Elijah Muhammad: An African American Muslim Mufassir?

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ELIJAH MUHAMMAD: AN AFRICAN AMERICAN
MUSLIM MUFASSIR?'
BY
HERBERTBERG
Departmentof Philosophyand Religion
Universityof NorthCarolinaat Wilmington
I. Introduction
THE
first Muslims arrived on the North American continent with
the slave-trade. Their original languages, cultures, and religion
were systematically obliterated. However, in the last century, Islam has
begun to be reclaimed by African Americans, first by Noble Drew Ali's
Moorish Science Temple2 and then, most prominently, by Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam and two of its main branches, Warith Deen
Muhammad's American Muslim Mission and Louis Farrakhan's Nation
of Islam.3 Each of these related movements has its own unique and
evolving relationship with the scripture of Islam, the Qur'an. Muslims
For them, the Qur'an is the
are the "people of the book"-parexcellence.
eternal, infallible, divinely protected word of God. And, just like other
Muslims, most African American Muslims look to the Qur'an for the
I The research and writing of this paper have been supported by the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Center for Middle Eastern Studies
and Department of Afro-American Studies at Harvard University. An earlier and shorter
version of this paper was presented at the Center on February 18, 1997.
2 For an excellent discussion of the origins, development, teachings, symbols, and rituals of the Moorish Science Temple, and the contents of Noble Drew Ali's 7he Hoy
Koran of the Moorish Science Temple of America, see Peter Lamborn Wilson's chapter
"Lost/Found Moorish Time Lines in the Wilderness of North America", in his Sacred
Di4. Essays on the Marginsof Islam (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1993), pp. 15-50.
3 These are only the most prominent African American Muslim movements. Aminah
Beverly McCloud states that there are seventeen distinct Islamic communities or movements. AfiicanAmericanIslam(New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 52. The same figure is given
by Steven Barboza, AmericanJihad. Islam afterMalcolmX (New York: Doubleday, 1994),
p. 15. Some of these movements, like the Ahmadiyyas and the Naqshabandis for example, were founded by twentieth century Muslim immigrants to the United States.
C Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 1998
Arabica,tome XLV
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
321
basis of their beliefs and practices. However, the message and activities of these new Muslim movements do not always accord with those
of Sunni and Shi'i Islam (that is, what is generally considered as "orthodox" or "normative" Islam). For example, Elijah Muhammad's Nation
of Islam taught the incarnation of God in the person of Master Fard
Muhammad, the prophethood of Elijah Muhammad, the depravity of
the "white devil", and the physical separation of "whites" and "blacks".
Most other Muslims teach the absolute oneness and uniqueness of God
(which precludes God takingany human form), the terminationof prophethood with Muhammad (d. 632 C.E.), and the oneness of all humanity. Nevertheless, for 45 years, Elijah Muhammad taught and interpreted
the Qur'an for his followers. Therefore, he could be considered the
first and only major African American mufassir-quranic exegete.
However, Elijah Muhammad has never been treated as such or even
as a major figure in Islam by the academic community.4 He produced
no systematic tafsfrof the Qur'an and so the sources for such a study
of his use and interpretationof the Qur'an are widely scattered. Perhaps
it is for this reason that he has not received the scholarly attention of,
for example, his Egyptian contemporary Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966). This
lacuna in our scholarship is also due in part to the general prejudice
of Muslim and Western scholars that African American Muslims are
not truly Muslims and therefore do not merit such scholarly attention.5
4 Clarence Andrew Clegg III discusses the scholarly neglect of Elijah Muhammad by
American historians despite his historical importance this century. Clarence Andrew
Clegg III, An OriginalMan: TheLife and Tlmesof EjlzahMuhammad(New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1997), pp. xi-xiii. Scholars of religion and Islamicists are equally guilty of having
failed to study Elijah Muhammad. Monographs and articles are very few and completely
out of proportion with his impact in North America and the practice of Islam here.
5 Several scholars have attempted to minimize the differences between the Muslims
of the Nation of Islam and "orthodox" Muslims. McCloud argues that the differences
between the various Muslim groups can be traced to the relative importance each places
on the concepts of the larger and inclusive umma(community of believers) and narrower
'a.yabiya(solidarity). This latter concept, which is a key theme of nation-building, is in
tension with the former, but Islam, according to McCloud, has always incorporated
such diversity and multiculturalism. McCloud, Afiican AmenicanIslam, pp. 4, 37-8, and
169-70. C. Eric Lincoln too acknowledges that differences exist, but argues that the
Nation of Islam is a legitimate sect of Islam. C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in
America,3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1994 [1961]), pp. 220-3. According
to Barboza, for most Muslims calling members of the Nation of Islam "non-Muslims"
might be going too far, but they still consider them too politicized, racist, and/or heretical. Barboza, Amenrcan
Jihad, pp. 4-6 and McCloud, AfricanAmericanIslam, p. 32. And
most recently, Clegg concludes that "Overall, the basic outlines of both religious traditions
do appear to overlap enough to allow the black organization to reasonably claim membership in the body of Islam, albeit as a heretical limb. Clegg, An OriginalMan, p. 69.
322
HERBERT BERG
A third and even less tenable reason that the Nation of Islam is treated
differently,is perhaps strongly political and social agenda. C. Eric Lincoln
states that "although the Black Muslims call their movement a religion, religious values have a secondary importance. They are not part
of the movement's basic appeal, except to the extent that they foster
and strengthen the sense of group solidarity".6In an interview in 1979,
Warith Deen Muhammad (then called, Wallace D. Muhammad), the
son of Elijah Muhammad and his successor according to many Black
Muslims, was asked if the Nation of Islam was a social movement or
a religion. He replied, "It was a religion and a social movement organization. In fact, the religion as it was introduced to the Nation of Islam
was more a social reform philosophy than Orthodox Islam".7 It is very
doubtful that Elijah Muhammad would have agreed with such characterizations of his movement, even though, he himself emphasizes, "IT
IS FAR MORE IMPORTANT TO TEACH SEPARATION OF THE
BLACKS AND WHITES IN AMERICA THAN PRAYER".8Of course,
none of these reasons, whether the scattered sources or prejudices which
attempt to label the movement as un-Islamic or non-religious, justify
continuing to ignore Elijah Muhammad, the Nation of Islam, or any
of the related movements that are an important and growing part of
the religious landscape of the United States.
However, such attempts belie the tensions that exist. At a more popular level, Asim
Mughal, Frequently
Asked Questions:Part 10. Islam: Farrakiusm& Malcolm X. version 3.3,
1993, states:
ISLAM, and so-called "Nation of Islam", are two different religions. The only thing
common between them is the jargon, the language used by both. "The Nation of Islam"
is a misnomer; this religion should be called Farrakhanism,after the name of its propagator. The religion of ElijahMuhammad and W.D. Fard died with their death because
their officially and popularly elected successor, W.D. Muhammad, integrated the community with the Muslim community at large...
Mughal then juxtaposes standard Islamic teachings with that of Nation of Islam with
regard to Allah, the Prophet Muhammad, the Last Day, the Qur'an, the Bible, the
sahada, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage, the permitted and prohibited, and role
of the Sunna. Although these criticisms are directed at Louis Farrakhan's Nation of
Islam, all the teachings and practices are those promulgated or instituted by Elijah
Muhammad. Mughal concludes that the Nation of Islam is a "PSEUDO-ISLAMIC
CULT". For a similar, but somewhat less polemic comparison, see also Mustafa El-Amin,
7he Relgion of Islam and the Nation of Islam What is the Diference?(Newark: El-Amin Productions, 199 1).
6 Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America,p. 26.
Clifton E. Marsh, FromBlackMuslimsto Muslims:The Transition
from Separationto Islam,
1930-1980 (Metuchen: The Scarcrow Press, 1984), p. 105.
8 Elijah Muhammad, Messageto theBlackman
in Amnerica
(Newport News: United Brothers
Communications Systems, 1965), p. 204.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
323
In this study I hope to begin to redress this situation by examining
Elijah Muhammad's background in Islam, his relationship to the rest
of Islamic scholarship on the Qur'an, and his attitude both to the
Qur'an and the Bible. After these important preliminaries,I will describe
which quranic and biblical passages have been emphasized and how
have they been interpreted and how Elijah Muhammad has adapted
the Qur'an to the African American milieu, by examining five of his
most important teachings: his myth of origins, his eschatology, his dietary regulations, his description of prayer, and his discussion of disbelievers and hypocrites. These particular beliefs and practices will provide
a good overview of the concerns Elijah Muhammad and of his use and
understanding of the Qur'an. With this background I will then turn to
the question of whether Elijah Muhammad can be considered a mufassir.
The core of Elijah Muhammad's teachings can be found in his 7he
SupremeWisdom:Solutionto the So-calledNegroes'Problem,his Messageto the
Blackmanin America,and his How to Eat to Live.9The SupremeWisdomis
a fifty-six page booklet containing the essence of Elijah Muhammad's
teachings. It was published in 1957. As the movement expanded rapidly
in the 1960's, a less "poorly written and poorly organized"'Osummary
of Elijah Muhammad's message seems to have been required. Message
to theBlackmanin Americaseems to have met that need when it was first
published in 1965. How to Eat to Live, published in 1967, focuses on
what African American Muslims should and should not eat and drink,
and why. " While none of these three books is meant to be a tafsTrof
These works do not represent the complete written works of Elijah Muhammad.
For several years (1956-summer 1959) Muhammad had a weekly column in the Pittsburgh
Courier,subsequently in the Los AngelesHerald-Dispatch
(1959-May 1960), and then the
Nation's own paper, MuhammadSpeaks.Discussion of this material goes well beyond the
scope of a single article. There are several other books "written" by Elijah Muhammad.
One of the few which was compiled before his death is 7TheFall of America(Chicago:
Muhammad's Temple of Islam No. 2, 1973). It is a fairly substantial book. However,
it was published relatively late and is composed of speeches and articles from at least
1959 and recycled parts of Messageto the Black/ran.
'? Lincoln, 7TheBlack Muslims in America,p. 127. As Lincoln mentions, 7TheSupreme
Wisdomhas been published in several editions. In fact, 7he SupremeWisdom:VolumeTwo
contains virtually all the material of the first volume, which appears verbatim in the
second, and hence, the latter is more of a revised edition. This recycling of material also
occurs between The SupremeWisdomand Messageto the Blackman.
" The "simplicity of his speaking style and his improvised syntax" (Clegg, An Original
Man, p. 117) are very much present in all three of the aforementioned books. Elijah
Muhammad was primarily a preacher like his father and grandfather before him had
been. Being poorly educated, he dictated his writings and speeches to his secretaries.
Both Messageto the Blackmanand How to Eat to Live are compilations of earlier columns,
editorials, letters, and speeches. Clegg, An OriginalMan, pp. 177-9.
324
HERBERT BERG
the Qur'an, together they provide enough material to discern Elijah
Muhammad's approach to, and understanding of, the Qur'an.
II. Elijah Muhammadand Islam
Elijah Muhammad is not, of course, the founder of the Nation of
Islam. That distinction belongs to Wali Fard Muhammad. His origin
and activities prior to 1930 are of some dispute,"2though some connection with the Moorish Science Temple seems likely."3It is claimed
that Wali Fard Muhammad was born to the tribe of Quraysh in Mecca
in 1877,'4 but in the early 1930's he made a living as a street peddler
in Detroit. More notable is the message he brought to his African
American customers: Allah is God; white people are the devil; so-called
Negroes are Asiatic and the original people; and freedom, justice, and
equality would come only when the so-called Negroes return to their
original religion (Islam), their language (Arabic), and the law of Allah
(which includes the avoidance of pork and liquor). Also, Christianity,
12 Clegg includes the following summary of Wali Fard Muhammad's early life gleaned
from FBI and police files:
According to law enforcement records of the period, Fard was born in New Zealand
or Portland,Oregon, on February25, 1891, to either Hawaiian or Britishand Polynesian
parents. Using the aliases Fred Dodd and Wallace Ford, Fard married, fathered a son,
and abandoned his family prior to moving to Los Angeles during World War I. His
education was minimal (he "had trouble with his correspondence")and his temperament made him difficultto get along with; nonetheless, he still managed to open a cafe
during the early 1920s. About this time, Fard apparentlyslipped into a life of crime. As
early as November 1918, he was arrestedfor assaultwith a deadly weapon. Ultimately,
nothing became of the charge, and he was later released. On January 20, 1926, Fard
was arrested for violating the CaliforniaProhibitionlaw and, a month later, was again
detained, along with a "half-Chinese"associate, for selling narcotics in his restaurant
at 803 West Third Street. On May 28, 1926 he was sentenced to a prison term of six
months to six years at San Quentin, where he worked in a jute mill and in road construction while serving his time. Following his release on May 27, 1929, he departed
from Los Angeles in a Model A Ford coupe. Beforejourneying to Detroit, Fard apparently stopped in Chicago, where he perhaps came into contact with the Ahmadiyya
movement (possiblynot for the first time), followersof Noble Drew Ali, Garveyites,and
other groups. His sojourn in Chicago was brief, and he departed for the Motor City
during mid-1930 with his own plans for blacks there. Clegg, An Ongpinal
Man, pp. 20-1.
13
According to Marsh, Wali Fard Muhammad claimed to be Noble Drew Ali reincarnated. Marsh, FromBlack Muslims to Muslims,p. 51.
'4 Others say he was a blackJamaican, with a Syrian Muslim father. Yet others say
he was a Palestinian Arab. Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America,p. 12. In short, his
origins remain a mystery, and so there is no clear indication of where Fard acquired
his understanding of Islam.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
325
the religion of whites, is innately inimical to Islam, and the Battle of
Armageddon will be a war between Islam and Christianity in which
the former will vanquish the latter. Although Fard Muhammad spoke
of himself as a prophet, at least some of his followers thought him to
be divine.15
One of the 8,000 African Americans in Detroit who were swept into
Fard Muhammad's movement between 1930 and 1933 was Elijah Poole.
He was born in 1897 in Sandersville, Georgia.'6 His father was a Baptist
preacher, but he did not follow his father's footsteps, despite feeling an
early call to preach. Instead, Elijah Poole worked as manual labourer
in Georgia until 1923 when he and his family moved to Detroit. There,
he again had a series of jobs. In 1929, because of the Depression, he
lost his job and was forced to go on relief. But in 1931, he met Wali
Fard Muhammad and was introduced to Islam. He was first renamed
Elijah Kariem and later Elijah Muhammad. Shortly thereafter, he became the Supreme Minister and succeeded Fard Muhammad when the
latter disappeared in 1934. Elijah Muhammad did not go unchallenged
as successor to Fard Muhammad, but after transferring his headquarters to Chicago and fleeing because of opposition there, he eventually
eclipsed other would be successors. The basic teachings of the movement remained unaltered. However, Elijah Muhammad deified Fard
Muhammad and assumed the title of "Messenger of Allah". The Nation
of Islam grew rapidly in the 1950s and early 1960s, particularly while
Malcolm X remained in the movement. By the time Elijah Muhammad
died in 1975, he had some 76 temples throughout the United States
with a membership perhaps as high as 100,000. His fortune was approximately 45 million dollars and included 15,000 acres of farmland,
several aircrafts, a fish-importing business, restaurants, bakeries, and
supermarkets.7
As the movement grew in the late 1950's and early 1960's, it not
only came increasingly to the attention of white America, but also to
Muslim Americans and to Muslims in Africa and Asia. These Muslims
did not always recognize the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Elijah
Muhammad did not allow charges that his movement was not really
15 Marsh, FromBlackMuslimsto Muslims,pp. 51-2 and Erdmann Doane Beynon, "The
Voodoo Cult among Negro Migrants in Detroit", The Americanjournal of Sociology43
(July 1937-May 1938): 901.
16 Lincoln, The Black Muslims in Amerca, p. 257. Barboza says Elijah Muhammad's
original name was Robert Poole. Americanj/ihad, p. 77. Marsh gives his date of birth a
October 7, 1898. FromBlack Muslims to Muslims,p. 53.
17 Barboza, American
jihad, p. 78 and Marsh, FromBlackMuslimsto Muslims,pp. 90-1.
326
HERBERT BERG
Islamic to go unchallenged. At first he sought to justify the Nation of
Islam to other Muslims. He argued:
My brothers in the East were never subjected to conditions of slavery and systematic brainwashing by the slavemasters for as long a period of time as my people here were subjected. I cannot, therefore, blame them if they differ with me
in certain interpretations of the Message of Islam. In fact, I do not even expect
them to understand some of the things I say unto my people here.'8
After performing his hag'g(actually, he performed only the 'umra,the
lesser pilgrimage) at the end of 1959, he had all the evidence he needed
to claim that the Muslim world recognized him as a Muslim.
A decade or so later, Elijah Muhammad seemed less concerned with
currying "orthodox" Muslims. Acceptance from Orthodox Muslims was
of little concern to his followers in the inner-cities of America. Elijah
Muhammad even charged that most Muslims of the East had been
deceived, and that there would one day be a "New Islam"-one led
by Black Muslims whereas the Old Islam was led by white Muslims.'9
Clearly, Elijah Muhammad's claim to authority was never predicated
on acceptance by "orthodox" Muslims. His authority came directly from
Allah himself. Elijah Muhammad claimed to be the "Last Messenger
of God", and writes "God, Almighty appointed me" and "The Apostle
is considered one in Allah and Allah is one in the Apostle. So, when
you look at one, you see both; when you hear one speak, you hear
both".20Obviously, Elijah Muhammad would have felt no need to rely
on tafsirbi-l-ma'tir(transmitted exegesis) to understand the Qur'an. He
seems completely unfamiliar with the vast tafsirliterature produced over
the fourteen centuries of Islam. While Elijah Muhammad was well aware
of the critiques by other Muslims of his teachings, he felt no compulsion
to defer to their interpretations. His interpretations came from Allah
himself or were beyond question by virtue of his being Allah's messenger.
18 Elijah Muhammad cited in Abdul Basit Naeem, "Introduction" to Muhammad,
T-heSupremeWisdom,p. 4. See also Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America,pp. 220-1.
19 Lincoln, The BlackMuslimsin America,pp. 210-2. Clegg suggests that during his ha"
Elijah Muhammad saw for the first time the political, social, and racial problems of
Eastern Muslims. It was not the utopia he had thought. This disillusionment with other
Muslims made the break with them easier. Clegg, An OrignalMan, pp. 143-4.
20 Muhammad, Message to the Blackman,pp. 289 and 264. Science too must take a
backseat to this divine authority:
I do not make mistakesin what I write pertainingto these two races-black and white
and I do not need to study the theory of evolution to learn about them. Theories do
not always prove to be the truth. I have the truth from the All-wise One (Allah), to
Whom praise is due. Muhammad, TheSupreneWisdom,p. 21.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
327
III. Elkah Muhammadj,
the Bible, and the Qur'n
Despite his frequent claims to be relaying the teachings of Allah in
the person of Fard Muhammad, Elijah Muhammad never claimed to
have brought a scripture of his own from Allah.21When he does justify his teachings apart from his own authority, he adduces passages
from both the Bible and the Qur'an. He recognized both as containing messages from Allah, but messages that have not been properly
understood.
In 7TheSupremeWisdomand Messageto the Blackmanin AmericaElijah
Muhammad cites or refers to the Bible almost twice as often as he
does the Qur'an.22 This might seem odd given its condemnation by
Elijah Muhammad: "The Bible is now being called the poison bookby
God Himself, and who can deny that it is not poison? It has poisoned
the very hearts and minds of the so-called Negroes so much that they
can't agree with each other".23The poison of the Bible consists, Elijah
Muhammad elaborates, in the accusations it levels at many of the
prophets: Noah is accused of drunkenness, Lot with incest, and Jesus
with having been born in an act of adultery. Such accusations are reminiscent of tah44f-standard Muslim polemics againstJews and Christians
that accuse them of altering their scriptures. More unique is his claim
that there are "poison addition[s] of the slavery teaching" in the Bible
such as "love your enemies" and "turn the other cheek".24
Despite this harsh condemnation, Elijah Muhammad avails himself
of the Bible continuously. He explains, "I don't mean to say that there
21 However, during their final meeting, during which Wali Fard Muhammad is said
to have conferred the title of "Messenger of Allah" on Elijah Muhammad, the former
also promised the latter to bring him a book that he had authored in the future. Clegg,
An Oriinal Man, p. 35. In his early writings, Elijah Muhammad refers to this future
scripture:
Both the present Bible and the Holy Quran must soon give way to that holy book
which no man as yet but Allah has seen. The teachings (prophecies)of the present
Bible and the Quran takes up to the resurrectionand the judgement of this world but
not into the next life. That which in that holy book is for the righteousand their future
only; not for the mixed world of righteous and evil. Muhammad, 77e SupremeWisdom,
p. 15 and Messageto theBlackman,
pp. 97-8.
This book has not (yet) appeared.
22 The Bible and the Qur'an are often invoked together. Elijah Muhammad urges
his followers to search and to study them. Often Elijah Muhammad will make some
statement and add, "The Bible as well as the Holy Quran bear witness to the above
fact, if you are able to understand it". See, for example, the last sentence of Elijah
Muhammad's "History of the Original Man" in 7he SupremeWisdom,p. 39.
23 Muhammad, 7he SupremeWisdom,p. 12 and Messageto the Blackman,p. 94.
24
Muhammad, The SupremeWisdom,p. 13.
328
HERBERT BERG
is no truth in it. Certainly, plenty of truth, if understood".25
This is where
Elijah Muhammad can assume the role of exegete. "The Bible means
good if you can rightly understand it. My interpretation of it is given
to me from the Lord of the Worlds".26This "understanding"seems to
have consisted of revealing the message for African Americans that had
been allegorically and symbolically encoded in the Bible. John Ali, the
National Secretary of the Nation of Islam under Elijah Muhammad,
stated:
Mr. Elijah Muhammad is bringing a final truth to the people. He is revealing the
secret of the symbols, parables, signs and prophecies of the scriptures. The Old
Testament is a book of prophecy in parables, symbols and signs. The New Testament
is a fulfilment of a prophecy whose time is now."7
Thus, as I shall point out later, the true value of biblical stories and
prophecies resides in their explanations for current and relevant past
events and in their paraenetic messages for African Americans. For
example, the story of Jonah when he is swallowed by the fish is like
the "so-called Negroes" swallowed by America who need to turn to
Allah for deliverance.28
Of course, on a more practical level, there are several reasons for
Elijah Muhammad's frequent use of the Bible. First, members in the
Nation of Islam were predominantly former Christians.29Elijah Muhammad was well aware of this situation:
It is necessary for me to consult or refer to the Bible ... because my people do
not know any Scripture or ever read any Scripture other than the Bible (which
they do not understand), I thought it best to make them understand the book
which they read and believe in, since the Bible is their graveyard and they must
be awakened from it.30
Second, not only were his followers more familiar with the Bible, but
also Elijah Muhammad himself was more acquainted with its contents
than with those of the Qur'an-at least at first.3'
Muhammad, The SupremeWisdom,p. 13.
Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 88.
27 John Ali, "Introduction", in Elijah Muhammad,
The Fall of America(Chicago:
Muhammad's Temple of Islam No. 2, 1973), p. VI.
28 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 141.
29
Lincoln, T7heBlack Muslims in America,pp. 25-6.
30
Elijah Muhammad adds, "There are many Muslims who do not care to read anything in the Bible. But those Muslims have not been given my job. Therefore, I ignore
what they say and write!" Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 82.
31 Clegg states that Elijah Muhammad used to pore over the
Bible as a youth in
order to engage in theological duels with his father, a Baptist minister. Clegg, An Original
Man, p. 8.
25
26
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
329
While the Bible needs to be properly understood because of "poison"
alterations, symbolism, and prophecy, the Qur'an is without mistake and
perfectly pure. It comes directly from Allah.32Every "so-called American
Negro" should own and read the Qur'an. Elijah Muhammad states:
The book will open their blinded eyes and open their deaf ears. The book that
will purify them, the book that makes a distinction between the God of righteousness and the god of evil, the book of guidance, the book of light and truth, the
book of wisdom and judgement. [sic]"
Thus, the Qur'an does not suffer from the alterations and slave teachings found in the Bible.
However, though Elijah Muhammad is not necessary to correct the
teachings of the Qur'an, even they must be interpreted by him. The
Qur'an, like the Bible, is thought to be addressing the plight of African
Americans. For example, Elijah Muhammad writes:
The Holy Qur'an repeatedly prophesies a miserable, shameful, and disgraceful
defeat for the disbelievers and hypocrites in their campaign against the last Messenger of Allah, whom Allah would raise in the time of the resurrection of the
dead people.34
It comes as no surprise that he was challenged on this reading of the
Qur'an. But Elijah Muhammad retorts:
Many OrthodoxMuslimsdo not want to believe that Allah has appearedin the
Personof MasterFard Muhammador that He has made manifestthe truth that
has been hiddenfrom their religiousscientists-the truthof God and of the devil
as revealedto me. Though they do have the Holy Qur'an,many of them do not
understandthe meaningof it, and some of them believeeverythingthat is prophesied in the Bible and Holy Qur'an about a last Messengeror Prophetbeing or
referringto Muhammadof 1,400 years ago."5
Other Muslims whose sensibilities are troubled by Elijah Muhammad's
claim to be a Messenger of Allah sent to his people in America are
told they have misunderstood the Qur'an, for it teaches that each community must have its own messenger who speaks its language."6
32 In fact Elijah Muhammad states, "This book is not from a prophet, but direct
from Allah to Muhammad, not by an angel, but from the mouth of Allah (God)".
Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan, p. 92.
3 Muhammad, 7he Fall of America,p. 44. For the identity of the hypocrites, see below
pages 342-43.
3 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackmnan,
p. 187.
36 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,pp. 188-90.
Elijah Muhammad's knowledge of the Qur'an comes primarily from the translation
of the Ahmadi Maulvi Muhammad Ali (1875-1951), likely from the second edition
330
HERBERT BERG
IV. Mythof Origns
One of the main uses to which Elijah Muhammad puts both the
Bible and the Qur'an, is -to prove the part of his myth of origins that
deals with the white race. People, more specifically, the original black
people, have inhabited the earth for some 66 trillion years. 6,600 years
ago Yakub was born in Mecca and, as had been prophesied 8,400 years
earlier, he brought trouble, death, and destruction to his own people.
After completing all the colleges and universities, he began preaching and making converts by promising them luxury. Eventually, he and
his followers numbering some 60,000, were exiled by the remaining
Meccans to the Isle of Pelan in the Aegean Sea. Once there, Yakub
imposed a strict eugenics program designed to breed progressively more
evil and lighter people. After two hundred years, his program succeeded
published in 1929. His dependence on this translation is made explicit when he refers
his readers to specific footnotes in the Muhammad Ali text and when he uses the Ali's
subject headings. For an example of his use of Ali's footnotes, see Elijah Muhammad,
Messageto the Blackman,p. 23, in which he urges readers to examine note 2276, which
explains the expression "the days of Allah". See also p. 254 in which he refers the
reader to note 2794. For an example of his use of Ali's headings compare Elijah
Muhammad, Messageto the Blackmann,
pp. 255-6 and The Holy Qur'an,pp. 231-2 (Elijah
Muhammad actually alters or mistakes one of the headings). Whether Elijah Muhammad
was aware that latter were not actually part of the Qur'an is uncertain.
This translation, aside from Ahmadiyya tendencies, is not an unusual translation. It
has been suggested that it is responsible for Elijah Muhammad's belief that the Qur'an
literally identified people with blue eyes as being unacceptable to Allah:
Mr. Muhammad is thought to have drawn scripturalsupport for his racist theology
from a mistranslatedAhmadiyyah Koran. Correctly written, a passage in the Koran
states that God does not accept people with "blurredeyes". But the Ahmadiyyah version which Mr. Muhammad purportedlyconsulted says that God does not accept people with "blue eyes". "Walkingthe Earth like Brothers",7he Economist,
August 24, 1996,
p. 67.
Qur'an 20:102 reads: "On the day when the trumpet shall be blown, and we will gather
the guilty, blue-eyed, on that day". To this verse Muhammad Ali appends the following footnote:
The word zurqmeans blue-yed,and thus it serves as an indication of the nations who
are spoken of here as being gathered.
According to [Baydawi], blue being the colour of
the eyes of the Rum (i.e. the Greeks or the Romans), who were the most hated by the
Arabs, that colour was regarded by the Arabs as the worst colour for the eye. The
word may also signify blind,in reference to the guilty being raised up blind on the resurrection day, for which see v. 124. (p. 636, n. 1601a).
Clearly, Elijah Muhammad hardly needed a mistranslated Qur'an to find support for
his "blue-eyed" devil doctrine. Furthermore, his followers are also permitted to use Yusuif
'Ali's translation of the Qur'an. Elijah Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan,p. 93. His
note on the same verse is not significantly different.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
331
in producing a brown race, two hundred years later it had produced
yellow and red races, and finally, after another two hundred years, the
white race-the pale white, blued-eyed devils. After these six hundred
years of exile, this white race returned to Mecca. Following the teachings of Yakub, they sowed dissension among the black nation (the holy
people of Islam). Soon, they were stripped of all but their language
and driven at gunpoint to West Asia (that is, Europe). For 2,000 years
the white race remained savages: they lived in caves and trees, went
around naked, and grew body hair and walked on all fours like the
other animals. In fact, a few of the white race are said to have tried
to "graft" themselves back into being black, but only succeeded in producing gorillas and monkeys. After these 2,000 years, Allah sent Moses
to civilize the white savages. He taught them about Allah and to wear
clothes, cook food, and eat fish on Fridays.37Those that followed Moses
became the Jews.
For the next 4,000 years, the white race was permitted by Allah to
attempt to rule the world. This period has been a time of war and
destruction in which they spread their wickedness over the whole earth.
The Prophet Jesus came to the Jews only to have his message misinterpreted by the white race for their own purposes. The Prophet Muhammad came and helped keep the white Christians in check for a 1,000
years. The greatest crimes of the white race came with the invasion of
America, the stealing of the land of the Native Indians, and the capture and enslavement of Africans. For three hundred years these slaves
were forced to work and shed their blood for a nation which repaid
them with hatred.
Many parts of this story are supported by scripturalreferences.According to Elijah Muhammad, that whites were created by the original black
people is demonstrated by the use of the first person plural pronouns,
"we" and "us", in both the Qur'an and the Bible's account of the creation.38Thus, in the phrase, "Let us make man in our image" of Genesis
1:26, the "us" refers to the 59,999 "black men and women making or
grafting them into the likeness or image of the original man".39Generally
speaking, the creation story in Genesis is not seen as the record of the
creation of humankind, but the creation of the white race. Adam represents the white race, the tree of knowledge of good and evil is Yakub,
3
38
39
Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan, pp. 112-20.
Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 128. See also pp. 53-4.
332
HERBERT BERG
the tree of life is the Nation of Islam (thatis, the blackMuslimpeople),
and the expulsionfrom the Gardenis the exile to Europe.40
And, Elijah
Muhammadstates that their time in the caves of Europe has a whole
chapter devoted to it in the Qur'an-presumably Siuratal-Kahf4' Even
the respitegiven to the devil white race to make mischiefin the world
is "foretold"in Qur'an. ElijahMuhammadexplains:
The Holy Qur-an says: "But the devil made them both fall from it, and caused
them to depart from that (state) in which they were; and we said: "Get forth,
some of you being the enemies of others, and there is for you in the earth an
abode and a provision for a time!" (The time here refers to the limited time of
the Adamic race. The time is 6,000 years.)42
The next verse speaks of Adam learningwords from his Lord-"the
Oft-returningand the merciful".These termsdescribeAllah,not Yakub.
But this interactionof Allah with Adam, the race, seems incongruent
with Elijah Muhammad'sinterpretations.The apparentcontradiction
is not noticed, suggesting that Elijah Muhammad tends to read the
verses of the Qur'an as discrete,unconnectedentities.
By examininga longer, representative
passageby ElijahMuhammad
on this subject, one can see more clearly his handling of scriptural
materials:
The Bible and the Holy Qur-an Sharrieff are full of teachings of this bloody race
of devils. They shed the life blood of all life, even their own, and are scientists at
deceiving the black people.
They deceived the very people of Paradise (Bible, Gen. 2:13). They killed their
own brother (Gen. 4:8). The innocent earth's blood (Gen. 4:10) revealed it to its
Maker (thy brother's blood cryeth unto me from the ground). The very earth, the
soil of America, soaked with the innocent blood of the so-called Negroes shed by
this race of devils, now crieth out to its maker for her burden of carrying the
innocent blood of the righteous slain upon her. Let us take a look at the devil's
creation from the teaching of the Holy Qur-an.
"And when your Lord said to the angels, I am going to place in the earth one
who shall rule, the angels said: 'What will Thou place in it such as shall make
mischief in it and shed blood, we celebrate Thy praise and extol Thy holiness'["]
(Holy Qur-an Sharrieff 2:30).
This devil race has and still is doing just that-making mischief and shedding
blood of the black nation whom they were grafted from. Your Lord said to the
40 Muhammad, Messageto theBlacknan,p. 133. Elijah Muhammad is not always consistent in his assigning of the symbols. Sometimes the white race is the serpent, the devil,
and the tree of knowledge, while Adam and Eve are merely victims (pp. 126-7). Thus
the devil can be Adam and Eve, the serpent, the tree, Yakub, and/or the white race.
41 Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan, pp. 104 and 119.
42 Muhammad, Messageto theBlacknan,p. 133. See also his The Supreme
Wzsdom,p. 18,
in which II Thessalonians 2:9 is adduced to explain why the white race has been given
free rein of the world for a period of time.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
333
angels, "Surely I am going to create a mortal of the essence of black mud fashioned in shape" (Holy Qur-an Sharrieff, 15:28).
The essence of black mud (the black nation) mentioned is only symbolic, which
actually means the sperm of the black nation, and they refused to recognize the
black nation as their equal though they were made from and by a black scientist
(named Yakub).43
Several observations can be made from this passage. First, Elijah Muhammad has no difficulty moving between the Bible and the Qur'anthough he hardly does so seamlessly. Second, individual verses are again
treated as discrete entities and adduced as needed with little regard to
their original context. Third, the verses are made to fit his narrative.
That is to say, the myth of origins is the framework into which both
quranic and biblical verses are placed.
V. Eschatologv
Along with the events of creation, the eschatological events that culminate around the so-called Negroes in America are among the most
frequently and thoroughly discussed by Elijah Muhammad.++For him,
the events of the last day have been foretold in the Qur'an and the
Bible. Allah in the person of Master Fard Muhammad, the M\Iahdi,the
Messiah, came from Mecca in 1930 in fulfilment of the prophecies to
resurrect the "mentally dead so-called Negroes" and to initiate the end
of the rule of the devil. The first of these tasks involved teaching Blacks
the true history of the world and their true religion of Islam, so that
they could escape Hell, which is the world of the Whites, and enter
Heaven, which is now, here on earth-there is no life beyond the grave
in which one can hope for justice, freedom, and equality, just as there
is no "spook" god. The second task involves the coming war of Armageddon. Allah will first punish America with the weapons of nature:
floods, drought, hailstorms, fire, earthquakes, and so forth. Only territorial separation will protect the Muslims from this punishment of white
America. Later Allah will destroy England and the United States using
a spaceship known as the Mother Plane. According to his early writings the fall of America should have begun in 1965 or 1966.45 "Hell"
As pointed out earlier, Elijah Muhammad's The Fall of Americais devoted to the
subject.
45 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 270. "Do not expect ten more years, the
fall will be within a few days". Muhammad, 7TheFall of Amenrca,p. 19.
4
4
334
HERBERT BERG
will then come to an end and the eternal period of "Heaven" will be
ushered in.
Just as the first book of the Christian Bible, Genesis, figured very
prominently in Elijah Muhammad's account of creation, so its last book,
the Book of Revelation, is the main source for the prophecies of "the
Judgement", as he calls it. It is Yakub, the father of the white race,
who is said to have written the Book of Revelation. 6,600 years ago
while exiled to the Island of Pelan, he foresaw the future of the people he had created. The Qur'an, with its vivid descriptions of the Last
Day, also seems to have lent itself to Elijah Muhammad's eschatological narrative outlined above. His methods are the same as those used
for his myth of origins: the biblical and quranic materials are subservient to his larger narrative, with verses usually treated as discrete entities and adduced as appropriate with simple glosses of ambiguous or
symbolic terms.
Thus, the devil that Allah will destroy according to Qur'an 7:14 is
the white race.46They are also the "beast" of the Book of Revelation
and the "man of sin" in II Thessalonians 2:2-9.47And, the Babylon of
the Book of Revelation and of Jeremiah is America. Elijah Muhammad explains:
The description it [Rev. 18:2] gives is as follows: "And he (angel)cried might[i]ly
with a strong voice (wtithauthoriy)saying, Babylon the great is fallen, is fallen and
is become the habitation of devils (Allah has declaredthepeopleto be a race of devils),
and the hole of every foul spirit and a cage of every unclean and hateful bird".
The description
heregiwento the [sic] Babylonby the Prophetscompareswith thepresenthistoy and peopleof Americaand thezrfall.48
Elijah Muhammad then identifies the "unclean and hateful bird" as
the "low-based, evil-minded" immigrants to America and their uncleanliness as sexual promiscuity and homosexuality. The so-called American
Negroes are addressed by the subsequent verse: "Come out of her that
ye be not partakersof her sins and that you receive not of her plagues".49
Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan,pp. 125-6 and The SuprerneWisdom,p. 18.
48
Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 276. The italics of the original have been
removed except those of Elijah Muhammad's comments and glosses for the sake of clarity. iUkewise, his brackets have been replaced with parentheses so that my emendations
will not be confused with his comments.
49 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,pp. 293-5. This means both a geographical
and psychological separation. That is, understand self so that you can "be yourself"
and "go for self". The first of these expressions, "be yourself", is described as "Allah's
greatest teaching and warning to us (the so-called Negroes)". Muhammad, 7he Supreme
46
47
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
335
For Elijah Muhammad there is a sense of urgency, for America's prophesied end, for which Qur'an 56:57-9 provides evidence, is imminent.50
With regard to the battle between Islam and other religions, Elijah
Muhammad teaches:
"He is it who sent His Apostle with the guidance and the True religion that he
make it overcome the religions, all of them, though the polytheists may be averse".
(The Holy Quran, 61:9)
In the above verse Allah (God) in the last days of this present world (of wicked
infidels) states that He must destroy false religions with the True Religion Islam.
It (Islam) must overcome all other religions.5"
Through paraphrase and identification, Elijah Muhammad makes this
verse, seemingly about the Prophet's mission to the pagans of the Jahiliyya, about his own mission. The scriptural support for Elijah Muhammad's description of the mat6riel to be used in this battle, the forces
of nature, was drawn primarily from the Bible, such as Ezekiel 14:13,
though Qur'an 44:10 is adduced to support Allah's promise to use
drought. Other references that prove Allah's penchant for the use of
natural disasters to punish evildoers, such as the use of water against
the people of Noah, fire against Sodom and Gomorrah, and plagues
against Pharaoh and his people, could come from either scripture.52
After this war will be a time of joy and peace in the presence of
Allah. There will be no war, sickness, gambling, cursing, and so forth.
Hell will be at an end. The hereafter is, however, eternal and everyone will live much longer. Of course, there will be no bodily resurrection of the dead, nor will the living remain alive forever-that is
slavery teaching according to Elijah Muhammad. The resurrection is
a psychological, social, economic, and political one. None of the numerous verses in the Qur'an which speak of physical resurrection are
adduced in this discussion-though elsewhere he makes it clear that
such verses are to be interpreted metaphorically. He adduces only the
invitation of Qur'an 89:27-30: "O soul that is at rest, return to your
Lord, well pleased with Him, well pleasing. So, enter among my servants, and enter into my Paradise".53
Wisdom,p. 12. The latter expression is ubiquitous in Elijah Muhammad's teachings and
writings. By it he means that Blacks should abandon all their religious, social, and economic ties with Whites and concentrate on developing those ties with their fellow Blacks.
p. 293.
SI
Muhammad, 7he SupremeWtsdom,p. 43.
52 Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan, pp. 273, 290-1, and 303.
336
HERBERT BERG
Again a longer passage will be used to illustrate Elijah Muhammad
handling of scriptural texts:
The day of decision between the dark races or nations was begun by God Himself
in the person of Master Fard Muhammad, to Whom be praised forever, as is
prophesied in the Bible: "Multitudes in the valley of decision, for the day (before
or by 1970) of the Lord is near in the valley of decision" Joel 3:14).
It is clear that the armies of the nations of the earth have geared themselves
for a showdown between their forces and Allah and the Nation of Islam. We, the
so-called American Negroes, the lost and found members of our Nation, are in
this decision. The second and third verses of this same chapter (Chapter 3) read
like this: "I will also gather all nations and will bring them down into the valley
of Jehoshaphat (Europeand Asia-between blackand white)and will plead with them
there for my people and my heritage (thelost andfound,so-calledNegroes),Israel whom
they have scattered among the nations and parted my land (betweenthe European
white race)and they have casted lots for my people and have given a boy for a
harlot and sold a girl for wine that they might drink" (Joel 3:2, 3).
America has fulfilled this to the very letter and spirit with her slaves (the socalled Negroes) under the type of Israel. The Egyptians did nothing of the kind
to Israel when they were in bondage to them. In fact, and as God has taught
me, the Bible is not referring to those people as His People, it is referring to the
so-called Negro and his enemy (the white race). The seventh verse also gives us
a hint in this way:
"Behold, I will raise them out of the place where you have sold them and will
return your recompence upon your own head" (Joel 3:7).
The slave-masters of our fathers must reap what they have sown. Allah call
them to war in the ninth verse of the same chapter.
"Proclaim you among the Gentiles, prepare war, wake up the mighty men, let
all of the men of war draw near, let them come up" (Joel 3:9).
All the mighty men of science and modern warfare have been called in an effort
to devise instruments and weapons against God and the armies of heaven.54
Once again, there are several features of note. First, Elijah Muhammad
feels no obligation to include at least some quranic material. This may
indicate a greater familiarity with the Christian Bible, though he seems
unaware of Israelite history, beyond the bondage of the Hebrews in
Egypt. This familiarity is also suggested by his allusion to the common
biblical metaphor of reaping and sowing.55 Second, Elijah Muhammad
employs intralinear comments that identify (what are for him) ambiguous or symbolic words or phrases. Third, the scriptural passages, both
these from the book ofJoel and those previously cited from the Qur'an
54 Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan,pp. 267-8. Italics were added to facilitate the
distinction between the scriptural texts and Elijah Muhammad's comments within the
scriptural quotations. Also, his brackets have been changed to parentheses for the sake
of clarity and consistency.
5 See Job 4:8; Psalms 126:5; Hosea 8:7 and 10:12; Luke 19:21; II Corinthians 9:6;
and Galatians 6:8.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
337
appear within in the framework of Elijah Muhammad's narrative of
the fall of America.
VI. DietagyRegulations
Elijah Muhammad's purpose in writing How to Eat to Live, first published in 1967, is to teach his followers how to attain good health and
to prolong their lives. Although this subject involves no significant narrative, similar patterns emerge with respect to Elijah Muhammad's use
of the Bible, the Qur'an, and his own authority.
The most prominent feature of Elijah Muhammad's dietary regulations is the prohibition on the consumption of pork. This prohibition, along with requirement that Muslims eat only one meal a day,
are treated at length and mentioned continuously throughout How to
Eat to Live. His main argument against pork rests on his own authority
and his access to unique knowledge, divine or scientific. Elijah Muhammad argues:
Beyond a shadow of a doubt the swine is the filthiest and foulest animal human
beings have resorted to for food.... Worms and insects take to its flesh while in
the farmer's curing stage faster than to any other animal's flesh. And in a few
It is divinely pro[h]ibited flesh, and God (Allah) has
days, it is full of worms.....
prohibited you and me, my brothers and sisters of the Black Nation, from eating
it or even touching its dead carcass. Please, for our health's sake, stop eating it;
for our beauty's sake, stop eating it; for our obedience to God and His laws against
this flesh, stop eating it; for a longer life, stop eating it and for the sake of modesty, stop eating it.56
The Qur'an provides ample support for Elijah Muhammad's prohibition. Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145, and 16:115 all forbid pork. However,
these four verses are never explicitly cited. And, the three times he states
that the food of (orthodox)Jews is acceptable according to the Qur'an,
Qur'an 5:5 is not invoked.57This oversight suggests the lack of a comprehensive familiarity with the contents of the Qur'an on the part of
Elijah Muhammad. On the other hand, the Bible plays a relatively
greater role in his arguments. The prohibition against swine in Leviticus
11:7-8, the warning to those who do eat it in Isaiah 66:17 and the
casting of demons into swine by Jesus are all discussed at length.58
56
Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, p. 17.
Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, pp. 24, 67, and 110. However, in his The Supreme
Wisdom,p. 23, Elijah Muhammad mentions Qur'an 2:173, but does not reproduce it.
58 Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, pp. 69-72 and 95-99. In his The SupremeWisdom,
p. 23, the Biblical passages Deuteronomy 14:8, Isaiah 66:2, 3, 5, and 18, and Mark
5:11-16 are mentioned.
57
338
HERBERT BERG
Elijah Muhammad frequently writes "Allah taught me", or "Allah
has said". But he clearly is not making references to the Qur'an when
he does: he means Wali Fard Muhammad.59 The distinction is made
explicit when Elijah Muhammad states: "The main thing Allah, as well
as the Qur-an, reminds us of is that when it comes to meat and fish,
Allah forbids us to eat the flesh of swine or of fish weighing 50 pounds
or more".60At times, Elijah Muhammad seems very defensive, such as
when he states, "The hog is a grafted animal, so says Allah to megrafted from rat, cat and dog. Don't question me. This is what Allah
has said, believe it or leave it alone".6'
Hence, it is not surprising that for other dietary regulations no scriptural evidence is produced. Among the foods whose consumption is
prohibited are: collard greens, turnip leaves, white potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, beans (except for the small navy, brown pink beans, and
white beans), corn bread and, of course, pork. On the other hand,
spinach, rutabaga, and rice are acceptable, but in moderation. There
are no restrictions on garlic, onions, fruits (better raw than cooked),
whole wheat bread (as long as it is not fresh), and young pigeons. Elijah
Muhammad justifies these regulations by saying that the prohibited
foods are cheap foods given to slaves by their slave masters, unfit for
human consumption, suitable only for hogs, or not digestible for those
with office jobs.62 The only scriptural allusion is to Adam being told
to eat whatever he wishes in the book of Genesis. Adam, of course,
represents the white race for Elijah Muhammad, and so the white race
eats much that is poisonous.63
One of the only extended passages of scripturecited by Elijah Muhammad is Isaiah 65:1-5:
I am sought of them that asked not for [me] (Thelost-found
members
of theBlack
NationaretheoneswhoneversoughtafterAllah,because
thgydidnotknowhow.Theenemy
didnotteachthemhowto seekAllah,sincetheydidnotobeyAllah,themselves);
I am found
to them (lost-found
Blackpeople-so-called
Negro)
that soughtme nought:I said, Behold
me, behold me, unto a nation that was not called by my name. I have spread
out my hands all the day unto a rebellious people, which walketh in a way that
was not good (This is referning
to Israel, to whomGod sentprophetafterprophet,to guide
theminto the rightway, who rebelledagainstthe rightguidanceand thenmadea religioncalled
5 This is also obvious from Elijah Muhammad's statements that Allah has taught
him that chickens are dirty animals, but permissible to eat; beef, lamb, and camel are
also permissible, but should be avoided if possible; rabbit, deer, racoons, possums, turtles,
turtle eggs, and frog legs are not permissible. Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, pp. 61-2.
60 Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, p. 60.
61
Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, p. 70.
62
Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, pp. 4-12.
63 Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, p. 36.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
339
Christianit,afer theirwav of thinking,and put the nameof Jesus on that religon to make
us drinkdown thefalsi4 theyaddedtoJesus' teachings),
after their own thoughts; A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face; that sacrificeth in gardens,
and burneth incense upon altars of brick (thy barbeque
the hog uponbricksand call it
theirbarbeque
theirhomes). . . [sic]
stand);which remain among the graves (thegravesrmean
which eat swine's flesh, and broth of the abominable things is in their vessels (this
is referning
to hog or swine in theirvessels);which say, stand by thyself (This is referring
to theMuslims,whenit says stand by thyself) [sic], come not [near to me]) mean[s]only
Israel or the white race, but the white racehas madethe so-calledNegrofollow his religion,
These are a
say the same and especiallythosewho claim santfcation[sic] in Christianity).
smoke (theofensivesmell of the cookingof smineflesh) . . a fire that burneth all the day
(the Christianis cookingtheflesh of the swine all day long and the Muslins and the obedint
servantof Allah (God), smell thisflesh, prohibitedby God, which is a stink to theirnostrils,
beingcooked.7heyfeel theyareguilty of beingpartakersof the cookingand eatingof the swvine
flesh, by smellingthepoisonousodor).64
From this rather lengthy passage, I would like to point out several
notable exegetical techniques. Once again the biblical material is more
prominent than the quranic. Intralinear notes are common, much of
which involve the glossing or specification of vague pronouns or termsat least vague when out taken out of their original context. This specification always transports the adduced text into a pronouncement of
life and race relations in present-day America. And in that sense, even
Elijah Muhammad's stipulations about dietary practice display a tendency to be subsumed under his larger narrative on the rise and fall
of the white race.
VII. Prayer
Elijah Muhammad's discussion of the Muslim prayer service is one
of the few topics for which he draws more material from the Qur'an
than from the Bible and so might serve as a counterexample to the
exegetical trends emerging from the three previously examined subjects.
Biblical references are largely restricted to passages which demonstrate
the efficacy of prayer, such as Solomon's prayer for forgiveness in II
Chronicles 6:36-9 and Jonah's prayer in the fish in Jonah 2:2-4.65
In TheSupremeWisdom,Elijah Muhammad does little more than extol
the virtues of prayer and adduce the "Muslim's oft-repeated prayer",
the Siuratal-Fatiha.66However, in Messageto the Blackman,he adduces
numerous quranic verses. "Surely prayer keeps (one) away from inde64
Muhammad, How to Eat to Live, pp. 100-1. Italics added to facilitate the distinction between the biblical text and Elijah Muhammad's comments.
65 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,pp. 138 and 141.
66 Muhammad, The SupremeWisdom,pp. 45-7.
340
HERBERT BERG
cency and evil; and certainly the remembrance of Allah is the greatest (force) and Allah knows what you do" (Qur)an 29:45), leads off his
discussion of "Prayer in Islam". And "O you who believe, remember
Allah, remembering Him frequently and glorifying Him morning and
evening. He it is Who sends His blessings on you, and so do His angels,
that He may bring you forth out of utter darkness into the light and
He is merciful to the believers (Prayer is better than sleep)" (Qur'an
33:41-3), prefaces his "The Significance of Prayer"."7The former verse,
he then paraphrases and the latter, he elucidates by stating, "This alone
is salvation, just to be brought out of the darkness of ignorance into
the light of truth. Who is in more need of the truth than the American
so-called Negroes who do not have the knowledge of self. . .?"f68
Despite the relatively abundant citations from the Qur'an, much of
Elijah Muhammad's discussion of prayer is still connected to his myth
of origins and eschatology. He includes a description of the prayer ritual with some discussion of their meanings in light of what he perceives to be the needs of the so-called Negroes and a critique of Christian
prayer with some discussion of what it implies about white Christians.
Elijah Muhammad also provides some suggested prayers, which he
seems to be citing verbatim from some orthodox manual of prayer.69
Perhaps, it is this manual which is the source of the following curious
passage:
Observeprayersin the early morningat the close of the day, and at the approach
of the night. Prayersare good deeds which drive away the evil doing (Holy Quran 11:116).
"GlorifyAllah (by renderingprayersto Him) when it is evening and in the
morning-praise to Him in the heavensand the earth-and in the afternoonand
at noontide"(Ibid.,30:17).
67 Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan,
pp. 135-7. Elijah Muhammad's italics have
been removed and his brackets changed to parentheses for the sake of clarity.
68 Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan, pp. 135-7.
69
Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,pp. 135-60. For example, Elijah Muhammad
includes the following translation of the du'J' al-qun2t:
O Allah, we beseech Thy help and ask Thy protecton. We believe in Thee and trust
in Thee. We worshipThee in the best manner and we thank Thee. We are not ungrateful to Thee and we cast off and forsake him who disobeys Thee. 0 Allah, Thee do
we serve and to Thee do we pray and make obeisance. To Thee do we flee and we
are quick. We hope for Thy mercy and we fear Thy chastisement,for surely Thy chastisement overtakes the unbelievers. Muhammad, Messageto theBlacknan,p. 155.
This exact translation is readily available in many prayer manuals. See, for example,
Muhammad Abdul Aleem Siddiqui, Elmetay Teachingsof Islam (Islamic Call Society,
n.d.), p. 61.
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
341
"Put up then with what they say; and celebrate the praise of your Lord before
sunrise, and before sun setting, and during the night do thou praise Him, and in
the extreme of the day, so that thou mayest be well pleased" (Ibid., 20:130).
"Observe prayers at sunset until the first darkening of the night and observe
reading (the Qur-an) at daybreak. Lo! The recital of the Qur-an (that is rendering prayer) is ever witnessed. And some part of the night awake for it, a largess
for thee. It may be that your Lord will raise thee to a praised state" (Ibid., 17:78-79).
"Take aid by observing patience and prayer" (Ibid., 2:45).
"When you have fulfilled your prayer, remember Allah, standing and sitting
and lying on your sides. And when you are in safety then be steadfast in prayer.
Verily prayer is a timed ordinance on the believers" (Ibid., 4:103).
"That which leads man to infidelity is neglect of prayers".
"No one of you must say his prayers in a garment without covering the whole
body".
"Allah accepts not the prayers of a woman arrived at puberty unless she covers
her head as well as the whole body".
"The five stated prayers erase the sins which have been committed during the
intervals between them, if they have not been mortal sins".
"The prayers of a person will not be accepted, who has broken his ablution
until he completes another ablution".
["]Order your children to say the state[d] prayers when the are seven years of
age, and beat them if they do not do so when they are ten 'years old".
"[']Tell me if any one of you had a rivulet before his doors and bathed five
times a day therein whether any dirt would remain on his body?['] The companions said, 'Nothing would remain'. The Prophet said, 'In this manner will, the
five daily prayers as ordered by Allah erase all minor sins'.'.
This passage is one of the very few in which quranic verses are allowed
to speak for themselves. Elijah Muhammad adds no comments, intralinear or otherwise, as is his wont. Furthermore, the presence of hadith
material-virtually non-existent in the rest of Elijah Muhammad's writings-suggests that his discussions on prayer are atypical of his other
writings because he is dependent on outside sources.7' These sources
seem generally more orthodox in both their presentation and concerns.
For example, the subjects of ablution and modesty are consistent with
Elijah Muhammad's teachings elsewhere, but their presence within a
discussion of prayer is unusual. Perhaps this passage indicates that Elijah
70 Muhammad, 7he Messageto the Blackman,pp. 143-4.
71 Elijah Muhammad is, of course, dependent on many sources: instruction from Wali
Fard Muhammad, who was himself influenced by the Moorish Science Temple, the
Ahmadiyya movement, and Garveyism; the Ahmadiyya translation of the Qur'an which
he favored; personal contact with other Muslims; and various other Christian writings
and preachers, such as his contemporary, Judge Rutherford of the Jehovah's Witnesses.
The borrowing of ideas, interpretations, and methods from these diverse sources, even
if verbatim as with the preceding passage, should not be adduced as evidence that Elijah
Muhammad is not engaging in an act of interpretation. He is not merely compiling or
manipulating the works of others-both the act of selection and the act of presentation
in a given context are already acts of interpretation.
342
HERBERT BERG
Muhammad is far more willing to defer to other Muslims when the
subject is not directly related to his main concern of race relations.
VIII. Disbelievers
and Hypocrites
In addition to prayer, there is one other subject for which Elijah
Muhammad adduces almost exclusively quranic materials. This subject
is discussed under the heading of "Hypocrites, Disbelievers, and Obedience" in Messageto the Blackman.A discussion of this nature is entirely
absent from The SupremeWisdom.The issue of hypocrites seems to have
been precipitated by two events: the appearance of complaints by members of the Nation of Islam about Elijah Muhammad having spent too
much money on homes72 and the defection of Malcolm X and those
who followed him out of the Nation.73
Elijah Muhammad is quite defensive on this subject. He begins by
arguing that Qur'an 32:3, "Thou mayest warn a people to whom no
warner has come before that they may walk aright", refers to him and
not the Prophet Muhammad. Mecca had had previous warners,Abraham
and Ishmael. The prayer of Abraham, which asks for a messenger to
be sent to his people in Qur'an 2:129, refers, therefore, to none other
than Elijah Muhammad himself. Likewise, the future prophet of Deuteronomy 18:18, who would be a prophet like Moses, is Elijah Muhammad as well. The life of Moses' people is parallelled most closely by
the so-called Negroes of America.74
Elijah Muhammad then begins a diatribe against hypocrites. They
are the most hated people; they are worse than disbelievers; they seek
to deceive believers, they only pretend to be believers; and they befriend
the enemies of Islam. But, they shall not overcome the messenger. In
support of these declarations Elijah Muhammad adduces or refers to
a litany of quranic passages: Qur'an 2:9 and 15; 63:1-3; 4:150-2; 5:53;
4:144-5; 47:23 and 25-8; 66:9-10; 104:1-9; 2:6-15; 4:107, 109, 113-5,
and 124; 8:46; and 9:73-4.75 For example, Elijah Muhammad writes:
Those who disbelieve in Allah and His Messengers and desire to make a distinction between Allah and His Messengers and say, ['] We believe in some
Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America,p. 199.
There were earlier groups of hypocrites: the Muslims who opposed his succession
of Wali Fard Muhammad in Detroit and later again in Chicago.
75 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackrnan,
pp. 252-9.
72
73
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
343
and disbelieve in others; and desire to take a course in between (4:151). These
are truly disbelievers; and We have prepared for the disbelievers an abasing
chastisement....
This is going on today among my followers. Many of the hypocrites who go
out from me will still say to you that they believe in Allah but do not believe
that I am the Messenger of Allah. This is as if they said that they do not believe
in either one of us. You cannot get to Allah unless you come through a Messenger,
Apostle or Prophet of Allah.'6
Later, he also includes a discussion of "Obey Allah and his Messenger"
of Qur'an 3:31.77
The chief hypocrite, Malcolm X, receives special attention. Qur'an
68:10-16, traditionally identified with the Prophet Meccan opponent alWalTdIbn al-Muglra, is now identified with Malcolm X.78 "I will never
forget this hypocrite's hateful acts against me", declares Elijah. He warns
the hypocrites:
According to the Bible and the Holy Qur-an, punishment is sure to overtake hypocrites and those who seek to oppose Allah and his Apostle. I quote here a verse
from the Holy Qur-an.
"Do they not know that whoever acts in opposition to Allah and His Apostle,
he shall surely have the fire of hell to abide in it, that is the grievous abasement"
(Holy Qur-an 9:63).
That is the hell that the hypocrites and disbelievers will suffer, and it begins
with their feeling of fear and excitement-fear that someone is going to do harm
to them (as they plan to harm those they oppose).79
Although not explicitly stated here, Elijah Muhammad seems to be
alluding to Malcolm X's prescient statements prior to his assassination.80
In general, this attack on the hypocrites may seem atypical, but this
is not entirely so. Elijah Muhammad does identify the appearance of
opposition as a precursor to the fall of America.81And, in all of these
passages, Elijah Muhammad continues to rely on identifying unspecified
groups, individuals, or activities mentioned in the Qur'an with people
and events of his own movement. In addition, since these texts are
often later than some of the previously discussed texts, they may also
display Elijah Muhammad's growing familiarity with the Qur'an and
a consequent willingness to rely more heavily on it.
Muhammad, Messageto the Blacknan,pp. 259-60.
pp. 262-3.
80 See, for example, Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,pp. 261-2.
81 Muhammad, Messageto the Blackman,p. 263. See also above, page 329, where the
cited passage from The Fall of Amenicalinks the appearance of hypocrites and the end
of the present world.
76
77
344
HERBERT BERG
IX. Conclusions
From this examination of the myth of origins, eschatology, dietary
regulations, prayer, and hypocrites, it is quite evident that the question
of whether or not Elijah Muhammad can be considered a mufassiris
not an invalid one. Certainly he is not a typical mufassir,if he is one.
such as his political
Significant sections of his Messageto the Blackmnan,
program of separation, his economic program of self-sufficiency, and
his demand for a homeland within the continental United States draw
on virtually no scripturalsupport.82His reliance on biblical material over
quranic material is also problematic, though perhaps the early Muslim
mufassirs'dependence on the Isr&'liiyatestablishes some precedence for
Elijah Muhammad's approach. More significant is the hegemony of his
myths of racial origination and culmination over the traditional interpretations of the Qur'an (or the Bible for that matter). It certainly
appears un-Islamic-not "un-Islamic" in the sense of being opposed to
Islam, but "un-Islamic" in the sense of not sharing many of the readily identifiable characteristics that make any belief, practice, and so
forth, seem "Islamic".
At a more technical level, of the exegetical devices typically used by
mufassirs:variant readings, early and pre-Islamic poetry, lexical explanations, grammatical explanations, rhetorical explanations, periphrasis,
analogy, abrogation, circumstances of revelation, identification, prophetical tradition, and anecdote, only the last four are employed.83 Elijah
Muhammad's use of identification or specification (taeyinand tasm'ya)in
the form of glosses is quite obvious from the passages cited above. One
could even see the use of anecdote in the narratives which normally
provide the framework for passages he cites. However, circumstances
of revelation and prophetic tradition can be said to be used by Elijah
Muhammad only if one means by "prophetic", things which refer to
Wali Fard Muhammad and/or Elijah Muhammad. Given this apparent unfamiliarity with the Islamic exegetical tradition, and even Arabic,
it is perhaps best not to view Elijah Muhammad as a mufassir.
However, John Wansbrough makes another useful observation with
regard to the different narrative techniques in the Sfra that seem applicable to Elijah Muhammad's use of the Qur'an. He sees three types
Muhammad, Messageto the Black7nan,pp. 161-205 and 220-47.
John Wansbrough, QuranicStudies:SourcesandMethodsof Scriptural
Interpretation
(Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 121.
82
83
ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
345
of techniques in use in what he terms haggadic or narrative exegesis:
they are the exegetical, parabolic, and paraphrastic. In the exegetical
technique, extracts from scripture provide the framework for the narrative. In the parabolic the narrative is the framework for frequent allusion to scripture. "In the exegetical style scriptural extracts, however
discrete and truncated, exhibit the canonical text; in the parabolic style
scriptural allusions are implicit only, exhibiting diction and imagery
but not the verbatim text of the canon".84The third technique, on the
other hand, involves the "paraphrasticversions of scripture in the form
of anecdote".85All three of these techniques are evident some form in
Elijah Muhammad's writings, particularly the extended passages that I
included above.86 Insofar as one is willing to see Ibn Ishaq (d. 768),
the author of the STra,and Muqatil Ibn Sulayman (d. 767), the author
of a tafsTr,as mufassirs,one should recognize Elijah Muhammad as a
mufassir.The narrative framework provided by the earlier two mufassirs
is not that of Elijah Muhammad, but the methods, the production, and
the purposes are much the same. For all three it is the story that matters: the quranic texts (and in the case of Elijah Muhammad, the biblical texts too) are subordinate conceptually (and often syntactically) to
the narrative.87Wansbrough argues that the Sitz in Lebenfor haggadic
exegesis is the popular sermon and that it had a central role in process
of Gemeindebildung.88
Elijah Muhammad's writings are also rooted in the
popular sermon.89And the myth of origins of Yakub and the white
race of blue-eyed devils, their imminent destruction, the establishment
of common practices in diet and prayer, and the attack on the hypocrites are clearly central to establishing and protecting his community
of the Nation of Islam. And so, since he does so using the Qur'an and
Islamic terminology, from this perspective at least, Elijah Muhammad
is indeed a mufassir.
84 Wansbrough, 7he Sectarian
Milieu: Contentand Composition
of Islamic SalvationHistoy
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 2.
85 Wansbrough, The Sectarian
Milieu, p. 3.
86 The passage from Joel 3:2-3, 7, and 14 and
Isaiah 65:1-5 is exegetical whereas
the passage on the creation of the devils seems largely parabolic. Paraphrastic exegesis
is evident in the ubiquitous allusions to biblical motifs and the adoption of quranic
idioms, such as, "Lord of the Worlds".
87 Wansbrough, QuranicStudies,p. 127.
88 Wansbrough, QuranicStudies,pp. 142 and 148.
89 See above, page 323, note 9.
346
HERBERT BERG
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Elijah Muhammad: An African American Muslim Mufassir?

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