Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in

Transcription

Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in Southern Nigeria
Author(s): Claudia Zaslavsky
Source: The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Autumn, 1970), pp. 76-99
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
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HistoricalCorner
Yoruba NumerationSystem
Mathematics
of the Yoruba People
and of TheirNeighbors
in SouthernNigeria
ClaudiaZaslavsky
ClaudiaZaslavskyis the authorof "Black
AfricanTraditionalMathematics,"published in the April 1970 issue of The
Teacher.She has been interMathematics
estedin thehistory
ofAfricanmathematics
for over a decade. Her work has been
describedbyHowardEves as "outstanding
andperhapsthefinestin thefield."
Thisarticleis partof herforthcoming
The editors
book on Africanmathematics.
electedto printtheentireselectionrather
thannarrowtherangeof itscontent,even
though the article includes some nondigressions.
mathematical
The author would like to express her gratitude to the people who offeredvaluableinformation: J. F. A. Ajayi, University of Ibadan,
Nigeria;J. A. Akinpelu,Universityof Ife, Nigeria;
R. G. Armstrong,Universityof Ibadan, Nigeria;
Donald W. Crowe, Universityof Wisconsin;Jim
Karns,Ohio Universityat Lancaster;OffiaNwali,
Nigeria, International Research & Marketing,
Inc.; H. M. A. Obayemi, Nigeria; Paul Rosenblum, Cornell University. Dr. Akinpelu, Dr.
Nwali, and Mr. Sam Zaslavsky read the manuscriptand offeredmanyexcellentsuggestions.
The readerwith an interestin the development of indigenousmathematicsin Africa
will find little informationin the mathematics history books except for a treatment of ancient Egypt.Of the few existing
accounts of other Africans' mathematical
development,one well-knownstoryis that
of the Damara people of SouthwestAfrica,
now called the country of Namibia; the
Damaras wandered in nomadic bands and
were among the least advanced, from the
point of view of technology,of all Africans. Their tale was firsttold by Sir Francis
Galton, the Britishscientist,explorer,and
of
in his book, Narrative
anthropometrist,
an Explorer in Tropical South Africa,
published in London in 1889. Here it is, as
retold in Howard Eves' In Mathematical
Circles:
. . . the primitive Damaras of Africa, in
barteringtwo sticks of tobacco for one
sheep as the rate of exchange, became
hopelessly confused when a white trader,
desiringtwo sheep, offeredfour sticks of
tobacco at once. Fraud was suspected by
the Damaras, and the transactionhad to be
revised and carried out more slowly. First
two sticks of tobacco were givenand one
sheep drivenaway, thentwo more sticksof
tobacco and the second sheep claimed.
When shown that the resultcame out the
same as the trader's originalproposal, the
tribesmenregardedthe trader as one possessed of magicpowers.
Eves concludes the narrativewith a telling
comment that is omitted frommost other
histories:
Yet, these Damaras were not unintelligent.
They knew preciselythe size of a flock of
sheep or a herd of oxen, and would missan
individual at once, because they knew the
faces of all of the animals.To us, thisform
of intelligence, which is true and keen
observation,would be infinitelymore difficult to cultivate than that involved in
counting.
76
I should like to suggestanotherex- among the Yorubas of Abeokuta the explanation. There is a widespreadfear traordinarysaying, "You may seem very
amongAfricans,
as well as otherpeoples, clever,but you can't tell nine timesnine",
shows how surprisinglythis faculty has
that the countingof people and other been developed, considering the general
livingcreatureswill lead to theirdestruc- level of savageryin whichthe tribelived.
is doneindirectly,
tion.Therefore
counting
correspondence Conant sees the occurrenceof numbersup
by settingup a one-to-one
betweenthe animalsand some type of to a million among South Africantribesas
"remarkableexceptions" to the "law" that
countingobject. In thiscase therewas a
"the growth of the number sense keeps
betweensticks
two-to-one
correspondence
the growthof the intelligencein
of tobacco and sheep. The superstition pace with
otherrespects."
is treatedat greatlengthby
aboutcounting
Such was the extent of the prejudice
A. Seidenbergin his article,"The Ritual
against darkskinned peoples that all the
Origin of Counting."(Archivefor the
of logic were turned upside
Historyof the Exact Sciences,Vol. II, principles
pp. 1-40).One can recall,too, theBiblical down. One would expect that a scientist,
that refutes
storyof KingDavid,whoactedagainstthe when confrontedby evidence
his "laws," might begin to doubt their
adviceof Joabandtheotherarmycaptains
in orderinga censusof his people. After validity. This "scientific" attitude is
the count had been broughtto him,he analyzed in an unpublished manuscript,
realized his error,but it was too late. Science and Africa, by Frank E. Chapman,
pestilenceon the Jr., a young black man now servinga life
Jehovahvisiteda terrible
people,and manydied. Onlythe offering imprisonment.
of a sacrificesucceededat last in staying There is so much talk about a "primitive
type of mind" and an "advanced type of
thehandofJehovah.
L.
L.
Conant'sThe NumberConcept, mind." These conceptualists rarely pause
to consider what it is in fact that they are
publishedin 1896,is one ofthefewbooks talking about; they neverstop to consider
in Englishwhichdiscussthe numeration that this whole businessof "mind types" is
systemsof many Africanpeoples. How- merelya collocation of convenientverbaliever,Conant'spointof viewis completely zations; indeed, the scientist'sbehavior is
attitudetoward very similarto the "primitive"he is talking
coloredby the prevailing
about when he verbalizes about "mind
Africansas "primitive
savages";theywere types." This stifling"mind" concept cripdeemedhardlyhuman.He dismissesthe ples scientific analysis, and only when
systemof greater emphasis is put on psychological
amazinglycomplexnumeration
the Yoruba people of southwestNigeria behavior patterns (in a given social context) will it be understood once and for
withthesewords:
Nor,on theotherhand,is thedevelopment
indexof
of a numeralsysteman infallible
mentalpower, or of any real approach
use ofthe
A continued
towardcivilization.
facultiesmustand
tradingand bargaining
does resultin a familiarity
withnumbers
sufficientto enable savagesto perform
unexpectedfeats in reckoning.Among
some of the WestAfricantribesthishas
actuallybeen foundto be the case; and
all ... that the differencein psychological
make-up is due, more or less, to the
differencesin social conditions,whichhave
nothing whatsoever to do with "mind
types."*
There is ample evidence of the Africans' skills in the use of numbers. The
Britishtrader,Mr. Clapperton,reportedin
*Quoted withpermissionof the author.
77
in
1826 on theuse of cowrieshellcurrency
a region that is now part of Nigeria,
bedeclaringthat it was veryconvenient
of forgery.
cause it allowedno possibility
He praisedthe "dexterity
of thenativesin
countingthe largestsums." Einzig states
that merchantshad to count in large
figures,
and theydevelopedthe advanced
arithmetical
facultyrequiredforthe purpose. MarionJohnsonwrites:"The use of
dependson
cowriesforlargertransactions
a rapidsystemofcounting
them."
MichaelCrowder,in WestAfricaunder
theYorubapeople
ColonialRule,mentions
Part of the culturethateach
specifically.
to the succeeding
generationtransmitted
generation
was the abilityto handle the
thenin use. Since
variouskindsof currency
a low-valued
wasusedas
(cowrie)currency
the base, considerable
arithmetic
skillwas
necessaryto conducttradeoutsideof the
confinesof the village."Contraryto a
generally
EuropeanheldopinionthatAfricans could not count beyond ten, the
Yorubas could count to a million."
Crowderadds that"worksby NegroMuslaw,theology,
history,
limson philosophy,
and medicineexist all over the Western
to the regionof West
Sudan," a reference
Africa
justbelowtheSaharaDesert.
Let us nowexaminetheYorubasystem
of numeration,
called by Conant"one of
the most peculiarnumberscales in exisof the systemis given
tence."A summary
by the Rev. SamuelJohnsonin theintroductionto his book, The Historyof the
Yorubas.*
termsare
From one to ten, different
used, then for 20, 30, 200 and 400; the
rest are multiplesand compounds.Thus
11, 12, 13 and 14 arereckonedasten plus
one,plustwo,plusthreeandplusfour;15
to 20 arereckonedas 20 lessfive,lessfour,
*AII diacriticalmarkshave been omitted
fromthisreprinting.
less three, less two, less one, and then 20.
In the same way we continue 20 and
one, to 20 and four,and then 30 less five
(25), less four,and so on to 30, and so for
all figuresreckonedby tens.
There is no doubt that the digitsform
the basis of enumerationto a largeextent,
if not entirelyso. Five, ten, twenty,i.e.,
the digitsof one hand, of two, and the toes
included, and their multiples form the
different
stagesof enumeration.
Beginningfromthe firstmultipleof 20
we have Ogoji, a contractionof ogun meji,
i.e., two twenties(40), Ogota, three twenties (60), Ogorin,four twenties(80), Ogorun, five twenties (100), and so on to ten
twenties(200), when the new wordIgba is
used.
The intermediatenumbers(30 havinga
distinctterminology),50, 70, 90, 110, 130
to 190 are reckonedas: 60 less ten (50), 80
less ten (70), a hundredless ten (90), and
so on up to 200.
The figures from 200 to 2000 are
reckoned as multiples of 200 (400, however,whichis 20 X 20, the square of all the
digits,has a distinctterminology,
Irinwo or
Erinwo, i.e., the elephant of figuresmeaning the highest coined word in calculation,the restbeingmultiples)....
By a systemof contraction,elision,and
euphonic assimilation,for which the Yoruba language is characteristic,the long
termOrun-din-ni
(Egbeta or Egberinand so
on) is contracted to Ede or Ode, e.g.
Edegbeta (500) ...
and so on....
Summary. Thus we see that with
numbersthat go by tens fiveis used as the
intermediatefigure-fiveless than the next
higherstage. In those by 20, ten is used as
the intermediate.In those by 200, 100 is
used, and in those of 2000, 1000 is used.
The figure that is made use of for
calculating indefinite numbers is 20,000
(Egbawa), and in money calculation especially it is termedOke kan, i.e., one bag
(of cowries). Large numbers to an indefinite amount are so many "bags" or
rather"bags" in so manyplaces.
We have here an example of a vigesimal
system,one based on twenty,of whichwe
find numerousexamples in westernAfrica,
as well as in other parts of the world. In
78
Englishwe have theword"score,"and in
French quatre-vingt(4-20) represents
(4-20-10) is
eighty,whilequatre-vingt-dix
used forninety.Theunusualfeatureofthe
to a
Yorubasystemis thatit is subtractive
veryhighdegree.
I havereliedheavilyfortheanalysisof
Yoruba numeralsupon Robert G. Armstrong'sstudy, Yoruba Numerals.Armstrongstates: "It is testimonyto the
that
Yorubacapacityforabstractreasoning
they could have developedand learned
whose
sucha system."The originalsystem,
age is not given,was expandedfor the
cowries.
purposeofcounting
Table I showsthe wordsforthe first
ten numbersin thefourprincipalapplications
Table I
Cardinal
1. okan
2. eji
3. eta
4. erin
5. arun
6. efa
7. eje
8. ejo
9. esan
10. ewa
Adjectival
1. kan
2,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
meji
meta
merin
marun
mefa
meje
mejo
mesan
mewaa
Counting
ookan= eni
eeji
eeta
eerin
aarun
eefa
eeje
eejo
eesan
eewaa
Ordinal
ekin:ni ikin:ni
akoko
ekeji=ikeji
eketa=iketa
ekerin ikerin
ekarun=ikarun
ekefa= ikefa
ekeje= ikeje
ekejo= ikejo
ekesan= ikesan
ekewaa= ikewaa
The doublevowelwithwhicheach of the
countingnumbersbegins is actually a
formof thewordowo, meaning
contracted
"cowrie"or "money."
The followingare the names of the
forthe
as well as thederivations,
numbers,
series:
counting
6 eefa
ookan
7 eeje
eeji
8 eejo
eeta
9 eesan
eerin
10 eewaa
aarun
11 ookan laa (laa from le ewa = in
additionto ten)
12 eejilaa
13 eetalaa
14 eerinlaa
15 eedogun(fromarundin ogun = five
reducestwenty)
16 eerindinlogun(20 - 4)
17 eetadinlogun(20 - 3)
18 eeji dinlogun(20 - 2)
19 ookandinlogun(20 - 1)
20 ogun
21 ookan le logun("one on twenty"=
20+ 1)
25 eedoogbon(30 - 5)
30 ogbon
35 aarun din logoji (five less than two
= (20 X 2) - 5)
twenties
40 ogoji("twentytwos")
50 aadota(20 X 3-10)
60 ogota (3 X 20, or more literally,
"twentyin threeways")
100 ogorun= orun(20 X 5)
105 aarundin laadofa(20 X 6 - 10 - 5)
200 igba
1
2
3
4
5
After200 the systembecomesquite
are mainand theseirregularities
irregular,
levels.A fewexamples
tainedon thehigher
follow:
300
oodunrun=
oodun [20 X (20
-
5)]
79
odinmarun
orindinnirinwo
[400-(20X 4)-5]
irinwo
egbewa(200 X 10)
egbaaji(2 X 2000)
egbaawaa(2000 X 10)
egbaawaalonanmeji
(ten2000s in twoways)
(idiomatically
egbeegberun
315
400
2000
4000
20,000
40,000
1,000,000
1000 X 1000)
of thenumeralsfrom35
The construction
in Table II. Of
through54 is represented
the twentynumerals,only five do not
at all, and fiveinvolve
involvesubtraction
in twocolumns!
subtraction
venturesthe opinionthat
Armstrong
the patternoriginatedso that one could
of
withthefingers
countthetennumbers
one hand. If the multiplesof ten are
understood,and not shown by finger
thenone fingerat a timecan be
gestures,
extendedto denote 21, 22, 23, and 24,
Whenthe fifthfingeris exrespectively.
from30; andwhen
tended,it is subtracted
fourfingers
the remaining
it is retracted,
aredeductedfrom30 to give26, etc.
alreadydescribed,
Besidesthenumerals
there is an additionalset for counting
is basedon thecowrie
cowries.Thissystem
4000 cowries= one
in shillings:
equivalents
The specialnamefor20,000 cowshilling.
riesis oke kan = one bag,or fiveshillings.
1000 cowor toro,represents
Threepence,
of
only300
had
a
value
a
penny
ries,but
the
time
the
was
system
cowries at
principleis used
adopted.The subtractive
constructions:
againin thefollowing
= (m)eji
two (shillings)and threepence
le toro
two (shillings)and ninepence= (m)eta
dintoro(threelessthreepence)
is stillusedtoday
The cowriereckoning
to large numbers:a farmer
in referring
mightsay he has "shillingthreepence"
ratherthan 5000 yam heaps. The term
"bag" may be used insteadof "fiveshillings."
The idea of "infinity"is expressedin
the Yoruba proverb:"Thereis nothingas
numerousas thelocusts;theyarefoundat
home and in the farm."Althoughsome
farmswereas muchas twentymilesfrom
lived,the
the townsin whichthe farmers
locustscoveredeverybit of foliageon the
route.Comparethissimilewiththeancient
Egyptiansymbolof a tadpoleto represent
100,000; its name,hfn,also means "innumerable."AftertheNilefloodsreceded,
in
could be seensquirming
thesecreatures
to be counted.
themud,too numerous
A traditional
folkquerythatreminds
us of our highwaysand citysubwaysis:
Table II
twentyten unit
twentyten unit
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
80
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
"Whichis the verylong coffinthat can
accommodate1400 corpses?"The answer
is "the path," depictedas a long coffin
containingmanybodies arrangedend-toend in singlefile.This picturerepresents
who filealongthe
thehundredsof farmers
pathson theirwayto andfromtheirfarms
during"rush"hours!The number1400 is
composedof the factors7 and 200, both
specialnumbers.
considered
of Ife,
Dr. Akinpelu,of theUniversity
for
gave me the followingconstructions
andforpowers
fordoubling,
unitfractions,
ofa base:
ebu = fraction
Idameta = one-third(Divided into
three)
Idamerin= one-fourth
Idamarun= one-fifth
etc.
Ilopomefi= twotimes,or doubling
Erinlonamei= 42 (4 in 2 places)
Erinlonameta= 43
Erinlonamerin 44
etc.
of Ibadan,
Dr. Ajayi,of theUniversity
has stated: "Yoruba vocabularycovers,
a wide rangeof
apart fromnumeration,
fractions,
concepts,including
mathematical
squaresand squareroots,etc." On methods
he writesthat they are
of computation,
mentally;"sometimes
usually performed
also markson walls,beansor sticksin a jar,
etc. to representlarge units of what is
beingcounted;e.g.,a hundredor thousand
cowriesor heads of cattle,etc. owed, or
yearsof a monarch'sreign.In somekingdoms,censusesof the numberof families
in each villageor districtare kept in the
samemanner."
I have not thus far been able to
determinewhat computationalmethods
were used in past centuriesby Yoruba
inin commercialtransactions
merchants
volvingmanythousandsof cowrieshells.
Nor have I yet foundwhethertheykept
writtenrecordsof debts,or whethertrade
on a cashbasis.
was strictly
During the colonial period the lanEuropeanpowers
guagesof thedominating
wereused in Africanschools,exceptpossibly in the primarygrades. Since they
theAfrican
however,
gainedindependence,
peopleshave been eagerto reviveinterest
in theirown languagesand culture;hence
thereis a newdesireto expandthenative
vocabularyto include conceptshitherto
AlthoughEnglishis stillused
unexpressed.
of higher
today in Nigerianinstitutions
learningas a commonmeansof communication for studentsof extremelyvaried
linguisticbackgrounds,the Yoruba languageis beingexpandedto accommodate
newideas.
the Directorof the
Dr. Armstrong,
at theUniverStudies
Instituteof African
a decimal
developed
sity of Ibadan, has
words
Yoruba
uses
which
numbersystem
all theirregularandeliminates
throughout,
ities of the traditionalsystem. Thus
would becomereadily
modernarithmetic
accessibleto averagepeopleand to youngsters in the elementarygrades,without
thattheylearna languageother
requiring
reforms
than theirown. Dr. Armstrong's
operaincludetermsforall the arithmetic
decimalfractions, as well as fractions,
has
tions, and percents.Dr. Armstrong
confidencethat these reformswill enin
couragepeople to take a greatinterest
as theyrealizetheyare citimathematics,
zens of an increasinglymathematical
world. He concludes:". . . a nationthat
could develop and transmitthe comsystemhas
plexitiesof their[numeration]
obviouslya great deal of mathematical
talentandinterest."
81
History
ofSouthwest
Nigeria
developed many centuriesago. Cattletheoccupationof peoplessuchas
herding,
The developmentof a numbersystem
the
of
Masai
of Kenyaand theHottentots
dependsupon the need. In a small selfof
extensive
South
Africa,
required
systems
containedeconomy,typicalof largesecas
numeration,
did
large-scale
carried
trade,
tionsof Africa,in whichall ormostofthe
necessitiesof life are producedwithinthe on bytheadvancedancientsocieties.
It is only by learningthe historyand
community,there is little need for an
of a people that we can
development
extensivereckoning
system.The namesof
understand
their
We
needformathematics.
numbersarefrequently
connectedwiththe
to
the
of
are
discover
just
beginning
history
objects to be counted,just as we have
the
southern
most
Nigeria,
densely
popuspecialnamesforcertainsets-flock,herd,
brace,etc., datingback to a pastoralor lated regionof the whole continentof
agricultural
society.Fingerandotherbody Africa.Since the peoplesof thisarealeft
thekeyto theirhistory
records,
gesturesmight accompany or be used no written
lie
in
must
archaeological
excavations,
insteadof spokenwords.Gesture-counting
of
oral
works
art,
traditions,
language
in themarketplace,
is especiallynecessary
of
and
visitors.
analysis,
reports
foreign
wherepeople speakingvariouslanguages
The recentlydevelopedtechniqueof
gatherto exchangegoods. It mightbe
radiocarbon
datinghas broughtinfinitely
customaryto use beads, shells,nuts,or
greater
to the fieldof archaeoaccuracy
pebblesas mediaof exchangeor as countlogical
research.
By
early 1967 thirty-one
ing materials(the word calculate is derived
known
for
dates
were
all of Nigeria.It is
from calculus, Latin for pebble), and to
estimated
that
five
thousand
dates are
arrangethemin sets,thus givingrise to
for
the
needed
period
500
B.C.-A.D.
1500
specialwords.
to
enable
to
archaeologists
make
an
adeMany Africansocieties,however,rereconstruction
of
the
of
quate
the
history
quiredthe use of largenumbersfortheir
country.
economies.MostAmericans
well-developed
In the Nok area of northern
Nigeria
to learn
and Europeansare just beginning
have
stone
been
found
implements
whose
of the greatempiresthathave existedin
is
estimated
at
more
than
age
39,000
years.
variouspartsof Africasincethe timeof
The
iron-based
Nok
culture
is
believed
to
ancientEgypt.Kush,withitsiron-working
have
in
existed
approximately
900
city,Meroe,flourished
just southof Egypt
art figures
beforethe Christianera. In the western B.C.-A.D. 200; the terracotta
of
this
period
are
thought
to
have
directly
part of the Sudan region,there were
influenced
the
later
art
of
the
Yoruba
and
ancient Ghana, which did an extensive
of
Benin.
tradein gold; the citiesof Timbuktuand
Concentrated
efforts
arebeingmadeto
Djenne,centersof advancedlearning;the
the
oral
gather
traditions,
but the diffiofMali,Songhay,andKanem,to
kingdoms
culties
are
On
the
site
of theformer
great.
namea few.Further
southlie theextensive
of
the
Oyo
Yorubas
one
Empire
nowfinds
ruinsof Zimbabwe,in presentRhodesia.
ruined
settlements,
some
deserted
during
Earlyin the Christianera thisarea was a
the
invasion
of
the
Nupe
fifteenth
and
source of gold, copper, tin and iron,
sixteenth
some
centuries,
sacked
the
by
particularlyfor the Easternworld. The
Alafins
of
in
the
(kings
Oyo)
seventeenth
of Kitwaraand Kongo,ofNubia
kingdoms
and ancient Ethiopia were highly and eighteenth centuries and many
82
in- tionlegend,theOba of Beninandtheheads
emptied by the nineteenth-century
vasion of the Islamic Fulani from the of the six Yoruba kingdomswereall denorth,as well as theDahomeanslaveraids scended from a common ancestor,
greetthe Oduduwa.Oranyan,the youngestking,is
fromthewest.Lionsoccasionally
supposedto have been thefounderof the
present
visitors
to thesesites.
century
Oyo
state,whichby thefifteenth
Essentialto everyAfricanroyalhouseempire.
a
mighty
had
become
historian,
whose
hold was theprofessional
Anotherversionof the creationmyth
duty it was to memorizeand recitethe
withtheFlood. Olorun,thesupreme
begins
His function
dynasticlistsof thekingdom.
his son Oduduwadownon a chain,
let
god,
ofthe
was similarto thatoftherhapsodists
a handfulof earth,a cockerel,and
carrying
Homeric age. No doubt the facts were
Oduduwascatteredthe earth
a
nut.
palm
colored somewhatto please the current
the
and thecockerelscratched
over
water,
a
theselistsconstitute
rulers;nevertheless,
theland on whichthe
it
became
it
so
that
reliablerecord.
fairly
its sixteenbrantree
spreading
grew,
palm
Toward the end of the nineteenth
sixteen
is believed
The
sacred
number
ches.
centurythe Rev. Samuel Johnson(Anla
headsof
sixteen
crowned
the
to
represent
underOgun),a YorubaAnglicanminister,
Yorubaland.
so
tookto writedowntheseoraltraditions,
By the year A.D. 1300, the Yoruba
ofhisfatherland
mightnot
thatthehistory
had built numerouswalled cities
people
be lost. Although educated Yorubas,
by farms.Tradewas carriedon
surrounded
schooledin the Westerntradition,were
the
of the north;theyexwith
peoples
familiarwith the historyof Greece and
kola nutsforproducts
cloth
and
changed
abouttheirown
Rome,theyknewnothing
land. Johnsonspent over twentyyears they needed. In turn the Yoruba states
stimulation
collectinghis materialand recordedit in wereexposedto theintellectual
neighborsand of the
The Historyof the Yorubas,whichcom- of of the northern
Manyhisin Timbuktu.
prisesthe myths,history,and customsof IslamicUniversity
in Arabic
toricalrecordsof Africa,written
hispeople.
All the traditionsindicate that the and datingback as far as the seventh
to giveus
haveyetto be translated
Yoruba people came originallyfromthe century,
of
life.
African
a
more
picture
complete
There
are
to
the
similarities
many
east.
the
the
centuries,
following
During
culture
in
obancientEgyptian
religious
its
dominion
until
of
expanded
state
Oyo
of
burial
and
works
art,
customs,
servances,
theinstitution
ofdivinekingship;
however, extendedover a vast area,includingeven
these culturaltraitsare sharedby other Dahomeyto thewest.MeanwhilethekingAfricanpeoples. The town of Ife, also dom of Benin,to the southeast,had beof theYorubasand had
called Ile-Ife,was the spiritualcenterand comeindependent
into
empire.Whenthe
a
mighty
grown
it
cradle of the Yoruba people, and was
to visitthis
the
first
Europeans
Portuguese,
fromIfethatthepeopleoftheneighboring
in the
entered
Benin
of
City
Africa,
part
stateof Beningot theirlonglineof kings.
fifteenth
were
truly
late
they
century,
At thissitehave been foundthe remarklevel
of
the
culture
astounded
they
by
able bronze, stone, iron and terracotta
detravelers
encountered.
Later
European
worksof art,datingback almosta thouof
the
methe
main
streets
scribed
thirty
sandyears.
and wide,the longest
Accordingto one versionof the crea- tropolis,all straight
83
of whichwas fourmiles in length."The black cityin Africa,a metropolis
of more
people are as clean as the Dutch, their than1,400,000people,and the seatof the
housesshinelikea lookingglass,"reported famous Universityof Ibadan. Although
a Dutchvisitor.The Oba's palacealonewas axes datingback to the Stone Age have
reputedto be as largeas a Dutch town. been foundin thearea,Ibadanwas onlya
Brass-casting
by the lost-waxmethodhad smallvillagebuiltarounda centralmarket
century.Withthe
been introducedfromIfe,makingpossible priorto the nineteenth
warsitbecamea settlement
forthe
the marvelousplaques on the wallsof the internal
army,a townfreeof thefearofinvasion,
a
palace,a history
of Beninin artform.
of
Withthe Europeanscamemissionaries, refugefromstrife.Todaythree-quarters
are farmers
who livein the
gin,firearms,
and theintensification
of the the inhabitants
whichsurround
slave trade. Slave raidingand wars with cityand workon thefarms
mileswide.Actuallyit is
neighboring
peoplesalternated
withperiods it in a ringtwenty
of stabilityand peacefultrade-untilthe a city-village;
farmers,
craftsmen
and traddissolution
oftheempires
andtheconquest ers live in largecompoundsin the town
by theBritishat theend of thenineteenth center.
century.A conservativeestimate gives
24,000,000 as the numberof slavesex- Currencyand Trade
portedfromWestAfricaand Angola.Dr. The Yoruba people of southwestNigeria
W. E. B. DuBois believedthat100,000,000 have been knownfor centuriespast as a
Africans
werelostin thecourseof theslave nationoftraders;
thisreputation
extendsto
trade. Many revolted,died in battle, both men and women.Marketswere-and
jumped overboard,or perishedin the in- still are-held at regularintervals,
usually
famous"MiddlePassage,"the journeyto every four days, to coincide with the
the New World,wherethe institution
of traditionalYoruban four-dayweek. The
slaverybecamethe foundationforAmeri- locationand the productsof the markets
can prosperity.It was also the wealth rotate.Today the clothmarketin Ibadan,
producedby theslavetradethathelpedto held everysixteendays,attractscustomers
lay the basis for the expansionof the frompointsas distantas Ghana.Sincethe
Yoruba empire.Everyyearthe armiesof marketwomencombinethe rolesof food
thekingsscouredneighboring
territories
in producer,
traderand customer,
theperiodislaveraids.In turn,theYorubatownswere cityofthemarketis a necessity.
attackedby otherpeoples withthe same
In somepartsof WestAfrica,thenames
reprehensible
motives.
of the days of the week are actuallythe
In 1897 a Britishdelegationinsisted namesof the main townsin the area in
upon seeingthe Oba of Benin at a time which marketsare held on those days.
whenhis religionforbadehimto meetwith AmongtheIbo people,thevillageclusteris
Severalof theBritishwerekilled dividedso that the varioussectionshave
strangers.
in this incident.In retaliation
the British theirrestperiodson different
dayswithin
sent a punitiveexpeditionto burn the the four-dayweek, or withina periodof
entirecity. Theyremoved2500 beautiful two weeks,called the "bigweek." On the
Beninbronzes;theseare now on exhibitin rest day, the villagersabstainfromfarm
the museumsof Europe and the United workto do householdchores,practicetheir
States.
hobbies,and visit theirfriends.It is on
The YorubacityofIbadanis thelargest thesespecialdaysthatfestivals,
ceremonials
84
all in the plains that these cowrieswere imported
and marketsareheld,frequently
same location.Most lbo marketsnow ad- fromthe northinto the westernSudanic
schedule.
hereto an eight-day
kingdoms.
Althoughgoods were oftenexchanged
When the Portuguesepaid theirfirst
the merchants
of visitto Beninin thefifteenth
by barterarrangements,
century,
they
long found cowrie shells in commonuse. In
southern
Nigeriahad adoptedcurrency
beforethearrivalof theEuropeans.As the 1588 James Welsh, an English trader,
numberwordsindicate,thecowriewas the boughttwo gallonsof palmwinein Benin
basic unit of currency.These shellshave fortwentyshells.A yearlatertwoLondon
been treatedwith disdainby Europeans, merchantsnamed Bird and Newton repartlybecauseof the debasementof their portedthat"prettywhiteshells"wereused
How- as Europeansused gold and silver.They
century.
value duringthenineteenth
formof wereable to purchasetwogallonsofhoney
ever,theyare trulya sophisticated
MarionJohnson
quotesan anony- anda honeycomb
fora sumofone hundred
currency.
mous Dutch gentlemanwritingin 1747: cowries.
About the year 1700 a Dutch trader
Cf...those who are pleased to show a
contemptof them(cowries)don't reflect told of the royalmonopolyof theOba of
thatshellsare as fitfora commonstandard Benin.No specificdutieswereimposedon
buttherewasan annual
of pecuniary
valueas eithergoldor silver." importsor exports,
of trading.
Picturesof cowrieshellsappearon the tax in cowriesfortheprivilege
governorwas requiredto
man. Each territorial
wallsofcaves,executedbyPaleolithic
consideredthecow- raisea specifiednumberof bagsof boesies
The ancientEgyptians
rie a magicagent,a talismanof fertility, (cowries)forthe Oba's use,whileofficials
in of lower rank deliveredproducefor the
and in some cases used it as currency
foreign exchange. Archaeologistshave royal household. There were no poor
foundmillionsof themin thetombsof the people in the land; the wealthywere
centuryAfrica obligatedto see thatnonewenthungry.
Pharoahs.By thethirteenth
fromthe
Cowrieshellswereintroduced
had been floodedwiththesesmallshells.
Large quantitieshave been excavatedin Maldivesof the Indian Ocean by Arab
caravans,whichbroughtthemfromEgypt
ancientIfe.
Accordingto one of the Yoruba across the Sahara to the westernSudan
legends,Oranyan,the founderof Oyo,was region.Withthem came the sexagesimal
to thetheory
the youngestof King Oduduwa'sgrand- systemofcounting,
according
He bases this conclusion
children.When the King died, all his of Dr. Jeffreys.
fortunein cowrieswent to the Oba of upon the Ibo systemof countingcowries
Benin,whileOranyanwasleftwithnothing by sixes, as well as the fact that the
but the land. But cleverOranyancharged Mandingo"hundred"was actuallysixty.
rentforthe use oftheland,andeventually Jeffreys'
by
theory,however,is discounted
acquiredall the wealthfromhis brothers. otherauthorities.
A latermethodof entry
fromTangier, was by way of the GuineaCoast portsof
Ibn Battuta,thetraveler
in North Africa,reportsin the book he WestAfrica,withtheDutchandEnglishas
wrotein themid-fourteenth
century:"The middlemen.
of cowbuyingand sellingofits(Gao's) inhabitants
An analysisof therelationship
and the sameis rie currencyto thenumeration
is done withcowry-shells,
systemsof
the case at Malli." The editor'snote ex- the variouspeoples of West Africais a
85
study.Here we shall consider
fascinating
Nigeria.How
onlythepeoplesof southern
werethesesmallshellshandled?How does
theirvaluecomparewiththatof European
I have reliedmostheavilyon
currencies?
MarionJohnson'sfineanalysis,"The Cowof WestAfrica"andon A. H.
rieCurrencies
excellentarticle,"The
M. Kirk-Greene's
History."
inNigerian
MajorCurrencies
partsoftheregion,the
In thenorthern
cowrieshellswerecountedoutin groupsof
five, while along the coast they were
in strings
piercedand threaded,generally
of forty.The Ibo method was an exception;therethe basic unitwas six cowcowrieswere
ries.It is not knownwhether
strungat the time the Portuguesefirst
began to trade. We know they were
namedgalinhas
countedin unitsof forty,
(Portuguesefor "hens"). Laterthisname
or
was appliedto a bunchof fivestrings,
two hundredshells,no doubt to correspond to the devaluationof the cowriein
termsof its purchasingpower. As the
commercial
languagechangedfromPortuguese to English,later equivalentswere
givenin English.
In areaswherecowrieswerenotstrung,
theiruse dependedupona rapidmethodof
higherunits.
themin successively
grouping
thatin Nigeriatradewas
Let us remember
carriedon by both men and women,and
thatcowrieshad to be countedup intothe
they
high denominations.Furthermore,
werecountedout by both the buyerand
the seller!Certainlythisshouldhave discouldbarely
pelledthemyththatAfricans
countto ten.
The earlyYorubasystemwasbasedon
a combinationof vigesimaland decimal
counting:20, 200, 2000, and 20,000 (oke
kan = one bag). The systemat Lagoswas
north:
lateradoptedfurther
40 = 1 string
2000 = 1head= 50 strings
20,000= 1 bag= 10 heads.
However,the 200 unitwas recognized;a
discountof two cowrieswas allowedon
everyfivestrings.
whowas sold
The Yoruba,Osifekunde,
earlyninein
the
Brazil
into slaveryin
in the
youth
his
teenthcenturyhad spent
recollecHis
Lagos.
of
Ijebu area,northeast
tions of life in his homelandincluded
of the currencyvalues.He
remembrance
cowrieequivalents:
gavethefollowing
= 40 cowries
ogoji= string
= 200
ogwao= bunch(of fivestrings)
cowries
= 2000
egwegwa= head(of tenstrings)
cowries
oke = bag (of ten heads) = 20,000
cowries.
The only fixedmeasurehe knew was a
standardunitof gold dustcalledochouon,
worthapproximately
about a thimbleful,
1000 cowries.An averagepricefora slave
at thattimewastwobags.
Nigeria,the roti,
In partsof northern
or pound (originallyof copper),was the
equivalentof 32 cowries.Each timea roti
was countedout, an additionalshellwas
set aside as a tally, so that threerotis
approximatedone hundredcowries.Perhapsthismethodwas an attemptto reconsystemwiththatof the
cile the northern
south,wheretwo hundredwerethreaded
of
of fortyeach,threestrings
in fivestrings
sixty-six,or two stringsof one hundred
witha discountof one percent.
All largetradingcentersin thewestern
Sudan area employed cowrie counters.
Imagine having to count daily up to
300,000 of thesesmallcurvedshells,parwherethey
ticularlyin theinlandregions,
An attemptby theNiger
werenot strung.
measure
Expeditionof 1841 to substitute
for numberprovedto be unpopular.Perhaps the sellerfearedhe wouldbe cheated!
86
In the 1880'scowriesat Lokoja,on the
NigerRiver,werestrungin bunchesofone
The
thousand,witha valueof one shilling.
stationto
womanemployedby thetrading
count them was paid ten shillingsa
Womenof West
month-inmerchandise.
Africaare notabletradersto thisday,and
in someIbo marketsthewomen'scouncils
set the rate of cowrieexchange.Yoruba
women have a reputationfor knowing
whereto buy cheapand selldear.Theygo
directlyto the farmsseveralmilesfrom
town, or wait on the farm paths to
purchaseproduceon its way to the local
market.
In the 1860's thecowrietableand the
Britishequivalentsread (with variations
upontimeandplace):
depending
=
40 cowries= one string
3/4-
5 strings= one bunch = 3
10 bunches= one head =
lings
-
1 penny
6 pence
13Y4-
2 shil-
10 heads = one bag = 14- 18 shillings.
By the end of the century,one thousand
cowrieswereworththreepence in silver,
for
buta copperpennycouldbe exchanged
only300 cowries.
During the early nineteenthcentury
the largerZanzibar cowrieswere introduced; European merchantsfound they
could scoop themup by the ton and sell
Withtheadded
themat a handsomeprofit.
weightof the shells,and thedepreciation
in value owing to the introductionof
European currency,by the end of the
to transcenturyit was hardlyworthwhile
port them.On the lowerNigerRiverthe
cowriebecamemerelya measureofvalueprices were quoted in so many cowrie
units. It had become impracticalto use
themas a mediumof exchangeexceptfor
smallpurchasesin the local markets.The
in thevalueofthecowriesand
fluctuations
the need to convertto Britishunitsmust
of
have taxed the skillsof the shrewdest
As an example,in 1902 therate
merchants.
at Ilorin,in
was fourthousandto a shilling
the northernYoruba region,while at
Sokoto, in northernNigeria,a shilling
wouldfetchonly1200 shells,sincecoinage
was harderto come by away fromthe
Coast.Importsof cowrieswerebannedby
Proclamationin 1904 and coinage was
However,
introducedby the government.
since the smallestunit was a threepenny
piece,cowriescontinuedto be usedin local
of the anini,
tradeuntil the introduction
ofa penny.
worthone-tenth
The cowrie units remainusefulas a
means of expressinglarge numbers.A
farmermightsay his farmhas "threepence" (1000) yamheaps.In earliertimes
it was recordedthattheKingofDahomey
was beatenby the Yorubaswitha loss of
and twenty",
"two heads,twentystrings,
or 4820 soldiers.The enemywere the
who
famousDahomeanwomenwarriors,
were "advancingin the orderof battle,
marchingsteadily and solidly onward,
ignoringthe fireof the Egbas (Yorubas)
and payingno attentionto thoseamong
themselveswho fell, but kept marching
stolidlyonward.They neverfiredbut at
andwhentheydid,
thewordof command,
By thiswe
theirvolleysweredemoralizing.
can see thatthe Dahomeansoldierswere
disciplinedtroopssuch as the Egbas had
neverfaced before.... Whenthose who
actuallyenteredthetownwerecaughtand
slain,... then the Egbas knewthatthese
terriblefighterswere the Amazons!" So
runs the account of the Rev. Samuel
the
Johnson.He continues:"Immediately
newsspreadamongall ranksthattheyhave
with women,and for very
been fighting
shameall the Egba menwereexasperated
beyond measureand rushedupon them
withone accord and compelledthemto
in 1851.
Thisbattlewas fought
retreat."
87
words up to 96,000,000, and compares
thesenumerals
to the decimalsystem
used
by the same people for non-cowrie
counting.
Althoughthe use of cowriesas ordinary currencyhas been discouragedor
outlawed,thesesmallshellshavea function
as special-purpose
money-as bridewealth
and forvariousceremonial
payments.
Most
Africansocietiesrequirea materialconsiderationto legitimizeand stabilizethe
marriage,recompensethe bride'sparents
for the loss of theirdaughter,and guarantee that the husband will fulfillhis
ofthebrideprice,
obligations.
The payment
whichmay take severalyears,permitsthe
man to claimhis children;otherwise
they
wouldbe retainedby themother'sfamily.
If thewifedies withoutchildren,
or if the
couple separates,the bridepricemustbe
returned.Europeansmightconsiderit a
dowryin reverse.
At thetimeSamuelJohnsonwrotehis
6 Nkpulu(singleshells) = 1 Ekpetti=
book,wealthyfamiliesrequiredmorethan
6 cowries
ten heads of cowries(over 20,000), as
10 Ekpetti= 1 Ukwu = 60 cowries
withearliertimeswhena token
compared
20 Ukwu = 1Akpa = 1200 cowries.
payment of one head was considered
The personwho countsfirstseparatesout ample. Today the bridepriceis generally
groupsof six,and thenmakespilesof ten tenderedin cash. Withthe government's
suchgroups.
introductionof general-purpose
money,
In some partsof the land Ibo people brides "entered the market."This has
refusedto sell forany currency
but cow- createda moralproblem,contributing
to
ries.Ironically,the value rose after1900, the modernAfrican's"identitycrisis."In
when the government
outlawedtheirim- 1969 maximumbrideprice
payments
were
in some partsof
the purchasing set by the government
portation.Furthermore,
out of
powerof thecowriewas greaterthanthat Nigeria,sincethematterwasgetting
of metal coinage.Cowriesdistinctly
had hand-the higherthe girl'seducation,the
thebrideprice!
the advantageovercoins,due to custom, greater
Amongthe Yoruba ceremonialoccaand utilityforotherpurposes.Smallwonderthatpeoplehoardedthemfordecades! sionswhichrequirecowriepaymentsare
initiation
intosecretsocieties,and
The completecowrienumeration
sys- funerals,
certainfines.As decorationcowriesare
temof theUmundri(Akwa Ibo), basedon
unitsof six and sixty,is givenby Dr. D. W. seen everywhere-onclothing, drums,
diviningchains,headdresses,
ritualmasks,
in "The CowryShell" in a 1938
Jeffreys
publicationof Nigeria.He lists number andfurniture.
By no means did cowrie shells disintroappearafterthe Britishgovernment
ducedcoinage.Cowriesarean integral
part
of dailylifein manyregionsof Africa,for
use as decoration,religioussymbols,and
special-purpose
currency.
Evenas ordinary
moneytheywerestillusedin recenttimes.
In the 1920's theIbo peoplekeptthemin
in theinlandareas.
circulation,
particularly
In Yoruba and Nupe territory
they reappearedduringthe severedepressionof
the 1930's,wheneventheanini(one-tenth
of a penny) was too large a unit of
exchange.As late as 1942 paymentsin
some partsof Nigeriawere expressedin
cowriesratherthanin coinage.
AmongtheIbo peopleof southeastern
Nigeriaa unique systemof cowrieequivalents was in use. Cowrieusage was still
widespreadin 1920, whenG. T. Blasden
wrote Among the Ibos of Nigeria. He
states:
88
The Rev. Johnsonreportsthat
We are accustomedto thinkof money attributes.
it is whenone wenton a longjourney,he took
at leastthreefunctions:
as embodying
a measureof value,a mediumof exchange, beadsinsteadofcowries.
Of all the currenciesin use in the
and a methodof storingwealth.We take
onlygunsand alcohol
century,
thatcoinsandpapernoteshave nineteenth
forgranted
value. The tradi- achievedany stabilityof exchangerates,
functional
no inherently
tionalAfricanattitudewas quitedifferent, accordingto the AfricanhistorianK. O.
and theAfricanfelt,forexample,notthat Dike. Bottlesof gin passedfromhand to
but hand for years without having been
yamswerebecomingmoreexpensive,
that cowrieswere gettingcheaper.The opened, and mightrepresentthe entire
had to meetthe de- wealthof a chief.Basdenreportedseeing
Europeanmerchants
mand for currencyobjects that had in- huge collectionsof emptygin bottles-a
recordofpasttransactions!
value.
trinsic
We shall mentionbrieflythe various
SacredNumbers
articleswhichhave been used as currency
andcultural
that The cityof Ife is the spiritual
in Europeantradewiththeterritories
archaeHere
people.
of
the
Yoruba
center
todaymakeup Nigeria.In 1510 one could
masks
heads,
beautiful
have
found
ologists
buya slaveforeightor tencoppermanillas
terraand
brass
in
cast
groups
figure
and
(Portuguesefor "bracelet"). There were
to
back
in
dating
stone,
and
figures
cotta,
patternsof manillasin Nifivedifferent
the
stands
still
Here
century.
the
thirteenth
geria,each acceptedonlyin certainareas,
By the "staff of Oranyan", the stone obelisk
and in use intothepresentcentury.
five
century, stan- markingthe burialspot of the legendary
end of the nineteenth
bottle of gin. founderof the Yoruba kingdomof Oyo.
one
dard manillasbought
werein great Here one findstheancientshadowclocks,
and
brass
rods
Copper,iron
thatservedto tellthetime
into stonemonoliths
manufactured
demand; they were
Here
the
datesforfestivals.
and
fix
of
day
and
of
weapons
art,
ornaments,works
burial,
token
of
given
was
Benin
the
Oba
The
currency.
tools, and special-purpose
Rev.Johnsoncomplainsthat"soon doubts even thoughthe kingdomof Benin had
will beginto be expressedas to whether achieved independence from Yoruba
The influenceof thereligious
iron domination.
Yorubaseverknewtheartof smelting
of
Ife
spreadto Benin,to theIbos,
beliefs
rise
to
fromthe ores!" The ironbar gave
elsewhere.
and
the
Nupe,
to
or
"a
tobacco"
"a bar of
the terminology
are heldto be sacred,
numbers
Certain
the
Nigeria Ogoja
bar of rum".In southern
occupiestheprincipal
four
number
the
and
worth
was
iron
bar,
penny,a Y-shaped
Thuswe findthata
them.
among
position
of
a
Basden
speaks
about a half-penny.
among the
is
traditional
week
four-day
Ibo
of
the
in
one
part
currency
unique
the
Among
Nigeria.
of
southern
people
arrowwith
of
iron
pieces
region,tiny
shapedheads,used in oldentimesforthe Yorubas each day is dedicatedto one of
acquisitionof slaves. "How manythou- the fourmajordeitiesor itslocal countersandshad to be countedwhenmakingsuch part: Shango (Sango, Jakuta),an early
as thegod
king,laterworshipped
The mythical
a purchasebafflesone's imagination."
by the doubleused in thisareawasbrass of thunder,is represented
highercurrency
bolt;Obatala
rods. Beads were widelyreportedas cur- axe symbolof thelightening
the creativegod, corency, and valued for their decorative (Orisala,Orisha-nla),
89
workerwiththe supremegod Olorun,the
god of purity,is protectorof the town
gates and patron of the physicallydeformed;Orunmilais the oraculardeityof
the Ifa diviningsystem;and Oduduwa
(Ogun), the legendaryfounderof Ife, is
In
god of warand patronof iron-workers.
began
each
region
in
the
week
past,
the
withthenameof themostpopulargod of
that area. More recentlythe day of the
thenamesof thedays:
marketdetermined
second day,"
"market's
day",
''market
is market
"tomorrow
day,"
third
"market's
day."
"market
another
day,"andfinally
"The world has four corners"is a
widespreadYoruba expression;similarly,
the approachto the earthfromtheouter
thefourgates.Thisimage
worldis through
is carriedout in thefourgatesof thewalls
of each town.One of theYorubadeitiesis
being,whose
OloriMerin,the four-headed
place in
imagewas set up in a prominent
one of
faced
the town so thateach head
the four points: east, north,west and
south.The fourmajordeities,whosenames
weregivento the days of theweek,were
linkedwiththesepoints;Shangowiththe
east, Obatala with the north,Orunmila
with the west, and Oduduwa with the
quadsouth.Each of the fourdirectional
rantswas dividedagain into fourparts,
each beingunderthe patronageof one of
the sixteendeitieswho were responsible
oftheearth.
fortheformation
Of greatimportarethepowersoffour:
16, or 42, and 256, or 44. Thesenumbers
known
are centralto theartof divination
as Ifa.
numbersare 40 (4 X
Otherimportant
41
as theirsuccessors
as
well
10) and 200,
latter
the
of
significance
The
and 201.
numbersmay be due to theYorubapractice of includingthe firstof the sequence
Thus,some
cyclically.
twicewhencounting
have a
Yorubas
the
that
state
authors
week;thefirstday of theweekis
five-day
and at the
countedboth at the beginning
end.
oftheBini(people
The sacrednumbers
of Benin),accordingto PeterIdehen,are
"20, 2, 4, 7, 14, 40, 200 and 201. The
in
Binisusuallygivekolanutsto strangers
twos,or fours.If the numberof peopleis
great,theygive7, 14 or 20. If thenumber
is greater,as forexample,a wholevillage,
they give 200 or 201. Whenthey offer
sacrificesto theirgods, they followthe
same order.Onlyveryrichpeople or the
Oba can offer200 or 201 kolanutsor
victims."
sacrificial
The Yoruba people are renownedfor
theirIfa diviningsystem,the means of
consultingthe oraculardeity Orunmila.
The adviceof the god is solicitedpriorto
a decision.
step involving
everyimportant
The apparatusincludessixteennutsof the
is uniquein
palm tree,whoseimportance
nut
the lifeof the people. A seventeenth
mightlie nearbyin a ringof cowrieshells,
called "money of Ifa." The divinerfirst
shakesthe sixteennutsin his two hands;
this processis called "beatingthe palm
nuts."He thenplaces themall in his left
hand, and tries to pick up as manyas
possiblewithhis righthand.If exactlyone
nutremainsin thelefthand,he tracestwo
strokeson the powderedsurfaceof the
decoratedIfa tray;if two nuts
beautifully
remain,he makes one strokeon the Ifa
tray.A recordis madeonlywhenexactly
one or twonutsremainin thelefthand.
This whole processis repeateduntil
eightsingleor double strokeshave been
recordedin two columnson thetray.One
mightbe:
arrangement
I
,!
90
,
Orunmila says each should take his
name
Each columnhas a distinctive
own row; I say each should take his own
and since theremay be
and significance,
row; he says that Forty Cowries takes his
eitherone or two strokesin eachposition,
own row but cannot finishit.
arrangements
thereare 24, or 16 different
I say, "Well then, my father Agbonin each column. The names vary from nire,2who can completehis row?" He says
by Bascom,four FiftyCowries alone can complete his row,
regionto region.As giver.
because we cannot count money and forget
are:
arrangements
Ogbe
Oyeku
Iwori
Edi
FiftyCowries.
Ifa says he will not allow the personfor
whom this figurewas cast to be forgotten.
This person wants to do something;he will
"complete his row" in the thinghe wants
to do.
1. The row refersto a row in the fields
to be hoed or weeded. Here, and elsewhere
used in a broader
male,andis in these verses,it is often
The right
columnis considered
sense to mean any undertaking,so that
more powerfulthan the left,or female, "completing one's row" means being succolumn. Each of these double-column cessfulin a givenventure.
2. Agbonnire is a shortened form of
is calleda "roadof Ifa" or an
arrangements
anothername forOrunmila
Agbonniregun,
X
thereare 24 24, or256
Odu. Altogether
or
Ifa.*
from to
1
different
odus,whichareranked
With
256 in the orderof theirimportance.
each odu thereis associateda numberof
verses,each versebeingrelatedto a problemin reallife,butcouchedin theoblique
of Yoruba. As
languageso characteristic
the divinerrecitesthe versesassociated
with the odu, the client listensfor the
words appropriateto his own situation.
The priestsare also renownedas skilled
physicians.
thattheIfa
The Rev. Johnsonsuggests
the
oracle at
that
of
systemresembles
a
indicates
verse
The
following
Delphi.
it
to present-day
psychoanalysis;
similarity
givesthe suppliantthe confidencenecessary to carry out the desired undertaking-andexactsa price.
own row;' I say each should take his own
row; he says that TwentyCowriestakes his
own row; I say each should take his own
row; he says that ThirtyCowries takes his
A simpler system of divination, used
for minor decisions, calls upon Opele, a
lesser deity. For this purpose the oracle
casts a divining chain on which eight
half-pods or coins are strung at regular
intervals,with a greaterspace between the
fourthand fifthsymbol. The divinerpicks
up the chain in the middle and lets it fall
upon a flat surface in a two-column
arrangement.The appropriateodu is determined by the sequence of convex and
concave surfacesof the half-pods,or heads
and tails on the coins, and the interpretationis exactly as with the palm nuts.
Some authors, including Ojo, claim
that there are 163, or 4096 odus (roads of
Ifa), while others state that there are as
many as 164, or 65,536. Bascom maintains
thatthe numberis precisely256.
*
beFrom Ifa Divination:Communication
tweenGodsandMenin WestAfrica,by William
Bascom. Copyright? 1969 by Indiana University
Press.Reprintedby permissionof the publisher.
91
For centuriesthe Yoruba rulershave
At
of Ifa diviners.
a hierarchy
maintained
powerful
a
held
oracles
one time these
of the state,
positionin the government
for
even to the responsibility the deposition of the reigningAlafin. Europeans
the practiseof Ifa at
reportedwitnessing
year1705. The cult
the
as
back
far
as
least
has spread far and wide-to Dahomey,
Togo and partsof Ghana. Ifa geomantic
divinationhas been preservedamongthe
Yoruba descendentsin Cuba and Brazil,
and
whereit has mergedwithCatholicism,
a Yoruba templewas recentlyopened on
SeventhAvenuein NewYorkCity.
the number
As mentionedpreviously,
sixteen occurs in one of the creation
legends,that of the palm tree with its
the sixteen
sixteenbranchesrepresenting
kingsof theYoruba.
In Ile-Ife,therestandsan ancientsunmonolitharoundwhich
clock,a triangular
a circle has been drawn.This circle is
dividedintosixteenparts,andtheposition
of the shadow in relationto the circle
indicatedin earlierdays the timeforthe
ofcertainfestivals.
observance
The statefuneralof Lt. Col. Adekunle
1967 wasmarkedbythe
FajuyiinJanuary,
dirge.At
chantingof the Ekititraditional
cried:
one pointthesinger
was madeto the sacrednumber
Reference
200:
200 persons
"The one whoenlightened
is yourfather."
Included in the giftswhicha young
man presentsto his betrothedare forty
kola nuts.Ritualrequiresthattheybe split
and dividedamongthe guests,indicating
The
thebetrothal.
thattheyhavewitnessed
symbolicimage associatedwith Ori, the
householddeity,is a crownof forty-one
cowries.
The Yorubas recognize many subsidiary gods, or orishas (orisas), each
associated with a specific functionor
event.The Rev. Johnsonstates401 as the
other
supremenumberin the hierarchy;
claim201, 401, or 1600.
authorities
thedeityof
The worshipof Orisha-nla,
place in Yoruba
purity,has an important
life.The god's responsesare thoughtto be
kola
by castingthefour-valved
interpreted
nut. It can fall in one of fivedifferent
positions,each carryinga certainsymbolism. Sacrificeto this Orishaincludes
sixteensnails,sixteenroastedrats,sixteen
driedfish,and sixteenkola nuts. In anthe priests
other phase of the festivities
strip 201 leaves from the branchesof
certaintrees.
The numbersevenoccursin connection
I callyou,won'tyou pleaseanswer?
with the seven-dayharvestfestival,and
I callyoufivetimes,sixtimes!
with the Egugun celebration,which is
I callyouseventimes,eighttimes!
dedicatedto departedancestorsand obI callyousixteentimes....
festivities.
servedwith greathomecoming
to
Later the crywas repeatedin a different One versionof thecreationmythrefers
of Oduduwa,who
form:
the sevengrandchildren
subsequentlybecame the rulersof the
Your fathercalls you fivetimes,six
Yoruba and Beninpeoples.Initiationinto
times!
of the worshipof Shango,
He calls you seventimes,eighttimes! the mysteries
He callsyousixteentimes
requiredthepayment
the god of thunder,
growall
Wherethe Olubije-mushrooms
of sevenhead of cowries(14,000 shells),
overtheroad!
to Johnson.
according
He callsyouwithoutstopping!
subjectis theoriginand
A
fascinating
calls
too.
you
Yourmother
92
meaningof the symbolscarvedinto the
obeliskto the founderof Oyo, the "staff
of Oranyan,"stillstandingin Ile-Ife.The
Rev. Johnsonwritesthatthe symbolsare
i A, The PhoenicianlettersResh Yod
the
(read fromrightto left),representing
name "Oranyan."Preciselythese letters
wereused in classicalHebrew,whichwas
derivedfromPhoenician,as symbolsfor
The
thenumerals200 and 10,respectively.
sacrednumber200 again!
If we go further
back to theEgyptian
we discoverthat the letter
hieroglyphs,
Reshcan be tracedto theimageof a head,
while Yod representsa hand. Are these
letterspossiblylinkedwithRa, thesun-god
of the Egyptians,and with Yahweh,the
forbiddenname of the Hebrewgod? Redashcold wateron any
centinvestigations
such speculative interpretation.The
eminent authorities,WilliamFagg and
FrankWillett,in their1960 article"AncientIfe", state thatthereis "no justifiof the
cationat all forthe interpretation
reliefcarvingon the Opa Oranmiyanin
termsof Hebrewof Egyptiancharacters,
nor for any explanationsoffered to
account for the iron nails." They claim
that the sketch of Oranyan'sstaffin
Johnson'sThe Historyof the Yorubas
to theoriginal,
and
bearslittleresemblance
thatthe numberof ironnails driveninto
the granitemonolithdoes not agreewith
It may
thatgivenin Johnson'sdescription.
take many more turns of the archaeologist'sshovelto discoverthetruegenesis
of theobelisk.
andsignificance
colonial powers.The anthropologists
and
linguists
studiedAfrican
lifeandlanguages,
thusenablingtheadministrative
officers
to
set up the most efficaciousgoverning
apparatus.The missionaries
introduced
salvation throughChristianity
and Western
education, and in return,the Africans
servedas police,soldiers,and lowerlevel
clerks in the employ of the colonial
powers.Africawas the"Dark Continent,"
to which the Europeanswere bringing
light.
AndtheEuropeansdid an excellent
job
of brain-washing.
"Africansocietiesfrequentlyhad a philosophyof greatdepth
andvalueandbeauty,theyhad poetry,and
above all had dignity.It is thisdignity
that
all
African
but
lost
in
the
many
peoples
colonial period, and it is this that they
mustnow regain."So statestheIbo writer
ChinuaAchebe.WhenChristianity
cameto
the Ibos, he says further,
Nigeriandances
wereoutlawed,and thepeopleused cheap
insteadofthebeautiimported
enamelware
ful Ibo clay pots and bowls. Anything
Ibo-madewasbrandedas inferior.
EducatedAfricans
weretaughtto scorn
theirown cultureand languages.The Rev.
Johnsonwrotehis Historyforthebenefit
of his Yoruba compatriots;they were
about ancientGreece and
knowledgeable
but
Rome,
ignorantof theirown past.
Thesepeoplebecamean elite,ideologically
separated from their uneducated (by
Western
fellowAfricans.
standards)
I havein mypossessiona paperentitled
"How the Binis Count and Measure,"
written
student
byPeterIdehen,a Nigerian
AfricaComesintoIts Own
in a teacher-training
course in Abudu,
Untiljust a few yearsago most of the Nigeria.One realizesthe extentto which
about the continent Africans
availableinformation
havebeenrobbedoftheirheritage
of Africa originated from European whenone readsin thisessay:"It was said
mission- thethePortuguese
sources-anthropologists,
linguists,
taughttheBinis(people
eachwith of Benin) how to carve and do brass
ariesand administrative
officers,
his own axe to grindin theserviceof the work." This was writtenat a timewhen
93
of the
his comprehension
and artistshad firmlyes- base. Apparently
archaeologists
to cope withthe
tablishedthe Africanoriginsof the tech- languagewas insufficient
andelisions.
niquesforcreatingthesebeautifulworks. contractions
With the developmentof the new
Later Idehen statesthatthe Bini had no
precisemeasuringunits. "This condition Africannations and the rise of native
staffedby Africans,the true
was a bit improvedwhen the Europeans universities
cameto Beninin
especiallythePortuguese
Europeanand
storyof Africais emerging.
bottles Americanauthorscan afford-andare reTheyintroduced
the 16thcentury.
whentheybroughttradeginto thecoun- quired-tobe moreobjective.How can the
and
try.Theybroughtkegsof gun-powder
imageof Africabe strippedof the stereomanyothercontainers.... They use the
the Dark Contypes,the misinformation,
kegsfordrymeasure; tinentprejudicesdevelopedoverthe cenemptygun-powder
thistheycalledEpipa." Indeedsomething turies?To this end, I recommendthe
for!In relationto counting reportissuedby UNESCO of themeeting
to be thankful
in theirmothertongue,Idehenwrites:"In
in Parisin 1968, dealingwitheducational
schools teachersoftenstop at 30 or 50
methodsdesignedto combatracialprejuto an educator
interest
do notknowhow
becausetheythemselves
dice. Of particular
Con"Recommendations
to count." Idehen himselfhad to seek is thestatement,
in Educationon Race
assistancein writingthe highernumerals. cerningTerminology
Questions,"byMr.A. Babs Fafunwa,Dean
yearsago,L. L. Conant,in
Seventy-five
of
The NumberConcept,called theAfricans of the Facultyof Education,University
"savages."More recentauthorshaveattri- Ife, at Ile-Ife.Aftera brief,but pointed,
to the explanationof the threefactorsthatconbutedeveryAfricanaccomplishment
to thedevelopment
ofracialprejutributed
Europeans,to theArabs,to theIndians,to
the Mesopotamians,to ancient Egypt, dice betweenthe 16thand 20thcenturiesand colonialismwhose people they classifiedas "Cau- the slavetrade,religion,
of the
casian" in spite of evidencethat many Mr. Fafunwagivesthisdescription
"good" Africanof recentyears:"one who
short,to
Egyptiansweredark-skinned-in
themselves. was only Africanin blood, Christianby
any sourcebut blackAfricans
Not only does one encountera racist religion,and Britishor Frenchin culture
aboutAfrica;in
biasin seekinginformation
and intellect.He mustshunthingsAfrican
and
anthropologists
local attire,Afrisuch as images,artifacts,
addition,missionaries,
misinterpreted can moresand customs-allin thenameof
colonialofficers
frequently
or failedto understand
aspectsof culture Christianity
and civilization."The suband language.Ojo findsit necessaryto
stance of Fafunwa's report lay in an
criticizeEllis and Dennettfortheirinter- analysisof themanytermswhichcontinue
sensein relation
pretationof the Yoruba calendar.The
to be used in a derogatory
errorsare compoundedas the samemater- to Africa,wordssuch as "tribe,""primiial appearsin variousbooks.For example, tive," and "vernacular"(insteadof "lanConant translatesthe Yoruba word for guage").
"eleven" as "great ten"; no doubt this
The poignantstoryof thepublication
errorappearedin the sourcefromwhich of the Rev. Samuel Johnson'shistoryof
Conant obtained his material.In fact, the Yoruba people furnishes
yet another
Migeod classifiesthe Yoruba numeration exampleof racism.It is best told in the
systemas havingten, not twenty,as its
words of the editor, Dr. 0. Johnson
94
attained
to reachthelevelof achievement
by FrankE. Chapman,theauthoroftheas
A singularmisfortune,whichhappilyis
book Scienceand Africa.
not of everyday occurrence, befell the yet unpublished
fromChapman's
excerpts
following
The
original manuscripts of this history, in
throwsome light on the
consequence of which the author never autobiography
lived to see in printhis more than twenty miseryof his existenceand his determinayearsof labour.
tion to devotehis life to "the searchfor
The manuscriptswere forwardedto a
forthisis myonlytruereligion."
truth,
well-knownEnglish publisherthroughone
October5, 1961, I was sentenced
On
of the great MissionarySocieties in 1899
and fiftyyearsfor
to life imprisonment
and-mirabile dictu-nothing more was
murderand robbery.I was nineteenyears
heard of them!
ofageat thistime.
The editor who was all along in colwhichled to my
The circumstances
laboration with the authorhad occasion to
greetedmethedayI
presentimprisonment
visit England in 1900, and called on the
of
publisher,but could get nothingmore from was born,and are shapingthe destinies
millionsof black men and womeneven
him than that the manuscriptshad been
of matermisplaced, that they could not be found, now.Thesearethecircumstances
poverty....
and that he was preparedto pay forthem! ial andspiritual
of eleven chilI was the first-born
This seemed to the editor and all his
dren.... WhenI was about six or seven
friendswho heard of it so strangethat one
years old, my father,an unskilledblack
could not help thinking that there was
more in it than appeared on the surface, worker,turnedthief,desertedthe family
escapade(stealing,
especially because of other circumstances and wenton a hustling
confidencegames,gambling,etc.), across
connected with the so-called loss of the
I intensely
loved
thecountry.
Nevertheless,
manuscripts.However, we let the subject
of the family
my fatherand his desertion
rest there. The author himselfdied in the
hurtme deeply.Althoughmymotherwas
following year (1901), and it has now
leftalone to provideforus, and although
fallento the lot of the editorto rewritethe
a greatdeal fromlack of food
we suffered
whole history anew, from the copious
and clothing,I neverhated myfatherfor
notes and rough copies left behind by the
anyof this.I just hatedthewaywe hadto
author.
live....
(Ajagbe Ogun), brotherof the author:
Due to other tragic circumstances, the
book did not appear until the year 1921.
Aftermore than fortyyears of labor, The
Historyof the Yorubaswas published; it
has since become a major source of informationfor all scholars in the field of
Yoruba historyand culture.
Can we evaluate the loss in human
progressdirectly attributableto the consequences of racism? An attempt at such
an evaluation staggersthe imagination.Not
only were the peoples of Africaconsidered
less than human; the same racist attitude
has prevented the black people of the
United States from fulfillingtheir aspirations. Few are able to overcomethe almost
insuperable obstacles imposed by society,
By thetimeChapmanwas elevenyearsold
he had been arrestedfiftyor sixtytimes.
Then followed severalstintsin reform
schools.
Duringall thistime,I had acquireda real,
genuinehatredforsociety.I hatedgoingto
school,and stayinghome.I hatedbeingon
welfare,and my motherhavingto beg
people forfood so we could eat. I never
whenI was a childwhy
could understand
so muchandwhy
mymotherhad to suffer
she had to beg "bigshotwhitepeople"for
food and clothingfor her children.But
rebelledagainst
deep withinme I violently
thishumiliation
whichhad becomea way
of lifeformy family.I was powerlessto
eliminateour poverty,but I was not
powerlessto hate. Then there was the
95
brutalityof racism. Every time I came in
touch with white people, I was abused and
spat on because of my so-called "Niggerhood"....
When I was enrolled in Soldan High
School in February 1957 (at the age of
fourteen),I had a personal interviewwith
one of the assistantprincipalsby the name
of De Shields. He told me that while in
Booneville [State ReformSchool], I made
an excellent academic record for myself
and that I could possiblywin a scholarship
if I applied.
For the firstcouple of weeks,I enjoyed
school work,and I was becomingabsorbed
in science, history, and literature stud-
ies....
Then one night around 1:30 police
banged on our door and threwtheirflashlights in my face demanding "Are you
Frank Chapman?" I was taken to the Page
and Union police station and chargedwith
car theft. The police knew that I didn't
steal the car but they wanted to clean up
the books, and I was a likely suspect
because I had just gottenout of Booneville
for car stealing....
1957 was a decisive
year in my life because this was the year I
gave up all hope of ever livinga so-called
normal life. I rationalized that with my
past record,the police would neverlet me
alone anyway,so I mightas well make the
most of it.
Chapman proceeded to "make it" in the
only way he knew. Between crimes were
several sojourns in the juvenile home and
the state hospital for the mentallyill. At
last he made his way to Chicago early in
1960, wherehe obtained a job in a hospital
and was marriedat the age of seventeen.
AfterI got marriedI wantedto make it
work. I got a job in Evanston, Illinois
workingas an assistantprinter.I averaged
about eighty-seven dollars every two
weeks. This was just not enoughmoney to
support my family.... We separated. Our
separationhad nothingto do withthe way
we felt toward each other; it was simplya
matterof survival.On the nightwe separated, I felt total despair,because this was
one thing in life I wanted....
I returnedto St. Louis penniless and
desperatein February1961. My plans were
to organize a stick-upringand rob until I
accumulated enough money to supportmy
familycomfortably.
I forget on just what day in March
1961 it was, but I rememberit was dreary
and raining.I was at a fellow'shouse I had
just recentlymet, drinkingwine, when he
suddenly suggestedto me, "Let's stick up
that shoe shop and get some money." I
replied "Okay." I walked into the shoe
shop with a loaded twenty-twopistol. An
old white man about seventyyearsold was
sittingon a bench. When I said, "This is a
stick-up," he leaped from the bench and
grabbed me by the arm and the hand the
pistol was in. In the process of wrestling,
the gun went off and a bullet enteredthe
head of the old man. To this day, I can't
rememberall the thingsI did rightafterI
killed this man. I know I ran for blocks
before I regained control of myself.The
man I committedthis crime with,I hardly
knew, for we had only met two days
beforethisincident....
On April 6, 1961, I was apprehended
by the police in Evanston, Illinois for
suspicion of drug addiction. Two weeks
later I was in St. Louis facinga charge of
first-degree
murder.
Presently,I am in prison,confinedin a
box-like cell, which is about six feet in
width,seven and a half feet in length,and
ten feet high....
Prison is a place where a
few men acquire new dreams and new
hopes, and where most men lose even the
ability to hope for anything except a
successful crime career....
But I left the
courtroom with this conviction; I must
know the truth about myself, I must
become conscious of whateverforceshave
shaped my lifeand made me what I am. On
that day life forme took a new and sudden
turn. I wanted to live only to know myself
better,and the world. I wanted to discover
formyselfmy own humanity.
In many respects prison is almost an
ideal place for study, for one has a great
deal of leisure time....
First I enrolled in
school, in the eighth grade. In a few
months I graduated. This was the second
time I had graduatedfromgradeschool. As
soon as I thoroughlyrefreshedmyselfon
the fundamentals,I began to study seri-
96
ously. The first subject I attacked was
mathematics.In a couple of months I was
doing advanced algebra. I read and studied
such books as Eric T. Bell's Development
of Mathematics,Lancelot Hogben's Mathematics for the Million, and Mathematica
Principiaby BertrandRussell and AlfredN.
Whitehead.AfterreadingMathematicsfor
the Million, I had little difficultyin understandingthe otherbooks.
mination of all his constructiveachievements....
Reflectionsof this nature have led me
to the conclusion that the most pressing
task of Africanphilosophers,scientists,and
political leaders is the layingof ideological
foundations by assessing the nature of
Africa's role in the modern world, and
thereby arrivingat some concrete conception of her historical mission.
. .
. My
Science and Africa deals with only one of
The study of mathematicsled Chapman to
the many significanteffectsof European
imperialism.After conquering the world,
natural science, then to philosophy and
the white man has falselyclaimed that he
Africancultureand history.
and he alone is the benefactorof human
civilization.In this book I tryto destroy,
I was determinedto know everythingthe
human race had done, as well as everything theoretically,the white man's racial monopoly in the fieldof naturalscience; and to
it is doing.
the extent that I succeed I will have
In 1964 I decided to write a book
demonstratingthe scientificcontributions contributed to the happiness and wellof African peoples to mankind. In June beingof mankind.
I sent the manuscriptto John Clarke,
1964 I wrote a briefsynopsisof my ideas,
editor
of Freedomways in the summerof
article
in
the
form
of
an
it
and submitted
1966. Freedomways published some exentitled"Mathematicsin Antiquity"to the
cerptsfromScience and Africa....
editors of Freedomways Magazine in New
Throughknowledgeand understanding,
York.... Mr. John H. Clarke, an editorof
I have freed myself from my past errors
Freedomways,got the articleaccepted by a
Parisian magazine entitled Presence Afri- and have created for myselfa brightand
beautiful future.My greatambition in life
caine. After my article was accepted, I
is to tryto keep othersfromrepeatingthe
beganto work on my book....
mistakes I have made and to free my
Within a year Science and Africa was
finished.Upon finishingI wrotethe follow- brothersand sistersfrom the humiliation
I cannot
ing: I would be the firstto admitthat this of being black and poor....
is a stupendous task for anyone to under- accept the argumentthat I and I alone am
responsible for what happened, for the
take, but it is a little more than that for a
crimes I committed. If that be the case,
man in prison endeavoringto write and
carry on scientificresearch under severe then the major premise of modern sociology and psychiatryis false. However,
and tryingcircumstances;yet, I was and
what I wish to bringout is the fact that I
am determinedto get the job done, and I
am a new man, with new interests,dreams
am confidentthat this work (Science and
Africa) will provide a useful and socially and ambitions.
... I am not trying to conceal anything
constructiveoutlet for the outpouringof
I have done behind glitteringgeneralizathat social energyI have inherited.I have
tions; I only want the reader of these cold
spared no effortin the endeavor to make
and lifeless words to understandthat ours
myself fully cognizant of the impact the
modern world has had on me and my is not the storyof just a solitaryman who
presentlydestroyedhis chances to be a fine
fellow human beings. And out of this has
fellow, but a man born into a social
been born an outlook which has enabled
situation that chokes and cripples man's
me to link up my own individual social
experience of mankind.... Such an out- infinite capacity to produce and create.
Therefore,what I have done, and what has
look is not merelyborn out of dreamsand
been done to me, is in no way purely
fantasticlongingsfora betterway of life;it
is born out of man's effortsto grapplewith unique.
To tell the truth,my storyis the story
his objective existence and it is the cul-
97
of millions.One black brotherhas appropriatelycalled us "The Wretchedof the
Earth".
Ojo, G. J. Afolabi. Yoruba Culture. London: Universityof Ife and Universityof
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