e r e n t e c o l o g i c a l problems.
I t c o u l d however be s a i d t h a t
in
g e n e r a l t h e s u p p l y o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r i s c o s t l y and t h a t i n more
t h a n one j u s t i f i a b l e r e s o u r c e s o f c a p i t a l ,
cases
t e c h n o l o g y and l a b o u r
( w h i c h a r e s c a r c e i n t h e r e g i o n ) have b e e n i n v e s t e d i n
constructions
w h i c h have o f t e n s u b s e q u e n t l y o p e r a t e d a t a much l o w e r l e v e l
of
e f f i c i e n c y t h a n t h a t f o r w h i c h t h e y were d e s i g n e d , w h i l e i n o t h e r
cases
s e r i o u s e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s have o r i g i n a t e d i n a d j o i n i n g a r e a s , o r e v e n
i n t h e a r e a s w h i c h were t o be a s s i s t e d ,
and t h i s h a s s o m e t i m e s l e d
t h e abandonment o f t h e work w i t h h e a v y e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l c o s t s ,
u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e system a t a v e r y low l e v e l of e f f i c i e n c y ,
d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n some a r e a s a s a r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n ,
of the phreatic l e v e l ,
etc.
or
salination,
the
serious
the
I t h a s a l s o b e e n found t h a t i n many o f
c u r r e n t i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i n L a t i n America o n l y a f a i r l y s m a l l
(as l i t t l e
to
a s 30 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e w a t e r c a p t u r e d r e a c h e s t h e
fall
the
percentage
irrigable
l a n d b e c a u s e o f l o s s e s by e v a p o r a t i o n and s e e p a g e w h i c h c o u l d be
a v o i d e d ; f u r t h e r m o r e , a l a r g e amount o f t h e r e m a i n i n g w a t e r i s t h e n
because of inadequate a p p l i c a t i o n to the land.
lost
I t i s therefore easy to
s e e t h e need t o s t u d y a l l t h e e f f e c t s wlîch i r r i g a t i o n h a s o r may have
i n p a r t i c u l a r regions u n t i l they are f u l l y understood; t h i s provides a
b a s i s f o r s e e k i n g t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e ways o f u s i n g t h i s
important
method o f i m p r o v i n g a r i d a r e a s , w h i l e , a v o i d i n g a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e
any
d a n g e r of p r o v o k i n g s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n which c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a major
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and e n s u r i n g t h e mqst
u t i l i z a t i o n of the a v a i l a b l e
13/
efficient
iifater.l3/
The i m p a c t o f i r r i g a t i o n bn v a r i o u s c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s o f t h e
e c o s y s t e m s o,f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s and p o s s i b l e . t o p i c s f o r
r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e " F i n a l Report o f t h e
Export P a n e l on P r o j e c t 4 :
Impact o f human a c t i v i t i e s on t h e
dynamics o f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zone e c o s y s t e m s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t s o f i r r i g a t i o n " , UNESCO, 1 9 7 6 .
/B.
INTEGRAL
- 14 -
E.
30,
INOEGRAL RESEARCH
inae thi-ee o b j e c t i v e s m e n t i o n e d i n p a r a g r a p h 28 a s
parameters
f o r t h e d e s i g n o f s y s t e m s f o r d r y l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n and management
( i n two o f w h i c h i r r i g a t i o n h a s a predominant i n f l u e n c e ) must be
s o u g h t on t h e b a s i s o f i n t e g r a l f u n d á m e n t a l r e s e a r c h ,
on t h e one h a n d ,
and i n t e g r a l a d a p t a t i v e and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h on t h e o t h e r .
This does
n o t mean t h a t e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s n o t a l r e a d y b e e n c a r r i e d o u t on
t h e most v a r i e d a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f a r i d and
semi-arid areas.
On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
l i t e r a l l y innumerable
t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d out are
( s e e f o o t n o t e s 6 and 1 1 ) .
k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d and t h e i n n o v a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d ,
c a r r i e d out a t a very l o c a l l e v e l ,
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f
the
however, has been
i n v e r y p a r t i a l t e r r a s , and t h e r e
is
no s i g n t h a t t h e v a l u a b l e new k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s b e i n g a c c u m u l a t e d i n .
e a c h s p h e r e h a s b e e n a p p l i e d i n a b r o a d , o r g a n i c and i n t e g r a l
31.
way.
I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l aim o f t h e r e s e a r c h , i n i t s
s t a g e s j i s and must c o n t i n u e t o be on t h e one hand, t h a t o f
t h e components of t h e e c o s y s t e m s ,
first
discovering
i n c l u d i n g f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o the .
p e o p l e who i n h a b i t t h e a r e a , t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n w h i c h i t
b e e n o r g a n i z e d and t h e economic m o t i v a t i o n s o f t h a t s o c i e t y ,
o t h e r , t h a t of undérstanding the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h o s e
has
and on t h e
components,
s o a s t o have f i r m b a s e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g what m e a s u r e s c a n be t a k e n f o r
t h e r a t i o n a l and l o n g - t e r m u t i l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . . The p a r t
w h i c h c o u l d be termed " t a k i n g s t o c k " i n c l u d e s s t u d y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and
current use of the r e s o u r c e s i n v o l v e d :
p o p u l a t i o n and i t s s o c i o - c u l t u r a l
vegetable,
environment,
l o o k i n t o t h e p a s t s o a s t o t r y and e x p l a i n ,
a n i m a l , t h e human
and i t a l s o i n c l u d e s a
through an a n a l y s i s of
the
g e o g r a p h i c a l - e c o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d , how and why t h e
current s i t u a t i o n has a r i s e n ,
and c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a s p i r a t i o n s
the p o p u l a t i o n as regards the use of r e s o u r c e s .
All this
of
integrated
m a t e r i a l , a f t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s between the
c o m p o n e n t s , makes p o s s i b l e a j o i n t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l
and
t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s y s t e m and an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e gap
/which
separates
- 15 -
w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e c u r r e n t and p o t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s .
Finally,
i s t a k e n t o i T i i l t h i s g a p and p r o c e e d t o a new dynamic l e v e l
action
of
i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and i t s n e e d s on t h e one h a n d ,
and t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s on t h e o t h e r
32.
(see footnote
10).
This simple e x p l a n a t i o n of such ambitious p r o j e c t s
naturally
i g n o r e s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s itfhich h a v e t o be f a c e d i n e a c h p h a s e , b u t
h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e o f s c h e m a t i c a l l y o u t l i n i n g t h e main f e a t u r e s o f
o f t h e programmes a l r e a d y i n o p e r a t i o n and o t h e r s w h i c h i t w i l l
be
necessary to i n i t i a t e .
to
On r e a c h i n g t h i s p o i n t ,
i t i s necessary
it
some
s e l e c t a l t e r n a t i v e s w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y v i a b l e b u t a r e a l s o t h e most
s u i t a b l e from t h e e c o n o m i c ,
e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w
provide f o r the growing needs of the p o p u l a t i o n ,
and t h e s e
to
alternatives
must be c h a n n e l l e d i n t o c o n t r o l programmes c o v e r i n g s p e c i f i c g o a l s and
objectives,
means o f a t t a i n i n g t h e m , and t h e l o g i s t i c
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e
33»
labour,
f o r a t t a i n i n g the
finance
objectives.
I t s h o u l d p e r h a p s be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t must
have p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l ,
e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s , w h i c h means
t h a t i n s t e a d o f c a r r y i n g o u t i s o l a t e d s t u d i e s i n t h e s e . s p h e r e s and
l i n k i n g them, s t u d i e s must be p l a n n e d i n a n i n t e g r a l way,
t o g e t h e r the s e t of circumstances of the four c a t e g o r i e s
then,
linking
mentioned
w h i c h t y p i f y e a c h p r o b l e m o r s i t u a t i o n and t h u s s t u d y i n g them a s
i n d i v i s i b l e w h o l e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e
of each of the
3^»
components.
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n i n e v i t a b l y
leads, to
the
s e l e c t i o n o f a m e t h o d o l o g y o f " s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s and d e v e l o p m e n t
m o d e l s " , w h i c h makes i t
of
necessary to formalize the r e l a t i o n s between the
components of the e c o s y s t e m
( t h r o u g h m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s and
a n a l y s e s ) i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a f u n c t i o n a l model w h i c h i s
logical
tested
/agairxst
real
- 16 -
against real situations until i t
i s . v a l i d a t e d a n d c a n t h e n be
A l l "this i s p a r i ' ó f a ( s t o c i i a s t i c ) p r o c e s s o f s u c c e s s i v e
to r e a l i t y . ^
approximations
'
F.
35.
applied.
CO-ORDINATION MACHINERY
With an a p p r o a c h o f t h i s n a t u r e ,
the b a s e s are c r e a t e d
ensuring troader u t i l i z a t i o n than at present of research
for
resources,
s i n c e i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t one o f t h e s e r i o u s
p r o b l e m s i s t h e v e r y l i m i t e d u s e made o f l o c a l l y - d i s c o v e r e d
current
innovations,
e v e n i n c a s e s where t h e r e c o u l d be b r o a d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m .
The
s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a c h i n e r y f o r t h e
c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f work and t h e e x c h a n g e ,
a s s e m b l y and d i s s e m i n a t i o n
o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n a r i d a r e a s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l l e v e l would a l s o be
very b e n e f i c i a l f o r L a t i n America.
The e s t a b l i s h m e n t
of a
(Latin
A m e r i c a n ) r e g i o n a l c e n t e r f o r t h e , i n t e g r a l p r o t e c t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t
of arid areas
( i n c l u d i n g not o n l y a g r i c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s but a l s o
i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f n o n - r e n e w a b l e n a t u r a l
s u p p o r t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o d i e s and w o r k i n g i n c l o s e
with national i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
the
resources),
co-operation
w i t h i n an a p p r o a c h b a s e d on s y s t e m s and
m o d e l s , would be a good way o f c h a n n e l l i n g towai-ds t h e
region
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s and knov/ledge d e v e l o p e d and a c c u m u l a t e d
other l a t i t u d e s ,
w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f
e x p e r i e n c e and p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e
of f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s
t e c h n i c i a n s of r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t y i n problems of the a r i d
Ih/
in
the
and
regions.
With r e g a r d t o p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s i t i s u s e f u l t o c o n s u l t t h e
work s u b m i t t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seminar on R e s e a r c h i n t o
P r o d u c t i o n S y s t e m s i n A g r i c u l t u r e , h e l d from 28 S e p t e m b e r t o
3 O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5 i n B r a s i l i a , u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e Empresa
B r a s i l e i r a de P e s q u i s a s A g r í c o l a s (EMBRAPA) and t h e I n s t i t u t o
I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de C i e n c i a s A g r í c o l a s (IICA)o
The p a p e r s
p r e s e n t e d by J o h n L, D i l l o n
"Guidélines systems research
priorities",
J . R . Anderson " I m p l i c a t i o n s of r i s k f o r s y s t e m s
r e s e a r c h " and HoA. N i x "Models o f c r o p p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s and
t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s " are o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t .
/ T h e same
- 17 -
The same c o u l d be s a i d o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n and
i n f o r m a t i o n machinery w h i c h would be c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
R e g i o n a l C e n t r e m e n t i o n e d and c o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e network
o f t h e AGRIS and AGRINTER s y s t e m s ; 1 5 /
primarily with the c o l l e c t i o n ,
s u c h machinery would d e a l
p r o c e s s i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f
relevant information as i t appears.
I t would a l s o n o t be
the
difficult,
and v e r y u s e f u l t o e n v i s a g e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a t r a i n i n g programme
L a t i n American t e c h n i c i a n s and s c i e n t i s t s w o r k i n g i n a r i d a r e a s ,
t h e b a s i s o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e R e g i o n a l C e n t r e and t h e
and d o c u m e n t a t i o n programme.
on
information
Thus common c o n c e p t u a l b a s e s and
p r o c e d u r e s would be c r e a t e d i n a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s w i t h a r i d
while
for
regions,
a t t h e same t i m e r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l o f t r a i n i n g o f t h e
t e c h n i c a l teams and p r o v i d i n g e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n a t t h e
national
continental
level,
36.
As an i n i t i a l s t e p t o implement t h e above s u g g e s t i o n s i t might be
worth t a k i n g advantage of the time remaining b e f o r e the Nairobi
meeting
t o make a s i t u a t i o n s t u d y a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l and e v a l u a t e a s a w h o l e
t h e many r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d o u t i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n L a t i n America
on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n and management o f
e c o l o g i c a l complex i n c l u d e d i n t h e d r y r e g i o n s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t .
the
On t h i s
b a s i s , and w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e n a t i o n a l t e c h n i c i a n s who work i n
these regions,
a proposal e n j o y i n g the approval of the
countries
i n v o l v e d c o u l d be worked out f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n a t t h e N a i r o b i
15/
meeting.
On t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f AGRIS
( I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s and
T e c h n o l o g y ) and AGRINTER ( S i s t e m a I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de I n f o r m a c i ó n
para l a s C i e n c i a s A g r í c o l a s ) m e n t i o n may be made o f t h e
following papers:
IICA. S i s t e m a I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de I n f o r m a c i ó n
p a r a l a s C i e n c i a s AKrí'c'olas-AGRINTEfí; Bar.es p a r a s u
e s t a b l e c i m i e n t o , T u r r i a l b a , C o s t a R i c a , lÍGA-CIRA, 1 9 7 3 , I 8 pp,
and M a l u g a n i , M . D . , AGRINTER. The L a t i n American and C a r i b b e a n
i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k ; a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e AGRIS l e v e l o n e .
San J o s é , C o s t a R i c a , IICA-CIDIA, 1 9 7 6 , 16 p p .
IKJ- !»• 160- IW IW ISO- 120- IW MO- W
jr Or UT « - W W
tf
OPEtTIETa STATTÍMEHT BY
DR. MOSTAPA K. TOLBA
E'XSGUTIVP; DIRECTOR
UNITED 1ATI0ÍÍS EKYIROÍÍÍCTT PROGRAMME
MD
SECRETÜRI GENERAL
IMITED UATIQMS COEFERMCS 0 1 D5SERTIFIC1TI01T
AT THE
REGICaiAL PREPARATORY ÊETIRG FOR THE AMEIR.ICAS
SMTIAGO, CHILE
FEBRUARY 23-27^ 1977
Check a g a i n s t
delivery
- 1 Mr. M i n i s t e r , Mr. E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , d i s t i n g u i s h e d p a r t i c i p a n t s
and
o b s e r v e r s , l a d i e s and g e n t l e m e n ,
1.
I t g i v e s toe g r e a t p l e a s u r e t o g r e e t you a t t h i s o p e n i n g s e s s i o n of
Regional Conference f o r the Americas.
With t h i s m e e t i n g we a r e
our
entering
upon t h e f i n a l s t a g e i n o u r p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e
on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a u t h o r i z e d by t h e G e n e r a l Assembly i n December 197^»
2.
T h i s i s t h e f i r s t of f o u r s u c h r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y m e e t i n g s .
It
be f o l l o w e d i n March and A p r i l by m e e t i n g s f o r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e a ,
A f r i c a s o u t h of t h e S a h a r a , and f o r A s i a and t h e
3«
will
for
Pacific.
I would like, at this point, to express my grateful thanks to my friend
and colleague Enrique Iglesias, the Executive Secretary of the Economic
Commission for Latin America, for the kind words he extended to me at the
beginning of his statement and for the considerable effort he and his
colleagues have made to bring this meeting together at short notice.
I share
the thoughts that he has already expressed to us about Latin American concerns.
I wish to address more or less the same questions but with perhaps somewhat
more emphasis on the state of preparations for the Conference and on what we
expect from this meeting.
ô
May I a l s o e x p r e s s my p l e a s u r e i n t h e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t
m e e t i n g , e v i d e n c e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of p a r t i c i p a n t s
in
this
from so many c o u n t r i e s .
Our
p r o c e e d i n g s , I am s u r e , w i l l be f o l l o w e d w i t h k e e n i n t e r e s t by many p e o p l e
b o t h i n t h e d e v e l o p e d and t h e d e v e l o p i n g
5.
countries.
I w i s h t o e x p r e s s d e e p g r a t i t u d e t o t h e C h i l e a n Government t h r o u g h you
Mr. M i n i s t e r f o r t h e k e e n i n t e r e s t you showed t o s e e t h i s m e e t i n g h e l d
i n ECLA i n t h i s b e a u t i f u l c i t y of S a n t i a g o .
here
T h i s came a s no s u r p r i s e t o me.
We h a v e been c l o s e l y f o l l o w i n g i n UNEP, t h e c o n c e r n of t h e C h i l e a n Government
f o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a t l a r g e and t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
particular.
You h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d a c t u a l l y i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e
C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
The c a s e s t u d y on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n C h i l e and
t h e f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y on m o n i t o r i n g t h e p r o c e s s
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on a number of L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a r e ample
6.
in
of
evidence,
V/hy d i d t h e G e n e r a l Assembly a s k f o r a C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ?
What were t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t l e d t o t h i s d e c i s i o n ?
As v/e a l l
remember,
i t was t h e g r e a t d r o u g h t w h i c h a f f e c t e d t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e S a h e l f o r some
s i x y e a r s p r i o r t o 1973 t h a t a r o u s e d w o r l d c o n c e r n , f i r s t t o h e l p r e l i e v e
mass human s u f f e r i n g i t
c a u s e d , and s e c o n d t o t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d what may
l i p hpVn'nrl Rlirh
woa-hVioT» f l ii ol-nja+•-i nne .
the
- 2 -
7.
L a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t ,
a number o f
r e s o l u t i o n s by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e
General
Assembly began t o a d d r e s s t h e p r o b l e m s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e
1970s.
At i t s s i x t h s p e c i a l session
recommended t h a t
the international
i n ; 197^»
the General
development, of a f f e c t e d a r e a s .
Assembly
commurjity- u r g e n t l y t a k e
m e a s u r e s t o s t e m t h e . s p r e a d of d e s e r t s and a i s c i s t t h é
concrete
economic
The Economic- a n d S o c i a l C o u n c i l
t h e same y e a r r e q u e s t e d a l l t h e c o n c e r n e d o r g a n s o f t h e U n i t e d
s y s t e m t o p u r s u e a b r o a d a t t a c k on t h e . d r o u g h t p r o b l e m .
of t h e G o v e r n i n g C o u n c i l s o f t h e ; U n i t e d
among o t h e r
b o d i e s o f U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n s and . s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s , ,
t h e n e e d t o u n d e r t a k e s t u d i e s on t h e e x t e n t o f d r o u g h t ,
up a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n
8.
Finally,
iii'
Nations
Decisions
N a t i o n s Development
and, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s E n v i r o n s i e n t P r o g r a m m e ,
early
Programme,
governing
emphasized
and t o
draw
programmes'.
on 1 7 December 1 9 7 ^ , a t i t s
tv/gnty-ninth session,
the
G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . p r e s e n t e d
the African group.
T h e r e was a r e m a r k a b l e c o n v e r g e n c e of v i e w on t h e
n e e d t o u n d e r t a k e now a w o r l d programme of e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n
c o n t a i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and, where p o s s i b l e ,
i n v o l v e d and r e v e r s e t h e m .
of p r i o r i t y ,
to i n i t i a t e
desertification.
by
And i t
to a r r e s t
the
The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y d e c i d e d ,
to
processes
as.a
matter
c o n c e r t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o combat
f u r t h e r d e c i d e d t o c o n v e n e i n 1977 a . U n i t e d
N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t o g i v e i m p e t u s t o s u c h
international actions
S i n c e t h e G e n e r a l Assembly p a s s e d i t s
i n 197^, d r o u g h t h a s been o c c u r r i n g i n vsirious a r e a s of t h e
L a s t y e a r F r a n c e and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom,
l e n g t h y p e r i o d s of d r o u g h t ,
f o r example,
suffered
t h e immediate e f f e c t s
which a r e a n t i c i p a t e d by United S t a t e s s c i e n t i s t s
agricultural
world.
R i g h t now we a r e w i t n e s s i n g s e v e r e
i n the w e s t e r n p a r t of the United S t a t e s ,
restricted
resolution
output,
to
drought
of.
include
a s h o r t a g e of a d e q u a t e g r a z i n g
land,
p o w e r s h o r t a g e i s i n a r e a s t h a t r e l y h e a v i l y on h y d r o e l e c t r i c i t y and
s e v e r e f o r e s t f i r e s by l a t e summer.
Some U n i t e d S t a t e s c r o p
scientists
f e a r t h a t s p r i n g w i n d w i l l b e g i n n e x t month e r o d i n j g t h e t o p s o i l
across
the Midwest,
crop.
wi-^h s e v e r « damage t o t h e . g e r m i n a t i n g w i n t e r w h e a t
- 3
9-
A l t h o u g h d r o u g h t , a r i d i t y and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
a s you a r e
fully
a w a r e , ^ r e n o t synonymous, y e t the. . f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s m i g h t
explain their
interrelations:
- A r i d i t y i s an g e o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n which w a t e r income
l e s s than p o t e n t i a l , water e x p e n d i t u r e . ( r u n - o f f
etc.).
is
evapotranspiration,
I n s e m i - a r i d and s u b - h u m i d r e g i o n s , d r o u g h t i s p a r t of
the
s e a s o n a l r h y t h m of t h e y e a r and a : d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e may be m a i n t a i n e d
d u r i n g t h e p a r t of t h e y e a r when r a i n f a l l s .
Under t h e s e
conditions;,
human i n t e r f e r e n c e may e n t a i l i r r e p a r a < b l e damage t o t h e dynamic
f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e
ecosystem.
- D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s c a u s e d by human a c t i v i t i e s
whereby
the p r o d u c t i v i t y of s e m i - a r i d or sub-humid h a b i t a t s i s reduced t o a
level characteristic
of d e s e r , t s .
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n shows i t s e l f
i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s : r e d u c t i o n of p l a n t . c o v e r , r e m o v a l of
deposits ( s o i l ) ,
of sand b o d i e s ,
10.
l o s s of o r g a n i c m a t t e r f r o m t h e . s o i l ,
increased run-off,
primarily
surface
deposition
etc.
A few f a c t s and f i g u r e s , a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , - m i g h t a l s o
d e f i n e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f . t h e p r o b l e m s we a r e
help
facing:
- Based on c l i m a t i c d a t a , a r i d and s e m i - a r i d , l a n d s make u p
,
56 p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e and a r e i n h a b i t e d b y , • .
628 l a i l l i o n p e o p l e , I 6 p e r c e n t of t h e v j o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n . .
However,
b a s e d on s o i l and v e g e t a t i o n d a t a t h e t o t a l a r e a i s e q u i v a l e n t
p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e .
The d i f f e r e n c e i s
to
accounted
f o r by t h e e s t i m a t e d e x t e n t of nan-made, d e s e r t s ( 9 , 1 1 5 , 0 0 0 Km2), a
c o l l e c t i v e area l a r g e r than
Brazil.
- At l e a s t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e w o r l d ' s n a t i o n s a r e
a f f e c t e d by t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
directly
process.
- I n t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t , . e m e r g e n c y r e l i e f by 197^ a p p r o a c h e d
a v a l u e of USS 2 0 0 ' . m i l l i o n .
.Even w i t h t h i s , . e s t i m a t e s of d e a t h s
as
a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e d r o u g h t h a v e r a n g e d betv/een 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 and
250,000.
The l o s s of l i v e s t o c k i s e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e b e e n a s h i g h a s
90 p e r c e n t i n M a l i and 2. m i l l i o n . n o m a d i c p a s t o r a l i s t s l o s t more t h a n
h a l f of t h e i r
livestock.
k
- Today the world's drylands contain 9 meti-opólitán centres
with more than,: 1 million people eachv' which aggravates 'the problem.
During the Sahelian drought, where urban population growth rates,
already Very high at 10 per cent' per year, briefly douliíed, intensifying
the adverse: environmental impacts that these urban settlements
already exert.
: - A l t h o u g h no a u t h o r i t a t i v e ' f i g u r e s e x i s t j i t
is
estimated
t h a t b e t w e e n 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o 7 0 , 0 0 0 sq.kttl. o f ' l a n d a r e l o s t a n n u a l l y
to
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n arid i f ah a r b i t r a r y v á l u e of USS 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 per' s q . k m .
i s p u t on t h i s ,
t h e a n n u a l economic l o s s due t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o h
is
i n e x c e s s of USf 10 b i l l i o n .
11.
The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y ' i n d e c i d i n g on t h e c o n v é n i n g o f a V/orld
C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c á l l e d f b r t h r o e t h i n g s .
First,
it
c a l l e d f o r a l l d a t a r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and i t s e f f e c t on
economic development.^^
S é c o n d , on t h e b a s i s o-f t h i s g l o b a l
assessment
i t a s k e d f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a w o r l d p l a n of a c t i o n t o Cbiaibat
desertification.
Third,
i t - a s k e d t h a t thfe U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e
on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s ,
action,
and p u t t h e n e c e s s a r y p o l i t i c a l
a d o p t a w o r l d p l a n of
inípétüs behind' i t s '
implementation.
12.
In response,
t h e C o n f e r e n c e . S e c r e t a r i a t h a s . given, p r i o r , a t t e n t i o n
t o r e a c h i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
The
s t u d i e s which form t h e s c i e n t i f i c s u b - s t r a t a on w h i c h o u r P l a n o f
Action i s b u i l t ,
and w h i c h I w i l l d e s c r i b e i n more d e t a i l l a t e r j
have
r e v e a l e d t h r e e b a s i c f i n d i n g s on w h i c h t h e r e i s U n a n i m i t y among o u r
s e n i o r c o n s u l t a n t s and
13.
scientists.
The f i r s t i s t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a r e s u l t of t h e
of man and an a d v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t and ishows i t s e l f
p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e a r e & a a f f e c t e d .
in
interaction
declining
T h i s i s a s e l f - f e e d i n g mechanism;
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s t h a t s p r e a d s by i t é own g e n e r á t i o n ¿ Secondly,
t h e y a g r e e t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s h i g h l y t o be •
d e s i r e d and w i l l make t h e t a s k of c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
easier.
- 5 -
Yet t h é y m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m c a n be a t t a c k e d and c o u n t e r e d
now on t h e b a s i s of p r e s e n t knowledge,^ , T h e r e f o r e o u r P l a n of A c t i o n
p l a c e s i t s e m p h a s i s on a c t i o n now»
15-
The third consensus reached by our scientists and senior
consultants is that the key to the attack on problems of desertification
lies in proper land use»
16.
Desertification,
then,
i s a human problerao
It is
the
d e t e r i o r a t i o n of d r y l a n d e c o s y s t e m a s a r e s u l t of human
t o t h e p o i n t Where r e s t o r a t i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e e x c e p t a t
cost.
activities,
enormous
D e s e r t s a r e b e s t t h o u g h t of a s a r e a s of s p a r s e o r no
vegetation,
and low b i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
due t o e f i c i e n t
rainfall.
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s s e e n a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of
such
conditions.
17-
Both G o v e r n m e n t s ,
i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l j u d g e m e n t , and
f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e i r own s p e c i a l i t i e s ,
for consolidated international a c t i v i t y ,
scientists,
have seen t h e need
under the United
Nations,
t o s t o p t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e g r a d a t i o n of f e r t i l e and p r o d u c t i v e
which, as I mentioned e a r l i e r ,
hectares a year.
land
amounts, t o betv/een 50 t o 70 t h o u s a n d
The G e n e r a l Assembly saw t h e n e e d f o r
a c t i o n , however, d i f f i c u l t t h a t m i g h t be t o o r g a n i z e and
r a t h e r than t o p r o v i d e emergency, s t o p - g a p ,
preventive
finance,
short-term relief
which
d o e s n o t s t r i k e a t t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m s , and i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more
18.
At t h i s p o i n t , L a d i e s and G e n t l e m e n , I s h o u l d p e r h a p s summarize
way i n w h i c h we h a v e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e .
I w i l l then proceed
t o comment on t h e b a s i c d o c u m e n t s , by which we h a v e r e a c h e d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
t o t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e P l a n of
19.
costly.
our
and w h i c h . h a v e
led
Action.
As r e q u i r e d by t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , a s m a l l S e c r e t a r i a t v/as
e s t a b l i s h e d a t UNEP i n N a i r o b i .
A United'Nations
inter-agency
t a s k f o r c e was e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e G e n e r a l Assembly t o a s s i s ' t
S e c r e t a r i a t i n i t s xiork.
of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ,
This t a s k f o r c e comprised
the
representatives
i t s o f f i c e s and p r o g r a m m e s , a s w e l l a s f r o m
the specialized agencies
most"concerned.
the
-.6 - .
20.
We h a v e drawn up á p a n e l of s c i e n t i s t s
iii. t h e many d i s c i p l i n e s
which h a v e . a b e a r i n g oh- t h e p r o b l e m o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . • T h i s g r o u p
comprises s p e c i a l i s t s from a l l over the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g
of d i s t i n c t i o n :from t h i s - c o n t i n e n t .
scientists
T h e s e p e o p l e h a v e come t o g e t h e r ,
o f t e n i a t s h o r t n o t i c e , , t o g i v e u s t h e b e n e f i t of t h e i r a d v i c e and
guidance.
V/e h a v e a l s o drawn i n t o o u r s c o p e a number of
s c i e n t i f i c and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s conc.érned w i t h t h e s e
the
questions.
Some of t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e m a j o r o n e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
repute,
o t h e r s a r e s m a l l , and l i t t l e known, b u t whose work i s of g r e a t
.;
significance.
21.
The f i n a n c i n g has. b e e n a r r i v e d a t f o r -the m o s t p a r t f r o m t h e
E n v i r o n m e n t .Fund. . There, was a l s o f i n a n c i a l , s u p p o r t ^froni t h e U n i t e d
,
N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t Programme and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Fund f o r
Population Activities..
22.
m./
'
Our f i r s t t a s k i n . t h e S e c r e t a r i a t ,
;
a s I h a v e s a i d , was t o try-
t o r e a c h a more p r o f o u n d unde^rptariding of t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s
of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
I t \\ras n o t p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y t o u t a g l o b a l
of a l l known d a : t a .
. I n s t e a d , w i t h t h e s u p p o r t of t h e G o v e r n i n g .
review
C o u n c i l of UNEP, which was named t h e I n t e r - G o v e r n m e n t a l
Preparatoi'y
Body f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e , we made some c r i t i c a l c h o i c e s .
V/e d e c i d e d
t h a t we n e e d e d t h e b e s t p a s s i b l e s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e i n f o u r a r e á s
in t h e i r r e l a t i o n to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n : climate,
p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i e t y ,
and t e c h n o l o g y .
e c o l o g i c a l change,
"
T h e s e p a p e r s havé now b e e n
p r e p a r e d , o n e o f thera a t C h a p i n g o i n M e x i c o , by A g r o n o m i s t
Manuel Anayo G a r d u ñ o .
23. \
You h a v e b e f o r e yo.u. L a d i e s a n d G e n t l e m e n , a d r a f t o f t h e : s y n t h e s i s
of t h e f o u r component r e v i e w s which we h a v e . t i t l e d
An O v e r v i e w " .
It:, i s . a p r e l i m i n a r y : t e x t ,
"Desertification:
and I l o o k f o r w a r d t o
l e a r n i n g t h e v i e w s o f - t h i s m e e t i n g on t h i s d r a f t .
I t has been '
prepared d e l i b e r a t e l y i n . a popular, n a r r a t i v e s t y l e .
The f o u r
component r e v i e w s , a s we now c a l l t h e m , a r e somewhat more
technicals
The r e v i e w and t h e o v e r v i e w r e p r e s e n t ,
our
to a large extent,
a s s e s s m e n t of t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of
desertification.
"
- .7
24.
-
As t h e component r e v i e w s t h e m s e l v e s . a r e now i n t h e p r o c e s s of
reproduction,
meetings.
they are not being presented to thé regional
They w i l l ,
preparatory
h o w e v e r , be b e f o r e th-e C o n f e r e n c e a s b a c k g r o u n d
d o c u m e n t s . . We w i l l h a v e h o w e v e r , • befo-re: t h i s m e e t i n g , v a l u a b l e
country
s t a t e m e n t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e é x t e n t and n a t u r e of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
and
t h e measure of t h e s u c c e s s of programmes t o a r r e s t t h i s p r o c e s s .
V/e
a l s o have t h e . v e i y i l l u m i n a t i n g s t a t e m e n t j u s t made by my c o l l e a g u e ,
Mr. I g l e s i a s ,
t h e E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ' on t h e a s p e c t s of
desertification
i n t h e L a t i n American r e g i o n ^ and a p a p e r p r e p a r e d by
Mr. J o s é E m i l i o A r a u j o f r o m t h e I n t e r - A m e r i ó a n I n s t i t u t e of
Agricultural
S c i e n c e s a t T u r r i a l b a on t h e n a t u r a l phenomena of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
South America.
25.
in
y ;
Our g l o b a l s t u d i e s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n s i x : c a s e s t u d i e s of
specific
locations.
The s e l e c t i o n of t h e s e h a s b e e n on t h e a d v i c e of o u r
scientists,
i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s and of
U n i t e d N a t i o n s , of c o u r s e , w i t h t h e Governments t h e m s e l v e s .
t r i e d in these case s t u d i e s to cover, as f a r as p o s s i b l e ,
ecological regions,
the
We h a v e
t h e main
and to- s t u d y what h a p p e n s v / h e n - d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n •
t a k e s p l a c e , and v;hen t h e r e i s a n a t t e m p t t o i n t r o d u c e - r e g e n e r a t i o n .
26.
The c a s e s t u d i e s were t w i n n e d .
Two i n - I r a q an.d P a k i s t a n
w i t h w a t e r l o g g i n g and s a l i n i t y . i n i r r i g a t e d a r e a s .
The two i n N i g e r
and E a j a s t h a n i n I n d i a a r e of warm s e a s o n r a i n f a l l a r e a s ,
and t h e
two i n S o u t h e r n T u n i s i a . a n d Northern- C h i l e a r e o f , c o l d s e a s o n
The C h i l e a n c a s e s t u d y h a s o n l y r e c e n t l y b e e n
2?.
deal
rainfall.
completed.
Me a r e most g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e made a v a i l a b l e
by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t Programme, and f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e
UNESCO t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t s c o n c e r n e d i n p r e p a r i n g t h e
28.
T h e r e was s o much i n t e r e s t
of
studies.
i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of o u r work
t h a t s e v e r a l G o v e r n m e n t s o f f e r e d t o p r e p a r e s t u d i e s of t h e i r own.
Those we c a l l a s s o c i a t e d c a s e s t u d i e s .
Gascoyne c a t c h m e n t i n W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a ,
eastern Iran,
t h r e e from China,
T h e r e i s a s t u d y of
one on r e c o v e r y i n
the
north-
two f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , one f r o m
I s r a e l and one f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o v e r i n g a c o l d d e s e r t i n
e a s t Oregon.
south-
T h e s e a r e now b e i n g r e p r o d u c e d and v / i l l be a v a i l a b l e
the Conference.
to
29.
vWe w i l l p r e s e n t a s y n t h e s i s : o f ^ t h e a e c a s e s t u d i e s : a t
€ónferenc:e,^ along with the case s t u d i e s themsalveso
This
the
synthé^Sis,
• we h o p e , w i l l s t r e s s t h e e x p e r i e n c e igairied i n pi?ogrammes of
from d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
and t h e l e s s o n s which c a n be g e n e r a l l y
-when we come t o c o n s i d e r t h e Viiorld P l a n of
30.
recovery
applied
Action.
I s h o u l d p e r h a p s add,' b e f o r é g o i n g "on j t h a t t h e G e n e r a l
Assembly when i t a d o p t e d i t s e n a b l i n g r e s o l u t i o n ,
P l a n of A c t i o n i t s e l f
stressed that
should strengthen the indigenous capacity
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e a r e a s c o n c e r n e d .
t o do t h i s was t o s t a r t
immediately,
the
in
We f e l t t h e b e s t way
and for- t h a t r e a s o n t h e
Studies
and t h e o t h e r p r e p a r a t o r y work l e a d i n g up t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e h a v e ,
f o r t h e most p a r t ,
institutions
b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n s c i e n t i f i c and
other
i n t h e c o u n t r i e s most a f f e c t e d by d é B é r t i f i c a t i o ñ
p a r t i c u l a r l y developing countries.
I h a v e m e n t i o n e d C h a p i n g b and
I w i l l be able= t o t o u c h l a t e r on o t h e r i n s t i t ü t ' i b h s i n t h e A m e r i c a s
which h a v e p l á y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e ' p r e p a r a t i o n s
for the
Conference.
31.
The G e n e r a l Assembly a l s o a s k e d u s t o p r e p a r e a w o r l d map
s h o w i n g a r e a s a f f e c t e d , âfid a r e a s l i k e l y t o b e a f f e c t é d by t h e
p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
and g i v i n g some i n d i c a t i o n s of
r e a s o n s why d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e .
Through FAO,
the
in
c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h UNESCO and V/MO^ we h a v e p r e p a r e d a World
•
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map, a t a s c a l e of 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 on a new p r o j e c t i o r i \
prepared s p e c i a l l y f o r the Conference.
-
32.
Now, a map o f s u c h a s m a l l s c a l e
cannot'.be a
scientific-tool.
So vje have had FAO p r e p a r e a n e x p e r i m e n t a l map o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i b h ' f o r
A f r i c a n o r t h of t h e e q u a t o r ,
and lADIZA ( I n s t i t u t o ' A r g e n t i n o d e -
I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s dé l a s Zonas A r i d a s ) ' h a s p r e p a r e d á n e x p e r i m e n t a l map
of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o u n t r i e s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a .
B o t h maps show a
s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and I am h a p p y t o s e e t h e S o u t h A m e r i c a n map
b e f o r e us i n t h e h a l l today
( a s w e l l a s the" D i r e c t o r o f
Engineer V i r g i l i o Eoig).
53.
lADIZA,
- '
We h a v e a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Bonn f o r t h e
of a c l i m a t e / a r i d i t y
t h e S o v i e t Union
preparation
i n d e x map, a n d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i - t y of Moscow
Academy o f S c i e n c e s f o r a map on d r o u g h t
We w i l l a l s o h a v e ,
probability.
f o r t h e C o n f e r é n c e , a map on v u l n e r a b i l i t y
by P r o f e s s o r D r e g n e , C h a i r m a n o f t h e AAAS D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
and
prepared
Committee.
These t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l maps, w i t h an accompanying b r o c h u r e ,
will
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e , a n d o n e " w i l l be' f e a t u r e d i n o n e
of"the
component
3^.
reviews.
Finally,
on t h e q u e s t i o n of m a p s , when vie p r e p a r e d t h e
s t u d i e s a n d a g r e e d - u p o n a common a p p r o a c h , m e t h o d o l o g y a n d
case
terminology,
we p r e p a r e d a s y n o p t i c map o f e a c h of t h e a r e a s c o v e r e d by t h e
studies.
V/e s e e ,
a s a r e s u l t of t h i s e x p e r i e n c é ,
the heed i n
case
the
f u t u r e f o r a d e t a i l e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a t l a s iiAhich iiAOuld be b r o u g h t
t o d a t e from time t o
35.
• The a c t i v i t i e s t h a t I - h a v e s o f a r d e s c r i b e d h a v e b e e n
on t h e c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
r e s p e c t e r of f r o n t i e r s .
for the
essentially
Conference
desertification.
,I t u r n now t o q u e s t i o n s o f f e a s i b i l i t y .
Desertification is
I n many r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d t h e r e
So we e x a m i n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
transnational projects,
that is,
of c a r r y i n g . o u t
p r o j e c t s of a r e g i o n a l
i n v o l v i n g groups of concerned and a f f e c t e d
G0untries¿
no
are
p r o b l e m s w h i c h c o u n t r i e s h a v e i n common a n d c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m
together.
up
time.
t h o s e of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e most u p - t o - d a t e . " k h o i í l e d g e
36.
be
tackling
what we c a l l
character
- 1 0 --
37. • A c t i v i t i e s of t h i s kind a r e ,
etmbitious,
f a r - r e a c h i n g and
ariti- a r e n o t a l w a y s e a s y t ó d e s i g n b e c a u s e o f t h e many
constraints that
38.
nátürally,
apply.
However we h a v e c a r r i e d o u t ' a " s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s on t h e
f e a s i b i l i t y of such t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s .
a r e a of g r e a t e s t v u l n e r a b i l i t y
We s t a r t e d w i t h
which i s t h e S a h e l .
the
H e r e we s t u d i e d
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o i j e c t oh t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f
livestock,
region.
involving,
initially,
We t h o u g h t i t
seven c o u n t r i e s of t h e
would b e p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e
v u l n e r a b l e g r a z i n g á r e a s by t a k i n g o f i m m a t u r e c a t t l e ,
to
raoister
already taking the i n i t i a l
Secondly,
fattening*
and we a r e
s t e p s to c a r r y out t h i s long-range
t h e Governments of p r a c t i c a l l y
project.
every country in
A f r i c a a r e e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h m a j o r programmes f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g
belts,
or shelter b e l t s ,
to contain desert
on
and m b v i n g them
a r e a s c l o s e r t o t h e m a r k e t f o r f i n i s h i n g and
T h i s s t u d y h a s b e e n w e l l r e c e i v e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t s ,
39-
Sudano-Sahelian
encroachment.
North
tree
The
g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a g r e e d t o p o o l t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n a common
effort.
I
atfl h a p p y t o r e p o r t
t h a t on 5 F e b r u a r y i n C a i r o ,
Ministers
o f A g r i c u l t u r e o f t h r e e c o u n t r i e s s i g n e d a p r o t o c o l which,- i n
effect,
accepted the f e a s i b i l i t y study f o r a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t to
establish
a green b e l t
in the northern Sahara.
Governments a r e e x p e c t e d t o s i g n
'fO.
A feasibility
considered f o r
are
vastly
The two r e m a i n i n g N o r t h A f r i c a n
shortly.
study of á siiiiilar proposal i s
the Sahelian region.
different
There the
from those p r e v a i l i n g
will
be p o s s i b l e
project
t h i s k i n d on t h e s o u t h e r n m a r g i n o f t h e
and we
t o c a r r y out a
I n N o r t h e r n A f r i c a and i n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a i n A s i a
which the
groundwater i s
fossil,
pre-historic
Because o f
the
changes t h a t
times.
i n these
management o f
areas,
aré
the groundwater which these
becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y
irreplaceable,
these a q u i f e r s
ecological
important,
but also
no l o n g e r
there
accumulated
have
rechargeable.
c o u n t r i e s have i n common
not o n l y because t h e w a t e r
because i n some p l a c e s
it
'
Sahara.
a r e deep a q u i f e r s i n
place
being'
conditions
i n North A f r i c a ,
know t o what
kl.
it
ecological
do n o t y e t
of
extent
currently
is
may d e c l i n e
in
in
taken
The
is
-.11-
q u a l i t y t h r o u g h i n t r u s i o n of s e a v / á t e r .
The G o v e r n r j e n t s c o n c e r n e d
h a v e r e v i e w e d a f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y , and i n Q a t a r t o v / a r d s t h e end of
l a s t y e a r an a g r e e m e n t v/as r e a c h e d on a cordmon programrae i n b o t h a r e a s ,
42.
I n a n y w o r l d programrae t o c o n t a i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a c o n t i n u o u s
m o n i t o r i n g and a s s e s s m e n t of t h e s i t u a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l .
t o choose tv/o c r i t i c a l a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d t o s t a r t
desertification processes.
and now B r a z i l ,
We d e c i d e d
monitoring
The Governments of P e r u , A r g e n t i n a ,
have j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o s t u d y how b e s t
Chile,
desertification
p r o c e s s e s c a n be m o n i t o r e d and a s s e s s e d ' i n t h e c r i t i c a l a r e a s of
countries.
their
I n a d d i t i o n t o g r o u n d lcnov;ledge, i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be
d e r i v e d from s a t e l l i t e
i m a g e r y and a v a i l a b l e a i r p h o t o g r a p h s .
My
c o l l e a g u e s h a v e j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m Limá where t h e Governments met t o
complete t h e arrangements f o r such a p r o j e c t .
'
T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i n S o u t h America h a s b e e n r e p l i c a t e d
Southwest A s i a .
The Governments of I r a n ,
in
I n d i a and P a k i s t a n h a v e
a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e t o t h e m o n i t o r i n g and a s s e s s i n g of t h e
critical
a r e a s i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , and t h e Government of
Afghanistan has formally agreed to j o i n
this transnational
project.
kk.
I h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h e s e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s i n some
b e c a u s e we b e l i e v e we s h o u l d n o t w a i t t i l l
t a k e s p l a c e t o d e c i d e v/hat s h o u l d be d o n e ,
on a c t i o n t o c o n t a i n a n d , where p o s s i b l e ,
detail,
the Conference
fiather
we s h o u l d s t a r t
to reverse
now
desertification.
I am happy t o s e e t h a t t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s have b o r n e f r u i t
in
Government a g r e e m e n t s and t h e d e c i s i o n t o v/ork t o g e t h e r , and t h a t
t h e s e common p r o j e c t s h a v e r e c e i v e d a b r o a d m e a s u r e o f
international
support.
A l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s form p a r t of t h e P l a n of A c t i o n t o combat
desertification.
You h a v e b e f o r e y o u , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e summary of
t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s t h e m s e l v e s , a d r a f t of t h e P l a n .
The b a s i c
p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h were t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t d u r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of
P l a n of A c t i o n a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r t of t h e
But I s h o u l d p e r h a p s ,
a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , m e n t i o n t h r e e of o u r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n p r e p a r i n g t h e P l a n of
Action.
the
Plan.
guiding
-•'l^- -
The f i r s t
environment,
i s . t h a t we a r e c p n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h tóain i n
and n o t e x c l u s i v e l y i v i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a s
his
such.
S e c o n d l y , w h i l e we s e e t h e . d e s t r u c t i o n w h i c h h a s t a k e n p l a d e a s
r e s u l t to a l a r g e , e x t e n t of.man's, a c t i v i t i e s ,
we s e e man a l s o a s a
v i c t i m n o t o n l y a s t h e a g g r e s i s o r . , For: t h e most p a r t ,
t h e p e o p l e who
l i v e i n t h e s e - v u l n e r a b l e a r e a s must f i n d t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d i n
n o t o f , t h e i r own m a k i n g .
changes take p l a c e ,
á
ecosystems
Me know t h a t many e m i g r a t e , we know t h a t
t h a t i n d u s t r y .is i n t r o d u c e d ,
. b r o a d e n e d ; , b u t » , by. a n d l a r g e ,
that occupations
are
t h e p e o p l e of t h e s e a r e a s remaiii v i c t i m s
of a . c o n d i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n merely t h e c r e a t o r s - o f
it.
This 'is
t o b e a r . i n m i n d , b e c a u s e much t h a t h a s b e e n w r i t t e n h a s
a l o n e a s c a u s i n g havoc i n t h e s e í e x t r e m e l y
impoi-tant
portrayed-man
friable areas.
,Wé dó n o t
s h a r e f u l l y t h i s v i e w , o r t a k e e x a c t l y t h e same a p p r o a c h .
Thirdly,
increase
w h i l e we n a t u r a l l y s e e t h e n e e d f o r e v e r y e f f o r t
f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , . we a r e h o t c o n c e r n e d i m r a e d i a t l y w i t h
the productivity of.these areas.
as areas
increasinf
. F o r we .see t h e m , f o r t h e most
t h a t w i l l n o r m a l l y b e o f low u n i t a g r i c u l t u r a l
We a r e c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e r e s t o r a t i o n ,
of a r e a s t h a t have
to
part,
productivity.
Wherever
possible,
degenerated.
I s h o u l d h a s t e n t o add t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e a s ' a r e o f low u n i t
productivity,
t h e i r t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n , i s enormous i n terras of
food supply.
In f a c t ,
in drylands,
49.
t h e m a j o r p a r t of t h e w o r l d ' s c e r e a l s a r e
grown
i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a t p l a i n s of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
The P l a n of A c t i o n w h i c h you s e e b e f o r e you b e g i n s ,
feasibility studies,
w i t h a s s e s s m e n t and p l a n n i n g .
an e x a m i n a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e
provide r i s k insurance against drought;
water,
energy sources;
and t h e
including institutional
l a n d and
the need to
how we c a n s t r e n g t h e n
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y t o U n d e r p i n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s ;
q u e s t i o n of s u p p o r t i n g m e a s u r e s ,
a s do t h e
I t t h e n goes on
t o p r o p o s e m e a s u r e s d e a l i n g w i t h p o p u l a t i o n and h e a l t h ,
livelihoods;
world
indigenous
whole
arrangements,
the role o f international organizations, a n d the f i n a n c i n g o f the
Plan i t s e l f .
As f a r a s i n s t i t u t i o n a l
w i l l s e e t h a t we do n o t opt
a r r a n g e m e n t s á.ré c o n c e r n e d you
f o r a new i n s t i t u t i o n .
I feel strongly
t h e e x i s t i n g United N a t i o n s mechanisms can c a r r y t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t h e follow-up of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e .
that
of
I n my v i e w t h e
Environmental C o n d i t i o n B o a r d (ACB) i s well e q u i p p e d to carry t h e
.lob.
- 13 -
50.
The d r a f t P l a n you h a v e b e f o r e you w i l l be f u r t h e r
elaborated,
i n t h e l i g h t of t h e d i s c u s s i o n s w e , a r e h o l d i n g h e r e t h i s week,
the
examination the Plan w i l l receive i n , t h e other regional.meetings,
and
t h e r e v i e w t h a t w i l l t a k e p l a c e a t t h e G o v e r n i n g C o u n c i l of UNSP i n May.
51.
Vi/e a r e a l r e a d y t a k i n g s t e p s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h o s e p a r t s of
P l a n which, i n o u r judgement, r e q u i r e improved f o r m u l a t i o n »
we a r e d o i n g t h i s i s t o c a l l t o g e t h e r s m a l l g r o u p s of h i g h
s p e c i a l i s t s v/ith e x p e r i e n c e on s p e c i f i c t o p i c s .
the
The way
level
We a r e h a v i n g one
g r o u p c o n s i d e r how b e s t we c a n m o n i t o r t h e huraan c o n d i t i o n and i m p r o v e
family health in the areas concerned.
A n o t h e r g r o u p i s c o n s i d e r i n g how
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community can i n c r e a s e i n s u r a n c e f o r p e o p l e s a t
b e a r i n g i n mind t h e n e e d n o t t o t a m p e r w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
s y s t e m s which e x i s t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y .
insurance
We a r e , a l s o w o r k i n g on t h e
s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e s e c t i o n of t h e P l a n which d e a l s w i t h
energy
52.
risk,
alternative
sources.
We a r e a l s o , w i t h o u r c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s IVater,
C o n f e r e n c e , s e e i n g hoiif b e s t t h e P l a n of A c t i o n can be
strengthened
by a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e
Water C o n f e r e n c e i n A r g e n t i n a .
forthcoming
P e r i o d i c c o n s u l t a t i o n s have
already
t a k e n p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e two s e c r e t a r i a t s and t h e c o n s u l t a n t s who h a v e
w r i t t e n p a p e r s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e tv/o c o n f e r e n c e s ,
53.
F i n a l l y , we a r e c o n v e n i n g a h i g h l e v e l g r o u p of t h o s e who h a v e
e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f i n a n c i n g of programmes n a t i o n a l l y ,
internationally,
bilaterally
t o s e e how b e s t t o o r g a n i z e and a d m i n i s t e r
and
the
f i n a n c i n g of t h e programmes t h a t v / i l l a r i s e o u t of t h e P l a n of Action,
t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
VJe a l s o hope on t h i s o c c a s i o n t o
determine
w i t h some more p r e c i s i o n t h e o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e of t h e f u n d s i n v o l v e d ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y for the i n i t i a l period,
i n 1978.
t h a t i s the seven years
beginning
Our p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e of t h e o u t s i d e f i g u r e r e q u i r e d
i n t h e r e g i o n of f o u r b i l l i o n d o l l a r s ,
a l t h o u g h I h a s t e n t o add
t h i s would o n l y i n p a r t c a l l f o r n e t a d d i t i o n a l
can f o r e s e e as b e i n g
available.
is
that
f u n d s o v e r t h o s e we
^ 11+ -
3k.
Additional a c t i v i t i e s ,
in preparation f o r the Conference, are
the
i n f o r m a t i o n conipaign, t h e workshop p l a n n e d t o f o l l o v / t h e C o n f e r e n c e
where n a t i o n a l o f f i c e r s d e a l i n g w i t h programmes of
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n would meet t o
combatting
d i s c u s s ways and means of
implementing
t h o s e r e s o l u t i o n s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e meant f o r i m m e d i a t e
implementation.
The l a s t o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i s t h e p l a n n i n g f o r N o n - G o v e r n m e n t a l
Organizations to play a s i g n i f i c a n t role in the preparations f o r
C o n f e r e n c e and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of i t s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .
the
Also a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e , we i n UNÉP, t h r o u g h b u r
t r a i n i n g c e n t r e i n Madrid f o r S p a n i s h s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s
w i l l s h o r t l y be h o l d i n g j o i n t l y w i t h lADIZA i n Mendoza,
(CIFCA),
Argentina,
a c o u r s e on t h e e c o l o g y of t h e e c o s y s t e m s of a r i d and s e m i - a r i d
of L a t i n A m e r i c a .
areas
I am s u r e my c o l l e a g u e s w i l l b r i e f you f u l l y on
a l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i f you s o wish;,
55.
I now come. L a d i e s and G e n t l e m e n ,
f o r from t h e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g s .
t o t h e q u e s t i o n of v/hat úe Gc-.n l o
These m e e t i n g s a r e h e l d i n accordance
w i t h t h e G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n which r e q u e s t e d " a s p a r t of
p r e p a r a t o r y p r o c e s s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h
Governments c o n c e r n e d - . . ( a n d ) . . .
in co-operation with the
56.
the
regional
c o m m i s s i o n s , t e c h n i c a l m e e t i n g s a t t h e r e g i o n a l and s u b r e g i o n a l
as
the
levels
appropriate".
These m e e t i n g s a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l o c c a s i o n s on w h i c h we c a n s h a r e
o u r t h o u g h t s w i t h G o v e r n m e n t s i n t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s on t h e
preparations
f o r t h i s i m p o r t a n t C o n f e r e n c e and l e a r n f r o m t h e i r a p p o i n t e d
specialists
t h e i r viev/s on t h e a p p r o a c h we a r e t a k i n g t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e .
particular,
In
we w i l l r e v i e w t h e main d o c u m e n t s and p r o p o s a l s f o r
the
U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w h i l e t h e s e p a p e r s
are
s t i l l at a formative
57.
stage.
B a s i c a l l y , we a r e e x p e c t i n g t h r e e t h i n g s f r o m t h e
meetings:
regional
•
( i ) An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e g i o n ' s own e x p e r i e n c e , a s
reflected
i n i t s c o u n t r y p a p e r s , and any v i e w s t h a t t h e G o v é r n m e ñ t s
wish to e x p r e s s ,
i n o r d e r t o e n l a r g e o u r knowledge of
the processes related to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
consequences,
have.
all
i t s c a u s e s and
and t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n we a l r e a d y
- 15 -
( i i ) V/e want t o know how t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e r e g i o n s e e t h e P l a n of
A c t i o n , what r e f i n e m e n t s t h e y iirould l i k e t o s e e i n i t .
want you i n t h i s m e e t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e ,
f o r m a t and p o s s i b i l i t i e s
Action»
We
to discuss f u l l y the
f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e P l a n of
We v/ant you t o i d e n t i f y f o r u s v/hat w i t h i n y o u r
r e g i o n r e q u i r e s i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n and c o u l d be a c h i e v e d
at
the national or regional l e v e l s within the c a p a b i l i t i e s
t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d and t h e l i m i t s of
international support.
reasonable
To p u t i t a n o t h e r way, we want you t o
h e l p a s e n s u r e t h a t t h e P l a n of A c t i o n i s s o u n d ,
and a c h i e v a b l e and n o t s i m p l y a l i s t
and w i s h f u l
of
feasible
of l o f t y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o
thinking,
( i i i ) We a l s o want t o knovj t h e v i e w s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t s
concerned
i n e a c h r e g i o n on t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s t o which t h e y a r e
p a r t i e s ; p a r t i c u l a r l y we want t o know w h e t h e r t h e G o v e r n m e n t s
concerned intend to s t a r t implementing the
transnational
a c t i v i t i e s b e f o r e t h e C o n f e r e n c e so t h a t t h e y c a n r e p o r t
t h e C o n f e r e n c e on t h e s t e p s a l r e a d y
58.
to
taken.
I n c o n c l u s i o n , may I e m p h a s i z e t h a t h i g h h o p e s a r e p i n n e d on
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r meeting to set the tone f o r the o t h e r three
regional
meetings.
exchange
I l o o k f o r t h a t f r a n k , c r i t i c a l and c o n s t r u c t i v e
of vievis w h i c h i s t h e
h a l l m a r k of m e e t i n g s of e x p e r t s .
I
sincerely
hope t h a t you w i l l r e a c h c o n c r e t e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t h a t may be r e f l e c t e d
i n o u r f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e P l a n of A c t i o n and i n o u r o t h e r
preparations f o r the Conference.
Your t a s k i s d i f f i c u l t , and t h e
i s s h o r t , but I have u t t e r c o n f i d e n c e i n your e x p e r t i s e i n t h e
and i n y o u r a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e o u r common g o a l s .
time
field,
REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS
I n f o r m a t i o n Document NQ-l
O r g a n i z a t i o n of work
1.
Officers
Chairman
Mro C a r l o s A l b e r t o D u l c i c
(Chile)
Vice-Chairmen
.^r.
Rapporteur
2.
3»
^
Belloni
M y . , A l e j a n d r o Quesada R a m i r e z
(Costa Rica)
Mr« D i l l a r d Ho G a t e s ( U n i t e d S t a t e s )
Mr, G u s t a v o A. v a n G e l d e r e n ( A r g e n t i n a )
Hours
9:30'to
12:30
2:30 to
k'.OO
h:30 to
6:30
R u l e s of
Procedure
Normal r u l e s of t h e Economic Commission f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a
'f. •
Wednesday 23 F e b r u a r y
9 : 3 0 t o 1 1 : 0 0 - M e e t i n g of Heads of
Delegations
1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 ~ S t a t e m e n t s by Mr. E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s ,
E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ECLA
G e n e r a l M a r i o Mac-Kay, M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e ,
Chile
D r . M o s t a f a K, T o l b a , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r ,
UNEP ( i n h i s c a p a c i t y a s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l
of t h e C o n f e r e n c e )
2:30 to
^
6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m 4
Overview of c a s e s t u d i e s and maps t o be
d i s c u s s e d ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by
Prof. Kassas, Assistant to the SecretaryGeneral of the C o n f e r e n c e )
Country s t a t e m e n t s
As a p p r o v e d by t h e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g of Heads o f
?7-2-OifOO-
Delegations.
- 2 -
5.
Thursday 24 February .
9:30 to 12:30 - Continue discussion of agenda item 4
2:30 to
:i
6.
6:30 - Agenda item 5
Summary of feasibility studies (15 minute
presentation by Dr. Karrar, Assistant to
the Secretary-General of the Conference)
Monitoring in South America (10 minute
presentation by Dr. Karrar)
Plan of Action (20 minute presentation by
Dr. Rosahov)
Discussion of Plan of Action and specific
recommendations
Friday 25 February
9:30 to 12:30
Continue discussion of agenda item 5
2:30 to
If necessary, continue discussion of agenda
item 5 and, when concluded, take up item 3
Presentation by Mr, Ralph Townley, Director
of the Secretariat of the United Nations
6:30
Additional background documents
(including UNITAR study and p i A S
study on Drought and Man)
Arrangements by the Conference
(including information campaign, postCoriférénce workshop for implementation
of Action Plan sind involvement of
non-governmental organizations
Saturday 26 February
11:00 to 12:30 - Adoption of the report of the Meeting, which
is to consist of five pages of generally
agreed topics. Some countries may have
specific considerations;and récommendations
which could be added as annexes
I n f o r m a t i o n Document NQ 1 / R e v . l
O r g a n i z a t i o n of work
1.
Officers
Chairman
Mr, C a r i o s A l b e r t o D u l c i c
(Chile)
Vice-chairmen
Mr. A l e j a n d r o Quesada R a m i r e z
(Costa Rica)
Mr, D i l l a r d Ho Gatfes ( U n i t e d S t a t e s )
R a p p o r t e iur
2.
'
Belloni
A l b e r t o E m i l i o Montbrun
(Argentina)
Hours
9:30 to 12:30
2:30 to
k:30
3.
R u l e s of
to
k:00
6:30
Procedure
Normal r u l e s of t h e Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America
Wednesday 23 F e b r u a r y
9 : 3 0 t o 1 1 : 0 0 - M e e t i n g of Heads of
Delegations
1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 - S t a t e m e n t s by Mr. E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s ,
E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ECLA
G e n e r a l M a r i o Mac-Kay, M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e
Chile
D r . M o s t a f a K. T o l b a , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r ,
UNEP ( i n h i s c a p a c i t y a s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l
of t h e C o n f e r e n c e )
2:30 to
ft/
6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m k
Overview of c a s e s t u d i e s and maps t o be
d i s c u s s e d ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by
Prof. Kassas, Assistant to the SecretaryG e n e r a l of t h e C o n f e r e n c e )
Country s t a t e m e n t s
As a p p r o v e d by t h e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g of Heads of
77-2-OifOO-
Delegations.
- 2 -
T h u r s d a y Zk F e b r u a r y
.9:30 t o Í 2 : 3 Ó - C o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of a g e n d a i t e m ^
2:30 to
>
6«
6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m 5
Summary of f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s ( 1 5 m i n u t e
p r e s e n t a t i o n by D r . K a r r a r , A s s i s t a n t t o
t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l of the Conference)
M o n i t o r i n g i n S o u t h America ( 1 0 m i n u t e
p r e s e n t a t i o n by D r . K a r r a r )
P l a n of A c t i o n ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by
Dr. Rosanov)
D i s c u s s i o n of P l a n of A c t i o n and s p e c i f i c
recommendations
F r i d a y 25 F e b r u a r y
9:30 to
12:30
2:30 to
6:30
C o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of a g e n d a i t e m 5
I f n e c e s s a r y , c o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of agenda
i t e m 5 a n d , when c o n c l u d e d , t a k e up i t e m 3
P r e s e n t a t i o n by Mr. R a l p h Townley, D i r e c t o r
of t h e S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s
C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
,
A d d i t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d documents
, ( i n c l u d i n g ÜNITAR s t u d y and IFIAS
s t u d y on D r o u g h t and Han)
A r r a n g e m e n t s by t h e C o n f e r e n c e
( i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n campaign, p o s t C o n f e r e n c e workshop f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o r
o f A c t i o n P l a n ^ñd i n v o l v e m e n t of
non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s
7.
S a t u r d a y 26 F e b r u a r y
1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 - A d o p t i o n of t h e r e p o r t of t h e M e e t i n g , which
i s t o c o n s i s t of f i v e p a g e s of g e n e r a l l y
agreed t o p i c s .
Some c o u n t r i e s may have
s p e c i f i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
which c o u l d be added a s a n n e x e s
ADDRESS DELIVERED BY GENERAL MARIO MAC-KAY JARAQUEMADA,
MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE, AT THE UNITED NATIONS
CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL
PREPARATORY METING FOR THE AMERICAS,
: . SANTIAGO, 23 FEBRUARY 1977
It is a source Qf deep satisfaction to the people and tH'e'
Government of Chile that their country should have the honour of
serving as the venue for the United" Nations Conference on
Desertification - Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas. V/e
extend our warmest welcome to the; distinguished delegations of fhe
various countries represented here, to the high officials of the
.
United Nîtions and to all those who. are ooiuing us on an occasion
when the serious problem of the desertic or semi'-desertic areas-'is
to be studied with a view to drawing:up a programme of specific '
action for their control or recovery?; :
-i'
?
Since the very dawn of the history of man such processes of
deterioration of his lands have taken place, with disastrous
consequences.
The earth is full of dumb witnesses to these
happenings, and if we could acquire a thorough knowledge of how and
why they have come about, we should perhaps be able to forestall
similar phenomena.
Vie do know, of course, that it is man himself vtho is largely
responsible for the devastation of land that once v;as fertile.
Today no one can remain indifferent to the fact, still less to the
imperative necessity of making a study in depth of the arid regions
and the process of their encroachment, in order to discover methods
of control v/hich will not affect their intrinsically delicate ecology»
The United Nations could not have taken a more praiseviorthy
step, considering that almost one-third of the earth's whole surface
is desertic or semi-desertic, and that fifteen per cent of its
population live - if that is the right word - in those regions.
77-2-0597
- 2 -
Chile too has a large and important aff'ected area, and can
well understand the world significance of the problem with which
we are concerned.
It is by joining forces, on a regional and world
scale, with complete* exchange of information, that'we shall be able
to attain the United Nations' objective: the d'rawing-up of a plan
of action to combat desertification.
i
V/e are presenting to this meeting a caise: study of the existing
situation in an area in Chile, which we hope will help to serve ends
pursued here.
• <
'
' :
In welcoming you to the present meeting,' we should like to
wish you a pleasant stay in our country, arid, above all, every
success in obtaining positive results that M i l signify a valuable
contribution to the World Conference in Nairobi.
Thank you very much
IÍEGIONAL PREPAEATOEY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS
Santiago, Chile, 23-26 February 1977
STATEMENT BY MR. ENRIQUE V, IGLESIAS,
EXÉCUTIVE SECRETARY OF CEPAL, AT THE OPENING MEETING
It is a great pleasure for us in CEPAL to have this opportunity
of collaborating with the United Nations Environment Programme, to
which the General Assemblj'' entrusted the organization of the Conference
on Desertification, in the holding of this Regional Preparatory
Meeting for the Americas which represents a further step in the
series of joint activities undertaken by our tiirc agencies.
The f u n d a m e n t a l p u r p o s e
where t h e c o u n t r i e s
so t h a t
of
of
this
meeting is
t h e r e g i o n c a n exchange e x p e r i e n c e
t h e y can t a k e p a r t
in a better-informed
t r u e r e g i o n a l a p p r o a c h j.n t h e W o r l d C o n f e r e n c e
which i s
t o be h e l d i n
ro s e r v e as a
forum
and v i e w s
manner and v ; i t h a
on
Desertification
Nairobi.
With this nev; conference, the United Nations is pursuing its
task of tackling the main problems which affect the deveD.opment and
well-being of mankind.
Closely related as it is with the subjects
discussed at the Conferences on Water and on Science and Technology,
the problem of desertification was an aspect which could not be left
aside.
The distinguished Executive Director of the United Nations
Environment Programme, whom we are honoured to have here with us
today, will deal more fully with the objectives and organization
of the VJorld Conference on Desertification and v/ill thus provide
us with the frame of reference of the present Regional Preparatory
Meeting.
For my part, I simply wish to stress CEPAL's interest in
adding its efforts to those of the Governments, so that this Meeting
may produce a realistic view of the problems of the arid and semi-arid
77-2-0378-80
- 2 -
zones in America.
This, together with the contributions of the
other regions, will provide a concrete basis for the work of the
World Conference.
The CEPAL secretariat is particularly interested in desertification.
This could hardly be otherwise, considering that roughly 25 per cent
of the region's area is arid or semi-arid and to a greater or lesser
extent exposed to the process of desertification.
Despite the fact
that it is the continent with the greatest water resources, South
America also has some of the world's most arid areas,, and among the
countries of the region there are some, such as Argentina and Mexico,
whose area is more than 60 per cent ,arid or serai-arid.
CEPAL has not, to date, undertaken any specific activity on
desertification, but it has touche<^ indirectl^y on some of the
questions which form the subject of this Meeting in its studies on
the development of v;ater resources, and on socio-economic development
in general.
The arid and semi-arid zones of Latin America
I shall now venture to outline the situation and extension;
of the arid and semi-arid Kones in our region and the risk they run
of undergoing desertification processes.
These zones fall into four,
main areas: north-western Mexico; the extreme North of South America
(La Guajira and north-western Venezuela) also Including the
neighbouring islands; north-western Brasil; and the great diagonal
desert covering south-western Ecuador, the Peruvian coast, northern
Chile, the, Bolivian altiplano and, north-western, v/estern centrsil and
southern central Argentina.
In addition, much of Chilean and
Argentine Patagonia is semi-arid, although its characteristics are
very different from those of the above areas.
In these zones the risk of undergoing a process of desertification
ranges from very high in-hilly land where population pressures are
heavy, as in much of Mexico and the foothills of the Andes, to .
rather remote in the sparsely populated plains such as the Chaco
(Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay) or Patagonia.
The stable natural
deserts of Baja California, the Peruvian coast and northern Chile are
- 3 -
another m a t t e r :
because o f c l i m a t o l o g i c a l
i s not r e v e r s i b l e ^
and t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e
from s o u r c e s s i t u a t e d o u t s i d e
All
these zones,
development
factors
the
however,
the countries
is
the
to b r i n g i n
productive
for
On t h e c a u s e s o f
The p e r i o d i c
s h a r e a common problem»
n e e d t o make use o f a l l
future
their
recurrence
of drought w i t h
its
at
the
c a r r i e d out»
generally less
despite
that
available
there
the l i v e s t o c k ,
its
Furthermore,
importance
in
since
to survive,
fertile
of
the droughts
during
destroy
the
because
the
erosion
year I960-1969
alone
the d i r e c t
current
Ox h y d r o e l e c t r i c
is
the
estimated that
losses
i n the
values;
if
power and t h e
one c a n a p p r e c i a t e
f r e q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y
i n advance
(water
r e g i o n s because
in
of periods
the necessary precautions
north
in
of
sectors
losses
studying
o f d r o u g h t so" as -co
to reduce
the
the
addition
indirect
the value
of
agricultural
t h e l o s s e s s u s t a i n e d by t h e m i n i n g and i n d u s t r i a l
r e p r e s e n t e d by unsown f i e l d s
soil,
great
D u r i n g the severe drought which ravaged
because o f t h e s h o r t a g e
the l i k e l y
the
themselves are a problem of
s e c t o r amounted t o US5? 1 7 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a t
one c o n s i d e r s
been
elements.
and c e n t r e o f C h i l e betv;een 1 9 6 8 and 1 9 7 0 i t
agricultural
meteorological
betvreen
is
groat
conclusions
the agents o f
t h e c o u n t r i e s w h i c h have s e m i - a r i d
t h e damage c a u s e d .
it
to
cycles
s t u d i e s w h i c h have
c o v e r . w h i c h does n o t r e g e n e r a t e
once exposed t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n
and w i n d ) l o s e s
definite
is a relationship
i n order
economic
i n the
since climatic
than 100 y e a r s ,
the i n t e r e s t i n g
Nevertheless,
vegetable
their
of the region
particularly
However,
f r e q u e n c y o f d r o u g h t and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ,
droughts
highest
sequel of
the c l i m a t o l o g i s t s
i n S o u t h America»
c a n n o t be d r a w n ,
take
resources,
e x t r e m e l y l o n g and t h e p e r i o d c o v e r e d by e x i s t i n g
observation is
their
desertification
trend of diminishing r a i n f a l l ,
diagonal desert
may t e
For
generations.
l o s s and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s has l e d
study the
water
o f use c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e n e e d t o c o n s e r v e
potential
itself
area.
and t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s s h o u l d be e x p l o i t e d
possible l e v e l
desert
damage.
- /f -
; The semi-arid areas a:re subject to droughts periodically and
inevitably, but man has sufficient ingenuity to be able to find,a
way of developing and selecting the. necessary measures in good time
to prévent thesé'critical periods from turning into catastrophes. .
; Although it is true - that the destructive;cycle which leads to
desertification begihs in periods of droughty it is man's persistence
ill overexploiting areas of limited productivity and the lack of
knowledge of the appropriate technology which lead,to desertification
as such.
Social and dethógraphic aspects
In the areas of Latin America which are most affected by the
desertification process there is a combination of various elements»
In the first place.the semi-arid areas and especially those situated
on mountain slopes have exceptionally mild climates and . have alv;ays
been free of malaria, yellow fever and other endemic diseases, so
that as a result these areas were the first to be settled and worked
by many generations.
This demographic pressure, combined v;ith the
topographical conditions typical of the sierras, makes the land highly
vulnerable to erosion.
The introduction of the goat, with its
indiscriminate grazing habits, considerably acceleiâtes the process.
: '
Mining, the main source of income of some arid areas, hais led to
the felling of forests so as to use .the wood for props and fuel, thus
adding a.new.factor to the desertification process»
The very antiquity of the human settlements in these,areas
explains why types of social organization and land ownership which
differ considerably from those prevailing in the remainder-of the
various countries still subsist, and,this adds an additional difficulty
to the solution of. their problems.
,
In addition to this phenomenon there is the need.tp subsist of
the people who inhabit the semi-arid areas, and it would not be
.
realistic merely to indicate the need to avoid overexploiting these
areas-or the measures to replant vegetation without•solving the
problem of the subsistence of their rinhabitants.
.
,
-
Desertification
of
i s n o t so much a p r o b l e m o f k n o w l e d g e as one
t h e . l a c k of resources
proposing v i a b l e
the world,
for explaining
alternative
and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
strategies
conditions.
cases,
but
resources which the c o u n t r i e s
It
is
thus extremely
the study of
Ecological
cultural
w i t h the
as i n t h e r e s t
the transformation of
are not always
the
desert
investment
in a position
of
of
to
major
devote
important
the demographic,
of
o r 15 p e r c e n t o f
it
use o f
soils
was s u b j e c t
is applicable
is reported
that
the
of
end o f
to
species of l i t t l e
hectares,
serious
and i t
is
t h e r e g i o n as a
the previous
it
may be o b s e r v e d t h a t
o r no v a l u e
remain.
I n Ecuador
p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h u s e d t o be o b t a i n e d
p e n i n s u l a and t h e s o u t h - e a s t
this
the cradle
in
to
t h e 25 m i l l i o n
f o r a g e p l a n t s have a l m o s t become e x t i n c t
s e e i n g how,
vegetation
hectares
century,
remain.
I n the north of C h i l e
d e s o l a t i o n of
and
to the Plan H a c i o n a l H i d r á u l i c o
o f hardihood f o r e s t s p r o s p e c t e d a t
agricultural
behavioural
I n Mexico 50 m i l l i o n
territory,
t h e same p r o p o r t i o n
I n Argentina
species of
the
areas.
the r e g i o n .
the n a t i o n a l
e r o s i o n i n 1969 a c c o r d i n g
o n l y 16 m i l l i o n
on t h e agenda o f
s o c i a l and
these
the inappropriate
can be o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h o u t
estimated that
to include
damage
The e f f e c t s
their
i n accordance
this, involves
a s p e c t s o f t h e p e o p l e who i n h a b i t
Lara,
and
areas.
Conference
whole.
t h e e x i s t i n g knowledge
V/ithin the r e g i o n ,
t h e r e a r e many e x a m p l e s o f
areas i n t o v e r i t a b l e
to these
5 -
region.
of
the
indigenous
and o n l y
the
vegetable
abundant
i n the Santa
r e g i o n may be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e
I n Venezuela
first
t h e v/ake o f
the
the s t a t e s
s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s of
the herds o f g o a t s ,
Elena
current
o f F a l c o n and
this
erosion is
country,
are
destroying
soils.
I n the areas of s t a b l e
deserts l i f e
v a l l e y s which cross
them and a r e
the nigh c o r d i l l e r a
or from o t h e r v a l l e y
transverse
channels.
alongside v a l l e y s
is
concentrated
in
i r r i g a t e d w i t h v/ater e i t h e r
T h i s means t h a t
which are always
b a s i n s by means
areas of
green.
total
the
from
of
desert
are
found
' -
Highly
these
types of
arise,
'
specialized
valleys,
-
technology
i s needed to s u c c e s s f u l l y
s i n c e piroblems o f s o i l
and t h e r e g i o n has had some b i t t e r
It
is
irrigation
interesting
jointly
from the p o i n t
a very high a g r i c u l t u r a l
the l a c k
obtain several
agricultural
completely
At
t h e same t i m e ,
output
from t h i s
crops a y e a r ;
product
i n Peru,
from i r r i g a t e d
existing
of
the
Special
in
this
techniques
technological aspécts
other
Chilean experience
for
arid
in
the s a l t
provide
deserts
food f o r
i n the
the
of
zones,
research designed to
this
in
a
product
zones.
of
irrigated
valleys
and many
the
r e g i o n on v a r i o u s
in several
it
Among t h e
interest
the c u l t i v a t i o n
of
the
the n o r t h ,
zoê.
identify
w i t h a view to promoting t h e i r
cases
agencies
original
of
f o r e i g n species' s u i t e d
to
gross
which l i e
options,
is
in that
obtain
precisely
t o l e a r n about
zones;
t o mention
tamarugo,
reproduction,
to the c o n d i t i o n s
animal
the
foragé
as w e l l a s t h e
prevailing
growing
can
Also h i g h l y promising is
of
the
a tree
permitting a high
autochthonous'species
and
experiences
whose l e a v e s and b e r r i e s
s h e e p and' e v e n c a t t l e ,
population density
of
cultivation
to
zones
to a r i d
institutions.
in
sponsored
possible
30 p e r cent of
in
field.
related
crops i n a r i d
and
which
is possible
i s p r o v i d e d by U n i t e d N a t i o n s s p e c i a l i z e d
international
of s p e c i a l
it
50 per cent o f
interesting
Research i s being c a r r i e d out
assistance
scheme,
type of v a l l e y ,
r e g i o n w o u l d be i n t e r e s t e d
experience
these.
the environment
areas w i t h i n semi-arid
and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s r a i s e s
eásily
types of probléms
v/hich makes i t
I n Argef^^tiha,
cultivate
o u t i n P e r u on
comes f r o m t h e c o a s t a l v a l l e y s ,
The c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e
countries
of
(ADEMA) p r o j e c t
o f any r a i n y s e a s o n ,
desert area.
obtained
these
of view of
D e v e l o p m e n t and E n v i r o n m e n t
by UNEP and CEPALo
owing t o
experience
t h e c a s e o f t h e San L o r e n z o i r r i g a t i o n
has a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d
the W a t e r ,
salinization
to note the research c a r r i e d
s y s t e m s Which have p r e s e n t e d
in particular
is
6
in.the
bushes
introduction
region.
- 7 -
It
is also interesting
autochthonous
flourished
those
techniques
in arid
to noté
thé p o s s i b i l i t y
of
reviving
o í pre-Colombian c u l t u r e s which,
o r s e r a i - a r i d ¿i'eas', ' c o ü l d be e s p e c i a l l y
since
they
suited
to
zones»
As regards the use of solar energy for household purposes,
sotné interesting experiments are being tnade.
In some desert areas,
as in the north of México and Chilej the atmosphere is completely
clear almost throughout the year, so that they offer great advantages
for the use of solar energy.
In other cases, as in some parts of the
Altiplano, wind energy can be used to raise water from the sub-soil.
Another question that has also been studied in the region is the use
of mists and dew both to obtain water for houEehold purposes and to
help restore the vegetable cover on coastal hillsidés.
In Peru, in
particular, interesting techuiques have been developed in this field.
íPilí^-tutional o:-f: in 1 za'':ion
The managom^Lt of aria and semi-arid regions (prone to
desertification) is soraowhat complex; it requires the co-ordination
of action and knov/lcdge in variours speciaD.tioP such as climatology,
ecology, soil management in the broadest meaning of the term, social
action in some cases at a very low educational level, and the
promotion of sometimes fairly complex techniques, all ti'iis under
the menace of periods of drought v;hen emergency me^^tjiires have to
be taken which in some cases may'mean delaying tá3 'ác tiort already
initiated.
Some special type of institutional organization is
necessary for the purpose.
There is evident interest in the region
in setting up commissions to co-ordinate the vrork of the various
institutions, either orJ.y during drought periods or on a more
continuous basis so that such disasters can be confronted with more
efficient preparation and a trained administrative structure.
In this field, too, it is extremely useful to learn about other
experiences in order to adopt the best measures and avoid failures.
We therefore v;elcome this venture of the United Nations aimed
at making a complete study of the many causes leading to desertification
and at disseminating appropriate information and experience not only
-
8
-
in order to arrest the advance of the desertification.process and
as .far- as possible reverse/it, but also to enable . the" inhabitants c.;
o f arid.and semi-arid zones to have mean& of subsistence and economic
incentives comparable with those of the inhabitants of other regions
in each country».. •:.
. Încluded in the agenda of this meeting is consideration-of the
draft Plan of Action proposed by the secretariat of the Conference.
We believe that this Plan should refle<yt the eoncerns. of the countries
of the region and lead,to specific proposals that will genuinely serve
their interestsi. The proposed draft is very broad in scope and not
,all its recommendations are necessarily.applicable to the region. Its
content should be reviewed at this .meeting and perhaps it will be
possible to devise a gx'oup of measures that will be of real significance
for Latin America.
Whatever the resorirces available for the future activities that
will havé to be undertake.?), as part óf the Plan of Action,, their success
will depend on the c r é a t i c n of artificial ecosystems designed within
the, restrictions imposerl by the lo'-ial environmental conditions of
•:each arid or semi-arid
i n the region.
The implementation of .the Plan' of Action will require the
co-ordinated efforts oi' the governments., the United .Nations family, of
institutions and other iy. terrea tiorba 1 ugencios.
CEPAL will be glad to
undertake the tasks assigned to it and will co--operate with all the
other institutions in .'seeking, solutions to the problems created by •
desertification.
It only' remains for me to reiterate the interest of this •
secretariat in the subject you are going to discuss.
The- contribution
of . your knówle.dgé about such difficult areas as arid . and semi-arid
zones will be tnost helpful to us in broadening. our view of both the
problems, themsdlves and the ways of solving them.
ÜNITiD NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
FOR THE AMERICAS
Conference Room Paper NQ 1
Proposal by the delegation of Costa Rica
It is proposed that out of respect for the integrity of the
Spanish language and as a basic reference for our future discussions
the term "desertificación" should be replaced in Spanish by
desertizacion, and that this term should be appropriately defined.
To
this end the delegation of Costa Rica ventures to suggest the following
definition:
DESERTIFICATION; (from desertum = desert)
Direct or indirect human activity which results in the diminution
or elimination of normal biological production in any part of the globe.
Desertification occurs equally on land, in salt or fresh waters and in
the atmosphere itself; in torrid, temperate and cold sectors, and in
ecological conditions ranging from typically arid to extremely fertile.
Desertification alters to a varying degree the climax of the ecosystem
in which it occurs, interrupting the normal phylogenetic process.
Its
action is always harmful to the biological environment most favourable
to man»
The fundamental causes of desertification include the following:
improper deforestation; overgrazing; mismanagement of agricultural land;
land-cleaning by burning; contamination; urbanization and other
infrastructural works.
To prohibit desertification wherever possible
and mitigate its harmful effects in all other cases is one of the
fundamental tasks of ecologists and planners.
77-2-0391
ÜNITiD NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
FOR THE AMERICAS
Conference Room Paper NS 2
Proposal submitted by the delegation of Costa Rica
Bearing in mind that the struggle against desertification in
degraded ecosystems includes the restoration and amelioration of the
flora and fauna; that, in ecologically similar but geographically
distant conditions, evolution has produced different useful animals
and plants which could be complementary for agricultural purposes;
and that the Himalayan (Pamir-Tibet-Kashmir etc.) and Andean (Altiplano,
intermontane valleys, etc.) mountain ranges are in such a position,
the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that this Meeting should request
FAO to promote exchanges of biological packages between Andean and
Himalayan experimental stations and agricultural extension centres»
These packages would include, on the one hand, llamas, alpacas,
vicuñas, pacovicuñas, guanacos, chinchillas, etc.,, in exchange for
yaks,
highland zebus, dzos, horses, sheep, kiangs, bharals, etc.;
and on the other, high altitude potatoes (imillas), ollucos, ocas,
quinoa, cañigua, tarhui, long-spiked wild barley, carretilla, huacatai,
tumbo, lucraa, molle, etc. in exchange for suitable forest and fodder
species, oats, barleys, peas, etc.
An exchange of this kind could
double the agricultural possibilities of both areas, with obvious
socio-economic benefits for the inhabitants of the two "Roofs of the
World" which are undergoing a process of desertification.
77-2-0409
ÜNITiDNATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
FOR THE AMERICAS
Since the time when the first herds of horses and cattle appeared
in the new continent, a process of desertification by overgrazing began.
In the course of four and a half centuries the adverse selection of
forage by the herds themselves has eliminated the soft and edible forage
plants in some areas, such as the altiplano of the Andes, so that their
place has been taken by secondary cover with such sharp spines that they
may even put out the eyes of the grazing cattle.
Overgrazing, for its part, has extended and intensified the aridity
of such desert or semi-desert areas as those on the borders of the
United States and Mexico.
Overgrazing is accompanied by excessive t r a m p l i n g and the two
phenomena lead to compression of the soil and wir.d and water erosion.
In lateritic land with heavy rainfall, on hillsides and even in
plains, overgrazing has produced incongruous strips of quasi-desert.
The delegation of Costa Rica feels that it is unnecessary to go
into great detail on this subject since it is so well known to all, but
considers it advisable that the Meeting should recommend the countries
of America to take measures to arrest the overgrazing which extends
deserts and reduces forests in critical areas.
Such measures should be
aimed at obtaining more and better meat, milk, leather, wool and work
from considerably smaller areas than those currently used for grazing.
To this end the Meeting should recommend more liberal credit for: fencing
designed to reduce the area of grazing land; rotation of pasture land;
improvement of pastures; improved breeding of livestock; an increase in
the number of drinking-places; health; scientific timetables for cattle
management; experimentation and extension work; etc.
In this way large
areas could be released for intensive agriculture, the excessive pressure
on forests unsuitable for other purposes would be alleviated and the
process of desertification by overgrazing would be halted,
77-2-0403
1 . ;. • . 1•
FOR THE AMERICAS
Conference Room Paper NO k
In view of the fact that fire is one of the determining causes
of desertification^ although it apparently benefits certain types of
forest such as those of sequoias and certain types of pasture land
such as those of guinea grass; that it is a destructive and
uneconomic element, although it apparently assists the poorest
country dwellers in establishing their farms and deriving profit
from their lands; that the burning of forest or pasture land
generates temperatures at the soil level of around
kOOQ
C which
destroy the micro and macro organisms and disintegrate the colloids
and together with them the soil granulation and the optimum system
of base exchange; that it mineralizes the soil; that it favours the
leaching of useful soluble compounds and wind and xirater erosion;
and that it produces other types of serious damage v/hich strike
at the very basis of agricultural cultivation, the delegation of
Costa Rica proposes that the Meeting should suggest to the FAO that
it formulate the most effective dissemination procedures, to be
incorporated into the legislation of the countries involved with a
view to preventing and controlling all accidental or intentional
burning of vegetation which contributes to desertification or
reduces the natural fertility of the soils»
77-2-OkOk
FOR THE AMERICAS
Costa Rica
In view of the catastrophic levels being reached by indiscriminate
deforestation in the Third World countries, the delegation of
Costa Rica proposes that this assembly, through the FAO or directly,
should press the governments of the countries concerned to enforce
their forest legislation, modernize it or formulate it in order to
effectively secure, inter alia, the following goals:
lo
On hillsides and watersheds unsuitable for grazing or
agricultural purposes: to conserve forests, restore them, or at
the most, permit their rational exploitation only under strict
control.
2o
In all types of water basins: to maintain or restore the
forests, which prevent erosion, ensure the normal percolation of
rainfall and consequent maintenance of the underground water tables,
assist the natural recycling of the elements of fertility, reduce
the likelihood of destructive floods and silting in dams, correct
divergent water-courses and avert other negative consequences
caused by irrational deforestation»
3'
To maintain or restore strip forests along the rivers of
the steppes;
To establish a complementary and scientific rotation between
forests, pastures and arable land.
5»
To prohibit any use of forests which is not authorized by the
national body responsible for scientific forest administration.
77-2-0^05
FOR THE AMERICAS
Road and industrial facilities, urbanization and many other
infrastructural works which are unavoidable in achieving progress, are
converting considerable areas into desert at an increasing pace.
No less
than ^00 million hectares of the earth have been made waterproof in this
way.
Rain neither wets nor is retained by such soil and it runs off with
varying intensity towards the sea.
The 200 million metric tons which
the viorld's population weighs have replaced a much bigger tonnage of
plants and animals of the original ecosystems, and this is preventing
the natural return to the soil of an equally large quantity of waste
necessary for fertility and soil development.
Of the 2,000 million tons
of human excreta a year, plus a further large quantity of various kinds
of waste, a major part is carried to the sea, taJcing it away from the
soil to which it belongs and thus altering the neritic ecosystems in
particular.
The oxygen stored by micro-organisms for breaking down
this material asphyxiates enormous quantities of marine fauna, inverts
the vegetable/animal ratio of the biomass and, although there is a
greater abundance of phytoplajikton, reduces the possibilities of its
faunal utilization.
If to this we add the considerable and sometimes
definitive loss even of such immobile elements as assimilable phosphorus,
which is carried to the bottom of the sea, the problem becomes even more
serious.
On the basis of the alarming developments in connexion xirith these
facts, the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that this meeting should
bring pressure to bear on governments and on the sources of international
credit so that they will introduce or intensify the treatment and
agricultural use of waste waters and will as far as possible reduce the
unnecessary desertification caused through urbanization and other
related works.
77-2-0if06
ÜNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
Santiago, Chile, 23-26 February, 1977
Conference Room Paper _Na _7
Item 3
Arrangements for the United Nations
A STATUS REPORT ON THE LINKS BETl>/EEN THE UNITED
NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE (l4-25 MARCH, 1977 AT
MAR DEL PLATA, ARGENTINA) AND THE UNITED NATIONS
CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION
A NOTE
BY
ALAGAPPA ALAGAPPAN
(United Nations V/ater Conference
and CNRET representative)
23 February, 1977
77-2-0'H'f
-
1.
A Secretariat colleague remarked today that the count down
has begun for the United Nations Water Conference to begin from
Ik March 1977 until 25 March 1977 at Mar del Plata, Argentina,
This Conference will be of particular interest to participants
ot
t h i s r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y meet'inig f o r
on
Desertification.
2.
the United Nations
Conference
The Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference
Mr» Yahia Abdel Mageed, former Minister of Irrigation and
Hydroelectric power of Sudan has requested me to convey his greetings
to all members of this group and to state that the United Nations
Water Conferencé will transmit a report on Desertification with
recommendations of relevance to the United Nations Desertification
Conference»
This report will be dráwn from the documentations
prepared for the United Nations Water Conference both at the regional
and global levels.
A perusal of the récommendat-ións of the regional
preparatory meetings indicates that they do deal with some subjects
of central concern to the United Nations Desertification Conference.
These include especially, droughts mitigation, conservation and
efficient use of water, etc.
Attention of this group is especially
invited to the cotnprehensive report of the regional preparatory
meeting of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean for the
United Nations Water Corife-rence held at Lima, Peru, from 30 August
t o '3 September 1 9 7 6 .
3"
(E/Conf,70/5.)
The ECOSOC in its resolution 1979 (LIX) of 31 July 1975
specified that links be established between the United Nations
Water Conference and the United Nations Desertification Conference.
This resolution requested the Secretary General of the United Nations
Water Conference to ensure that throughout the process of the
preparatory work for the United Nations Water Conference full
co-ordination with the preparatory v/ork for the Desertification
Conference in order to ensure that there is no duplication at all
but the fullest
co-ordination and complementarity. In accordance
with this resolution, the United Nations Water Conference Secretary
General has made efforts to co-ordinate with the Secretary General
2 -
of the United Nations Conference oh .DeB'irtifination through the
exchange of information and periodic meetings between the two
secretariats.
Representatives of tie ÍJnited Nations Water Conference
have attended the meetings of the Inter-agency Task Force which has
assisted the preparation of the Desertification Conference.
Representatives of UNEP have participated in meetings of the ACC
Sub-Committee .on Water Resources Developtiient which has co-ordinated
the contributions of the United Nationis system to the V/ater
Conference.
k.
'
Some, of the objectives of the United Nations Water Conference
such as organization of national water committees and regional
preparatory meetings have been accoriiiplished.
The Secretary General
of the United Nations Water Conference wishes to record his
appreciation to the UNEP for the assistance received in planning
and finsincing the regional preparatory meetings to the United Nations
Water Conference.
5.
The documentation now available to the United Nations Water
Conference include the'"Consolidated actian recommendations"
(E/Conf.70/9), which brings together and synthesisek all action
proposals approved by Governments at the five regional preparatory
meetings held under the auspices of each of the regional-commissions
during the second half of 1976. (E/Conf.70A to E/Conf.70/8. )
6.
The Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference
in order to draw attention of the world to some of the key problems
took the initiative to have the following reports issued as indicated
below:
(a) "Water for Agriculture" prepared' by the United Nations
Water .Conference Secretariat and FAO. ;
(b) "Community Water Supply and Sanitation" prepared by .
WHO in- co-operation with the IBRD.
(c) "Technical co-operation among developing countries in
the water sector" prepared in co-operation with the CNRET.
- 3 -
(d) "Network, resources and training requirements on water
assessment" prepared in co-operation with UNESCO and WMO.
7»
In addition the major documents that have been prepared as
background material for the Conference are:
(a) "Resources and Needs: Assessment of the World Water
Situation" (E/Coñf.70/CBP/l)o
(b) "Promise of Technology: Potential and Limitations"
(c) "Policy options" (E/Conf.70/CBP/3).
Mention must be made of the report of the ACC and the EC3 "Present
and Future Activities of the United Nations System in Water
Resources Development" (E/Conf.70/CBPA).
8.
Member Governments have presented more than 230 thematic
papers covering a broad range of technical arid policy experience.
An overview summary and analysis of these papers has also been
issued indicating the gaps as well.
9.
At the request of the Water Conference Secretariat some
important reports have been prepared including "Water Law and
Legislation: How to use them to obtain optimum results from
Water Resources" by Mr. Guillermo J. Cano; "The Design and Evaluation
of Institutional Arrangements for Water Planning and Management"
by Prof. Charles V. Home and "Non-conventional water resources: some
advances in their development" by Mr. M. Kantor.
A special session
was organized by the International Association for Water Law at
Caracas, in February 1976 to support the United Nations Water
Conference.
The IWRA held a special congres?: at New Delhi from
12-15 December 1975 on a special theme "Water for Human Needs" and
recommendations emanating from this congress have also been made
available.
Of special interest is the report of the IWRA on
"Appropriate technology for water resources development".
The Centre
for National Resources, Energy and Transport in co-operation with the
Government of Hungary have issued tiiro volumes covering the proceedings
sind documentation of the Seminars on River Basin and Inter-basin
Development held in Budapest in September 1975.
As a supplementary
activity the Government of Argentina through its National Commission
- if -
is organizing a series of Ik scientific and tnchnical meetings
on important themes covering the spec;trum of water resources
subjectso
10.
The preparations for the United Nations Water Conference have
been initiated and supervised by the Committee on Natural Resources
which has also acted as the Preparatory:Committee for the Conference
and held a special second session for this purpose in early 1977»
11.
The United Nations Water Conference is endeavouring to promote
a level of preparedness at all levels, nationally, regionally and
internationally.
Integrated water management and formulation of
appropriate national water policy in each ,casfe is the aim.
Much
effort has gone into the preparations for the United Nations Water
Conference by Member Governments» the United Nations system of
organizations and non-governmental organizations, co-operation of
the two Conference Secretariats h^s helped,-to achieve better results.
FOR THE AMERICAS
Ajgenda item_ 3
A NOTE BY ALAGAPPA ALAGAPPAN REPRESENTA:?T.VE OF THE
UNITED NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE GECRÜITMRIAT
AND THE CSî•TRE FOR NATURAL RESOUiUKS. ENERGY
AND TRANSPORT
77-2>Oif33
- 1 -
1«
A global United Nations Conference on Technical Co-operation
Among Developing Countries is to be convened by UKDP in Argentina
from 27 March to 7 April 1978.
The concepts and mechanisms that are
currently being developed for this Conference will be of interest
especially under Section
F, Strengthening of Indigenous Science
and Technology and also probably under Sections G, H and I depending
upon the type of actions the Desertification Conference wishes to
take.
It is recommended that the scope for TCDC in desertification be
assessed and steps be taken to initiate actions in this field.
2.
An improved information base and exchange of experience among
the concerned developing countries is a first step to be taken.
Where research centres and institutes highly specialized in some
of the concerned disciplines exist within a developing country or
within a region they aay be designated as Ic-r.d afcr.cies to collect
and disseminate infor-a^tion.
Division of laboui- among the institutes
and institutional arranger.;ents to ensure a regular and continuous
flow of reliable data will be of value.
3»
An inventory of research, education and training facilities
that already exist and the extent to which these can be shared
with other developing countries will be of practical value.
ko
A roster of experts at the national, sub-regional and regional
levels should be established.
Where appropriate, consideration
should be given to the promotion of national consultancy firms.
5.
Joint programmes may be developed among neighbouring countries
having common problems.
6o
A pilot project may be established for a region at the request
of the countries concerned by forming a group of experts from within
the countries concerned as far as possible to travel from country
to country within the region and:
- 2 -
Ca) Establish the needs .and matqh the capabilities of the
countries through a detailed on-the*-spot study of the situations
and;'"'
^
.
'
.
(b) Help the countries to. v/ork out arrangements for the '
joint utilization of technical personnel and other.^resources
available,
7.
:
The CNRET will be glad, if called upon, to co-operate in
implementing the above ideas.
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON,DESERTIFICATION
Conferencé Room Paper NQ 10
The delegation of Costa Rica, taking up a suggestion by the
representative of H A S , has the honour to submit the following
proposal:
Bearing in mind:
(a) The importance of the arid and semi-arid zones of Latin
America.
(b) The need to promote basic and applied research aimed at:
(i) acquiring knowledge about the components of the ecosystems of
such zones, including questions relating
to the inhabitants of
those areas, the social structure in which they have organized
themselves and their economic motivations; (ii) learning the
interrelations between those components; (iii) determining suitable
action to be taken in order, as appropriate to protect the existing
productive capacity, increase that capacity, and develop management
systems for the intensive and continous use of the resources.
(c) The desirability of adopting an integral approach in which
the physical, biological, economic and social circumstances typifying
each problem or situation which affects the fragile ecosystems of
arid and semi-arid regions are studied as inseparable factors.
(d) The pressing need to set up machinery at the Latin
American level to co-ordinate activities and exchange, assemble
and disseminate information in the region.
Recommends:
(a) That consideration be given to the possibility of setting
up a Latin American regional centre for the protection and
integrated development of arid and semi-arid areas, to work in close
co-operation with the national institutions preferably along the
lines of systems analysis and the development of models.
77-2-438-60
(b) That arrangements should be made for the functioning, as
part of such a centre^' of documeritatiqn éind information machinery
connected with the AGRIS and AGRINTER systems and directed towards
the collection, procéssing and disséminatioñ of information On arid
and semi-arid areas¿
(c) That the activities of the regional centre should also
include a training programme for Latin American technicians and
scientists who work in arid areas.
REGIONAL PREPARATOBY MEETING
FOR THE AMERICAS
Presented by the Delegation of Argentina
With reference to the remote monitoring programme, the Argentine
delegation stated that the Argentine Republic was not officiallyrepresented at the Lima meeting»
While it recognized the value of the
proposed system for monitoring desertification processes, the delegation
considered that that system could be vieii/ed as supplementary to other
means of combating desertification.
Moreover, no official information
had yet been given regarding the form and source of financing for the
project in question»
To sum up, the Argentine Republic's position is as follows:
(1) It recognizes the importance of the problem of desertification
and its priority with respect to other problems;
(2) It considers that the project in question is supplementary to
other more direct means of combating desertification;
( 3 ) There is no provision in the national plans for the financing
of such a project.
.i 'I,,-
FOR THE AMERICAS
Conference Room Paper NQ ll/Rev.l
Presented by the Delegation of Argentina
With reference to the remote monitoring programme, the Argentine
delegation stated that the Argentine Republic was not officiallyrepresented at the Lima meeting.
While it recognized the value of the
proposed system for monitoring desertification processes, the delegation
considered that that system could be viewed as supplementary to other
means of combating desertification.
Moreover, no official information
had yet been received regarding the form and source of financing for
the project in question.
To sum up, the Argentine Republic's position is as follows:
(1) It recognizes the importance of the problem of desertification
and its priority with respect to other problems;
(2) It considers that the project in question is supplementary to
other more direct means of combating desertification;
(3) There is no provision in the national plans for the financing
of such a project.
FOB THE AMERICAS
JPr.oposal by the delegation of Honduras
The delegation of Costa Rica has submitted for consideration
by this meeting a very sound proposal to change the term
"desertificacion" used up to now in the Spanish versions of
resolutions and other documents of the United Nations by the word
"Assertizacion".
The delegation of Honduras, which supports the Costa Rican
proposal, considers that the definition proposed for the word
"desertification", in referring only to direct or indirect human
action in diminishing or destroying normal biological production,
is somewhat restrictive since it excludes other possible causes of
desertification.
The delegation of Honduras therefore proposes the
following definition:
DESERTIFICATION; Red'iction or elimination of biological
production in any part of the globe.
77-2-Ohkk-kO
FOR THE AMERICAS
Observations by Dro Guillermo Adriasola, representative of the
International Planned Parenthood Federation, on the second preliminary
draft of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification
Chapter III~B - "Population and Health"
lo
Observations
It is suggested that questions relating to population should
be placed in a separate section from those relating to health, since
each of these subjects is sufficiently important to warrant a separate
section, their relations with aridity are very different, and the
programmes for the control of such relations are also different.
Thus, the study of population dynamics shoT/s that human
communities are both causes and victims of aridiiy.
They generate aridity through:
- excessive or faulty extraction and consumption
- pollution
- destruction of ecosystems
- a host of other actions
all of which are aggravated by over-population.
Differences in levels of health, in contrast, do not affect
aridity.
Aridity, for its part, causes migrations, changes in population
structures, want and misery, but it is only a secondary cause of
health problems.
2.
Suggestions
2.1 If it is decided to deal with the relation between aridity
and population in a separate section, this should enumerate the factors
which produce or condition aridity and should describe the grounds for
procedures designed to control such factors.
2o2 The section on Aridity and Health should include the
appropriate public health recommendations.
FOR THE AMERICAS
Conference Room Paper NQ Ik
With regard to the perusal, comments and proposed modifications
of the document DESCONF/AMERICAS/2, "Plan of Action to Combat
Desertification: Second preliminary draft" (item 5 of the provisional
agenda of the Preparatory Meeting for the Americas), the delegation
of Costa Rica considers it useful to propose:
lo
That in the light of the strictest planning criteria, the whole
document be reduced to a typical classified plan, in which only the
broad lines universally valid for the various aspects of the problem
of combatting desertification are sustained.
Each concept sustained
there should expressly or implicitly have the socio-economic and
scientific content required by any component of a plan.
2.
That all other ccncepts which are useful and not redundant be
included, according to their nature, in two appendixes: one on
programmes (indicating economic and technical resources, dates and
places) and the other on projects (relating to specific activities
in this field).
77-2-045^-^0
FOR THE AMERICAS
Convened by the Secretariat of the United Nations
Conference on Desertification in co-operation with
the Economic Commission for Latin America
Santiago, Chile, 23 - 26 February 1977
DRAFT REPORT
-
IIX
-
CONa?ENTS
Paragraphs
Opening meeting
1o.. o..c»
Adoption of the agenda o...,............»«<.<....
(Item if of the agenda)
Draft Plan of Action to Combat
Desertification (Item 5 of the agenda)
3
Page
1-
4
2
5
2
6 - l8
2
19-30
6
.
-
9
Annexes:
1.
Agenda
2.
List of participants
-
10
3.
List of documents
-
15
/Opening meeting
- 1 -
Opening meeting
1.
The meeting was opened by the Executive Secretary of the Economic
Commission for Latin America (CEPAL) who pointed out that in spite
of possessing the world's greatest water resources, Latin America
had four arid zones - northwest Mexico, northernmost South America,
northeast Brazil and the great diagonal desert running from southwest
Ecuador to southern Patagonia - as well as much land exposed to the
risks of ecological damage and desertification.
He said that the
draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification would be reviewed at
the meeting, which should help to make it "of real significance for
Latin America", and that CEPAL would be glad to undertake the tasks
assigned to it by the Plan of Action as utlimately approved»
2.
The Minister of Agriculture of Chile, General Mario Mackay
Jaraquemada, welcomed the participants on behalf of the people and
Government of Chile, a nation, he said, much concerned with the,
problems of its arid zones, which occupied 30 per cent of,the country.
3.
The Executive Director of the United Nations Environment .
Programme, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the Conference,
outlined the problem of desertification as a global issue whose
irapqrtance was brought home to the world by the
in the African Sahel.
196.7-1972 drought
In the course of the prepara,tions for the
Conference consensus had been reached among the scientific community
on various important points: that desertification was the result of
the interaction of man and an adverse environment; that the process
could .be halted by the proper use of present knov;ledge , and that the
key to the attack lay in proper land, use.
The Plan of Action
therefore stressed the need for action .now.
With emphasis on correct
land-use practices such as those endorsed by the scientific, studies
and investigations effected as part of the Conference preparations
and all culminating in the Plan of Action.
It was hoped that three
things would emerge from the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the
Americas: (i) an understanding of the region's own experience;
(ii) the improvement that the region v;ould like to see incorporated
in the Plan of Action, and (iii),the views of Governments on the
/feasibility studies
- 2 -
feasibility studies in which they were participating.
It v/as
also hoped that this regional meeting would set a frank and constructive
tone for those that followed.
k.
The meeting elected the following Officers:
Chairman: Carlos Alberto Dulcic Belloni (Chile)
First Vice-Chairman: Alejandro Quesada Ramirez (Costa Bica)
Second Vice-Chairman: Dillard H. Gates (United States)
Rapporteur: Alberto Emilio Montbruh (Argentina)
Adoption of the agenda
5.
The meeting adopted the Agenda reproduced in Annex 1.
Processes and causes of desertification (item ^ of the agenda)
6.
The Conference documentation,, reflecting an effort to assemble
the available knowledge on desertification, was described.^
The
subject had been divided into four aspects - climate, ecology,
technology and population and society - each covered in reviews which
would be available as background documents at the Conference.
The
four component reviews, prepared in Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom
and the United States, had been synthesized into Desertification: An
Overviei^f, one of the principal documents of the Conference and one
which provided (a) a description of th^ causes and consequences of
desertification and (b) justification for the recoimendations in the
Plan of Action.
Contributions to the assembly of knowledge were made
by scientists from all parts of the world and by specialists from
throughout the United Nations family.
7.
The Overview had access also to the Feasibility Studies and
the Case Studies, with two of the latter carried out in the Region.
8.
The findings of the Chilean Case Study, as presented, supported
the conclusions of the Overview.
The Coquimbo region, an area of
cold-season rainfall, was shown to have suffered marked eind constant
deterioration for which man was. a responsible agent.
Declines in
rainfall in ,this century indicated a pattern of recurrent droughts
/rather than
- 3 -
r a t h e r than a long-term c l i m a t i c s h i f t .
S o l u t i o n s t o the
p r o b l e m s must i n v o l v e t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s ,
a s p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s were a t i s s u e .
area's
since social as well
I t was a l s o f o u n d n e c e s s a r y
t o i n t e g r a t e s o l u t i o n s i n t o g e n e r a l programmes of s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c
development.
9.
The United States Case Study involved the rehabilitation of
rangeland in a cold desert in
southeasterh Oregon, and the findings
of this study, too, were consonant with the conclusions presented in
the Overviev?; that resource degradation was a fünction of land use
and not of climate change; that proper land management cost less
than rehabilitation; that project success ultimately depended on the
people vrho used the land; that social and political factors were
as important as purely ecólogical factors^' and that corrective action
should begin on the basis of present knowledge and not wait for
further research.
lOo
The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f t h e World ( 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 )
prepared
by FAO and UNESCO, and t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f A f r i c a North o f
t h e Equator ( 1 ; 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) p r e p a r e d by FAO wére i n t r o d u c e d .
The
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f S o u t h America a t a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 was
p r e s e n t e d vrith t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i n i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e t h e map
r e p r e s e n t e d a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o be r e f i n e d l a t e r .
s h o u l d be g i v e n c l o s e r s t u d y were
11.
Areas which
indicated.
I n i n t r o d u c i n g t h e document D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America
w i t h Regard t o E c o l o g y and A g r i c u l t u r e ,
the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e of A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s
of
the
(HAS) reviewed
g e n e r a l c a u s e s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America and i n d i c a t e d
areas a f f e c t e d .
the
The p r o c e s s b o u l d be h a l t e d o r r e v e r s e d by p r o p e r
l a n d u s e , ' w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a n t c o v e r
degraded a r e a s :
the
c o n c l u s i o n s consonant with those i n the
Among h i s recommendations viere t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y s t e m s
and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s ,
in
Overview.
analysis
the establishment of a
r e g i o n a l c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n and i n t e g r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t
of
a r i d a r é a s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n f o r m a t i o n and d o c u m e n t a t i o n
/centre
linked
- if -
centre linked with the AGRIS and AGRINTER systems network which would
work in close co-operation with the regional ,centre, and the
organization of training programmes for Latin American technicians
and scientists who worked in arid areas.
12¿
A suggestion that in Spanish, the term "desertificación" be
replaced by "desertización" led to a distinction between the two
terms in that language, the former being taken to refer
to man's
impact on ecosystems and the latter to natural ptrocesses»
13.
The delegate of Honduras supported the foregoing proposal but
suggested that "desertification" should be defined as "the reduction
or elimination of biological production in any part of the globe".
The Costa Hican delegation presented a series of Conference
Room Papers proposing: (a) that the meeting ask FAO to promote the
exchange of biological packages between Andean and Himalayan experimental
stations and agricultural extension centres; (b) that,the meeting
should recommend that the countries of the Americas take measures
against overgrazing; (c) that the meeting suggest that FAO disseminate
procedures to prevent or control the burning of vegetation, v/hich
promotes desertification; (d) that, the., meeting should recommend to
governments that they enforce or modernize forest legislation to
prevent, uncontrolled deforestation, and (e) that the meeting recommend
to Governments that they introduce or intensify the treatment or
agricultural use of waste waters to reduce desertification caused by
urbanization.
15»
The suggestion that a regional centre be established was supported
and reference was made to the possibility of using the Grupo Internacional
para el Desarrollo Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe
(GIDA/ALC) for that purpose..
16.
Representatives of the Organization of American States (OAS),
the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Water
Conference described their current and planned activities in the
region.
On the basis of these comments and those by other participants,
/it became
- 5 -
it became clear .that there iifas general agreement on the. following
points: desertification ivas one of mankind's major problems; it was
amenable to solution, but the process might accelerate before it
was solved because of rising demands for increased food production;
it was the result of improper land use, in v;hich overgrazing bydomestic animals was a major factor; case studies in arid zones of
similar climate, e.g., Chile and Tunisia, should be looked at side
by side and conclusions compared so that knowledge gained in one
place could be used in others; sufficient knowledge was nov; available
on desertification to begin action without awaiting further research,
however valuable that research might probe to be; all campaigns against
desertification should be carried out with the full understanding
and co-operation of the local people involved; the social and
political aspects of desertification were less well knovra that the
physical aspects but xi?ere just as important in halting or reversing
the process.
17.
A summary of the feasibility studies on transnational
co-operation to combat desertification was presented.
The meeting
v;as informed that official support had been given to the projects
on the management of livestock-in the Sudano-Sahel area, on the
management of groundwater aquifers in northeast Africa and the
Arabian'peninsula, on the establishment of a Green Belt on the
northern rim of the Sahara, and on the monitoring of desertification
processes in southwest Asia.
While awaiting official confirmation
from Governments, the first steps toward implementation were being
organized,
18,
The discussion on the feasibility studies concentrated on the
project proposed for Latin America - the monitoring of desertification
and related natural resources in arid regions' of South America.
representative of Peru supported the project.
The
The representative of
Argentina stated that the project was supplementary to other moredirect means of combatting desertification.
He said that his
Government had not set aside any financing for the project, nor
had it received any official information on the matter.
The Argentine
/position was
- 6 -
position was supported by Chile.
The Ünited States delegation
recognized that the information which could be obtained was of
limited v a l u e and would have to be linked up by, aerophotpgraiametry.
The/representative of Bolivia requested that his Government be
formally invited to participate in the prpject. The representative
of Brazil submitted a statement saying that his Government was
interested i,n the project and wished to be associated with it but
felt that it could not at this stage be a participant since the
ecology of Brazil's arid areas was so different from that of the arid
areas of the other participating countries.
Draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda) ,
19.
The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification was introduced
by the Conference Secretariat,
It was agreed that the meeting would
deal with the Plan chapter by chapter, suggesting changes, additions
or deletions for the second preliminary draft iñ accordance with a
regional perspective and the viewpoints of the delegates'. Suggestions
for changes were submitted iá written form.
20.
In the discussion of the Plan of Action, the following points
were made: Recommendation 1 should be déleted since it gave' the
impression that action was impossible in the absence of coriipléte
planning and assessment.
It was agreed that thé desirability of
planning and assessment should be stated somewhere in the Plan,
possibly in Chapter F on strengthening indigenous science and
technology, and would not appear as a recomraehdation.
Since
paragraph 56 stated that water was the main factor limiting productivity
in tile clrylands, a statement would be added to the opening chapter
pointing out that social and political structures were often among
the factors limiting dryland productivity.
It was suggested" that
great care must be taken in phrasing statements proposing se
sedentarization of nomads, since sedentarization often gave rise
to serious problems of desertification.
Recommendaitioh 6, it was
noted, seemed to refer almost exclusively tb pastoral'nomadism,
whereas the recommendation should be phrased so as to r e f e r also
/to stock
- 7 -
to stock raising in semi-arid areas.
It was proposed that specific
references to the technical measures proposed in recommendations
8 and 9 be eliminated, since technical specialists v/ould
i^hat to do in specific situations of desertification.
know
To this, the
secretariat replied that the Plan ,of Action would ,be reviewed bymany people other than technical specialists, and these people needed
to be given some sense of what the problem involved.
21.
It was further proposed that all recommendations relating to
the human condition, such as population, family health, and human
settlements, should be collected together in one chapter, although
it was recognized that such
restructuring would not in any case
be made until the reviews of the Plan of Action were completed,
22,
It was suggested that Chapter G on supporting measures be
deleted since it contained no substantive matters.
23„
It was suggested that recommendations
and 15 be .deleted
on the grounds that existing United Nations, machinery, such as,
for example, the United Nations Development Programme, could carry
out follow-up measures as renuired by the Plan of Action ttfhich the
Conference approved.
2.h,
The representative of the United Nations Water Conference
extended greetings to the meeting from the Secretary-General of
that Conference.
He suggested that existing United Nations bodies
capable of carrying out the various provisions of the Plan of Action
should be named in the appropriate places in the next drafts.
He
presented a Conference Room Paper on links between the Water and
Desertification Conferences,
25.
Arrangements^ for the United Nations Conference on
Desertification (Item g of the Agenda),
A paper was presented to
the meeting on arrangements for the Desertification Conference,
to be held from
29 August to 9 September 1977 in Nairobi, Kenya.
The Conference would be preceded by two days of informal consultations
on procedural matters.
As it would be a major United Nations Conference
convened by the General Assembly, the report of the Conference would
be submitted to the General Assembly at its next regular session.
/26. Provision
- 8 -
26a
Provision had been made for the Conference to work as a
Plenary and as a Committee of the Whole.
The latter would be expected
to handle the tvro substantive items on the agenda - Desertification:
Its Causes and Consequences, and the Plan of Action to Combat
Desertificationo
27o
Immediately following the Conference, a Workshop would be held
for technical advisers to delegations and Governments to discuss
v;hat national action could best be taken to implement the Plan of
Action adopted at the Conference,
28.
Prior to the Conference, a symposium of non-governmental
organizations having a scientific interest in desertification
problems would discuss how selected topics in the Plan could involve
action by private groups and, scientific bodies.
Also prior to the
Conference, interested journalists would meet in an Encounter
organized by the United Nations Centre for Economic and Social
Information (CESI).
29.
The suggestion was made that following the Conference, a meeting
of Latin American experts should be convened to consider how best
to carry out the provisions of the Plan of Action that were applicable
to the region.
In arranging such a meeting, the assistance of UNDP
and CEPAL would be welcomed, as would that of the Secretary-General
of the Conference.
30.
Several other Conference Room Papers were submitted v/hich made
specific recommendations for appropriate action to deal with the
problem of desertification.
The Meeting decided that these papers
vjould be grouped and transmitted to the. Secretary-General of the
Conference forthwith for consideration in his definitive submissions
to the Conference,
/Annex 1
- 9 -
Aiiríéx 1
AGENDA
1.
2.
Adoption of the agenda.
3«
Arrangements for the ühiteá Nations Conference oh
Desertification»
^
Processes and causes of desertification^
5o
Draft plan of action to combat desertification.
6,
Adoption of the report of thé meeting.
. r
10
-
Annex 2
LIST OF.PAETICIPMTS
States Members of the United Nations
ARGENTINA
Representative;
Gustavo A» van Gelderen
Members of Delegation; Eduardo Bustamante, Santos Goñi Marenco
Alberto Emilio Montbrun
BOLIVIA
Representative;
.
. : , , .
Antonio Sainz Unzueta
BRAZIL
Representative;
Luiz Felipe Teixeira Scares
CANADA
Representative;
Michael F. Kergin
COLOMBIA
Representative;
José Maria de Guzman Noguera
COSTA RICA
Representative;
Alejandro Quesada Ramirez
CHILE
Representative;
Carlos Alberto Dulcic B.
Members of Delegation; Enrique Melkonian S., Fernando Silva, S.,
Sergio Bonilla B., Jenaro del Pozo P., Miguel Angel Capella S.,
Cristian Crempien L., Gonzalo Sepülveda R., Juan Enrique Bernstein L.,
Fernando Squella, Mario Silva, Sergio Lailhacar, Mario Peralta P»,
Patricio Azocar, Mauricio Araya, Juan Gasto, Loreto Martin,
Ernesto Hajek, Pedro Sutter L., Romulo Garcia To, Fernando Espinoza,
Raiil Sánchez, Hugo Bodini, Pilar Cereceda, Luis Velozo,
Rodolfo Walther, Carlos Correa, Gabriel Seisdedos.
- 11 -
ECUADOR
Representative;
. .
Manuel Granizo Romero
^ V
UNITED STATES
Representative;
í
.
'
Dillard Ho Gates
Members of Delegation:
James H. Cheatham, Jack D. Johnson
FRANCE
Representative;
Rene Dubois
GUATEMALA
Representa,tive;
Wiland Gundersen López
Member of Delegation;
Hugo Abraham Óréllana Paz
HAITI
.
• ..
Representative;
Leonard Pierre-Louis
HONDURAS
Representative;• Virgilio R. Gálvez Madrid
Member of Delegation;
Ramon Benedetto Leiva
NETHERLANDS
Representative;
Albert Van Der StrUik
PANAMA
Representative;
Ricardo Moreno Villalaz
PERU
Representative;
Igor Velazquez Rodriguez
Member ojf Delegation; Carlos E. López-Ocaño
URUGUAY
Representative;
Artigas Duran
-.-12
-
States not members of the United Nations
attending on a consultative basis
SWITZERLAND
Representative;
Fernando Vuffray
United Nations
United Nations Water Conference Secretsu'iat
Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport
Alagappa Alagappan
^
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Eduardo F, Gutierrez.
Dietrich von Graevenitz
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Jack Carmichael
Specialized agencies
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Luis Santiago Botero
Mario A. Habit
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
Alberto Sireau
Intergovernmental organizations
Organization of American States (OAS)
Braulio Oreja,s-Miranda
,
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)
Alberto A. Sojit
Yigal Harpaz
- .
- - 13 Inter-American Institute for AKricultural Sciences ( H A S )
Fernando Sueirez de Castro
José Marull
Non-Governmental Organizations
International Council of Environmental Law (ICEL)
Rafael Valenzuela Fuenzalida
International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF)
Guillermo Adriasola E»
International Union for Conservation of Nature (lUCN)
Felipe Matos
Co-sponsors
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Mostafa K» Tolba
Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification
Ralph Townley
Manuel Anaya Garduño
Mohammed Kassas
Fernando Medellin-Leal
Virgilio Roig
Gaafar Karrar
Boris Rozanov
James Walls
Christopher Dunford
Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America (CEPAL)
E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s
Manuel B a l b o a
J o r g e V i t e r i de l a HüérVa
J o s e p h EL Haj
Eduardo G a r c i a
; ^
Carlos Plaza
Daniel Blanchard
Marta B o e n i n g e r
Juana E y z a g u i r r e
E u g e n i c Lobo;-./'
t,
'
,
-
-
15 -
Annex 3
LIST OF DOCUMENTS
Documente presented b^ the Conference Secretariat
Annotated Draft Provisional Agenda
Desertification: An Overview (First Draft)
Summaries and Abstracts of Desertification Case Studies
Current International Activities to Combat Desertification
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft)
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft).
Corrigendum
Transnational Co-operation to Combat Desertification: Feasibility
Studies
Studies. Addendum 1
in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study (An Abridgement)
Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical
Areas of South America (Lima, Peru, 17-19 February 1977)
Documents presented by Governments
Desertification in the United States (Jack D. Johnson, Office of Arid
Lands Studies, University of Arizona for the United States Department
of State)
Lucha contra la Desertificación: La experiencia de Chile (Estudio
Nacional sobre la Desertificación presentado por Chile) A/
El problema de la desertificaci6n en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador
(instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidráulicos) A/
Documento preliminar sobre la experiencia mexicana en el combate de
la desertificación y el aprovechamiento de las zonas áridas ^
A/
Only in Spanish-
- 16 -
Documente p r e s e n t e d by o t h e r
organizations
N o t a e x p l i c a t i v a s o b r e e l Mapa m u n d i a l de d e e e r t i f i c a c i ó n a una
e s c a l a de 1 : 2 5 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 - U n i t e d l í a t i o n s Food and A g r i c u l t u r e
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e >Uri!it.ed N a t i o n s (FAO)
^
La d e s e r t i z a c i S n en A m é r i c a L a t i n a d e s d e una p e r s p e c t i v a e c o l ó g i c a
y a g r í c o l a ( F e r n a n d o S u a r e z de C a s t r o ^ I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e f o r
A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s ( H A S ) - OAS)
A/
Only i n
Spanish.
DESCONF/AMERICAS/10
FOR THE AMERICAS
Convened by the Secretariat of the United Nations
Conference on Desertification in co-operation witli
the Economic Commission for Latin America
Santiago, Chile, 23 - 25 February 1977
REPORT
77-3-0552
- Ill -
CONTENTS
Paragraphs
3
Page
1
Opening meeting .........................o..
1 -
Election of officers .0=....................
^
2
3
2
(Itera k of the Agenda)).....................
6 - I8
2
Draft Plan of Action to Combat
Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda) .....
19-28
6
Arrangements for the United Nations
Conference on Desertification (Item 3
of the Agenda) .............................
29 - 3^
Adoption of the report of the Meeting
(Item 6 of the Agenda)
35 - 36
11
37
11
Closing meeting
Annexes:
1.
List of participants ...................
12
2.
List of documents ......................
17
/Opening meeting
Opening: meeting
1o
,
The Meeting v/as opened by the Executive Secretary of the Economic
Commission for Latin America (CEPAL) v/ho pointed out that in spite
of possessing the world's greatest water resources, Latin America
had four arid zones - northwest Mexico,, northernmost South America,
northeast Brazil and the great diagonal desert running from southwest
Ecuador to southern Patagonia - as well, as much land exposed to the
risks of ecological damage and desertification»
He said that the
draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification would be reviev;ed at
the meeting, \iihich should help to make it "of real significance for
Latin America", and that CEPAL would be glad to undertake the tasks
assigned to it by the Plan of Action as utlimately approved.
2,
The Minister of Agriculture of Chile, General Mario Hackay"
Jaraquemada, welcomed the participants on behalf of the. people and
Government of Chile, a nation,; he said, much concerned, iiîth. .the .
problems of its arid zones, which occupied 30 per cent of the country.
3»
The Executive Director of the United Nations Environment
Programme, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the Conference,
outlined the problem of desert'ification as a global issue vjhose
importance was brought home to the world by the
in the African Sahel,
1967-1972 drought
In the course of the preparations for the
Conference consensus had been reached among the scientific community
on various imioortant points: that desertification was the result of
the interaction of man and an adverse environment; that the process
could be halted by the proper use of present- knoviledge, and that the'
key to the attack lay in proper land use.
therefore stressed the need for action now.
The Plan of Action
With emphasis on correct
land-use practices such as those endorsed by the scientific studies
and investigations effected as part of the Conference preparations
and all culminating in the Plan of Action.
It v/as hoped that three
things would emerge from the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the
Americas: (i) an understanding of the region's own experience;
(ii) the improvement that the region would like to see incorporated
in the Plan of Action, and Ciii) the viev/s of Governments on the
/feasibility studieá .
- 2 -
feasibility studies in which they were participating.
It was also
hoped that this regional meeting would set a frank and constructive
tone for those that followed.
. The Meeting elected the following Officers:
Chairman: Carlos Alberto Dülcic Belloni (Chile)
First Vice-Chairman: Alejandro Quesáda Ramírez (Costa Rica)
Second Vice-Chairman: Dill^rd H. Gates (United States)
'Rapporteur: Alberto Emilio Montbrun (Argentina)
5.
The participants 1/ adopted the following Agenda for the Meeting:
1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
Adoption of- the agenda
Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on
Desertification
Draft plan of action to combat desertification
Adoption of the report of the Meeting
Processes and causes of desertification (Item k of the Agenda)
6.
The Conference documentation, reflecting an effort to assemble the
available knowledge on desertification, was described.
The subject had
been divided into four aspects - climate, ecology, technology and
population and society - each covered in reviews which would be available
as background documents at the Conference. . The. four component reviews,
prepared in Canada, the United States, Mexico and the United Kingdom, had
been synthesized into Desertification: An Overview, one of the principal
documents of the Conference and one which provided.(a) a description of
the causes.and consequences of desertificatipA and (b) justification fpr
the recommendations in.the.Plan of Action.
Contributions to the assembly
of knowledge were made by scientists from all parts of the world and by
specialists from throughout the United Nations family.
7.
The Overview had access also to the Feasibility Studies and the
Case Studies, with two of the latter carried out in the Region.
8.
Thf findings of the Chilean Case Study, as presented,, supported
the conclusions of the Overview.
The Coquimbo region, an area of cold-
season rainfall, was shown to have suffered marked and constant
deterioration for which man was a responsible agent.
1/
Declines in
See list of participants in Annex 1.
/rainfall in
r a i n f a l l i n t h i s , c e n t u r y i n d i c a t e d r e c u r r e n t d r o u g h t s r a t h e r than a l o n g
term c l i m a t i c , s h i f t .
local inhabitants,
issue.
S o l u t i o n s t o t h e a r e a ' s problems .must i n v o l v e
s i n c e s o c i a l a s w e l l a s p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s were a t
I t was a l s o found n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e g r a t e s o l u t i o n s i n t o
programnes o f s o c i a l and economic
9.
the
general
development
The United States Case Study involved the rehabilitation of
rangeland in a cold desert in
southeastern Oregon., and the findings
of this study, too, were consonant with the conclusions presented in
the Overview: that resource degradation was a function of land use
and not of climate change; that proper land management cost less
than rehabilitation; that project success ultimately depended on the
people viho used the land; that social and political factors were
a s i m p o r t a n t a s p u r e l y e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ; and t h a t c o r r e c t i v e
action
s h o u l d b e g i n on t h e b a s i s of p r e s e n t knowledge and n o t viiait f o r
further
10.
research.
The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f t h e Viorld ( 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , p r e p a r e d
by FAO and:UNESCO, and t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f A f r i c a North o f
t h e Equator (1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 Q 0 . ) p r e p a r e d by FAO were i n t r o d u c e d .
The
D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f S o u t h America a t a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 was
p r e s e n t e d v.dth t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i n i t s . p r e s e n t s t a t e t h e map.
r e p r e s e n t e d a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o be r e f i n e d l a t e r . - . A r e a s v/hich
s h o u l d be g i v e n c l o s e r s t u d y were
11.
indicated.
I n i n t r o d u c i n g th^ document D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America
w i t h Regard t o Ecolof^y and A g r i c u l t u r e ,
Inter-American I n s t i t u t e
the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s
of
the
(HAS) reviewed
g e n e r a l c a u s e s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America and i n d i c a t e d
areas a f f e c t e d .
the
the
The p r o c e s s c o u l d be h a l t e d or r e v e r s e d bj' p r o p e r l a n d
u s e , water c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e g e n e r a t i o n of p l a n t c o v e r i n d e g r a d e d
areas.
These c o n c l u s i o n s wore c o n s o n a i j t w i t h t h o s e in. t h e
Among h i s recoraraendations were t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y s t e m s
Overview.
analysis
and the d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a
r e g i o n a l c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n and i n t e g r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t
arid areas,
of
t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n f o r m a t i o n and d o c u m e n t a t i o n
/centre linked
.
if -
centre linked with the AGRIS and AGRINTES systems network which.yould \
v;ork in close co-operation v;ith the regional centre, and the
organization of training programmes for Latin American technicians
and scientists who worked in arid areas.
12.
A suggestion that in Spanish, the term "desertificacion" be
replaced by "desertización" led to a distinction between the tv;o
terms in that language, the former being taken to refer to man's
impact on ecosystems and the latter to natural processeso
13»
The delegate of Honduras supported the foregoing proposal but
suggested that "desertification" should be defined ,as ''the reduction
or elimination of biological production in any part of the globe".
The Costa Rican delegation presented a series of Conference
Room Papers proposing: (a) that the Meeting ask FAO to promote the
exchange of biological.,packages between Andean and Himalayan experimental
stations and agricultural extension centres; (b) that the Meeting
should recommend that the countries of the Americas take measures
against overgrazing; (c) that the Meeting suggest that FAO disseminate
procedures to prevent or control the burning of vegetation, v;hich
promotes desertification; (d) that the Meeting should recommend to
governments,that they enforce or modernize forest legislation to
iorevent uncontrolled deforestation, and (e) that the Meeting, recommend
to Governments that.they introduce or intensify the treatment or
agricultural use iof v;aste \vaters to reduce desertification caused by
urbanization.
15«
The suggestion that a regional centre be established v/as supported
and reference was ,made to the possibility of using the Grupo Internacional
para el Desarrollo Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe
(GIDA/ALC) for that purpose..
16..
Represenfcatíives of the Organization of American States (OAS),
the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the United Nations Food
and Agriculture; Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Vi/ater
Conference and the Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport
(CNRET) described their .current and planned activities in the re,-ion.
On the basis of these comments and those by other participants,
/it becamc
- 5 -
it became clear that there was geneiral agreement on the following
points: desertification vias one of'mankind's major problems; it was
amenable to solution, but the process might «accelerate before it
was solved because of rising demands for i-^hcreásed food production;
it was the result of improper land use, in v/hich overgrazing bydomestic- animals was a major facfór; casé' studies in arid zones of
similar''climate, e.g., Chile and TUhisia, should be looked at side
by side 'and conclusions compared so that knowledge gained in one
place could be used'iri bt'hers; suff i-fcient knowledge vias now available
on desertification to begin action- without awaiting further research,
however valuable that, researchffligh,tprobe to be; all campaigns- against
desertification should be carried .out with the full understanding
and co-operation of the. local people involved; the soqial and
political aspects of desertificatior. were less well knovm that the
physical aspects but were just as important in halting or reversing
the process.
17.
A summary of the feasibility studies on transnational
co-operation ,to combat desertification was presented. ,.The Meeting
v/as informed that official support,had been given tq. the. projects
on the management of livestock in tiie Sudano-Sahel ;area, on the
management of- groundwater aquifers.in northeast .Africa and the
Arabian peninsula,, on the establishment of a .Green .Belt on.the
northern rira of the Sahara, and on the monitoring of desertification
processes in southwest Asia.
.While awaiting official confirmation
from Governments, the first steps tov/ard implementation, .vjere being
organized.
18.
, .
i
The discussi.on, on the feasibility studies concentrated on the
project proposed for Lati.rj Amei:ica - the monito.ring of desertification
and related natural resources in ..arid regions of Squth. America. . The
representative of Peru supported ,the basic technical project.
The
representative of Argentina s t a t ^ that the .project wnti supplementary to
other, more direct-means of combatting desertification. He, said that his
Government had not set aside any financing for jthe project, nor
had it received any official information on the matter^. The Argentine
/position vms
-
position was supportedtíj?;Chile.
6
-
The United State® delegation
recognized that if the information obtained from saiiiellite imagery
was to be used for detailed plarining then it wouldi be useful if it
were supplemented by air photography.
The representative of Bolivia
requested that his Government be formally invited! to participate in
the project.
The representative of Brazil submitted a statement
saying that his Government was intereéted in the project but felt
that it could not at this stage b¿ a partiOipant since the ecology
of Brazil's arid areas was so different froni that of the a:rid areas
of the other participating countries.
Draft Plan of Action to,Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda)
19-
The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification was introduced
by the Conference Secretariat.
It was agreed that the Meeting would
deal vfith the Plan chapter by chapter, suggesting changes, additions
or deletions for the second preliminary draft in accordance with a
regional perspective and.the viewpoints of the delegates.
Suggestions
for changers were submitted in written form.
20.
In the discussion of the Plan of Action, the following points
were made:. Recommendation 1 should be deleted since it gave the
impression that action v/as impossible in the absence of complete
planning and assessment.
It v;as agreed that the desirability of
planning and assessment should be stated somewhere in the Plan,
possib;Ly in Chapter F on strengthening indigenous science and
technology, and would not appear as an independent chapter.
Since
paragraph 36 stated that water was the main factor limiting productivity
in the drylands, a statement would, be added to the opening chapter
pointiiig out that social and political structures were often among
the factors limiting dryland, productivity.
It was suggested that
great c^re must be taken,in,phrasing statements proposing
sedentarization of nomapds^ since sedentarization often gave rise
to serious problems pf desertification.
21.
Recommendation 6, it was noted, seémed to refer almost exclusively
to pastoral nomadism, whereas the recommendation should be phrased so
as to refer also to stock raising in semi-arid areas. . The representative
/of Chile
-
7 -
of Chile noted that Pvecommendatlon 6 proposed the adoption of a series
of measures to amteliorate degraded conditions in dryland pastures,
to introduce improved systems of rangeland and livestock management
and to' improve the lot of desert pastoral communities.
That would
mean leaving out the pastoral communities of semi-arid areas, which
were not necessarily characterized by the Miraditional mobility"
referred to in paragraph
Paragraph 41, for its part, listed a
number of measures very much to the point v;hich should be taken at
the national level to put that recommendation into effect, but it was
not pointed out that in order for these improved practices to be
successful they must be incorporated in a system of production, and
their application in an isolated manner could even make matters worse.
It was therefore suggested that the.-following words should be inserted
in paragraph kO immediately af:ter the first sentence: "The forest/
agricultural ecosystem must be tireated as a functional unit: it is
therefore necessary to study, design and apply forestry, agricultural
and stock-raising production systems v/hich take account of their
mutual connexions and inter-relations so as to give rise to economically
and socially stable systems".
The rest of paragraph
"Regeneration" to "where required" would be deleted.
from
The underlined
Recommendation, for its part, would read as follows: "It is recommended
that measures be taken to ameliorate dep;raded conditions in dryl_and
pastures, to introduce improved systems of rangeland and livestock
management; to develop integrated systems of production, and to improve
the lot of pastoral communities".
In paragraph kl (e) it was suggested
that a new sub-paragraph (ii) should be inserted, reading as follows:
"Optimization of the use of dryland crop residues, agroindustrial
waste and low-quality forage in general", with the existing subparagraphs (ii), (iii) and (iv) becoming (iii), (iv) and (v) respectively.
In paragraph 4l (g) it was proposed that the words "and improved land
tenure systems" should be inserted between "planned land use" and
"supported by ...".
Finally, it was suggested that in paragraph 42 (c)
sub-paragraph (ii) should be amended to reádt "determining the optimum
size of agricultural units in accordance with the carrying capacity
of their grazing land".
/22.
It
-•8 . ,
22.^.., ..jlt-íJppposed that specific references to the technical
meaeupesftpiroppsed in recommendations 8 and 9 be eliminated, since
technical specialists would know what to do in specific situations
of desertification.. To. this, the secretariat replied that the Plan
of
would be reviewed by many people other than technical
specialists, and these people needed to be given some sense of what
the problem involved.
23.
iWith regard to Recommendation 10 on Alternative Energy Sources,
the representajbive of Brazil proposed that the following sentence
should be add^d at the end of paragraph 55: "Investigations should
also,be carried out, if judged advisable by the Governments concerned,
into other energy sources which could solve the energy problems of
the.drylands", while in the underlined part of the Recommendation
itself the words "that will yield simple, inexpensive and useful
devices to serve the needs of dryland peoples" should be deleted
and replaced by the words "that will enable the energy needs of
those areas to be satisfied".
In paragraph 56 (a) the words "simple
and efficient" shoyld be deleted, while a third sub-paragraph (c)
should be added at the end of the paragraph, reading: "Take such
other measures to solve the energy problems of the drylands as are
considered advisable by Governments".
Finally, the words "simple,
inexpensive and convenient" should be deleted from the fifth line
of paragraph 55.
2^.
'
.
The participants noted, that the Conference on Technical
Co-operation among Developing Countries, sponsored by UNDP, was to
be.held in Argentina from 27 March to 7 April 1978^ and the
seventeenth session of CEPAL, to be held in Guatemala from 25 April
to 5 May 1977, would also include that subject in its agenda.
In
rview of that, the Meeting supported the recommendations on technical
coT-operation among developing countries in matters concerning
desertification and assinged the highest importance to regional
co-operation in that and other spheres and to the strengthening
of regional and national institutions.
/25.
It
- .9 -
25.
It was further proposed that all recommendations relating
to the human condition, such as population, family health and
human settlements, should be collected together in.one chapter,
although it was recognized that such restructuring would not in
any case be made until the reviews of the Plan of Action were
completed.
26.
It was suggested that Chapter G on supporting measures be
deleted on the grounds that it contained nOi: substantive matters,
unless it included a codified and updated listing of the legal
enactments On the conservation of natural resources.
27.
It was suggé^sted that recommendations l4 and 15 be deleted
because existing national, international and United Nations
machinery could carry out follou-up measures as required by the
Plan of Action approved by the Conference.
28.
The representative of the United Nations Water Conference
extended greetings to the Meeting from the Secretary-General of
that Conference.
He suggested that existing United Nations bodies
capable of carrying out the various provisions of the Plan of
Action should be named in the appropriate places in the respective
drafts-
He presented a Conference Room Paper on links between
the Water and Desertification Conferences.
'
(Item 3 of the-Agenda). '
^ ~~~
29.
A paper was presented to the Meeting on arrangements for
the Desertification Conference, to be held from 29 August to
9 September 1977 in Nairobi, Kenya.
The Conference viould be
preceded by tv;o days of informal consultations on procedural
matters.
As it would be a major United Nations Conference
convened by the General Assembly, the report of the Conference
would be submitted to the General Assembly at its next regular
session.
/30.
Provision
t.
- 10 -
30.
Provision had been made for the Conference to v/ork as a
Plenary and as a Committee of the V/hole,
The latter would be expected
to handle the two substantive items .on the agenda - Desertification:
Its Causes and Consequences, and.the Plan ofAction to Combat
Desertification.
31.
Immediately follo^^îng the Conference, a Workshop would be
held for technical advisers to, delegations^ to discuss what national
action could best be taken to implement the Plan of Action adopted
at the Conference.
32.
Prior to the Conference,, a symposi.ür? of non-governmeatal
organisations .having a scientific interest in desertification,
problems v/ould discuss how selected topi:cs in the Plan could involve;
action by private groups and scientific bodies.
Also prior to the
Conference, interested journalists v/ould meet in an Encounter
organized .:by the United Nations Centre for-Economic and Social
Information (CSSI).
33.
..
.. _
•
The suggestion .was made that following the Conference, a meeting
of Latin American experts should be -convened to consider hov; best
to carry out the provisions of the .Plan of Action that were applicable
to the region'.
In,'arranging sûch a meeting, the assistance of UNDP
and CEPAL v/ould be welcomed,, as would that of the Secretary-.General
of the Conference.
3^'
.
; '•
Several other Conference Room Papers "were submitted v;hich madé
specific recommendations for appropriate action to deal with the
problem of desertification.
The Meeting decided that these papers
would be grouped and transmitted to the Secretary-General of the
Conference forthwith for consideration in his definitive submissions
to the Conference.
/Adoption of
-
•
Adoption of the report of the Meeting (.Item 6 of the Agenda)
35»
The present report was approved at the final meeting, held
at 6 . 3 0 p.m. on Friday 25 February.
36.
The Executive Secretary of CEPAL stated that because the
Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas, which was the first
of the Preparatory Meetings for the United Nations Desertification
Conference, had been organized rather hastily, some of the
participating Governments had not received the documents and
proposals from the Secretary-General of the Conference sufficiently
in advance.
Furthermore, not all the member countries of CEPAL had
participated in the Meeting.
Consequently, any comments on the
subjects covered in the Meeting which interested Governments might
wish to submit to the secretariat of CEPAL before 51 March 1977
would be distributed as Annexes to the present report.
Closing meeting
37.
At the closing meeting, statements were made by
Mr. Enrique V. Iglesias, Executive Secretary of CEPAL; by
Mr. Ralph Townley, Director of the Secretariat of the United Nations
Desertification Conference, on behalf of the Secretary-General of
the Conference; and by the Chairman of the Meeting»
All stressed
the importance of the work done and thanked participants for their
valuable contribution to the enrichment of knowledge on the subjects
discussed.
/Annex 1
- 12 -
Annex 1 ..
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
States Members of the United Nations
ARGENTINA
•
''
Representative; ' Gustavo' A» van Gelderen
Members of Delegation: Eduardo Bustamaij.te, Santos Gqñi Marenco
Alberto Êitiilio Montbrun
• ''
BOLIVIA
/
•
Representative: ' Antonio Sainz Uriûet'a
BRAZIL
Representative;
CANADA
Luiz Felipe Teixeira Soares
•
•
•.• •'•••
Representative; Michael Fo Kergin
COLOMBIA
••
•.
,.
. . T, •
• ' . T' • • = f • •
. •
Representative;
COSTA'RICA
Representative:
José Maria de Guzman Noguera
'
. •
: ^
Alejandro Quesada Ramirez
CHILE
Representative;
Carlos Alberto Dulcic B.
Members of Delegation; Mauricio Araya, Patricio Azocar, Juan .Enrique
Bernstein L-, Hugo Bodini, Sergio Bonilla B., Miguel Angel Crpslla S.,
Pilar Cereceda, Cristian Crempien L., Carlos Correa, Jenaro dol
Pozo P., Fernando Espinoza, Rómulo Garcia T., Juan Gasto,
Ernesto Hajek, Sergio Lailhacar, Loreto Martin, Enrique Mci;:onian,S.,
Mario Peralta P., Raúl Sánchez, Gabriel Seisdedos, Gonzalo
Sepúlveda R., Mario Silva, Fernando Silva S., Fernando Seuella,
Pedro Sutter L., Luis Velozo, Rodolfo Wolther.
- •• . - 1 3
ECUADOR
, .
Representative;
^
-
•• . .
Manuel Granizo Romero
UNITED STATES
Representative;
Dillard H» Gates
Members of Delegation:
James H. Cheatham, Jack D» Johnson
FRANCE
Representative:
Rene Dubois
GUATEMALA
.
Representative:
Wiland Gundersen Lopez
Member of Delegation:
HAITI
•• -
Representative;
Hugo Abraham Grellána Paz
• :.
..'
Leonard Pierre-Louis
HONDURAS
Representative;
...
Virgilio R» Gálvez Madrid
Member of Delegation:
Ramón Benedetto Leiva
NETHERLANDS
Albert Van Der Struik
PANAMA
Representative:
Ricardo Moreno Villalaz
PERU
Representative:
Igor Velazquez Rodriguez
Carlos E. López-Ocaño
URUGUAY
^presentative:
• •
Artigas Duran
-
States not members of the United Nations attending
in a consultative capacity
SWITZERLAND'
'
•
Repr esenj at_ive; Fernando Vuffray •
United Nations
United Nations V/ater Conference Secretariat
Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport
Alagappa Alagappan
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Edus.rdo F- Gutierrez
Dietrich von Graevenitz
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Jack Carraichael
'.'T
Specialized agencies
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Luis Santiago - Botero
Mario Ao Habit
United Nations EdugA'^.ip^^^^^ Scientific arid Cultural
Org an i z"a t i o n"^NESCO^)~ "
Alberto Sireau
•Intergovernmental organizations
O^rganization of American States (OAS)
Braulio Orejas-Miranda
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)
Alberto Ao Sojit
Yigal Harpaz
- 15 -
Inter-American Institute for AKricultural Sciences (HAS)
Fernando Suárez de Castro
José Marull
Non-governmental organizations
International Council of Environmental Law (ICEL)
Rafael Valenzuela Fuenzalida
International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF)
Guillermo Adriasola E»
International Union for the ConGervntion of Nature (lUCN)
Felipe Matos
Co-sponsors
United Hat_ions_ Environment _Pro^rajii_m_e (UNEP)
Mostafa
^
o
f
Tolba
the United Nations Conference on Desertifica^tion
•Ralph Townley
Manuel Anaya Garduño
Mohammed Kassas
Fernando Medellin-Leal
Virgilio Roig
Gaafar Karrar
Boris Rozanov
James Walls
Christopher Dunford
- 16 -
Economic Commission .fjy^
Enrique V. Iglesias
Manuel Balboa
Jorge Viteri de la Huerta
Joseph El Haj
Eduardo Garcia
Carlos Plaza
Daniel Blanchard . ,
Marta Boeninger
Juana Eyzaguirre
Eugenio Lobo
America (CEPAL)
.
- 1? -
Annex 2
..LIST OF DOCUMENTS
Documents presented by the Conference Secretariat
Annotated Draft Provisional Agenda
Desertification: An Overview (First Draft)
Summaries and Abstracts of Desertification Case Studies
Current International Activities to Combat Desertification
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft)
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft).
Corrigendum
Studies
Studies» Addendum 1
in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study (An Abridgement)
Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical
Areas of South America (Lima, Peru, 17-19 February 1977)
Documents presented by Governments
Desertification in the United States (Jack D. Johnson, Office of Arid
Lands Studies, University of Arizona for the United States Department
of State)
Lucha contra la Desertificación: La experiencia de Chile (Estudio
Nacional sobre la Desertificación presentado por Chile) k/
El problema de la desertificación en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador
(Instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidráulicos)
Documento preliminar sobre la experiencia mexicana en el combate de
la desertificación y el aprovechamiento de las zonas áridas k/
k/
Only in Spanish«
- 18 -
Documents presented by other organizations
Nota explicativa sobre el Mapa mundial de desertificación a una
escala de 1:25 000 000 - United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) k/
La desertización en America Latina desde una perspectiva ecológica
y agrícola (Fernando Suarez de Castro, Inter-Araerican Institute for
Agricultural Sciences (HAS) - OAS)
A/
Only in Spanish.

united nations confebence on desertification regional preparatory

Transcription

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