GOAL 2010 Report - Global Aquaculture Alliance

Transcription

GOAL 2010 REPORT
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE ADVOCATE
Volume 14, Issue 1
January/February 2011
GOAL 2010 Report
As New Middle Class Seafood Demand Soars,
Aquaculture Faces Towering Opportunities
january/february 2011
the
global aquaculture
The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood
DEPARTMENTS
From The President
From The Editor
GOAL 2010
GAA Activities
Advocate Advertisers
23 Load Models Support Sustainable Planning
For Brazil’s Reservoir Aquaculture
Gianmarco S. David, Edmir D. Carvalho, Igor Paiva Ramos
Reinaldo J. Silva, Alexandre N. Silveira
2
3
8
18
80
27 Brazil’s Intensive Shrimp Nursery Systems Improve
P.L. Management, Shorten Growout
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.
30 Small-Scale, Submersible Fish Cages Suitable
For Developing Economies
M. D. Chambers, J. DeCew, B. Celikkol, M. Yigit, M. C. Cremer
On the cover: The GOAL 2010 Gala Reception took place in Kuala Lumpur’s landmark Petronas Twin Towers, the tallest twin structures
in the world. Photo by Gail Hannagan.
33 Erosion, Sedimentation In Earthen Aquaculture Ponds
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
35 Oxygen Management Improves
Channel Catfish Growth, FCR
Les Torrans, Ph.D.
page 44
38 Nitrifying Biofilms Critical For Water Quality
In Intensive Shrimp RAS
Aquaculture’s
Artemia
Addiction
Carolyn M. Holl, Ph.D.; Clete Otoshi; Catherine R. Unabia, Ph.D.
As prices for Artemia
rise, researchers are
examining Artemia
replacements that can
target the nutritional
needs of larvae at each
developmental stage.
40 Shrimp Breeding for Resistance To Taura Syndrome Virus
Dustin R. Moss, Ph.D.; Steve M. Arce; Clete A. Otoshi;
Shaun M. Moss, Ph.D.
42 Inbreeding Affects Growth, Survival, Reproduction
Of White Shrimp
Dr. Gabriel R. Campos-Montes, Dr. Hector Castillo-Juárez.
Dr. Hugo H. Montaldo
44 Aquaculture’s Artemia Addition – Commercial Alternatives
Offer Benefits Over Wild Artemia
Chris Stock, Neil Gervais
page 68
46 New Bacillus Probiotic Tested For Shrimp
Blue Shrimp
Alternative
Diego Moreira de Souza, Sabrina Medeiros Suita,
Dr. Wilson Wasielesky, Jr.; Fabio Pereira Leivas Leite;
Luis Alberto Romano; Dr. Eduardo Luis Cupertino Ballester
Blue shrimp are similar
to Pacific white shrimp,
but grow faster at large
sizes and tolerate lower
water temperatures.
They also can exhibit
resistance to TSV
and IHHNV.
48 Plant, Poultry By-Product Proteins Tested In Shrimp Diets
Justin C. Markey; E. A. Amaya; D. Allen Davis, Ph.D.
50 Gracilaria Cultivation Can Provide Bioremediation
In Chinese Mariculture
Dr. Yufeng Yang, Dr. Charles Yarish
52 Mediterranean Mussel Culture in Greece –
Hanging Park, Long-Line Facilities Near Farm Capacity
Dr. J. A. Theodorou, M.S.; Dr. I. Tzovenis
54 Sandfish: Profitable Sea Cucumbers
Also Supply Bioremediation
M. T. Castaños, R. H. Ledesma, K .G. Corre, E. G. de Jesus-Ayson
63 GMO Fish: Are We Ready?
Stephen G. Newman, Ph.D.
56 European Shrimp Market: 2010 –
Imports Grow Despite Economic Issues
Herve Lucien-Brun
58 Shrimp Supplies Shift But Remain In Balance
Farmed Salmon Surging On Holiday Demand
Tilapia Import Surge Led By Frozen Fillets
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown, Angel Rubio
61 Post-Harvest Quality Of Freshwater Prawns –
Part II. Microbial Composition, Food Safety
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
66 Life Cycle Analysis Model Quantifies Ecological
Footprint Of Salmon Feed
Dr. Louise Buttle, Dr. Nathan Pelletier, Dr. Peter Tyedmers.
Dr. Dave Robb
68
Blue Alternative – High Health Introduces SPF Blue Shrimp
To Thailand, Could Diversify White Shrimp Monopoly
Dr. Jim Wyban
72
Open-Ocean Shellfish Aquaculture Ready To Launch
In New Zealand
Kevin Heasman
74 One-Step PCR For White Spot Syndrome Detection
Linda M. Nunan; Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
76 Marine Fish Culture In Mexico – Amberjack, Yellowtail
Farming Developing
Terry Morris
ii
global aquaculture advocate
1
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Alliance is an international non-profit, non-governmental
association whose mission is to further environmentally responsible aquaculture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers, processors, marketers and retailers of seafood products worldwide. All aquaculturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Ole Norgaard, Secretary
Lee Bloom, Treasurer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
John Galiher
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Domingo Moreira
Sergio Nates
Ole Norgaard
John Peppel
John Schramm
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
EDITOR
DARRYL JORY
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
MAGAZINE MANAGER
SUSAN CHAMBERLAIN
sales@gaalliance.org
ASSISTANT EDITOR
DAVID WOLFE
davidw@gaalliance.org
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
LORRAINE JENNEMANN
lorrainej@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2011
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
2
from the president
from the editor
Technology +
Training =
Capacity Building
Think Feed First
“Aquaculture’s success and continuing growth
have never been more important for our world.”
George W.
These were the closing remarks of Joe Zhou of
Chamberlain, Ph.D.
Darden Restaurants at GAA’s GOAL 2010 conferPresident
ence in Kuala Lumpur, where participants learned
Global Aquaculture Alliance
that shifts in global economic power are leading to a
georgec@gaalliance.org
rising new middle class in Asia that is generating
unanticipated seafood demand that can only be met
by aquaculture.
Will it be possible to achieve needed increases in aquaculture production, given evertightening land, water, energy and feed resources? If so, how can we assure that this
growth will occur sustainably?
For example, how can shrimp farming expand without damaging mangroves, polluting coastal waters or leading to new disease outbreaks? How can salmon farming expand
without excessive pressure on fishmeal and fish oil resources, and risking new disease
outbreaks?
Part of the answer is improved technology. At GOAL 2010, Robins McIntosh of
the C.P. Group described how new technology is allowing more sustainable production
of shrimp. According to McIntosh, genetic improvement in growth rate coupled with
the use of more controlled growout systems is leading to shorter production cycles that
increase yields using fewer resources. “We are going to produce more shrimp with less
land, less water, less energy, less feed and less pollution,” McIntosh said.
When GOAL participants were asked which mechanisms GAA should use to help
extend such technological innovations to producers around the world, leading responses
were demonstrations, conferences, webinars, magazine and e-newletters. Thank you for
your help in focusing our work.
A larger part of the answer for increasing sustainable aquaculture production is
capacity building. Education and training programs are needed to describe environmental, social, food safety, animal welfare and traceability practices for each species group.
They should extend throughout the global aquaculture production chain and also to
governments, lending institutions and universities.
Such global education and training programs will be an enormous undertaking, considering the various languages and cultures involved, and the need to reach the small
family farms that dominate the aquaculture industry in Asia. Effective capacity building
can only be achieved through partnerships among stakeholders. Please join with the
Global Aquaculture Alliance in this cooperative effort.
To pursue the great need for education and training, GAA helped form the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation (RAF) last year. We are pleased to announce the RAF
was recently approved by the United States Internal Revenue Service as a charitable
organization with a 501(c)(3) designation that can now receive tax-deductible contributions from philanthropic organizations and individuals.
We hope that you will help support the important work of RAF to offer education
and training services in support of sustainable aquaculture. The future of aquaculture is
bright if we can take advantage of new technologies to produce more from less and
build capacity to implement best practices throughout the global aquaculture production
chain.
In last issue’s column, I noted Dr. Geoff Allan’s
huge projections for global seafood requirements for
the years 2025 and 2050. I also made the point that
sustainable aquaculture is the only way to meet this
increasing demand, with development of better aquafeeds and use of new ingredients important areas of
concern. I would now like to add that more profiDarryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
cient management of aquafeeds is also critical. No
other production input is as costly as feed, nor has
Editor, Development Manager
Global Aquaculture Advocate
the potential to affect water, pond bottom quality
and effluents.
The goal of aquafeed management is to make
available to the animals the best quality formulated
aquafeed in the proper amounts and at the right times and locations. Feeding methods
and techniques are as important as feed quality and are closely interlinked. They must
be continually modified to account for natural and induced changes in feeding activity
and preferences as the animals grow and/or environmental conditions change.
Management of formulated aquafeeds is a sequential process that is only as strong as its
weakest link. As it did some 30 years ago at the dawn of the industry, it still includes feed
selection, handling and storage; feed application methods; feeding regimes; and adjustments
to feeding rates. Often, observed differences in performance between different feeds are the
result of their management, not formulation, ingredients or manufacturing.
Aquaculture systems and their feed
management must be considered
together and require understanding of
the biological aspects of the targeted
species, the chemical and biological
processes that control water and bottom quality, and continuous system
monitoring and feedback to provide
appropriate and timely inputs and
adjustments.
Effective practices produce maximum animal growth and survival concurrent with the lowest feed conversion
and minimum impact to effluent quality. Inadequate feed management leads to suboptimal production, can promote the onset of diseases and can lead to water quality problems.
Priority areas for further feed research include improving the biological and chemical
processes in production systems that affect animal behavior, including feeding; better
knowledge of the physiological processes that affect animal feed intake and digestion;
and maximizing the use of natural productivity, nutrient recycling and retention in animal flesh.
Increasing market demand for safe and healthy products generated in a responsible
and sustainable manner will require increased traceability and certification. The Global
Aquaculture Alliance recently implemented Best Aquaculture Practices certification for
feed mills – see www.gaalliance.org/cmsAdmin/uploads/BAP-FeedMill-610.pdf. I urge
you to check out these standards and send us your comments.
As we start another decade looking forward to a significant expansion of our industry, I would like to again thank our advertisers, contributors and readers for their valuable support, and pledge our continued dedication to serving the aquaculture industry.
Sincerely,
Sincerely,
George Chamberlain
Darryl E. Jory
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and Management, Inc.
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Promarisco, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
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Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
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Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
3
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SUSTAINING MEMBERS
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©2011 King & Prince Seafood Corp.
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Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seafood Solutions
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Thai Union Group
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Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
China Aquatic Products Processing
and Marketing Association
Fats and Proteins Research Foundation, Inc.
Indiana Soybean Alliance
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Oceanic Institute
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
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SAVE
THE !
DATE
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GOAL 2011
global aquaculture
Double In
A Decade –
Sustainably
®
Key Information, Networking, Tours
Santiago, Chile
Come To “The End Of The World” As GAA Takes
GOAL To The Southern Hemisphere For The First Time!
7
Thank You,
GOAL 2010 Sponsors
PLATINUM SPONSORS
®
GOLD SPONSORS
A key benefit of GOAL was the opportunity for industry leaders
to network during pre-conference tours, coffee breaks and receptions. A highlight was the gala reception at Kuala Lumpur’s
famous Petronas Twin Towers.
SILVER SPONSORS
GOAL 2010
Feeding the Rising New Middle Class
As reported in the following articles, expert presenters at GAA’s GOAL 2010 meeting in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, said that rising global demand for seafood, driven by the rapidly growing middle class in Asia, is pressuring the aquaculture industry to increase
productivity. Technology will play a key role in this expansion, as will further utilization of underdeveloped regions.
At GOAL, GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens challenged the aquaculture industry to double its output in 10 years. To assure
sustainability, certification and traceability of the supply chain will be critical.
GOAL 2010 helped identify a pivotal point for aquaculture. GAA plans to follow up next November at GOAL 2011 in Santiago,
Chile. This event will celebrate the re-emergence of Chile’s salmon industry as well as implementation of GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for salmon farms.
8
9
Shrimp
Total farmed shrimp production for 2010 is estimated at
around 3.06 mmt, down from the estimated 3.22 mmt produced
in 2009 (Table 1). By region, the main producers include Southeast Asia with 1.45 mmt; China, 899,600 mt; India and Bangla-
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
1,150,615
1,064,949
206,222
376,962
26,753
9,968
2,835,469
1,333,639
1,080,479
209,047
455,249
27,790
11,751
3,117,955
1,357,155
1,265,636
171,265
451,244
26,641
9,502
3,281,443
1,462,992
1,268,074
153,797
474,344
30,067
9,725
3,398,999
1,342,629
1,181,130
181,261
478,716
25,000
15,000
3,223,736
1,449,440
899,600
204,190
465,600
27,500
16,000
3,062,330
1,574,876
962,000
222,737
499,250
30,000
16,000
3,304,863
1,716,346
1,048,000
236,103
527,750
34,000
16,000
3,578,199
Sources: FAO (2010), GOAL (2010, 2009).
Note: China data include both marine and freshwater production of P. vannamei. M. rosenbergii is not included.
Table 2. Shrimp aquaculture production estimates in Asia and Latin America.
Country
Ecuador
Mexico
Brazil
Colombia
Honduras
Venezuela
Latin America Total
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
935,944
360,292
275,569
238,567
133,020
58,044
2,001,436
1,064,949
401,251
327,200
279,539
143,170
63,052
2,279,161
1,080,479
500,800
349,000
339,803
144,347
64,700
2,479,129
1,265,636
504,856
376,700
330,155
107,665
63,600
2,648,612
1,268,074
507,500
381,300
408,346
86,600
67,197
2,719,017
1,181,130
541,994
302,400
299,050
76,261
105,000
2,505,835
899,600
548,800
357,700
333,860
94,190
110,000
2,344,150
962,000
553,200
403,600
390,631
107,737
115,000
2,532,168
1,048,000
591,500
444,500
442,757
116,103
120,000
2,762,860
89,600
62,361
75,904
18,040
18,036
22,998
286,939
118,500
90,008
63,134
19,000
20,873
12,956
324,471
149,200
112,495
65,000
21,600
26,956
21,163
396,414
150,000
111,787
65,000
20,300
26,333
17,658
391,078
150,000
130,201
65,000
20,300
26,586
16,002
408,089
140,000
130,000
65,000
20,016
20,000
18,000
393,016
145,000
91,500
72,500
16,500
30,800
20,000
376,300
148,000
120,000
82,000
15,000
22,000
15,000
402,000
152,000
132,500
90,000
14,000
22,000
15,000
425,500
Sources: FAO (2010), GOAL (2010, 2009). Note: M. rosenbergii is not included.
10
Sources: Average of
estimates from Helga
Josupeit, Kevin Fitzimmons, Nesar Ahmed,
Ricardo Franklin de
Mello, Sergio Zimmerman
and anonymous sources.
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Large Rainbow Trout
Bangladesh
Brazil
Philippines
Thailand
0
Egypt
0.5
Coho Salmon
Atlantic Salmon
Tilapia
In terms of volume produced, tilapia continues to be the top
fish species traded internationally, as well as one of the most
geographically diversified species. Although production estimates vary significantly, global production will likely surpass 3
mmt in 2010 and is expected to continue increasing to keep pace
with growing global demand. Figure 1 shows estimated tilapia
production and real prices since 1990, and Figure 2 shows production by producing country.
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Sources: 1990-2007 – FAO and Kevin Fitzsimmons.
2009-2012 – Average of Helga Josupeit and Kevin Fitzsimmons estimates.
Prices – National Marine Fisheries Service.
Figure 1. Global farmed tilapia production estimates and prices.
China is the largest global tilapia producer, with an estimated
2010 production of around 1.12 mmt. Indonesia appears to be
the second-largest producer with approximately 382,000 mt, followed by Egypt with 352,000 mt. Other countries, including the
Philippines, Thailand, Bangladesh and Brazil, follow with productions between 105,000 and 240,000 mt. Most countries are
expected to continue increasing their production.
Price (U.S. $/kg)
China
Thailand
Vietnam
Indonesia
India
Bangladesh
Asia Total
2004
Tilapia is the top internationally traded aquaculture species.
Its global production will likely surpass 3 mmt in 2010.
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009E
2010F
2011F
2021F
2004
993,115
935,944
191,064
332,052
25,500
7,585
2,485,260
2012
Figure 3. Global farmed production of Atlantic salmon,
coho salmon and rainbow trout.
Production (mmt)
Region
2011
1.0
Figure 2.
Global
farmed tilapia production by main
producing
countries.
Sources: FAO, Kontali.
Table 1. Shrimp aquaculture production by major producing regions.
Southeast Asia
China
India/Bangladesh
Americas
Africa/Mideast
Other
Total
2010
Indonesia
For 2010,
estimates for
the total global
production of
shrimp are down
from 2009 levels.
2009
China
The expert presenters at Global Outlook for Aquaculture
Leadership 2010 provided a wide-ranging set of data, including
global production estimates for shrimp and fish species that are
typically exported to the United States, Europe and Japan. Following is a summary of the production information presented
during the October 17-20 event in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
The sources for the production data included the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, as well as various national associations and an extensive survey of key aquaculture industry players.
Shrimp production data were analyzed and presented by Dr.
James Anderson. A former chairman of the Department of
Environmental and Natural Resource Economics at the University of Rhode Island in the United States, he is now a fisheries
and aquaculture adviser in the World Bank’s Global Program on
Fisheries.
Fish production figures were analyzed and presented by Dr.
Ragnar Tveteras, professor of industrial economics at the University of Stavanger in Norway.
1.5
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009E
2010F
2011F
Production (mmt)
Darryl Jory, Ph.D.
2.0
Production (mmt)
Global Production Estimates Key Element
Of GOAL 2010 Program
desh, 204,190 mt; the Americas, 465,600 mt; Africa and the
Middle East, 27,500 mt; and others, 16,000 mt. Total global
production is estimated to increase to 3.30 mmt in 2011 and
3.58 mmt by 2012.
Table 2 shows shrimp aquaculture production estimates for
Asia and Latin America from 2004 to 2012. The leading producers for 2010, in addition to China, include Thailand with
548,800 mt; Vietnam, 357,700 mt; Indonesia, 333,860 mt;
India, 94,190 mt; and Bangladesh at 110,000 mt. Several of
these countries had lower production compared to the previous
year. All are forecasted to increase their production in the next
two years.
Regarding production estimates for Latin America, most
countries increased their production slightly, while Mexico and
Colombia showed a significant decrease compared to the previous year. The leading producers in that region in 2010 include
Ecuador with 145,000 mt; Mexico, 91,500 mt; Brazil, 72,500
mt; Colombia, 16,500 mt; Honduras with a large increase to
30,800 mt; and Venezuela with 20,000 mt. Except for Colombia, Honduras and Venezuela, most countries in the region
expect higher productions in the next years.
Consolidation continues in the Vietnamese Pangasius-farming
industry, which is expected to see continued growth in the next
two years. Photo by Michael McGee.
11
2011F
2010F
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
GOAL 2010: Market Shifts Offer Opportunities,
Challenges
Seabass
coho salmon and rainbow trout since 1990, with total current
production close to 2 mmt. Norway continues to drive much of
the growth in Atlantic salmon production, while the industry in
Chile continues working to manage infectious salmon anemia.
Indications are that Chile’s production will improve next year
(Figure 4).
2012F
2011F
2010F
2009E
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
Production (mmt)
Sea Bream
Figure 6. Farmed production of seabass and sea bream
in the Mediterranean.
Figure 4. Atlantic salmon farmed production by main producing
countries.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
Source: Federation of European Aquaculture Producers, Kontali (2006-2009).
United
States
Ireland
Faroe
Islands
Production (mmt)
2011F
Australia
Source: Kontali.
2010F
Canada
Chile
United
Kingdom
2009E
Norway
Production (mmt)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Sources: FAO, Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers
(1997-2005), Kontali (2009), Helga Josupeit (2009-2011) , Anonymous (2009-2012)
Figure 5. Farmed Pangasius production in Vietnam.
Salmonids
Figure14645_SEAJOY-GAA-Ad_12-2010.Fr.pdf
3 shows global production of farmed
Atlantic
salmon,
12/3/10
1:32:47
PM
Pangasius
The Vietnamese Pangasius-farming industry is still growing
and consolidating. Production in 2010 is estimated at around
1.35 mmt, with production expected to continue growing in the
next two years (Figure 5).
Seabass, Sea Bream
Production of seabass (118,500 mt) and sea bream (144,000 mt)
reached an estimated 262,000 mt in 2010, continuing to decline
slightly, and this trend is expected to continue in 2011 (Figure 6).
At the end of “Market Day” at GOAL 2010, Joe Zhou of
Darden Restaurants said, “We are in historic times for aquaculture.” The world’s shifting economic power is bringing both
opportunities and challenges to the industry, and “aquaculture’s
success and continuing growth have never been more important
for our world,” he said.
International seafood markets are indeed changing. The
world’s rising middle class is demanding more seafood, and
responsible aquaculture will be essential in providing the
increased supply.
Darden Restaurants’ Roger Bing said the future of seafood is
fantastic because of this demand and the advancing infrastructure to support it. But, again, the growth in supply must be
achieved globally and responsibly. Fortunately, as GAA’s Peter
Redmond reported, Best Aquaculture Practices certification is
being adopted by increasingly broad audiences around the world.
Ragnar Tveteras used IMF projections on China’s growth
to determine that the country will become a net seafood
importer in 2011.
Consumer Concerns
Keynote presenter Jonathan Banks, a consumer consultant
and former director at Nielsen market research, helped frame the
global seafood market from a consumer perspective. He said that
according to a June Nielsen Global online survey, the economy,
job security and rising food prices were top concerns of those
who responded. Many consumers have switched to cheaper grocery brands to save on household expenses.
However, price is not their only consideration in food choices,
Banks said. Consumers in 53 countries said in a March Nielsen
survey that they actively buy products that are energy efficient and
locally made. They are concerned about the global environment.
They also seek fair-traded and ethically produced items.
Consumers are still buying fish – just less expensive varieties.
Yet opportunities exist for premium products that focus on consumers and compete on quality more than price.
Sackton said aquaculture is “absolutely dominant” in sales of
fresh and frozen seafood in the United States, but seafood consumption is being challenged by prices for popular shrimp and fish
at or near nine-year highs. Production problems have forced buyers to face “supply shocks” for shrimp and salmon, and trade
action is containing Pangasius imports in the rising U.S. whitefish
market. These impacts are magnified by the weak U.S. dollar.
Sackton said U.S. seafood consumption faces near-term stag-
China Growth
Ragnar Tveteras, a business economist in the Department for
Industrial Economics, Risk Management and Planning at the
University of Stavanger, tackled the challenge of projecting when
China will become a net seafood importer. He used International Monetary Fund projections on the growth of China’s
economy to determine when its seafood trade balance will shift.
His answer: China, the world’s top aquaculture producer,
will become a net seafood importer in 2011. A GOAL panel led
by Greg Brown supported this conclusion, reporting that China’s growing middle class is driving domestic market growth in
multiple ways.
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
U.S. Market Issues
K
The presentation by John Sackton, founder of Seafood.com,
brought the theme of economic power shifting to Southeast Asia
down to practical realities.
Consumers are still buying fish – just less
expensive varieties. Yet opportunities
exist for premium products that focus
on consumers and compete on quality
more than price.
12
13
nation due to rising costs. As retail prices rise, consumption falls
– and higher prices then favor lower-priced species. The pace of
change on the demand side is going to disrupt pricing for key
items in developed countries. Long-term, however, the outlook
remains positive, as seafood retains its reputation as a healthy
protein choice.
GOAL
2010
Consumer Marketing Needed
global aquaculture
®
In his overview of the U.S. retail seafood market, Phil Gibson of Safeway, Inc. reiterated the economic concerns of consumers, who are buying less and saving more. They often perceive seafood as non-essential. They also want both convenience
and perceived value in food.
U.S. consumers generally don’t understand sustainability and
expect their retailers to address the subject. Consumers also
aren’t willing to pay more for sustainable products.
However, market opportunities are out there, Gibson said.
Better education programs can help consumers get past their
“fear of fish.” Industry, foodservice and retailers should band
together to drive increases in sustainability through a broadbased, consistent message that retailers can trust for consumerbased marketing campaigns.
Plan Now To Attend
U.S. Retail
NetworkSupply
with aquaculture production and market
Jeff Sedacca,
presidentissues
of National
Fish andatSeafood’s
leaders,
and examine
and solutions
GOAL 2010.
shrimp
division,
described
the
2010
price
forwith
shrimp
Kuala Lumpur offers a casual tropicalimbalances
atmosphere
in the United
related
to delays
in supply and market
easy States
accessasand
affordable
accommodations.
panicAdditional
in preparing
for the year-end
season. to GAA
information
will followholiday
with invitations
Early on,members
even withand
lowpast
prices
and
reduced
import activity,
GOAL participants.
processors struggled to keep facilities operating. Imports picked
by the Malaysia
Department
of Fisheries
up inCo-hosted
April, but delayed
harvests caused
panic buying
and higher
material prices. Material and production costs got ahead of the
tually, this results in premature harvests, if not total crop failure.
Advantages, Disadvantages
The advantages of biofloc technology include very high biosecurity. To date, white spot syndrome virus has not been a factor
in the systems. Production and carrying capacity are typically 5
to 10% higher than in typical culture systems, with zero water
exchange. Shrimp grow larger and reflect feed-conversion
rations between 1.0 to 1.3. Production costs can be 15 to 20%
lower.
The disadvantages include high energy inputs for aerators.
Power failures over an hour in duration can be critical. Biofloc
ponds
be presentations
lined. The more
technology
also
The must
GOAL
gaveadvanced
audience members
plenty
demands
greater
need
to properly
train technicians.
of food afor
though
regarding
the changing
environment
of the aquaculture sector.
Growing Interest
Due to success stories in Indonesia and the United States,
U.S. market
shrimp.
many
shrimpfor
farmers
are interested in biofloc technology. The
Nevertheless,
Sedacca
said, U.S.and
consumers
will buy shrimp
Indonesia
Department
of Fisheries
shrimp associations
are
for the year-end
holidays.
After
that, he on
said,
shrimp
will conarranging
a three-day
training
workshop
biofloc
in Indonesia.
tinueYoram
to be Avnimelech
used as a promotional
itemthe
with
great consumer
Dr.
was invitedfood
to lead
workshop
in April.
appeal.
As
supply
and
demand
normalize,
shrimp
should
In China, a number of shrimp farmers are alsoprices
interested.
return fully
to equilibrium.
Their
HDPE-lined, plastic-covered shrimp growout ponds
with high-density culture are ideal for the technology. The
author is currently advising shrimp farms with HDPE-lined
The pace of change on the demand side
intensive culture ponds in Central America on biofloc systems.
isgroup
going
disrupt
pricing.
Long-term,
A
fromto
Brazil
is running
commercial
biofloc trials.
Malaysia
is
currently
initiating
a
1,000-ha
intenhowever, the outlook remainsintegrated
positive,
sive shrimp-farming project at Setiu, Terengganu by Blue
as seafood
its plans
reputation
Archipelago.
Theretains
company also
to use the technology.
as a healthy protein choice.
We could talk all day about our aquatic feed systems.
GOAL Audience Examines Aquaculture
Seafood Issues
But
we’d
rather
Industry
Concerns
Include Economics, Responsible Feeds, Certification
talk
Daniel
Lee about yours.
Best Aquaculture Practices Standards Coordinator
2 Tyn y Caeau, Pentraeth Road
Menai Bridge, LL59 5LA United Kingdom
dangaelle@aol.com
There was a real buzz during the second day of the GOAL
2010 conference in Malaysia, as the event organizers and participants got down to tackling the challenges facing the aquaculture
industry.
Market Shifts
Keynote Dr. Shahridan Faiez of Malaysia’s industry-leading
Blue Archipelago aquaculture group set the scene by drawing
attention to the tectonic shifts occurring in the global marketplace,
highlighting not only that seafood demand is rising fast, but also
that the dominant driver is the rise of the Asian middle class.
Based on current trends, most of the world’s middle class will
be Asian by 2030. Urbanization is also on the rise. Asian consumers share western food safety concerns, which is moving
them toward modern retail formats and premium-priced items.
Rising incomes are resulting in greater animal protein consumption, and Asians love their seafood.
Faiez said the seafood industry needs a drive to sustainability
and collaboration if Joe
it is Kearns,
to effectively
respond to all these shifts.
Aquaculture
Process Technology Manager
Responsible Aquafeed
Dr. Andrew Jackson of the International Fishmeal and Fish
Oil Organisation (IFFO) gave a detailed account of his organization’s Responsible Supply standard and revealed major progress
with certification. Some 20% of the world fishmeal supply is now
certified by IFFO, indicating that the fisheries meet the key
requirements of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
Dr. Geoff Allan dealt with the need for sustainable aquaculture feeds in general. He showed how the dramatic growth in
aquaculture has been fueled by more and better aquafeeds. This
has been possible because of better international trade, better
Through a proactive
government
approach, Jeff Peterson explained, the
BAP program
is taking hold
in Malaysia.
January/February
2011
aquaculture
advocate
14 May/June
22
2010
globalglobal
aquaculture
advocate
Keynote Shahridan Faiez said the farmed seafood industry
needs to collaborate and seek sustainability to effectively
respond to major market shifts.
knowledge of nutritional requirements and better technology,
especially extrusion.
Wenger offers you more extruder, dryer, and
Best
Aquaculture
Practices
more ways to put together the
control
choices, and
In an update on the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certiperfect aquatic feed production system, than anyone
fication program, Jim Heerin explained how BAP is evolving to
your system
the industry.
We’ll custom
design
meet in
industry
needs. Certified
facilities
now produce
over with
600,000
mt of range
seafoodofannually,
some
70% of
major United
a wide
featuresand
and
options
uniquely
States retailers
back
BAP.
Growth
has
also
been
impressive
configured and expertly engineered to produce in
the United Kingdom and Canada. Heerin described how the
specific application.
We bring
optimally
for your
BAP program
uses ISO
65 certification
bodies in a process
coortechnical
expertise to
your process
dinated byunmatched
BAP’s Certification
Management
arm.
Dan Leerequirements,
highlighted the
fact that
the BAP aquatic
programfeed
is now
making
a Wenger
recognized by the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), which
your Wenger
aquaticsafety
feed certifications
system.
system
enables mutual
recognition
among seafood
that satisfy the GFSI criteria. This initiative lends credibility to
the idea that Talk
benchmarking
farm standards
couldyourself
be possible,
to Wengeroftoday,
and surround
perhaps through international guidelines created by the FAO.
with unrivaled resources for exceeding your
Lee highlighted other BAP successes in 2010 – the new
goals.
standards forprocessing
feed mills and
Pangasius farms. The BAP feed mill
standards require increasing use of certified fishmeal and provide
a valuable link with the IFFO Responsible Supply program that
addresses responsible sourcing of marine feed ingredients. Lee
finished by inviting the audience to provide online feedback on
the draft BAP salmon farm standards.
Jeff Peterson explained the BAP program is taking hold in
Malaysia. Through its Department of Fisheries, Malaysia has
taken a proactive, industry-enabling approach, backing
HACCP-based programs and BAP training. The latter involves
a series of one-day workshops and two-day seafood HACCP
courses. The Malaysia BAP training program will serve as a viable model for other countries.
Superior Technology. Unparalleled Service.
Traceability
Anna Hooper, vice president of total quality for Darden Restaurants, gave a thorough account of full product traceability
“from farm to fork.” Hooper said electronic information must be
SABETHA, KANSAS USA 785-284-2133 INFO@WENGER.COM
WWW.WENGER.COM
readily available for distribution
channel participants to follow
USA
BELGIUM
TAIWAN global
BRASIL
CHINAadvocate
TURKEYJanuary/February 2011
15
aquaculture
importance of traceability for ensuring food safety, establishing
and protecting brands, and meeting legal requirements. “Trust
your suppliers, but verify,” he said. Werdahl’s expert account of
traceability trends and benefits also hit home.
Whole chain traceability complements the internal traceability systems at each link in the production chain by interconnecting them to provide full supply chain visibility. BAP’s online
traceability requires only a small number of uploaded fields but
allows verification of BAP participation and linkages for two-,
three- and four-star facilities, generating the necessary integrity
for the BAP mark in the marketplace.
GAA Board Meeting Celebrates Successes,
Looks To 2011 During GOAL 2010
reviewed by the Standards Oversight Committee for release to
public comment. Lee noted that all aquaculture species on the
top 10 seafoods consumed in the United States list will be
addressed by BAP when the salmon standards are released.
GAA Vice President of BAP Development Peter Redmond
reported that breakthroughs in the adoption of BAP certification
are expected in Australia in the next several months. China and
Japan are proving to be challenges for expanding the acceptance
of BAP, he said. The board offered Directors Ray Jones and
John Schramm as resources to assist in filling voids in relationships to assist Redmond in gaining access to the retailers in those
countries.
Carbon Footprint
Darden’s Anna Hooper gave a thorough account of full product
traceability “from farm to fork.”
Dr. David Little of the University of Stirling provided a fascinating analysis of carbon footprinting for aquaculture products.
He gave a mixed picture, noting that environment-related ethical
concerns are driving rapid adoption of product carbon footprinting
without sufficient consideration
Traceability
products through the supply chain to respond to product recalls
and ensure proper order management. She also discussed the
GS1 Global Traceability standard for barcoding.
Her analysis tied in well with the presentations from BAP’s
Jeff Fort and Phil Werdahl of Trace Register. Fort explained the
Audience Participates In GOAL Program
Rather than just listening to speakers presenting data and
defining aquaculture industry challenges, the audience at GOAL
2010 was able to express opinions and “vote” on preferred solutions via individual, interactive keypads.
As the GOAL program progressed, the audience response
system tallied and displayed answers from the producers, processors, importers, distributors, retailers, academics and non-governmental organizations in attendance to reveal trends and general opinions. Eighty-nine percent of those who responded
called the audience response system “helpful in capturing the
opinions of our diverse group.”
Economics, Sustainability
Over 90% of the responding audience said the global shifts in
economic power and rise of the Asian middle class addressed at
the conference will affect their businesses. Encouragingly, nearly
the same percentage indicated they believed aquaculture as an
industry is becoming more sustainable.
To 40% of the respondents, food safety and traceability were
the top issues of concern, followed by environmental impacts
(34%) and economic fraud (16%). Over 70% of the respondents
have sustainability programs in place or support sustainability
initiatives.
Certification, Standards
Several presentations addressed certification and traceability.
Fifty-six percent of those who indicated a preference said the
principal benefit of certification is greater assurance of product
quality and sustainability, while 21% identified greater market
access as a top benefit. Certification also supports a more stable
relationship between producers and suppliers.
Forty percent of the seafood leaders in the audience said that
market-driven, third-party certification is the most effective
mechanism for modifying industry practices. Thirty-two percent
favored buyer-driven purchasing specifications, while 17% said
government regulations were the main driver. Only 11% supported supplier ethics pledges.
16
Some 85% of the responding producers agreed or strongly
agreed there should be a price premium for seafood from certified
facilities. Two-thirds of the buyers called for the price premium.
Who should pay for certification? Nearly 60% of respondents
said “everyone,” while 19% selected retailers and foodservice,
10% recommended processors and 8% indicated primary suppliers. Only 4% indicated governments should be responsible for
the costs of certification.
Going forward, about 40% preferred that BAP next establish
standards for marine fish farms, followed by general hatchery
standards and standards for mussel and other bivalve facilities.
Almost 60% of the responding audience agreed or strongly
agreed that the BAP program should address energy efficiency.
Harmonization, Small Operations
In addition, 94% agreed that the major certification programs should harmonize their standards and auditing systems.
Eighty-eight percent were in favor of the harmonization of
aquaculture standards based on the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization Technical Guidelines for Aquaculture
Certification. There also was support from 85% of the respondents for the idea that BAP and the International Fishmeal and
Fish Oil Organisation feed certifications should link, thereby
creating a “five-star” status for BAP.
The GOAL 2010 audience was keen for the BAP program
to reach out to small-scale operators in an industry that continues to consolidate and integrate. Audience votes indicated that
small farms need to form clusters with other small farms (49%),
align with large integrated operations (39%) or serve local markets (12%).
They also said that if more small farms are to be certified,
financial incentives and education programs will be needed.
Almost 60% of participants indicated that industry has the primary responsibility for educating producers regarding aquaculture sustainability and certification – roughly double the number
that thought this should be left to governments or major farms.
Wally Stevens said the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation
will focus on research, development, training and outreach on
responsible aquaculture around the globe.
The administrative team of the Global Aquaculture Alliance
had good things to report at the October 17 GAA board of
directors meeting held in conjunction with GOAL 2010 in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Membership is up, financial support is
on the rise and the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) program
continues to advance. GAA is also building relationships with
sister organizations around the world.
Growing Membership
Assistant Director Sally Krueger presented a membership
report that confirmed the success of GAA’s ongoing membership drive spearheaded by the Preferred Freezer Services staff. In
addition to its relationships with affiliate associations that have
thousands of members, the Global Aquaculture Alliance had
112 corporate members in 2009 and 126 members in 2010. The
growth came in part due to GAA’s Individual Business Membership, which offers smaller companies a discount on GOAL
registration as well as other benefits.
Fundraising
Fundraising efforts by Preferred Freezer have brought in
approximately U.S. $65,000 to date. Director John Galiher said
more donations are on the way. He instituted a three-pronged
approach to the fundraising that incorporates one-time donations, ongoing monthly donations pledged by credit card or
check, and memberships.
The Preferred Freezer Services target is to attract additional
membership and establish a new annual revenue stream of U.S.
$500,000. Special thanks were given to Lee Bloom of Eastern Fish
for a $15,000 donation and to Harbor Seafood for a $5,000 donation.
Best Aquaculture Practices
Standards Coordinator Dan Lee provided updates on the
Best Aquaculture Practices program that included further progress on the new salmon farm standards, which were being
In discussions on the online storage of traceability data for
the BAP system by Trace Register, concerns were expressed
about the confidentiality of stored data, especially buyer-seller
relationships. However, Trace Register later explained that system options for users allow them to decide whether to protect or
share data with other upstream users.
The board agreed that by March 2011, it will make a recommendation on how to handle traceability/chain of custody in an
improved way. Board member John Peppel offered to research
similar technology solutions used by other protein industries.
Integration
Since the Aquaculture Certification Council (ACC) is no
longer conducting facility audits, it is integrating with GAA as
BAP Certification Management (BAPCM). ACC has done an
excellent job “managing the relationships and the process” of
certification, GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens said.
Pending legal documentation will complete the integration.
Former Aquaculture Certification Council Treasurer Jeff
Fort is working with both organizations on the integration
details. The change has more to do with improving efficiencies
between the two organizations than dramatically changing specific functions in either organization, Fort said.
Responsible Aquaculture Foundation
Stevens advised the board that the tax-exempt, non-profit
status of the new Responsible Aquaculture Foundation (RAF)
was expected soon. George Williams and his legal offices
assisted in submitting forms to the United States government.
Stevens explained that the foundation will focus on the
research, development, training and outreach required to bring
aquaculture around the globe up to a level that sustainably supports major markets in meeting the rising demand for seafood.
2011 Budget
Looking to 2011, the projected U.S. $4.25 million budget for
a combined GAA and BAP Certification Management included
a modest surplus. However, the budget did not include ongoing
fundraising and other revenue sources that should increase the
surplus. Holding GOAL 2011 in Chile is also expected to bring
in greater revenues than earlier planned.
The transition team has been conservative in evaluating the
synergies of expense reduction resulting from integrating GAA
and BAPCM, since there are costs involved that are not yet
known. Additional training on BAP, which received strong support at the meeting, is an example.
17
GOAL 2011
Although several locations in Europe were also considered,
the board selected Chile as the venue for GOAL 2011. Executive Director Stevens said holding the event in Chile would support the release of the BAP salmon farm standards and provide
Chilean salmon farmers a third-party certification system with
market share around the world.
GOAL 2011 can also highlight Chile’s highly successful
agribusiness model, which is helping the aquaculture industry
overcome an outbreak of infectious salmon anemia. Board members Ole Norgaard and John Peppel agreed to identify GOAL
program topics that will drive interest and attract a wide audience for the conference.
Advocate Magazine
Aquaculture Advocate, is expanding the number of printed magazines to six bimonthly issues in 2011 after a pilot project in
which only three were printed in 2010. In addition, she is
recruiting advertisers and subscribers, managing expenses and
planning the budget for the magazine.
Spring Election
There are two open positions on the GAA board of directors. Vice President Bill Herzig reminded the board that elections typically take place at the spring board meeting in March.
The Nominating Committee will soon consider prospective
board members to fill the positions. Suggestions for board candidates should be sent to committee members Bill Herzig, bherzig
@darden.com; Iain Shone, iain.shone@lyons-seafoods.com; or
Sergio Nates, snates@nationalrenderers.org.
Susan Chamberlain, the new manager of GAA’s Global
gaa activities
Jory Addresses Meetings In China, Mexico, Peru
world needs to significantly increase seafood production in coming decades, aquaculture is the only alternative to accomplish
this, and increased aquaculture production must be sustainable.
It is key to transition to an industrial perspective to improve
profitability and sustainability, Jory said, and critical to stay current with technological advances, primarily in domestication and
selective breeding, nutrition and feeds, and controlled production systems. Finally, increasing market demand for safe and
healthy products generated in a responsible and sustainable manner will require increased traceability and certification.
Jory also presented this talk at to an audience of graduate
students and faculty at Dalian Ocean University. In addition, he
attended the November 1 Sustainable Seafood Forum and the
China Fisheries and Seafood Expo 2010 in Dalian.
The following week, Jory participated in the International
Tilapia Industry Development Forum in Nanning, where he
presented “Best Aquaculture Practices Standards for the Tilapia
Industry: Certification for Greater Sustainability.” Among his
key points were a discussion of seafood certification, the Best
Aquaculture Practices program and how its tilapia standards are
developed and applied, and the increasing importance certification and traceability have in the global seafood industry.
Mexico, Peru
Darryl Jory told the audience at the International Tilapia
Industry Development Forum in China how the BAP
tilapia farm standards were developed and applied.
Dr. Darryl Jory, GAA’s editor and development manager,
recently traveled through China with Dr. Kevin Fitzsimmons of
the University of Arizona to participate in several seafood events
through a sponsorship by the China Aquatic Products Processing and Marketing Association.
As a speaker at the China Prominent Aquatic Enterprise
Sustainable Development Summit, held October 29-30 in Yantai, Jory presented a talk on “Sustainable Aquaculture Development and Technology.” Among his main points were that the
18
Jory also attended the November 10-12 FIACUI 2010 –
Aquaculture Expo Forum and First International Fair of Technological Supplies for the Aquaculture, Fishery and Processing
and Distribution Industries – in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico.
There he again presented the talk on “Sustainable Aquaculture
Development and Technology.”
Later in November, he attended the Nicovita Symposium in
Piura, Peru, where he gave the keynote address, entitled
“Strengthening the Value Chain: Towards Sustainable Production.” In it, he discussed scenarios and needs for profitable,
responsible and sustainable aquaculture development.
First BAP Feed Mill,
Four-Star Company
Certified
With the certification of its first
feed mill and associated “four-star”
aquaculture operation, the Best
Aquaculture Practices (BAP) program continues to progress as the
leading global certification system
for farmed seafood.
On November 9, Asian Feed
Co., Ltd. became the first BAPcertified feed mill. Located in
Thayang, Petchburi, Thailand, the
facility manufactures shrimp feed
Asian Seafoods’ fourunder the Champ, Extra, Hero and
star status reflects the
Rambo brands.
top level in BAP’s
Asian Feed Co. Ltd. is part of
unique system that
Asian Seafoods Coldstorage Public
addresses environCo., Ltd., BAP’s first four-star
mental, social, food
company. Asian Seafoods’ foursafety and traceability
star status reflects the top level in
issues at the hatchery,
BAP’s unique system approach
farm, feed mill and
that addresses environmental,
processing plant.
social, food safety and traceability
issues at the hatchery, farm, feed
mill and processing plant. Each of
these links in the aquaculture supply chain is designated by a star
on retail packaging. Hence, this company has a fully certified or
four-star production chain.
“We congratulate the Asian Seafoods group for these vanguard accomplishments,” said Wally Stevens, executive director of
the Global Aquaculture Alliance, whose BAP standards form the
base of BAP certification. “Its four-star certification expresses the
company’s continued commitment to sustainability as well as its
use of responsible practices throughout the seafood production
process, from pond to plate.”
Asian Seafoods Coldstorage operates a BAP-certified seafood
processing plant in Amphur Muang, Samutsakorn, Thailand, in
tandem with its Tawee and Aquapool shrimp farms, several of
which are certified as BAP integrated operating modules. Asian
Seafoods sources shrimp larvae from its Tripetch hatchery and
Best Hatchery Farm. Its processing plant has participated in BAP
certification since 2006.
Asian Seafoods Coldstorage Public Co., Ltd. produces frozen
raw and cooked shrimp under the BAP program. It also exports
sillago fish fillets, cuttlefish and squid items to markets in Asia,
North America and Europe.
Article
Submissions
Contact Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Telephone: 1+407-366-8905
Fax: 1+419-844-1638
19
GAA Welcomes New
Sustaining Members
Bookings for 2011
being taken for larval
Florida pompano
Trachinotus carolinus.
Larvae shipped
immediately after
hatching (Day 0).
US $0.03/larvae,
minimum order 100,000;
US $1.30/metamorphosed
juvenile, minimum order 1,000.
Contact cweirich@aquagrn.com
Or phone (US) 601-528-5653.
Additional companies recently joined the Global Aquaculture Alliance as Sustaining Members.
New member C.I. Oceanos S.A. is the world’s largest contiguous shrimp farm. Its 148 production ponds cover a total area
of 1,052 ha. Oceanos produces over 10,000 mt of shrimp per
year and exports 90% of its production, primarily to Europe,
Japan and the United States. It is a 100%-owned subsidiary of
Colombia-based Ingenio Manuelita S.A.
PanaPesca USA Corp. is a member of the Italian-based
PanaPesca Group and a registered Best Aquaculture Practices
buyer. With over 600 employees worldwide, PanaPesca maintains factory trawlers, processing plants and offices in Argentina,
Chile, Uruguay, Italy, Morocco, Thailand, India and the United
States.
The GOAL 2010 sponsor annually processes over 79,000 mt
of shellfish and finfish into 4,500 products that reach some 6,000
customers worldwide.
Western Edge Inc. is a top-10 volume buyer of tilapia and
catfish from China and a premier supplier of tilapia in the
United States. It also handles frozen shrimp, barramundi, sea
bass and other species.
Western Edge applies its sourcing expertise in working
closely with the USFDA and China’s CIQ to monitor all aspects
of the supply chain. Its quality control methods, which include
internal controls as well as accredited third-party inspection
agencies, far exceed industry standards.
BAP Salmon Standards Posted For Public Comment
Comment Deadline: January 10
The 60-day public comment period for the Best Aquaculture
Practices (BAP) certification standards for salmon farms will end
on January 10. As the owner of the BAP standards, the Global
Aquaculture Alliance asks for your assistance in reviewing these
draft standards and guidelines (www.gaalliance.org/cmsAdmin/
uploads/BAP-SalmonF.pdf) and submitting your comments at
www.gaalliance.org/bap/comments.php.
Submit up to three comments at one time using the elec-
tronic form or send comments directly to
Technical Committee Chairman John
Forster or BAP Standards Coordinator
Dan Lee. Their contact information is
provided on the comments page.
The standards apply to the marine
phase of production only and are concerned with farming in cages and net
pens. We recognize that salmonids are
also grown in cages in freshwater and in
tank farms on land, and many of the proposed BAP standards also apply to these
methods. Due to some specific differences, however, an annex to the current
standards for these systems will be prepared later.
Please note that these standards try to
balance the need for practicality with the
overarching program goal of continuous
industry improvement. In trying to set
measurable target metrics for global
salmon farm performance, two aspects
particularly challenged technical committee members.
In Standard 6 on escapes, the members agreed that one large escape should
be penalized by immediate suspension of
BAP certification. However, there was
much discussion about how this should
be defined, especially in size, and how
allowances might be made for escapes
that occur due to circumstances all or
mostly beyond the applicant’s control.
In Standard 10, the numerous variables related to sea lice biology made it
difficult to prescribe a single set of global
metrics. Therefore, it was decided not to
set specific targets, but to require compliance with local regulatory rulings in combination with a requirement for lice controls within Area Management
Agreements.
Suggestions on how to deal with
these matters are especially welcome, as
are ideas for improving any other part of
the standards document.
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Cage aquaculture in hydroelectric
reservoirs has great potential for
expansion in Brazil, but there are
concerns of negative environmental
impacts. The environmental sustainability of cage culture depends
on harmonization between farming
practices and the hydrological peculiarities of the site. Mass balance
modeling can estimate the amounts
of nutrients that can be loaded
without triggering eutrophication
and resulting maximum allowable
production volume. Careful climate
zoning can also assist proper siting.
Most of the large rivers in Brazil’s
upper Paraná River basin, which drains
the most industrialized and populated
portion of South America, have been
transformed into cascades of hydroelectric reservoirs during the past 50 years.
This caused losses of aquatic biodiversity
and interruption of migratory fish routes
that resulted in low fishery production.
Several attempts at stock enhancement
were carried out, although these artificial
ecosystems have persisted as relative biological deserts. On the other hand, the
impoundments have enhanced the water
quality of the resulting lakes.
No solution for food production in
these large ecosystems emerged until cage
aquaculture was shown to be feasible. In
spite of great biodiversity in local freshwaters, no competitive, native option has
yet emerged, and cage aquaculture has
been mainly based on tilapia farming.
Farming Potential
The total area of reservoirs in the
upper Paraná basin is over 500,000 ha
and has a potential for annual fish production of more than 2 mmt by using
only 0.5% of the area.
Cage aquaculture in hydroelectric reservoirs has great potential for expansion
in Brazil, but there are concerns of negative environmental impacts, particularly
the risks of eutrophication due to nutrient
loads derived from fish feces and feed
losses. Continuous impacts from agriculture runoff and urban sewage are critical
issues for many southern Brazilian rivers,
and any new source of nutrient loads
would be problematic. However, properly
planned and located aquaculture could
Gianmarco S. David
São Paulo State Agribusiness
Technology Agency
Av. Pedro Ometto, 874-17430-000
Barra Bonita, Brazil
2000gian@uol.com.br
Edmir D. Carvalho
Igor Paiva Ramos
Fish Biology and Ecology Laboratory
São Paulo State University
Botucatu, Brazil
Reinaldo J. Silva
Wild Fauna Parasitology Laboratory
Botucatu, Brazil
Alexandre N. Silveira
Department of Biology
and Animal Science
Ilha Solteira, Brazil
Fanny Yasumaru
Caio C. Ribeiro
Daniel Lemos
LAM Aquaculture Laboratory
Oceanographic Institute
University of São Paulo
São Paulo, Brazil
23
enhance fishery production in reservoirs.
The preservation of strategic public
water resources requires government planning to set limits on any activity with the
potential for causing eutrophication. Government and private stakeholders agree on
the risks of pollution from cage aquaculture, and regulations limited the cage facilities in hydroelectric reservoirs to 1% of
the area of each site, but no objective evaluations proved this limit suitable.
cage aquaculture depends on harmonization between farming practices and the
hydrological peculiarities of the proposed
site. Natural resources must be used without causing drastic, deleterious changes in
the structure and function of the ecosystems in which cages are sited.
The main risks are associated with
eutrophication processes. In freshwater
reservoirs, phosphorus emission is a key
factor. To quantify the amount of fish
that can be produced at each site, engineers must determine how much phosphorus is loaded per ton of fish produced
Harmonization Required
The environmental sustainability of
Water quality conditions were excellent at the studied sites.
Allowable Fish Production (mt)
25,000
20,000
15,000
Figure 1. Total allowable
fish production is strongly
affected by phosphorus
loads.
Site 2
Site 1
10,000
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Carrying capacity is determined by
the intrinsic limnological characteristics
of each site. Its estimation demands field
surveys that examine detailed bathymetry,
hydrodynamics, water conductivity, profiles of dissolved oxygen and temperature,
turbidity, chlorophyll α and other factors.
The main factors considered in determining the carrying capacity of a given
site are:
• Mean depth. Deeper depths allow
more intensive production.
• Flushing rate is calculated as the
theoretical time needed to fully
exchange the water volume of a site.
Low flushing times allow more
intensive production.
• Initial water nutrient content.
Cleaner water with less nutrients can
handle a higher aquaculture load.
• Sedimentation rate. More intense
sedimentation keeps water clean,
allowing more intensive production.
These assessments are made using
mass balance models to estimate the
amounts of nutrients that can be loaded
without triggering eutrophication. If the
nutrient load related to the production of
a ton of fish is known, the maximum
allowable production at a given site can
be calculated.
the more productive site displayed a
higher initial phosphorus level (12.7 versus 16.1 mg/m3).
Model calculations assumed a standard
phosphorus emission of 13.5 kg/mt of
produced tilapia based on an average 1.5
feed-conversion ratio (FCR) and 1.5%
total phosphorus feed content, although
feeding management may drastically affect
total allowable fish production.
Simulating a 20% FCR shift from 1.5
to 1.8, phosphorus emission would
increase 25%, resulting in a 25% reduction
in the compatible production according to
site carrying capacity. Accordingly, a 6.7%
change in phosphorus feed content from
1.5 to 1.6% would result in a 9% decrease
in total allowable production at the farm
site. Total production can be almost tenfold lower when low-quality feed and high
FCR are associated (Figure 1).
Some reservoir sites register significant
nutrient increases related to cage farming,
but not enough to reach the eutrophication threshold due to the limited scale of
farming operations. Seasonal variations in
hydrological features are also relevant, with
reduction in the carrying capacity related
to massive nutrient influx from agricultural
and sewage runoff, especially in summer,
when water temperatures are more favorable for tilapia farming.
Water temperatures during winter
months are frequently below 20° C, when
tilapia cultivation is less profitable due to
reduced growth and potential increases in
diseases and parasites. Under these conditions, the efficiency of nutrient use by fish
may be lower, with potential higher nutrient emissions to the environment. Careful
climate zoning for tilapia cultivation could
assist proper planning of cage siting.
Load Modeling
Environmental Planning
Carrying Capacity
For instance, in Table 1, the simulated carrying capacities for tilapia cage
culture in two sites with similar 31-km2
areas but different water retention times
and mean depths were very different –
3,982 versus 7,768 mt/year in the Pantano River and Ponte Pensa River areas,
respectively. This resulted even though
5,000
0
to establish the carrying capacity of the
site – the amount of phosphorus that can
be loaded in a given period without surpassing the threshold of eutrophication.
The phosphorus load can be calculated by
considering feed-conversion ratios and
the phosphorus content of feed, while
carrying capacity is much more complicated to assess.
40
Phosphorus Load/mt Fish
Table 1. Simulated carrying capacity for two tilapia cage culture facilities with similar areas.
Volume
(m3)
Flushing
Rate
(days)
Initial Total
Phosphorus
(mg/m3)
Phosphorus
Limit
(mg/m3)
Sedimentation
Rate
Maximum
Annual
Phosphorus
Load
(mg/m2)
6.0
189,660,000
33.01
12.7
30
0.335
1,700.82
53,762.91
10.4
321,152,000
21.61
16.1
30
0.290
3,396.16
104,873.52
Area
(km2)
Mean
Depth
(m)
Pantano
River
31.61
Ponte
Pensa River
30.88
Site
24
Annual
Allowable
Phosphorus
Load (kg)
In the last four years, carrying capacity
studies have been carried out by the
authors’ research group at 19 sites in the
upper Paraná River basin with a concentration on the Ilha Solteira and Chavantes
reservoirs. Fish production at most studied
sites seemed compatible with local carrying
capacities for assimilation and recycling of
nutrients derived from farming. Water
quality conditions were excellent, with no
signals of surpassing eutrophication
thresholds – probably due to the limited
scale of the farming operations.
Specific models are needed for the
further management of aquaculture in the
ecosystems considered. Effective planning
for farming public waters will require further discussion and guidance at various
governmental levels to reach a truly sustainable aquaculture.
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25
production
As is typical in northeastern Brazil, this farm’s nursery unit is located near the growout ponds.
Brazil’s Intensive Shrimp Nursery Systems
Improve P.L. Management, Shorten Growout
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.
Instituto de Ciências do Mar
Av. da Abolição, 3207 – Mereles
Fortaleza, Ceará 60165-081 Brazil
albertojpn@uol.com.br
Summary:
Intensive nursery systems function as an extension of hatcheries
and are an effective way to acclimate postlarvae to farm conditions and assess their quality and
health prior to pond stocking. A
key advantage of nursery tanks is
the ability to start growout with
larger shrimp. This can shorten
growout and increase annual
yields. Round nursery tanks are
frequently used in Brazil, as they
provide more uniform water
circulation and accumulate less
waste.
The conventional one-phase culture
system in which postlarval shrimp are
stocked directly into growout ponds and
reared until harvest still prevails in many
areas. However, with intensification and
more refined techniques, the two-phase
culture system has emerged. This system
adopts an intermediate culture phase
commonly called nursery between the
hatchery phase and pond growout.
In the 1980s, large shrimp farms were
built to operate with nursery ponds of 0.5
to 3 ha in area. Postlarval (P.L.) shrimp
were stocked at densities of 0.5 to 2.5
million P.L./ha and reared four to five
weeks prior to their transfer to growout
ponds.
These culture methods modernized
shrimp production strategies, as they
allowed greater control and forecast of
shrimp population size. However, despite
the significant improvements over traditional one-phase systems, nursery ponds
were expensive to build and occupied
large pieces of land that could be used as
growout area. The transfer of juvenile
shrimp larger than 0.5 g was also laborious and risky due to the stress caused by
handling during harvest.
Over the years, the pioneering concept of nursery ponds evolved to smaller
culture areas in hatcheries or near/within
growout ponds at farms. Among the pen,
tank and raceway nursery structures that
evolved over the years, the most popular
among Brazilian shrimp farms has been
the intensive round nursery tanks.
Intensive Nursery Tanks
The intensive nursery tank concept
apparently evolved from the ultra-intensive
shrimp-farming system conceived in Japan
in the 1970s by Dr. Kunihiko Shigueno
and co-workers. Although the two systems
have similarities in terms of design and
engineering, the application and operational methods differ.
During the early days of shrimp farming, Shigueno’s tanks were designed to
operate as a growout system with high
water exchange rates and stocking density
up to 100 shrimp/m2. The intensive nurs-
27
Postlarvae are transferred from nursery tanks to growout ponds using a “submarine.”
ery tanks have been used as a tool to optimize production logistics in shrimp
farms, regulating the flow of newly
arrived postlarvae into ponds.
Nursery tanks function as temporary
reservoirs for postlarvae that allow slow
acclimation to the farm environmental
conditions and provide a method for
maintaining P.L. inventories and assessing their quality. Nurseries reduce the
exposure of young shrimp to potential
pathogens and predators, and allow early
detection of health problems and diseases. They also support aggressive nutrition programs for the postlarvae.
A key advantage of nursery tanks is
the possibility of starting growout with
larger shrimp. This can reduce financial
risk, shorten growout, increase pond
turnover and eventually result in higher
annual yields.
located within the operations, but preferably secluded from production ponds for
biosecurity. Nurseries should be installed
in locations that facilitate the uptake of
clean seawater from farm water canals.
Nursery tanks are usually arranged side by
side and outdoors to intentionally expose
postlarvae to changing weather conditions. In areas with suboptimal temperatures for shrimp culture, tanks may be
built indoors for better control of water
temperature.
Nursery tanks can be square, rectangular or round. Round tanks are more frequently used in Brazil and appear to have
some operational advantages over other
shapes. As they have no corners, round
tanks accumulate less uneaten food, dead
algae, sediment and other wastes. Also due
to their shape, these tanks provide more
uniform water circulation.
The floors of round tanks have a
slight slope toward the center, where the
Construction, Engineering
drainage systems are mounted. Nursery
At most shrimp farms, the nursery
tanks can be built of fiberglass, galvanized
tanks that make up the intensive nursery
metal, laminated PVC or brick cement.
unit occupy 100 m2 to 0.5 ha in area,
Brick cement tanks may be sealed with
depending on the farm P.L. requirements.
The basic infrastructure to support the
epoxy resin or sometimes coated with a
tanks is usually composed of a roofed area
high-density polyethylene membrane.
to protect P.L. from exposure to high
Tanks can be excavated or built over flat
temperature during acclimation and transterrain. In both cases, the area should be
fer; a shelter for blowers, pumps, power
free of vegetation with good circulation
generator and other electrical equipment;
of air and ease of access.
room for feed preparation and measureCommercial nursery tanks have volment of water quality; and storage space
umes that range from 30 to 55 m3 with an
for feed and other materials.
internal diameter of 5 to 7 m. Tanks are
At farms, nursery units should be
designed to operate with a water depth of
28 January/February 2011 global aquaculture advocate
1.0 m and a maximum height of 1.2 m.
Each nursery tank is equipped with an
independent water inlet and outlet system.
Water is usually pumped from pond
inlet canals using an electrical pump. The
pump should not be installed in shallow
areas or on sites subject to high thermal
variation, water stagnation or contamination from the drainage water of growout
ponds. Water should resemble that used
for shrimp growout and preferably be
mechanically filtered using common sand
filters combined with a 10-μ filter bag to
remove solid materials.
Harvest of postlarvae is carried out
using a chamber constructed below the
level of the nursery tank floor. This
allows complete water drainage and less
stress on P.L. Harvest chambers are
equipped with a removable ladder for
access, aeration points to oxygenate water
during harvest and an internal water
drainage system.
To capture the shrimp, harvest water
is passed through a wood or fiberglass
box with a 1,000- to 2,000-μ mesh on the
bottom. During harvest, the collection
box is placed in a tank to allow animals to
remain submerged throughout the harvest process.
For a regular supply of dissolved oxygen, nursery tanks are equipped with 5to 10-hp air blowers. A back-up power
supply, such as a diesel generator with
automatic switch, is critical to safely
operate nursery tanks. The air systems,
used for water circulation and oxygenation, are independent yet interconnected
to a single valve to regulate the operating
pressure and air flow.
For water aeration, PVC pipes can be
interconnected and fixed to the tank
floor. Pipe configurations vary from parallel to circular arrangements. Aerial aeration systems use air stones and are more
popular, as they are easier to clean and
maintain. Some farms use airlifts positioned around the tank walls to provide a
spiral water movement within the tanks.
Along with water exchange, this process
assists in the concentration and removal
of waste and suspended solids in the central areas of the nursery tanks.
Nursery Management
In Brazil, shrimp are usually stocked
in nursery tanks as 10-day-old postlarvae,
but older animals can also be used.
Shrimp may be held in nursery tanks
from five days for acclimation purposes to
as long as 15 days. Initial stocking densities vary 15-30 P.L./L. Normal shrimp
survival rates exceed 95%.
Nursery tanks with aerial aeration system.
Prior to stocking, nursery tanks, hoses
and air stones are disinfected with
sodium hypochlorite at 20 ppm, brushed
and washed with running water, and
dried for 24 hours. After filling the tank
with seawater, inorganic fertilizers are
applied. Phytoplankton inoculation can
be used when faster blooms are required.
As P.L. arrive at the farm, the shrimp
are acclimated to water pH, salinity and
temperature in 1,000-L fiberglass tanks
before stocking in the nursery tanks.
When acclimation exceeds more than
two hours, feed is provided.
During the nursery stage, shrimp are
fed high-quality starter diets with 40% or
more crude protein content and less than
800-μ size. Larval diets are used to minimize the risk of disease transmission.
Dried feed is broadcast in the first days
after stocking and then delivered in feeding trays.
Water exchange is held to no more
than 10% a day over the first week of culture to maintain a high phytoplankton
biomass. In the following days, water can
be exchanged daily at 30%. Wastes on
tank bottoms are siphoned away.
When postlarvae are ready to be
transferred to growout ponds, their
health and the presence of feed in their
digestive tracts are checked. P.L. should
never be transferred starved or when disease or stress signs are evident. To transfer the P.L. to ponds, conical 1,000-L
fiberglass tanks locally known as “submarines” are used. These tanks are equipped
with aeration on the bottom and can hold
from 500,000 P.L.26/m3 to 800,000
P.L.20/m3 for a two-hour period.
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29
production
Small-Scale, Submersible Fish Cages
Suitable For Developing Economies
The low-tech
OCAT system
has proven viable
as a fish containment structure
for surface and
submerged
operations.
Pompano that received a 50% soy feed grew in an OCAT cage
from 20 to 610 g in 146 days.
tenance can be performed via small, family-owned surface vessels.
Sea trials were conducted over a five-year period off the
southern coast of Hainan Island to evaluate the capability of the
OCAT cages to withstand typhoon storm conditions, and to test
pompano production with diets high in soy inclusion. Tests confirmed the ability of the 100-m3 OCAT cages to auto-submerge
and withstand typhoon conditions, and produce a minimum of
6.4 mt of pompano.
OCAT Advances
Summary:
The low-cost, low-infrastructure nature of OCAT openocean cage systems allows fish farmers to move from
protected bay and harbor sites to more exposed locations
that offer better water quality and w potential. The cages
can be quickly assembled on land and towed into position.
Mooring components are minimal, and ongoing feeding
and maintenance can be easily performed from small surface vessels.
Achieving food security in developing nations is a mission of
numerous governmental and international organizations. Smallscale aquaculture, both on land and sea, can aid this effort
through the consistent production of seafood supplied to a local
population within a geographical region.
American Soybean Association International Marketing
(ASA-IM) has been developing small-scale, submersible cage
technologies since 2004. This technology affords aquafarmers
the ability to move from protected bay and harbor sites to more
exposed locations. Stepping offshore improves water quality,
which typically improves growth rates and fish health while
decreasing stress and mortality.
Nonetheless, culture systems must be built to survive the
more energetic environment with stronger wave and current
conditions. Submersible cages, in the event of a storm, can be
temporarily dropped below the water surface to safeguard the
fish product. Once the storm has passed, the cage can be raised
to the surface to ease feed and maintenance operations.
Initial Development
The U.S. soybean industry, through its ASA-IM program,
30
M. D. Chambers
Jere Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory
University of New Hampshire
Durham, New Hampshire 03824 USA
michael.chambers@unh.edu
J. DeCew
Jere Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory
B. Celikkol
Mechanical Engineering Department
M. Yigit
Department of Aquaculture
Faculty of Fisheries
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Terzioglu Campus, Canakkale, Turkey
Advancements to the OCAT platform supported by ASAIM were implemented at the University of New Hampshire offshore aquaculture test site. Dynamic analysis of the cage under
waves and currents performed using finite element analysis led to
modifications in the high-density polyethylene framework. Scale
physical model testing analyzed and optimized the required system buoyancy to minimize the motion of the submersible cage
system. Cage assembly enhancements were incorporated and
then verified with the construction of two OCAT systems.
These systems were tested 14 km from shore in 52 m of water.
One cage utilized a nylon net and was stocked with steelhead
trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss, for submergence trials. Trout are
physostomous and need to gulp air to refill their swim bladders.
Thus, duration of submergence was investigated for health and
survival of the fish. Rim sections were flooded to submerge or
filled with compressed air to bring the cage to the surface.
When the cage was submerged 10 m below surface, the 600,
485-g trout were fed via a plastic hose and hydraulic feeder that
delivered pellets to the cage. The cage was submerged for two,
four and eight weeks. Results suggested that trout could survive
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M. C. Cremer
U.S. Soybean Export Council
Leavenworth, Washington, USA
initiated the ocean cage aquaculture technologies (OCAT) fish
cage system to boost global feed-based production of fish with
soy-inclusion feeds. Initial design work was conducted by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and four cages were constructed and deployed in the South China Sea, where wooden
rafts for fish culture are vulnerable to typhoons.
The advantages of the small-scale OCAT net pens include low
cost, low infrastructure demands for cage assembly and minimal
vessel requirements for transport and feeding operations. In addition, the necessary mooring components are minimized, and main-
Biofouling
appeared on the
cage frame but
not the copper
net of one of the
OCAT
test cages.
2395 Apopka Blvd. Suite 100, Apopka, Florida 32703, USA
Tel: +1 407 886 3939 Fax: +1 407 886 4884
Web: www.AquaticEco.com
Email: InternationalSales@AquaticEco.com
31
LLC (IPA). IPA had a 1.2-ha aquaculture
farm that produced 5 mt of Mitilus galloprovincialis mussels per year. The company
wanted to diversify its production with a
fish component for markets in Batumi and
Tbilisi. Winter storms and concern of theft
warranted the use of a small submersible
cage for the site.
The OCAT cage was constructed on a
rocky beach in a day and a half. The system
was then dragged off the beach and towed to
the site with a local vessel. Steelhead trout,
mykiss, were chosen for the
Oncorhynchus mykiss
culture species, as numerous local, landbased trout hatcheries could supply stock for
the sea cage.
Several groups of trout averaging 197 g
were stocked into the cage with 94% survival. Fish were fed for two months to
about 502 g with a feed-conversion ratio of
An OCAT cage constructed on the shore of the Black Sea was towed offshore
1:1.38. Their specific growth rate of 1.56%/
and stocked with trout fingerlings.
day was good – until two unexpected
storms occurred while the cage was at the
surface. The top net was torn, and most of
well sub-surface for periods of up to four weeks.
the trout were comprised. Additional trials are currently under
A second sea trial was conducted with a copper alloy net chamway at a closer site that is more accessible for management and
ber and stocked with Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua. The cage was
maintenance.
stocked with 930, 100-g cod produced in Newington, New HampPerspectives
shire. Again, fish were fed hydraulically from a vessel for five
The OCAT cage system represents one solution for ocean aquamonths with 95% survival and a feed-conversion ratio of 1:1.5.
culture by providing a “back-yard approach” to seafood security.
During the cage deployment, no biofouling appeared on the
This low-tech, low-cost system has proven viable as a fish containcopper net. Proximate analyses conducted on the cod at the
ment structure for surface and submerged operations, and is ideal
completion of the experiment found that copper levels in the livfor fishermen who struggle in declining wild-catch fisheries.
ers of the fish in the copper net cage were similar to those of fish
OCAT is not for everyone, however, as every sea-farming
raised in a cage with a nylon net.
location has its own unique oceanographic parameters, available
Black Sea Trial
infrastructure, feed resources and culture species. Aquaculture
Another OCAT sea trial was conducted 2 km off the shore
extension and training will have to be implemented on a regional
of Batumi, Georgia, in the Black Sea. The project was funded by
basis and over a long period of time to assure success.
the United States Agency for International Development, ASAIM and the local company Iberia Pontomarine Aquaculture
production
Erosion, Sedimentation In
Earthen Aquaculture Ponds
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
Puttitorn Saengrungruang
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University, Alabama, USA
Embankments made of heavy clay soils must have adequate side slopes or they will slip.
Summary:
The control of external inputs of
suspended soil particles to ponds
and internal erosion of embankments and bottoms should begin at
the design and construction stage.
Canals and embankments built of
well-graded soil should have sufficient side slopes to resist erosion.
Water supplies should be examined
as possible sources of suspended
solids. At higher aeration rates,
some type of pond liner should
be installed to protect earthwork
from aerator-generated currents.
Sediment in earthen ponds originates
primarily from two sources: a high concentration of suspended solids in the
water supply and erosion of pond bottoms and embankments. Because erosion
and sedimentation are common, aquaculturists tend to consider them the norm
and devote little attention to ways of lowering the rates at which embankments
erode and sediment accumulates in
deeper areas of ponds.
Erosion degrades embankments, and
excessive sediment in ponds reduces
depth, creates a soft bottom, makes har-
32
vesting more difficult and damages benthic plant and animal communities. Suspended soil particles in ponds increase
turbidity and thereby reduce light penetration for phytoplankton photosynthesis.
High levels of suspended solids in effluents are pollutants.
Pond Construction
The implementation of practices to
lessen external inputs of suspended soil
particles to ponds and minimize internal
erosion should begin at the design and
construction stages. Embankments
should have sufficient side slopes to resist
erosion. Table 1 gives recommended side
slopes for different types of soil.
Although most references on pond
construction suggest that a high percentage of clay in fill for pond embankments
is desirable, heavy clay soil material does
not bear loads well and is difficult to
compact. Steeply sloped embankments
with high clay content may slip, encouraging severe erosion. A well-graded soil
with less clay and a wide range in particle
size distribution is best suited for
embankments.
Fill material should be thoroughly
compacted, which requires that fill be near
the optimum moisture content for compaction. A laboratory procedure known as
the standard Proctor test can measure the
optimum moisture content of a soil for
compaction to 95% of maximum density.
It often is not possible to use this procedure for pond construction, but the following guidelines can be helpful.
Typical optimum moisture contents for
good compaction of common types of soil
are: sandy materials, 6 to 10%; silty sand, 8
to 12%; silt, 11 to 15%; clay materials, 13 to
21%. Fill material should be installed in 15to 20-cm layers and compacted before the
next layer is applied. Water should be
added to dry soil to increase moisture and
enhance compaction.
Stone, riprap rock or gabion can be
Table 1. Recommended side slopes for preventing erosion
of earthen pond embankments.
Soil Type
Side Slope
(horizontal: vertical)
Clay, clay sand, sandy clay, silty sand
Silty clay
Well-graded soil
3:1 wet side
2:1 dry side
3.1 wet side
3.1 dry side
1:1, 2:1 wet side
1:1, 2:1 wet side
33
These practices include placing aerators in water over 1 m deep, installation
of aerators beyond the inside toes of
embankments – usually about 6 m from
the water’s edge, and prevention of aerator-generated water currents from
impinging on embankments.
Sediment can be removed from ponds
to restore pond bottoms to near-original
condition. This sediment should be used to
repair erosion on insides of embankments
when possible. It is particularly important
to thoroughly compact the repaired areas
and reinforce them against erosion.
production
Oxygen Management Improves
Channel Catfish Growth, FCR
Liners
installed below the water line to control
erosion. Grass cover should be used above
the water line on the wet side and on the
dry side to control erosion. If the top of
the embankment is not covered with
gravel, it also should be covered with grass.
Canals constructed to convey water to
ponds also should be designed with consideration for erosion control. The minimum side slopes (horizontal to vertical)
and maximum allowable water velocities
for avoiding erosion in canals of different
depths are provided in Table 2.
Water Supply, Embankments
The water supply for ponds should be
examined to determine if it is a significant source of suspended solids. Erosion
on small catchments for “watershed”
ponds can be a major source of suspended
solids. Denuded areas on catchments
should be covered with grass or other
vegetation. Sometimes it is possible to
construct ditches or terraces in critical
areas to divert turbid runoff from ponds.
The embankment ponds most commonly used in aquaculture are filled with
water from streams, canals, estuaries or
other water bodies that can be high in
suspended solids concentrations. Turbid
water should be held in a settling basin
before being transferred to farm canals
and ponds. Failure to do so can lead to
excessive sedimentation. A settling time
of four to eight hours will remove most of
the coarse solids, but fine silt and clay
particles often remain in suspension.
Erosion on the dry side of embankments and above the waterline on the wet
side as a result of wind and rain can be
minimized in ponds that were constructed with inadequate side slopes by
installation of grass cover or other erosion-resistant cover.
Mechanical Aeration
The mechanical aeration used in
many ponds generates water currents that
can cause severe erosion of pond embankments and bottoms, and sediment accumulation on pond bottoms. Aeratorrelated erosion becomes more severe as
the amount of aeration increases, but at
moderate levels of aeration up to about
20 hp/ha, improved practices can minimize erosion.
Table 2. Allowable side slopes and maximum water velocities
for preventing erosion in earthen channels.
Side Slope
Soil Type
Sandy loam
Silty clay
Silty sand
Stiff clay
34
Maximum water Velocity (m/second)
(horizontal:
vertical)
1.0 m
deep
1.5 m
deep
2.0 m
deep
3.0
3.0
2.0
1.5
0.77
0.97
0.97
1.35
0.84
1.05
1.05
1.47
0.89
1.11
1.l1
1.55
In addition to eating more, catfish feed more aggressively when D.O. concentrations are higher. This makes it easier to feed them without
wasting feed.
Les Torrans, Ph.D.
USDA ARS Catfish Genetics Research Unit
Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center
Stoneville, Mississippi 38776 USA
les.torrans@ars.usda.gov
Summary:
Studies by the author demonstrated that until morning
D.O. concentrations fell below 3.0 mg/L, feed consumption of channel catfish was not affected. Catfish
fingerlings averaging 37 g grew to 0.77 kg in one season when managed with high morning D.O, while fish
maintained at 1.6 mg/L ate 45% less and grew to only
0.54 kg. Within the typical D.O. range examined, feed
conversion was not directly affected by morning D.O.
concentration.
Since feed represents the single greatest cost in channel catfish production in the United States, the feed-conversion ratio
(FCR) is the most common indicator of catfish production efficiency. Feed conversion is affected by many variables in addition
to feed quality, including disease losses, bird predation, feeding
practices and cropping system.
Many farmers and scientists also believe that feed conversion
is affected by the dissolved oxygen (D.O.) concentrations of culture water, but convincing data has been lacking to date.
Research by the author examined the impacts of dissolved-oxygen levels on channel catfish feed consumption, growth and
FCR.
Feed Consumed (% of control)
Mechanical aeration generates water currents that can erode pond embankments
and bottoms. Sediments sometimes mound in the center of heavily aerated ponds.
At higher aeration rates, some type of
liner should be installed to protect earthwork from aerator-generated currents.
Lining also protects pond bottoms from
erosion caused by culture species that stir
up the bottoms of ponds in search of food
or for building nesting sites.
The most effective approach is to
completely line ponds with plastic membranes, but this method is very expensive
and causes aberrations in water quality. In
particular, the adsorption of phosphorus
from water by soil is prevented by the
liner, and dense phytoplankton blooms
occur. These blooms tend to “bloom and
crash,” making the pond environment
unfavorable for aquaculture. Of course,
completely lined ponds can be used for
heterotrophic, biofloc-based aquaculture,
but most producers have not adopted this
super-intensive culture method.
Partial lining of erosion-vulnerable
areas in ponds with plastic or geofabric is
a cheaper alternative than complete lining
of ponds. There is evidence from recent
research at Auburn University that relatively inexpensive, permeable geofabric
liners allow exchange of phosphorus and
other dissolved and gaseous substances
between bottom soil and water. Such liners can prevent erosion in ponds without
interfering with water quality. However,
several issues – expected service life, a
tendency for the fabric to float and optimum fabric opening size – remain to be
resolved before this material can be recommended for general use.
Erosion prevention in ponds has the
added benefit of reducing concentrations
of suspended solids in water and therefore in pond effluents. Aquaculturists
participating in ecolabel certifications
such as the Best Aquaculture Practices
program may find that an investment in
erosion control can avoid the necessity for
constructing an effluent settling basin for
compliance with a limit on total suspended solids concentration.
100
75
50
25
0
NWAC Catfish
DWRC Catfish
0
1
2
3
4
5
Mean Minimum D.O. Concentration (mg/L)
Figure 1. Effects of minimum dissolved-oxygen concentrations
on channel catfish feed consumption.
35
2
1
The studies consistently demonstrated that until the morning
D.O. concentration fell below 3.0 mg/L, feed consumption of
channel catfish was not affected (Figure 1). Feed consumption
began to decrease as the D.O. concentration dropped to 2.5
mg/L, and then fell off rapidly at lower oxygen levels. At an
average morning D.O. concentration of 1.6 mg/L – the lowest
concentration studied – feed consumption was reduced by 45%.
Hypoxia has been shown to at least partially limit feed consumption in rainbow trout by increasing the production of corticotrophin-releasing factor and urotensin I, which contribute to
stress response and regulate appetite. A similar mechanism has not
yet been demonstrated in channel catfish, but is presumed to exist.
Restricted feeding, whether imposed by farm management or
as a voluntary fish response to low morning D.O. concentrations,
reduces growth rate and can add months or even years to the
production cycle. In one study, channel catfish fingerlings averaging 37 g grew to 0.77 kg in one season when managed with a
high morning D.O. concentration, while catfish maintained at
1.6 mg/L ate 45% less and grew to only 0.54 kg. The smaller fish
would require an additional winter and at least part of another
growing season to reach market size.
Slower growth means that more time is needed to produce a
food fish, and more time in the pond will result in additional mortality. Overall monthly mortality from all causes in commercial
ponds has been estimated at 1 to 2%. Thus, every additional year
in the production cycle could mean an additional 12 to 24% mortality. These fish losses, especially of larger fish that have eaten
more feed, can have a major impact on the farm-level FCR. Fish
3
0
0
2
1
0
0
2
4
6
Mean Minimum D.O. (mg/L)
Figure 2. Feed-conversion ratios of catfish in 0.4-ha ponds,
June through September.
4
6
Figure 3. Feed-conversion ratios of catfish in 0.1-ha ponds,
June through September.
also feed more aggressively with higher morning D.O. concentrations. This makes it easier to feed them without wasting feed.
Effects On FCR
Aside from the effects of low D.O. concentration on feed
intake, which affects growth, time to harvest, total mortality and
ultimately FCR, can D.O. levels directly impact FCR? The
answer from our research is no – and yes.
Channel catfish FCRs from individual ponds in multiple
studies at DWRC and NWAC maintained at different morning
D.O. concentrations are shown in Figures 2 and 3. While the
FCRs differed slightly between the two facilities, the data indicated that within the D.O. range examined, FCR was not
directly affected by morning D.O. concentration. The catfish
converted feed to flesh at roughly the same efficiency at D.O.
concentrations ranging 1.6-5.0 mg/L.
However, evidence indicated that morning D.O. concentrations lower than those that occurred in the studies could have a
direct negative impact on FCR. It is not unusual to see commercial ponds with D.O. concentrations dropping to 1.0 mg/L or
even lower. At these extremely low levels, fish are typically seen
near the water surface in the aerator outflow, and even bunched
up around the ends and inflow side of the aerators.
Feed intake is likely reduced by over 70% under these conditions. Nutritional studies have shown that when feed intake is
restricted to approximately 1% body weight daily for fingerlings
and slightly lower for larger fish, FCRs do get higher. This is not
due to poor digestion or assimilation of feed, but simply because
a larger proportion of feed intake is used for maintenance, and
less is available for growth.
Perspectives
2
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Mean Minimum D.O. (mg/L)
Effects On Growth
Feed-Conversion Ratio
Feed-Conversion Ratio
Two facilities were used to conduct the studies – six 0.1-ha
ponds at the Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture
Center (NWAC) in Stoneville, Mississippi, USA, as well as 15,
0.4-ha ponds at the Delta Western Research Center (DWRC) in
Indianola, Mississippi.
Fish in all studies were fed to apparent satiation every two to
three days in the spring, when water temperatures were low, and
once daily after the pond temperatures reached 25° C. Ponds
were harvested in the fall. High aeration capacities of 12.5-15.0
hp/ha were used so desired minimum D.O. concentrations could
be maintained through the growing season. The lowest concentrations studied were higher than those at which catfish show a
visible stress response.
36
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In summary, FCRs can be improved through oxygen management in two different ways. Poor FCRs may be due directly to
extremely low D.O. concentrations, which can limit feed intake to
near-maintenance levels. In those cases, FCRs can be immediately
improved by raising the minimum D.O. concentration.
Once morning D.O. concentrations reach 1-2 mg/L, FCRs
are not directly improved by further increases in morning D.O.,
but catfish will consume more feed and grow faster up to a morning concentration of approximately 3 mg/L. This faster growth
will result in a shorter two-year production cycle for channel catfish, less overall mortality and improved feed conversion. This may
be the best practical method for improving catfish FCRs.
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37
global aquaculture advocate January/February 2011
production
Nitrifying Biofilms Critical For Water
Quality In Intensive Shrimp RAS
Carolyn M. Holl, Ph.D.
Oceanic Institute
41-202 Kalaniana’ole Highway
Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 USA
choll@oceanicinstitute.org
Clete Otoshi
Submerged microscope slides were colonized by the RAS
microbial community.
Oceanic Institute
Catherine R. Unabia, Ph.D.
Hawaii Pacific University
Kaneohe, Hawaii, USA
The Oceanic Institute in Hawaii, USA, uses RAS systems for the high-intensity
production of Litopenaeus vannamei.
Summary:
Nitrifying bacteria readily form biofilms on surfaces, and
colonization by these important bacteria on the interior
walls of RAS production units likely provides an additional source of nitrification. To investigate this, the
authors submerged microscope slides in the RAS water
column to allow the formation of biofilms. The potential
ammonia oxidation by biofilms appears to be more than
enough to account for nitrate accumulation over time.
The use of recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for
shrimp represents a major paradigm shift from current methods
that rely on open, coastal ponds and flow-through water
exchange to maintain water quality. RAS rely on the biogeochemical capabilities of the in situ microbial community to provide acceptable water quality for the target species.
In super-intensive RAS where little to no water is exchanged,
nitrification and uptake of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN)
by phytoplankton are critical for the detoxification and removal
of ammonia and nitrite. However, interrelationships among various functional groups within the microbial community are complex and poorly understood.
Because of this complexity, optimal microbial community
nitrogen cycle functions have not been well characterized for
38
RAS. Critical control variables that promote high rates of ammonium oxidation,
nitrite oxidation and phytoplankton DIN
have yet to be elucidated for super-intensive aquaculture. A clear understanding of
these control variables and their implementation in RAS management strategies
will be highly effective in promoting
shrimp growth and survival under environmentally sound conditions.
Oceanic Institute Study
With the support of the U.S. Marine
Shrimp Farming Program and the Hawaii
Pacific University Trustees Scholarly Endeavors Program, scientists at the Oceanic Institute have measured ammonia removal and
oxidation rates in water column samples over the course of several
shrimp production trials in super-intensive RAS.
Results indicated that the ammonia oxidation in water column samples ranged from 0.92 to 2.60 μmole/L/hour for a mean
of 1.7 ± 3.4 μmole/L/hour. This rate exhibited little variation
after the initial acclimation period.
However, nitrogen budget analysis based on the production
and accumulation of nitrate, the end product of nitrification,
suggested that ammonia oxidation in the water column at these
rates cannot account for the accumulation of nitrate over time.
Therefore, nitrification must be occurring in locations other than
on water column particles. Nitrifying bacteria readily form biofilms on surfaces, and colonization by these important bacteria
on the interior walls of the RAS production unit likely provided
an additional source of nitrification.
To investigate this, the authors submerged microscope slides
in the RAS water column to allow the formation of biofilms.
The time points encompassed the initial acclimation period as
well as after ammonia and nitrite concentrations became stable.
Because full nitrification of ammonia to nitrate is critical to RAS
water quality, these time points allowed researchers to ascertain
the arrival and proximity of ammonia and nitrite oxidizers to
each other in space and time.
These filmed slides were subsequently exposed to 15N-ammo-
nia or 15N-nitrite during three-hour incubations. Changes in the
concentration of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate were measured, and
uptake of the 15N label into the biofilm itself was measured to
quantify phytoplankton and heterotrophic uptake. The authors
also conducted fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) assays and
extracted DNA from the biofilm samples to determine key groups
of nitrifying organisms and relate them to the measured nitrification rates.
Results
Interestingly, the first incubation on day 5 indicated not oxidation, but production of both ammonia and nitrite over the
course of the three-hour incubation. However, volumetric rates
of ammonium oxidation by biofilms in all subsequent incubations ranged from 0.18 to 1.7 μmole/L/hour with a mean of 0.88
± 0.69 μmole/L/hour over the entire course of the shrimp growout.
The mean volumetric rate of biofilm nitrite oxidation ranged
from 0.16 to 1.8 μmole/L/hour with a mean of 0.71 ± 0.77 over
the course of the growout. Therefore, mean volumetric rates of
ammonia oxidation by biofilms were not significantly different
from rates measured in water column particles. Similar volumetric rates may reflect the fact that both the 15NH3 amendment at
10 μmole/L and the incubation conditions were held constant
for both water column and biofilm incubations, and may well
reflect potential, rather than actual rates of oxidation on any
given day.
Despite the similarity in volumetric rate measurements, when
the rate of ammonia oxidation by a biofilm colonizing 34-cm2 slide
was scaled up to the surface area of the interior RAS walls, 24 m2,
ammonia oxidation would be nearly 60 times the rate of the water
column particles.
This is likely an overestimation, as this calculation assumes
that the entire surface area of the RAS is uniformly covered by
the biofilm and that the entire surface area will oxidize ammonia
at the same rate. However, potential ammonia oxidation by biofilms appears to be more than enough to account for nitrate
accumulation over time and allows us to close the nitrogen budget for RAS.
FISH analyses on disaggregated biofilm samples indicated
the quantifiable presence of ammonium-oxidizing
β-proteobacteria, nitrite-oxidizing bacteria from the genus Nitrospira and bacteria of the order Planctomycetales. The latter contains the anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria. These groups
were present throughout the growout trial after the first incubation on day 5.
Ongoing DNA extractions as informed by the FISH analyses
indicate the presence of a highly diverse suite of ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria and Archaea. Taxon-specific primers, which indicate the
presence of potential ammonia- or nitrite-oxidizing organisms, were
positive for ß-proteobacteria Nitrosomonas or Nitrosospina,
Nitrobacter, Nitrospina, bacteria of the order Planctomycetales and
of the phylum Nitrospira, and Group 1 Archaea. All of these bacteria and Archaea were present in biofilm samples as early as four
weeks into the shrimp growout.
The authors have also used enzyme-specific primers that
explicitly indicate the presence of the gene that codes for the
enzyme ammonia mono-oxygenase, which catalyzes the oxidation
of ammonia to nitrite, the first step in nitrification. Polymerase
chain reaction test results indicated that this gene was present
three weeks into the growout for ß-proteobacters and Group 1
Archaea, and four weeks into the growout for these two groups as
well as the ß-proteobacter Nitrosococcus.
Perspectives
Clearly, there is great diversity in the ammonia oxidation
pathway in naturally occurring biofilms in recirculating aquaculture systems, which denotes functional redundancy of nitrification and ammonia oxidation, in particular, and demonstrates the
potential resiliency of the microbial nitrifying pathway. Genetic
diversity combined with elevated rates of nitrification illustrate
the critical importance of biofilms for water quality remediation
in super-intensive shrimp RAS.
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39
Dustin R. Moss, M.S.
Oceanic Institute
41-202 Kalanianaole Highway
Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 USA
dmoss@oceanicinstitute.org
Steve M. Arce
Clete A. Otoshi
Shaun M. Moss, Ph.D.
Oceanic Institute
which the decision to cull or select a particular family is based on the phenotypic
performance of the shrimp in a TSV
challenge. Unexposed, SPF siblings from
the best-surviving families are then used
to propagate the next generation.
The use of TSV-resistant stocks of L. vannamei is common in most shrimp-farming areas.
Summary:
In response to Taura syndrome
virus outbreaks, the U.S. Marine
Shrimp Farming Program,
through the Oceanic Institute, initiated a selective-breeding program
to improve TSV resistance in L.
vannamei. Rapid improvements in
TSV resistance of 10-20%/generation were achieved during the first
years of selection. After 15 generations of selection, recent cohorts
have exhibited over 80% survival to
multiple isolates of TSV. These
results suggested that isolate-specific shrimp lines do not need
to be developed.
Taura syndrome, caused by Taura
syndrome virus (TSV), is an economically
important disease of Pacific white
shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. TSV was
first identified in Ecuador in 1992 and
has since spread to the major shrimpfarming regions of the Americas and
Asia. Initial outbreaks of TSV in the
United States occurred in Hawaii and
Florida in 1994, followed by an outbreak
in Texas in 1995.
Pond mortality during early TSV out-
40
breaks ranged from 40 to 95% in unselected populations of L. vannamei. The
value of TSV-associated crop losses in
the Americas between 1992 and 1995
was estimated at over U.S. $1 billion.
While no more current published estimates of TSV-associated losses are available, frequent outbreaks throughout the
Americas since 1995 and the spread of
TSV to Asia have undoubtedly had an
enormous economic impact on the
shrimp-farming industry.
Selection For TSV Resistance
In response to TSV outbreaks in the
United States, the U.S. Marine Shrimp
Farming Program (USMSFP), with
funding from the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, initiated a selective breeding
program to improve TSV resistance in L.
vannamei. The USMSFP breeding program is operated by the Oceanic Institute
and relies exclusively on specific pathogenfree (SPF) shrimp stocks.
Selection for TSV resistance began in
1995, and each year one or two cohorts of
50 to 80 full-sib families have been evaluated in oral TSV challenges conducted at
two USMSFP member institutions, University of Arizona and Gulf Coast
Research Laboratory. The breeding program uses a sib-selection strategy in
Genetic Gain
Heritability for TSV resistance is low
to moderate. Estimates from Oceanic
Institute studies have typically been
below 0.2, which is in agreement with
published estimates for L. vannamei.
Despite a low to moderate heritability,
rapid improvement in TSV resistance has
been made through selection, as evidenced by selection responses of 10-20%/
generation (expressed as the relative
increase in shrimp survival when challenged with TSV) during the first several
years of selection.
The ability to improve TSV resistance
is attributed to high phenotypic/genotypic
variation for TSV survival. Having a wide
range of family survivals in each cohort
allows for a large selection differential and
intense selection, which have resulted in
higher than expected selection responses.
However, as selection has progressed,
the magnitude of variation for TSV survival has declined. For example, whereas
mean family survival increased from 44 to
84% over five generations of selection,
the coefficient of variation for TSV survival decreased from 43.3 to 13.6% (Figures 1 and 2).
To date, 15 generations of selection
have been completed, and recent cohorts
have exhibited over 80% survival to multiple isolates of TSV, including a highly
virulent isolate from Belize. In addition,
several families per cohort typically
100
80
Survival (%)
Shrimp Breeding For Resistance
To Taura Syndrome Virus
exhibit 100% survival.
Since a high level of TSV resistance
has been established in the breeding population, and only incremental improvements in survival are achievable at this
point, selection efforts have shifted to
maintaining TSV resistance while placing
more emphasis on other economically
important traits such as growth and growout survival.
60
Mean Family Survival
40
20
Genetic Correlations
0
Early in the breeding program, there
was concern about a negative correlation
between TSV resistance and growth.
However, over the last several generations, phenotypic correlations between
these traits typically have been low and
have fluctuated from slightly positive to
slightly negative (Table 1). Similar correlations between TSV survival and growout survival have been found.
If there is a true negative genetic correlation between TSV survival and growout survival, it is likely weak and would
not substantially hinder simultaneous
genetic improvement for both traits. In
fact, stocks selected for TSV resistance
exhibit good growth and survival at Oceanic Institute. A recent cohort of 1.7-g
TSV-resistant shrimp was evaluated for
growout performance at a stocking density of 363 shrimp/m2 in a recirculating
raceway system. After 69 days of culture,
the mean family harvest weight, weekly
growth and survival were 19.3 g, 1.8 g
and 87%, respectively.
Over 30 genetically distinct TSV isolates have been identified, and USMSFP
stocks have been exposed to several of
these isolates in challenges. Although
mean cohort survival can differ among
isolates, genetic correlations for survival
to specific isolates have been high (> 0.7).
These results suggest that isolate-specific
shrimp lines do not need to be developed.
USMSFP stocks also have been challenged with white spot syndrome virus
Shrimp Families
Figure 1. Phenotypic variation for TSV survival after two generations of selection.
100
Mean Family Survival
80
Survival (%)
production
60
40
20
0
Shrimp Families
Figure 2. Phenotypic variation for TSV survival after seven generations of selection.
(WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV), and
infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV).
Selection efforts to improve TSV resistance have not resulted in enhanced resistance to these other viral pathogens.
There appears to be little phenotypic
variation in survival to WSSV and YHV,
as most families exhibited 100% mortality
in oral challenges. Results from a recent
IMNV injection challenge suggested
there may be sufficient family variation to
allow for selection. However, the phenotypic correlation between IMNV and
TSV survival was low.
Inbreeding
Oceanic Institute researchers con-
Table 1. Phenotypic correlations between TSV survival
and growout traits for cohorts evaluated between 2002 and 2010.
Cohort
Growth (g)
Growout Survival (%)
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
-0.08
-0.06 to 0.11
-0.13 to 0.17
-0.13
0.15
0.02
-0.15 to -0.07
-0.50
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.08
-0.18
-0.10 to 0.09
-0.04 to 0.33
0.40
0
0.18
-0.13 to -0.05
-0.20
0.08
0.14
-0.15
-0.08
ducted a multiple-generation analysis of
TSV-challenge data which revealed that
inbreeding has moderate to severe effects
on TSV survival. In addition, the magnitude of inbreeding depression (IBD) may
be dependent on TSV virulence. Specifically, IBD estimates for Hawaii and
Texas isolates of TSV were -8.3 and
-11.1%, expressed as the percent change
in phenotype per 10% inbreeding, respectively. However, IBD for a more virulent
Belize isolate was -31.4%.
Industry Impacts
Oceanic Institute periodically distributes TSV-resistant germplasm from the
USMSFP breeding program to U.S.
industry stakeholders. This germplasm
typically has been in the form of postlarvae of the best-performing families from
the previous generation. Over the last
seven years, about 700,000 shrimp have
been distributed to U.S. farmers and
broodstock suppliers, along with a small
number of shrimp distributed to U.S.
research institutions. Descendants of
TSV-resistant stocks have been shipped
worldwide by U.S. broodstock suppliers,
and the use of TSV-resistant stocks of L.
vannamei is now common in most
shrimp-farming areas of the world.
41
production
Maricultura del Pacífico’s breeding program keeps strict control on the pedigree of every animal, which helps keep inbreeding in the genetic
nucleus population at a minimum.
Inbreeding Affects Growth, Survival,
Reproduction Of White Shrimp
Dr. Gabriel R. Campos-Montes
Maricultura del Pacífico S.A. de C.V.
Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México
Dr. Héctor Castillo-Juárez
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana – Xochimilco
México City, Mexico
mejoracamaron@gmail.com
Dr. Hugo H. Montaldo
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
México City, México
Summary:
Inbreeding within breeding programs can affect the
growout performance and reproductive functions of
shrimp. The Maricultura del Pacífico hatchery in
Mexico uses two-stage selection that controls the pedigree of every animal to minimize inbreeding. Its testing
found no adverse effects of inbreeding on body weight,
survival and number of eggs per spawn. However, fertilization rate and number of nauplii per high-inbred
female were lower than those for a control line.
Increasing economic efficiency in aquaculture production
systems relies on continuous improvement and the use of breeding programs. This is why most large shrimp hatcheries develop
breeding programs oriented to increase growth traits, survival
and/or disease resistance. However, in the long run, these programs increase inbreeding in the genetic nucleus populations of
these hatcheries.
Inbreeding causes a reduction in genetic variation, compromises responses to selection in future generations and can end up
42
depressing animal growth, survival and reproductive performance. Given the high shrimp prolificacy, breeding programs
usually include a rather limited number of selected progenitors,
which increases the likelihood of mating related animals.
group of 70 families with an average inbreeding coefficient of
1.5%.
Preliminary results showed no adverse effects of inbreeding
on body weight at 130 days of age, survival from 70 to 130 days
of age and the number of eggs per spawn. However, the fertilization rate and number of nauplii yielded per high-inbred female
were lower than those observed in the control line (Table 1).
Although growth and survival did not seem to be affected
within the range of the studied inbreeding levels, it is noteworthy that the shrimp under study grew only under one set of environmental condition. In the next stages of this experiment,
inbred animals will be grown and evaluated under several of
Mexico’s typical commercial farm conditions.
Although the negative effect observed on the reproductive
traits does not affect shrimp farms in a direct manner, the fertility reduction observed in the inbreeding families is very important to shrimp hatcheries. The shrimp industry must be aware of
the inbreeding consequences on reproductive traits, since their
nauplii and postlarvae productions rely on the reproductive efficacy of their commercial lines.
Study results showed no inbreeding effects on shrimp body
weight and survival, but the fertilization rate and number
of nauplii per high-inbred female were lower than those
in the control line.
Table 1. Performance of inbred and non-inbred Pacific white shrimp.
Different letters within columns are statistically different (P < 0.05).
Group
Inbred
Control
Body weight
(g, 130 days)
a
16.8 ± 2.8
16.3 ± 3.3a
Survival
(%, 70-130 days)
a
72.8 ± 10.1
69.4 ± 11.4a
Number of Eggs
(1,000)
a
186.5 ± 91.0
193.2 ± 69.6a
Number
of Nauplii (1,000)
Fertilization (%)
17.0 ± 27.4 a
43.0 ± 72.7 b
27.4 ± 14.9a
72.7 ± 32.5b
Maricultura del Pacífico
The breeding program at Maricultura del Pacífico, the largest shrimp hatchery in Mexico, is designed to increase growth
and survival, and is based on a two-stage selection program. The
first stage is based on growth at 28 days of age and starts with
300 families. The second stage starts with the best 150 families
and considers a selection index for growth at 130 days of age and
survival from 70 to 130 days of age in four different growth environment ponds. The breeding program keeps strict control on
the pedigree of every animal, which helps keep inbreeding in the
genetic nucleus population at a minimum.
The hatchery started operations in 1998, and by 2009, its
pedigree included 2,485 progenitors and more than 175,000 animals. In 2009, the inbreeding in the nucleus population was estimated as 3.1%. Maricultura del Pacífico also has a conservation
line separated from the first one. This line is under selection as
well, but its main objective is to serve as a future source of
genetic variation.
The animal-breeding team is also doing applied research to
improve and evaluate the breeding program in the hatchery.
Studies are examining the use of genetic markers for parental
assignation and to evaluate genetic changes associated with the
breeding program. The potential effects of high inbreeding levels
are under study, too, as well as ways to improve the current artificial insemination practices.
Inbreeding Results
One of the research lines is being used to study the effects of
inbreeding on growth, survival and reproduction. An experiment
was performed to compare 16 high-inbred families with an
inbreeding coefficient ranging from 25 to 33% against a control
43
Aquaculture’s Artemia Addiction
Commercial Alternatives Offer Benefits Over Wild Artemia
Chris Stock
Zeigler Bros., Inc.
P. O. Box 95
Gardners, Pennsylvania 17324 USA
chris.stock@zeiglerfeed.com
Neil Gervais
Zeigler Bros., Inc
Summary:
Artemia have generally replaced
other live feed options for larval
farmed fish and shrimp. As
demand rose, prices for wild
Artemia have risen due to limited
supplies. Rearing Artemia requires
considerable infrastructure, so
researchers are examining Artemia
replacements that can target the
nutritional needs of larvae at each
developmental stage and provide
appropriate particle sizes. They
can also deliver immune-stimulating compounds, probiotics or
other beneficial substances to the
larvae.
Aquaculture faces challenges associated with our modern societies’ dependency on limited natural resources. Perhaps the most widely recognized of these
is the industry’s reliance on fishmeal and
fish oil for use in aquaculture feeds. The
limited supplies of fishmeal and fish oil
from reduction fisheries pose a significant
44
bottleneck to future industry growth.
This has spurred worldwide efforts by
industry, academia and government
groups to find alternatives to allow continued growth of aquaculture without
adversely impacting fisheries. Yet aquaculture has an established and often overlooked dependency on another natural
resource that is arguably under greater
risk of failing to meet future demand.
This fragile and limited resource is brine
shrimp, perhaps better known by its
genus name, Artemia.
Artemia Replace
Other Live Feeds
Rearing shrimp and finfish larvae in
hatchery systems requires very specialized
feeds capable of attracting the interest of
newly hatched animals while providing
their nutritional requirements in a form
that they are capable of ingesting. Early
larval culture feeding techniques evolved
using various kinds of zooplankton to provide larvae with marine proteins and fatty
acids. Nematodes, rotifers and copepods
were all tried as live feed organisms.
Over the last three decades, all of
Moving Forward
The need to innovate and respond to
this challenge is clear. Yet our collective atti-
larval organism at each developmental
stage and provide particle sizes that
match its ingestion capacity. They can
also serve as a delivery mechanism for
immune-stimulating compounds,
probiotics or other beneficial substances
that have positive effects on the entire
culture system. In other words, predictability is enhanced, and risk is reduced.
Artemia Alternatives
The arrival of advanced hatchery diets
designed to reduce dependency on live
feeds remains an ongoing process. Many
hatcheries have successfully decreased their
overall reliance on Artemia in response to
the shortcomings it presents, but very
often Artemia remains a key component of
their feeding regimes.
With any addiction, breaking the
habit is often easier said than done, but a
few pioneering hatcheries have completely eliminated Artemia from their
protocols and improved overall results.
Figure 2 shows data from a shrimp
hatchery’s experience with a commercial
Artemia replacement diet.
Perspectives
4 million
3 million
2 million
1 million
0
World Demand
Great Salt Lake Dry, Processed
Great Salt Lake and Asia, Dry Processed
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Year
2011
There can be little doubt that Artemia
has played a valuable role in advancing
the global hatchery business and aquaculture as a whole. Yet it is critical that the
industry comes to terms with Artemia’s
limitations and continues to work with
academic and industry partners to reduce
the risks and costs of excessive reliance on
this resource. Developing practical and
cost-effective alternatives to Artemia will
surely help aquaculture become a more
sustainable means to feed our planet.
Figure 1. Estimated world supply of and demand for Artemia.
global aquaculture
100
Supply, Demand
Commercial volumes of Artemia cysts
can be sourced from only a few locations
on the planet. The vast majority originate
from the Great Salt Lake in Utah, USA,
which conducts an annual harvest from
October through January. Although it is
well monitored and regulated, yield from
the Great Salt Lake harvest is unpredictable and subject to considerable variation.
Consequently, the aquaculture industry is
exposed to significant fluctuations of supply and pricing.
Various natural phenomena influence
the harvest from the Great Salt Lake,
with changes in salinity related to some
tude need not be one of doom and gloom.
This is certainly an opportunity in disguise.
Supply issues aside, the shortcomings
of Artemia are well known. Hatching and
rearing Artemia requires considerable
resources in terms of infrastructure, labor
and cost. The use of Artemia cysts also
presents challenges to bacterial management and biosecurity that are well known
to hatchery managers. Throw in the challenges posed by culture crashes and the
nutritional variability of Artemia, and at
the end of the day, it is hard to qualify
them as a truly ideal feed.
Researchers and feed companies have
given considerable attention to the
replacement of live feeds. The benefits of
substituting Artemia and other live feeds
with prepared diets are undeniable. The
time, effort and expense associated with
live feed production are gone, while biosecurity and nutritional consistency are
considerably improved.
Prepared diets can more accurately
target the specific nutritional needs of a
5 million
90
Survival (%)
Artemia are a staple food for most hatchery-raised shrimp larvae.
these were completely replaced by
Artemia, except for the earliest stages of
some finfish that still require rotifers and/
or copepods. The fact that Artemia produce cysts that can be stored for extended
periods in a desiccated state and then
hatched at will truly sets them apart from
other live feed alternatives.
Storing, transporting and hatching
Artemia are relatively simple processes,
and initially the prices were attractive.
Not surprisingly, Artemia were quickly
adopted as the standard for hatchery
feeds around the world.
As the global network of shrimp and
finfish hatcheries evolved, they established a dependency on Artemia. Brine
shrimp were considered an essential component to hatchery success, which greatly
bolstered demand.
As the need for hatchery-reared juvenile shrimp and fish to supply worldwide
production grew, so did the appetite for
Artemia cysts. Increasing prices closely
correlated with this expanding market. In
the last decade, demand for processed
cysts doubled, and the price of cysts from
the Great Salt Lake tripled.
of the most dramatic aberrations in production. Lower salinities make harvest
more difficult because of the reduced
buoyancy of the cysts and also impact the
natural food chain upon which Artemia
rely. Changes in the algae populations of
the Great Salt Lake can considerably
limit total Artemia populations, resulting
in a reduced cyst supply.
Worldwide demand for Artemia cysts
continues to rise to levels that could exceed
global supply (Figure 1). Several successive
years of strong harvests in conjunction
with a cyst inventory that has served as a
buffer helped Artemia suppliers deliver just
enough to meet market demands during
the past few years. With cyst inventories
exhausted and a growing global demand
anticipated in 2011, the possibility of a
shortfall in supply may be brought to bear
sooner than expected.
Artemia Volume (lb)
production
80
®
70
60
50
11 days to 11 days to
PL4
PL4
PL4
PL4
Month 1
Month 2
40
Artemia
Artificial Diet
Figure 2. Survival of shrimp postlarvae fed artificial diets or Artemia.
Data based on a 41-tank commercial trial.
Join the world’s
leading
aquaculture
organization.
45
Aquaculture’s Artemia Addiction
Commercial Alternatives Offer Benefits Over Wild Artemia
Chris Stock
Zeigler Bros., Inc.
P. O. Box 95
Gardners, Pennsylvania 17324 USA
chris.stock@zeiglerfeed.com
Neil Gervais
Zeigler Bros., Inc
Summary:
Artemia have generally replaced
other live feed options for larval
farmed fish and shrimp. As
demand rose, prices for wild
Artemia have risen due to limited
supplies. Rearing Artemia requires
considerable infrastructure, so
researchers are examining Artemia
replacements that can target the
nutritional needs of larvae at each
developmental stage and provide
appropriate particle sizes. They
can also deliver immune-stimulating compounds, probiotics or
other beneficial substances to the
larvae.
Aquaculture faces challenges associated with our modern societies’ dependency on limited natural resources. Perhaps the most widely recognized of these
is the industry’s reliance on fishmeal and
fish oil for use in aquaculture feeds. The
limited supplies of fishmeal and fish oil
from reduction fisheries pose a significant
44
bottleneck to future industry growth.
This has spurred worldwide efforts by
industry, academia and government
groups to find alternatives to allow continued growth of aquaculture without
adversely impacting fisheries. Yet aquaculture has an established and often overlooked dependency on another natural
resource that is arguably under greater
risk of failing to meet future demand.
This fragile and limited resource is brine
shrimp, perhaps better known by its
genus name, Artemia.
Artemia Replace
Other Live Feeds
Rearing shrimp and finfish larvae in
hatchery systems requires very specialized
feeds capable of attracting the interest of
newly hatched animals while providing
their nutritional requirements in a form
that they are capable of ingesting. Early
larval culture feeding techniques evolved
using various kinds of zooplankton to provide larvae with marine proteins and fatty
acids. Nematodes, rotifers and copepods
were all tried as live feed organisms.
Over the last three decades, all of
Moving Forward
The need to innovate and respond to
this challenge is clear. Yet our collective atti-
larval organism at each developmental
stage and provide particle sizes that
match its ingestion capacity. They can
also serve as a delivery mechanism for
immune-stimulating compounds,
probiotics or other beneficial substances
that have positive effects on the entire
culture system. In other words, predictability is enhanced, and risk is reduced.
Artemia Alternatives
The arrival of advanced hatchery diets
designed to reduce dependency on live
feeds remains an ongoing process. Many
hatcheries have successfully decreased their
overall reliance on Artemia in response to
the shortcomings it presents, but very
often Artemia remains a key component of
their feeding regimes.
With any addiction, breaking the
habit is often easier said than done, but a
few pioneering hatcheries have completely eliminated Artemia from their
protocols and improved overall results.
Figure 2 shows data from a shrimp
hatchery’s experience with a commercial
Artemia replacement diet.
Perspectives
4 million
3 million
2 million
1 million
0
World Demand
Great Salt Lake Dry, Processed
Great Salt Lake and Asia, Dry Processed
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Year
2011
There can be little doubt that Artemia
has played a valuable role in advancing
the global hatchery business and aquaculture as a whole. Yet it is critical that the
industry comes to terms with Artemia’s
limitations and continues to work with
academic and industry partners to reduce
the risks and costs of excessive reliance on
this resource. Developing practical and
cost-effective alternatives to Artemia will
surely help aquaculture become a more
sustainable means to feed our planet.
Figure 1. Estimated world supply of and demand for Artemia.
global aquaculture
100
Supply, Demand
Commercial volumes of Artemia cysts
can be sourced from only a few locations
on the planet. The vast majority originate
from the Great Salt Lake in Utah, USA,
which conducts an annual harvest from
October through January. Although it is
well monitored and regulated, yield from
the Great Salt Lake harvest is unpredictable and subject to considerable variation.
Consequently, the aquaculture industry is
exposed to significant fluctuations of supply and pricing.
Various natural phenomena influence
the harvest from the Great Salt Lake,
with changes in salinity related to some
tude need not be one of doom and gloom.
This is certainly an opportunity in disguise.
Supply issues aside, the shortcomings
of Artemia are well known. Hatching and
rearing Artemia requires considerable
resources in terms of infrastructure, labor
and cost. The use of Artemia cysts also
presents challenges to bacterial management and biosecurity that are well known
to hatchery managers. Throw in the challenges posed by culture crashes and the
nutritional variability of Artemia, and at
the end of the day, it is hard to qualify
them as a truly ideal feed.
Researchers and feed companies have
given considerable attention to the
replacement of live feeds. The benefits of
substituting Artemia and other live feeds
with prepared diets are undeniable. The
time, effort and expense associated with
live feed production are gone, while biosecurity and nutritional consistency are
considerably improved.
Prepared diets can more accurately
target the specific nutritional needs of a
5 million
90
Survival (%)
Artemia are a staple food for most hatchery-raised shrimp larvae.
these were completely replaced by
Artemia, except for the earliest stages of
some finfish that still require rotifers and/
or copepods. The fact that Artemia produce cysts that can be stored for extended
periods in a desiccated state and then
hatched at will truly sets them apart from
other live feed alternatives.
Storing, transporting and hatching
Artemia are relatively simple processes,
and initially the prices were attractive.
Not surprisingly, Artemia were quickly
adopted as the standard for hatchery
feeds around the world.
As the global network of shrimp and
finfish hatcheries evolved, they established a dependency on Artemia. Brine
shrimp were considered an essential component to hatchery success, which greatly
bolstered demand.
As the need for hatchery-reared juvenile shrimp and fish to supply worldwide
production grew, so did the appetite for
Artemia cysts. Increasing prices closely
correlated with this expanding market. In
the last decade, demand for processed
cysts doubled, and the price of cysts from
the Great Salt Lake tripled.
of the most dramatic aberrations in production. Lower salinities make harvest
more difficult because of the reduced
buoyancy of the cysts and also impact the
natural food chain upon which Artemia
rely. Changes in the algae populations of
the Great Salt Lake can considerably
limit total Artemia populations, resulting
in a reduced cyst supply.
Worldwide demand for Artemia cysts
continues to rise to levels that could exceed
global supply (Figure 1). Several successive
years of strong harvests in conjunction
with a cyst inventory that has served as a
buffer helped Artemia suppliers deliver just
enough to meet market demands during
the past few years. With cyst inventories
exhausted and a growing global demand
anticipated in 2011, the possibility of a
shortfall in supply may be brought to bear
sooner than expected.
Artemia Volume (lb)
production
80
®
70
60
50
PL4
PL4
PL4
PL4
Month 1
Month 2
40
Artemia
Artificial Diet
Figure 2. Survival of shrimp postlarvae fed artificial diets or Artemia.
Data based on a 41-tank commercial trial.
Join the world’s
leading
aquaculture
organization.
45
production
New Bacillus Probiotic
Tested For Shrimp
Diego Moreira de Souza
Laboratório de Maricultura
Instituto de Oceanografia
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande
C.P. 474, Rio Grande R.S.
96201-900 Brasil
Sabrina Medeiros Suita
Dr. Wilson Wasielesky, Jr.
Laboratório de Maricultura
Instituto de Oceanografia
Fabio Pereira Leivas Leite
The authors evaluated
a potential probiotic
bacteria during the
nursery rearing
of pink shrimp
in a zero-exchange
culture system. Photo
by Luciano Jensen.
Summary:
With the increasing intensification of aquaculture production,
disease problems caused by bacterial pathogens have emerged. The
authors evaluated the potential
probiotic bacteria Bacillus cereus
var. toyoi during the nursery rearing of pink shrimp and found it
controlled Vibrio concentrations
as well as a commercial probiotic.
Mean final weight and specific
growth rate of the shrimp were
similar for the Bacillus probiotic
and commercial product treatments, and higher than in a treatment with no probiotic.
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing
food-producing sector in the world, with an
average annual growth rate of 8.9% since
1970. Marine shrimp culture is the main
economic activity developed in this field.
With the increasing intensification
and commercialization of aquaculture
production, disease problems inevitably
46
emerged that are mainly caused by bacterial pathogens of the genus Vibrio, which
affect shrimp survival and growth. These
opportunistic microorganisms are part of
the flora of penaeid shrimp, and may
cause illnesses under unfavorable environmental conditions.
The wide use of antimicrobial drugs,
pesticides and disinfectants in aquaculture has caused the evolution of resistant
strains of bacteria, so defining alternative
strategies to support aquaculture productivity is extremely necessary.
Probiotics
Among the alternatives proposed, the
use of probiotics has shown promising
results and is now widely accepted as a
complementary tool for the management
of disease and improving nutrition of
aquatic animals. Probiotics are also cited
as an alternative to antimicrobial drugs,
enhancing the growth and disease resistance of cultured shrimp, as well as
improving their immunosystem responses
and general welfare.
Studies have reported the development of intensive shrimp culture systems
Laboratório de Microbiologia
Universidade Federal de Pelotas
Luis Alberto Romano
Laboratório de Histologia e Imunologia
Dr. Eduardo Luis
Cupertino Ballester
Laboratório de Carcinicultura
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Palotina, Brasil
without water exchange as a way to
improve biosecurity and reduce environmental impacts. However, little information is available regarding the use of
probiotics in these systems.
The authors evaluated the use of a
commercial probiotic and the newly isolated potential probiotic bacteria Bacillus
cereus var. toyoi during the nursery rearing
of pink shrimp, Farfantepenaeus brasilien
sis, in a zero-exchange, aerobic, hetero–
trophic culture system.
vidually counted to determine survival
and weighed to determine mean final
weight and specific growth rate.
Throughout the experimental period,
water temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen were measured every day.
Water samples were collected every two
days to evaluate the water quality parameters. For bacteriological analysis, the concentration of presumptive Vibrio species
was followed every three days in each tank
according to the spread plate technique.
Results
The mean final weight and specific
growth rate of the shrimp were significantly higher in the probiotic treatments
(Table 1). The water quality parameters
monitored during the experiment
remained at concentrations suitable for
shrimp culture, and no significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed among
treatments (Table 2). The bacteriological
analysis showed that probiotic treatments
maintained the concentration of Vibrio
species lower than the control group.
The study demonstrated that Bacillus
cereus var. toyoi is a potentially probiotic
microorganism for aquaculture use. It
Table 1. Mean survival, final weight and specific growth rate
of shrimp reared in different probiotic treatments. Different
superscript letters indicate significant differences ( P = 0.05).
Treatment
Survival
Final
Weight
Specific Growth
Rate
Commercial Bacillus species mixture
Bacillus cereus var. toyoi
Control
91.65 ± 11.02a
81.90 ± 13.4a
88.86 ± 6.36a
1.42 ± 0.40a
1.34 ± 0.36a
1.22 ± 0.38b
0.036 ± 0.007ª
0.034 ± 0.004a
0.030 ± 0.003b
Different superscript letters indicate significant differences ( P = 0.05).
Table 2. Mean values of water quality parameters during
the experimental period. No significant differences
(P > 0.05) were observed among treatments.
Parameter
Control
Bacillus cereus
var. toyoi
Commercial
Probiotic
Temperature (° C)
pH
Salinity (g/L-)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
Total suspended solids (mg/L)
Alkalinity (mg/L)
Total ammonia nitrogen (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Phosphate (mg/L)
Clorophyll α (µg/L)
26.70 ± 0.25
8.10 ± 0.006
31.47 ± 0.23
6.11 ± 0.01
538.09 ± 444.70
184.16 ± 12.40
0.92 ± 1.48
3.65 ± 3.11
3.27 ± 1.32
49.78 ± 36.51
26.50 ± 0.10
8.08 ± 0.03
32.34 ± 0.40
6.14 ± 0.02
635.66 ± 485.29
183.33 ± 28.15
1.25 ± 1.89
4.11 ± 3.21
4.78 ± 2.19
48.56 ± 39.78
26.40 ± 0.25
8.10 ± 0.02
31.58 ± 0.12
6.19 ± 0.07
618.56 ± 453.40
172.08 ± 15.73
0.91 ± 1.55
4.31 ± 3.54
3.60 ± 1.80
61.41 ± 60.75
increased shrimp performance even in a
heterotrophic environment and also presented results similar to those of the commercial product.
It’s Not Fast Food — It’s Great Food Fast!
Study Setup
The authors conducted the experiment at the Universidade Federal do Rio
Grande Marine Aquaculture Station.
Three replicate tanks were randomly
assigned and stocked at a density equivalent to 150 shrimp/m2 with the following
probiotic treatments: a commercial Bacil
lus species mixture, Bacillus cereus var.
toyoi and a control treatment without
probiotics.
Commercial probiotics were added
daily following manufacturers’ recommendations. Bacillus cereus var. toyoi was
added to reach an equivalent concentration of the commercial product.
Shrimp were fed twice daily via a specially designed feeding tray. The initial
feeding rate was 15% of total tank biomass, adjusted daily according to shrimp
consumption. At the end of the trial,
shrimp remaining in each tank were indi-
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47
production
Shrimp were fed daily in the morning and late afternoon following a predetermined feeding protocol. During the first four
weeks of pond culture, the shrimp received 10, 15, 30 and 60 kg
feed/ha daily. Thereafter, feed amounts were calculated based on
an expected weekly weight gain of 1.5 g, a feed-conversion ratio
(FCR) of 1.2:1 and expected mortality of 1.8%/week from stocking to harvest for approximately 70% survival.
During the initial two weeks of pond culture, a commercial
shrimp diet with 35% protein and 8% lipid was fed. The experimental diets were fed starting the third week of the growout
phase, when shrimp had reached an average weight of 2.3 g.
Maximum daily feeding rates were set at 71.0 kg feed/ha during
the fifth week. Harvest took place after 115 days of pond culture.
Plant, Poultry By-Product Proteins
Tested in Shrimp Diets
Justin C. Markey
E. A. Amaya
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Tank Trial
D. Allen Davis, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures
203 Swingle Hall, Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849-5419 USA
davisda@auburn.edu
and low levels of squid meal in feeds formulated for Litopenaeus
vannamei.
Pond Study
Tests in ponds and tanks found that in well-formulated commercial feeds, poultry by-product meal can be successfully
replaced with soybean and corn gluten meals as the primary protein sources without affecting the productivity of L. vannamei.
Summary:
A study examined the replacement of poultry by-product
meal with plant proteins and low levels of squid meal
in shrimp feeds. Production results for shrimp raised in
ponds showed no significant difference in final weight,
yield, FCR and survival among the four treatments with
varied levels of poultry meal. Shrimp raised in tanks had
similar results with no significant performance differences.
The reference diet resulted in larger shrimp, but overall
yields were equivalent.
Given that feeds typically contribute 40 to 60% of the production cost of intensely reared shrimp, reducing the investment
in feeds without compromising production output is a critical
tool to reduce costs. One mechanism to reduce feed expenditures
is reducing the cost of protein sources. In recent years, the
replacement of fishmeal in diets has been gaining momentum
due to increased demand and limited supply, which are driving
up the cost of feed.
The idea of replacing fishmeal with animal by-product
meals, such as meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal
and poultry by-product meal in practical diets for Pacific white
shrimp has been widely investigated. Replacing animal protein
meals with plant proteins in well-formulated diets can reduce
dependence on the animal protein industry and provide alternative choices when formulating feeds.
Studies by the authors examined the replacement of poultry
by-product meal using a combination of plant protein sources
48
In the demonstration, conducted at the Claude Peteet Mariculture Center in Gulf Shores, Alabama, USA, two growth trials
were conducted in parallel utilizing 0.1-ha production ponds and
800-L outdoor tanks. Four diets were commercially formulated
to contain 35% protein, 8% lipid and varying levels (15, 10, 5,
0%) of poultry by-product meal replaced by a combination of
solvent-extracted soybean meal, distillers grain soluble and a low
level of squid meal (Table 1). A commercial reference diet with
35% protein and 8% lipid was utilized as a reference in the outdoor tank system.
L. vannamei postlarvae were obtained from a commercial
hatchery in Florida, USA. At the conclusion of a 21-day nursery
phase, juveniles were pooled and stocked into 16, 0.1-ha growout ponds at a density of 34 shrimp/m2. Culture water was only
exchanged to stimulate phytoplankton regrowth after an algae
dieoff or to top off ponds due to evaporation. To maintain minimal dissolved-oxygen levels greater than 2.5 ppt, each pond was
provided with a base aeration capacity of 10 hp/ha (1 hp/pond)
and additional emergency aeration throughout the growout
phase.
Paralleling the pond trial, an outdoor tank trial was conducted. Juvenile shrimp with a mean weight of 2.32 ± 0.02 g
from the production ponds were stocked at a density of 37.5
shrimp/m2 (30 shrimp/tank). To mimic pond conditions, the
system’s make-up water was exchanged daily with water from
one of the shrimp production ponds, with 100% replacement
every six days.
Four test diets and one commercial 35%-protein, 8%-lipid
diet were offered to shrimp maintained in four replicate tanks
per treatment throughout the 79-day culture period. The volume
of feed offered was calculated using an expected growth of 1.5 g/
week and expected FCR of 1.2:1.
Pond Results
Production results for the pond study demonstrated no significant difference in mean final weight, yield, weekly weight
gain, FCR and survival among the four experimental diets for L.
vannamei (Table 2). Hence, there was no difference in performance as poultry by-product meal was replaced with soybean
meal and distillers grain soluble. The low 0.9 to 1.1 FCR results
were particularly interesting and demonstrated the presence of
natural food and good feed management.
The low FCRs observed in this study are of great interest, as
they lead to reduced feed-related costs. The low values observed
reflect well-managed feeding protocols as well as the ability of
the shrimp to utilize natural food items in a pond setting.
Although studies have estimated the contribution of natural
Ingredient
Soybean meal
Sorghum
Poultry by-product meal
Corn gluten
Distillers grain solubles
Menhaden fish oil
CaP-dibasic
Bentonite
Squid liver
Mold inhibitor
Vitamin/mineral premix
PBM = Poultry by-product meal
15%
PBM
10%
PBM
5%
PBM
0%
PBM
40.85
29.83
15.01
4.84
–
4.72
2.65
1.50
–
0.15
0.45
46.54
25.18
10.01
4.84
3.34
5.09
2.90
1.50
–
0.15
0.45
52.32
19.99
5.00
4.83
6.66
5.47
3.13
1.50
0.50
0.15
0.45
58.02
14.85
–
4.83
10.00
5.82
3.38
1.50
1.00
0.15
0.45
foods ranges from 25 to 47% of the carbon uptake by shrimp,
many farmers encourage higher feed inputs to “load” nutrients
into production ponds in hopes of higher yields. However, overfeeding leads to increased pollution loading of the system, and
the feed inputs must be matched to nutrient requirements.
Tank Results
The pond study results were supported by the tank trial
results, which also had no significant difference among the four
replacement diets. The reference diet did result in larger shrimp,
but overall yields were equivalent. The higher weight may have
been due in part to the reduced survival, which could have led to
enhanced growth due to reduced density.
Regardless of the differences in survival, FCR and mean final
weight of the shrimp given the reference and experimental diets,
the mean final yields in all treatments were not significantly different at around 0.6 kg/tank.
Table 2. Performance of L. vannamei reared in ponds over 17 weeks and fed diets
with varying levels of PBM and plant protein. Value differences are not statistically significant.
Treatment
Table 1. Composition (g/100 g) of practical diets
for L. vannamei used to evaluate the replacement
of animal proteins with plant protein sources.
In the pond testing harvest took place after 115 days
of culture.
Final Weight (g)
Final Yield
(kg shrimp/ha)
Weight Gain
(g/week)
Feed-Conversion
Ratio
Survival
(%)
23.9
22.0
21.9
24.2
0.5605
6,216
6,451
6,093
6,943
0.7901
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.5
0.5605
1.05
1.00
1.09
0.94
0.7272
78.9
82.2
80.1
80.9
0.9337
15% PBM
10% PBM
5% PBM
0% PBM
P value
Table 3. Performance of L. vannamei reared in tanks over 79 days and fed diets
with varying levels of PBM. Value differences are not statistically significant.
Treatment
15% PBM
10% PBM
5% PBM
0% PBM
P value
Initial
Weight (g)
Final
Weight (g)
Final Yield
(kg shrimp/tank)
Weight Gain
(g/week)
Feed-Conversion
Ratios
Survival
(%)
2.30
2.30
2.32
2.32
0.483
19.9
20.3
20.1
20.5
0.465
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.60
0.407
1.56
1.60
1.58
1.61
0.452
1.13
1.11
1.12
1.10
0.588
94.2
94.2
96.7
96.7
0.588
49
production
Gracilaria Cultivation Can Provide
Bioremediation In Chinese Mariculture
Dissolved Oxygen
(mg/L)
16
Dr. Yufeng Yang
Gracilaria seaweed is effective at removing inorganic nutrients from water.
Summary:
Large-scale Gracilaria cultivation can be an effective means
of improving water quality and
promoting a more sustainable
mariculture industry in China.
In tests, the seaweed Gracilaria
lemaneiformis provided several
beneficial functions. It was very
effective in decreasing nitrogen
and phosphorus loadings. The
seaweed was also able to inhibit
the growth of some microalgae
and may increase dissolved oxygen in the water column.
Within China’s mariculture sector,
culture of the red agarophyte, Gracilaria,
has rapidly expanded over the past 10
years. Production of Gracilaria reached
99,451 mt in 2007 and for seaweeds
ranked only behind the kelps Saccharina
and Undaria.
The principal Gracilaria species cultured throughout China is G. lemanei
formis. Growth rates for the seaweed
range up to 13.9%/day in Jiaozhou Bay in
Shandong Province.
G. lemaneiformis is very effective in
50
decreasing nitrogen and phosphorus load
loadings. The seaweed is also able to inhibit
the growth of some microalgae and may
increase dissolved oxygen in the water column. Large-scale Gracilaria cultivation
can be an effective means of improving
water quality and promoting a more sustainable mariculture industry in China.
Bioremediation Benefits
Nanao is an island county of Guangdong Province with a population of about
70,000. Of these, about 5,000 people are
now engaged in the cultivation of Gracilaria.
The area of cultivation rose from 0.06 ha
in 1999 to 800 ha in 2006. The seaweed
provides several beneficial functions.
Biofiltration
The rapid development of the mariculture industry has aroused concerns
about the effects of these activities on the
Chinese coastal environment, which can
include deterioration of water quality and
an increase in contaminants.
Mesocosm experiments demonstrated
that G. lemaneiformis can effectively
remove inorganic nutrients from water.
Concentrations of ammonium nitrogen
decreased by 85.53 and 69.45%, and concentrations of phosphate decreased by
65.97 and 26.74% in the mesocosms with
Gracilaria in comparison to mesocosms
without the seaweed. In 24-hour enclosure experiments, Gracilaria removed
68.44% of ammonium nitrogen, 23.03%
of nitrate nitrogen and 13.04% of nitrite
nitrogen.
The maximum uptake rates of nitrate
nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen and phosphate by G. lichenoides were 55.88, 35.17
and 3.106 umol/g/h, respectively. The
corresponding rates for G. lemaneiformis
were 53.17, 32.24 and 3.064 umol/g/h,
respectively. These studies confirmed that
Gracilaria species are good candidates for
nutrient removal.
Increased D.O. Concentrations
Testing during 17 visits to the Shenao
culture area in Nanao showed that dissolved-oxygen (D.O.) levels were highest
in cages with Gracilaria, second highest
in the surrounding sea water outside the
cages and lowest in cages with fish.
A 12-day experiment found that concentrations of D.O. were always higher in
1-m3 mesocosms with Gracilaria than
those without it (Figure 1). These results
demonstrated that cultivated Gracilaria is
very effective in improving D.O. levels in
mariculture areas.
Decreased Microalgae Densities
The mesocosm experiments also
demonstrated that G. lemameiformis limited microalgae growth. The densities of
phytoplankton increased from 3.017 x
With Gracilaria
10
8
6
4
0
0
3
6
9
12
Days
Figure 1. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations in mesocosms with and without Gracilaria.
120
Phytoplankton Density
(10,000 cells/L)
Department of Ecology
and Evolutionary Biology
University of Connecticut
Stamford, Connecticut, USA
75 North Eagleville Road
Unit 3043
Storrs, Connecticut 06269 USA
charles.yarish@uconn.edu
12
Without Gracilaria
2
College of Life Science
and Technology
Jinan University
Guangzhou, China
Dr. Charles Yarish
14
Without Gracilaria
100
With Gracilaria
80
60
40
20
0
0
3
6
9
12
Days
Figure 2. Phytoplankton densities in mesocosms with and without Gracilaria.
104 to 105.500 x 104 cells/L in the mesocosms without Gracilaria, whereas the
densities increased from 2.387 x 104 to
26.500 x 104 cell/L in those with
Gracilaria. The densities of phytoplankton were always lower in the mesocosms
with Gracilaria (Figure 2).
Other experiments demonstrated that
the fresh thalli of G. lemaneiformis significantly inhibited the growth of selected
microalgae: Prorocentrum donghaiense,
Alexandrium tamarense, Amphidinium
cartera, Scrippsiella trochoide and Chae
totoceros curvisetus.
The results showed that Gracilaria
can suppress growth and decrease densities of these microalgae. Large-scale cultivation of Gracilaria may be an effective
ecological strategy to control harmful
algal blooms in Chinese coastal waters.
Gracilaria cultivation can help control harmful algae blooms.
51
production
Mediterranean Mussel Culture In Greece
Mussels are ready
for the market when
they reach 6 cm
long.
Hanging Park, Long-Line Facilities Near Farm Capacity
J. A. Theodorou, M.S.
52
As a solution to several constraints of
the traditional methods, the long-line
Hanging Park Farms
40,000
Total
30,000
20,000
10,000
2008
2006
2004
0
2002
Young mussels are mounted on freshly
prepared mussel bunches.
Long-Line Farms
50,000
2000
Long-Line Culture
60,000
1988
At first, the farming systems adopted
by the Greek farmers were the traditional
hanging parks cultivation implemented in
soft-bottomed, shallow, highly eutrophic
near-shore waters. The productivity of
such systems is usually very high, ranging
150-400 mt of live mussels/ha. As they
are quite easy to maintain and to handle
production, the systems became very
popular and widely expanded.
Typically, a mussel farm of this technology occupies less than 2 ha and involves
mainly the farmer and his family in its
management. However, farm development
is limited by available space and competition with tourism and urbanization for
suitable sites. Farms also raise questions
regarding their installation in highly
appreciated natural river delta ecosystems.
1986
Historical records show that marine
aquaculture was practiced in Greece as
early as the 5th century B.C., but modern
marine aquaculture in the country started
about 40 years ago. Following the global
trend, it is now a rapidly emerging industry growing faster than any other animal
production sector.
Major species in production are the
euryhaline finfish species seabass and sea
bream, and the Mediterranean mussel,
Traditional Production
1984
Greece’s mussel aquaculture
combines traditional hanging
park culture with newer long-line
methods. The traditional farms
are generally family-run operations located in shallow, nearshore waters. Long-line culture
was introduced for mussel farming to depths over 6 m. Although
mussel productivity at higher
depth is lower, the farms can be
expanded to occupy larger areas.
Further expansion of Greece’s
mussel industry is limited, as few
new licenses are being issued, and
most traditional sites cannot be
expanded.
Farming Capacity (mt/year)
Summary:
Mytilus galloprovincialis. The farming of
the latter was introduced in the 1970s,
but it really boomed as soon as the technological developments of the Italian pioneers in the 1950s were eventually
adopted by the Greek farmers in the
mid-’80s.
Mussels are ready for the market when they reach 6 cm long,
usually at the end of the spring, one year after the harvesting of
the seed from the spat collectors. The majority of the final product is exported live to the Italian, French and Spanish shellfish
markets.
Mussel farming in Greece supports approximately 1,500 fulltime jobs, which reflect mainly self-employment of the mussel
farmers and 500 part-time positions during the peak seasons.
Another 500 people – the majority of them women – work in the
mussel-shucking houses and packing stations.
Although the total production capacity is higher (Figure 1),
annual production volumes indicate that total mussel production
grew quickly after the year 2000 and reached 23,000 mt of product
worth over 10 million euros in 2009. Further expansion of the industry is limited, as few new licenses are being issued, and most of the
traditional sites cannot be expanded further.
In the future, mussel farming may increase the industrialization of its production methods and possibly consolidate to take
advantage of larger-scale economics. Major goals for the future
would be to reduce production costs and establish branding
through the introduction of a quality development scheme and
enhanced marketing.
1976
Typical Greek long-line mussel farms use floating barrels.
floating culture system was introduced for
mussel farming to depths over 6 m, thus
overcoming the space limitation near
shore. The productivity at higher depth is
lower – from 100 to 120 mt/ha – and
requires a boat for access. On the other
hand, the farms can be expanded to
occupy larger surfaces, provided that the
local trophic status can support the necessary growth rates and maintain quality.
A typical long-line farm covers 100 to
120 m, with long ultraviolet-resistant polypropylene ropes set in parallel 10 m apart
and suspended from 200-L buoys, which
are often second-hand plastic barrels. A
Mussel Business
1982
and Aquaculture
Technological Educational Institution
of Epirus
1980
Dr. I. Tzovenis
pair of 3-mt moorings is typically used to anchor the floating installation to the bottom with the whole farm oriented parallel to the direction of the prevailing currents.
Some long-line farms still use a near-shore site as a support
installation for the finishing of the product, spat collection or biofoulant removal by exposing the mussel bunches to the air for a
period.
1978
and Aquaculture
Technological Educational Institution
of Epirus
G.R. 46100 Igoumenitsa, Greece
jtheo@teiep.gr
Figure 1. Production capacity of different farming systems in Greek
mussel mariculture.
53
production
global aquaculture
Sandfish: Profitable Sea Cucumbers
Also Supply Bioremediation
Join the Leaders
of the Global Aquaculture
Industry for:
M. T. Castaños
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
Aquaculture Department
Tigbauan, Iloilo 5021 Philippines
aqdchief@seafdec.org.ph
R. H. Ledesma
K. G. Corre
E. G. de Jesus-Ayson
News and
Technology
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
Sandfish Technologies
Sandfish can play a unique role in fish farming by providing
bioremediation in earthen ponds or marine cages. Photo
by J. Rodriguez, Jr.
Summary:
Sandfish, a type of sea cucumber, are both a high-value
culture species and one that supports the aquaculture of
other fish species by cleaning up waste on the bottoms
of ponds or sea cages. Hatchery and nursery technologies for sandfish are being continuously refined by
Vietnam’s Research Institute of Aquaculture No. 3, the
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center and
their partners. These technologies have also been initially transferred to the private sector through a training
course and manual.
Lying seemingly “helpless” in the sand and gleaned quite easily
by women and children in the tropics, sea cucumbers are under
extreme fishing pressure. At U.S. $300-500/kg when dried, sea
cucumbers (also known as “beche-de-mer”) are attractive exportable commodities mostly destined for Hong Kong, where they are
valued as delicacies and ingredients in traditional medicine.
Asian and Pacific countries are the top sea cucumber producers, with the Philippines identified as a “hot spot” by the Food and
Agriculture Organization prior to 2007. The region has 36 of the
52 sea cucumber species that are commercially exploited worldwide, and experts say the need for resource management is urgent.
54
There is good news. The first is the development of culture
technology for one of the most important, highly valued sea
cucumber species, the sandfish or Holothuria scabra. Its culture
was first achieved by Vietnam’s Research Institute of Aquaculture No. 3 and is now being further refined with the Southeast
Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) in the Philippines. Collaborating partners include the University of the
Philippines system, the Australian Center for International
Agricultural Research through the WorldFish Center in Malaysia and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural
Sciences.
With aquaculture, fishing pressure could decrease and allow
natural recruitment to play its conservation role among wild populations. In captivity, sandfish of 200 to 300 g can be easily conditioned and then spawned by a temperature shift of about 6° C.
The swimming stage of sandfish larvae can last 15 days, The settling stage runs another 30 days before the 1- to 5-mm early juveniles can be seen.
Sandfish do not need much food. In the hatchery, SEAFDEC
found, they can be grown with the algae Rhodomonas, Chaetoceros,
dried Spirulina species and Navicula, and some mixed diatoms
when they are older.
SEAFDEC’s sea cucumber hatchery at its Iloilo station in the
Philippines consists of 10, 3-m3 larval-rearing tanks and four 8-m3
nursery tanks that can produce sandfish juveniles in 45-day cycles.
SEAFDEC’s larval-rearing trials produced more than 26,000
juveniles from eight of the tanks under operation since April.
Most of this produce is used by SEAFDEC and its visiting
researchers in their studies.
After the hatchery phase, nursery of sandfish can be done in
tanks, hapa cages in ponds or net cages in the sea. SEAFDEC
has further nursery facilities at its Igang Marine Station in the
island province of Guimaras. Growout studies are also ongoing,
mostly on polyculture with tiger shrimp; marine fishes like milkfish, seabass, grouper and pompano; and the bivalve Anodontia
philippiana.
Bioremediation
Sandfish can play a unique role in fish farming. Being
deposit-feeding detritivores in shallow muddy/sandy habitats,
they can be bioremediators in earthen ponds or in marine cages.
SEAFDEC has begun disseminating its sandfish hatchery
and nursery technologies via direct training and publications.
Sandfish can subsist on uneaten feeds and feces excreted by cultured fish and shrimp.
Although still being studied, the combination of sandfish
and sulfide-oxidizing Anodontia would be particularly useful in
mariculture parks in the Philippines and elsewhere, where the
two can be stocked beneath high-density milkfish cages to clean
up the sediment.
Technology Training
SEAFDEC has begun disseminating its sandfish hatchery
and nursery technologies by opening its doors to trainees, the
first of whom were from Tanzania, the United Kingdom,
Malaysia and the Philippines. The first training course, conducted in October, covered sandfish biology, broodstock collection and management, natural food organisms, spawning induction, egg collection, larval rearing, nursery systems management
and growout culture. The practical training was executed at
SEAFDEC’s new sandfish hatchery and marine station.
SEAFDEC has also co-published a manual on seed production of sandfish in Vietnam with the Government of Japan Trust
Fund, Vietnam’s RIA-3 and WorldFish.
Sustainable Future
A “road map” for the conservation and sustainable utilization
of sea cucumbers was put together by the Philippine government
in late September in Manila with inputs from SEAFDEC and
its partners. The road map emphasized more research and development to refine and commercialize seed production and, more
importantly, the involvement of coastal communities in growout
culture trials for stock enhancement or sea ranching as part of a
holistic resource management program.
Being deposit-feeding detritivores, they
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55
marketplace
European Shrimp Market: 2010
Imports Grow Despite Economic Issues
Herve Lucien-Brun
Aquaculture & Qualite
9 Rue Poupinel
F-78730 Saint Arnoult en Yvelines
hervelb@gmail.com
Despite an increase in prices and a shift in the euro exchange rate, shrimp imports
to the main European markets increased significantly during the first half of 2010.
Summary:
Despite rising prices and the fall
of the euro, European shrimp
imports have continued to grow.
In Spain, importers move quickly
from source to source following shrimp prices. New cookers
have confused the market with an
overcapacity of cooked product.
In France, which requires quality
raw shrimp for its popular cooked
products, importers work mainly
with suppliers in the Western
Hemisphere, although India is the
second-largest supplier. Tropical
shrimp are now entering the U.K.
as value-added product. Most of
Germany’s supermarket chains
now carry shrimp, so its imports
continue on the rise in 2010.
Even after passing through a major
economic crisis, the European Union is
still a main world shrimp market. Spain is
the largest market, followed by France.
The main type of imported shrimp in the
56
E.U. is frozen warmwater shrimp.
In 2009, low prices enabled the E.U.
to maintain or even slightly increase
shrimp imports. However, Spain’s importations declined in 2008 and 2009, while
imports to France, Germany and the
United Kingdom showed significant
growth during the same period. During
the growth period, most major suppliers
increased the volume of shrimp they provided. India is today the second-largest
supplier to the E.U. Ecuador saw its
exports to the European Union decline
after a long period of growth. Brazil,
which took a leading position between
2003 and 2006, has since decreased its
E.U. shrimp exports.
During the first half of 2010, imports
to the main European markets increased
significantly, despite an increase in prices
and an adverse change in the exchange
rate of euros versus U.S. dollars. This is
probably due to a degree of recovery from
the economic crisis.
Spain
Spain remains the main European
importer of shrimp. After two years of
decline, its annual imports increased from
22,000 mt during the first half of 2009 to
24,400 mt during the same period this year.
Argentina and China are the main
suppliers of Spain, ahead of Ecuador.
Shrimp from the first two countries are
entering the Spanish market at a very
competitive price, which directly affects
Spain’s imports. We may also note a significant growth in shrimp volume from
Thailand, while Ecuadorian and Colombian exports have fallen.
In Spain, between 65 and 75% of
imported shrimp are marketed as raw,
frozen – and therefore need not meet the
requirements of the market for cooking.
This explains why Spain massively
imports Argentinean Pleoticus muelleri
shrimp and other cheaper shrimp from
Asia that cannot meet the requirements
of cooking. Moreover, the increased production of Litopenaeus vannamei in Asia
promotes this shift of the Spanish
importers from Latin American to Asian
sources. Until now, Spanish consumers
did not like black tiger shrimp, and Asia
was only an anecdotal actor on the Iberian Peninsula.
By providing cheap raw prawns to
Spanish importers, Argentina has a decisive impact the behavior of this market
and the induced consequences in the rest
of Europe.
In Europe, the shrimp market is a
price market. This is particularly true in
Spain. Spanish importers are very mobile
and move quickly from one source to
another depending on the respective
changes in prices of each.
For the last few years in France, many
small Spanish investors have embarked
on the construction of shrimp cookers.
These facilities were often started with
E.U. funding, and now there is cooking
overcapacity in Spain, while the market is
growing well below expectations. As a
result, some cookers are offering products
at discounted prices to try to survive. This
In Europe, the shrimp
market is a price market.
This is particularly true
in Spain.
Shrimp is a popular
promotional seafood
item in France.
causes great confusion in the market,
which causes great caution on the part of
Spain’s main players.
France
In France, most of the imported
shrimp are sold cooked and chilled. For
this purpose, the imported raw, frozen
shrimp must have good quality to accommodate the industrial cooking process.
This is the main explanation why French
importers are still working mostly with
Latin American farmed Litopenaeus van
namei from Ecuador, Colombia and Central America.
Madagascar, which is one of the
favorite origins of shrimp for French consumers, is losing ground due to the large
price differential between the Malagasy
shrimp, Penaeus monodon, and others.
Reports indicate that India has made
great progress in terms of product quality
and is now the second-largest supplier to
France after Ecuador but before Madagascar. Nevertheless, organic certified
shrimp from Madagascar continue to
have strong success in France.
United Kingdom
Shrimp imports to the U.K. rose 5%
in 2009, mostly thanks to the markets for
added-value peeled and cooked product.
This phenomenon seems to continue in
2010. Coldwater shrimp have become a
minor actor, and tropical shrimp are now
entering the U.K. as added-value product. India, Thailand, Indonesia and Bangladesh are the main suppliers of tropical
shrimp in head-on, shell-on; headless,
shell-on; and other value-added forms.
Germany
After a long stable period, the German shrimp market reached a record
56,700 mt in 2009, growing by about
17% from the previous year. This rate of
increase continued during the first quarter of 2010.
This is explained by the fact that most
of the big supermarket chains now present shrimp on their shelves. Even lowcost supermarkets are distributing organic
certified shrimp as added value.
The main suppliers of tropical shrimp
to Germany are in Asia: Thailand, Vietnam, India and Bangladesh, in particular.
Bangladesh shrimp exports almost doubled between 2008 and 2009. Neverthe-
less, German importers are very price
sensitive, and any increase could result in
lower purchases.
Perspectives
Despite rising prices earlier this year
and the fall of the euro, European shrimp
imports have continued to grow. Since
the beginning, the purchasing power of
France has been maintained and sometimes increased slightly. This favorable
factor for promoting the market for
shrimp was not the case in Spain, whose
market is very fragile.
Buyers remain cautious about the situation, especially since they have no clear
explanation for the increases in prices this
year. It must be said that few buyers fully
understand the world of farmers, so they
are struggling to measure and anticipate
the impacts of mortalities affecting some
major shrimp-producing areas.
57
marketplace
ATTENTION SEAFOOD PROFESSIONAL
Shrimp Supplies Shift But Remain In Balance
MAKE
SMARTER
CHOICES.
Paul Brown, Jr.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08754 USA
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Janice Brown
Angel Rubio
The Chilean fillet market trended higher on all sizes during
the end of November and beginning of December.
despite shortfalls from Indonesia and Mexico, shrimp supplies
appeared in balance with a year ago.
Shrimp Markets
In mid-December, the shrimp complex was about steady to
steady for a quiet demand. Buyers presumably built adequate
inventories as the market moved higher and are now content to
work those inventories off through the end of the year. Most
expect an improved buying climate in January.
Latin American white shrimp of 26-30 through 41-50 count
have recently been weak and unsettled, and offerings trended
lower. Smaller-count shrimp were mostly steady. Current supplies appear fully adequate to ample for a sluggish demand.
Counts of 16-20 and 21-25 have been steady with limited availability from Mexico. Led by Indian offerings, Asian 16-20 and
21-25 shrimp have been barely steady to weak. The balance of
the market has been barely steady as pressure builds from Latin
American shrimp.
The headless, shell-on black tiger market has been mostly
steady, with limited supplies that have generally been closely held.
There has been some discounting on commodity-grade product in
order to stimulate demand during a period of dull demand.
The value-added shrimp market has been full steady to firm,
with supplies generally tight and closely held, especially for
cooked shrimp. In many instances, overseas offerings have been
disconnected from the current market, and importers appear
increasingly reluctant to commit to higher levels for future delivery aside from programs.
The U.S. Gulf domestic shrimp market has turned full steady to
firm. Supplies are now limited, and significant future replacement is
unlikely. Remaining supplies are being held with confidence.
The Mexican wild shrimp market has been disappointing so
far, as apparently catches are well below a year ago. The market
has been unsettled, with some offerings noted higher.
The headless, shell-on black tiger market has been mostly
steady, with limited, closely held supplies.
Summary:
Thailand increased its shrimp exports in October. So
despite shortfalls from Indonesia and Mexico, shrimp supplies appeared in balance with a year ago. Most expect an
improved buying climate in January. Leading up to the
Christmas holiday, the salmon market was firm. Chilean
frozen fillet and portion markets remain somewhat unsettled, as both higher and lower offerings are noted. Frozen
fillet pricing was trending higher than fresh fillet pricing,
causing confusion in the market. U.S. tilapia imports were
30% ahead YTD in October despite the import seasonality
seen in previous years. This surge was led by frozen fillets
from China and Indonesia, as fresh fillets and frozen whole
fish were down.
October shrimp imports to the United States were up 1.6%,
pushing year-to-date (YTD) imports 0.4% higher to just about
even with a year ago. However the devil is in the details.
Mexican shrimp imports were down sharply in October, the
first heavy month of farmed shrimp production. Imports were
down 50% or over 12 million lb. However, imports from Vietnam and India were substantially higher than a year ago. Noting
the tight supply of black tiger shrimp, imports from these countries were likely white shrimp.
Thailand, the United States’ largest supplier, increased its
imports by 11.2% or almost 5.5 million lb in October. So,
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, October 2010.
Form
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
October 2010
(1,000 lb)
September 2010
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Month)
October 2009
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2010
(1,000 lb)
YTD 2009
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
58,387
43,712
24,128
7,959
135,130
47,340
46,389
19,190
7,560
121,245
23.3%
-5.8%
25.7%
5.3%
11.5%
59,176
41,689
24,787
6,263
132.993
-1.3%
4.9%
-2.7%
-27.1%
1.6%
401,020
338,193
166,522
75,473
987,946
402,743
335,655
170,586
67,043
984,342
-0.4%
0.8%
-2.4%
12.6%
0.4%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
58
Farmed Salmon Surging
On Holiday Demand
October YTD imports of salmon to the United States were
3.9% lower than year-ago levels. Fresh whole fish imports saw
YTD figures increase 2.7%. Fresh fillets, on the other hand, were
lower – 21.3% down from 2009 YTD levels. Total month-tomonth data showed an increase for October of 5.1% when compared to September imports.
Whole Fish
October fresh whole fish YTD figures revealed an increase of
2.7% above October 2009 YTD figures. Month-to-month data
also showed an increase of 14.7% since September. Canadian
imports were 3.2% higher YTD. Month-to-month imports from
Canada were 10.4% higher, putting October volume 18.7%
higher than October 2009.
The Northeast whole fish market ranged full steady to firm
during the last half of November and the beginning of December. Smaller to mid-sized whole fish supplies were barely adequate for a moderate to active demand. Larger fish supplies
ranged adequate to barely adequate. Leading up to the Christmas
holiday, the market was firm. All sizes continued to trend above
their three-year price averages.
Similar to the Northeast, the West Coast market has seen an
active to brisk demand for smaller to mid-sized fish. Supplies are
barely adequate. Larger whole fish, on the other hand, are about
steady, and supplies range adequate to fully adequate as quotations
compress. All sizes continue to trend above their three-year averages.
Fillets
Imports of fresh fillets in October again revealed Chile as the
top supplier and Norway as number two. Chile exported 4.7 million lb, while Norway exported 3.3 million lb. Overall, October
YTD levels were 22.1% lower than year-ago levels. Month-tomonth data comparing October and September was 3.1% lower.
Norwegian fillets were 35.6% higher than last year at the same
time. Chilean fillets, in contrast, were 52.8% lower than 2009
YTD figures. Canada continued 2010 with strong export levels
55.1% higher YTD.
The Chilean fillet market trended higher on all sizes during
the end of November and beginning of December. Supplies are
currently barely adequate for an active to brisk demand. The
European fillet market has also firmed, and spot market activity
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59
remains limited. Current pricing in the Chilean fillet market
remains well above three-year averages.
The Chilean frozen fillet and portion markets remain some-
what unsettled, as both higher and lower offerings are noted. In
general, the market is barely adequate, and both the fillet and
portion markets trended higher during November.
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, October 2010.
Form
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
October 2010 September 2010
(lb)
(lb)
17,845,809
369,028
9,706,571
120,346,500
38,267,908
15,556,532
583,093
9,624,781
190,661,781
36,426,187
Change
(Month)
October 2009
(lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2010
(lb)
YTD 2009
(lb)
Change
(Year)
14.7%
-36.7%
0.8%
-3.0%
5.1%
16,305,244
660.959
12,592,538
10,388,073
39,946,814
9.4%
-44.2%
-22.9%
-0.4%
-4.2%
170,533,512
4,736,832
109,442,940
110,375,084
395,088,368
166,072,694
6,587,563
139,135,636
99,305,657
411,101,550
2.7%
-28.1%
-21.3%
11.1%
-3.9%
marketplace
Post-Harvest Quality Of Freshwater Prawns
Part II. Microbial Composition, Food Safety
Tilapia Import Surge Led By Frozen Fillets
Many of the human
pathogens found in
freshwater shrimp
are capable of surviving frozen storage, but are killed
or inactivated by
thermal processes.
year. On a YTD basis, imports were down 12% when compared to
2009. Many importers have reported that in addition to raw material being short in China, much of it is competing against a growing demand for frozen fillets in destination markets such as the
United States.
Fresh Fillets
The fresh market continues to be generally quiet. In October,
imports were just under 2% below those obtained a year ago on a
YTD basis. On a seasonal basis, imports during October were
almost 5% under those seen during the same month a year ago.
Supplies have been reported in good balance with demand, and
prices have remained steady to indicate such balance.
However, some importers have reported a slight uptick in
demand as negotiations take place in December and January for
next year’s contracts. The thinly traded spot market for fresh fillets
has remained relatively quiet, with few sporadic offerings higher or
lower than Urner Barry listings. The undertone is generally steady.
Frozen Fillets
Despite higher overall tilapia imports in October, imports of
whole tilapia reflected lower volume than in 2009.
The October snapshot of tilapia imports to the United States
revealed overall imports well ahead of those seen a year ago on a
YTD basis (Table 3). This surge was solely led by frozen fillets, as
they reached monthly record highs. Fresh fillets and frozen whole
fish were down on a YTD basis and when compared to the same
month last year.
Imports of frozen fillets reached a monthly back-to-back
record high in October of almost 40% above the same month last
year, 4% higher than the previous month and 30% higher on a
YTD basis. Despite this dramatic surge, importers and traders in
the U.S. reported high replacement costs due to a shortage of raw
materials in China, higher labor and transportation costs, persistent higher feed costs, significantly lower production from Hainan
Island and strong buying in the U.S. This has caused uncertainty
about future product availability, and prices have risen in the U.S.
market. The undertone is firm going into the next two months as
importers prepare inventories for the upcoming Lenten season.
Frozen Whole Fish
Imports of frozen whole fish were up from the previous month
but significantly down when compared to the same month last
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
October 2010 September 2010
(lb)
(lb)
7,026,127
4,244,814
32,440,106
43,711,047
6,574,762
4,027,212
31,170,482
41,772,456
Change
(Month)
October 2009
(lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2010
(lb)
YTD 2009
(lb)
Change
(Year)
6.87%
5.40%
4.07%
4.64%
9,837,306
4,452,450
23,456,613
37,746,369
-28.58%
-4.66%
38.30%
15.80%
71,922,844
44,617,288
258,961,916
375,502,048
82,132,161
45,366,281
198,992,271
326,490,713
-12.43%
-1.65%
30.14%
15.01%
60
Freshwater shrimp can contain pathogenic bacteria that cause illness unless
care is exercised by producers, retailers and consumers. Many of the human
pathogens can survive frozen storage, but are killed or inactivated by thermal
processes. Modified-atmosphere packaging may limit the growth of pathogens and provide better odor and appearance after storage. The occurrence of
Salmonella bacteria in shrimp from aquaculture operations is most related to
the concentration of fecal bacteria in the source water.
The freshwater shrimp, Macrobra
chium rosenbergii, is a major aquaculture
species due to its high fecundity, rapid
growth, wide range of salinity and temperature tolerance and disease resistance,
as well as its acceptable taste and high
commercial value.
Possible Pathogens
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, October 2010.
Form
Summary:
Farmed freshwater shrimp can contain significant pathogenic bacteria that
can result in foodborne illness unless care
is exercised by producers, retailers and
consumers. Additionally, many of the
human pathogenic bacteria can be
responsible for significant mortalities in
culture animals if good production management practices are not implemented.
Aeromonas
Aeromonas hydrophila, a common
microorganism in pond aquaculture systems, has been reported as a cause of acute
diarrheal disease, particularly in children
and immunocompromised patients.
In research, four strains of A. hydro
phila were grown at two temperatures in
shrimp purée and two microbiological
media. Results showed reduced cytotoxic
and hemolytic activity for A. hydrophila in
shrimp purée compared with the two
media, despite increased proteolytic activity in most cases. It was suggested that
shrimp protein provides some protection
against the pathogen by binding with the
hemolysin and protecting the erythrocytes.
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Food Science
And Technology Department
Virginia Tech/Virginia Sea Grant (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
flickg@vt.edu
Vibrio
Microbiological analyses of freshwater
shrimp and growing waters have revealed
the presence of several human Vibrio
pathogens, particularly V. cholerae 01 and
V. parahaemolyticus. In addition to being a
human pathogen, V. parahaemolyticus can
cause mortalities in shrimp as great as
80% while also causing black discoloration on the carapace, red discoloration of
the exoskeleton and loss of appendages.
The discoloration results in general consumer rejection of shrimp, while appendage loss is considered a quality defect by
Asian customers.
There is some evidence that V. chol
erae 01 occurs naturally in the environment independent of human fecal contamination. Seafood has been a major
transmission vehicle for the pathogen, as
cross-contamination during harvesting,
processing and distribution may occur.
In a study, shrimp samples with and
without the adhering carapace were heated
prior to inoculating with cells of V. cholerae
01. One-half of the samples were stored
frozen at -20° C, and the other half were
heated to boiling temperatures.
Viable cells of the test microorganism
were recovered from samples without carapaces stored under frozen conditions for
36 days. In contrast, no living cells were
recovered after 26 days from samples with
carapaces. Boiling inactivated or destroyed
V. cholerae 01 in both the samples with
61
innovation
and without carapaces within two minutes of exposure.
Listeria
Listeria monocytogenes contamination
in seafood has been implicated in several
cases of listeriosis. The microorganism
grows at normal refrigeration temperatures and is relatively resistant to damage
due to freezing.
Several studies reported that 9 to 11%
of shrimp samples were positive for L.
monocytogenes. One study found 28% of
raw seafood positive for the organism.
In a study, cooked, peeled and
deveined shrimp were inoculated with a
five-strain mixture of L. monocytogenes
and packaged in air, vacuum or 100%
carbon dioxide-modified atmosphere and
then stored at 3, 7 and 12° C for 15 days.
Results demonstrated that shrimp packaged in carbon dioxide and stored at 3° C
did not permit growth of the microorganism during storage, while the other
packaging/temperature combinations
allowed multiplication of the bacterium.
Carbon dioxide packaging also
resulted in the slowest growth of psychrotrophic bacteria and more acceptable
sensory, odor and appearance scores at
the end of storage. When strict temperature control is difficult, such as during
processing, transportation, retailing or
home use, additional processing controls
may be necessary to ensure safety.
E. coli, Salmonella
An international study was performed
on aquaculture shrimp by analyzing 1,234
samples from 103 shrimp farms in six
countries for the presence of fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and Salmonella species. A significant (P = 0.0342) relationship was found between the log number
It is important that aquaculture
producers understand the connection between fecal bacteria
contamination and the likelihood of human pathogens in
their shrimp.
of fecal bacteria and the probability that
any given sample would contain Salmo
nella. The likelihood of a sample containing Salmonella was increased 1.2 times
with each 10-fold increase in fecal coliform or E. coli concentration.
The statistical relationship among
Salmonella concentrations and those of
fecal coliforms and E. coli was highest in
growout pond water. The likelihood of
identifying Salmonella in growout water
increased 2.7 times with each log increase
in fecal coliform concentration and 3.0
times with each log increase in E. coli
concentration.
Salmonella is not part of the natural
flora of the shrimp culture environment,
nor is it inherently present in shrimp
ponds. The occurrence of Salmonella in
shrimp from aquaculture operations is
related to the concentration of fecal bacteria in the source of the growout water
(Table 1).
Amines
Amines are formed during spoilage of
shrimp as a result of bacterial decarboxylation of free amino acids. Both meso-
Number
of Samples
Positives
(number)
Positives
(%)
65
40
5
225
261
16
22
117
25
247
63
25
120
3
1,234
6
1
0
2
9
0
3
5
1
4
0
6
6
1
44
9.2
2.5
0
1.0
3.5
0
13.6
4.3
4.0
1.6
0
24.0
5.0
33.0
3.6
Feces
Holding pond water
Other animals*
Pond sediment
Pond growout water
Ice
Processing water
Drinking water
Probiotics, fertilizer
Shrimp
Shrimp feed
Source sediment
Source water
Wastewater
Total
* Includes crabs and frogs.
62
more resistant to disease, this is a form of genetic alteration and
is the basis of domestication. Few would argue that domestication of animals and plants is a bad thing, although there certainly
have been some ecological consequences resulting from the
introduction of non-native species.
Genetically Modified Organisms
Table 1. Sample types and frequency of Salmonella at shrimp farms.
Sample Type
GMO Fish: Are We Ready?
philic and psychrophilic bacteria possess
more than one decarboxylase enzyme.
Among the amines, histamine has been
most frequently implicated in food poisoning, and the diamines, primarily
putrescine and cadaverine, are known to
enhance histamine poisoning. Putrescine
has been suggested as an index of decomposition in shrimp.
The survival of amine-forming bacteria during the ice storage of shrimp was
investigated up to 14 days. The initial
bacterial load was reduced one log from
an initial concentration of 105 cfu/g due
to cold shock. The total incidence of biogenic amine-forming bacteria was found
to be 56.05% in shrimp.
The amine-forming bacteria identified were cadaverine- and putrescineforming bacteria, and no histamine was
detected. Gram-negative Alcaligenes, Fla
vobacterium, Acinetobacter, Shewanella and
Pseudomonas were the predominant
amine-forming bacteria. In addition, the
only Gram-positive genus was Micrococ
cus. Aeromonas and Photobacterium were
also present, and may be capable of forming amines in shrimp.
Perspectives
Growing water appears to be the
greatest factor affecting the type and
quantity of human pathogenic bacteria in
shrimp. It is important that aquaculture
producers understand the connection
between fecal bacteria contamination and
the likelihood of isolating human pathogens in their shrimp.
Producers should identify the potential
sources of contamination that affect source
water and growout pond water, and eliminate or minimize those pollution sources
that are within their control. On farms
using source water with high fecal coliforms or Escherichia coli concentrations,
producers should consider using a holding
pond to allow contaminated particulate
matter to settle into the sediment.
USFDA has determined that G.M. Atlantic salmon are safe
to eat but is considering marked restrictions on farming of the
fish. Through product labeling, should informed consumers be
allowed to drive demand for the salmon?
Stephen G. Newman, Ph.D.
President and CEO
AquaInTech Inc.
6722 162nd Place Southwest
Lynnwood, Washington 98037 USA
sgnewm@aqua-in-tech.com
Summary:
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is determining
if genetically modified salmon may be farmed and what
restrictions should be in place if they are. Although the
diets of North Americans already include genetically modified plants, disparate conclusions are being drawn in scientific literature about the safety and economic viability
of G.M. fish. It is clear that developing general guidelines
will be problematic. Each genetically modified organism
must be examined on its own merits.
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
recently determined that genetically altered Atlantic salmon are
safe to eat and that consuming the meat poses no threat to consumers. This decision has been a long time coming, and advocates believe it heralds the beginning of a widespread acceptance
of genetically modified animals in the diets of American consumers. The FDA is in the final stages of determining if the fish
should be allowed to be farmed and what restrictions should be
in place if they are.
Genetic manipulation is nothing new. Whenever farmers
select for animals or plants that grow faster, convert better or are
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have had their
genetic material altered via biochemical manipulation. The engineering of genetic material has only relatively recently reached
the point where manipulation of specific genes that control the
amount of a given gene product can be routinely accomplished.
This genetic manipulation has far-reaching consequences in
our ability to understand and treat many of the diseases that affect
humanity and the animals and plants on which we rely for food.
We can now bypass the tedious methods of traditional genetic
selection and develop strains that have desired traits that far
exceed what we might be able to achieve through traditional
genetic selection techniques, ultimately allowing science to better
feed Earth’s burgeoning population.
Few would suggest that this technology does not offer substantial promise. It is, however, a double-edged sword with some
complex ethical issues. Some critics have voiced concerns that
when there is commercial interest in selling a plant or an animal
that has been genetically modified, biases on the part of the
manufacturers set a stage for potential abuse of the scientific
method and exaggeration of the product’s merits. The criteria for
establishing the safety of these altered organisms are still evolving and are the subject of considerable debate.
G.M. Plants
Genetically engineered plants are widely consumed globally.
At this time, more than 80% of the corn and Hawaiian papayas,
and 90% of the canola, soybeans and sugar beets consumed in
the United States have been genetically modified. Although
there are different types of changes, the most widespread modification has been the insertion of a bacterial gene that confers
resistance to specific herbicides, allowing the herbicide to be
used with impunity on these crops and leading theoretically to
greater yields.
The diet of the average North American has for some time
contained very high levels of genetically modified plants, and it
would be difficult for a concerned consumer to avoid them, as
they are not labeled as such. An analysis of the literature reveals
that disparate conclusions are being drawn about the safety and
economic viability of GMOs, with some suggesting the issue is
being clouded by biased researchers. There is no solid evidence
of any significant negative impact associated with consuming
these plants, although epidemiological studies are admittedly
We can now bypass the tedious methods
of traditional genetic selection and
develop strains that far exceed what
we might be able to achieve through
traditional techniques.
63
lacking and work is ongoing.
Pigs, cows, chickens and some fish species – zebra fish, goldfish, carp, silver carp, mud loaches, tilapia, channel catfish and
salmonids including rainbow trout – have all been successfully
altered by adding genes or modifying the control of existing
genes. None has been commercialized except the zebra fish, a
tropical species sold for home hobbyists. No animals genetically
modified using biochemical techniques are currently sold for
human consumption.
Disparate conclusions are being drawn
about the viability of GMOs.
Complex Subject
Genetic modification is a very contentious and complex subject, as it encompasses some very tough questions that must be
addressed before widespread dissemination should be allowed.
These include, but are not limited to:
1. What are the potential negative impacts of consuming
the meat? Typically, the area of greatest concern deals with
the potential for genetic changes in the composition of the
consumable part of the animal that result in properties that
might cause more widespread allergic reactions.
Another important area of concern is the impacts the
altered genes will have on consumers eating the fish.
Can these gene products cause physiological changes?
Are they destroyed by the heat of cooking? Are there
indirect effects?
An oft-cited example is growth hormone. Studies
suggest that growth hormone levels are linked
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64
to insulin growth factor levels. These, in turn, are linked
to certain types of cancer. What, if any, concerns are
there when elevated growth hormone levels are present?
The evidence to date suggests the risks are minimal,
if they exist at all. To be “absolutely sure,” more research
needs to be done.
2. If animals were to escape, how would that affect local
ecosystems? Would the genes become established in native
populations that might breed with escaped animals, and
would these confer some advantage (or disadvantage) that
could negatively affect the population? Ecosystems can
easily be damaged by the inadvertent (or deliberate) introduction of non-native species.
3. What are the real advantages? Are there changes in the
nutritional quality of the meat? Typically farmers want
faster growth, disease resistance and the ability to gain
nutrients from feeds in a manner that allows less-costly
feed formulations to be used.
Advantages can include impacts on direct costs,
such as how much feed costs and how much feed it
takes to produce the animal. Will a faster-growing animal
result in less time from egg to market and indirectly affect
costs, or will increased ability to digest plant proteins
allow reduced amounts of dietary fish by-products,
making the diet potentially more environmentally friendly?
The potential is endless.
G.M. Salmon
The animals that are currently under the looking glass are
Atlantic salmon that have the ability to produce excess amounts
of growth hormone genetically engineered into them. They contain a growth hormone gene from Chinook salmon and a DNA
fragment from another fish species, pout, to control production
of this hormone. These are transgenic animals in that foreign
genes have been introduced. This is the first such animal that has
been subjected to this scrutiny.
Growth hormones are a natural component of the growth
process in all animals. What has been done is modifying the
ability of the fish to regulate hormone production in a manner
that ensures higher than normal levels at specific times in the
growth cycle, resulting in fish that grow much more quickly than
their non-engineered counterparts.
There is no evidence that the levels of growth hormone
expressed would be problematic. Growth hormone levels vary
between individual fish, and the overall levels noted by workers in
the field do not appear to be outside what could occur naturally.
The growth hormone being controlled by altering its genetics
is a protein. The many hormones in animals are produced by a
variety of tissues. Hormones are how cells communicate with
each other. Natural levels of hormones vary in animals, and
many are readily destroyed by the heat of cooking.
Growth hormone levels vary between
individual fish, and the overall levels
noted by workers in the field do not
appear to be outside what could occur
naturally.
While there is no sound scientific basis that consumption of
the flesh of these fish would in any manner be harmful to those
eating it, legitimate criticisms have been leveled about the manner in which this has been determined. Some would argue the
Rather than trying to figure out what would happen if fish
escaped and mated, it makes more sense to use technology to prevent this from happening. Land-based recirculating systems would
ensure this to the greatest extent, but markets would be limited.
Perspectives
The aquaculture industry is technologically capable of producing animals that have genetic compositions that make them
ideal for production in aquaculture environments. Improved
growth, disease resistance, feed utilization and nutrient content
are only the tip of the iceberg. The benefits to a world population that is growing by more than 1% per year are incalculable.
While caution is reasonable in the absence of significant
proof of harm or the potential for harm, it seems prudent that
consumers should be allowed to make the choice and drive the
demand for products of this nature. This is accomplished by
labeling products as modified by the use of biochemical genetic
manipulation.
Ultimately, consumers will decide if we are ready for this leap
in technology. In many areas of the world, the harsh dictates of
day-to-day reality favor the advantages of consuming protein
produced in this manner over the risks, real and perceived. Their
needs will drive the demand, not those of the first-world nations.
Consumers already eat genetically modified soybeans, corn and
beets. Can the success of these plants transfer to G.M. seafood?
precautionary principle should apply – that until absolute proof,
whatever this means, showing the fish are not harmful is provided, they should be assumed harmful. Others would argue
there is no logical basis for this to be a concern.
Each organism that is genetically
modified must be examined
on its own merits.
General Guidelines
It is clear that developing general guidelines will be problematic. Each organism that is genetically modified must be examined on its own merits. An examination of each of the points
mentioned earlier is essential for understanding the risks.
Will eating the meat harm you? Studies must support the
idea that they do not and validate the claims made through sizable sampling. Additionally, the potential connection of growth
hormone to a hormone that regulates insulin production is an
area of concern, although the extent to which either of these is a
real issue is not clear.
The second issue is what would happen if cultured fish escaped?
There is no way to state with 100% certainty that this cannot occur.
Even in a tightly secured environment, the potential exists for disgruntled employees to release fish. For fish farmed in estuarine environments, culture cages are susceptible to a variety of natural
impacts, including storms, wear and tear, human errors, etc. Fish do
sometimes escape. This is a fact of life, although every effort is made
to minimize it.
Technologies exit to rear fish in land-based systems where
escape is not possible unless it is deliberate. It is also possible to
use genetic manipulation early in the growth cycle to produce
triploid animals that are typically sterile. Fish can also be hormonally manipulated to produce populations that are largely of a
single sex.
Rather than trying to figure out what
would happen if fish escaped and mated,
it makes more sense to use technology to
prevent this from happening.
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65
Life Cycle Analysis Model Quantifies
Ecological Footprint Of Salmon Feed
Dr. Louise Buttle
EWOS Innovation
Dirdal N 4335, Norway
louise.buttle@ewos.com
Dr. Nathan Pelletier
Global Ecologic Environmental
Consulting and Management Services
British Columbia, Canada
Dr. Peter Tyedmers
School for Resource
and Environmental Studies
Faculty of Management
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Canada
Dr. Dave Robb
EWOS Scotland
Westfield, Bathgate, West Lothian
United Kingdom
E.F. Model
On average, only 10% of the energy is passed from lower to higher trophic levels in
aquatic ecosystems. Utilizing fish species from higher trophic levels in feeds results
in larger eco-footprints, as greater ecosystem resources are required to support them.
Summary:
EWOS Innovation and Canadian
researchers have developed a model
to measure the eco-footprints of
aquafeeds and assist in sourcing
more sustainable feed inputs. Raw
materials from marine ecosystems
have higher footprints than those
from terrestrial systems, especially
fish from higher trophic levels used
for fishmeal and oil. Other drivers for eco-footprinting include the
energy used to produce, process and
transport feed inputs, along with
feed milling.
Ecological footprinting or eco-printing
was introduced in the United States in the
early 1990s and quickly became globally
recognized as a method for measuring sus-
66
tainability. An eco-footprint is a measure
of the demand placed on Earth’s ecosystems by specific activities. It is calculated
by assessing the area of biologically productive land and marine ecosystem
required to produce the resources necessary to support the activity, along with the
area needed to absorb and render harmless
a subset of the corresponding wastes.
EWOS Innovation has worked in
cooperation with Canadian academic
researchers specializing in sustainability
modeling to develop a unique model to
measure the eco-footprints of EWOS
feeds. The EWOS group has begun to
use this ecological footprint (E.F.) modeling tool to quantify the scale of ecosystem support required to sustain the production of its fish feeds and assist in the
development of more sustainable feed
input sourcing and product offerings at
its companies in Canada, Chile, the
United Kingdom and Norway.
The footprint model is a sophisticated
tool into which a number of different layers of data are built for each raw material.
The two primary sub-components of the
ecological footprint analyzed are the area
of ecosystem support required to sustain
the production of biotic resource inputs,
whether from marine or terrestrial origins,
and to assimilate carbon equivalent to the
total greenhouse gases emitted in feed
production.
The quantification of supply chain
greenhouse gas emissions associated with
the production, processing, packaging
and transport of each feed input, along
with the production of salmon feeds has
been undertaken using ISO-compliant
life cycle assessment methodologies.
When using the tool, it is important
to realize some intrinsic differences
between the raw materials used in salmon
feeds. Raw materials from marine ecosystems have a higher footprint than those
from terrestrial systems in general. This
should not be surprising, since natural
marine ecosystems – which contain a variety of species, of which only one is targeted
– are much less productive per hectare than
an intensively farmed, terrestrial plot of
land producing a monoculture crop.
This is perhaps the largest driver in
the overall feed eco-footprinting. Other
important drivers include the energy used
to produce, process and transport the feed
inputs, along with feed milling.
Assessing Feeds
There are significant differences in
the eco-footprints of feeds. Marine ingredients have by far the largest impacts on
overall feed footprints. Their impacts are
influenced by the quantity of marine
ingredients in the dietary formulation,
but even more by the trophic levels of the
fish used in the production of the fishmeal and oil. Utilizing fish species from
higher trophic levels results in much
larger footprints, as greater total ecosystem resources are required to support
these predators.
Choice of target fish species is therefore important when purchasing fishmeal
and oil, as well as the total inclusion rate
of marine ingredients, if the sole focus is
to reduce the eco-footprint. It is worth
noting that the fishing method for the
target fish is also a contributory factor
due to the energy consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Plant-Derived Raw Materials
Aside from selecting marine resources
and reducing their use, E.F. magnitude
can also be reduced through the careful
inclusion of selected plant-derived raw
materials. As noted above, intensive crop
monoculture is highly productive and has
much lower E.F. values than for marine
resources. However, the EWOS E.F.
model accounts for processing and transport to the feed mills. This makes the
models sensitive to regional energy
sources and transport modes, both of
which influence emission intensity; as
well as regional farming techniques,
which influence productivity from the
land area.
By looking at the footprint of each
raw material available, scientists can compare the compositions of different feeds
and formulate diets with a lower E.F.
However, it is essential that the feeds also
provide the nutrients required by the fish
at an economically viable cost.
There has to be a balance between
lowering E.F. in the feed and the overall
worth of the feed nutritionally and economically. For example, if nutritional
quality was compromised, the fish would
require more feed to grow. So while the
feed E.F. would be low, the corresponding fish E.F. would be high. Feed manufacturers are therefore seeking ways to
reduce E.F. while maintaining the nutritional quality of feeds at the right price.
Fishmeal, Fish Oil
Replacement
In general, the salmon-farming
industry has gradually reduced its dependence on fishmeal and oil per unit output. However, it is still not able to completely remove these raw materials –
which provide the long-chain n-3 highly
unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) that are
so beneficial to human health and currently only available in high volumes
through the use of fish oil. EWOS and
other manufacturers are using new technologies in instrumentation, biotechnol-
Footprint (ha/mt)
innovation
Basal Diet
25% Soy Oil
50% Soy Oil
20% Fishmeal
Marine
Ecosystem
Agriculture
Greenhouse
Gases
Marine
Greenhouse
Gases
Limitation
One important limitation of the
model is that it cannot yet account for the
nutritional benefits of different feeds.
The inclusion of n-3 HUFAs has already
been mentioned as an example. Fish oil
inclusion in feed secures a concentration
of n-3 HUFAs in the salmon fed the
diet, but also raises the E.F.
The human health benefits of n-3
HUFAs are well known and reported by
doctors, scientists and governments. Failure to include these will have a much
greater impact on long-term sustainability than can be measured by the E.F.
alone, highlighting the complexities of
sustainability issues that have to be considered by the salmon industry.
Greenhouse Gases
It is worth noting that salmon farming yields significantly lower “farm gate”
greenhouse gas emissions than most
other animal protein sources, mainly due
to much greater efficiencies in feed conversion into meat. In an October 2009
article on life cycle assessment of salmonfarming systems in Environmental Science
and Technology, Dr. Nathan Pelletier and
fellow researchers identified greenhouse
emissions for salmon of 2.15 t CO2-e/t
production. The values for Swedish pork
and Belgian beef were 3.3-4.4 t CO2-e/t
and 14.5 t CO2-e/t, respectively.
More importantly, the potential for
further improvement is significant, given
the relative impact feed has upon the
total environmental impact of salmon
farming and the wide range of impacts
characteristic of available feed inputs.
10%Fishmeal
Carbon Sequestration
Agriculture
Ecosystem
ogy and trial design to get closer to
“marine independence.” Fast-track innovations are achieving lower feed eco-footprints while maintaining the nutritional
quality of the salmon we eat.
Running the E.F. model on new
salmon feeds in which fishmeal content is
reduced from 20 to 10% of the diet and
replaced, for example, by soy meal indicates a large reduction in the total feed
E.F. (Figure 1). Similarly, replacing fish
oil with soy oil also achieves a significant
reduction.
Feed Milling
Greenhouse
Gases
Figure 1. Substitution for fish oil and fishmeal, and effects on total footprint. The basal diet
contains 27% fishmeal and 26% fish oil. Carbon sequestration is the area of “global average”
forest required to isolate the greenhouse gases produced during the production, processing
and transport of the raw material.
There has to be a balance
between lowering E.F.
in the feed and the overall
worth of the feed nutritionally and economically.
67
innovation
Table 1. Optimum environmental conditions for farming blue shrimp.
68
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
1999
2000
2001
1998
1997
0
1996
Table 1 lists optimum environmental
parameters for farming L. stylirostris. The
While L. stylirostris have been farmed
in Latin America for 30 years, nearly all
of that production was based on extensive
culture. Stocking densities of 5-10 postlarvae/m2 in huge ponds of 3 to 5 ha each
with no aeration and poor feed quality are
standard. These systems do not provide a
meaningful comparison to Asia’s shrimpfarming potential, which is technologybased using much higher stocking densities and aeration.
1995
Ideal Environment
Culture Systems
18,000
1992
1993
1994
The range and biology of Pacific blue
shrimp, Litopenaeus stylirostris, are quite
similar to their conspecific species, the
Pacific white shrimp, L. vannamei. Their
anatomies are almost identical, differing
in only a few minor taxonomic character-
caused by Taura syndrome virus (TSV).
Because L. stylirostris are naturally
resistant to TSV, they were replacing L.
vannamei as a species of choice. However, by 1999, TSV-resistant L. vannamei
stocks became available, and farmers
returned to L. vannamei. In 2000, the
2,000-mt annual volume of L. stylirostris
represented production by the New Caledonia industry.
20,000
1991
Blue shrimp are very similar to Pacific white shrimp, and can be raised
under similar conditions. Blue
shrimp, however, grow faster at
large sizes and tolerate lower water
temperatures. They also exhibit
resistance to Taura syndrome virus
and IHHNV. A commercial production trial of Litopenaeus styliro
stris in Thailand demonstrated that
blue shrimp have excellent potential
as a crop diversification species for
Asian aquaculture.
L. stylirostris have been farm raised in
Latin America for more than 30 years and
in New Caledonia for 20 years. In Latin
America, L. stylirostris were typically produced in extensive farm systems, often in
polyculture with L. vannamei. This
resulted from the industry’s use of wild
postlarvae, since wild larvae for L. van
namei and L. stylirostris often co-occur.
In New Caledonia, a small industry
based entirely on L. stylirostris farming
has evolved. This industry is mostly semiextensive culture growing L. stylirostris in
large, open ponds without aeration and
producing a single crop per year. New
Caledonia exports its farmed shrimp to
Japan and France and obtains a very high
price for its product.
It is interesting that at harvest in
polyculture systems, L. stylirostris are
always at least one size class larger than
L. vannamei. Blue shrimp are capable of
rapid 2 g/day growth at high (100/m2)
density up to 35 g in size. Both blue and
1990
Summary:
istics – such as number of rostral teeth –
which are used to identify the species at
postlarval stages.
The native ranges of blue shrimp and
white shrimp are identical. Both occur
along the tropical eastern Pacific coast of
Mexico, Central America and northern
South America, and both are limited by
minimum surface seawater temperatures
down to 20° C. Fishermen in the region
regularly catch both species.
Details of the open-thelycum reproductive anatomy and biology of blue
shrimp are almost identical to those for
L. vannamei. In spite of these similarities,
the two species do not hybridize. The
production of L. stylirostris nauplii in
commercial hatcheries is virtually identical to L. vannamei hatchery techniques.
Farming Blue Shrimp
140
30
33
0.24
7,200
22.5
2.19
white shrimp grow from postlarvae to
20-g size at this rate, but above that size,
L. vannamei growth usually slows to
about 0.12 g/day. In New Caledonia,
typical harvest sizes of up to 35 g are
obtained in a single crop of 200 days.
Another major culture benefit of blue
shrimp is that they tolerate a lower temperature regime than white shrimp. While
L. vannamei feeding and growth slow at
pond temperatures below 27° C, L. styliro
stris grow well down to 24° C. Blue shrimp
could be grown in Asia during coolweather seasons when pond temperatures
are sub-optimal for L. vannamei.
Figure 1 shows the annual global production of L. stylirostris based on United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) numbers. The sharp increase
in production between 1994 and 1999 was
due to a massive switch to L. stylirostris
farming in Latin America following widespread devastation at L. vannamei farms
1987
1988
1989
A 140-day trial in Thailand yielded 33-g blue shrimp that sold for about U.S. $7.57/kg.
species is less tolerant of low salinity than L.
vannamei and requires salinities above 10
ppt. Its optimum salinity is 25 to 35 ppt. L.
stylirostris is more sensitive to low dissolvedoxygen (D.O.) levels than L. vannamei.
Optimum culture conditions include D.O.
concentrations of at least 4 mg/L.
Both white and blue shrimp are considered omnivorous scavengers or detritus
feeders. Nutritional studies by D. W.
Moore and C. W. Brand in 1992 showed
that L. stylirostris require a higher protein
content in applied feeds than L. van
namei. Studies at High Health Aquaculture in Hawaii, USA, have shown that L.
stylirostris grow very well on a standard
40%-protein diet for black tiger shrimp,
Penaeus monodon.
1986
High Health Aquaculture, Inc.
73-4460 Kaahumanu Highway #117
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii 96740 USA
jim.wyban@gmail.com
4.0 or more
28-30
25-35
40% or more
120
Crop duration (days)
Harvest size (count/kg)
Harvest size (g)
Daily growth (g)
Total production (kg)
Production (mt/ha)
Feed-conversion ratio
1985
Dr. Jim Wyban
3.5-10.0
20-32
10-35
35-45% protein
25-500
Table 2. Production statistics for SPF blue shrimp
in Phang-Nga, Thailand, between January and September.
1984
High Health Introduces SPF Blue Shrimp to Thailand,
Could Diversify White Shrimp Monopoly
Optimum
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
Temperature (° C)
Salinity (ppt)
Feed
Stocking density (m2)
Production (mt)
Blue Alternative
Acceptable Range
Figure 1. Annual global production of farm-raised L. stylirostris.
69
35
30
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70
Growth (g)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Days
Figure 2. Individual shrimp growth of blue shrimp in a Thai production trial.
One data set of intensive farming
using L. stylirostris came from the company Marine Culture Enterprises
(MCE). Located in Hawaii, USA, and
funded by Coca-Cola, it developed a
superintensive shrimp-farming system
using raceways in greenhouses.
MCE undertook an elaborate
research and development program in
which production trials and market studies compared L. vannamei, L. stylirostris
and P. monodon as candidate species.
Based on those rigorous tests, MCE concluded that L. stylirostris had the best
chance for commercial success in superintensive systems. As reported by researchers Moore and Brand, the facility produced 20-g shrimp in 125-day cycles with
harvest biomass up to 7 kg/m2.
High Health Shrimp
At High Health Aquaculture, which
owns the world’s most diverse germplasm
collection of specific pathogen-free (SPF)
shrimp, a founding stock of blue shrimp
was imported from Ecuador to the company’s breeding facility in Kona, Hawaii,
USA, as postlarvae from wild L. styliro
stris broodstock in 1994. The shrimp
were screened for pathogens at least twice
per generation using both histology and
polymerase chain reaction testing at the
University of Arizona. All pathogen
screenings were negative.
High Health’s SPF L. stylirostris are
generation F14 and selected for fast
growth every generation. The blue
shrimp’s resistance to TSV – confirmed
by lab challenge testing – was one of the
principal reasons for High Health Aquaculture’s development of its SPF stock of
the species.
While some stocks of L. stylirostris are
susceptible to infectious hypodermal and
hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV),
challenge data from Dr. Jim Brock indicated the SPF L. stylirostris stock from
High Health was also resistant to
IHHNV. Like other shrimp, L. stylirostris
are susceptible to white spot virus.
Thailand Trial
Thailand is the world’s leading supplier of farmed shrimp, and more than
99% of its production is white shrimp.
The Thai industry is concerned about
this high concentration in one species
and wants to study crop diversification.
To this end, High Health Aquaculture prepared a comprehensive species
risk assessment for introducing SPF blue
shrimp to Thailand for the Thai Department of Fisheries (DOF) in October
2009. Based on that document, the DOF
issued a permit for Sarasin Hatchery to
import SPF blue shrimp broodstock.
High Health shipped the F13 broodstock
to Sarasin in January.
The hatchery stocked 300,000 postlarvae in a 3,200-m2 commercial shrimp
pond in Phang-Nga at 94/m2. A high 30
hp/ha level of aeration, similar to that
used for Thailand’s intensive farming
with L. vannamei, was applied. A commercial P. monodon diet was used
throughout. Individual shrimp sizes were
monitored by pond sampling (Figure 2).
The total production of 7,200 kg of
30-count shrimp after 140 days was exciting (Table 2). Because of the large 33-g
size of the shrimp harvested, the pondside value of the crop was equivalent to
about U.S. $7.57/kg. The gross profit
was equivalent to about $36,185.
71
innovation
Open-Ocean Shellfish Aquaculture
Ready To Launch In New Zealand
The Greenshell™ mussels on these open-ocean longlines are nearing harvest size.
Kevin Heasman
Cawthron Institute
Private Bag 2
Nelson, New Zealand
kevin.heasman@cawthron.org.nz
Summary:
Expansion of aquaculture into New
Zealand’s open-ocean waters can
help relieve conflicts between commercial and recreational interests in
inshore waters. After years of study,
the first commercial mussel farm
was to be deployed in October. Its
design and construction consider
weather and water conditions as
well as culture methods. In addition,
this first stage of development has
to meet environmental parameters
before the next stage can continue.
Inshore mussel farms occupy 0.02% of
New Zealand’s coastal area and produce
between 90,000 and 100,000 mt of
Greenshell™ mussels a year. Of this, 66%
is exported to 78 countries. More inshore
water is available for aquaculture, but
already there is conflict between commercial and recreational interests that is likely
72
to get worse as utilization increases. Aquaculture expansion into open ocean waters
can help relieve these pressures.
As of October, there were six licensed
open-ocean farms in New Zealand, three of
which are over 1,000 ha in size: Bay of
Plenty, Hawke’s Bay and Pegasus Bay. The
d’Urville Island farm has 770 ha. Its island
site may appear protected, but the Cooke
Strait is a notoriously rough bit of water.
Site Studies
In 2003, Cawthron Institute started a
research project at two of the farms. After
years of study, the first stage of the commercial farm at Opotiki in the Bay of
Plenty was to be deployed in October.
The Bay of Plenty site covers 3,800 ha
in water 40 to 50 m deep. In Hawke’s Bay,
2,465 ha of designated farm area stand in
30 to 50 m of water. Five parameters were
evaluated for each of the sites during a
Cawthron study lasting 2003 to 2008.
1. Water characteristics: winds, wave
height, wave duration, water currents, water temperature, phytoplankton taxonomy, chlorophyll ∂,
total suspended solids and particulate organic matter.
2. Farming aspects: depth-influenced
growth rates for mussels, Perna
canaliculus; Pacific oysters, Cras
sostrea gigas; and New Zealand
scallops, Pecten novaezealandiae;
seed settlement or capture; conditioning of the three species and
evaluation of appropriate production methods.
3. Other environmental aspects: biofouling settlement, including crayfish, Jasus edwardsii, juvenile (puerulus) settlement and sea bed
monitoring for organic debris
build-up derived from the farming
operation.
4. Structural aspects: development of
a suitable structural design, design
of specific components of the aquaculture longline array and new
methods of farming the oysters and
scallops.
5. Economic aspects: development of
a mathematical model to assess the
economic potentials of mussels,
oysters and scallops.
General Results
At both sites, some 90% of waves
were 3 m or less in height, but extreme
events could result in waves up to 12 m.
Water temperatures varied seasonally
from 12 to 23° C with occasional thermocline development in summer. Water
currents were commonly from 10 to 15
cm/second, with rare excursions above 25
cm/second.
In Hawke’s Bay water, average chlorophyll ∂ measured 0.8 µg/L, and particulate organic matter (POM) reflected
about 20% of the total suspended solids
(TSS). Bay of Plenty water was richer,
with average chlorophyll ∂ at 1.2 µg/L
and POM of about 31% of TSS. Phytoplankton taxonomy showed the periodic
presence of low numbers of toxic algae.
At no time did any toxic algae reach culture-significant levels.
Open-ocean experimental shellfish
met or exceeded growth rates at inshore
farming sites, although condition periods
were shorter offshore. Natural seed settlement was variable but would suffice for
growout supply. New husbandry methods
for oysters and scallops were developed
and tested with satisfactory results.
Biofouling showed significantly lower
species diversity than that at inshore
Biofouling is typically light on these
ocean-cultured mussels.
farms. The biggest issue with assessing
biofouling was the difficulty in identifying the newly settled invertebrate larvae,
as the staff could not identify the species.
Concern that the farming structures
would intercept crayfish larvae appeared
to be ill founded. Very few crayfish pueruli were seen on the structures.
Structural design and evaluation were
aided by the assembly of a deployed experimental commercial line consisting of a
longline structure with incorporated datalogging load cells. Data thus obtained in
varying sea conditions allowed modeling
of tensions and rope responses to any wave
pattern from any direction. Furthermore,
load distributions arising from any
arrangement, type or number of floats
attached to the structure could be predicted. This model allowed custom design
of the commercial apparatus that will economically meet the specific demands
encountered in the culture area.
Open-Ocean Advantages
Open-ocean farming has several advantages over inshore shellfish aquaculture, the
most obvious of which is the reduced
potential for user conflict. Another advantage is that areas designated for open-ocean
farming are large. The structures are thus
spread out, ensuring that water currents are
maintained, delivering food to the shellfish
and ensuring that the deposit footprints do
not overlap.
In other parts of the world, regulators
currently tend to restrict the size of poten-
tial open-ocean farms in order to restrict
adverse effects, but this may be counterproductive. In fact, by designating small
areas, operators are forced to crowd the
space to reach economic critical mass, and
this compounds negative effects.
It is better to provide a large area and
then restrict the level of development
within it. For example, the 3,800-ha area
has a restriction of 984 longlines, which
can only be installed in stages. The early
stage has to meet environmental parameters before the next stage can continue.
As long as the stages are set so the operator can reach economic critical mass
within a reasonable time, both the commercial entity and the environment can
be given due consideration.
Inshore farms presently have longline
spacing of approximately 15 m. It is
anticipated that the open-ocean farms
will have spacing of 100 m or more. This
distance between lines and the distance of
the farm from the natural coastal benthic
structures influence the biofouling assemblage found on the farms.
Organisms with short-lived larvae
that live in the littoral or sub-littoral zone
cannot reach the open-ocean structures
unless introduced as adults through hull
fouling or with seed and equipment.
Since the introduction of these hazards
can be controlled, offshore culture of
shellfish in trays is less labor intensive
than inshore, as the periods between
cleaning are significantly increased. However, as the number of structures in each
farm increases, the potential for a selfpropagating population of fouling organisms within the farm also increases.
The large waves that periodically
come through farms tend to resuspend
any lightweight deposits and distribute
them over a larger area. This further
attenuates the impact of shellfish production on benthic organisms, which under
existing structures has proven limited.
The large areas designated to the
farms also allow better management.
Inshore, farms belonging to different
operators are very close together. An
increase in the number of longlines on
one farm can interfere with another farm
to the point where water currents and
food delivery are affected. Inshore, very
little can be done about this.
In designated farm areas, there is very
little benthic structure to develop a rich
ecology. The farm structures therefore act
as midwater reefs that attract invertebrates and fish, and enhance biodiversity.
Fish ranging from small juveniles to
mature shoals of adults have taken up res-
idence within and around the structures.
Open-Ocean Disadvantages
Obvious drawbacks for open-ocean
farming are the increased structural and
logistical challenges presented by exposed
sites and inclement weather. The structural demands are greater – floats that
tolerate calmer inshore conditions are too
fragile for long periods at exposed sites.
Even if the systems are submerged to
avoid the energy on exposed surfaces, the
equipment still must tolerate the pressures and demands of submergence.
Therefore, more robust and newly
designed equipment is required, which
adds expense. The increased energy in the
open ocean also means increased maintenance, particularly if the structural
designs do not fully meet the demands of
their uses. This can add to the expense of
production, as will operations in such
exposed culture areas.
Harvesting and seeding vessels also
have to be large. It is fortunate that 30-m
vessels already in the New Zealand shellfish industry could tolerate the openocean conditions. They will require some
modification, but the local industry is
capable of meeting such requirements at
moderate cost.
Although there is potential for crop
drop-off in poorly designed systems, Cawthron has had no such losses so far, even
after a storm with waves approaching 7 m.
Current Developments
Despite the global recession and
resulting slowdown of development of
open-ocean sites in New Zealand, the
first stage of the commercial farm at
Opotiki was to be deployed in October.
In preparation, Cawthron was mindful of shellfish traits that could be useful
to offshore farmers. The traits directed
the selective-breeding program Cawthron
has been running on mussels and oysters
for the last several years. Selectively bred
mussels grow out in a reduced period and
provide a more uniformly sized product.
It is hoped that with selective breeding
and possibly triploidy, shellfish will maintain condition for extended periods, thus
reducing the seasonal effects of bulk harvesting and marketing.
New equipment for the open ocean
was built and tested in areas with differing
wave patterns in an attempt to maximize
durability and serviceability. With this and
other technical planning and good management, open-ocean shellfish culture can
become part of the future in New Zealand
and other parts of the world.
73
innovation
One-Step PCR For White
Spot Syndrome Detection
Linda M. Nunan
University of Arizona
Department of Veterinary Science
and Microbiology
Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory
Tucson, Arizona 85721 USA
lmn@email.arizona.edu
Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
Summary:
A rapid PCR assay for detection
of white spot syndrome virus was
developed based on the nested,
two-step PCR procedure recommended in the Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals
published by the Office of International Epizootics. The one-step
assay minimizes cross-contamination, reducing the possibility of
false positive samples, takes less
time to run and is less expensive
than the two-step procedures.
White spot syndrome (WSS) was first
documented as a viral disease in 1993 in
Asia and rapidly spread throughout that
continent. By 1995, the virus had spread
to the Western Hemisphere, decimating
shrimp pond productions. After 15 years,
WSS remains a major impediment to the
shrimp culture industry worldwide.
White spot disease has been listed as
a notifiable disease in the Office of International Epizootic (OIE) Aquatic Animal Health Code since 1997. The twostep polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
protocol in the OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals is considered the reference standard for detection
of the white spot syndrome virus
74
(WSSV) by PCR.
Two inherent drawbacks to the recommended procedure are a lack of specificity, primarily due to a low annealing
temperature, and the possibility of introducing contamination during the second
step, which can result in false positive
samples that ultimately mean the destruction of shrimp stocks.
Procedure Development
With grant support from the U.S. Consortium Marine Shrimp Farming Program,
National Institute of Food and Agriculture,
the authors developed a simplified PCR
test to detect virus WSSV. The second-step
primer pair used in the OIE WSSV PCR
test, which amplifies a 942-bp product, was
selected for development of the one-step
procedure.
The cycling times of the three steps of
the PCR amplification process – denaturation, annealing and extension – were
reduced to 20, 20 and 30 seconds, respectively, which allowed the assay to be run
in less than 1.5 hours. The annealing
temperature was raised to 62° C to
increase specificity.
Sensitivity, Specificity
The sensitivity of the one-step assay
was determined using semi-purified
WSSV in which the viral copy number
was determined using real-time PCR
global aquaculture
(Table 1). Both the OIE-recommended
two-step and the one-step methods were
compared. The two-step assay limit of
detection was 1.2 copies following the
second-step round of amplification. The
one-step method achieved the same level
of sensitivity to 1.2 copies of WSSV.
The specificity of the assay was tested
using a variety of WSSV-infected shrimp
samples from various geographical locations in the Americas and Asia, and the
same primer pair used in the two-step
OIE protocol. The one-step assay
detected all of the geographical isolates.
Advantages
The one-step PCR protocol is less
expensive to run than the two-step procedure. The amount of time required for
the assay is 1.5 hours as compared to
seven hours for the two-step method. In
addition, the possibility of cross-contamination is reduced substantially using the
one-step PCR method.
After 15 years, due to the many
improvements in PCR technology, twostep PCR for the detection of WSSV
could be replaced with a simpler, more
rapid and equally sensitive method based
on the second-step of the recommended
WSSV OIE PCR protocol. This method
could provide an alternative to that protocol as a recommended procedure in the
next edition of the OIE manual.
Table 1. Real-time PCR
quantification of WSSV virion
copy number contained in 1 μl
of template DNA.
Theoretical
Copy
Number
1,000
100
10
1
0
Real-Time
Copy Number
(mean of
3 duplicates)
2,858.0
276.0
28.0
1.2
0.4
the
The one-step
WSSV PCR
method shortens
the time for analysis and is more
cost-effective
than the OIErecommended
protocol for
detection of the
virus.
University of Arizona
Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory
ew
som
n
thing
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of the Advocate in
electronic form at
www.gaalliance.org.
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75
innovation
Marine Fish Culture In Mexico
Amberjack, Yellowtail Farming Developing
aquarium of the world. And, of course, there
is the entire Atlantic Ocean/Gulf of Mexico
side of the country, which hosts exclusively
tropical species from Belize to the Gulf of
Mexico.
Despite its potential, marine aquaculture
has been slow to evolve beyond the shrimpfarming industry in Mexico. Many foreigners
have tested the waters but been unable to
complete their aquaculture dreams for various
reasons.
Now, however, Mexico is a much different
country than it was even 15 years ago. With
its ample natural resources and the support
the government is providing aquaculture
developers, the country offers growing opportunities for the farming of finfish and other
species.
The yellowfin tuna in this cage at Rancheros del Mar are highly
active eaters. Photo by Panorama Acuicola.
Rancheros Del Mar
Rancheros del Mar, a multifaceted farm
operation in Mexico’s Baja California, is an
example of a pioneering aquaculture company
based in Mexico. It was the first company to
Rancheros del Mar was the first company to ranch yellowfin tuna. It previously
ranch yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, but
held yellowfin broodstock and had them spawn.
due to diminishing wild stocks for yellowfin
tuna and production obstacles related to loss of flesh color in a
captive environment, Rancheros del Mar is focusing on closedTerry Morris
cycle production of longfin amberjack, Seriola rivolian. It recently
Rancheros del Mar S.A. de C.V.
completed a two-year pilot growout of longfin amberjack at its
Carretera Pichilingue, Kilometro 2.5 L-13
Mexican ocean site with excellent results.
Marina Palmira, La Paz, Baja, California Sur
The company now has spawning broodstock animals and is
Mexico, C.P. 23000
completing a hatchery renovation. The hatchery is expected to
rancherosdelmar@prodigy.net.mx
be in full production by March 2011, at which time it will sell
amberjack juveniles to other aquaculture companies.
Yellowfin tuna production from eggs may also be a future
consideration, should investment and interest warrant it. The
Summary:
company has previously held yellowfin broodstock and had them
Mexico has a wide diversity of areas and water temspawn. It also sells geoduck clam seed and will be starting properatures that are suitable for a variety of aquaculture
duction of sea cucumbers destined for Chinese markets. The sea
species. Along with the support the government is
cucumbers will be raised below the amberjack cages as an autoproviding aquaculture developers, the country offers
trophic mechanism.
growing opportunities for the farming of finfish and
other species. Rancheros del Mar, for example, is raisGovernment Support
ing longfin amberjack and was the first company to
For the most part, the Mexican government has been very
ranch yellowfin tuna. As additional hatcheries are escooperative and helpful with projects. Although there are occatablished, mariculture should advance quickly.
sional bureaucratic delays in permitting, Mexico’s aquaculture
and fisheries agency, CONAPESCA, has responded to all of
Rancheros del Mar’s permitting requests and is encouraging the
development of amberjack, yellowtail and other aquaculture as a
Mexico has a wide diversity of areas and water temperature
high priority for the country.
ranges that are optimal for a variety of aquaculture species. The
The secretary of Mexico’s Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock,
northern Pacific area of Ensenada to Cedros Islands can host a
Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) has met
multitude of temperate and coldwater species. For warmwater
with the author and kept in contact. Rancheros del Mar has also
species, there are the tropics that stretch along the Pacific and
met with the commissioner of fisheries and aquaculture, and
into the Sea of Cortez, declared by Jacques Cousteau as the
76
other officials – all of whom have been very supportive of its
projects.
Industry Potential
As far as finfish aquaculture in general is concerned, Mexico
is poised to develop a very strong industry in the near future, and
the Mexican government is doing its job to see that this comes
about sooner rather than later.
Logistically, Mexico is very close to the United States and
Canada, and both countries are large seafood consumers. It has a
gateway to Japan through Los Angeles and trade agreements
with Spain and other countries, which also opens up European
market channels. With a large population and buyers who can
pay for premium-quality fish, Mexico itself is a significant seafood market.
Issues, Opportunity
Several factors have caused aquaculture development to delay
in Mexico. The absence of hatcheries and a previous lack of
interest to invest in them are two. The global economic crisis has
not helped either, as companies have been trying to raise sufficient capital to complete goals.
An equally large stumbling block has been the difficulty in
convincing international investors that Mexico is a safe place to
invest their money. If it was not safe, Rancheros del Mar and
thousands of other international companies would not be continuing their efforts there. As a matter of fact, the author sees
Mexico as a land of opportunity with friendly people open to
those who wish to partake in their business world.
The fact that Mexico is a North American Free Trade
Agreement country next door to the U.S. makes it an opportune
location for aquaculture production. For those who really understand the dynamics of the country, it is easy to see that Mexico
holds a great future as an aquaculture producing nation.
77
calendar
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
Asian Pacific Aquaculture 2011/
Giant Prawn 2011
January 17-20, 2011
Kochi, India
Phone: +1-760-751-5005
Web: www.was.org/WasMeetings/
meetings/Default.aspx?code=APA2011
NSF International/Surefish Seafood
HACCP Training Workshop
February 1-3, 2011
Jackson, Florida, USA
Phone: +1-734-239-0012
Web: www.regonline.com/builder/site/
Default.aspx?eventid=900540
Texas Aquaculture Association
Trade Show and Conference
January 26-28, 2011
Bay City, Texas, USA
Phone: +1-281-639-8271, +1-979-695-2040
Web: www.texasaquaculture.org
Aqua Aquaria India 2011
February 6-8, 2011
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Phone: 91-484-2321722
Web: www.aquaaquaria.com
Seafood Summit 2011
January 31-February 2, 2011
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Phone: +1-908-626-0111, +33-1-56-03-54-77
Web: www.seafoodchoices.org/seafoodsummit.php
North Carolina Aquaculture
Development Conference
February 11-12, 2011
Atlantic Beach, North Carolina, USA
Phone: +1-919-515-6780
Web: www.ncaquaculture.org
Aquaculture America 2011
February 28-March 3, 2011
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Phone: +1-760-751-5005
Web: www.was.org/WasMeetings/
meetings/Default.aspx?code=AA2011
Seafood and
Aquaculture Events
Send event listings in English to:
Event Calendar
homeoffice@gaalliance.org
fax: +1-314-293-5525
MARCH
Aquatic Asia 2011
March 9-11, 2011
Bangkok, Thailand
Phone: +31-(0)30-295-2302
Web: www.aquatic-asia.net
+
International Boston Seafood Show
March 20-22, 2011
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Phone: +1-972-943-4726
Web: www.bostonseafood.com
T.M.
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Breaded Mussels • Mussel Meat • Mussels in the Shell • Gourmet Salmon Portions • Langostino Lobster Tails
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Keeping our oceans healthy
is more than good business.
It’s our way of life.
A
t Eastern Fish Company, we know that maintaining a healthy aquatic environment is the
basis of a healthy food supply. As founding members of the Global Aquaculture
Alliance (GAA) and the Aquaculture Certification Council (ACC) , as well as active members of
the National Fisheries Institute, we support a wide range of efforts aimed at keeping our oceans healthy,
while finding better ways to manage and harvest the bounty of our seas.
Which is why now more than ever, it is so important to choose your suppliers and marketing
partners based on their commitment not just to our industry, but to the environment as well. For our
part, Eastern Fish is in the process of implementing a plan to only purchase product from BAP Certified
packers, and our wild shrimp products are sourced only from well managed or certified fisheries.
Keeping up with the demands of a world hungry for fresh seafoods is no easy task. And thanks
to the world’s shrimp aquaculture industry, this healthful, nutritious food source is available to more
people than ever before. Because being part of a global community means global responsibilities for us all.
®
Eastern Fish Company
Glenpointe Centre East
300 Frank W. Burr Blvd.
Teaneck, New Jersey 07666
1-800-526-9066
Tel: 201-801-0800
Fax: 201-801-0802
easternfish.com
global aquaculture
founding member

GOAL 2010 Report - Global Aquaculture Alliance

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